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FORESTRY PAMPHLETS
VIRGINIA
VOL. I.

Forestry on The Peninsula of Eastern Vir-
ginia. By John Gifford. Reprinted
from The Forester, April, 1898.

Forestry Laws of Virginia. Compiled "by the
Forest Service. Forestry Leaflet iJo.
1.

Forest Fire Laws of Virginia. 1915. Forest-
ry Leaflet Ho. 2.

A Plan of Forest Fire Protection for Virgin-
ia. 1915. Forestry Leaflet UQ. 3.

Shortleaf Pine in Virginia. By W. W. Ashe.
1913. Dept. of Agriculture and Immi-
gration of Virginia.

Wood-Using Industries of Virginia. By Roger
E. Simmons. 1912. Dept. of Agri-
culture and Immigration. Commonwealth
of Virginia.

Mam Lib.
Forestry

v sp

V, I

FORESTRY

THE PENINSULA OF EASTERN VIRGINIA

By JOHN GIFFORD

Reprinted from
THE FORESTER
April, 1898 \ '

338538

FORESTRY ON THE PENINSULA OF
EASTERN VIRGINIA.

EING especially interested in the treatment of sandy
lands, and the protection and culture of forests of
the Smooth-bark or Shortleaf Pine, I was led to visit
the two counties of Virginia, Northampton and Ac-
comae, the southernmost portion of the peninsula
formed by the confluence of Chesapeake Bay and the Ocean. Ac-
cording to Dr. Mohr, the Smooth-bark or Shortleaf Pine (Pinus
echinatd] is for many reasons the forest tree of the future for a large
portion of the Southern Atlantic States.

The large Coastal Plain, beginning with Southern New Jersey,
would soon be capable of producing almost limitless quantities of
this valuable timber were it properly protected from reckless devas-
tation. With Cypress and White Cedar in the swamps ( the latter
equaling, if not excelling the White Pine in quality of its wood )
and Shortleaf Pine on the uplands, this region is capable of yielding
a perpetual supply of timber suited to almost all kinds of construc-
tion. The Shortleaf Pine is well fitted for coarse stuff — for houses
and ships, and boards for floors and ceilings, and is excellent for
pilings and timbers for wharves, and poles for telegraph and tele-
phone lines, while the Cypress * and cedar serve for shingles and
finishing boards, and other purposes for which the pine is not suit-
able.

I was told that in the two counties mentioned above the for-
ests were being properly cared for and even propagated without the
aid of foresters or forest laws. My surprise was of course great when
I found the region even more than was anticipated, and that at least
in one part of the Eastern States the forests are free from fire, and
the sentiment of its people wholesome in reference to their natural
resources. This little spot in Virginia demonstrates that if the
people are of the right mind the protection of pine forests is not
only possible, but simple, easy and inexpensive.

The region reminded me of the Medoc, and the fields of
young pines resemble the blocks of the Maritime Pine along the
shores of Gascony. Almost every farm has its pine forest. These,
of course, are of all sizes and ages, varying from fields as thick

* The region of the Pokomoke River, as far as the writer has been able to observe,
is the northernmost limiUof the<natural growth of the Cypress.

1 * '• • >* **'« *>*' » C >»» «**•**•.*

and dense as wheat to forests fit for large size timber. There were
few signs of forest fires, which the natives say are always promptly
extinguished.

The truth is, in fact, the inhabitants have a forestry system
of their own, which Americans can study to great advantage.

The soil of this region is light and sandy, being dunelike in
nature along the shore. The pines grow close to the shore, al-
though a few have been killed by the shifting sand. The natives
recognize the value of the forest in holding the soil in place and in
protecting their truck patches from the force of wind, which would
naturally at times sweep furiously over this narrow peninsula.

On entering one of these forests one observes at once that
although there are small trees of Sweet Gale and Holly, the ground
is free from litter and brush. If one happens to visit the region at
the proper season he will see men and women raking up the forest
litter. The pine ".chats," i( needles" or "brows" are valuable
for a fertilizer and are spread on the neighboring fields. They are
also used for bedding stock — Accomac being famous for its blooded
horses. In fact, it is a land of plenty, with all the bay and sea
afford, besides wild game in abundance. The pine chats produce
a fine grade of sweet potatoes. The writer is unable to say whether
there is a peculiar manurial value in the pine leaves, or whether they
merely add to the porosity of the soil, acting, no doubt, at the same
time as a mulch, although they disintegrate and disappear in the
course of a single season.* About this season of the year one can
see field after field covered with pine chats to be ploughed under
just as soon as the weather permits. In fact, the fields are laid out
in squares by means of the plough, in order that the pine chats
can be easily measured, and thus evenly distributed. Just as soon
as a field becomes fallow the farmer leaves it to Nature. The
neighboring seed pines furnish the mast, the winds sow it, and
soon a fresh young green growth appears, as dense and level as a
field of grain. Here and there throughout the forest there are
avenues which, although constructed to facilitate the collection of
pine chats, serve at the same time the purpose of fire lanes.

Now the great question is: Why don't they have fires?
Stranger still, their jails are often empty, a very suggestive and im-
portant concurrence of circumstances. Because of the value
of the pine chats the forest floor is free from inflammable

* The German literature on fhis subject is quite exhaustive. . The manurial value
of pine straw lies mainly in its nitrogen contents. From one acre there may be had
annually about 2, 500 pounds of straw furnishing about 20 pounds of nitrogen, 12 pounds
lime, 3% pounds potash, 3^ pounds magnesia and less than 3 pounds phosphoric acid.
— EDITOR.

materials just at the time when fires are most likely to occur, namely
in the spring. The removal of this debris may be contrary to the
principles of German forest management, because it naturally
impoverishes the forest soil, but on the other hand, a part of
the forest increment, to the ultimate good of everything concerned,
is converted into as fine a grade of sweet potatoes as ever grew.
In the course of time, however, these potato fields are allowed to
come up in pines and fresh fields are cleared when the pines have
been cut. This, fortunately, is easy, because the sand is soft, the
stumps do not sprout, but are quickly honey-combed by wood-
eating insects, and finally decay.

Another point of great advantage is that the forest is not
continuous, but cut up into parcels with farm lands intervening.
The land is also in the form of so-called ''necks," that is, small
peninsulas jutting out into bays, or strips of land between small
bays or streams. There is only one railroad, which runs straight
down the peninsula. This road is ballasted with oyster shells
and ditched on both sides. What, however, is most important in
reference to the fire question is the fact that the people are an
honest and law-abiding set. The truth is, the shameful condition
of our forests is, as Dr. Fernow says, a question of morality.
In regions inhabited by a wild, heterogeneous set of half-starved
rogues you will find forest fires and full jails. The great question
in connection with American forest fires is not how to extinguish,
but how to prevent them. The employment of wardens to ex-
tinguish fires is like caring for the sick in a typhoid epidemic
without purifying a contaminated water supply.* Time spent in
extinguishing forest fires is to a, certain extent time lost, because
there ought be no fires to extinguish. The real work of the
forester does not begin until fires are stopped. The prevention
of fires, or at least all fires except those accidentally, unavoidably
set, belongs to detectives, sheriffs and the courts. The first step
in the prevention of fires is the conviction and punishment of all
persons or corporations guilty of causing them. Well-enforced
laws of this kind will reduce the record seventy-five per cent.
The forest owners, being encouraged by the prospect, will be
less apathetic. After fires are stopped Nature, with a little help,
will do the rest, as she does on the peninsula of Virginia. It is
not so much a question of forestry as it is of justice. The same
applies to other industries as well.

JOHN GIFFORD.

* The best way to keep a garden clean is never to let the weeds start.

Forestry Leaflet No. 1 Issued April 15, 1915

Virginia Geological Commission
OFFICE OF STATE FORESTER

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA
CHARLOTTESVILLE

FORESTRY LAWS
OF VIRGINIA

Div»sjoN or

FORESTRY

OF & AGRICULTURE
of CAUFC;<K:A

COMPILED BY THE FOREST SERVICE
IN THE OFFICE OF STATE COOPERATION

BY JEANNIE S. PEYTON

Forestry Laws of Virginia

(Through Reg. Sess., 1914.)

PART I.— ADMINISTRATION

(This division comprises the provisions of law, if any, defining the
general executive and administrative powers and duties of the reg-
ularly constituted State forestry officials, also certain miscellaneous
forestry provisions. For specific provisions concerning administra-
tive duties of these or other State officers in connection with forest
fires, forest taxation or State and municipal forests and nurseries, see
Parts II, III, and IV, respectively.)

SECTION 1, CHAPTER 195, LAWS 1914.

Office of State Forester — Geological Commission, personnel. — Be

it enacted by the general assembly of Virginia, That there be, and
is hereby, created the office of State forester, which shall be under
the direction and control of the State geological commission, com-
posed of the governor (who shall be ex-officio chairman of said com-
mission), the president of the University of Virginia, the president
of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, the superintendent of the Vir-
ginia Military Institute, and one citizen from the State at large who
shall be appointed by the governor for a period of four years.

SECTION 2.

Forester, appointment; qualifications. — The State forester shall be
appointed by said commission, and he shall be a technically trained
forester, and shall have both a practical and theoretical knowledge
of forestry.

SECTION 3.

Bond. — The State forester, before entering upon the performance of
the duties of his office, shall execute bond to the Commonwealth
with surety or sureties worth at the time not less than twenty thou-
sand dollars, to be approved by the governor and filed in the office
of the secretary of State, conditioned for the faithful performance
of the duties .of his office, upon which, for any breach thereof, action
may be instituted from time to time and recovery had to the extent
of the damage sustained by the Commonwealth or others. Said
bond shall be examined and the sureties approved by the governor
once in each year, and he may at any time, when he deems the
bond insufficient, require the execution of a new bond or additional
sureties on the old one.

SECTION 4.

Forestry work of Geological Commission. — Said commission shall
observe, keep in view, and, so far as it can, ascertain the best
methods of reforesting cut-over, and denuded lands, foresting waste
lands, preventing the destruction of forests by fire, the administering

forests on forest principles, the instruction and encouragement of
private owners in preserving and growing timber for commercial and
manufacturing purposes, and the general conservation of forest
tracts around the headwaters and on the waterseeds of all the water
courses of the State.

SECTION 7.

Waters, duties of Commission. — It shall be the duty of said com-
mission to make or cause to be made a careful investigation of the
streams and navigable rivers within and bordering upon the State,
of the methods, means, and cost of improving the same; of pre-
venting their pollution; of conserving the water supply thereof; of
using the same for the production of power, and how and in what
ways the said streams and rivers may be made of most value to the
State, and to the people thereof.

SECTION 8.

Reports and recommendations — Bulletins, etc. — Said commission
shall preserve all evidence which it may take with reference to con-
serving the forest and the water supply of the State and the methods
best adapted to accomplish those objects, arid it shall make report
of its doings, conclusions, and recommendations to each session of
the general assembly, and, from time to time, publish, in a popular
manner, and print for public distribution, in bulletin or other form,
such of its conclusions and recommendations as may be of im-
mediate public interest.

SECTION 12.

Receipts and expenditures; report on. — The said commission shall
keep a full and accurate account of its receipts and expenditures, and
it shall make a full and accurate and complete report to each ses-
sion of the general assembly, showing in detail its receipts from
all sources and its expenditures and the purposes for which ex-
penditures have been made.

Civil engineer, surveyor, assistants. — It shall also have power to
employ a civil engineer and surveyor from time to time, with his
necessary assistants, whenever the necessities of the case may re-
quire.

SECTION 13.

Co-operative work — Expenses. — Subject to the direction of the
said commission, the State forester shall, whenever he may be di-
rected so to do by the said commission, co-operate with counties,
municipalities, corporations, and individuals in preparing plans for
the protection, management, and replacement of trees, wood lots,
and timber tracts under an agreement that the parties obtaining such
assistance shall pay the field and the traveling expenses of the man
employed in preparing said plans.

SECTION 1 5.

Administrative and investigative duties of Forester— Charge of
wardens, laborers, fires, State Forests — Waters; report on — Co-op-

[4]

crative work — Educational work — Reports and recommendations. —
The State forester shall have the supervision and direction of all
forest interests and of all matters pertaining to forestry within the
State; he shall have charge of all forest wardens who may be ap-
pointed by said commission, and the appointment, direction, and
superintendence of the persons and laborers whom the commission
may deem it necessary to employ to perform labor in the forest res-
ervations or the nurseries herein provided for; he shall take such
action as is authorized by law to prevent and extinguish forest fires;
enforce all laws pertaining to forest and woodlands; prosecute any
violation of such laws; collect information relative to forest de-
struction and conditions; direct the protection and improvement of
all forest reservations; make the investigation required by section
seven of this act with reference to the streams and navigable rivers
within and bordering upon the State, and report in writing with re-
gard thereto to the said commission; co-operate with land owners
as provided in section eight [thirteen] of this act; and, as far as
his duties as State forester will permit, carry on an educational course
on forestry at the University of Virginia for credit toward a degree
of farmers' institutes and similar meetings within the State. He
shall also recommend to said commission and prepare for its use
plans for improving the State system of forest protection, manage-
ment, and replacement, and prepare for said commission, annually,
and also whenever required so to do by said commission, a report on
the progress and conditions of State forest work.

SECTION 17. •

Salary, etc., of State Forester. — The salary of the State forester
shall be fixed by the said commission, and shall not exceed two
thousand dollars per annum, and he shall be paid reasonable trav-
eling and field expenses actually incurred in the performance of his
official duties.

SECTION 27.

Disposition of fines — Forest Reserve Fund; use of. — All money
received as penalties for violations of the provisions of this act, less
the cost of collection and not otherwise provided for, together with
any amount obtained from the State forestry reserves, shall be paid
into the State treasury, to the credit of the forest reserve fund, which
fund is hereby created; and the moneys in said fund are hereby ap-
propriated for purposes of forest protection, management, replace-
ment, and extension, under the direction of the commission.

SECTION 28.

University of Virginia to defray expense of administration. — Prior
to the meeting of the general assembly of Virginia in nineteen hun-
dred and sixteen, the commission herein provided shall organize and
put into operation the purposes of this act, and tjie expenses in-
curred by this organization and its operation for that period of time
shall be paid out of the budget of the University of Virginia.

[5]

SECTION 29.

Federal co-operation. — The said commission is hereby authorized
to arrange with the United States forestry department in regard
to co-operation in such instances as may be deemed necessary and
of advantage to the State; provided, that in all co-operative work
a sum of money shall be expended by the said United States for-
estry bureau equivalent to that expended by the State commission,,
and that the said commission may accept or reject the work of the
United States forestry bureau.

PART II.— FIRES

(For localized fire provisions chiefly concerning protection of the
forest lands owned by the State and the private lands adjacent
thereto, see Part IV.)

(1) PROTECTIVE SYSTEM.

(This sub-division comprises the provisions of law, if any, defining
the personnel, and the executive and administrative powers and
duties, af the general State-wide organization charged with the pre-
vention,— including provisions for slash disposal after lumbering, —
detection, control and extinguishment of forest fires.)

SECTION 18, CHAPTER 195, LAWS 1914.

Forest wardens, appointment — Compensation — Powers of, for pro-
tection of State forests, and fish and game. — Whenever the State
geological commission considers it necessary, it may apply to the
governor to commission such persons as it may designate to act as
forest wardens of this State, to enforce the forest laws, and, under
the direction of the board, to aid in carrying out the purposes of
this act; but they shall be subject to removal at any time at the pleas-
ure of the State geological commission. Such wardens shall receive
such compensation from time to time as the State geological
commission may allow them for special services. Forest wardens
thus appointed shall, before entering upon the duties of their office,
take the proper official oath before the clerk of the court of the
county in which they reside, after which they shall, while holding
said office, possess and exercise all the authority and power held
and exercised by constables at common law and under the statutes
of this State, so far as arresting and prosecuting persons for viola-
tions of any of the laws or rules and regulations enacted or made,
or to be enacted or made, for the protection of the State forestry
reserves, or for the protection of the fish and game contained therein,
are concerned.

SECTION 19.

Duties of wardens — Arrests — Fires; assistance — Expenses; report

[6]

est warden shall see or have reported to him a forest fire, it shall
be his duty immediately to repair to the scene of the fire and employ
such persons and means as in his judgment seem expedient and
necessary to extinguish said fire. He shall keep an itemized account
of all expenses thus incurred and send such account immediately to
the State forester.

SECTION 20.

Funds for forest protection — Action for cost of fire-fighting. — The
boards of county supervisors of the several counties of this State
are hereby authorized to levy and appropriate money for purposes
of forest protection, improvement, and management; and said boards
shall have recourse under an action at law for debt against any
land owner, individual, or corporation on whose account they shall
be obliged to pay out money for fighting fire for the amount which
they shall have expended for such purpose.

SECTION 16.

Notice, fire, trespass, etc. — The State forester shall furnish notice,
printed in large letters on cloth, calling attention to the dangers
of forest fires and to trespass laws and their penalties, and to the
rules and regulations of the commission, which notice shall be dis-
tributed by the State forester to forest wardens and posted by them
in conspicuous places upon State forest reserves and along the
highways.

(2) FALLOW AND OTHER FIRES.

(This sub-division comprises the provisions of law, if any, concern-
ing the burning of fallow, brush, etc., by farmers and the general
setting of fires to woods by hunters, fishermen and others.)

SECTION 3701, CODE SUPPLEMENT, 1910 (POLLARD).

Setting fire to woods, grass, etc.; penalty. — If any person unlaw-
fully and maliciously set fire to any woods, fence, grass, straw or
other thing capable of spreading fire on lands, he shall be fined not
less than five nor more than five hundred dollars, and be confined
in jail not less than one or more than twelve months, or in the dis-
cretion of the jury be confined in the penitentiary not less than one
nor more than three years. [L. 1908, Ch. 40.]

SECTION 3702, CODE, 1904.

Setting fire to woods, marshes, brush, etc., whereby another is
damaged; penalty. — If any person carelessly, negligently, or inten-
tionally set any woods or marshes on fire, or set fire to any stubble,
brush, straw, or inflammable substance, capable of spreading fire
on lands, whereby damage is done to the property of another, he
shall be fined not less than ten nor more than one hundred dollars.
[L. 1887-8, p. 288.]

SECTION 23, CHAPTER 195, LAWS 1914.

Burning brush, etc., precautions — Prima facie proof of wilfulness
or neglect — Civil action and costs. — It shall be unlawful for any per-
sons or corporations, as land owner, to set, or procure another to

[7]

set, fire to any woods, brush, logs, leaves, grass, or clearing upon
their own land, unless they have previously taken all possible care
and precaution against the spread of such fire to other lands not
their own, by previously having cut and piled the same, or carefully
cleared around the land which is to be burned, so as to prevent the
spread of such fire. The setting of fire contrary to the provisions
of this section, or allowing it to escape to the injury of adjoining
lands, shall be prima facie proof of wilfulness or neglect, and the
land owners from whose land the fire originated shall be liable in
"a civil action for damages for the injury resulting from such fire, and
also for the cost of fighting and extinguishing the same.

SECTION 25.

Liability to State or county for damage by fires, and expenses. —

All individuals and corporations causing fires by violation of any of
the provisions of this act shall be liable to the State or county in
which the fire occurred for all damages the State or the county may
sustain by such fire or fires, and, in addition thereto, to the full
amount of all expenses incurred by the State or county in fighting or
extinguishing said fire.

SECTION 28.

Jurisdiction in cases of prosecution — State's attorney to prosecute.

— Justices of the peace for this State, in the county wherein the
offense shall have been committed, shall have the jurisdiction to
hear and determine all prosecutions for the purpose of enforcing
fines and penalties collectable under the provisions of this act, not
exceeding the amount of one hundred dollars, and of holding the
offender, under proper bail if necessary, for hearing before the cir-
cuit court, and committing him to the county jail until hearing, if
the required bail is not furnished. It shall be the duty of the Com-
monwealth's attorney of the several counties to prosecute all vio-
lators of this act.

(3) RAILROAD FIRES.

(This sub-division comprises the provisions of law, if any, defining
the responsibility of, the precautions to be taken by, and the liability
for damages occasioned by railroad and logging companies in the
operation and maintenance of their trains and rights of way; also
provisions concerning the use of spark arresters and other safe-
guards on traction, thrashing, other portable and saw-mill engines,
and boilers.)

SECTION 1294D, CODE, 1904.

Spark arresters on locomotives; penalty. — (18) No railroad com-
pany doing business in this State shall run on its road any locomo-
tive not having an approved spark arrester. Every company violat-
ing the provisions of this section shall be fined ten dollars for
each offense, and each day of running such locomotive shall be
deemed a separate offense.*

*Note. — The wording of this subdivision (18) is identical with
that of Section 1264 (derived from an earlier act contained in the
volume of Session Laws of 1883-4, p. 704).

[8]

Rights of way to be kept clear. — (55) Every railroad company
shall keep its right of way clear and free from weeds, high grass,
and decayed timber, which, from their nature and condition, are
combustible material, liable to take and communicate fire from pass-
ing trains to abutting or adjacent property.

Penalty. — (70) Any railroad company failing to comply with, or
violating, or permitting any of its agents or employees to violate,
any of the provisions of this chapter, or any valid order, rule, or
regulation of the State corporation commission, relating to the pro-
visions of this chapter, if not otherwise provided in this chapter, shall
be fined not less than ten dollars nor more than five hundred dollars
for each offense. [Chapter 4 of Act Concerning Public Service Cor-
porations, Sess. Laws, 1902-3-4, p. 968.]

SECTION 1, CHAPTER 269, LAWS 1908 (Coos SUPPLEMENT, 1910, p. 796).

Liability of companies, regardless of location of fire and condi-
tion of appliances. — Be it enacted by the general assembly of Vir-
ginia, That whenever any person shall sustain damage from fire
occasioned by sparks or coals dropped or thrown from the engine
or train of any railroad company, such company shall be liable for
the damage so sustained, whether said fire shall have originated on
said company's right of way or not, and whether or not such engine
is equipped with proper spark-arresting appliances, and regardless of
the condition in which such appliances may be.

SECTION i, CHAPTER 392, LAWS 1908 (CODE; SUPPLEMENT, 1910, p. 856).

Insurable interest. — Be it enacted by the general assembly of
Virginia, 1 hat every railroad company shall have, and is hereby
invested with, an insurable interest in the property upon the route
of any railroad operated by it, and may procure insurance there-
upon in its own behalf for protection against any damage to said
property by fire or otherwise, for which such company shall or
might be liable.

SECTIONS 23, 25, CHAPTER 195, LAWS 1914.

Civil liability — Note. — Railroad companies are liable as corpora-
tions, for damages and costs of extinguishing fires in cases in which
they cause fires which result in injury. For full text of the provi-
sions, see sections 23 and 25.

SECTION 24.

Spark arresters, etc. — Ash pans; fire boxes — Penalties.— Logging
and railroad locomotives, donkey or threshing engines, and other
engines and boilers, operated in, through or near forest or brush,
which do not burn oil as fuel, shall be provided with appliances
to prevent, as far as may be possible, the escape of fire and sparks
from the smoke-stacks thereof, and with devices to prevent, as far
as may be possible, the escape of fire from ash pans and fire boxes.
Faiture to comply with these requirements shall be a misdemeanor,
punishable, upon conviction, by a fine of not less than ten dollars

[9]

nor more than one hundred dollars for each and every offense com-
mitted.

SECTION 3859, CODE, 1904.

Spark arresters on engines moved with steam; penalty. — Any per-
son, who moves any engine with steam on any road shall * * *
Such engine shall be provided with a good spark arrester in proper
order and place, to prevent spreading fire. If any person violate
any provision of this section he shall be fined not less than five nor
more than twenty dollars. [L. 1883-4, p. 519.]

PART III.— -TAXATION

(This division comprises the provisions of law, if any, covering the
classification and taxation of forested lands and lands to be forested,
the purpose of which is to encourage the practice of forestry by pri-
vate land owners; also such bounty and exemption laws as have a
similar purpose. For taxation provisions concerning State or mu-
nicipal forests, see Part IV.)

PART IV.— PUBLIC FORESTS

(This division comprises the provisions of law, if any, authorizing
the practice of forestry by the State, by municipal or town corpora-
tions, and by forestry and similar associations of a quasi-public char-
acter, through the setting aside or acquisition of lands for forest
reserve and nursery purposes, and providing for the administration
and protection of such reservations.)

(1) STATE FORESTS.

(For other provisions, if any, concerning State forests and nur-
series, see Part I.)

SECTION 4, CHAPTER 195, LAWS 1914.

Management of State Forests, and funds. — The care, management
and preservation of the forest reserves of the State hereafter to be
acquired and established, and the forests thereon, as well as future
growth thereon, and all moneys appropriated in that behalf, or
collected therefrom in any way, and all personal and real property
acquired to carry out the objects of this act, are hereby made sub-
ject to the control of the said State geological commission as the
same may be herein or in subsequent acts defined and required.

SECTION 5.

Purchase of lands — Rules and regulations — Gifts of lands — Min-
eral and mining rights — Deeds. — Said commission shall have the
power to purchase lands in the name of the State suitable for for-
est reserves, at a price which shall not exceed ten dollars per acre,
using for such purposes any surplus money not otherwise appro-
priated which may be standing to the credit of the forest reserve,
fund, and to make and enforce all rules and regulations governing
State reserves, the care and maintenance thereof, the preventing of
trespassing thereon, and for the conduct of its officers, agents, and
employees; and it may accept gifts of land and money to the State
for forestry purposes, the same to be held, protected, and adminis-
tered by said commission as a State forest reserve, and to be used

[10]

so as to demonstrate the practical utility of timber culture and as
a breeding place for game. Such gifts must be absolute, except that
mineral and mining rights over and under land which may be do-
nated may be reserved by the donors, and that they may be sub-
ject to a stipulation that the lands shall be administered as State
forest reserve, and the attorney general of the State is directed to
see that all deeds to the State lands mentioned above are properly
executed before the gift is accepted.

SECTION 6.

Title. — Before completing the purchase of any land for forestry
purposes, the attorney general of the State shall see to it that a
good title thereto is obtained and that the deed or deeds therefor
are properly executed before payment is made of the purchase
money.

SECTION 9.

Sale of timber — Bids — Proceeds, disposal of. — For the purpose of
preserving the living and growing timber and promoting the younger
growth on forest reservations, said commission, upon the recom-
mendation of the State forester, may cause to be designated and
appraised so much of the dead, matured, or large growth of trees
found upon the forest reservations of the State as may be compatible
with the utilization of the forest thereon, and may sell the same for
not less than the appraised value thereof. When the appraised
value of the trees to be sold is more than one thousand dollars, said
commission, before making sale thereof, shall receive bids therefor,
after notice by publication once a week for four weeks in two news-
papers of general circulation; but said commission shall have the
right to reject any and all bids and to readvertise for bids. The
proceeds arising from the sale of the timber and trees so sold shall
be paid into the State treasury, and shall be held as a special fund
for the purchase of additional lands, and shall be paid out in like
manner as money appropriated for the use of said commission.

SECTION 10.

Gas, oil, etc.; leases, etc. for removal of — Bids — Proceeds, dis-
posal of. — The said commission is hereby empowered to make and
execute contracts and leases, in the name of the Commonwealth,
for the removal or mining of gas, oil, or any valuable minerals that
may be found in said forestry reservations whenever it shall be
made to appear to said commission that it would be for the best
interest of the Commonwealth to make such disposition of such
gas, oil, or minerals; but before a contract or lease is made the same
shall be approved by the governor of the State, and bids therefor
shall be received after notice by publication once a week for four
weeks in two newspapers of general circulation. The said commis-
sion shall have the right to reject any or all bids and to readvertise
for bids. The accepted bidder shall give bond with good and suffi-
cient surety to the satisfaction of said commission, and in such
amount as it may fix for the faithful performance on his part of all

[11]

the conditions and covenants of said contract or lease. The pro-
ceeds arising from any such contract or lease shall be paid into the
State treasury, to be held and used for the same purpose as the
proceeds from the sale of trees and timber, and be paid out in like
manner.

SECTION 11.

Lands not subject to warrant, etc. — When lands have been ac-
quired by the Commonwealth for forestry purposes, however the
same may have been acquired, they shall not thereafter be subject
to warrant, survey, or patent.

SECTION 14.

Nurseries— Seeds and seedlings. — The commission may establish
and maintain a nursery, or nurseries, for the propagation of forest
tree seedlings, either upon one or more of the forest reservations of
the State, • or upon such other land as the said commission may
and which it is hereby empowered to acquire for that purpose.
Seedlings from this nursery shall be furnished to the Common-
wealth without expense for use upon its forest reservations or other
public grounds or parks. Seeds and seedlings may also be distrib-
uted to land owners and citizens of this Commonwealth under and
subject to such rules and regulations as may be established by said
commission.

SECTION 21

Penalties for violations of rules and regulations. — Whoever vio-
lates any rule or regulation for the goveritment or use of any State
reservation or park, or road or boulevard traversing the same, shall,
for such offense, be punished by a fine of not less than five dollars
nor more than fifty dollars, and if the person so fined neglects
or refuses to pay the same, he shall be committed to the jail of the
county, there to remain until such fine be paid, but not longer than
one day for each and every two dollars of the fine imposed.

SECTION 22

Fires and trespass on State Forests; penalties. — Any person or
persons who shall kindle fire upon any of the forestry reservations
of this Commonwealth, except in accordance with such rules and
regulations as may be prescribed by the said commission, or who
shall cut and remove any timber whatever, or who shall do or cause
to be done any act that will damage forest land or timber belonging
to the Commonwealth, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and, upon
conviction thereof, be subject to a penalty not exceeding five hun-
dred dollars for each offense committed, with costs of suit. If the
defendant or defendants neglect or refuse to pay the penalty and
costs imposed, he or they shall be committed to the jail of the
county, there to remain until such penalty and costs are paid, but
no longer than one day for each and every two dollars of the fine
and costs imposed.

[12]

Forestry Leaflet No. 2 Issued April 20, 1915

[ FOREST FIRE LAWS

OF VIRGINIA

or • \ VISION or

FORESTRY

COLLEGE OF & AGRICULTURE
Ufm'£ft£lTV Or CAUPO.S'K'M

Virginia Geological Commission
OFFICE OF STATE FORESTER

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA
CHARLOTTESVILLE

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

Forest Fires are burning every year in the Southern States, with
no organized effort being made to stop them, and are probably do-
ing $500,000 worth of damage every year in Virginia. They are espe-
cially severe after lumbering, and injure the young growth more than
the mature timber, and as a result probably over 200,000 acres in the
mountains of Northern and Central Virginia, which once were heav-
ily timbered, are now covered with nothing but brush, and are prac-
tically a barren waste. The same will be true after the timber is
cut in Southwest Virginia unless measures to prevent it are taken
in time.

These facts are becoming better realized, and the experience of
certain Northern and Western States has demonstrated that by or-
ganized effort fires can be controlled. As a result Virginia now
has laws for fire-prevention and control, but they have never been
enforced for lack of an appropriation to this effect.

The Laws of Virginia now provide:

1. Fine and imprisonment for setting fire to woods.

2. Anyone burning brush and allowing the fire to spread to a
neighbor's woods is liable to a fine and liable for the damage done
and the cost of fighting the fire.

3. Logging and railroad locomotives, donkey and threshing en-
gines, etc., operated in, through, or near, forest or brush, must carry
spark arresters. Failure to comply is punishable by a fine.

4. The appointment of Forest Wardens, under the direction of the
State Forester, to enforce the laws and fight fires. (Note. There
is at present no money with which to pay them. They cannot be
expected to work for nothing, unless they choose to.)

Forest Fire Laws of Virginia

(1) PROTECTIVE SYSTEM.

(This sub-division comprises the provisions of law, if any, defining
the personnel, and the executive and administrative powers and
duties, of the general State-wide organization charged with the pre-
vention,— including provisions for slash disposal after lumbering, —
detection, control and extinguishment of forest fires.)

SECTION 18, CHAPTER 195, LAWS 1914.

Forest wardens, appointment — Compensation — Powers of, for pro^
tection of State forests, and fish and game. — Whenever the State
geological commission considers it necessary, it may apply to the
governor to commission such persons as it may designate to act as
forest wardens of this State, to enforce the forest laws, and, under
the direction of the board, to aid in carrying out the purposes of
this act; but they shall be subject to removal at any time at the pleas-
ure of the State geological commission. Such wardens shall receive
such compensation from time to time as the State geological
commission may allow them for special services. Forest wardens
thus appointed shall, before entering upon the duties of their office,
take the proper official oath before the clerk of the court of the
county in which they reside, after which they shall, while holding
said office, possess and exercise all the authority and power held
and exercised by constables at common law and under the statutes
of this State, so far as arresting and prosecuting persons for viola-
tions of any of the laws or rules and regulations enacted or made,
or to be enacted or made, for the protection of the State forestry
reserves, or for the protection of the fish and game contained therein,
are concerned.

SECTION 19.

Duties of wardens — Arrests — Fires; assistance — Expenses; report

on. — It shall be the duty of the forest wardens to enforce all forest
laws of this State; to protect the State forest reserves, and to see
that all rules, regulations and laws are enforced; to report viola-
tions of the law to the State forester; to assist in apprehending and
convicting offenders, and to make an annual report to him as to
forest conditions in their immediate neighborhood. When any for-
est warden shall see or have reported to him a forest fire, it shall
be his duty immediately to repair to the scene of the fire and employ
such persons and means as in his judgment seem expedient and
necessary to extinguish said fire. He shall keep an itemized account

[4]

of all expenses thus incurred and send such account immediately to
the State forester.

SECTION 20.

Funds for forest protection — Action for cost of fire-fighting. — The

boards of county supervisors of the several counties of this State
are hereby authorized to levy and appropriate money for purposes
of forest protection, improvement, and management; and said boards
shall have recourse under an action at law for debt against any
land owner, individual, or corporation on whose account they shall
be obliged to pay out money for fighting fire for the amount which
they shall have expended for such purpose.

SECTION 16.

(2) FALLOW AND OTHER FIRES.

(This sub-division comprises the provisions of law, if any, concern-
ing the burning of fallow, brush, etc., by farmers and the general
setting of fires to woods by hunters, fishermen and others.)

SECTION 3701, CODE SUPPLEMENT, 1910 (POLLARD).

SECTION 3702, CODE, 1904.

SECTION 23, CHAPTER 195, LAWS 1914.

[5]

set, fire to any woods, brush, logs, leaves, grass, or clearing upon
their own land, unless they have previously taken all possible care
and precaution against the spread of such fire to other lands not
their own, by previously having cut and piled the same, or carefully
cleared around the land which is to be burned, so as to prevent the
spread of such fire. The setting of fire contrary to the provisions
of this section, or allowing it to escape to the injury of adjoining
lands, shall be prima facie proof of wilfulness or neglect, and the
land owners from whose land the fire originated shall be liable in
a civil action for damages for the injury resulting from such fire, and
also for the cost of fighting and extinguishing the same.

SECTION 25.

Liability to State or county for damage by fires, and expenses. —

SECTION 26.

Jurisdiction in cases of prosecution — State's attorney to prosecute.

(3) RAILROAD FIRES.

(This sub-division comprises the provisions of law, if any, defining
the responsibility of, the precautions to be taken by, and the liability
for damages occasioned by railroad and logging companies in the
operation and maintenance of their trains and rights of way; also
provisions concerning the use of spark arresters and other safe-
.guards on traction, thrashing, other portable and saw-mill engines,
boilers.)

SECTION 1294D, CODE, 1904.

[6]

each offense, and each day of running such locomotive shall be
deemed a separate offense.*

Penalty. — (70) Any railroad company failing to comply with, or
violating, or permitting any of its agents or employees to violate,
any of the provisions of this chapter, or any valid order, rule, or
regulation o'f the State corporation commission, relating to the pro-
visions of this chapter, if not otherwise provided in this chapter, shall
be fined not less than ten dollars nor more than five hundred dollars
for each offense. [Chapter 4 of Act Concerning Public Service Cor-
porations, Sess. Laws, 1902-3-4, p. 968.]

SECTION 1, CHAPTER 269, LAWS 1908 (CODE SUPPLEMENT, 1910, p. 796).
Liability of companies, regardless of location of fire and condi-
tion of appliances. — Be it enacted by the general assembly of Vir-
ginia, That whenever any person shall sustain damage from fire
occasioned by sparks or coals dropped or thrown from the engine
or train of any railroad company, such company shall be liable for
the damage so sustained, whether said fire shall have originated on
said company's right of way or not, and whether or not such engine
is equipped with proper spark-arresting appliances, and regardless of
the condition in which such appliances may be.

SECTION 1, CHAPTER 392, LAWS 1908 (CODE; SUPPLEMENT, 1910, p. 856).
Insurable interest. — Be it enacted by the general assembly of
Virginia, That every railroad company shall have, and is hereby
invested with, an insurable interest in the property upon the route
of any railroad operated by it, and may procure insurance there-
upon in its own behalf for protection against any damage to said
property by fire or otherwise, for which such company shall or
might be liable.

SECTIONS 23, 25, CHAPTER 195, LAWS 1914.

SECTION 24.

Spark arresters, etc. — Ash pans; fire boxes — Penalties. — Logging

*Note. — The wording of this subdivision (18) is identical with
that of Section 1264 (derived from an earlier act contained in the
volume of Session Laws of 1883-4, p. 704).

[7]

and railroad locomotives, donkey or threshing engines, and other
engines and boilers, operated in, through or near forest or brush,
which do not burn oil as fuel, shall be provided with appliances
to prevent, as far as may be possible, the escape of fire and sparks
from the smoke-stacks thereof, and with devices to prevent, as far
as may be possible, the escape of fire from ash pans and fire boxes.
Failure to comply with these requirements shall be a misdemeanor,
punishable, upon conviction, by a fine of not less than ten dollars
nor more than one hundred dollars for each and every offense com-
mitted.

SECTION 3859, CODE, 1904.

[8]

Forestry Leaflet No. 3 Issued November 15, 1915

A PLAN OF

FOREST FIRE PROTECTION

FOR VIRGINIA

How an Effective Beginning Can Be Made Toward Lessening

The Present Enormous Destruction of Merchantable

Timber, Young Growth, and Other Property

By the " Triple Alliance " Composed of

The Federal Government, The State

Government, and Either the

County Government or

the Timber Land

Ownerj

f«o*ei?Tr ofjfe DIVISION or

ISTRY

Of£i AGRICULTURE:
Vt4 1 i'C * C- « T y Or CAU ! C .

R. C, JONES

State Forester

Charlottesville, Va.

Virginia Geological Commission

OFFICE OF STATE FORESTER

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

CHARLOTTESVILLE

A Plan of ForeSt Fire Protection for Virginia

Forest fires have been prevalent for years in all parts of
Virginia, and have done an incalculable amount of injury to
merchantable timber, young growth, the soil, and frequently to
other property, such as houses, barns, fences, farm crops, etc.
Formerly the damage was not thoroughly realized, particularly
in backward sections and where timber was relatively abundant.
But with the spread of education and with the increasing scar-
city and the resulting higher prices of timber there has come an
increasing realization of the enormous amount of the annual
destruction of property by forest fires, which, judging by very
conservative figures on the subject collected in Maryland and
North Carolina, must amount to considerably over $600,000 per
year in Virginia to merchantable timber alone, disregarding the
damage to young growth and to the soil, etc., which is enor-
mous, but hard to estimate. There has come a very wide-spread
determination among citizens of Virginia that this senseless de-
struction shall cease, and in place of the former feeling of help-
lessness, there is a realization that Virginia timber can be pro-
tected just as well as that of some of the Northern and Western
states where very efficient state fire protective systems are now
in operation, at a trifling cost compared to the value of the
timber protected. One Southern state, Maryland, has for years
had a fire protective system, which is becoming more efficient
constantly, and the beginning of such a system has already been
made in the adjoining states of Kentucky, West Virginia, and
North Carolina. It is time that Virginia fell in line with the
march of progress if she is to keep the place to which she is
entitled among her sister States. A very effective beginning can
now be made through the cooperation of the federal govern-
ment, the state government, and either the County government
or the timber land owners.

The Working of the 'Triple Alliance."

The Forest Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture is
helping the states to protect themselves against fire by providing
a certain amount of money to be spent in paying the salaries of
patrolmen and watchmen. This money was appropriated under
the Weeks Law, and can be spent only where the states them-
selves are making an organized effort to prevent fires. The
State of Virginia is now able to take advantage of this offer

of the federal government, and through an agreement between
the Secretary of Agriculture, at Washington, D. C., and the
State Forester of Virginia, at Charlottesville, Va., the sum of
$2,000.00 per year has been allotted to the state of Virginia, to
i)e spent for fire prevention under the direction of the State
Forester. While the Legislature of Virginia at the time that it
made provision for the establishment of the fire protective
system by creating the office of State Forester and providing
for the appointment of State Forest Wardens, unfortunately
failed to make an appropriation to put the plan into effect, the
work has been started by the use of a sum of money put at the
disposal of the State Forester by the University of Virginia for
general educational work throughout the State. Thus there is
$2,000.00 per year from the federal government now available
for fire protection, and this amount1 will undoubtedly be in-
creased as soon as the State itself appropriates a larger amount.
This sum, $2,000.00, is evidently too small to cover the State
thoroughly, hence it has been decided that it shall be used only
in localities where there is enough local interest in fire protec-
tion to make either the County authorities or the timber land
owners willing to go to an expense equal to that of the gov-
ernment. This plan results automatically in the money being
spent where it is the most needed and where it will do the most
good.

County Authorities May Appropriate Money for Fire
Protection.

The County Supervisors now have legal authority to appro-
priate money for purposes of fire protection. This may take
the form of paying for the service of Forest Wardens and men
•employed by them for the time actually spent in fighting fire, or
it may take the form of paying for patrol work. The former
method is being adopted in nearly all States which have fire
protective systems, and it is evidently essential to a thoroughly
•effective system, and will undoubtedly be in use in most or all
of the Counties of Virginia within a few years, but in the mean-
time a beginning should be made by the employment of patrol-
men. Such men work on a monthly basis only during the danger-
ous seasons, particularly in the spring and fall, usually about
four months per year, depending upon the dryness of the sea-
son. If the County authorities will pay the salaries of such
patrolmen for one half of their time, they can be paid for the
other half of their time by the United States government, and
an offer to this effect is made to the County authorities by the
State Forester, as long as the government money holds out.
These men would be selected and appointed by the State For-
ester with the advice of the County Supervisors and other per-

sons interested, and would be local men, thoroughly familiar
with their district and widely acquainted in the County. Their
appointment would be made on the basis of efficiency alone, and
experience has proved that capable and reliable men can be
secured for this work. It is the duty of such men to travel
throughout their district during the dry seasons, being con-
stantly on the lookout for fires, fighting any that they discover,
posting warning notices, explaining the laws to everybody, and
cautioning those who may be careless.

Cooperation with Owners of Timber Land.

In sections where large bodies of timber land are owned by
individuals or corporations the assistance of the State and gov-
ernment is extended to such owners in the same way as to the
County Supervisors. Another plan, which is already in force
in southwest Virginia, is as follows : The State Forester ap-
points patrolmen, who are paid entirely by the federal gov-
ernment, and given districts including the holdings of the
land owners or an association of land owners who cooperate
by preparing for each fire season by constructing in advance
thereof such permanent improvements as mav be most needed
to make the work more effective, such as fire lines, trails, lookout
stations, etc. The sum to be spent on such work must equal at
least two months' salaries for the patrolmen for each fire season.
It is believed that the construction of such improvements is well
worth the cost, and in fact they are under most circumstances,
in the mountains, absolutely necessary in order to secure a really
effective system which will not fall down in the occasional very
dry season. Ordinarily a patrolman can cover approximately
25,000 or 30,000 acres of mountain land, depending upon the
character of the country and the roads, trails, etc. Owners of
mountain land are strongly advised to form fire protective as-
sociations, which have many obvious advantages over each land
owner working alone. Many such associations have been in
operation in Northern and Western states for years, and many
others have recently been organized in the adjoining states of
West Virginia, Kentucky and North Carolina, The assessments
of these associations for fire protection work have averaged from
one half a cent to two cents per acre per year. This amount is
low in proportion to the value received, but it is believed that it
can be still further reduced when the most important trails, look-
out stations, etc., have been constructed, and when the people liv-
ing in the woods and hunting there, etc., have been taught by the
patrolmen to be careful with fire.

For further information address the State Forester at Char-
lottesville, Virginia.

PLATE I.

Crowded small pole stand of shortleaf pine about 30 years old in need of
thinning. The trees are slender and clean stemmed, but Irregular in size. A large
number of the smaller trees should be removed.

Department of Agriculture and Immi-
gration of Virginia

GEO. W. KOINER, Commissioner

In co-operation With the Forest Service United States
Department of Agriculture

HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester

OFJ»OIVISION OF

JltiBBm.

FORESTRY

Of JL AGRICULTURE

PfNETW VIRGINIA

The Increase in its Yield by Thinning

By W. W. AS HE
Forest Examiner, Forest Service

DEC 2 8 1914

Division of Forestry
University of California

RICHMOND:

DAVIS BOTTOM, SUPERINTENDENT PUBLIC PRINTING
1913

CONTENTS

Purposes and results .'. » . 5.

Distribution and importance 6.

Names and distinguishing characteristics 7.

Uses of wood 8.

Condition and composition of old-field stands 9;

Permanency of old-field pine stands 10'

Management 12

Fully stocked and crowded stands 13

Understocked stands 14

Thinnings 15,

Classes of trees 158

Dominant trees . . .^ , 15.

Intermediate trees 15-

Suppressed trees 16«

How heavily to thin '. 16.

What to remove in thinning 17

Acceleration in growth from thinning 17

Method of thinning 18

Sapling stands (younger than 20 years) 18>

Small pole stands (from 20 to 30 years old) 18

Large pole stands (from 30 to 40 years old) 19

Mature stands (from 40 to 50 years old) 19

Typical stands 20

Production of cordwood from thinned and unthinned stands 23,

Maximum yield of cordwood 24

Cost of growing cordwood 26

Production of saw timber 26-

Influence of density of stand upon yield of saw timber at

different ages 26

Age of cutting for maximum yield 28

Cost of growing saw timber 29

Value of trees and stands 32

Waste in cutting small trees 35-

Lumbering and restocking 35

Isolated seed trees 36

Cutting in strips 37

Cutting unthinned stands 37

Planting waste land 3H

Returns from plantations 39

The protection of stands '. 41

Fires 41

Insects 43

Fungus diseases 44

ILLUSTRATIONS

Plate I. — Crowded small pole stands of shortleaf pine about 30
years old in need of thinning. The trees are slender and clean
stemmed, but irregular in size. A large number of the smaller
trees should be removed Frontispiece.

-Plate II. — A dense sapling stand of shortleaf pine 15 to 18 years
old, but too small to be profitably thinned. While the clean
condition of the floor is good, fire could do great damage to
such a stand

Plate III. — Understocked large pole stand of shortleaf pine 30
years old. The trees are short-bodied and knotty and will yield
only low grade lumber. The best that can be done with such
a stand is to cut it, leaving the most slender, clean-bodied
trees for seed-trees

Plate IV. — Crowded, large pole stand of shortleaf pine 40 years
old, badly in need of thinning by removing the smaller pines
and many of the hardwoods. Condition of larger trees, with
long, smooth bodies, excellent

Plate V. — Mature stand of shortleaf pine. Trees nearly uniform in
size and ready to be cut for lumber. Groups of slender, wind-
firm trees can be left for seed trees,

Plate VI. — Figure 1. — A typical case of sustained rapid diameter
growth, resulting from repeated thinnings, in a tree of short-
leaf pine which was overcrowded for many years. Wood of
such a tree is free from large knots, and its stumpage is
worth $8 a 1,000 board feet under a cost of operating of $12

Figure 2. — Stem of a small sprout sapling of shortleaf pine,
crooked and scarred at the neck as a result of the original
seedling having been killed to the ground by fire. Stump and
root rots gain entrance through such scars.

L=a U U U=J

UU 0

DEC 2 8 1914

Division of Forestry
University of California

Shortleaf Pine in Virginia

The study upon which this report is based was undertaken by
the Forest Service in co-operation with the State of ^Virginia, the
work being done under the direction of the officer in charge
of State Co-operation in the Forest Service. By the terms of the
co-operative agreement, the State is authorized to publish the find-
ings of the investigation.

PURPOSES AND RESULTS.

At the request of Hon. C. A. Swanson, Governor of Virginia,
the Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, in
the autumn of 1909, made an examination of the second-growth
shortleaf pine in old fields in the middle portion of Virginia.
The cost of this work was borne jointly by the State of Virginia
and the Forest Service.

The examination included a detailed investigation of stands of
pine in old fields in Mecklenburg, Lunenburg, Brunswick, and
Hanover counties, which was supplemented by a general examina-
tion of the stands in other counties in the middle part of the State.
Its scope was :

(1) To ascertain the condition of the old-field stands and the
value of their timber for lumber uses;

(2) To determine the effect of lumbering on the future yields
of the stands and to ascertain whether conservative methods of
cutting could be employed profitably ;

(3) To determine the yield of stands of different ages;

(4) To recommend methods of thinning and cutting to ac-
celerate growth ;

(5) To devise methods of protection for young growth.

The conclusions reached as a result of the investigation can be
summarized as follows:

Shortleaf pine is the most important tree in twenty south-
central counties, but the yield from the pine lands is low because
there is neither protection nor a definite system of cutting. The
yield can be greatly increased and the quality of timber improved
by a regular system of management.

'(1) Better protection against fires and insects is required in
most stands. Young stands, especially while in process of stocking.

6 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

suffer most from fires. Older stands are most endangered by in-
serts. Protection against fire may be secured by means of fire
lanes, posted warnings, restriction of night hunting, and patrol
during dry seasons when neighboring lands are afire. The danger
of loss from insects may be reduced by making frequent thinnings
and by removing or by cutting infested trees.

(2) The average stand of pine is far too thinly stocked. This
is due to insufficient natural seeding and to the thinning of young
stands by fire and of older stands by insects. The yield of such
thinly-stocked stands is considerably less, and the grade and value
of the timber is lower, than from thickly stocked stands.

(3) Crowded areas occur in nearly all stands, and some stands
are crowded throughout. Such crowded plots can be greatly im-
proved by thinnings. The effect of thinnings is to accelerate
growth, hasten maturity, and produce a superior quality of timber.
The beneficial results of thinnings decrease with the age of the
stand, but stands as old as forty-five years respond to them well.

(4) Where natural seeding has not formed dense stands with-
in ten years, the stocking can be completed by the planting of
seed; and, where natural seeding does not take place, whole areas
may be seeded. Stands restocked in these ways can be expected to
yield fully as well as the best natural stands and to return a fair
rate of interest on their cost.

If management is applied, that is, if young stands are pro-
tected, full stocking secured, and the stands subsequently thinned,
the yield of saw timber from a 40-year-old stand can be more than
doubled and its value greatly increased. Shortleaf pine is already
one of the chief sources of building material on the farms. Fur-
thermore, the farms have more timber than is required for their
own support, so that as the general demand for coarse lumber in-
creases and its price rises, shortleaf pine in farm woodlots can be
made an important source of commercial timber and a means of
permanent income.

DISTRIBUTION AND IMPORTANCE

Second-growth or old-field shortleaf pine is the most important
tree of middle Virginia and the Piedmont, south of the Rappa-
hannock, in which region it probably occupies more than one-half
of the total forest area and more than three-fourths of the farm
forest area. It forms the dominant growth on more than 3,000,000
acres, on which it occurs either in pure stands or, more commonly,

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA 7

with a slight mixture of other pines and of seedling and sprout
hardwoods. It meets with least competition and forms the purest
second-growth stands in the tier of southern counties west of Lun-
enburg county. It is not common north of the Rappahannock
river, and is infrequent on the Blue Ridge mountains and in the
Great Valley, while in Tidewater Virginia it grows only on the
best drained clay soils, and in these sections, on account of the com-
petition of other species, its second growth seldom occurs in pure
stands.

NAMES AND DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS

pine is also and more generally known as rosemary
pine, spruce pine, and yellow pine. The original growth is fre-
quently distinguished from the second growth in old fields under
the names of forest or woods pine.

This tree is not to he confused with scrub or jack pine,
which is also called spruce pine. Scrub pine is a smaller and in-
ferior tree with a limby stem, and smooth, scaly bark. It is largely
replacing shortleaf pine in old fields in the northern portion of the
State and in the upper edge of the Piedmont in and near the
mountains, and is occasionally found mixed with shortleaf pine
southeastward as far as Brunswick county. Nor is it to be con-
fused with loblolly pine, which is known in extreme southern Vir-
ginia as .shortleaf pine and, where it occurs near the coast, as long-
leaf, swamp, foxtail, or slash pine. Loblolly pine is the common
pine on sandy soils in Tidewater Virginia, but it extends westward
in association with shortleaf pine to Brunswick, Chesterfield and
Louisa counties. The northern pitch, bull, or black pine of the
mountains, which is yet another tree, seldom forms second growth
in old fields.

The cone and leaf differences of these trees will be a further
help in separating them :

Shortleaf pine has cones (burrs) seldom more than 1 1-2 inches
long, and slender, straight needles, two or three together, twice as
long as the cones.

Scrub pine has cones of about the same length as those of
shortleaf pine (1 1-2 inches) but they are relatively broader. The
needles are stout and twisted, with never more than two together,
and are about the same length as the cones. Frequently the cones
of scrub pine and shortleaf pine remain on the trees for many years
after opening.

8 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

Loblolly pine has large cones, from 3 to 4 inches long. Its
needles are borne in threes and are about twice as long as the cones.
The cones of this species usually fall during the second summer,
but sometimes they persist for several years.

USES OF WOOD

The timber of second-growth shortleaf pine is largely sap-
wood. The formation of heartwood does not begin until the trees
are about twenty-five years old. For many years thereafter the
heartwc&Kl is limited to a small core, and more than two-thirds of
the volume of trees fifty years old is still sapwood. The most im-
portant uses for the wood of the shortleaf pine are for building
lumber, fuel, slack cooperage, box lumber, headings, and crates.
The wood contains too much resin to be a desirable material for
paper pulp stock without special treatment, although it is used to
some extent for this purpose. On account of its softness it is not
suited for railroad ties if the traffic is heavy, and, when used for
this purpose should be made more durable by preservative treat-
ment.

The large proportion of sapwood in the second- growth tim-
ber renders it undesirable for shingles, for which the durable heart-
wood of the old growth was extensively employed ; and unfits it for
other uses requiring exposure to the weather, unless it is thoroughly
kiln-dried and painted. Logs more than fourteen inches in dia-
meter from trees with clear boles yield lumber suitable for ceiling
styles and panels of doors, sashes, window frames, interior wood-
work, and also for flooring if rift sawed. Timber suitable for such
uses must come not only from comparatively large trees, but from
trees which early cleaned their stems and formed wood in the lower
two-thirds of the trunk free of knots. That part of the tree which
can be converted into lumber of this kind should command, on the
basis of $25 for the finished lumber, a stum page price of not less
than $10 a thousand board feet.

Unless the price of cordwood stumpage is proportionately
much higher than that of saw timber stumpage, the greatest profit
from a crowded stand will be secured by reserving the larger trees
for saw timber, and in the meantime thinning or culling the small-
est trees for cordwood, stave stock, box boards, bolts, and similar
purposes, for which small material is suited. If only selected trees
are retained for saw timber they should be allowed to attain a large
size in order to produce timber of high quality.

PLATE II.

A dense sapling stand of shortleaf pine 15 to 18 years old, but too small to be
profitably thinned. While the clean condition of the floor is good, flre could do
great damage in such a stand.

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA 9

CONDITION AND COMPOSITION OF OLD-FIELrD

STANDS

As early as 1735 it had become a fixed part of the farming
system of middle Virginia to clear new ground each year and to
abandon to lallow a parcel of the oldest and most worn farming
land. The land thus turned out was rapidly colonized with pines
through seed blown by the wind from old trees nearb/! When
these pines had become large enough and the humus had been re-
stored to the soil through them, the land was usually cleared again.
Such a system of rotation of timber and cultivated crops was pos-
sible only in a region where land was abundant and cheap. It was
due in part to the lack of local markets, which made it necessary to
export a large portion of the crops and therefore to produce them
as cheaply as possible, regardless of the effect upon the soil; and
in part to the fact that these soils were not natural grazing lands,
and the depleted humus could be renewed naturally and cheaply
by the replacement of the native pines. Some of the existing
groves of old-held pine thus originated before the Revolutionary
War. Most of them, however, are younger, having originated dur-
ing and just after the Civil War or in the subsequent periods of
agricultural depression about 1880 and 1892. These stands are
consequently of all ages; from the youngest, just in process of
stocking land which has been turned out during the past decade,
to those more than 100 years old. Stands between fifteen and
forty-five years old are, however, the most numerous.

Such old-field stands were thus established naturally, and_no
efforts were made by the owners to increase their density when
they were too open or to protect them, while young, from fire.
They have seldom been thinned judiciously for improvement. As
a result, they vary widely in density. Small tracts 3re usually
well-stocked, since, if seed-bearing trees were nearby while stocking
was taking place, seeds were in a few years scattered uniformly
over the entire tract and such small tracts were often protected
from fire by fences, or by adjacent cultivated fields. The trees in
such well-stocked stands are slender and clean-bodied, with small
crowns. The average tract, however, is poorly stocked. The trees
are isolated, individually, or in irregular groups, and consequently
short-bodied, knotty, and coarse-grained. This open condition of
many of the stands is due to the fact that seed trees were too
few or too distant while the stocking was in progress, or to the
fact that the fields became grassy and the seedlings were killed by

10 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

tires that burned the grass. Scattered advance growth frequently
has borne seed and so stocked the gaps. Such stands are irregular
in age and size.

Many of the older stands have been irregularly and often heav-
ily cut for poles, cordwood, and even sawlogs. Most stands of sap-
ling or larger size are too open for the best growth of the trees
and for the highest financial returns.

The proportion of shortleaf pine in the old-field stands varies.
North of the Kappahannock river the proportion of scrub pine
mixed with the shortleaf increases, until in Fairfax county and the
lower end of Prince William county it largely replaces shortleaf
pine. It is also largely mixed with shortleaf pine in stands near
the mountains. In the shortleaf pine stands in the eastern ends of
Hanover, Chesterfield and Brunswick counties, there is a large
proportion of loblolly pine, which entirely supplants the shortleaf
farther eastward. South and southwest of Hanover county the
only pine in the field stands is the shortleaf, but species other than
pine form part of the mixture in a varying proportion, though
they seldom make up more than ten per cent, in stands younger
than thirty-five years old. In young stands these associated species
vary with the kinds of seed-trees nearby. On lower slopes they
are usually maple, poplar, sweet gum, and the oaks; on hilltops
they are red cedar, oaks, hickory, black gum, persimmon, cherry,
thorn, sassafras, and dogwood.

PERMANENCY or OLD-FIELD PINE STANDS

As ,the field pine stands become older, especially after they
have passed the thirty-fifth year, their crown cover tends to thin,
and this favors the growth of the oaks and hickories, which come
in from seed dropped by squirrels, crows, jays, etc., and are better
able to grow beneath the cover than are young pines. Even after
the pine in the stand begins to seed the proportion of these broad-
leaf species continues to increase, since the young pines can come
in only when an extensive opening is made by the death of a large
pine. There is thus a tendency toward a gradual re-establishment
of the original forest type which prevailed before the land was
cleared, namely, a mixture of oak, hickory, black gum, and pine,
with pine forming a small proportion on the best soil and a large
proportion — frequently more than half the number of trees — on
the poor, dry or sandy soils. The pure pine stands are, therefore, a
temporary type, which in time will be replaced by the permanent
mixed-growth type.

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA 11

It is not an invariable rule that uhardwoods follow pine" after
cutting or that "pine follows hardwoods" after cutting or clearing.
But pure pine usually forms the second growth if there is no shade
or cover, as in old fields or on hardwood land which has been cut
clear in late summer or early autumn, when the sprouting power of
the hardwoods is low. If seed-bearing trees are near, such open
land, whether in field or forest, is captured in a few years by
pine, by means of its abundant, light seeds which are widely scat-
tered by the wind. The heavy seeds of oak, hickory and black
gum, which are carried largely by birds and squirrels, are dis-
seminated too slowly and irregularly to enable such species to
compete successfully with pine in stocking nearby open lands. Un-
der these conditions, pine usually follows oak.

On the other hand,. pine is unable to establish itself beneath
dense shade, whether of pine or of hardwoods. For this reason
young pine growth is seldom found under the trees except in older
open pine stands. The seeds of hardwroods, however, are dropped
from year to year in such stands and germinate; and the seedlings,
through their persistency and ability to endure shade, will survive
in shade in which a young pine can not live, although their growth
in this case is extremely slow. When the large pines are cut, these
stunted hardwoods, responding to improved conditions of light and
root space, grow rapidly and if they are numerous they form the
larger part of the growth which follows the pine.

In those portions of the State in which it occurs, scrub pine
affects the permanence of the shortleaf pine stand on medium soils
even more than do the hardwoods. Scrub pine seeds prolificacy ,
when much younger and smaller than shortleaf pine, and the seed-
lings are tolerant of far more shade than those of the shortleaf.
For these reasons, it not only excludes the shortleaf from old
fields which are in process of stocking, but it successfully competes
with the young hardwoods in occupying openings in stands ot
shortleaf pine in which the cover is too heavy for shortleaf seed-
lings to exist, and thus in part succeeds tfte shortleaf in shortleaf
stands.

By reason of this aggressiveness, scrub pine is so completely
replacing shortleaf pine over large areas in the northeastern part
of the State and near the Blue Ridge that the economic range of
shortleaf pine is being restricted.

12 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

MANAGEMENT

Forest management as applied to old-field stands may be sum-
marized as the use of any methods of restocking, cutting, or thin-
ning which will reduce the cost of growing timber or add to the
value of the timber grown.

Natural stands are usually either understocked, at least in
certain phases or during certain periods of growth, or else over-
crowded.

The maximum growth is obtained by maintaining such a mum-*
ber of trees to the acre as will utilize the full capacity of the soil
and at the same time secure the best development of the individual
trees. Understocked stands do not use the full capacity of the soil
and must be filled out to the required density by planting in the
thin places. In crowded stands, on the other hand, the indi-
vidual trees are retarded; they must be thinned in order to make
them grow at their best rate. These requirements of the stand
are discussed in connection with the subjects of thinnings and
planting.

Another phase of management is cutting at the period of ma-
turity as determined by either maximum yield or value. The rate
of growth or accretion of a stand is not the same at all ages. The
yearly growth rapidly increases from nearly nothing to a maxi-
mum, then slowly declines. When the rate of annual growth be-
gins to decline, a loss in yield is entailed if cutting is deferred.
The time at which the maximum of the average annual yield is
obtained varies with the size of the timber which is desired; it
would not be the same for lumber, which requires large timber, as
for cordwood, for which small timber can be used. But while it is
desirable to obtain the maximum annual yield from a stand, the
cost of production is a factor which cannot be neglected.

The cost of production embraces the interesjt on the investment,
the taxes, superintendence, protection, and the making of improve-
ment cuttings and thinnings. As far as the needs of owners and
the market conditions allow, a stand should be cut at financial
maturity, that is, when it yields the best returns on the investment.
These phases of management are considered in connection with
yields of stands at different ages, and with the cost of growing
timber. One of the most important considerations in manage-
ment is the method employed for obtaining a prompt renewal of
the stand in order to prevent the loss of interest on the investment
by the idleness of the land.

8HORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA 13

Protection of stands from fire, from insects, and from fungus
diseases is necessary to insure fully stocked stands and sound
timber.

The figures relating to the growth and yield of shortleaf pine
are based on stands which are growing on soil formerly covered
with forests of shortleaf pine mixed with white oak, southern red
oak (Quercus digitata), black oak, and white hickory. The rate
of growth on such sites is regarded as the average or usual rate.
Where the pine now grows on soils which were formerly covered with
forests of shortleaf pine mixed with post oak, with black-jack oak,
or with Spanish oak (Quercus coccinea), or with a large propor-
tion of these oaks together with other oaks, the rate of growth and
the yield of the stands will be considerably lower than that given.

FULLY STOCKED AND CROWDED STANDS

A stand is fully stocked when it contains all the well-grown,
vigorous trees which the soil can support. This number decreases
with the age of the stand and the consequent increase in the size
of the trees. In a natural twenty-year-old stand of shortleaf pine
the number to the acre should exceed 1,500; at forty years it has
decreased to about 750 ; at sixty years it has fallen to less than 450.
This reduction of the number of trees in a stand progresses nat-
urally. As the trees become older and larger, their crowns spread
and their roots extend in search of food and moisture. Competi-
tion for light, food and moisture ensues, and this in turn results in
the dying of the smaller and weaker trees, which are overtopped
and crowded out by the more vigorous ones.

A fully-stocked stand, in which natural thinning is taking place
rapidly, is crowded (plates I, II and IV). At any age the fact
that a stand is crowded is indicated by a close crown cover and the
presence of many dead trees and slender live trees with narrow
•crowns. In a young stand of this character less than thirty-five
years old the crowding is so great that the crown of each tree al-
most touches the crowns of its neighbors and direct sunlight hardly
reaches the soil. The shade is sufficient to prevent the start of
young trees and most shrubs beneath the pines and the carpet of
pine needles is so thick as to exclude grass, while small dead trees
are numerous. In stands more than thirty-five or forty years old
there is a wider distance between adjacent crowns, due to the rapid
dying of the larger of the slender narrow-crowned trees. This
opening of the stand admits more sunlight, and young oaks, hick-

14 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

ories, and other trees, as well as many shrubs, begin to grow be-
neath the pines. Dead trees and live trees with narrow crowns are
not so numerous as in younger stands. The mat of pine needles is
thinner in the older stands and grass is able to spring up.

A fully-stocked young stand of short leaf pine has, therefore,
a dense crown cover. In both young and old stands, if they are
fully stocked, there are slender trees with narrow, spry crowns and
dead trees which have been crowded out, though the latter are more
abundant in the young stands. Whether a stand is crowded and in
need of thinning may be determined by the greater or less abund-
ance of crowded and dead trees, considered in connection with the
age of the stand and the normal density of the crown canopy at a
given age.

UNDERSTOCKED STANDS

The average stand of short-leaf pine in middle and Piedmont
Virginia, however, instead of being too densely stocked, is too
thinly stocked. When the crowns do not interfere, or are round-
topped with practically horizontal lower branches, the stand is too
open for best growth.

Young and even middle-aged stands are frequently open, but
their wide-spreading crowns eventually close and form a dense
crown cover like that of a fully-stocked stand. But in this case
dead trees and slender overtopped trees are- absent; the crowns of
the trees are too round and wide- spreading; the steins are too short
and limby ; and the number of trees to the acre is much less than
in fully-stocked stands of the same height. (Table 9). Under-
stocked stands of this kind do not require thinning. Moderately
understocked young stands usually become crowded early enough
to reduce some of the evils of understocking, but the stems of
the trees are never so tall and free from limbs and knots as those
which develop when there is crowding all through the life of the
stand and their total yield is usually less than that of a fully-
stocked stancl. (Plate III). Young understocked stands should •
be filled out by planting.

In nearly every stand, however, there will be found at least
groups of trees which will be benefited by thinning. The presence
in the stand of numerous small dead trees and slender trees with
spiry crowns is a clear indication that thinning is needed1.

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA ) 5

THINNINGS

The objects of thinnings are, first, to accelerate the growth and
shorten the time necessary to bring the stand to maturity, and,
second, by removing defective trees to produce a mature stand
formed of perfect specimens and so increase the yield of lumber.
The elimination of the weaker specimens by natural process takes
place too slowly for the best development, because the growth of
the trees which are ultimately to survive is retarded by the pro-
longation of the struggle for light and food. Yet limited crowd-
ing is necessary at certain periods to force height growth and to
develop long, straight stems, reasonably free from limbs. More-
over, the number of trees to the acre largely determines the volume
of the yield and has an important bearing on the value of the
trees. Usually the crowded stands produce the greatest volume of
wood at all ages; but when the size or diameter of the individual
trees is of primary importance, as in the production of saw logs,
less crowding is desirable. By means of judicious periodic thin-
nings, it is possible both to favor competition and to relieve over-
crowding and in this way greatly to accelerate the growth of the
remaining trees. Such thinnings reduce the number of trees, but
they produce equally tall trees of much larger diameter, with
straight, clean stems and but little taper. It is commonly held
that if the larger trees are removed as they come to merchantable
size the smaller trees will make accelerated growth. This is un-
questionably true of many species and it is true also of short-
leaf pine under thirty years old, but in pure old stands of short-
leaf pine in Virginia the crowded and suppressed trees recuperate
so slowly that it is not profitable to thin the stands in this way
after they have passed the age of thirty-five years.

CLASSES OF TREES

Before thinnings can be intelligently made, the classes of
trees in a stand must be known and their relation to the growth
of the stand understood. The live trees in a second-growth pine
stand can be separated easily into three classes:

Dominant Trees. — These are the tallest and thriftiest speci-
mens with the largest crowns. Their growth is rapid, both in
height and in diameter.

Intermediate Trees.— These are the slender, clean-bodied trees,
with narrow, compressed crowns which are nearly as tall as the

lt$ SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

dominant trees. Their height growth is rapid, but, on account
of their small crowns, their diameter growth is slow. Besides be-
ing unable to make good volume growth themselves, they retard
the growth of the dominant trees.

Suppressed Trees. — These have fallen behind in height and
are so much lower than the other trees that direct sunlight is
largely excluded from them. They interfere very little with the
growth of the larger trees.

When overshadowing and suppression pass a certain point
the trees die. Three-fourths of the dead trees are in the sup-
pressed class, but intermediate trees also die from overcrowding.
Dead trees exert no influence upon the growth of the stand. When
.possible, however, they should be removed, since they contribute
to the clanger of disease, insects, and fire.

HOW HEAVILY TO THIN

Thinnings must be heavy enough to provide more light and
crown space, and more root space and soil moisture for the trees
that are left, yet they must never be heavy enough at one time to
admit too much sunlight and cause the crowns to spread unduly,
with a sacrifice in the rate of height growth. Too heavy a thin-
ning results in temporary understocking and produces the oppo-
site of the result desired.

To be most effective, thinnings should begin when a stand is
twenty years old, and should be light and frequent. Early thin-
nings prevent the crowns from crowding before their symmetry
is destroyed, and yet" maintain sufficient crown rivalry to secure
continuous height growth and promote the rapid shedding of the
lower limbs. Before removing any tree, it is necessary to con-
sider how its removal will affect the remaining trees, not only un-
til the next thinning, but until the stand is mature and the trees
are merchantable.

Thinnings should be made not less often than once every ten
years. Even with ten-year intervals cuttings have to be too
heavy for the best interest of the stand and excessive crowding
takes place before a thinning is repeated. An interval of five
years is recommended as the most desirable. This develops the
full value of the stand, and also allows the cutting of enough
cordwood from the thinnings to pay for the work. A careful
observer will be able to lengthen the interval if the cost of thin-
nings requires it.

PLATE III.

Understocked large pole stand of shortleaf pine 80 years old. The trees are
short-bodied and knotty and will yield only low grade lumber. The best that can
be done with such a stand is to cut it, leaving slender, clean-bodied trees for seed
trees.

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA 17

WHAT TO REMOVE IN THINNING

% /

Thinnings should remove such suppressed trees as are not
necessary to complete the crown cover, since they have made their
growth and exert little or no influence on the growth of the large
trees. Species of lower value, like gums, post oak, maple, sassa-
fras, and scrub pine, should also be cut, unless they are needed to
keep the crown cover complete. Punky or diseased trees should
be removed from stands of all ages. Short-bodied, crooked,
knotty, forked, or otherwise defective pine trees should be cut
from younger stands, but should be left in old stands when their
removal would make openings which would not be filled by the
spread of the surrounding crowns. P^nough of the intermediate
class should be removed to provide growing space for the trees
that are left. The trees which are removed should be selected
evenly through the stand. If several adjoining trees are removed,
an opening is left which will be too long in closing. If trees are
left in groups, excessive crowding in the interior of the groups
will follow, and this will result in the loss by shading of the in-
terior branches and unsymmetrical development of the trees. When
there is a choice the trees which are left for permanent growth
should have well- developed and symmetrical crowns.

ACCELERATION IN GROWTH FROM THINNING

Until they are thirty or even thirty-five years old, the inter-
mediate as well as the dominant trees of shortleaf pine stands re-
spond vigorously and rapidly to thinnings by accelerated growth.
In older stands, the recuperative power of the intermediate trees
declines and the recovery from the effects of overcrowding is slow.
The recuperative power of the dominant class, however, is main-
tained until the trees are sixty years old, when the period of rapid
height growth is well past and crown isolation has taken place.
The ability of the intermediate trees in young stands to recover
rapidly from the effects of close crowding, permits the cutting of
the largest trees in such stands and the leaving of the slender,
clear-stemmed intermediate trees to form the mature stand.

In Plate VI, fig. 1, which shows the cross section of a stem
of shortleaf pine, is to be seen the results of accelerated and sus-
tained growth which are due to repeated light thinnings. The
crowded condition of the inner rings of growth show that the tree
was a slender, intermediate tree before its crown was freed by the

18 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

original thinning, made, as shown by the number of wide rings,
forty-seven years before the tree was cut. Several thinAings, made
since the original thinning, have prevented any marked decline in
the comparatively rapid rate of growth which took place after the
crown of the tree was originally freed of overcroAvding. The rate
of growth is one inch of radius every eleven years, or about one
inch in diameter every five years '(the bark thickening as well as
the wood), — an excellent average rate of growth to seek to main-
tain in the trees of a stand. It produces timber suitable for the
highest classes of uses.

METHOD OF THINNING

The several thinnings are for the benefit of the final cutting
and unless the thinnings are made at a profit, the yield of the
final cutting must be far heavier as a result of the thinnings in
order to make them worth while. In young stands then, it is
possible to distribute a portion of the thinnings in the dominant
class; in old stands, thinnings must be largely restricted to the
suppressed and intermediate classes. Stands more than twenty
years old, which have never been thinned, require heavier thin-
nings than stands of the same age which have been thinned pre-
viously.

Sapling Stands (Younger than Tweny Years}. — Thinnings ol
sapling stands are seldom possible on account of the expense of
making them and the small amount and poor character of the
wood obtained. Under average conditions of growth, the wood
which could be cut in a thinning in such a young stand would
be from two to four inches in diameter and would make only a
poor quality of fuel. Thinnings at this age are not recommended
unless the wood can be used. (Plate II).

Small Pole Stands (From Twenty to Thirty Years Old). — A
crowded stand twenty-five years old contains a number of large
trees eight or nine inches in diameter breasthigh; and a few even
ten inches ; many of which are in the advance growth, two or more
years older than the average age of the stand. Such trees are fre-
quently bushy and very limby, with wide-spreading crowns. Usu-
ally all of the nine and ten-inch trees in such a stand and many of
the eight-inch trees can be cut. These will furnish a small quan-
tity of saw timber. In addition to the large trees, all of the trees
below four inches, and usually about one-half of the five-inch trees
can be removed. If no previous thinning has been made, about

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA 19

200 trees five inches and larger could be cut to the acre. These
should yield about ten cords of wood, of which the material above
nine inches might be sawed into about 500 board feet of lumber.
About 900 trees should be left to the acre. A thinning in a twenty-
year-old stand should yield much less, and one in a stand more
tnan twenty-five years old should yield more and leave fewer trees,
per acre. At these ages trees are making very rapid growth, and
the branches of the crowns are sharpiy ascending, so that com-
paratively large openings are more quickly covered than in older
stands. For this reason thinnings at this period present no seri-
our difficulties, but it is desirable even in making a thinning at
this age to have in view the trees which are to form the final
stand and these should be the tree with very slender and clean
stems, that will yield several logs, and from which lumber can be
sawed free or nearly free from any except small knots. For the
relative value of these trees compared with the larger dominant
trees in a stand, see table 16. (Plate I).

Large Pole Stands (From Thirty to Forty Years Old). — All
trees below six inches, most of the six-inch trees, and some of the
seven and eight-inch trees, should be removed from a normal
thirty-five-year-old stand. If no previous thinning has been made,,
not less than 200 trees could be cut, many of which would, how-
ever, be five inches or less in diameter. If a thinning has previ-
ously been made, there would be. few«r trees to come out. A first
thinning at this time should yield from fourteen to seventeen
cords to the acre. Fewer trees are removed than in thinnings in
ycunger stands, and greater judgment must be used in making
selections. The method of cutting in strips can be economically
used only by farmers who either do their own logging or who can
personally superintend it. (Plate IV).

Mature Stands (From Forty to Fifty Years Old].—\i a stand
of this age has been previously thinned, about ninety trees to the
acre would be available for removal, comprising a few six-inch
trees which could not have been removed earlier without making
undue openings in the crown cover, many seven-inch and eight-
inch trees, and some nine-inch trees. If it were a crowded stand,
not previously thinned, from 100 to 200 trees to the acre might be
taken out, with a yield of not less than ten cords of wood per
acre. However, unless the stumpage value of trees from fourteen
to sixteen inches in diameter is greater than that of trees from
twelve to fourteen inches, a size which the trees reach when about

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

forty-five years old, timber is produced at the lowest cost by cut-
ting when the stand is about this age (see tables 12 and 17).
Under ordinary conditions, the stand would be cut for lumber, and
not thinned, at this period. (Plate V).

This method of thinning crowded stands is based on the
average crowded stand.

Typical Stands. — Table I shows approximately the average
number of trees of each diameter from four inches up, which were
found in irregularly thinned stands growing under average condi-
tions. This table is approximately correct for the average of a
number of stands, but any individual stand at a given age will
probably show considerable variation from it, both in the total
number of trees per acre and in the number of trees in each class,
since slight differences in the quality of the soil affect the number
of trees to the acre at any age, and the degree of thinning in-
fluences both the number of trees and their size. It shows, how-
ever, the rapid elimination of the smaller trees, which are the ones
which should be chiefly removed in the thinnings, and it will serve
as a guide to indicate about the number of trees of each size which
should be taken out at each thinning. The stands which have been
grouped as thinned stands in some cases were undoubtedly natur-
ally thinly stocked and their density has been further affected by
artificial thinnings. For this reason the favorable conditions of
these stands can not be entirely ascribed to thinnings.

TABLE 1.

Approximate number of trees four inches and over in diameter to the acre
in unsystematically thinned stands of shortleaf pine (the twenty-year-
old stand is unthinned}.

Age of

stand

Years

DIAMETKB BRKAST HIGH— INCHES

Total

20
"25
30
35
40
45
50
55
30
65
70

600
203
70
2

400

278
170
76
8

300
228
176
121
84
28
6

50
154
136
111
91
63
34
12
2

10
92
106
118
115
97
70
34
18
10
3

1,360
970
765
615
505
420
355
289
250
218
195

10
69
87
83
74
63
48
33
17
11

5
25
46
58
64
63
53
42
30
21

. .

• '

. .

10
23
37
46
50
52
42
36
27

1
9
20
30
37
41
42
3^
31

8
13
21
26
83
35
32

4
9
15
21
26
28

1
2
7
12
16
20

1
5
9
14

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

Table 2 shows for two stands about forty-five years old the
effect of thinning in increased board yield and in the distribu-
tion of diameter classes. One is a crowded stand which has never
been thinned; the other has been thinned for fifteen years in a
desultory manner. Had the thinnings been systematically made,
better results would have followed. The large number of trees
between ten and fifteen inches in diameter in the thinned stand is
noteworthy.

TABLE 2.

Effect of thinning on board-foot yield of shortleaf pine and the distribit-
tion of diameter classes (two stands about forty-five years old).

NUMBER OF TREES OF EACH

DIAMETER TO THB ACRE

DIAMETER OF TREES BREAST HIGH

Unthinned

Thinned

stand

168

124 •

112

10-12

132

13-15

Total live trees

620

344

Dead trees (all diameters)

176

Yield in board feet from trees 9 inches and

over in diameter ....

12,740

18,770

Cords of stem wood with bark to the acre . . .

Table 3 shows the average height of the trees in stands at
different ages, and the average diameter of all trees in unthinned
and irregularly thinned stands:

22 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

TABLE 3.

Average height and average diameter of all trees in fully-stocked stands of

shortleaf vine.

AVERAGE DIAMETER OF ALL TREES

Age of stand

Avprage Height of
Merchantable
stand

Unthlnned crowded

Thinned stands

stands

Years

Feet

Inches

4.0

4.8

6.3

6.5

6.4

^35

6.2

7.3

6.7

8.2

7.3

8.9

7.7

9.6

«1

8.1

10.1

8.5

10.7

Table 4 shows the number of trees nine inches and over in
diameter breast high in unthinned and irregularly thinned stands,
and the average diameter of such trees.

TABLE 4.

Average diameter and number of trees nine inches and over in fully-stocked
thinned and unthinned stands of shortleaf pine of different ages.

CROWDED UNTHIWMED STANDS

THINNED STANDS

Age of

Number of
Trees per

Average
Diameter of

Number of
Trees per

Average
Diameter of

stand

Acre

Trees

Acre

Trees

Years

Inches

]

9.1

9.3

105

9.6

167

10.0

207

10.4

125

232

10.8

156

9.9

245

11 1

182

10.1

243

114

200

10.3

230

11.7

213

10.5

208

120

210

10.7

192

12.8

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

PKODUCTION OF CORDWOOD FROM THINNED AND
UNTHINNED STANDS

The yield of cordwood* is determined rather by the number
of trees than by the size of the individual trees. The most
crowded stands usually yield most heavily, and the yield appre-
ciably declines as the stands become more open. This has a great
influence upon the yield of old stands, since after the thirty-fifth
year there is practically no increase in the yield in cords of un-
thinned stands, on account of the rapid dying of the smaller trees.
For this reason, thinnings are not so profitable for the production
of cordwood as for the production of saw timber; though the trees
which would die are saved, and some additional growth is secured.
If regular thinnings are made at intervals of five years, then at
the age of forty-five years the increased yield, including the thin-
nings, is only thirty-three per cent., as against an eighty per cent.

TABLE 5.

Yield of thinned and unthinned stands in cords — Trees three inches and

over in diameter.

UNTHINNED
STANDS

THINNED STANDS -YIELD OF THINNINGS

Age
of
stand

Volume
at
Different
Ages

Volume of
stand be
fore each
Thinning

N um be r
o f Trees
which can
be remov •
en In each
Thinning

A p proxi-
mate
a v erage
diameter
of Trees
removed

Volume of
Trees
removed
In each
Thinning

Total of all
previous , Total
Thinnings i of Thin-
atany* Din8«
Cutting *nd,*
period Stand*

Years

Cords

Inches

Cor

Cords Cords

(1)

(2)

til

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

47.0

930

3.3

6 1

47.0

52.0

205

4.5

5.1

6.1

58.1

570

150

5.0

11.2

68.2

60.0

110

5.5

162

76.2

60.0

6.0

4.3

21 0

81.0

59.0

fi.5

25.3

84.3

570

7.0

293

863

54.5

7.6

32.9

87.4

*Column 8 Is the sum of columns 3 and 7.

*Unless otherwise stated, all references to cords are to standard
cords of 128 cubic feet, and the corded wood is measured with the bark
on. Standard cords can be converted into long cords of 160 cubic feet
by dividing by 1.25 or by multiplying by 4-5. Either standard or long
cords with bark can be converted into cords without bark by multiplying
by .77, if the wood comes from trees which average less than 7 inches
in diameter, or multiplying by .82 if the trees average a larger diameter.

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

increase obtained at the same age by the thinning for lumber.
Unless the value of cordwood increases with the diameter of the
wood (as it should if the wood is used for heading or stave bolts)
no added value per cord is secured by thinnings.

The yield in standard cords, stem wood with' bark, of thinned
and. tfn thin ried stands of shortleaf pine of different ages is shown
in Table 5.

Table 6 shows the approximate number of trees to the acre in
crowded stands of different ages, and in thinned stands. The dif-
ference between the number of trees in an unthinned stand and
in the same stand five years after it has been thinned indicates
approximately the number of trees which should be removed from
the unthinned stand. In practice, it probably would be best to
make two or more thinnings before reducing the number of trees
in an old, crowded sfand to the number in a normal, thinned stand.

TABLE 6.

Approximate number of trees of shortleaf pine to the acre in crowded and

thinned stands.

TOTAL NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE

Age of stand

Crowded
Unthinned
stand'

Thinned
stands

Number which can be
removed from a previously
Unthinned stand

Years

1,950

1,250

980

1,440

970

675

1,235

765

620

1,030

615

525

860

505

440

710

420

355

535

355

Maximum Yield of Cordwood. — The maximum yield in cords
is obtained earlier than the maximum yield in board feet. The
best stands more than fifty years old give no heavier yield in cords
than younger stands, because they have few trees to the acre,
while neglected stands in which disintegregation is taking place
show even a decline in the volume.

PLATE IV.

A crowded, large pole stand of shortleaf pine 40 years old, badly In need of
thinning by removing the smaller pines and many of the hardwoods. Condition of
larger trees, with Jong, smooth bodies, excellent.

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
TABLE 7.

Yearly increment of. shortleaf pine in cords (stem-wood and bark) of all
trees three inches and over in diameter, breasthigh.

UNTHINNBJ

> STANDS

THINNED

STANDS

Age
of

Average
Annual

Periodic Annual
Increment for each

Average Annual
increment in-

Periodic Annual
Increment for each

stand

Increment

5-year Period

cluding Thinnings

5-year Period

Years

Cords

2 3

2.3

2.2

2.3

2.2

2.1

2.3

2.0

1.9

2.2

1.6

1.7

decrease

1.3

decrease

1.8

1.2

1 1

1.7

1.1

1.6

• • .

In both thinned and unthinned stands on average sites the
maximum yield in cords per acre is obtained by cutting between
the. ages of twenty and twenty-five years, at which time a yield of
fifty-seven cords per acre can be secured, or an average of 2.2
cords an acre a year. The size of the wood which is obtained at
that time is, however, much smaller than that from older stands,
and this fact affects its value.

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

TABLE 8.

Cost per cord of growing shortleaf pine cordwood, stemwood with bark, in
unthinned and thinned stands; including thinnings, land value $5.00 an
acre, interest rate five per cent, and one per cent yearly in addition
for taxes and protection.

THINNBD STANDS

Accumulated

UNTHINNKD
STANDS

Cost of Land,

THINNINGS

Net

Age

at $5 per Acre,

cost

Cost

stand

5 per cent, in-
terest, 1 per
cent, added for
taxes, less val-
ue of land*

Final
yield

Cost of
grow-
ing per
cordf

Amount

Assumed
value
per
cord

Accu-
mula-
ted
value!

per
Acre
of
pro-
ducing

Final
yield

of
grow-
ing

cor'

Crop§

Years

Cords

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

$11.04

$ .23

6.1

$ .10

$11.04

$.23

1646

.28 1

5.1

.15

$ .78

1568

.30

9372

.38

5.0

.20

1.97

21.75

.38

33.43

.52

4.8

.25

3.79

29.64

.49

46.43

.81

4.3

6.37

40.06

.66

63.82

.99

4.0

.25

9.50

54.33

.92

. 50

87.10

1.38

'R 40

7370

1.30

* Column 2 i< obtained by calculating the Interest at 5 per cent, plus l per cent, for taxes,
making a total of 6 per cent., compounded annually on a land value of $5 per acre.
Since tue land will remain after the timber is sold, its value is not included in the cost
oi growing.

t Column 4 is obtained by dividing column 2 by column 3.

j Column 7 is the product of columns 5 and 6 compounded at 5 per cent every 5-year
period. Tha value of wood removed in thinnings (column 6) is only nominal on ac-
count of its small size and the difficulty of making thlnnings-

§ Column 8 is the remainder after deducting column 7 from column 2.

$ Column 10 is obtained from dividing column 8 by column 9.

Cost of Growing Cordwood. — Table 8 shows the cost of
growing cordwood in both thinned and unthinned stands at a five
per cent, interest rate.

PRODUCTION OF SAW TIMBER

Influence of Density of Stand Upon Yield of Saw Timber at

Different Ages.

Maximum yield in lumber is obtained neither from stands
which are continuously very crowded nor from understocked stands,
but from stands which are periodically and lightly thinned after
having been crowded.

The most marked effect of thinnings in crowded stands is 111
the amount and quality of the yield in board feet. The stands
which were measured to determine the effects of thinnings had
been thinned in no definite manner; in some cases only the smaller
trees, in other cases also some of the larger ones, had been cut out.

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

as farm needs required. Some of these thinned stands were evi-
dently somewhat understocked; some were still too crowded; and
others, at the time the measurements were made, had not had time
to respond fully to the thinnings. It is probable that by sys-
tematic thinnings of the kind recommended the yield shown in the
tables could be further increased ten or even twenty per cent.

Table 9 shows the yield of stands which have different
numbers of trees to the acre; in other words the yield is of under-
stocked, thinned, and crowded stands. The yield is based on cut-
ting to nine inches in diameter breasthigh, which is equivalent
to about eleven inches on the stump. In the understocked stands
the crown cover is practically as complete as in the thinned and
crowded ones, but all the trees are low and short-bodied and few
slender or dead trees are present. (Plate III).

TABLE 9.

Yield of stands of shortleaf pine having different numbers of trees per acre,
(influence of density of stands upon yield of saw timber).

AVERAGE UNDBRSTOCKED
STANDS

FULLY STOCKED STANDS

WHICH HAVE BEEN THINNED

CROWDED STANDS,
UNTHINNED

Age
Years

Number of
Trees to
the Acre

Yield
in Board
Feet

Number of
Trees to
the Acre

Yield
in Board
Feet

Number of
Trees to
the Acre

Yield
in Board
Feet

30
40
50
60

350
300
150
100

3,800
5,700
6,900
7,800

765
505
355
255

8,400
16,400
20,400
23,000

1,235
860
535
395

200
6.000
13,100
16,800

The yield of an understocked stand when more than thirty
years old is only about one-half of that obtainable from a fully
stocked stand of the same age, after thinning. Many of the trees
in open, understocked stands attain a diameter of nine or more
inches sooner than do trees in crowded stands, for in crowded
stands the continued competition retards the diameter growth of
the individual trees. This explains why crowded stands thirty
years old are not producing merchantable timber.

In the average understocked stand the cost of growing the
timber is far in excess of its present stumpage price. This is
largely due to the small yield. If sold at $2 per thousand board
feet, timber from understocked stands pays less than two per cent,
on the assumed investment of $5 an acre.

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

Table 10 shows the influence of density upon the cost per
1,000 board feet of growing shortleaf pine stumpage in old-field
stands, based on net returns at five per cent., taxes one per cent, in
addition, land value $5 an acre.

TABLE 10.

Influence of number" of trees, or of density of stand on cost of growing
1,000 board feet in old-field stands of shortleaf pine.

Age

Accumulated
Cost of the

AVERAGE UNDER-
STOCKED STANDS

CROWDED, UN-
THINNED STANDS

THINNED STANDS NEG-
LKCTING VALUE OF
THINNINGS

Investment

stand

per Acre

Yield

Cost

Yield

Cost

Yield

Cost

less the
Value of the

per
Acre

per
Mft

per
Acre

MP6frt.

per
Acre

per
M ft.

Land

Years

Bd. ft.

Bd ft.

$ 23.72

3,800

$ 630

8,400

$ 2.82

46.43

5,700

8.10

6,000 j $ 7,73

16,400

2.83

87.10

6,900

1260

13,100

6.65

20,400

4.27

159.90

7,800

20.51

15,000

10.66

23000

6 82

At every age if thinnings are made without loss, the cost of
growing stumpage in fully stocked thinned stands is less than the
cost of growing it either in crowded or understocked stands. If
thinnings do not pay lor themselves the cost is higher, and if
they pay a profit, the cost is lower.

Age of Cutting for Maximum Yield. — The maximum annual
yield in board feet from trees nine inches and over in diameter
breasthigh is obtained from thinned stands when they are cut at
forty-eight years of age. At that time in such a stand, the aver-
age annual yield per acre is about 410 board feet, and the diameter
of the average-sized tree is about 9.5 inches breasthigh, or 11.5
inches on the stump.

For unthinned stands, the maximum anrm-al yield is obtained
by cutting when about fifty-seven years old. The average dia-
meter of the trees in such a stand is about 8 . 2 inches at breast-
height or 9.8 inches on the stump. Table 11 shows the yearly
increment in board feet of trees nine incnes and over in diameter
breasthigh.

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA
TABLE 11.

Annual increment per acre in board feet of trees of shortleaf pine nine
inches and over in diameter breasthigh.

THINNNED STAND (THINNINGS
NEGLECTED)

UNTHINNED STAND

Age
of
stand

Average
Annual

Periodic Annual
Increment for

Average
Annual

Periodic Annual
Increment for

Increment

each Decade

Increment

each Decade

Years

Board feet

280

410

800

150

408

400

268

710

383

260

250

190

357

200

238

170

Cost af Growing Saw Timber. — If only the maximum annual
yield were to be considered in growing, timber it would undoubt-
edly be advisable in all cases to hold timber until this could be
secured. The cost of carrying the investment, however, is a factor
which cannot be overlooked. The land has a sale value, and taxes
are paid upon it yearly. In addition, the cost of protection, such
as maintaining fences, extinguishing fires, etc., must often be borne.

In making a calculation of the cost of growing timber it is
necessary to determine, from the time stocking took place to the
time when the timber is out, the accumulated taxes paid on the
land and the interest compounded annually on the investment
represented by the value of the land and the cost of stocking it.
In making this calculation, both the actual and tax assessment
value of the land has been assumed to be $5 an acre for the entire
period of growth. The tax rate and other expenses are assumed
to be one per cent, on this valuation. If the owner is content
with a gross interest of six per cent, on his investment, then the
net rate, after deducting taxes and other expenses, will be five per
cent, a year.

In the old-field stands there is no cost of stocking to consider.
The profits of thinnings are supposed to be the same as those
given in column 7, Table 8, for cordwood.

In order to obtain a six per cent, investment which, after
allowing one per cent, per annum for taxes and protection, will
yield five per cent, net, the following yields and prices must be
secured. The value of the land is placed at $5 an acre. If stump-

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

age is sold at less than the cost of growing 1,000 board feet, or if
the stands cut less than the amounts given at the different ages,
less than five per cent, net is obtained on the investment. If
stumpage is sola at a higher price and the value of the land is not
more than $5 an acre, then the investment will yield more than
five per cent.

TABLE 12.

Cost of growing shortleaf pine saw-timber in unthinned and thinned stands,
including thinnings. Land value $5 an acre; interest rate five per
cent; one per cent in addition allowed for taxes.

UNTHINNKD STAND

THINNED STAND

Age

of
stand

Accumulated Cost of In-
vestment Land at So
an acre, 5# interest, \<£
added for taxes, less
cost of land

Yield
Bd. ft.

Cost of
growing
per M
bd. ft.

Net Cost
per acre
of
producing
crop*

Final
yield

Cost of
growing
per M
bd.ft.

Years

Bd. ft.

$11.04

16.46

15.68

900

$17.00

23.72

200

21.75

8,400

2.59

33.43

1,400

$23.80

29.64

13.400

2.21

46.43

6000

7.64

40.06

16,400

2.44

63.82

10,200

6.25

54.33

18,700

2.90

87.10

13,106

6.70

73.70

20,400

3.61

* After deducting value of thinnings as shown in Table 8.

The cheapest cost of production, with interest at five per cent,
and taxes at one per cent., or six per cent, for both is $6.25 a
thousand board feet from unthinned stands and $2.21 from thinned
stands.

The period when the cost of growing the timber is the lowest
is known as the financial maturity. If timber is held longer than
the period of financial maturity, there must be a considerable ad-
vance in its value to cover the cost of carrying it, 'that is, the
accumulated interest and taxes, and this is particularly true of
old stands the volume of which is increasing very slowly or per-
haps actually declining.

The owner of timberland is interested in knowing the rate of
iiiterest he may expect from his investment when the product sells
at a give price. Tables 13 and 14 show the interest yielded
by stands of old-field pine at different ages, with the land
worth $5 an acre and with stumpage selling at $2 a thousand
feet and cordwood at twentv-five cents a cord. In table 14

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

for cordwood from a thinned stand, it is assumed that thinnings
produce the returns allowed in column 7, Table 8.

In the table for board feet from a thinned stand, thinnings
are supposed to be made without either profit or loss. The inter-
est yielded is gross, and includes taxes and the cost of protection —
items which would usually amount to about one per cent, of the
land value and would correspondingly reduce the returns.

TABLE 13.
SAW TIMBER STUMPAGE AT $2 A THOUSAND BOARD FEET.

Gross rate per cent yielded by stands of old-field pine on a land value of

$5 on acre.*

THINNED STAND

UNTHINNKD STAND

Age
of
•tand

Yield per
Acre

Value of stand
neglecting
Thinnings

Gross rate
per cent.
Yielded on
Land Value

Yield
per
Acre

Value
of
stand

Gross rate
per cent.
Yielded
on Laud
Value

Years

Bi. ft.

Per cent.

Bd. ft.

Per cent.

8,400

$16.80

4.3

13 400

26 80

5 0

16,400

32.80

6,000

$12.00

2.5

18,700

37.40

4.5

10,200

20.40

3.2

20,400

40.80

4.0

13,100

26.20

3.3

TABLE 14.
CORDWOOD STUMPAGE OF FINAL YIELD AT 25 CENTS A CORD.

Gross rate per cent yielded by stands of shortleaf pine in old-field with a
land value of $5 an acre.*

THINNED STAND

UNTHINNED STAND

Age
of
stand

Final
yield

Total Value, per
Acre, including Ac-
cumulated Value
of Thinnings at 4£

Gross rate
per cent,
Yielded on
Land Value

Yield
per
Acre

Value
of
stand

Gross rate
yer cent.
Yielded on
Land Value

Years

Cords

compound interest

Per cent.

Cords

Per cent.

$11.75

4 3

$13.74

4.0

1425

4.2

16.08

4.0

15.50

3.8

18.44

3.8

16.00

3.5

19.65

3.6

16.25

3.0

23.94

3.5

16.00

26.43

3.2

15.75

2.5

Gross rate per cent, includes taxes and cost of protection as well as the Interest on
the investment.

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

VALUE OF TREES AND STANDS

The lumber from second-growth stands of shortleaf pine,
when , awed into boards one inch thick and graded according to
the rules of the North Carolina Pine Association, sells for a high-
er price than if it is sold ungraded, or than if it is sold in the
form of framing. The lumber which is sawed from young stands
less than 35 years old is as a rule too narrow, and that from stands
in which the trees have not been crowded, is too knotty to justify
grading. The older the stand the more valuable becomes the lum-
ber which can be cut from it not only on account of greater widths
but also a larger proportion of the high grade.,. If the trees of
different diameters in a crowded stand which is about 50 years old
(the age of maturity) are carefully sawed into boards of even
width and uniform thickness, they will yield approximately the
amounts of the different grades of lumber which are given in
Table 15. The figures in this table are based on actual measure-
ments of grades which were made at a mill where trees of these
sizes and age were being cut.

TABLE 15.

Total volumes in board feet, and the amount of the grades of lumber in trees of different
diameters and heights in dense stands of short- leaf pine 45 to 60 years old.

Diameter
breast-
high
Inches

Total
height
Feet

N u m ber
of 16 foot

logs

Diameter
inside
bark at
the top
Inches

AMOUNTS OF THB DIFFKRKNT
GKADES SAWED FROM TREES

Total
volume
1-4 inch
8aw kerf
Bd. ft.

No. 1.

No. 2.
B o

No. 3.
a r d

Box or
frm'g
F e

Other
grades
e t

5.0

6.0

6.5

•19

6.5

7.0

109

7.0

142

7.5

J81

7.5

228

8.0

280

8.0

104

338

8.0

120

103

398

8.5

143

115

400

105

115

167

122

527

9.0

120

J3S

197

125

598

9.0

136

163

230

129

678

The smaller trees in stands of this age are long-bodied and
clear stemmed, have very little taper and thin bark, and, although

OF VIRGINIA 15

the Pacific Coast States were called on to meet uses in Virginia in
competition with the eastern woods. They were Douglas fir, West-
ern red cedar, and sugar pine. Eleven foreign woods were reported,
some of them at high prices. The uses of these foreign and all of
the domestic woods will be referred to later on in this report, under
the discussions of individual industries.

Nearly 45 per cent of the wood used by the Virginia manufac-
turers was cut from the forests of other States. The principal
States and their products are as follows :

Loblolly Pine North Carolina.

Shortleaf Pine North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.

Longleaf Pine North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Ala-
bama and Georgia.

Red Gum North Carolina and South Carolina.

Yellow Poplar North Carolina, West Virginia and Tennessee.

Red Oak North Carolina, West Virginia and Tennessee.

Cotton Gum (Tupelo) North Carolina and South Carolina.

Hickory North Carolina and West Virginia.

Chestnut North Carolina and West Virginia.

Black Gum North Carolina.

Southern White Cedar. .. .North Carolina, South Carolina and Florida.

Cypress North Carolina, South Carolina and Florida.

Ash Morth Carolina, West Virginia and Tennessee.

White Pine North Carolina, West Virginia, Tennessee and

Lake States.

Locust North Carolina and West Virginia.

Sugar Maple Pennsylvania and Lake States.

Beech West Virginia.

Sycamore West Virginia, Indiana and North Carolina.

Sweet Birch West Virginia and Lake States.

Spruce West Virginia and North Carolina.

Cottonwood Ohio and Indiana.

Hemlock West Virginia.

Dogwood North Carolina.

Cherry was the most expensive domestic wood, with an average
price of $97.40 per thousand board feet. The Pacific Coast woods
had the next highest prices and sugar pine led. It was purchased for
$68.38. Of the Eastern woods the most expensive was red cedar at
$36.48. The price shown for black walnut is surprising. It follows
red cedar at an average of $35.85. The cheapest wood was cotton
gum, costing $9.65. There is $1.82 difference in the price of cotton
gum and black gum. Hemlock is the lowest priced conifer, and white
elm next to cotton gum the cheapest hardwood.

STATE GROWN WOODS.

Only a little more than one-ihalf of the material used by the
Virginia manufacturers was State grown. This does mot mean that
the State forests were incapable of furnishing more, because the lumber
cut of the Virginia sawmills for 1909 was considerably more than five

1 6 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

times that consumed by the wood users. Several conditions, however,
favor the use of shipped-in material. Industries near the borders
draw their raw material from nearby localities, irrespective of State
boundaries. The railroads entering the large consuming centers of
Eastern Virginia from the South, facilitate the use of lumber from
Southern States rather than material shipped from the far western
part of the State. Virginia sawmills probably secured better mar-
kets for their rough lumber in the Northern States than at home,,
while manufacturers on the other hand purchased more advantageous-
ly from sawmills farther South.

Virginia is divided naturally into three well-recognized regions,
according to the chacteristic growth of the timber and to soil and
surface conditions. They are the Tidewater Region, the Piedmont
Region and the Mountain Region. The Tidewater Region is the noted
pine section of Virginia, where the first exploitation of the forest be-
gan, and from where the largest portion of the lumber credited to
Virginia has always been manufactured. Loblolly and shortleaf ex-
tensively, and scrub and long-leaf pines in infrequent stands; are native
of this part of the State, On the lower lands mixed with the pine
are gums, water oak, hickory, and in the swamp and inundated areas,
willows, cypress and Southern white cedar (juniper) grow. The
Piedmont Region presents frequent areas of shortleaf pine standing
on the old fields, and in the northern part of this section the scrub pine
(Finns virginiana) prevails. Red cedar, oaks, yellow poplar, chest-
nut, ashes, and! hickories, and otiher miscellaneous hardwoods abound.
This region is the principal farming center and the tree stands are con-
fined entirely to farm forests. The Mountain region is mainly a hard-
wood section and furnishes a large part of the virgin growths still
standing in Virginia. The white pine stands belong to this region of
the State ; but scrub pine is scattered throughout the hardwoods. Red
spruce, extending its range from West Virginia, is cut in large quanti-
ties in several localities of this region. Table 2 gives the kinds and the
amounts in board feet, of the home grown woods, and furnishes a com-
parison with the woods grown outside of the State as reported by the
manufacturers.

ILLUSTRATION II. VIRGINIA LOBLOLLY PINE: CUT IN THE COASTAL
REGION, SHOWING THE; AMOUNT OF SAPWOOD.

. -.. . ' , "' «/"_' " ; •

ILLUSTRATION III. A SPECIMEN WHITE OAK IN THE HARDWOOD
FOREST off THE MOUNTAIN REGION.

PLATE V.

Mature stand of shortleaf pine. Trees nearly uniform in size and ready to
be cut for lumber. Groups of slender, \vindfirm trees can be left for seed trees.

SHORTLEAF PINE IX VIRGINIA

the boards which can be sawed from such trees are narrow, they
are comparatively free from knots and will justify grading if
handled in connection with the wider boards from the larger trees.
Trees of the same size in younger stands are more tapering and
more knotty, and the lumber is of lower grade.

Air-dried lumber of the different grades, consisting of mix-
ed width, but less than 12 inches wide, is quoted (November, 1912)
at the following prices per 1,000 board feet, delivered at Norfolk,
Eichmond, Petersburg, Lynchburg, and Roanoke: No. 1, $26;
No. 2, $24; No. 3, $20; Box, $18; Eed heart and cull, $16; Bark
strip, Nos. 1 & 2, $20; Bark strip, box $12. In Table 16 these
values have been applied to the amount of different diameters
delivered at Norfolk and the other points named above.

TABLE 16.

Value delivered at Norfolk, Richmond, Petersburg Roanoke, and Lynchburg, of the
graded lumber cut from trees of different diameters and heights* grouing in crowded
second-growth stands 45 to 60 years old and the value of single trees and their stump-
age per 1,000 board feet under different costs of sawing and delivery at thtse points.

Diameter

Value of lumber de-
livered at Norfolk, Rich-
mond, etc.

Stumpage value per tree with expenses
of sawing and delivery per
1,000 board ft. at

brGfist-liIgn.

From each
tree

Per 1,000
board ft.

$10

$12

$14

$ .35

$1595

1 .13 t

$ .08

$ .40

.47

16.40

.18

.12

.06

.66

17.40

.28

.21

.13

1.01

1835

.46

.35

.24

1 53

19.30

.74

.58

.42

2.16

19.80

1.06

.85

.63

2.86

20.1?

1.44 1.16

.87

3.79

20.95

1.98 1.62

1.26

4.75

21.40

2.58 2.12

1.67

' 6.80

22., 50

3.58 3.02 2.46

17 '

7.60

22.55

4.23 3.56 2.89

8.95

2250

4.79

4.18

3.38

10.40

22.45

5.73

4.81

3.89

11.80

22.40

6.53

548

4.42

13.40

22.40

7.41

6.22

5.02

15.17

22.35

8.37

6.01

5.65

*Height« which are given in table 15.

tpbtalned by deducting the cost ofsawing and delivery per 1,000 board feet from the de-
livered value per 1,000 board feet, reducing the remainder to the value of one board foot
and multiplying by the number of board feet per tree as ehown in table 15; thus, $15.95
less 810.00 equal to $5.95— 15.95 divided by 10JO and multiplied by 22 is equal to $.13.

In table 15 the expenses of sawing and delivery, $10; $12;
and $14 per 1,000 board feet are supposed to represent a low,

SHORTLEAF PINE IK V1K(J1M.\

a medium, and a high cost of operation, and are made up of the
cost of logging, felling, sawing, grading, interest on the investment
and carrying charges, cost of selling, delivery at market and load-
ing, drying, and profit of the operator. A profit of from $2 to $3
a thousand feet should be allowed in portable mill operations,
the profit varying according to the size and length of the oper-
ation. It is noteworthy that while the value of the lumber per
1,000 board feet which is yielded by trees of different diameters
increases rapidly up to 16 inches in diameter, there is a decline
in the value per 1,000 feet of the lumber which is sawed from
trees of diameter above 17 inches. This is due to the fact that the
largest trees in these stands have larger and more numerous knots
in their stems and yield a lower proportion of the high grades
of lumber than do the slender, more clean stemmed, intermediate,
and suppressed trees.

If the number of trees, of each diameter per acre in a 45-
year old stand (see Table 2) be multiplied by the value per tree
of each respective diameter, the sum of these amounts will give
the total value of the stand per acre, and from this the value per
1,000 feet of the stand. A similar set of values can be determined
for trees in younger and older stands. These are given in Table IT.

TABLE 17.

Value per 1,000 board feet of the lumber which can be sawed from dense unthinned stands
of short-leaf pine under different costs of manufacture and delivery.

Value per 1,000 board feet under a coat

Age of stand

of operation and delivery of

years

$10

$12

$14

$ 5.40

$ 3.40

$ 1 40

6.00

4.00

2.00

7.05

5.05

3.\)5

8.60

6.60

4.40

10.05

805

6.05

If the values in Table IT are compared with the cos.t per
1,000 board feet of growing timber, shown in Table 10, it will
be seen that the investment, if the stand is unthinned, does not
yield five per cent, net, except under a logging cost of $10 and
when the stand is cut at the age of 50 years.

In a regularly thinned stand from which the very knotty trees
have been systematically removed when the stand was young.

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

leaving- only the longest-bodied and clearest stemmed trees at
each cutting and in which the trees have been forced to large
diameters by isolation after the clear stem-length is 50 feet in
length, it is believed that the stumpage value can be forced to a
value of $8 a 1,000 feet under a logging cost of $12 when 50
years old. This would yield about $250 per acre.

WASTE IN CUTTING SMALL TREES

The following table shows the actual volume in board feet of
trees of different diameters and heights when cut with a saw taking
a kerf of one-fourth inch; the volume in board feet when scaled
by Doyle-Scribner log rule ; the volume of stem, wood only, in cubic
feet; the number of board feet, Doyle-Scribner rule, per cubic foot
of volume; and the percentage of waste.

TABLE 18..

Volume in board feet and in cubic feet and per cent of waste in sawing
trees of shortleaf pine of different diameters.

Volume

Diame-
ter
Breast-
high

Total
Height

Actual as scaled
Volume : bv Doyles
% inch Scribner
Saw Kerf | rule

Volume
of Stem
Wood
only

Actual number
of Board feet,
per Cubic foot

Per cent,
of waste In
Stump,
Tops, Slabs

Cubic

and Kerf

Inches

Feet

Board feet

feet

55 3S

3.3

79 56

109 80

4.5

142 111

4.9

181

134

226

170

The loss in scaling by Doyle- Scriber rule exceeds seventy-five
per cent, of the total cubic volume of the stem until the tree reaches
a diameter of thirteen inches, breasthigh. This large proportion
of waste is an excellent reason for not cutting young stands for
saw timber or for not cutting the small trees in old stands unless
they are suppressed trees.

LUMBERING AND RESTOCKING

Simultaneously with lumbering comes the subject of securing
ri second stand of young pine to replace the one which is cut.

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

After ordinary culling, such as is practiced for farm use, or in
clear cutting stands of pine for lumber or for fuel, hardwoods
generally form the main part of the young stand. The reasons
for this are explained under the heading "Permanency of Old-
Field Pine Stands." To obtain reproduction of pine, it is neces-
sary: (1) To cut nearly clean, that there may be abundant light;
(2) To leave seed-bearing pine trees scattered over the area or
standing nearby; (3) To cut out the large trees of such hard-
woods as dogwood, post oak, hickory, persimmon, etc., which have
sprung up beneath the pines, and which would suppress many
pine seedlings by their shade; (4) To bring as much of the min-
eral soil to the surface as possible. The hardwoods should be cut
in September, when their sprouting capacity is lowest.

Two methods of cutting are suggested. One method, leaving
isolated seed trees, is for use where the entire stand must be cut
at one time. The other, cutting in strips, or groups, can be applied
when there is a steady market for saAv logs, as when there is a
nearby permanent sawmill, or logs can be shipped to such a mill,
and when it is possible to make two or more cuttings, not less
than five years apart, in a stand, always having in view, however.
the development of the valuable long-bodied and clean-stemmed
trees (table 16) which are to form the mature stand.

Isolated Seed Trees. — When the saw-timber must be removed
at one cutting it is advisable to prepare for the final cutting at the
time of the last thinning by developing seed trees. At forty-five
years of age, the production of seed by shortleaf pine is still ex-
tremely light, particularly in dense stands. If there are no old
forest pines which will serve for seed trees within 100 yards of
the tract, one object of the last thinning should be to select and
develop trees for seed trees.

Vigorous, lasge-crowned trees should be selected for this pur-
pose. They should be not less than four to the acre, and should
be evenly distributed or else located on the tops of hills or knolls.
Their crowns should be entirely freed by heavy thinnings on all
sides. This should lead to the production of a heavy crop of cones
and fertile seed within five years. If the crowns again crowd be-
fore lumbering, they should again be freed by further thinning.

When lumbering takes place, all merchantable trees should be
cut except these seed trees, which should be able to produce enough
seed in a few years to restock the land. (Plate V). If the seed
trees are windfirm they can go over until the next stand is cut;

2 it

5 *

SIIORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA &7

if they fall, they can be used without breaking down too many of
the small trees in the young stand. Since the period of restock-
ing by this method would probably occupy from four to six years,
the soil would not be fully used during this time.

Cutting in Strips. — Complete and rapid stocking is better as-
sured by cutting in strips, but this method presupposes a continu-
ous market for saw logs. The area should be clear-cut over strips
not exceeding 200 feet in width, alternating with strips of equal
width which are only culled of the smaller trees. On level ground
these strips should be at right angles to the roads; on hilly land
they should lie up and down the slopes. The wooded strips should
be heavily thinned by the removal of all except the largest trees,
which should not exceed twenty to the acre, and should be left
well isolated. These trees will serve as seed trees, and on account
of their large number they should seed the entire area heavily
within five to ten years. As soon as a thorough restocking is
assured they can be cut. Some of the young trees will be broken
down, but the loss will not be serious. The diameter growth of
the seed trees after the thinning will be large because of this isola-
tion. Blanks ten or more feet square left after the seed trees are
cut should be planted by seed spotting as described under the di-
rections for planting. The t\vo loggings will increase the danger
from fire, requiring additional precautionary measures to be taken.

This method can be varied by leaving the seed trees in groups.

Cutting Unthinned Stands. — Both of the above methods pre-
suppose that the stand which is being cut has been thinned, and
consequently is formed entirely or largely of trees of merchantable
size.

An understocked stand, similar to that shown in plate III,
and in which the trees are largely of merchantable size, can be
cut so as to secure a restocking, by leaving some of the more
slender but well crowned trees for seed trees.

The problem of cutting a crowded stand to the best advantage
and in a manner to secure a restocking is more difficult. The trees
in such a stand have a much greater range of diameter than those
ii> a thinned stand. There is a large number of small suppressed
and intermediate trees which may be too small to be cut eco-
nomically for saw timber '(see "Waste in cutting small trees," page
35). In such a case it may be desirable to remove the stand in
two ^r more cuttings, made at intervals of five or more years. At
the first cutting only the largest trees should be cut, particularly

38 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA

those which have short and knotty stems. Such as have very
slender clean stems and good crowns should be left, but enough
of the largest trees should be taken to open the crown cover one-
third. Such a cutting might remove one-tenth of the total num-
ber of trees but more than one-half of the saw log volume of the
stand. At the second cutting not only should most of the trees
which have grown to merchantable size be removed, but also such
of the smaller stunted trees as have shown no indication of thrift
since the first cutting. The trees which are left should be choice
clean-stemmed specimens with medium sized, but thrifty crowns.
They can be left at the rate of ten to twenty to the acre. Such
trees as have weak stems which would be likely to be bowed or
broken by wind or sleet should not be left. Thickets of high
shrubs and broadleaf trees should be cut. It is probable that by
the time of the second cutting groups of young seedlings, about
one foot in height, will have appeared beneath the openings made
by the first cutting. Seed from the trees which are left after the
second cutting will complete the restocking. Two courses can be
followed in regard to the trees which are left after the second
cutting. Either they can be removed after thorough seedling es-
tablishment is assured, or they can be held over and cut at some
thinning period of the young stand. If trees with fifty feet of
clear length and diameters of from ten to twelve inches are left
after the second cutting and are held until they are twenty to
twenty-four inches in diameter their stumpage value will increase
from three to five times. This increase in value will be due en-
tirely to the greater size of the logs, which will yield a high grade
of lumber and can be sawn with small waste. (See Tables 16 and
18 and Plate II, Fig. 1).

No method of cutting a crowded unthinned stand, however,
will give as great a yield in board feet per acre, or will produce
logs of as high a grade, as can be obtained from a well-thinned
stand.

PLANTING WASTE LAND

On many farms in middle Virginia there are tracts of gullied,
or shallow soiled or rocky, or other poor or waste land which are
either without a growth of pine or are stocking extremely slowly
and irregularly. Shortleaf pine could be planted profitably on
such tracts. The sound seed of this pine sprout so freely, and the
growth of the young seedling is so rapid, that direct seeding ran

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA. 39

be made in place of using young plants. Seed should be planted
in spots six feet apart in well loosened soil and lightly covered,
not deeper than one-half inch with earth. One of the two follow-
ing methods can be used. If the tract can be plowed, shallow
furrows can be laid off at intervals of six feet with a shovel plow
or small turning plow, and the seed dropped at six-foot intervals
in the furrows and lightly covered with a weeding hoe. If a plow
cannot be used, the earth can be loosened with a light grub hoe
over a spot six or eight inches square, and the seed planted and
lightly covered in the middle of this spot. If the soil is either
dry or light and sandy the planter should step on the spot after
covering to bring the earth in close contact- with the seed and in-
sure germination. Set poles should be used to keep the rows
straight.

The seed of shortleaf pine has a low germinating percentage,
seldom more than forty-five per cent., and a number of seed,
twelve or fifteen, should therefore be dropped in a hole. As many
as can easily be held between the thumb, index finger and second
finger will insure a stand. There are about 50,000 seed to a pound,
so that a pound, if carefully handled, will plant an acre. The
smallness of the seeds, however, makes them difficult to handle,
and an inexperienced planter will usually drop more than are
necessary for obtaining a stand. -Planting should be done at any
time between the middle of February and the first of April,
whenever the soil is in suitable condition. Protection from fire
and cattle is absolutely necessary until the trees are three or four
inches in diameter and the bark thick enough to afford reasonable
protection, which will require from ten to fifteen years.

Returns from Plantations. — If such plantations are carefully
thinned their yield should greatly exceed that of natural stands.

The cost of planting an acre and of carrying the investment
is calculated on the basis of a land value of $10 an acre, with five
per cent, compound interest, which includes an allowance of one
per cent, an acre a year for taxes and protection. This land value
is low for soils which will produce good shortleaf pine. The prices
at which stumpage must be sold to net four per cent, on the in-
vestment are shown in Table 19.

Cost of land $10 00

Cost of seed one pound per acre 2 50

Cost of planting per acre 1 50

Total initial cost of investment $14 00

gHO-RTLEAF PINE IX VIRGINIA.

TABLE 19.

Cost of producing shortleaf pine stumpage in plantations with five per
cent gross interest on investment.

g|a|3

*rt fl QO ••* 5
IjSJlyS

jflli

^%Z«.
52252

pRISJ

0009

O o

•gi
^ro

<P be

20
30
40
50

$ 27.10

40.20

78.56

150.58

$ 7.00
20.80
4028

5,800
14800
19,300

5 55
3.83
5.69

21
51
60
60

1.28
.65
.96

1 84

* On account of the small amount of the thinnings and the short periods duiing which the
money from them would be invested, only 4 per cent, is allowed on them.

Thinnings made at middle of decades yield about eleven cords
at twenty-five years, fifteen cords at thirty-five years, and ten
cords at forty-five years per acre.

The minimum cost of producing lumber would be about $3.83
per 1,000 board feet, when a stand is about forty years old.

The minimum cost of producing cordwood would be about
sixty-five cents a cord at an age of thirty years.

These figures, which are conservative, indicate that planta-
tions can be expected to yield at least five per cent, gross or four
per cent, net after allowing one per cent, or ten cents an acre a
year, for taxes and protection. With regularly made and care-
fully executed thinnings, the yield would probably exceed that of
the irregularly Chinned stands on which the calculations are based
and the cost of production would be lowered: in other words a
higher interest rate would be obtained.

In order for a plantation to yield five per cent, net or six per
cent, gross, allowing one per cent, an acre a year for taxes and fire
protection, the following returns, which are fair and reasonable,
must be obtained from stands of ditt'erent ages.

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA.

TABLE 20.

Cost of producing shortleaf pine stum-page in plantations with six per cent
gross interest on investment.

•3

&
<

Years

Accumulated Cost
of Investment, per
A ere, Interest com-
pounded at 6 per
cent., less Initial
Value of Land

Credit of Thinnings
made in middle of i
Decade at 50 rents
a Cord, standing
with accumulated !
interest at 4 per !
cent net*

Yield in Board feet 1
of Trees 9" and
over in Diameter
Breast high.

Cost per 1 000 feet
of growing Timber

Final Yield In Cords
of Trees 5" and
over In Diameter !
Breast high

Cost per Cord of
growing Cord wood

$ 34.80

$ 1.66

70.36

$ 7 00

5,800

$ 10.91

1.23

134.06

20.10

14,800

770

1.88

247.88

40.28

19,300

10.77

3.30

* On account of the small amount of the thinnings and the short period during which tha
money from them would be invested only 4 per cent, net is allowed on them.

In neither of the foregoing calculations is any allowance made
for superintendence, and possible losses from insects, sleet and
snow breakage, and windstorm damage, but it must also be re-
membered that the constant increase in the price of timber is like-
wise neglected.

THjE PROTECTION OF STANDS

The two important dangers to pine stands, fire and insects.
are in a measure interrelated. Those trees which have been weak-
ened or injured by fires invite insects, while stands which are lit-
tered by the wood which has died from insect depredations, and
which have become grassy on account of openings made in the
crown cover where trees have been killed by insects are particularly
exposed to serious damage from fire. With both dangers, pre-
vention is the most effective means of control.

Fires. — While the danger of fire is always present, it is far
more serious in connection with young stands and particularly
those in process of stocking, such as fields which have recently
been turned out, or newly cut or lumbered land. Fires injure
such young stands at any season of the year in which they may
occur. Although many individuals of shortleaf pine between one
and two feet high, when killed by an early spring fire, will sprout.,
the sprouting capacity is irregular and unreliable (Plate VI, fig. 2).
Moreover, most of such sprouts die in a few years, while many of
the survivors are forked. After the tenth year, the heavy shade of

42 SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA.

crowded stands and the thickened bark greatly reduce the danger
of fire, but even the heavy bark of old trees does not afford com-
plete protection from hot spring fires when these are driven by a
strong wind. Thickly stocked shortleaf pine stands do not, as a
rule, become grassy or foul with shrubs and herbage, and conse-
quently do not require periodic winter burning for the purpose of
protection, such as may often be necessary for pole stands and
mature stands of loblolly and longleaf pines. Although no visible
damage may be done to older trees by such burnings, the rate of
growth is reduced by the destruction of the pine straw and the
humus, while even the slight scorching of trees may lead to the
entrance of insects or fungi.

Young stands and areas which are in process of stocking are
most effectively protected from fire by establishing and maintain-
ing open fire lanes, free from straw and litter, completely around
them or on the exposed sides. A shallow furrow can be plowed
every year on both sides of the laiies, and the intervening strip
can be raked clear, or it can be burned during damp, quiet weather.
In older stands the straw and litter can be raked off the lanes each
autumn and used for stable beddings. Well established lanes, if
they are free from stumps and shrubs, may conveniently be raked
with a side delivery rake. By locating lanes at intervals through
a large tract, as well as around it, it is separated into blocks which
are individually protected. Where possible, roads and paths
should be used for lanes. Since there is great danger of a serious
fire during and immediately after lumbering, extra protective pre-
caution should be taken at that -time. A fire that occurs at that
time will frequently destroy the pine seedlings, but the replace-
ment of the hardwoods and shrubs takes place at once by sprout-
ing. Repeated fires eliminate the pines. When timber is sold or
when logging is done by contract, an enforceable fire penalty clause
should be inserted in the contract, in order to obtain the necessary
protection.

The Federal Government under the terms of section 2 of
the Weeks Law extends its co-operation to States in assisting them
to protect the forested water-sheds of navigable streams from
fire. In order to secure assistance of this kind a State must have
provided by law for a system of forest fire protection and must
have appropriated funds for the purpose. Scarcely a more im-
portant step could be taken by the State of Virginia towards the
conservation of its forests than the establishment of a fire pro-

SHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA. ' '', , 43

tective system. The readiness of the Federal Government to co-
operate under the terms of this law as soon as the State itself
makes a start is an incentive to immediate action. In the short-
leaf pine area of Virginia the water-sheds of the Appomattox,
James, Roanoke and Eapidan rivers could be protected by such
co-operation.

Insects. — The danger of fire is greatest to seedling stands, but
the possibility of insect damage, although it is always present,
increases after the trees are twenty years old. One of the most
pernicious insects is the pine bark beetle, Dendroctonm frontalis,
Zimmt which devastated the coniferous forest of middle and west-
ern Virginia between 1888 and 1892. This species channels the
inner bark in the middle part of the stem and eventually girdles
the trees, thus killing them. Other beetles infest the wood of
the living tree, and yet others attack only dead or dying trees.
The fecundity of the pine bark beetle is so great that several large
broods are produced in a single summer, and when conditions are
favorable they propagate in enormous numbers and cause serious
depredations. Pure stands in old fields invite destructive attacks,
since in them the insects can readily spread from tree to tree.

The best way to hold this insect in check is to keep the trees
in thrifty condition by preventing overcrowding, by removing
wood which would serve as breeding places, and by cutting out in-
fested trees. It is particularly desirable to maKe these protective
cuttings before the spring and early summer broods of the insects
come out and spread. Infested trees should be promptly removed
as soon as noticed. The removal of weak trees in thinning elimi-
nates them as sources of breeding, while cutting low stumps and
close utilization, or the piling and burning of tops — operations
which are sometimes advisable for other reasons — remove much
other wood. The cutting of live trees should be limited as far as
possible to the winter, but dead trees can be cut at any time.
Special care should be used in summer cutting not to leave freshly-
cut tops touching live trees, and to remove promptly trees that
have been killed by lightning. When cord wood or logs which are
spring or summer cut cannot be promptly removed, they should be
peeled or racked in the sun, that they may dry. Detailed infor-
mation in regard to protection against this beetle is contained in
Farmers' Bulletin, No. 47.6.

Fungus Diseases. — The most important known fungus which
attacks shortleaf pine is Trametes pini, the cause of redheart.

44 sHORTLEAF PINE IN VIRGINIA.

This is a dark brown snuff-colored "punk" which gains entrance
into the heartwood of the upper part of the stem through knot
holes, and into the lower part by wounds caused by falling trees,
fire scars, '(Plate VI, fig. 2), and insects. Trees which show the
"punk" should be promptly cut.

Pine stands are also exposed to damage from windstorms, and
from sleet and wet snow. The damage by wind cannot be pre-
vented. Fortunately, short-leaf pine, when it grows on deep soils,
is anchored by a long, strong taproot, and is very windfirm. On
shallow soils, particularly a hard-pan near the surface which
checks the descent of the taproot, it windfalls badly. Slender trees
are occasionally bent or even broken by wind. Frequent light thin-
nings' render the trees in such stands more windfirm.

Sleet and wet snow are dangers against which there is no ade-
quate protection. The weight of sleet and wet snow frequently
breaks the leaders, and in crowded stands may bend many stems
beyond recovery, break them, or even uproot them. The only pre-
cautionary measure is to strengthen the resisting power of limbs
and stems by thinning. Trees in young stands less than twenty
years old are the most likely to be broken and bent, while trees in
older stands, in which isolation is taking place, are the most apt
to be overturned. Frequently, insect depredations followr this kind
of damage.

PLATE VI.

A culled stand of mixed pine and hardwoods. The defective oak In the left
foreground is partially shading groups of thrifty pine seedlings and should be
removed. The large pines In the background serve a.s seed trees. The seedlings
are greatly exposed to fire.

FORESTRY

C0UL£GE OF A AGKICULTUI?!

(IMIVCRSITY

COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND IMMIGRATION

G. W. KOINER, Commissioner

IN COOPERATION WITH THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
FOREST SERVICE, HENRY S. GRAVES, FORESTER

WOOD -USING INDUSTRIES

OF VIRGINIA

ROGER E. SIMMONS
Statistician in Forest Products

DEC 2 8 1914

Division of Foresti
University of Califon

Printed under the direction of the

AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION

1912

CONTENTS,

PAGE.

PREFACE 7

Scope and Purpose of Study 8

An Important Point • 10

SPECIES 12

State Grown Woods 15

Loblolly 17

Shortleaf Pine 18

Longleaf Pine 19

Scrub Pine . • 19

White Oak 20

Red Gum 20

Yellow Poplar 21

Gums 22

Red Oak 22

White Pine 23

Cypress 23

Southern White Cedar 24

Hickory 24

Chestnut 25

Ash 25

Black or Yellow Locust 26

Maple 26

Beech 27

Sycamore 27

Basswood 27

Birch 28

Spruce '28

Cottonwood . . 29

Hemlock 29

Dogwood 29

Elm 30

Walnuts 30

Cucumber . . 31

Red Cedar 31

Pacific Coast Woods 31

Other Woods 32

Foreign WToods 32

INDUSTRIES 33

Boxes '. 35

Planing-Mill Products 39

Cars and Locomotives 41

Sash, Doors, and General Millwork , 42

Wood-Paving Blocks and Conduits 44

Furniture 45

Baskets, Fruit and Vegetable Packages 48

CONTENTS

PAGE

Vehicle and Vehicle Parts 50 .

Trunks • • 52

Ship and Boat Building 53

Woodenware, Novelties, and Matches 54

Excelsior • • 55

Fencing and Gates 56

Insulator Pins, Brackets, and Cross Arms 57

Fixatures '. • • 58

Handles 59

Agricultural Implements 6a

Caskets and Coffins • • 61

Chairs 62

Dairy, Poultry, and Apiarist Supplies 63

Shuttle Blocks 64

Tobacco Boxes 65

Patterns 66

Miscellaneous 67

The Uses of Wood by Virginia Manufacturers 69

Directory of the Manufacturers Furnishing the Information for this Report 74

SUPPLEMENT 82

Slack Cooperage 82

Tight Cooperage Stock 83

Pulpwood -. 83

The Aggregate Consumption of Wood 84

APPENDIX 85

Production of Forest Products 87

Lumber 87

Veneer 87

Laths and Shingles 8&

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATE. PAGE.

I A Band Mill Sawing in the Tidewater Region 8

II Virginia Loblolly Pine Cut in the Costal Region. Showing the

Amount of Sapwood • • 17

III A Specimen of White Oak in the Hardwood Forest of the Mountain

Region - - 17

IV A Raft of Longleaf Pine Logs Waiting to he Sawed and Worked

Into Planing Mill Products 39

V Inside View of a Virginia Table Factory 47

VI A Mud Scow Ready to Launch on Ways of a Norfolk Ship Yard 53

VII Cylinder in Which Cross Anns Were Treated 58

VIII A Load of Treated Cross Arms Being Removed from the Cylinder... 58

NOTICE

The investigation upon which this report is based was undertaken
by the Forest Service in co-operation with the Commonwealth of Vir-
ginia, the work being done under the direction of O. T. Swan, Engi-
neer in Forest Products, Chief of the Office of Wood Utilization,
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The
statistics were compiled from data collected in 1911, covering a period
of one year.

UU \\JJ

DEC 2 8 1914

Division of Forestry
University of California

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES OF VIRGINIA.

PREFACE

Virginia, the oldest State in the Union, is probably the oldest
lumbering region. Since colonial days the forests have been meeting
a large demand in lumber and logs for export to European and West
Indian ports, besides supplying the home needs of a well-populated
and a rapidly growing State. With the early commercial development
of the nation, bcause the Virginia forests were closer than those of
any other yellow-pine States to the large consuming centers and lumber
markets of Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore, they
naturally were among the first to be exploited; since then they have
been sending forth increasing annual supplies. This exportation was
made possible before the advent of railroads by the easy navigation
ot the large rivers, with their many branches which traverse the State,
and by the excellent deep harbors with which the coast is indented.

For more than sixty years lumbering has been actively carried
on in Virginia, and for the past twenty-five years on an extensive scale.
It could hardly be expected, therefore, that forests which have been for
so long a time subject to an increasing drain, would still be able to
compete in production with those States in which lumbering started
many years afterward. The statistics of the Bureau of the Census
for 1909 showed, however, that only five other States exceeded the
lumber cut of Virginia. Four of these were yellow-pine States, the
other was Washington, holding the lead through its Douglas fir, while
the other Eastern, New England, and Ohio Valley States whose cut
m the late years, according to statistics, has been showing a gradual
decrease, this oldest lumber State has been constantly moving upward
in its maximum yield and in 1909 produced over two billion feet. This
was 119 per cent, more than the quantity of lumber cut ten years before,
and no other yellow pine State, except Louisiana, showed so large
a relative gain. The increase from 1890 to 1900 was a little more than
200 per cent, while the gain from 1880 to 1890 was approximately 76
per cent.

Owing to the diversified soil and surface conditions of Virginia
in the gradual transition from the tidewater section to the high moun-
tain ranges in the western part of the State, the forested area is com-
posed of many kinds of merchantable timber. It is natural, therefore,
that Virginia should take a prominent stand, not only in the supply of

8 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

softwoods, such as the pines — including white pine — the cedar, cy-
press, hemlock and spruce, but also in the production of hardwoods,
such as oak, hickory, ash, yellow poplar, gum and chestnut.

Except on the mountain sides, Virginia forests are not large
unbroken areas of timbered land as in the more Southern and far
Western States. Farm forests and cultivated fields checker the 'sur-
face. These farm forests comprise two thirds of the fifteen million
acres which is the estimated forest area of the State. In many Eastern
States the forests have been so often culled and cut over that the re-
maining wood lots are merely a forest cover of young growth with
a few larger trees capable of supplying only the needs of the) farm for
hre wood and material for fence repair. This is not the case in Vir-
ginia. According to a silvicultural study recently made by the Forest
Service, a large proportion of these farm lots are well wooded with
merchantable trees, and if given proper care and protection, it is
pointed out, will be capable of sustaining Virginia's maximum lumber
yield. The standing timber, according to a rough estimate by the
Forest Service in 1909, amounted to thirty billion feet. With the ex-
ception of two and one-half billion owned by lumber companies, all
of the remainder is included in the area covered by farm forests.

In the pine region in the Southeastern part of the State there are
extensive modern sawmill plants which manufacture a large portion
of the lumber produced in Virginia. Besides these there are numerous
small sawmills and portable mills operating on wood lots and cutting
the hardwoods in the foothills and mountain regions. The census re-
port for 1909 showed Virginia had in active operation 3,511 mills,
which was a greater number than that shown by any of the other
forty-eight States; Louisiana, for instance, produced 1,400,000 feet
more than Virginia and had in operation only 656 mills. In Arkansas,
where the cut was almost equal to that of Virginia, there were 1,500
fewer mills.

Resides these 3,511 sawmills in Virginia, there are a number of
subordinate wood using industries. A large portion of these take the
lumber from the sawmills and convert it into such finished products
as furniture, boxes, vehicles, cars and ships. Other mills take wood
in the form of bolts or logs and make them direct into finished products
like insulator pins, excelsior, hubs, spokes, handles, etc. It is with the
raw material of all these industries that this report is solely concerned.

SCOPE AND PURPOSE OF STUDY

An annual record of the output of the State's sawmills is being
kept; but what becomes of this lumber? Into what channels of use-

ILLUSTRATION I. A BAND MILL SAWING PINE IN
TIDEWATER REGION.

OF VIRGINIA

fulness it goes has not been shown by any report prior to this. It is
interesting and instructive to ascertain what part of the rough lumber
is being kept at home and manufactured into finished commodities,
and what part is shipped out of the State in the rough. With Virginia's
rich and varied forest resources, is any part of the manufacturer's
needs for raw material met by wood grown outside of. the State; and,
:'f so, what are the principal kinds and their qualities? While the
general and most important uses of various woods are known, this
report goes further and points out specific uses and tells the properties
of the wood which commend it for these uses. However, it is not the
purpose of this study to show what becomes of the entire lumber cut.
The portion being sent elsewhere is not taken into consideration here,
since its manufacture in other States belongs to studies similar to this,
which have been, or will be, made in those States.

Much of the lumber remaining at home is used in its rough form
with no further change than mere trimming and mortising to fit it for
the place desired, as in the construction of houses, bridges, tunnel
linings, forms, scaffolding, fencing, and walks. This material is not
taken into account in this study; nor is any wood not used as raw ma-
terial in wood-using factories; hence products such as railroad ties,
wire poles, mine props, firewood, piling, fence posts, shingles and
laths are excluded. No space is given to commodities shipped into Vir-
ginia already manufactured, as, for example, flooring and inside
finish from the longleaf-pine States, the Lake States, and West Vir-
ginia, vehicles and graphophones from New jersey, white-pine freezers
from New England, pianos, from Maryland and Illinois, organs from
Massachusetts and Maryland and Vermont, sewing machines from
New Jersey and Connecticut, and tanks and farm machinery from
various other States. In some instances these ready-made commod-
ities may have been made wholly or in part from lumber cut from Vir-
ginia forests and shipped out as rough lumber and then brought back
after being further manufactured to be sold to the consumer. Ex-
amples of this were noted in parquetry flooring, furniture, caskets,
coffins, agricultural implements and vehicles.

The investigative work of this study was done by the Forest Ser-
vice, U. S. Department of Agriculture in co-operation with the Com-
missioner of Agriculture and Immigration of the State of Virginia.
Many of the reports which furnished the data were forwarded by
manufacturers directly to the Forest Service in response to inquiries
made by mail. The field work consisted in the collection of information
by special agents. This required visits to factories throughout the
State where not only was sought information as to output but as to

IO WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

methods of manufacture and uses of wood. The information sought
was : kinds of wood used ; the quantity required annually ; the cost at
the factory : the specific uses of each kind ; size and grade of lumber ;
whether the raw material was grown in Virginia, or States nearby, or
at a distance, and what efforts had been made to utilize waste material.
Aside from the general interest which naturally pertains to a
study of this character, supplying, as it -does, information which no
other report has given, it will prove practical and valuable in many ways.
It should stimulate trade by bringing together buyer and seller, as it
shows the kinds of wood the manufacturers desire to buy and offers
valuable suggestions to the large timber owners, to the farmers with
a few scattered trees, and to the sawmill men where to sell their ma-
terial. Mention is made also of the many advantages which the State
offers wood-using industries to locate within her borders. The uses of
woods which heretofore have been of little commercial value are pointed
out and the qualities which commend them for other uses are discussed.
To the manufacturer who finds home-grown material difficult to secure,
this report points out other States whose forests will most likely sup-
ply his need. The merchant's attention is called to products which
wood-using industries of Virginia have to sell and the people of the
State are shown the necessity of Virginia taking steps looking to the
improvement and perpetuation of her forests by adopting an intelli-
gent forest policy.

AN IMPORTANT POINT

Forest policies do no t receive the popular support they should
because the results are not immediate. State legislatures are prone
to regard recommendations for adopting forestry as academic instead
of practical. This report brings the subject close to the business men-
of the State, and points out conditions, which, if taken advantage of,
will secure greater industrial prosperity, and if neglected, will probably
result in loss and commercial depression.

Virginia's sawmills produced, according to the last decennial
census, more than 2,100,000,000 feet of lumber. The figures of this
report show (see Table No. 2) that the wood using ^industries
further manufactured about 450,000,000 feet of homegrown wood,
or only a little more than one-quarter of the cut. This means that the
difference, 1,550,000,000 feet, except for the rough lumber needed to
supply the State, is shipped away to meet the demands of, and to be
manufactured by, the industries of other States. If the industries of
Virginia are not taking advantage bf the excellent geographical
location of their State in being close to markets and of their valuable

OF VIRGINIA

forest and water transportation resources in further manufacturing
as much of their rough lumber as they might, it would be well to
recognize the fact and to take measures to profit by it.

Besides the 2,100,000,000 feet which Virginia's sawmills produce
annually, and 20,000,000 feet cut into veneer, it requires 257,000,000
feet of forest material for the makers of slack staves and heading,
and 13,000,000 feet for the manufacturers of tight cooperage stock.
The aggregate amounts to nearly 2,390,000,000 feet, which does not
include the drain on the forests for such products as cross-ties, pulp-
wood, mining props, and telegraph poles. Arbitrarily fixing the
quantity for these at 300,000,000 feet, the total amount of wood contrib-
uted annually by Virginia's forests would aggregate approximately
2,690,000,000, feet. Expressed in dollars and cents this amounts to
more than $25,500,000, making the value of the annual timber crop to
exceed the combined values of the tobacco and wheat crops, and
equal to considerably more than two-thirds of the corn crop as re-
ported by the Department of Agriculture for 1910. With agriculture,
therefore, Virginia's forests are one of her greatest sources of wealth.

The following' pages show that the wood-using industries take a
part of this lumber after the saw mills lay it down, and by additional
manufacture further add to the commercial activity and prosperity
of the State by making commodities of greatly increased value. This
added value is estimated to be more than $10,000,000, making the
forest products worth over $35,000,000. In 1911 wood-using fac-
tories paid over $20,000,000 alone for their raw material, and
according to the last Census 'their total capitalization, together witih the
sawmills, amounted approximately to $25,000,000. If the timber is
allowed to disappear, the life of these industries, and of the sawmills
which are dependent upon the forests for their raw material, is limited ;
and if measures are not taken to insure the continued growth and pro-
tection of the forests, the industries will ultimately have to shut down,
and the State will suffer-from the consequent loss of business. Nearly
every year fire rages in Virginia's forests and the annual loss to the
State is not less than $350,000. The forests cover an area of 15 mil-
lion acres or equal to one-half of that of the State and are estimated
to be worth over $100,000,000.

A large part of these areas are better suited for growing
harwood or softwood tirrtber than for farm crops. The State,
therefore, can profitably grow as well as manufacture timber.
Virginia can maintain its present lumber yield and at the same
time furnish cheap raw material to factories. This will not only
insure a continuance of the present industrial activity, but an even

12 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

greater prosperity than that which the Virginia sawmills and the wood-
using industries at this time are responsible for. The State, there-
fore, should promptly recognize, not only the great value of its forests,
but enact legislation to establish an adequate forest policy. Such a
policy should include:

(1) The establishment of a non-partisan forest department whose
majority membership will include such officials as the State Geologist,
the Commissioner of Agriculture, the Director of the Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, and the President of the State University;

(2) The appointment of a technically trained forester to take
charge of all forest work in the State subject to the supervision of the
Department ;

(3) A fire protective system having adequate funds at its dis-
posal, which would bring Virginia under the provisions of Section 2
of the Weeks Law and provide Federal aid in protecting from fire
the forested watersheds of its navigable streams.

SPECIES.

Varying quantities from fifty-two species made up the 894,000,-
ooo feet of lumber used by the Virginia wood users. These species
are listed in Table I, which gives the common English name as well
as the proper 'botanacal name, according to the Check List of the For-
est Service.

An earnest effort was made to differentiate all the separate
species, because this enables one more easily to study uses according
to inherent properties. It is of far greater value to know the exact
woods as loblolly pine and Cuban or "slash" pine, white oak or yellow
oak, red cedar or white cedar, than to have merely the generic name
as pine, oak or cedar. This effort was only partially successful, since
the task was very difficult for several reasons: First, from the con-
fusion of the vernacular or common names of woods; a manufac-
turer in Virginia orders pitch pine, meaning longleaf ; the mill man in
Florida fills the order by sending Cuban or "slash" pine, as this pine
is sometimes called pitch pine in Florida. In some localities Vir-
ginia pine means shortleaf pine; in others loblolly pine; but on the
market it may include both shortleaf and loblolly; whitewood in New
Hampshire is yellow popular but tulip-tree wood in Virginia, and
similar confusions exist with very many other woods. Second, it is
difficult for tihe layman to always correctly identify wood in the form
of lumber. While timbermen can differentiate trees in the field, when
the tree is cut into lumber and sent to the manufacturer it is a different
matter. White oak, chestnut or "rock" oak, and bur oak are sold

Otf VIRGINIA 13

mixed together and accepted by the manufacturer as white oak;
scarlet oak and Spanish oak, in trade, are not distinguishable from
red oak. Third, in a number of instances the manufacturer finds
the kind of wood, independent of the species, suitable for his needs
and therefore is indifferent to the species he uses. Examples of this
are found in the reports of the users of thje elms, (hickories and ashes.

In this study, therefore, the effort made to separate the species
was carried out only so far as the separation was practical in accord-
ance with wood uses. In Table I, all kinds of wood used by the Vir-
ginia manufacturers have been brought together; some are listed
according to the generic name only, but many according to species.
The quantity shown for each is not exact because of the difficulties
named above. In a number of cases the determination of a species
was made more or less arbitrary. The particular use of the wood,
the location where it was cut, information gathered in the field from
timbermen and others better versed than the manufacturer, and
identification by men gathering the information were the principal
factors governing the decisions. The results, therefore, as shovn in
the table may be accepted as approximately correct.

Seven species of yellow pine are cut for lumber in the United
States. The statistics of the Bureau of the Census grouped them as
yellow pine. Of these, four are native to Virginia and appear in
Table I in quantity, ahead of all other kinds of wood. They are lob-
lolly pine, shortleaf pine, longleaf pine and scrub pine.

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

TABLE 1.— SUMMARY, KINDS OF WOOD USED IN VIRGINIA.

KIND OF WOOD.

Quantity
used annually

Average
cost
per
1,000 ft.

Total cost
f. o. b. factory

Feet B. M.

Per
cent

Common Name.

Botanical Name.

Loblolly pine :

(Pinus taeda)

389,257,088
182,369,615
74,762,206
44,243,500
35,467,028
31,594,290
27,848,547
19,934,500
14,951,000
13,954,529
8,985,518
8,290,113
7,666.245
7,115,896
6,444,190
4,182,403
2,279,000
2,236,350
1,946,000
1,769,000
1,591,900
1,065,000
986,000
952,025
754,026
734,000
733,400
609,736
426,358
292,581
277,300
162,000
140,000
100,326
80,000
68,000
46,000
44,059
17,923
15,000
13,000
12,000
10,000
5,000
5,000
1,400
1,100
1,000
350
200
100
100

43.50
20.40
8.40
4.90
4.00
3.50
3.10
2.20
1.70
1.60
1.10
.90
.90
.80
.70
.50
.20
.30
.20
.20
.20
.10
.10
.10

100.00

$ 12.77
13.26
20.26
10.99
22.05
13.31
18.58
20.75
9.65
27.00
26.07
18.68
31.38
13.43
11.47
24.30
22.90
20.62
17.98
24.83
18.80
19.18
32.28
24.07
22.62
11.63
14.18
58.08
146.86
33.23
35.85
17.40
10.14
97.40
13.15
68.38
36.48
199.09
51.07
14.00
48.00
32.00
30.00
120.00
50.00
531.00
138.00
100.00
190.60
200.00
100.00
100.00

$ 4,961,017.96
2,417,980.10
1,515,553.23
486,526.86
782,144.11
420,462.58
517,294.25
413,284.50
144,927.50
376,403.04
234,275.24
154,916.15
240,612.80
95,576.95
81,27r.75
101,628.93
52,200.00
46,107.25
34,995.50
50,580,00
29,93450
20.430.00
31,826.00
22,922.65
17,161.04
8,535.00
10,392.40
35,427.87
62.364.00
9,704.28
9,930.00
2,820.00
1,420.00
9,740.86
1,050.00
4,660.00
1,678.00
8,771.80
914.30
210.00
624.00
384.00
300.00
600.00
250.00
708.00
151.80
100.00
66.75
40.00
20.00
20.00

(Pinus echinata)
(Pinus palustris)
(Pinus virginiana)

Scrub pine
White Oak

(Liquidambar styraciflua) . .
(Liriodendron tulipifera) . . .
(Quercus rubra)
(Nyssa aquatica)

Red Oak
Cotton gum (tupelo) . . .

(Pinus strobus)
(Taxodium distichum) ...
(Chamaecyparis thyoides) . . .
(Hicoria alba)

Hickory

Chestnut

(Castanea dentata)
(Nyssa sylvatica)

Ash

(Fraxinus Americana)
(Robinia pseudacacia)

Beech

(Platanus occidentalis)

(Quercus velutina)
(Betula lenta)

(Picea rubens)
(Populus deltoides)

(Tsuga canadensis)

Douglas fir

(Pseudotsuga taxifolia) ...
(Swietenia mahagoni)
(Ulnuis pubescens)

Slippery (rock) elm

(Magnolia acuminata)
(Ulmus amcricana)

White (soft) elm

Buckeye

(Aesculus glabra)
(Pinus lambertiana)
(Junerperius virginiana) ..

(Diospyros virginiana)
(Toxylon pomiferum)
(Sassafras sassafras)
(Acer saccharinum)
(Cedrela odorata)
(Thuja occidentalis)
(Dalbergia)
(Btfswellia klaineana)

Western red cedar.

Rosewood

Silver ava
Circassian walnut

(Eucalyptus marginata) ...
(Tabebuia donnell smith!!)
(Albizzia procera)

Philadelphia walnut
Total

894,441,902

$15.00

$13,420,921.95

* Less than one tenth of one per cent.

Of the woods used by the manufacturers only seven were re-
ported as coming entirely from Virginia forests. They were scrub
pine, yellow or black oak, white (soft) elm, yellow buckeye, persim-
mon, sassafras, and silver maple. On the other hand, the entire sup-
plies of rock elm, butternut, and osage orange come from other
States. These woods are cut in Virginia in quantities more than suf-
ficient to meet the local demands, but the manufacturers evidently
found shipped-in woods more convenient. It is significant of the
growing scarcity of native, eastern softwoods that three species from

j -0UCUZJ '

OF VIRGINIA

TABLE 2.— SUMMARY, STATE— GROWN AND IMPORTED WOODS.

Grown in Virginia.

Grown out of Virginia.

Total quantity
used annually

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Per
cent

Feet B. M.

Per
cent

Feet B. M

Per

cent

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

100

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

100

Ash

3.020,500
889,000
812,700
250,000
80,000

VT'.OOO

2,668,000
5,000
6,102,264
50,000
87,000
3,141,700

72.05
57.02
51.02
25.68
100.00

"53.63
32.18
2.07
85.76
6.68
53.70
34.98

1,161,903
1,057,000
779,200
736,000

17,923
19,000
5,622,113
95,326
1,013,632
704,026
75,000
5,843,818
609,736
30,000

292,581
3,098,664
4,108,000
2,000
2,463,000
779,000
426,358

27.95
42.98
48.98
74.32

100.00
46.37
67.82
97.93
14.24
93.32
46.30
65.02
100.00
4.50

100.00
45.62
27.75
.10
31.79
39.80
100.00

34.38

33.02
33.82
100.00

37.81
99.78

59.68
100.00
50.77
45.73

7*o! 51
54.36
100.00
17.74
100.00
29.30
100.00

45.81

4,182,403
1,946,000
1,591,900
986,000
80,000
17,923
46,000
8,290,113
100,326
7,115,896
754,026
162,000
8,985,518
609,736
733,400
140,000
292,581
6,444,190
14,951,000
734.000
7,666.245
2,279,000
426,358
10,000
2,236,350
1,065,000
19,934,500
35,467,028
13,000
15,000
389,257,088
74,762,206
44,243,500
182,369,615
68,000
13,954,529
31,594,290
12,000
952,025
1,769,000
44,059
277,300
5,000
27,848,547
9,250

Beech
Basswood (linn)
Birch, sweet

Butternut (white walnut)..
Cedar red

Cedar, Southern white

Cottonwood

]3°U£aS| r

703,400
140,000

95.50
100.00

Gum, black
Gum, cotton (Tupelo)
Hemlock

3,345,526
10,843,000
732,000
5,203,245
1,500,000

54.38
72.25
99.90
68.21
60.20

10,000
1,315,000
1,065,000
13,330,000
23,505,037

100.00
65.62
100.00
66.98
66.18

921,350

Oak black

Oak, red

Oak white

6,604,500
11,961,991
13,000

146,285,562
74,592,206

108,779,000
68,000
7,104,064
14,310,533

' 672',025
1,662,000
44,059
48,600
5,000
8,158,514
9,250

15,000
242,971,526
170,000
44,243,500
73,590,615

100.00
62.19
.22
100.00
40.32

Pine, loblolly

Pine, scrub

Pine =hortleaf . ...

Pine white

6,850,465
17,283,757
12,000
280,000
107,000

49.23
54.27
100.00
29.49
45.64

Bed gum

Sassafras

Sycamore

Walnut, black

228,700
19,690',033

82.26
'70'. 70

Western red cedar
Yellow poplar

Foreign woods
Totals

484,267,968

54.19

410,173,934

894,441,902

A brief account of somie of the woods manufactured into com-
modities in Virginia in the order of the quantity used follows :

LOBLOLLY

More loblolly was reported than the combined amounts of any
other five species listed ; nearly two-thirds of it was cut in Virginia.
This tree grows as far north as Delaware and from there southward
it appears in all the Atlantic and Gulf Coast States. In southern and
southeast Virginia and northeast North Carolina the original growth of
loblolly reaches its maximum development in belts of pure stands. Out-
side of these belts it is mixed more or less with shortleaf pine. The ex-
tent of the loblolly range in Virginia is within sixty miles of the coast.
Original growths have in a great measure disappeared, and the second

1 8 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

and third growths now furnish the principal source of lumber. Lands
once cultivated and then abandoned by the planters of several genera-
tions ago now afford merchantable trees. In the more southern States,
where longleaf pine and Cuban "slash" pine are still being cut, lob-
lolly is held in low esteem. Pine marketed and known as North Caro-
lina pine or Virginia pine is composed of nearly 80 per cent loblolly.
Of the wood reported for further manufacture, loblolly represented
nearly 45 per cent of the total as shown by this report.

[~ SHORTLEAF PINE

In importance to the lumber industry, and in value of its lumber,
shortleaf pine it is said is the most valuable softwood in Virginia. The
place which this species is taking among the second growth in Virginia
marks it as one of the most important timber trees of the future, while
original growth is rapidly disappearing large areas of exhausted lands
abandoned by farmers have been taken possession of by this tree, and
this second growth is the source of most of the shortleaf pine now cut
in Virginia. In quantity used1 by ifoe Virginia (manufacturers iti stands
second. Shortleaf grows sparingly as far north as Staten Island, New
York, and once abounded in southern New Jersey. Delaware, and Mary-
land. It has since practically disappeared in all these States except
Maryland, and is now cut for lumber no farther north than Virginia.
West of the Mississippi River in northern Louisiana and Arkansas and
In Missouri shortleaf reaches its best development and is the most plenti-
ful. The needles of shortleaf are generally much shorter and the cones
smaller than those of loblolly pine, and as trees, therefore, they are
readily distinguished. It is far different with the wood. The two spe-
cies closely resemble each other and are difficult to identify. In some
grades of their wood they are closely alike in respect to weight,
strength, structure, and usefulness.

South of the York River and as far west as Richmond and Peters-
burg is the zone in Virginia where loblolly pine generally predominates.
Narrow belts of shortleaf pine are here also, and in lower lands these
p-ines are associated with hardwoods. North of the York River and
throughout the Piedmont region, shortleaf is the ruling conifer. It is
most abundant on old fields. Virginia shortleaf pine was probably the
first timber made an article of commerce from this country. In colo-
nial days we read of it being shipped to England and West Indies in
large consignments.

OF VIRGINIA

LONGLEAF PINE

Not much of the yellow pine lumber cut in Virginia is longleaf.
as the remaining stand is limited and very scattered. Only 170,000
feet was reported by the manufacturers as home grown, though suffi-
ciently large quantities of it were demanded from other States to give
longleaf the rank (see Table I) of third important wood used by the
manufacturer. Virginia marks the most northerly limits of the range.
Its heaviest stands are found in Louisiana and east Texas where virgin
forests are now being cut. It has the longest needles of any of the pines
which give the tree its name. Next to white pine its lumber brings
the highest average price of any of the conifers.

SCRUB PINE

The superior reproductive power of scrub pine is its most impor-
tant characteristic. It occurs in original growths on clay ridges some-
times with other yellow pine trees, and is scattered in hardwood for-
ests of the Piedmont and mountain regions. It readily seeds itself and
grows on tihe most isterile soils. On cut over areas it spi ings up rapidly,
with a decided increase but it reproduces best on old fields where it
forms thick stands. .The common names in different localities are
"niger" pine, Jersey pine, bastard pine, river pine and poverty pine,
but scrub pine is the name now most widely used. It grows more slowly
than loblolly pine or shortleaf pine and in dense stands, only a small
portion of the trees reach a size large enough for lumber. It can be
readily identified from other yellow pine trees. Cones remain on the
tree several years after they drop their seed. It has two slightly
twisted needles in a Sheath. Loblolly pine has three needles twice
as long and shortleaf pine has two and three needles to a sheath but
they are straight and slightly longer than scrub pine. In the wood
this species is more difficult to distinguish, as in appearance it often
resembles the loblolly and shortleaf pine. Usually its many tight knots
identify it. Wherever convenient the principal use of scrub pine is
for fuel and fence rails. When the trees reach a size large enough for
the sawmills the lumber is considered by builders in some localities
preferable for structural work like house sills to oldfield loblolly. In
Delaware treated scrub pine wood has been used successfully for rail-
road ties ; in Maryland the box makers consume large amounts ; while
in Virginia, next to the box industry, the excelsior manufacturers
consume the most.

2O WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

WHITE OAK

Oak is aibundant in tihe three regions of Virginia and, according
to the botanist, twelve different species are cut for lumber. The
manufacturers, however, divide them usually into two groups, white
oak and red oak, and this broad classification accounts for not more
of the species being shown in the tables of this report. The former
class includes the true white oak (Quercus alba), chestnut oak, (in
some parts of the State called rock oak) bur oak,, live oak, cow oak,
and post oak. The second group is led by the true red oak(Qnercus
rubra) from which the group gets its name, followed by Spanish oak,
scarlet oak, pin oak, black or yellow oak, willow oak, and water and
laurel oaks.

The white oak class is more widely demanded by Virginia
manufacturers than any of the hardwoods and follows the pines in
quantity purchased. The average price was greater than that shown
for any of the species of yellow pine and1 $1.30 more than tjhe red oak
class. The forests of the State furnished over 66 per cent of the total.
The imported white oak was grown principally in North Carolina and
West Virginia, but Indiana and Kentucky sent quantities of high
grades, mostly quarter-sawed.

The true white oak tree is the most abundant of Virginia's
oak trees. The upper Piedmont and Mountain regions is where the
greatest number of stands are found. Chestnut oak, growing chiefly
in the mountains, like white oak is one of the most durable of the
oaks and for structural purposes is in great demand. The tanners
pay high prices for the bark of this tree. The Virginia post oak does
not grow to large size and only a small per cent of the stiand is cut
into lumber. lit serves its greatest use as railroad ties. Cow (or
basloet) oak and live oak which rarely appears are found in eastern
Virginia, the cow oaks in swamps with the gums and the live oak on
high ground. They form only a small part of the white oak lumber
cut and are seldom used by the manufacturers. The wood of these
trees being exceedingly durable they are highly desired for structural
purposes in exposed and damp situations.

RED GUM

Red gum or sweet gum is most abundant in the Southeastern part of
Virginia as it thrives best on the rioh soil of bottom landte aid swamps.
It is not related as the common name indicates t'o the other gums,
black grim, water gum, and cotton gum, though it often associates
with them in the forest. The red gum has a starlike leaf and bears its

OF VIRGINIA 21

seeds in rough round balls. The black gum has an oval leaf and bears
a small bluish-black fruit containing a single seed. Not many years
ago red gum had little value as lumber owing to its tendency to
twist and warp when seasoned in the ordinary way. Its first ex-
tensive use was for slack-barrel staves and heading. With the intro-
duction of rotary-cut veneer machines it jumped into prominence as
an excellent veneer wood and in 1909 red gum furnished nearly three
limes as much veneer material as any other wood. Improved methods
of kiln-drying were afterwards inaugurated and the lumbermen were
not long learning to market the lumber successfully and it is now
in great demand for a number of uses. The sapwood of red
gum is almost white. Commercially it is called sap gum and is usually
sold separately from the heartwood to meet different uses. Some
trees have a large per cent of sapwood. The heartwood is usually
a reddish light brown but in some trees the heartwood is dark brown,
attractively mottled, and in color and figure resembles Circassian
walnut. When such trees are quarter-sawed, and made into high
grade furniture, piano cases, and Venetian blinds, their wood often
appears in the market under the names Hazel wood, satin walnut,
and California red gum. This wood readily absorbs stain and takes
on a high polish. In consequence it is made to imitate mahogany,
cherry and oak. The Virginia manufacturers use more red gum than
any other <hardwood except white oak. Nearly 55 per cent of it is
grown in the State.

YELLOW POPLAR

The yellow poplar tree has a tulip-shaped flower which gives it
the name of tulip-tree, in many localites. In some localities the wood
is known commercially as white wood, notwithstanding a large pro-
portion of the lumber cut from this tree has a greenish-yellow color.
The light colored wood of the tree is often sold on the markets as
white poplar and -the darker as yellow poplar. Botanically it is Lirio-
dendron tulipifera. It is in a class by itself having in this country no
surviving related species. Its range extends from southern New York
to Florida and from the Atlantic Coast to the Mississippi River, with
a very small area in southeastern Missouri and adjacent Arkansas.
In Virginia it is one of the largest and most valuable trees of the forest
and reaches its best development on the mountain slopes where trees
have been reported to be from 150 to 190 feet high and from 8 to 10
feet in diameter. It is also cut for lumber in the farm forests of the
Piedmont Region, and less frequently in the coastal plains. The Vir-
ginia saw-mills reported sawing 114,000,000 feet in 1909 and the wood
users consumed in further manufacture less than 27,000,000 feet.

22 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

T'he wood of the tulip tree and of the cucumber so closely resemble
each other that they are sold together on the market. Cucumber,
however, composes only a small proportion of the lumber, because
its stand compared with that of yellow poplar is small. Cucumber
possesses the same soft, fine, easily workable qualities that fit yellow
poplar to meet more uses in Virginia than any other hardwood ex-
cept white oak. Manufacturers in sixteen of the- twenty- four indus-
tries use yellow poplar.

GUMS

The gums of Virginia are cotton gum, water gum, and black gum.
They ane members of the dogwood family, and are not related to the
red gum. The cotton gum and water gum inhabit the wet lowlands
and swamps of tine Tidewater Region in company with the cypress and
the southern white cedar (juniper). Black gum grows in this section
but distant from the others and only on well-drained elevations. Un-
like the others black gum ranges westward and northward through
the Piedmont Region to the slopes of the Allegfaanies. The cotton gum
and w^ter gum trees grow side by side and in appearance are easily
identified by the thickness of the bark. Cotton gum (Nyssa aquatica)
has bark one inch or more in thickness, while the bark of water gum
(Nyssa biflora) seldom exceeds one-fourth inch. Tables I and II show
that only two species were reported by the Virginia manufacturers;
black gum and cotton gum, the former in greater quantities. Owing to
the confusion of common names this classification is not reliable be-
cause some call these trees black gum, others call them tupelo, which
is cotton gum, while others endeavor to separate them. In Virginia
the upland gum (Nyssa sylvatica) is seldom cut and delivered to the
manufacturers, but what is called "black gum" of the market is water
gum. In the wood the three species of gums so closely resemble each
other that they are difficult to distinguish from external appearance.
Cotton gum wood splits straight and fairly easily, but the wood of
water gum and black gum has closely interlaced fibres and is exceed-
ingly difficult to split. Water gum wood has a yellowish hue and is
darker than the wood of the black gum. Cotton gum is softer and
more easily worked than water gum or black gum.

RED OAK

The true red oak (Qitercus rnbra) reaches large proportions in
western and southwestern Virginia and poduces high grades of lumber.
Spanish oak is locally called "red oak." It is found in the hill country
of the Tidewater section of the State, south (and east) of Richmond.

OF VIRGINIA

Scarlet oak grows in the Piedmont and Mountain Regions, but though
fairly abundant it seldom grows to a size sufficient to be cut into lum-
ber. Locally it is frequently called Spanish oak. Black or yellow oak
ranges throughout the State but mostly in parts closely associated with
the scarlet oak. This tree reaches large proportions in Virginia, but
its lumber has not been in great demand. Not many years ago this
tree was felled only to procure its bark, and the logs frequently left
in the woods to decay, having little commercial value. With the in-
creasing scarcity of other and more valuable oaks it is gradually coming
into general use. Willow oak is so called because its leaves resemble
those of a willow. It does not grow large in Virginia though it is
quite abundant along the coast. The manufacturers do not purchase
it to any extent except for slack cooperage stock. Laurel and water
oak grow only in the Dismal Swamp. Neither of them being important
lumber trees were not reported by the manufacturers.

WHITE PINE

The sawmills of Virginia cut 96,000,000 feet of white pine ac-
cording to the decennial census. That the manufacturers used less
than one-fifteenth of this amount and bought over one-half of their
needs from supplies cut in other States is quite surprising. North
Carolina and Tennessee contributed the largest part of the white pine
from the outside but the Lake States shipped in the remainder and
usually in the highest grades. None of the New England white pine
reached the Virginia wrood users and none from the Rocky Mountain
States. Sugar pine, however, came in from California. In appearance
it resembles white pine and has similar qualities and uses. Only small
quantities of it were reported, which is surprising, since the manu-
facturers paid less for it than for some of the white pine bought from
the Lake States. The heaviest stands of Virginia white pine are in the
coves in the Appalachian Mountains but it also appears on the foot-
hills associated with the oaks and yellow poplars. Its principal uses in
Virginia are for patterns, sash and doors and ship building.

CYPRESS

In Virginia cypress grows only in the southeastern coastal part of
Virginia and is available now mainly on nearly submerged lands in the
Dismal Swamp. Though sixty-one mills report cutting this tree in
1909, the wood users procured nearly 68 per cent of their requirements
from other States. South Carolina and Florida furnished the most,
and North Carolina and Louisiana the remainder. In Louisiana the

24 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

•cypress is found in the greatest profusion, exclusive forests of it oc-
cupying large areas in swamps along the Mississippi. It is sometimes
called bald cypress, owing- to its 'bald appearance when it loses its
leaves in winter, and it is the only deciduous coniferous tree which
grows in Virginia that is reported in the lumber cut. Cypress is a slow
grower. The varied shades of color in cypress wood accounts for the
names "red cypress", "yellow cypress" and "black cypress" referred
to in different localities. The great durability of cypress and its ten-
dency not to shrink or warp makes it one of the most valuable woods.
It is, therefore, preferred for v;ood work exposed to the weather and
submerged at intervals under water. It is the foremost tank wood
and is growing in favor witih the coopers for making containers of
liquors. As cooperage stock or a package for food stuffs it does not
impart a flavor nor give coloring to the ingredients.

SOUTHERN WHITE CEDAR

Southern white cedar (Chamaecypayis thy aides) is an important
Virginia wood for further manufacture. More of it is used than in
any otiher State so far studied. It grows in swamps of the Tidewater
section with the cypress, cotton gum, water gum, and red gum, and
h^re it is said to reach its best development. The tree grows along the
Atlantic Coast as far north as New England, but it is of little commer-
cial importance above Maryland and southern Delaware. The wood
is durable when exposed, especially in damp locations and climates,
which accounts for the popularity of white cedar shingles for covering
seaside cottages and houses.

HICKORY

Eight species of hickory grow in Virginia and five of these are cut
in commercial quantities. Mockernut is probably most common, and
grows in all regions, while bitternut, shagbark anfd small fruited
hickories are found in the upper Piedmont and Mountain Regions.
Bitfternut hickory is the most abundant; the nuts are too bitter to be
edible, hence the name. It is probably the most widely distributed mem-
ber of the hickory family. Shagfoark is so named from the tree's bark,
which in the older trees hangs down in long strips. This tree yields
the best flavored nut of any of the hickories, and its fruit is commonly
seen in the markets. The small fruited hickory is far less frequent in
Virginia than the other species, and the nuts are too small for commerce
but are sweet and delicately flavored. Pignut is the most abundant
hickory tree in the northern States; in Virginia it grows in the moun-

OF VIRGINIA

tains, seeking "higher altitudes than any of the other 'hickories. Hickory,
independent of species, combines more than any other wood, the qualities
of strength, elasticity, and toughness. It is, therefore, demanded
where these properties are essential, as in vehicle stock, axe, hammer,
and pick handles, and sucker rod's. Though siome species of hickory
are more easily identified than those of other trees, the manufacturer
and the lumberman rarely makes any distinction.

The young sapling hickories are in almost as great demand as the
grown trees. They are cut and sold for hoop poles. It is this cutting
of the young growth which if not checked will bring about the early
exhaustion of the hickory tree.

CHESTNUT

Virginia is one of the five principal States in the production of
•chestnut lumber. In 1909 the total cut was 68 million feet though the
amount the manufacturers used was only 7 million. Ten per cent
of this was shipped in from other States. Only in comparatively
recent years has chestunt had 'high value as lumber ; before that it had
been used as a substitute for higher priced woods. In the interior
trim of houses the conspicuous handsome figure of the chestnut has
grown in favor, and to a large degree, supplanted the oak finish.
Chestnut lumber is very durable especially in contact with the soil.
It is this property which favors its use above other woods for making
burial caskets.

Tthe tannin in chestnut wood is extracted and used in tanning.
The demand of tanneries operating in Virginia make the production
of tannin an important industry.

The chestnut tree grows throughout all the hill and high valley
regions of Virginia, but more abundantly in the mountain sections.

ASH

White ash, red ash, Biltmore ash, green ash, black ash and water
ash, are the six species composing the ash family in Virginia. White
and red, in the order named, constitute a very large proportion of the
stand. Biltmore ash is a species recently discovered by botanists con-
nected with the Biltmore forest estate in North Carolina. It is a com-
mon tree growing along streams in the mountains and is indigenous
only to the southern Appalachian states. Green ash grows in western
Virginia, but not in commercial quantities ; its most abundant stand is
in the lower Mississippi Valley. As with hickory, the manufacturers
do not distinguish species of ash lumber for particular uses, nor do
lumbermen generally speak of these except by one name, because of

26 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

the difficulty of identifying the separate trees. The Virginia sawmills
cut 5,500,000 and 3,000,000 went to the manufacturers. The largest
quantity consumed was by the handle makers. Ash is probably the
most widely distributed of the North American trees. It ranges from
the Rocky Mountain States east through every State except Maine.

BLACK OR YELLOW LOCUST

In the rich valleys of Virginia, and on up to the mountainous
slopes black locust reaches its best development. Its first and native
home is thought to have been limited to the sides and foothills of the
Southern Appalachians, but owing to its hardiness and to the ease
with which it adapts itself to other soils and climes, it has been planted
extensively both in this country and Europe. Locust develops rapidly
when young and is growing in favor for planting in farm wood-lots.
Locust plantations are growing satisfactorily on the Coastal Plains as
well as in the other regions of Virginia. The wood is tough, strong,
very durable and unequalled it is claimed for torsional strength and
resiliency. It is durable when exposed and very lasting in contact with
the ground. In Virginia it is highly valued for shipbuilding, fence
posts, insulator pins, and to a less degree than in other States for
vehicle stock, principally wagon hubs.

MAPLE

Sugar, red and black maple can be readily identified in the tree, but
in the form of lumber all1 three generally go under the name of sugar
maple. In Virginia only a few manufacturers distinguish it in their
reports, and only those who require it separately for making com-
modities for which both species are not used indiscriminately. It is
claimed that sugar maple is the most valuable hardwood tree in this
country, taking into consideration its production of maple sugar and the
fact that next to oak its wood meets the greatest number of uses.
Choice figured lumlber from this tree brings exceedingly high prices in
the market. Sugar maple's and silver maple's range of growth parallel
each other, in general extending over much of the same territory east
of the looth meridian. Sugar maple is more abundant in the Northern
States, while the silver maple takes precedence usually in the Southern
States south of the Ohio River. Virginia wood users use a much
larger per cent of the sugar maple. Its stands in the mountains
and foothills is scattered, but frequent, while in the lowlands
the black and red maples probably outnumber considerably the
stand of silver maple. The largest general use of silver maple

OF VIRGINIA 27

is in furniture making for drawer sides and bottoms, mirror backing
and table slides.

BEECH

The beech tree is most abundant in the Northern States, wheie it
grows on the slopes and well-drained uplands. In the Gulf States it
occurs less abundantly, but it is found on lowlands and borders of
streams and swamps. In Virginia its best development is in the
mountain region where it is more common than in the lowlands of the
Coastal Plains. Beech is held in high favor as turning wood and there-
fore is in great demand for chair stock and novelties: its most ex-
acting demand is for plane -stocks. Vast quantities of beech wood are
used by the wood distillation plants, and in this use it leads in quantity
all other woods. In Virginia its chief use is for flooring. Though
manufacturers often report the use of both white and red beech, botani-
cally there is but one species. These two names arise from the dif-
ferent color of the heartwood and sapwood, the former being reddish
and the latter white. The beech tree is easily identified in the forests by
its smooth and light colored bark. Its trunk is symmetrical, of large
proportions and the contour of the tree attractive.

SYCAMORE

Virginia saw-mills cut nine times as much sycamore as is purchased
by the manufacturers in the State itself ; but the quantity of sycamore
sent in from other States exceeds the lumber cut more than 50 per cent.
Makers of tobacco boxes and packing boxes use almost all that is
manufactured in Virginia. When quarter-cut, it makes a handsome
appearance in furniture and cabinet work. Sycamore is the easiest
distinguished of the American trees; the white and mottled bark is
very noticeable, as are the rough balls it bears, which remain hanging
on the tree throughout the winter. The sycamore grows in all parts of
Virginia from the submerged lands of the Tidewater and swamp
regions, high into the Mountain region, where it occurs mostly along
streams.

BASSWOOD

Basswood is fairly abundant and is one of the most useful trees
of the eastern United States and Canada. In Virginia it appears most
abundantly in the mountain region. The Virginia sawmills cut nearly
nine times more than the manufacturers of the State require, and yet
nearly 50 per cent of the manufacturer's demand was met from wood
grown in other States. The wood is light, soft and easily worked,
and in many of its uses becomes a competitor of yellow poplar. It

28 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

is a favorite veneer wood and northern states meets a demand for mak-
ing the best grades of excelsior. Manufacturers of paper-pulp and slack
barrel heading favor it. The inner bark, called "bast" gives the tree its
name. This bast is valuable and largely used for making cords and
ropes, and door mats.

BIRCH

There are two species of birch in Virginia. The river (black)
birch, sometimes called red birch, grows in the Coastal and Lower
Piedimont Regions, on lands subject to overflow and along the banks
of streams. Although no manufacturers in Virginia report using it,
its properties fit it for many common uses. The furniture manufac-
turers do not want it because they use birch for outside work and bkck
birch possesses no figure. In Pennsylvania it is extensively used for
vehicle hubs and generally it goes into chairs, small handles, and other
turned material.

Sweet birch ranges in scattered stands over the mountains of
western and southwestern Virginia. Fifty-one State mills report cut-
ting it into lumber but the quantities produced were small. The manu-
facturers go to other States to buy 75 per cent of their material, which
amount to nearly three-quarters of a million feet. The bark of the
sweet birch resembles that of black cherry ; for this reason the tree is
frequently called cherry birch. The sweet aromatic flavor of the
bark gives the tree its most common name, sweet birch. The wood
serves as a common imitation of mahogany. The lumber in its natural
color is beautiful and is used as the decorative wood in cabinet work,
interior house finish, and furniture.

SPRUCE

Spruce seeks a cool climate. It is, therefore, one of the most
abundant trees of New England and the Northern States. In the
Southern Appalachian Region it grows only at comparatively high
altitudes. Its range extends to the Georgia line but the farther south
it goes the higher the elevation it occupies. Two species grow in the
Alleghanies, the red and black spruce. The latter seldom reaches
a size large enough for lumber, but this tree in the northeast meets
a demand of the wood-pulp manufacturers. Red spruce is the im-
portant lumber tree both in the New England and the Appalachian
States. In Virginia it appears in the far western section and here the
sawmills cut nearly 80,000,000 feet in 10,09. The resin of the red and
black spruce known as spruce gum is used for confections. The wood
is light, soft and elastic. Its most general use in New England is

OF VIRGINIA

for rough construction work, but in Virginia ship building consumed
a larger quantity than any other industry, the largest part of which
came from other States, principally West Virginia.

COTTONWOOD

Ten times more cottonwood is consumed by the manufacturers in
Virginia than is cut by the sawmills. The State has a considerable
stand of cottonwood, especially in the western part, but it is quite scat-
tered and the wood is not held in high favor by the sawmills. Cotton-
wood belongs to the poplar family as do the aspens, balm of Gilead, and
the black cottonwood of the western Coast. It is commonly known
in Virginia as Carolina poplar. Yellow poplar, which properly is
called tulip tree, does not belong to this family, the true poplars, but
in the uses of the wood they are closely related, especially the cotton-
wood which often serves as a substitute for yellow poplar. Cotton-
wood is soft, has little figure, and is easily worked, and these qualities
together with its white color makes it suitable for many uses.

HEMLOCK

Hemlock had the fifth largest cut of the woods of the United
States and Virgina ranked tenth among the hemlock producing States.
Next to yellow pine there was more hemlock lumber sawed in Virginia
than any of the softwoods, but less than one-fortieth of it was required
by the State's manufacurers. In company with white pine 'and red
spruce, hemlock in Virginia is confined to the slopes and ravines of the
mountains. Its best development is at high altitudes and in cool climes.
The lake States are the regions of its heaviest stand, although the
New England forests at one time contained much hem'lock. Not many
years ago hemlock had little value as lumber. Wood users referred
to it as a forest weed, possessing none of the qualifications of first class
lumber. This accounts for millions of feet being cut down only to
furnish bark, while the peeled logs were left to rot in the woods. Now,
however, the prejudice against hemlock has been practically dissipated,
and today it is one of the principal woods for general construction.
Many architects specify it in preference to white pine, spruce and
second growth yellow pine. The lower grades are held in high favor
by the box makers and from the upper grades, siding, flooring, casing,
and interior trim are milled.

DOGWOOD

The "flowering" dogwood, so called because of the conspicuous
white tracts surrounding its flowers, is the only species in Virginia

30 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

supplying wood of commercial value. Its attractive flower distinguishes
it in the spring, and in the autumn it can be identified at once by the
clusters of shining scarlet berries and the rich purple color of its
leaves. It ranges throughout Virginia in scattered stands along banks
of streams but most profusely in the western and southwestern part,
in vales and mountain ravines. The wood is in great demand because
it is heavy, hard, strong, and close-grained, and the supply is insuffi-
cient to meet the demand. For special uses, suitable substitutes have
been found in persimmon wood and great laurel. Its most exacting
demand comes from the manufacturers of shuttles.

ELM

There are four or more species of elm growing in the eastern
United States, but only two, in scattered stands, are of commercial
importance in Virginia. They are white elm, and slippery elm. The
trees are easily distinguished at sight in the forest, for when the leaves
of the two are compared the difference is apparent. The easiest iden-
tification is by removing a piece of bark. The slippery elm's inner bark
as the name suggests, is mucilaginous and fragrant, while that of the
white elm is not. Elm is an unimportant lumber tree in Virginia, only
thirty-one mills cut it last year and the combined quanitity of them all
was almost insignificant. The manufacturers used more than 'three
times as much as the sawmills produced. All of the rock or slippery
elm reported was shipped in from other States, while the white elm
was entirely home-grown.

WALNUTS

With one exception, the black walnut yields the most valuable
cabinet wood of the North American trees. It was once quite plentiful
from the eastern foothills of the Appalachians and the Adirondacks
to Nebraska and Kansas. It is now very scarce. It is a slow grower
but its increasing value has encouraged effort looking to its propa-
gation on a commercial scale. Early in the I7th century the forests
of Virginia began to contribute black walnut logs for export to England
and since then this wood has been a valuable article of commerce. In
1909, 210 sawmills cut 2 1-3 million feet. The dark brown heartwood
which was a rich color and takes an attractive finish, is prized for
furniture, fixtures, gun stocks, sewing machines and cabinet work.

Butternut is a species of "walnut" sometimes called white walnut.
Its eastern range limit ends in the miountans of western Virginia. The
difference in the size and shape of the rough shelled nuts from those

OF VIRGINIA

of the black walnut will easily distinguish the tree. The butternut is
elongated and smaller than the round black walnut. In the wood,
color of the heartweed differentiates the two. The white walnut
heartwood is light gray-brown.

CUCUMBER

Virginia and West Virginia together cut a very large per cent of
the cucum'ber timber reported in 1909. This tree frequents the moun-
tain slopes and grows to large and symmetrical proportion and is of
handsome appearance. It is a member of the magnolia family and its
fruit is somewhat similar in form and appearance to cucumbers. The
appearance and physical qualities of the wood so resemble yellow poplar
that the uses of the two are nearly identical, and as a rule in commerce
no distinction is made. Owing to this it is probable that the manu-
factures used more cucumber than the table shows and reported it as
yellow poplar.

RED CEDAR

Red cedar is a widely distributed tree growing in practically all
of the States north of the Gulf State region. In Virginia it is found
throughout the State. Large matured trees are most abundant, but
scattered, in the western part. Although other juniper woods are used,
red cedar meets almost the entire demand for lead pencil material and
for this purpose much of it is shipped abroad, the demand for such
wood greatly exceeding the supply. Furniture, mothproof chests, and
woodenware, are other commodities manufactured from this wood in
Virginia. The wood is very desirabh and finds its greatest demands
for fence posts.

PACIFIC COAST WOODS

Douglas fir is often spoken of in the Eastern States as Oregon
spruce or western fir. It is neither a true spruce nor fir, as the tree
is more nearly related to the hemlocks. The wood resembles yellow
pine and is a competitor of it, especially for rough construction. Its
presence, therefore so far from home, in a principal yellow pine State
is quite indicative of the future of the wood in the eastern markets.
Three-quarters of a million feet of Douglas fir come to the manufac-
turers of Virginia annually from the Oregon and Washington forests,
but according to reports of the wood-using industries of those States,
the Oregon and Washington manufacturers do not report using any
yellow pine. The cut of yellow pine in the country at large is the only
one which exceeds Douglas fir. The yellow pine production, however,
is the combined cut of seven species, but the yield of Douglas fir is

32 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

from a single species. Douglas fir trees are noted for their great size
and from them timbers of exceptional width and length are sawed.
Ship builders use the most in Virginia.

Sugar pine resembles white pine and to meet the same uses as the
upper grades of white pine it was brought to Virginia from the Pacific
Coast Region. The range of this tree is confined almost to one State.
Tt extends but a short distance beyond the northern boundary of Cali-
fornia, in Oregon.

The western red cedar is indigenous to our northwest adjacent
continental territory and Alaska, and is the third Pacific Coast wood
according to quantity shown in this report.

OTHER WOODS

Cherry is very scattered over the western part of Virginia and only
21 sawmills reported cutting small quantities in 1909. The Virginia
manufacturers purchased little of the State's cut, as 97 per cent of the
cherry used came from Maryland and West Virginia. Next to walnut
it is the highest priced domestic wood reported in Virginia.

The yellow or sweet buckeye tree, a native of the mountains, is
the species most commonly cut as lumber in Virginia, although the
Ohio buckeye is also found growing in this State in comparatively small
quantities. These trees while of the same family as the horse chest-
nut so commonly seen as a shade tree are a different species.

Sassafras is noted as the tree having leaves of many shapes and
sizes. It bears clusters of blue berries which ripen in Virginia, in
August. In Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky and Tennessee and
further south it reaches proportions of from three to occasionally five
feet in diameter. The stand is infrequent and not over one-half mil-
lion feet was sawed into lumber last year. Sassafras wood is verv
durable.

FOREIGN WOODS

Some foreign woods are purchased by Virginia manufacturers.
Mahogany leads, with nearly one-half million feet. Teak wood comes
next in quantity and surpasses in amount that used by Illinois wood
users, or by the manufacturers of any of the twelve States for which
reports similar to this has been completed. It was imported from Cey-
lon, India, and Siam. Spanish cedar is not a coniferous tree like the
native cedars nor is it related. It has broad leaves and grows in tropi-
cal countries. The small quanity of this wood used by the cigar box
makers in Virginia was reported as shipped from the West Indies.
The highest price was paid for rosewood sent from Central America.

OF VIRGINIA 33

Walnut from the Philippine Islands, white mahogany from the west
Coast of Mexico, and silver ava, unidentified as to species and origin,
are species which so far have not appeared in any other wood using
industry report.

INDUSTRIES

An industry as considered in this report embraces all the factories
in the State which make similar or closely related wooden commodities.
For example, while 472 manufacturers furnished the information for
this report, they have been grouped into twenty-three Industries or
classes. The same headings which group the Virginia manufacturers
have been, and will continue to be, used in preparing similar reports
for other States. Where the making of a product for a specific use
is a distinct business, though the classification of it would be permissible
under a more general heading, a separate division or industry was re-
cognized. For instance, cigar boxes and veneer fruit and vegetable
baskets, or packages, can properly be classified under box making;
but in Virginia a number of manufacturers specialize in making one
or the other commodity and in consequence the data concerning the
material used will be presented in separate industry tables. For the
same reason the chair factories have been classified separately from the
furniture factories.

In collecting the data for this report, the Forest Service assured
Virginia manufacturers that in the compilation of the report informia-
tion on individual concerns would not be revealed. To make this rule
effective, where there were less than three manufacturers making the
same products, they were not grouped into a separate industry as was
the case where more than three reported. Instead of discarding the
data in these cases the reports were grouped together and indiscrim-
inately' compiled under a general heading, Miscellaneous.

Table 3 sets forth the comparative quantities and value of the wood
independent of kind used by the twenty-three industries and gives the
amounts and prices of the material grown at home and that shipped
in from other lumber producing regions.

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

TABLE 3.— SUMMARY BY INDUSTRIES OF WOOD USED IN VIRGINIA.

Quantity used annually.

INDUSTRIES

Total
Feet B. M.

Per
cent

Average
cost per
1,000 feet
f . o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown
in
Va.
Per cent

Grown
out of
Va.
Per cent

Boxes

413 371 667

46.22

$11 96

$ 4 944 636 33

60 50

39 50

Planing-mill products...
Cars and locomotives
Sash, doors and general
mill work

223.337,762
51,293,031

44,295 940

24.97
5.73

4.95

14.71
17.96

24 27

3,232,026.75
921.168.25

1 075 293 32

49.70
16.29

55 06

50.30
83.71

44 94

Paring wood blocks and

27,552,000

3.08

17 56

486 585 00

22 20

77 80

20 207 800

2 26

22 15

447 244 90

70 50

29 50

Baskets and fruit and
vegetable pkgs
Vehicles and vehicle parts

19,657,330
17,487,150
15 364 661

2.20
1.96
1 72

13.01
27.30
14 34

255,713.97
477,340.63
220 232 21

47.95

71.37 .
90 03

52.05
28.63
9 97

Ship and boat bldg
Woodenware, novelties,
matches
Excelsior

11,138,497

10,545,000
6 032 000

1.25

1.18
67

40.46

16.93
8 48

449,691.78

178,575.00
51 159 50

10.26

39.06
100 00

89.74
60.94

Fencing and gates . . .
Insulator pins, etc
Fixtures

6,925,000
5,875,218
3,068,650

.77
.66
.34

12.72
21.06
37.30

75,492.50
123,730.36
114,352.75

91.84
51.42
34 12

8.16

48.58
65 88

Handles

2 993 000

21 75

65 093 50

96 66

3 34

Agricultural implements
Caskets and coffins
Poulterers' supplies . . .
Chairs

2,404,000
1,566,346
647,400
f 70 000

.27
.18
.07
09

22.18
17.08
18.34
17 44

53.414.50
26,534.64
14,120.00
11,282 75

89.06
82.59
79.22
45 94

10.94
17.41
20.78
54 06

Shuttles

631 400

13 71

g 647 40

100 00

454,550

.05

21 93

9 992 55

66 00

34 00

Patterns

130 800

82 74

10 840 00

16 82

83 18

3Iiscellaneous

8,692,700

.97

19.36

167,753.40

51.02

48.98

Totals

894,441,902

100.00

$15 00

$13,420,921 99

54.14

45 86

Only two industries, the shuttle block makers and the excelsior
factories, procured all their wood from Virginia forests. Seven report
using more imported than home-grown lumber. The average cost of
material coming from outside in every industry amounted to more than
wood purchased from the Virginia sawmills.

The material whicK went into boxes cost less than that for any
other industry except excelsior. The highest average price was paid
for lumber used for "patterns" by founclrymen. The ship and boat
building material and the lumber going to the makers of store and office
fixtures, were the next highest-priced material reported in the order
named. The total amount of money paid for raw material by all the
industries was more than $15,000,000.

OF VIRGINIA

Virginia's importance as a wood-consuming State, compared with
the other States so far studied by the Forest Service, is as follows :

State Feet B. M.

Illinois 1,781,536,000

Arkansas ' 1,361,300,000

Ivouisiana i,354>954,ooo

Michigan 1,282,561,200

Wisconsin 930,382,000

VIRGINIA 894,441,000

Texas 762,336,112

Alabama 726,816,900

North Carolina 676,166,000

Mississippi 618,270,000

Massachusetts 549,320,000

Missouri 443,273,600

New Hampshire 422,904,000

Tennessee 413,878,167

Kentucky 409,634,000

Washington 337>555>ooo

Oregon . '. 296,792,000

Maryland 284,347,000

Vermont 206,078,000

Connecticut 1 10,051,000

BOXES

There has been quite an evolution in box making. Not long ago
little attention was paid to the character of packages and crates, so
long as the wood used was sufficiently strong and cheap. That boxes
were made from rough lumber and of material, often unnecessarily
thick and heavy, was a matter of little concern. Various widths and
several kinds of lumber independent of color often went into the same
crate. To-day manufacturers and merchants use care and attempt to
show as much character in their packages as they do in other details
connected witH business. Woods of uniform color and width, of proper
thickness, weight and strength, easily nailed, are selected and made
into symmetrical attractive looking packages. By the characteristic
.appearance of their box or crate they purpose that the passer may
recognize the brand or make of goods contained in it, without further
identification.

There are three clases of box makers. The first class buy rough
lumber and manufacture boxes complete ready for use. These are sold

36 WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

usually to meet the local demand. In Virginia, this demand is exten-
sive, owing to the large and varied manufacturing enterprises and many
wholesale jobbing concerns and distributing houses located in the
several large cities. This class also make packages of special design
which are sold and shipped out of the State already assembled. The
lock cornered, wire-bound, dovetailed, re-shippers, and the veneer boxes
are examples. The second class are those who purchase shocks in
stock sizes and make boxes for local demand by merely assembling
and nailing the shocks together without changing the form of the wood
by any further process of manufacture. These were not asked for
information as they do not come within the scope of this study. Fac-
tories manufacturing only box shocks make up the third class. From
the standpoint cf the quantity of material consumed, the size of the
factories, and! tlhe capital invested, this class of 'box makers in Vir-
ginia are the most important. They probably produce more shocks
than similar manufacturers in other States. The shocks are carefully
made so they readily and neatly fit when nailed together, and to facil-
itate assembling the box they are systematically bundled. The Vir-
ginia shook makers most often purchase their raw material in log form,
but some of them buy the low grades of lumber from sawmills. This
material if not serviceable for boxes would likely be a total loss and
consigned to the burner.

Virginia leads all other States so far as studied in the amount of
wood used for boxes. Seventeen important lumber consuming States,
have been studied by the Forest Service, and the following tabulation
shows their comparative standing and the three principal woods used
for boxes according to quantity.

{Yellow poplar

Virginia

-.413,371,576 feet

Yellow pine

Red gum

{White pine

Illinois

. . 372,025,000 "

Red gum

Cottonwood

{White pine

Massachusetts

...351,941,350 "

Spruce

Hemlock

! White pine

Michigan

..232,111,486 "

Beech
Hemlock

4 White pine

New Hampshire..,

,..199,075,000 "

•) Spruce

( Norway pine

{Yellow pine

Maryland

,..136,273,000 "

Cotton gum

White pine

{White pine

Wisconsin

..119,267,000 "

Basswood

Hemlock

OF VIRGINIA

Missouri

111,664,699 feet

( Red gum

Kentucky ....

109,567,000 "

( Yellow pine
i Yellow poplar

Arkansas

105,552,000 "

Cottonwood
!Red gum

Red oak

,.T . f Sitka spruce

\Y ashmgton 95,036,500 " 4 Western hemlock

I Western yellow pii
( Sitka spruce

Oregon 77,946,000 " -j Western white pine

( Western hemlock
( Yellow pine

North Carolina 68,064,000 " J Red gum

( Tupelo

( Cottonwood

Louisiana 56,004,500 " -{ Red gum

Birch willow
White pine

Vermont 40,249,000

Mississippi 39,295,093

Spruce
Balsam fir
Cottonwood
Red gum

Yellow pine
( Red gum

Alabama 22,442,000 " ^ 1 Longleaf pine

( Tupelo

Box makers do not demand one kind of wood greatly in excess
of others. It will be seen that the predominating species used differs
in different regions, usually according to the abundant local stand of
suitable woods. All States within reach of the white pine country
work up most of their boxes from this wood. The cottonwood in the
southern Mississippi Valley, Sitka spruce on the Pacific Coast and red
gum in Missouri, Arkansas, Alabama, and Kentucky lead in their re-
spective regions.

In Virginia and North Carolina yellow pine meets the greatest de-
mand. Nearly 87 per cent of the total is of this wood divided among
four species, loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, scrub pine and longleaf pine.
Except the longleaf shipped in from Georgia and South Carolina, a
large portion of the supply of the yellow pines is furnished by second
growth timber on old field stands. These trees owing to their rapid
growth have a large per cent of sapwood. This timber is light in color,
soft and strong and generally a most satisfactory' box material. Scrub
pine is growing in favor with the box makers on account of its abund-
ance, cheapness, and suitable properties. It is used for only low-grade
boxes. In Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey, like Virginia, more
of this timber is worked into boxes than for any other purpose in manu-
facture.

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

Red gum timber is plentiful in and near Virginia, and in price is
approximately as reasonable >as for loblolly and shortleaf pine. The
merits of red gum, as material for boxes, has been recognized by the
box makers, and in Virginia next to yellow pine they use it more than
any other wood. The heart wood is often laid aside and used for
packages for exporting goods. Being the principal troe for the rotary
veneer cutting machines, red gum furnishes much of the material go-
ing into veneer boxes.

When provisions are shipped in containers in contact with the wood
they are made from lumber which does not have a tendency to impart
a taste or odor. The resinous properties of the yellow pine and the
gums do not fit them for this use, but, instead, the yellow poplar, cy-
press, spruce, and sycamore meet the demand. Chestnut too was called
on for this purpose. It was used for meat and cheese boxes. Spruce
and yellow poplar in the order named were the principal material for
butter boxes, while fresh fish and oysters were packed in boxes made
principally from yellow poplar and cypress.

Reshippers are extensively manufactured in Virginia. They are
a strong constructed high-grade box crate used for carrying glass
bottles, principally soda water, beer, table water and milk
bottles. Reshippers have to stand much wear and rough handling
and must be made from a strong compact wood. Tupelo has proven
most serviceable and was most extensively used. Red gum, cypress,
chestnut, and yellow poplar were also worked into reshippers. White
pine, sap gum (red gum) and tupelo were reported as the leading
woods for interlocking and dovetailed boxes. Strong packages in
which projectiles are shipped were made exclusively of longleaf pine.

TABLE 4.— BOXES.

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD.

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f . o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M.

215.743,667
96,336,000
37,549,500
15,786.000
14,431,000
10,550,000
8,924,500
4,156.000
3,816,000
3,634.000
1,510.000
500,000
250,000
100,000
60,000
15,000
10,000

413,371,667

$11.94
12.09
11.27
11.65
13.26
8.33
13.08
10.21
15.70
11.80
29.81
10.20
17.00
9.00
12.41
14.00
17.00

$11.96

$2,574,672.28
1,165,258.84
423,177.23
183,915.00
191,318.18
87,900.00
116,672.00
42,415.50
59.923.50
42,899.00
45,110.00
5,100.00
4,250.00
900.00
745.00
210.00
170.00

132,300,667
40,708,000
37,549,500
10,487,000
10,029,000
9,300,000

'sie^ooo

2,529,000
2,854,000

83,443,000
55,628,000

Shortleaf pine

Red gum

5,299,000
4,402,000
1,250,000
8,924,500
514,000
1,287,000
780,000
1,510,000
250,000

Yellow poplar

Cotton gum (Tupelo)

Longleaf pine » . . . .

Chestnut

Cypress

Black gum

250,000
250,000
100,000
60,000
15,000
10,000

Hemlock

Red oak

Basswood (linn)

Ash

Totals

$4,944,636.33

250,084,167

163,287,500

ILLUSTRATION IV. A RAFT OF LONG LEAF PINE LOGS WAITING
TO BE SAWED AND WORKED INTO RLANING MILL PRODUCTS.

OF VIRGINIA

PLANING MILL PRODUCTS

A large part of the lumber, before leaving the region where it is
cut, is further manufactured into flooring, ceiling, siding, stock mould-
ing, base-boards, roofers, and other matched boards. It is the material
consumed for making these planing-mill products in Virginia which
the statistics in Table 5 represent. Many large sawmills in this State
have planing-mill departments. These and independent planing-mills
using bought lumber are the factories which contributed the information
of this industry.

Based on the quantity of wood used, this class of manufacturers
is the second largest in Virginia. The box makers reported nearly 47
per cent of the total further manufactured as compared with a little
over 20 per cent by the planing mills. In North Carolina the adjoining
State, the situation is reversed; the planing mills used four times the
quantity consumed by the box makers. ,

Eighteen kinds of wood were required to make the products of this
industry. Loblolly pine heads the list as to quantity and cost. This
was also the principal planing-mill wood as shown by the Maryland
and North Carolina reports. Shortleaf pine is the second wood in
Virginia in importance, and, with loblolly, comprises more than four-
fifths of the total Longleaf pine and scrub pine are the other species
of yellow pine reported. The former, cut almost entirely in other
States, was extensively used by Virginia planing-mills and the price
paid for it was the highest of any woods except walnut. The latter
grew altogether in Virginia and was next to the cheapest wood.

The kinds of lumber used for flooring were loblolly, longleaf and
Shortleaf pine, oak, beech, sugar maple, sweet birch, and chestnut.
Of the yellow pines, longleaf pine is the superior floor wood, being
stronger, harder, and more resinous. It goes into flooring for public
buildings where it is subject to excessive wear. It also serves as an
ornamental flooring. Waxed and polished, it presents an attractive
appearance and is used exposed like hardwood floors. Cheaper grades
of flooring are generally made from loblolly and shortleaf pine, al-
though commodities made from the old growths of these wods, es-
pecially the edge grained flooring, wear well and meet a wide demand.

Next to yellow pine more oak finds its ultimate form in planing-
mill products than any other wood, and flooring is the chief commodity
made from it. Its qualities of hardness, strength, and beauty of grain
admirably fit it for this use. Oak flooring was quite extensively made
from quarter-sawed lumber. Manufacturers in other States use it
with birch, maple, black walnut, mahogany, and red gum to form

4O WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

fancy designs known as parquetry flooring. More oak is used for
parquetry floors than any other wood.

In Virginia, as in the" northeastern States, beech flooring is growing
in popularity. Large quantities of the mountain trees were cut for this
use, but most of the supply came from from -outside the State, mostly
from West Virginia, The large amounts of 'home-grown birch and
maple going into flooring was quite surprising. Chestnut flooring is
recommended for porch floors owing to its durability when exposed to
the elements.

The properties of absorbing and holding paint better than any
other wood makes yellow poplar especially serviceable for siding.
Nearly two million feet were converted into this commodity. Based
on the quantity used, loblolly pine was the leading wood for siding in
Virginia. It is cheaper than yellow poplar, more convenient, and made
as most of it is from the sapwood of old-field growths, it readily takes
and holds paint. White pine, cypress, hemlock, scrub pine, and small
quantities of basswood and buckeye also served in Virginia for siding.
Scrub pine lumber has many tight knots. The use of this wood by
the planing-mills was mostly for making cheap barn siding.

For interior trim, such as door and window mouldings, baseboards,
and quarter-sawed stuff, the variety of figure of the loblolly or Virginia
pine makes it preferable to longleaf, besides being easier for the car-
penter to fit and nail. Yellow poplar and basswood are the woods
worked into these commodities for painted work. Of the hardwoods
chestnut, red oak, and white oak lead the moulding woods in quantity.
Ash, cypress, walnut, and birch were the other woods serving for in-
terior trim. Like flooring and siding, finish is worked up into stock
patterns and bundled ready for the market. It will be noted no red
gum in Virginia was so used, although the Missouri and Mississippi
reports show that this wood was in large demand for this purpose.
In Louisiana, large quantities of tupelo served for making finish.
The Pacific Coast States have still different woods for meeting the
demands for interior work. Douglas fir, western hemlock (a species
different from the eastern hemlock), and western yellow pine were
the leaders. ' These are the cheap softwoods because very abundant,
but they possess an attractive grain. Sitka spruce and western reJ
cedar are other conifers answering for this use, while the hardwoods
most extensively used are Oregon maple, western birch, and red alder.

Roofers in Virginia were manufactured exclusively from yellow
pine. Loblolly, shortleaf, and scrub pine were the species meeting
the demand. These sheeting boards are made only from low grades
of lumber.

OF VIRGINIA

TABLE 5.— PLAN ING- MILL PRODUCT.

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD.

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M.

Loblolly pine

113,656,762
62,038,000
8,505,000
4,930,000
4 845,000
1,985,000
1,831,000
1,690,000
397,000
1,233.000
1,175,000
519,000
204,000
147,000
97,000
40,000
25,000
20,000

$13.24
13.64
18.51
33.96
18.01
21.98
17.51
23.21
9.27
18.86
10.55
19.07
10.20
15.58
27.99
18.12
14.00
43.75

$1,767,264.25
846.310.00
157,464.50
167,425.00
87,245.50
43,633.50
32,058.00
39,225.00
36,820.00
23,249.00
12,400.00
9,897.00
2,080.00
2,290.00
2,715.00
725.00
350.00
875.00

76,474,000
20,118.000
4,851,000
40,000
3,234,000
1,485,000
824,000
1,410,000
172,000
508,000
1,175,000
216,000
202,000
147,000
62,000
40,000
25,000
10,000

57,182,762
41,920,000
3,654.000
4,890.000
1,611,000
5,000,000
1.007,000
280,000
225.000
725.000

Jted oak

Beech

Sweet birch

303.000
2.000

Ash

35,000

Walnut

10.000

223,337,762

$14.71

$3,232,026.75

110,993,000

112,344,762

CARS AND LOCOMOTIVES

The building and repair of cars in Virgnia is a most important
enterprise. The quantity and cost of the lumber required made it the
third largest of industries. Besides freight cars of all kinds, passen-
ger and baggage cars, cabooses, and contractors, and mining dump
cars, Virginia manufacturers use part of the material listed in Table
6 for constructing locomotive cabs and for other parts of locomotives
where wood is essential. Lumber is used by railroads for grade
crossings, bridges, depot platforms, trestles, cattle guards, and many
other purposes, but this wood was not included in this table nor in
this report. It serves for these uses as rough lumber without any
necessary change in its form other than trimming and fitting by hand.

Longleaf pine, loblolly, and shortleaf, together furnished more
than four-fifths of the total requirements of the car makers. Longleaf,
according to amount used, was the most important wood. In many
caises its uses for framing were similar to those of oak. It went into
sills, body bolsters, and side plates. Besides this, it was used for ridge
poles, car lining, belt rails, and body posts, and with loblolly and short -
leaf pine, for siding, flooring or decking, roof boards, and linings.

The strength of white oak and red oak makes these woods almost
indispensable for car building, white oak being the more favored and
used to a greater extent than red. Both of them went in the frame
work of passenger and freight cars. The principal uses were for draft
timbers, engine beams, tie beams, platforms, truck bolsters, and parts

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

of the truck. Sidings or side panels of passenger cars were made of
yellow poplar, though ash, too, answered for this purpose. Plain and
quartered oak and ash were the principal woods for inside finish, yel-
low poplar, cherry, white pine, and mahogany, walnut and birch were
the other woods contributing to the cabinet work.

Ash, poplar, and Douglas fir were the woods used in building the
principal parts of locomotive cabs. The floors of the cabs were m-ade
of maple, and the bumpers, pilots, and other wood parts of engines
were made from oak, principally white oak.

TABLE 6.— CAR AND LOCOMOTIVE CONSTRUCTION.

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD.

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1.000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Va.
Grown in

Feet B. M.

of Va.
Grown out

Feet B. M.

35,832,521
5,953.039
4,457,500
2,682,371
1,084,000
1,026,800
102,500
90,000
35,000
24,700
4,000
600

51,293,031

$16.45
19.70
17.79
16.22
18.39
46.45
144.23
56.40
115.00
63.20
40.00
70.00

$589,714.25
117,148.00
77,675.00
43,453.00
19,938.00
47,714.00
14,695.00
5,075.00
4,025.00
1,529.00
160.00
42.00

35,832,521
3,148,03ft
2,083,500
802,300
104,000
711,800
102,500
90,000
35.000
24,700
4,000
600

White oak

2,805',000
2,374,000
1,880,071
980,000
315,000

Bed oak

Loblolly pine

Shortleaf pine

Yellow poplar

Ash

White pine

Walnut

Totals . . . t

$17.96

$921,168.25

8,354,071

42,938,960

SASH, DOORS, AND GENERAL MILLWORK

Information of material classified under Table 7 was reported by
manufacturers making sash, doors, blinds, window and door frames,
and general millwork such as is needed for porches, cornices, stairwork,
specially designed interior trini, mantels, and grills. The line sepa-
rating these factories from those described under Table 5, doing only
general planing-mill business is clearly drawn as long as these special
lines are adhered to. But when considering information furnished
by factories which make all or a part of the products grouped under
both industries, as in the case of small planing mills which supply
local demand, it was difficult to correctly separate the information.
In these instances arbitrary action was necessary and was exercised
by those who did the field work guided by approximations gained
from practical men.

More than 55 per cent of all the wood used by the factories grouped
under this industry was grown in Virginia. Loblolly pine furnisheJ
the largest portion of the home-grown wood, and was first in quantity

OF VIRGINIA 43

of the 27 different species demanded. More white pine, cucumber,
and buckeye was reported by this industry than any other, and the
second largest amount of all the cypress, sweet birch and basswood,
used in the State went to these factories. It is logical that sash and
doors should be extensively manufactured in Virginia as suitable woods
for making them grow plentifully in this and adjacent States. For
doors, loblolly and shortleaf pine, longleaf pine, cypress, red oak, and
white oak, chestnut, white pine and mahogany were most largely
demanded. The North Carolina door as it is called by the trade is
made from loblolly and shortleaf pine cut in Virginia and North
Carolina. It forms commercially one of the most important articles
of commerce produced by Virginia factories. These doors find a market
in many States besides supplying a large foreign demand. The prin-
cipal sash woods, both for stock sash and for specially designed work,
such as store fronts, were white and loblolly pine. Much of the white
pine: was State grown and only a small part of the imported wood
came from the white pine regions of the Lake States. Other species,
including hardwoods, also served for making sash, and among them
sugar pine grown in California. Sugar pine resembles white pine and
has many uses in common with it.

Outside finish was extensively worked from loblolly and shortleaf
pine because most convenient. These pines, especially the second
growth, have less resin and are therefore better for holding paint.
Yellow poplar, cypress, white pine, cucumber, and basswood were also
contributors in this line and possibly are the best qualified of all eastern
woods for exterior work. Douglas fir, the second Pacific Coast wood
appearing in this industry, also served for outside work, but was re-
ported in only small quantities. Its suitability for this purpose is
shown by the quantity of it going into exterior building construction
in the western and central States.

The hardwoods met a large demand for interior trim, such as
mouldings, wainscoting, stairways, mantels, and colonnades. As
would naturally be supposed, the Virginia oaks contributed the largest
part of the material, with chestnut second. Sweet birch was the third
important hardwood and all but a very limited quantity came from the
Lake States. The other cabinet woods were red gum, sugar maple,
mahogany, sycamore, ash, walnut, and cherry. For painted work in-
side, yellow poplar was probably most generally used, though buck-
eye in the western part of the State served with it. Loblolly pine and
cypress constituted the largest supply of the softwoods for interior
trim. The prominent attractive grain of these woods allows them to
be used, varnished and finished in the natural. The largest part of

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

the supply of the cypress was imported from South Carolina and
Florida.

TABLE 7.— SASH. DOORS, BLINDS, AND GENERAL MILL WORK.

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD.

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1.000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M.

Loblolly pine

14,308,500
6,859,440
5.435,000
5,015,000
4,067,500
2.525,000
1,312,000
1,208,000
995,000
369,000
320 000
271 0(.0
179 000
155,000
150,000
130.000
130,000
115,000
68,000
55,000
22,500
27,000
25,000
25,000
10,500
9,500
5,000
4,000

$20.99
25.43
26.04
21.59
26.17
38.40
23.83
31.87
12.64
20.28
17.89
45.69
31.90
26.48
18.00
13.69
17.35
25.54
68.53
12.73
167.20
19.35
17.50
48.50
54.00
23.68
18.00
37.00

$ 298,617.00
174,452.42
141,532.50
108,268.00
106.475.00
96,062.40
31,250.00
38,716.00
12,580.00
17,619.00
5,725.00
12,383.00
5,710.00
4,005.00
2,700.00
1,780.00
2,255.00
2,937.50
4,660.00
700.00
3,690.00
522.50
437.50
1,212.50
540.00
225.00
90.00
148.00

11,455,000
2,711,465
50,000
2,863,000
2,803,500
115,000
1,111,000
740,000
995,000
711,000
220,000
14,000
42,000
105,000
75,000
60,000
130,000
65,000

55,000

2,853,500
4,147,975
5,385,000
2,152,000
1,264,000
2,410,000
201,000
468,000

'"iss'.ooo

100.000
257,000
137,000
50,000
75,000
70,000

White pine

Longleaf pine

Shortleaf pine

Yellow poplar

Cypress

Red oak

White oak

Scrub pine

Basswood (linn)

Sweet birch

Maple

Ash

Cucumber

Hemlock

Beech

50,000
68,000

'"22,500

Sugar pine

Buckeye

Sycamore

27,000
25,000

'"7^500
9,500

Douglas fir

25,000
3,000

Walnut

Hickory

Cherry

5,000
4,000

19,905,975

Bed cedar

Totals

$44,295,940

$24.27

$1,075,293.32

24,389,965

WOOD-PAVING BLOCKS AND CONDUITS

The articles belonging to this industry are used for municipal
improvements. Conduits are used in underground construction for
the distribution of electric power and telephone service. .The terra
cotta conduits have until within recent years met the entire demand
as wood ducts were not practical owing to their being subject to decay
when in contact with the ground. The development of successful
methods for the prevention of decay by impregnation of the wood with
creosote and other antiseptic solutions has increased the life of woods
as much as double its natural life. This has led to the adoption of
wood conduits. The demand for them is growing, and owing to
their being more moderate in price, lighter in weight, more economical
to lay, and less liable to break, they have entered into active competi-
tion with the clay conduit. The underground telegraph line recently
completed from Boston to Washington, D. C., at a cost of three and
one-quarter million dollars is laid in wood ducts the entire distance.

OF VIRGINIA

These ducts are usually 4^ inches square, random lengths, and
have a 3 inch hole bored through. Large conduits with three and four
openings are also made and used for underground municipal distribution.
Loblolly pine and shortleaf pine were the woods reported for making
conduits. These woods being soft and porous are especially desirable
for their easy impregnation with creosote.

Wood blocks for paving city streets are gaining in favor. In
1910 the Census figures show that 770 miles of street in this country
were wood paved. This is an increase in two years of more than 15
per cent. Prevention of decay by creosoting has also been the chief
factor in stimulating the demand for wood pavement. Longleaf yellow
pine shipped in from Georgia, Florida, and Alabama was the prin-
cipal species reported, and until lately has been considered the most
practical wood for successfully meeting this use. Water or black
gum (Nyssa bifora) is the other paving wood mentioned. The table
shows that over a million feet was used last year. Being a cheap hard-
wood of compact structure with adaptability for absorbing preserva-
tives, water gum blocks are destined to grow in popularity. Creo-
soted railroad ties made from this wood were used in the new tunnel
recently built by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company under the Hud-
son River in preference to ties made from other more expensive woods.

The manufacture of creosoted paving blocks and conduits is a
most important industry in Virginia. In quantity of wood consumed
it stood third in the list of the industries and its products were widely
distributed over many States. The conduits for the underground line
from Boston to New York to Washington, D. C., mentioned above,
were made by Virginia factories.

TABLE 8.— PAVING WOOD BLOCKS AND CONDUITS.

Total qua

ntity used

annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown In
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
ofVa.

Feet B. M.

11 700 000

$21 18

$ 247,700 00

11,700 000

Shortleaf pine

11,302,000

14.82

166,960.00

3,767,000

7,535,000

3 500 000

15 00

52,500.00

2,000,000

1,500,000

Black gum

1,050,000

18.50

19.425.00

350,000

700,000

Totals

27,552.000

$17.66

$ 486,585.00

6,117,000

21,435,000

FURNITURE

Table 9 shows the kinds of woods consumed for furniture in
1911, their quantities and prices. According to the total amount of
these woods, this industry holds sixth place among the industries

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

treated in this report. These statistics include products of factories
making all kinds of furniture except chairs and to a limited extent
those making furniture parts, as built-up dresser, chiffonier, and table
tops, pianels, bed slats, and drawer sides.

A number of Virginia manufacturers make only a distinct line of
goods like kitchen safes, tables, wardrobes, or couches and lounges.
This tendency to specialization in furniture making is becoming more
widespread, it makes for economy and benefits both consumer and
manufacturer. However, the number of concerns making single lines
of goods in Virginia was not large enough to permit the grouping of
them into separate and distinct industries.

The following (tabulation shows the quantities of the principal
woods used by the manufacturers of furniture in each of sixteen States
studied by the Forest Service :

Oak
M ft.

Maple
Mft.

Birch
Mft.

R. gum
Mft.

Yellow
Poplar
Mft.

D. fir
Mft.

Chestnut
Mft

North Carolina
Illinois

134,500
58 490

16 886

16 444

14,500 i
22,500

[

4,500

Michigan

30,883

9,095

21 720

26 532

Massachusetts

16,722

8,563

Virginia

13 878

2,729

13 358

4 181

11*644

1 441

8,146

12,740

5 586

9 061

1 300

600

1 040

3 415

2,414

4,862

Washington

2 869

1 072

687

525

340

Merely a glance at the above figures shows that oak is preemi-
nently the furniture wood in this country. Even in States where its
stands are not plentiful it leads all other woods. Massachusetts, Illi-
nois, Maryland, and Wisconsin, are examples. In Missouri, Arkansas,
and Louisiana where red gum takes the lead, it stands second in quan-
tity used. Maple, birch, red gum, and yellow poplar, are the other
woods, probably in the order named, which, after oak, are called on
in the greatest quantities by the furniture makers.

Trees producing furniture lumber are plentiful in Virginia and
the sawmills of this State not only have more than they need for
home consumption but send away a large part of their cut to factories
in other States. In the case of oak for example, the sawmills produced

OF VIRGINIA

nearly 388 million feet but the wood using industries consumed less
than 10 per cent, and the furniture makers less than one per cent.
Compared with other States not only do the many kinds of hardwood
stands favor the Virginia manufacturers, but also the prices of lumber.
White oak cost the Massachusetts furniture makers an average of
$34-59 J tn€ Maryland report gives $31.86; the Illinois report $45.59;
the Wisconsin report $34.44.

The advancement made in gluing woods has brought about a con-
siderable change in the methods of furniture making Formerly,
nearly all parts of chiffoniers, tables, wardrobes, bureaus, sideboards,
etc., were made from solid lumber. Today these parts, by the use of
the glue pot, are frequently made from built-up lumber. Furniture
tops, for instance, are strips of various woods suitable for coring,
glued and jointed together and upon them is stuck an overlay of at-
tractively figured veneer. Door and drawer fronts are similarly made.
The sides are three-ply panels and the backs frequently two-layer stock.

In three-ply lumber the inside layer is usually a wood which takes
stain well and can be made to imitate the color of the outside wood.
Birch, red gum, maple, yellow poplar, are largely used. The outside
sheet is mahogany, oak, walnut, sycamore, tupeilo, birch, ash, red gum,
sassafras or cherry. The middle sheet, the thickest, transverse to the
grains of the other two, is a soft porous wood, such as yellow poplar,
white pine, cottonwood, basswood, cucumber, or loblolly pine, selected
for its quality to absorb and hold strongly to glue. Furniture backs
are usually made of a number of thin narrow boards neatly nailed to
the frame, and over them is stuck a thin sheet of yellow poplar, cotton-
gum, or cottonwood, which gives the appearance of a solid back. This
two-ply work is in high favor with manufacturers making moderate-
priced and high grades of furniture and is taking the place of the old
method of paneling the backs.

White oak and red oak, chestnut, loblolly and shortleaf pine and
cypress were the woods used for furniture frames. Sugar maple and
ash supplied the drawer sides and the extension table slides because
these woods have the quality of wearing smooth. Chestnut, yellow
poplar, and loblolly pine were the principal core woods. White and
red oak, ash, maple, birch, red gum, and cherry were the principal
exterior woods. White pine, yellow poplar, basswood, cotton gum, and
red gum met the demand for drawer bottoms, partitions, shelving and
other inside work.

Kitchen safes and cabinets were made from yellow poplar, tupelo,
and the low grades of oak. Ditty boxes used on board of battleships
as a place for sailors to keep their personal effects were made exclu-

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

sively from ash. More than 20 million feet of all kinds of wood went
into furniture in Virginia in 1911 and over 70 percent of it was from
State-grown material.

TABLE 9.— FURNITURE.

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M.

Red oak

6,313,500
5,884,600
2,729,100
1,065,000
830,000
745,000
603,000
578,000
520,000
239,000
234,000
107.000
96,800
84,700
75,000
30,000
25,000
22,000
13,000
12,000
1,000
100

$22.56
21.34
18.01
19.18
23.15
17.47
15.49
21.50
15.00
58.57
11.18
56.13
157.21
28.20
56.30
35.00
22.50
24.09
67.00
32.00
50.00
200.00

$142,430.00
125,504.90
49,044.50
20,430.00
19,175.00
13,015.00
9,338.00
12,419.00
7,800.00
14,070.00
2,617.00
6,026.00
15,318.00
2,369.00
4,221.00
1,050.00
562.50
530.00
871.00
384.00
50.00
20.00

4,234,000
4,595,500
2,331,533
1,065,000

'"eioiooo

528,000
553,000

'20,'000
234,000

'"is'.oo'o

2,079,000
1,289,100
297,567

White oak

Yellow poplar

Black oak

Red gum

830,000
135.000
75,000
25,000
520,000
219,000

107.000
96,800
69,700
75,000
30,000

Chestnut

Loblolly pine

Cotton gum (Tupelo)
White pine

Shortleaf pine

Ash

Mahogany

Sweet birch

Sycamore

25,000
22,000

Cherry

13,000

12,000
1,000

Walnut

100

Totals

20,207,800

$22.13

$447,244.90

14,246,033

5,961,767

BASKETS, FRUIT, AND VEGETABLE PACKAGES

In a number of the States for which wood-using industry reports
have been written/ information of woods used for making baskets,
fruit and vegetable packages was included in the industry for box mak-
ing. In Virginia as in North Carolina and Ketucky the factories
making these commodities are distinct from the box manufacturers.
The number of them justifies their grouping into a separate class. They
comprise an important industry fand according to the quantity of wood
used they are one of the seven principal groups of manufacturers
operating in the State.

The products of this industry are made almost exclusively of
veneer. The tops and bottoms of baskets and veneer barrels have to
be thicker material and are made from thin lumber which is often
sawed from cores, that part of tlhe log left after the verueer has
been removed, wood waste or made from low grades. The principal
woods reported for making veneeer packages were red gum, tupelo,
and black gum. These trees abound in the southeastern and southern
part of the State in North Carolina near Virginia's southern line.

OF VIRGINIA

Their stumpage value is lower than any other Virginia timber and
the cost of cutting them into veneer by a rotary process is the most
economical and entails less waste, it is claimed, than the manufacture
of logs in any other form]. The products of tihis industry, therefore,
can be sold at a very moderate cost, and accounts for the rapidly
growing custom of marketing provisions in individual packages.

A large amount of the wood consumed in this industry is for
making veneer barrels. In Virginia, they are used principally for
trunk and oyster barrels, though the manufacturers made them to
sell out of the State where they are used as lime barrels and for
packing and shipping queensware, glassware, and other fragile goods.
The Bureau of the Census mentions in their discussion of the statis-
tics of slack cooperage production for 1910, that the noted decline in
the quantity of staves and heading manufactured was probably largely
due to the competition of the veneer barrel, which, being cheaper, has.
taken the place of the slack barrel for many uses. Other commodi-
ties made by this industry include baskets of all kinds, crates, cups,
tills, hoppers, and venders' trays.

Red gum was the principal wood reported. More of it was used
than the combined amounts of the other six species. Black gum,
next in importance in the table, was composed both of the water gum
and the upland black gum. Owing to the confusion in the local names
of gum and the difficulty in distinguishing them from tupelo, the
figures shown in the table for black gum may include a portion of
tupelo. The quantities of tupelo reported were one-third less than
black gum. Soft elm was used for hoops on veneer barrels and small
quantities of chestnut cut thin were called on to serve as bottoms of
cabbage crates.

TABLE 10.— BASKETS AND FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PACKAGES.

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
ofVa.

Feet B. M.

13,812,000
3,490,000
1,380,000
650,330
180,000
140,000
5 000

$13.97
11.13
10.44
9.12
14.00
10.14
9 00

$192,756.00
38,648.00
14,400.00
5,924.97
2,520.00
1,420.00
45 00

6,397,667
1,507,336
546,000
650,330
180,000
140,000
5,000

7,414,333
1,982,664
834,000

White elm

Totals

19,657,330

$13.01

$255,713.97

9,426,333

10,230,597

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

VEHICLE AND VEHICLE PARTS

Table n relates to the manufacturing of vehicles and vehicle
parts. It .does not include all material going into wagons in Virginia,
as wheelwrights in nearly every city, town, and postoffice throughout
the State build a few handmade vehicles each year and to locate and
gather information from all was found impracticable. Factories rarely
make all of the component parts from rough lumber and turn out the
vehicle complete. Some buy spokes, rims, and hubs separately, but
manufacture all the rest of the vehicle. Others purchase wheels com-
plete, axles skeined and gear parts ironed and assembled, poles and
shafts ready for use, and make only bodies. Another class procure
all parts complete even the bodies and the tops and merely assemble
them.

In no other industry is specialization in manufacturing better
illustrated than in the making of vehicles. This can be accounted for
in part by the fact that vehicle parts are made from the choicest
.grades of wood and the timber most suitable for each part is often
found in widely separated localities. For instance the pole and shaft
makers find the supplies of hickory best suited for their needs in
Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas. The hub makers use the largest
•quantity of soft elm and cork elm in the northern States and Canada,
while the spoke manufacturer and the rim manufacturer are widely
distributed and operate extensively in Virginia, West Virginia, Ken-
tucky, Tennessee, and Missouri. Further, in the making of vehicle
parts, there is a great amount of waste, and to have the factories
making distinct parts located near to the source of the timber supply
makes for economy and lower prices as well as for greater efficiency
in manufacturing.

Care was exercised not to get information concerning the same
material twice. If a manufacturer bought parts of the vehicle ready
made he was asked to give data only of those parts which he actually
manufactured from rough lumber. If he operated merely to assemble
the vehicle and had only to paint and put on finishing touches, a
report was not requested, but if he was a manufacturer of vehicle
parts, special effort was made to secure the information of the material
used.

The kinds of vehicles manufactured in Virginia are buggies,
carriages, and other light personal conveyances, besides wagons for
city and country use, trucks, drays, carts, log wagons, tobacco ware-
house trucks and wheelbarrows.

This industry is of much importance in Virginia. It consumes
over seventeen million feet of wood annually and paid close to a half

OF VIRGINIA

million dollars for it. Similar industries in Kentucky, Illinois, Mis-
souri, and Wisconsin show the use of greater quantities of vehicle
wood than the Virginia manufacturers report, but of eight of the
eastern States so far studied, Virginia vehicle makers lead, followed
by North Carolina. In all the States for which reports similar to
this have been prepared, even in the Pacific Coast States, where no
hickory grows, hickory and white oak in quantity are the principal
woods used by the vehicle industries. They constitute over 76 per cent
of the total.

The hickory went into shafts, tongues, spokes, rims, axles, bol-
sters, other gear parts and whiffle-trees, and the white oak into frames
for bodies, spokes, hounds, rims, tongues, bolsters, spring bars and
hubs. Red oak's uses were similar to white oak's even to the extent
of being turned into hubs and bent into rims. Ash found its most
important service for tobacco trucks but served besides as body frames,
spring bars, tongues and ladders. Osage orange, called "bodoc" was
used for hounds. It appears in no other industry of this report.

The body woods were loblolly pine, longleaf pine, yellow poplar,
ash, red gum, cotton wood, white pine, and cottongum, basswood, and
sugar maple. Longleaf pine, sugar maple and the oaks went for the
floorings or bottoms of bodies ; the panels were made of yellow poplar,
red (sap) gum, ash, white pine and basswood, and the linings were
of loblolly pine, longleaf pine, red gum, tupelo, cypress and cotton -
wood ; ash, hickory, tupelo and poplar were reported for tops.

TABLE II.— VEHICLES AND VEHICLE PARTS.

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M. '

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M.

White oak . .

6,904,200
6,530.850
1,089,250
878,000
669,500
577,750
253,500
247,000
212.000
50,000
47,500
13,000
7,500
4,000
2,400
700

$25.80
31.53
14.04
22.34
31.32
29.70
21.15
12.74
12.74
20.00
62.12
48.00
40.13
25.50
41.80
42.00

$178,395.50
205,879.13
15,284.35
19,610.50
20,884.00
17,226.75
5,358.50
3,148.00
3.148.00
1,000.00
2,949.00
624.00
301.00
102.00
100.50
29.40

5,874,700
4,122,850
720,250
771,000
368.000
308,500

247,000
247,000
50,000
17,000

1,029,500
2,408,000
369,000
107,000
301,500
269,250
253,500

Hickory

Red oak

Yellow poplar

Ash

White pine

30,500
13,000
7.500
4,000
2,400

700

12,480,000

Totals

17,487,150

$27.30

$477,340.63

5,007,150

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

TRUNKS

In the quantity of material entering into the manufacture- of
trunks, Virginia holds a most important rank among all the States.
Seventeen States so far have been studied for wood consumption and
among these the Virginia trunk makers stand first.

A number of manufacturers do all the work from the arrival of
the rough timber to the covering, lining and varnishing of the com-
pleted trunk, but others make only the trunk boxes, and others trunk
slats, and ship their products to manufacturers in other States who put
on only the finishing touches. Loblolly and shortleaf pine being a soft
light wood and easily worked accounts for their being the principal
woods used in Virginia for trunk boxes. Yellow poplar also exten-
sively meets this use and is the favorite wood for trays and compart-
ments. These three woods compose 80 per cent of the total amount
shown in the table.

Boxes made of panels built up of three-ply veneer are rapidly
gaining favor with the trunk makers. Sheets'of red gum with a filling
or a middle transverse sheet of yellow poplar or cottonwood are the
veneers used for panels. Soft elm met the greatest part of the demand
for trunk slats, though cypress and hickory also served in this capa-
city. Eighty per cent of the wood used by this industry was home-
grown.

The Wisconsin, Illinois, and Michigan trunk makers use bass-
wood and white pine principally for trunk boxes. Much of the bass-
wood used is three-ply veneer. Slats are of white and cork elm,,
ash, and hickory. In Kentucky and Missouri, yellow pine, cypress,
buckeye, cottonwood, and red gum are extensively used for boxes
and white (soft) elm, ash, and silver maple for slats.

TABLE 12.— TRUNKS.

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
ofVa.

Feet B. M.

10,324,990
2,151,000
1,215,000
700,000
576,090
292,581
100,000
5,000

$15.34
15.45
18.00
22.85
12.50
32.11
21.00
70.00

$126,799.88
32,989.97
21,225.00
16,000.00
11,063.08
9,704.28
2,100.00
350.00

10,324,990
2,151,000
1,215,000

136,090
'"5,000

700,000
440,000
292,581
100,000

White elm (soft)

Totals

j 15,364,661

$14.34

$220,232.21

13,832,080

1,532,581

OF VIRGINIA 53

SHIP AND BOAT BUILDING

A number of deep navigable rivers and their branches, Chesa-
peake Bay, Hampton Roads, and the Atlantic Ocean, give Virginia
many miles of water front. -Large areas of the State, rich agricul-
turally and well populated, depend entirely upon boat service for their
principal means of transportation and commerce with different parts
of Virginia and with markets in other States. Virginia has a num-
ber of deep harbors. Norfolk and Newport News especially afford
natural advantages and depths, which put them in line with the fore-
most ports on the Atlantic Coast. The largest ocean vessels and men-
of-war land at their docks. It is not surprising, therefore, with such
facilities that Virginia is an important ship-building State and that this
industry is one of the principal ones. Boats of all kinds, from the
battleship and the finest oceanic liners, down to the launch and row
boat, are made by Virginia builders. In building the large seafaring
vessels steel construction has to such a large extent taken the place of
wood that lumber is now only incidental, wrhen less than a century
ago it was the most essential and in value the most important of the
materials used. Wood is still largely employed in construction of
smaller boats, for instance, for building the superstructures of river
and inland-water boats and tugs, also for scows, barges, launches,
sail boats, row boats, and canoes.

Many kinds of lumber are demanded by boat builders as the
large number of uses they serve often require woods of special quali-
ties. Table 13 shows 19 species were reported. For the keelsons,
long lengths are necessary combined with strength and elasticity.
Longleaf pine has long served this use but in recent years Douglas
fir has been growing in favor. The Oregon timber is purchased
more extensively by the boat builders than by any other Virginia wooJ-
using industry. Besides keelsons, Douglas fir is used for spars and
decking. White oak, and red oak, on account of their strength, went
into keels, keel blocks, railte, strakes, guards, and head logs.

Longleaf yellow pine, in quantity the leading wood bought by the
boat builders, meets the demand for many uses. The principal ones are
for spars, decking, deck beams, keelsons, head logs, bulk heads, and
general ship work.

Cypress is not as important a species for ship building as may be
supposed. It answers for ceiling, decking and inside finish, but is not
indispensable. Other woods, red oak, Douglas fir, spruce, shotrleaf
pine, white pine, and longleaf pine are reported for the same uses.
These woods and ash also were employed in many other parts of the

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

superstructure. West Virginia spruce was called on for spars, water,
or black gum occasionally for keels, cottonwood and shortleaf pine for
templets, and white cedar or juniper for siding of small pleasure boats.
Hickory's only demand was for handles, and locust went into spokes and
trurmels.

White and red oak, quartered and plain, -ash, cherry, mahogany,
yellow poplar, red gum, and teakwood are the cabinet woods used for
the boat's interior finish. Teakwood served for parts of the pilot
house and for armor backing. It was shipped from India. The boat
builders consume the largest quantity of mahogany of any of the in-
dustries in Virginia. It was imported from the west Coast of Africa
and from Mexico.

TABLE 13.— SHIP AND BOAT BUILDING.

Total aua

ntity used

annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M.

6 Oil 685

$34 04

$204 630 98

6 Oil 685

Shortleaf pine

1,176,165

24.10

28 327 30

536 165

640 000

White oak

874 689

34 34

30 016 21

491 837

382 852

White pine

805,489

80 05

64 439 12

805 489

Spruce

672,025

26.00

17,472.65

672,025

584 736

58 60

34 215 37

584 736

432 818

52 25

22 574 54

432 818

145 558

130 50

18 922 54

145 558

Red oak

132,000

31.90

4,210.00

102,000

30,000

Ash

102 653

60 00

6 159 18

102 653

Southern white cedar

98,113

51.71

5,068.15

98,113

42 059

200 00

8 411 80

42 059

Cherry

39,926

110 00

4,391 86

39,926

5 000

25 00

125 00

5 000

Black gum

4,190

25 00

104 75

4,190

4 026

40 00

161 04

4 026

Hickory

3 195

47 00

150 17

3 195

2 647

60 00

158 82

2 647

1 523

100 00

152 30

1,523

Totals . .

11 138 497

$40 46

$449 691 78

1 142 387

9 996 110

WOODENWARE, NOVELTIES, AND MATCHES
Pails, freezers, buckets, step ladders, lard trays, butter dishes,
calendar strips, and matches are the commodities covered by Table 14.
White cedar, juniper, and the light wood of cypress met the prin-
cipal demand for pails and ice-cream freezers. A large number of the
pails were intended for candy packing and these woods were selected
in preference to any because the source of supply is near at hand and
they have the necessary quality of imparting no taste to the goods con-
tained within them. More white cedar goes into pails than into any
other products made by Virginia factories. Horse buckets and well

OF VIRGINIA

buckets were made from white oak with bottom's of ash, while the
veneer cut from tupelo and black gum served as the material from which
butter trays, lard dishes, and wooden plates were made. More than
two-thirds of all the basswood used in the State went to factories
listed under this industry and was made into calendar strips. Of all
the American woods, white pine meets the largest demand for matches.
It is significant therefore, that the match manufacturers in Virginia
use no white pine but instead consume large quantities of basswood
and the white wood of yellow poplar.

TABLE 14.— WOODENWARE AND MATCHES.

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1.000 ft.
t. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. 0.

factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M.

White cedar

3,400.000
2,400,000
1,750,000
1.075,000
550,000
500,000
400,000
350,000
120,000

$16.68
14.00
20.57
19.04
18.00
18.00
15.00
18.00
10.00

$56,700.00
33,600.00
36,000.00
19,875.00
9,900.00
9,000.00
6,000.00
6,300.00
1,200.00

1.100,000

900,000
750,000
475,000

"'250', coo

234,000
350,000
60,000

2,300,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
600,000
550,000
250,000
166,000

White oak

Cypress

Ash

60,000

Totals

10,545,000

$16.93

$178,575.00

4,119,000

6,426.000

EXCELSIOR

Excelsior makers in Virginia used only two species of wood and
they both belong to the same family, they were scrub pine and loblolly
pine. Except for boxes, this was the principal use accorded to scrub
pine and ten per cent of the total used for manufacture in the State
went into this commodity. The raw material was purchased in the
form of bolts and reported in terms of cords. To make this table com-
parable with the others, and to enable the statistician to include it and
the items of it in the summary tables, the cords were reduced to board
feet measure and the prices changed to correspond. The price paid for
wood demanded by the excelsior makers was the lowest average cost
of any of the material delivered to any other of the industries.

The manufacture of excelsior in Virginia is confined to the section
in the northeastern part of the State. Here the stands of scrub pine
and young second growth loblolly are quite abundant. It may be that
some old-field shortleaf pine is included in these figures reported for
scrub pine, as in this section of the State the three species are found
growing associated, but the shortleaf appears only in scattered stands.

In the take States and the New England States, aspen, or popple,

WOOD- USING INDUSTRIES

and basswood are the woods used for excelsior. The best grades of
•excelsior, chiefly for upholstering are made from them. In Missouri
and Kentucky, cottonwood, buckeye, willow, and oottongum were the
principal woods serving for this purpose. The North Carolina ex-
celsior cutters preferred white pine and yellow poplar, but used large
quantities of loblolly pme. In the Pacific Coast States black cotton-
wood, western red cedar, and Sitka spruce were the favorite excelsior
woods. .' ".

TABLE 15.— EXCELSIOR.

. Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M.

Scrub pine

4,524,000
1,508,000

$ 8.48
8.48

$38,369.63
12,789,87

4,524,000
1.508,000

Totals

6,032,000

$"8.48

$51,159.50

6,032,000

FENCING AND GATES

Table 16 lists the woods used in Virginia for making fence pickets
and for constructing wire reels. The loblolly pine and the shortleaf
pine contributed all of the reel material and over six and a quarter
million feet of Virginia forests is required annually to meet the demand.
The durable properties of cypress when exposed, together with its
strength, favors it preeminently as the principal wood for pickets.
Many times more of it was used for this purpose than all the other
woods combined. The other picket woods reported were white oak,
red oak, and chestnut. The wood parts of patent fencing made of
woven wire and small pieces of wood called stubs were reported made
from cypress and chestnut. The latter being cheaper and fairly lasting
is growing in favor with the patent fence makers.

TABLE 16.— FENCING AND GATES.

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M.

Loblolly pine

5,020,000
1,255,000
565,000
50,000
25,000
10 000

$10.44
10.60
15.09
15.00
13.00
16 50

$52,420.00
13,305.00
8,527.50
750.00
325.00
165 00

5,020,060
1.255,000

"'50', GOO

25,000
10,000

Shortleaf pine

565,000

Red oak

Totals

6,925,000

$12.72

$75,492.50

6,360,000

565,000

OF VIRGINIA 57

INSULATOR PINS, BRACKETS, AND CROSS ARMS

Under Table 8 was discussed the kinds of wood used in under-
ground construction for the distribution of telephone, telegraph, and
electric power, but in Table 17 the statistics represent woods used for
the construction and manufacture of over head lines. The commodi-
ties which make up the table are cross-arms, insulator pins, and
brackets, pole steps, and tree blocks. . Telephone and telegraph poles are
not included because they do not come within the range of this study.
^Statistics concerning these products are given in Circular 9 issued by
the Bureau of the Census.

The raw material for making insulator pins and brackets was
purchased in the form of bolts and reported in terms of cords. For
convenience in tabulation the number of cords were reduced to board
feet. Locust, white oak, and hickory were the woods used, the first
named greatly exceeding in quantity the other two. The most ex-
acting demand for locust is for these commodities. Its durability in
exposed positions recommends it probably above all other woods for
this use, though white oak, owing to the scarcity of locust, is meeting
a growing demand for pin wood. In North Carolina the quantity
consumed exceeded the quantity of locust. White oak is not con-
sidered as durable an outdoor wood as locust, and for that reason
white oak pins are usually dipped in paint or in other preservative
solutions like zinc chloride or creosote oil. White oak alone was re-
ported for pole steps and tree block. Hickory pins on account of their
superior strength were used for holding the heavy porcelain insulators
used on high-tension lines.

Longleaf pine and shortleaf pine were the only woods reported for
cross-arms. Excepting a small per cent of Virginia-grown shortleaf
pine all of the cross-arm wood came from the sawmills operating in
States further South. It was purchased in the form of squares and the
operations of shaping the arms by machinery and boring holes for the
insulator pins and for the bolts holding them to the poles was simple
and rapid. All the cross-arms produced in Virginia in 1911 were im-
pregnated with the oil of creosote before they were marketed. In other
States, important woods for cross-arms are Douglas fir, cypress, spruce,
and loblolly pine.

WOOD-USING INDUvSTRlES

TABLE 17.— INSULATOR PINS, BRACKETS, AND CROSS-ARMS.

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1.000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M.

2,279,000*
1,500,000
1,321,000
750,000
25,000
218

5,875,218

$22.86
25.00
25.00
20.00
20.00
40.00

$52,200.00
37,500.00
18,026.00
15,000.00
1,000.00
4.36

1,500,000

':U246,000
250,000
25,000
218

779.000
1,500.000
75,000
500,000

White oak

Shortleaf pine

Loblolly pine

Totals

$21.06

$123,730.36

3,021,218

2,854,000

FIXTURES

Material used in Virginia for making furnishings of fixtures for
stores, offices, bar rooms, banks, and churches has been grouped under
Table 18. Owing to the close relation of the products of this'industry
with high grade interior finish, grills, and mantels made by sash and
door factories, a number of manufacturers submitted reports covering
the manufacture of commodities belonging to both industries. The
separation of the* data proved not only very difficult but the division
was more or less inaccurate in a number of cases because estimates had
lo be depended upon.

Fixtures consist of counters, show cases, soda fountains, bar
buffets, display racks, partitions, shelving, cabinets, church altars,
chancel furnishings, pews, etc. The woods used are of many varieties
chosen for their handsome figure and their quality to take a high
polish and to present an attractive finish. The average price paid for
this material was above that for any other industry except for lumber
going into ships and boats, and that used for patterns in iron foundries.

White and red oak, chestnut, sweet birch, s'hortleaf pine, ash,
black walnut, red gum, and butternut were the domestic woods; and
rosewood, mahogany, Circassian walnut and jarra the foreign woods,
used for the exterior work. They have been named in the order of
their importance as to quality, and some of them were in the form of
veneer. The interior or hidden work was served by cheaper woods.
Yellow poplar, longleaf pine, cypress, and basswood were important
ones. Western red cedar was the only Pacific Coast wood made into
fixtures and this industry the only one in Virginia reporting its use.
Jarra, a (Eucalyptus marginatn} imported from Australia, was used
for the bottom of show cases and display windows.

ILLUSTRATION VII. CYLINDER IN WHICH CROSS ARMS

TREATED.

ILLUSTRATION VIII. A LOAD OF TREATED CROSS ARMS BEING

OF VIRGINIA

TABLE 18.— FIXTURES.

Total quantity used annually. ,

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1.000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M

White oak

717.500
669,500
712,000
286,000
130,000
110,000
97,000
85,000
80,000
36,000
39,000
22,000
15,000
40,000
12,500
11,400
5.000
400
250
100

$44.33
40.30
20.44
37.10
28.10
41.25
49.33
37.09
28.00
32.99
165.10
62.23
15.00
42.50
23.04
41.80
50.00
270.00
187.00
200.00

$31.787.50
26,933.50
14,556.00
10,611.00
3,650.00
4,550.00
4,785.00
3,150.00
2,240.00
1,187.00
6,439.00
1.369.00
225.00
1 700.00
283.00
462.00
250.00
108.00
46.75
20.00

91,000
227,000
' 412.000
54.000
70,000

626,500
442.500
300,000
232,000
60,000
110.000
97.000
35,000

'"39,000
22.000

Red oak

Shortleaf pine

Yellow poplar ,

Sweet birch

50,000
80,000
36,000

Ash . ...

is'.ooo

40.000
500
11,400
5,000
400
250
100

12,000

Totals ...

3,068.650

$37.30

$114,352.75

1,047,000

2,021.650

HANDLES

More than 96 per cent of the nearly three million feet of wood
used in 1911 for making handles in Virginia comes from trees grown
in the State. Ash, based on the amount used, was the principal wood.
Most of it was reported as white ash and served for turning long tool
-handles such as are used for hoes, garden rakes, hay forks, and long
handled shovels. Quantities of it also went into short handled railroad
shovels, spades, etc.

The toughness, strength, and resiliency of hickory makes it dis-
tinctively the best suited wood for axe, pick, hammer and sledge handles,
"fto satisfactory substitute has as yet been found to compete with it
White oak is used to a limited extent, but more on account of hickory's
scarcity and high price than owing to white oak's special qualification.
The choicest butt cuts of hickory are desired by the handle makers
and rarely does any but the white or sap wood of the tree find its
way into these finished commodities. Specifications of purchasers of
large quantities of hickory handles like railroad and mining corpo-
rations seldom admit handles made wholly or in part from the heart-
wood which is most often spoken of as red hickory. Experiments
made by the Forest Service, however, show red hickory equally as
strong, weight for weight, as white hickory and highly suitable for
handles. Mallet, maul, and other small tool handles were turned both
from ash and hickory, the quantity of hickory exceeding the quantity

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

of ash. TDoubtless much waste material resulting from the manufacture
of longer handles was utilized in making these short ones, commer-
cially spoken of as edge-tool handles.

Red gum and sycamore met uses similar to the ash for the long
handles of garden tools. These woods were also demanded with white
oak, sugar maple, and sweet birch for saw handles of many and various
designs. Dogwood went into mallet handles but the particular use of
basswood handles was not mentioned. Except small quantities of
hickory and dogwood, all of the handle material grew in the State.

TABLE 19.— HANDLES.

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet 33. M.

Ash

1 718,000
992,500
80,000
55,000
50,000
40,000
25,000
20,000
12,500

$17.34
30.34
13.00
14.09
19.00
31.25
25.00
19.00
13.00

$29,781.00
30,130.00
1,040.00
775.00
950.00
1,250.00
625.00
380.00
162.50

1,718,000
942,500
80,000
5,000
50,000
40,000
25,000
20,000
12,500

'so.'ooo

H'ckory . . .

Red gum

50000

White oak

Sugar maple

Tota1"?

100,000

2,993,000

$21.75

$65,093.50

2,893,000

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS

The manufacture of plow beams, rungs, and plow handles re-
quired the largest part of the wood represented in Table 20. White
oak and red oak were the woods used, but nearly three times as much
of the former was reported as of the latter. Not all of the beamis and
plow handles made in the State are used by the Virginia plow manu-
facturers. Many are sent bundled together into other States and there
assembled with the iron parts of the plow into the finished product.
White oak supplied the largest part of the material for making whirBe-
trees and singletrees. The rest of the demand was met by hickory.

Peanut pickers, tobacco machinery, fertilizer distributors, corn,
cotton, and peanut planters and grain cradles were the other agricul-
tural implements made in Virginia which were grouped under this in-
dustry. Longleaf pine and white oak in quantity were the woods prin-
cipally employed for the peanut pickers, though the ash, and yellow
poplar having the particular qualifications for the parts for which they
were used were equally essential. Implements for tilling, harvesting,
and curing of tobacco crops possessing a few wooden parts were made

OF VIRGINIA

principally from longleaf pine, red oak, sugar maple, and cypress.
The manufacturers of fertilizer distributors and planters reported only
white oak and ash. The handles of these implements made of red gum
and ash were purchased from the plow handle makers, ready for use.
Grain cradles are manufactured from hickory and ash. The
braces and fingers were of hickory, the snathes of white ash. Ash is
also suitable for fingers and a small quantity of it was reported as so
used. Nearly two and a half million feet of lumber was the total re-
quired for making the products of this industry. Eighty-nine per cent
of it was cut from Virginia forests.

TABLE 20.— AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f . o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown In
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
ofVa.

Feet B. M.

White oak

1,464,000
i 437.000
331,000
65,000
50,000
42,000
8.000
6.000
1.000

$22.10
20.56
22.38
24.31
13.00
40.95
65.00
22.00
60.00

$32,357.50
8,985.00
7,410.00
1.580.00
650.00
1.720.00
520.00
132.00
60.00

1.400.000
437.000
211.000

5b'.000
37.000

64.000

Bed oak

Ash

120.000
65,000

'5.060
8.000

Hickory

6.000

1,000

Totals

2,404,000

$22.18

$53.414.50

2,141,00

263,000

CASKETS AND COFFINS

Only a portion of the coffins and caskets uSed in Virginia are made
in the State. Many are manufactured elsewhere and shipped in ready
for use but they are not taken into account in this report. The rest of
the demand is met by local cabinet makers who manufacture a few hand-
made coffins each year. The quantity of wood used by the cabinet
makers is very slight and as they are so widely distributed through-
out !tne State, the gathering of information from them was not at-
tempted. A few large manufacturing plants making burial cases from
a high-grade mahogany casket down to a cheap yellow poplar coffin
are the ones who consumed the largest portion of the material shown
in Table 21.

The popularity of caskets has greatly lessened the demand for
coffins. Before the time of the factory-made caskets, the coffin was
the burial case most frequently used. Black walnut served as the
principal wood for the better grades; while the cheaper coffins were,

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

as they are to-day, made from soft woods which when stained, grained
and varnished, imitate hardwoods. Coffins are irregular in shape.
They are widest near one end, corresponding to the shoulders of a
person, and from there slope towards each end. Yellow poplar is the
principal coffin wood, which with black walnut met the entire demand
in Virginia.

Caskets are rectangular. Some of them have rounded corners,
and in others, the corners are cut off and squared, giving the casket
something of an octagonal appearance. Nearly all caskets are cloth
covered, and this permits the use of low grades of lumber. Chestnut,
based on the quantity used, is the most important American casket wood-
Other caskets, usually the high-priced ones, are richly carved and
finished in the natural wood. White oak, mahogany, and walnut,
selected for their beauty of grain, served for making these. Over
three-fourths of the total reported by the Virginia casket makers was
chestnut. Red cedar, white oak, and mahogany consituted the rest.
Virginia manufacturers did not report buying cypress which is the
piincipal casket wood used in Missouri and the southern Mississippi
Valley States. In Oregon and Washington, western red cedar has
proved a most valuable wood for casket making and is used in large
quantities. Sitka spruce is also employed.

Lumber consumed for making outer cases, sometimes called rough
boxes, is included in the statistics of this industry. The woods reported
for this use by the Virginia manufacturers were chestnut, yellow poplar,
hemlock, shortleaf pine, white pine, and red cedar,.

TABLE 21.— CASKETS AND COFFINS.

•-••* • •"

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.

factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M.

Chestnut

719,896
355,000
300,000
69,450
60,000
21,000
16,000
15,000
10,000

$14.99
18.10
11.00
18.75
17.50
39.95
30.00
50.00
160.00

$10,797.45
6,425.00
3,300.00
1,302.19
1,050.00
830.00
480.00
750.00
1,600.00

583,264
305,000
300,000
69,450
10,000
10,000
16,000

136,632
50,000

50,000
11,000

i'o'.OOO
10,000

272,632

Hemlock

Shortleaf pine

White pine

Walnut

White oak

Mahogany

Totals

1.566,346

$17.08

26,534.64

1,293,714

CHAIRS

White oak and red oak constituted nearly six-seventJhs of the ma-
terial demanded by the Virginia chair makers. The prices paid for

OF VIRGINIA

these woods were over $5 and $3, respectively, less than the white and
red oak reported by the furniture manufacturers. Dining-room chairs,
rockers, and liglht bed-room chairs finished natural with wax or varnish,
constituted the principal commodities made. The increasing popu-
larity of Mission furniture in recent years, has favored the makers of
oak chairs by increasing the demand. Oak is the principal wood used
for Mission designs and a fairly large per cent of the products of the
Virginia chair factories were made after these patterns. Sugar maple
was made into turned chair stock and the ash reported went into mess
benches used on board of large vessels.

TABLE 22.— CHAIRS.

Total Quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f . o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M.

White oak

410.000
205,000
120,000
30,000
5,000

$16.92
18.30
11.50
58.00
160.00

$6,725.00
3,475.00
1,380.00
1,740.00
800.00

285,000
205,000
120,000

125,000

Red oak . . .

so'.ooo

5,000

Ash

Total

770,000

$18.34

$14,120.00

610,000

160,000

DAIRY, POULTRY, AND APIARIST SUPPLIES

Various commodities made of wood are used by the dairyman, the
poultry raiser, and the apiarist. Churns, firkins, and butter moulds are
examples of the first named; incubators, coops, and nest boxes of the
second, and beehives, their compartments, and honey shipping cases of
the third.

The only dairyman's articles manufactured in Virginia are butter
churns. Ash is the wood used; and in all of the States so far studied
for wood utilization, this kind of wood constitutes the principal churn
material. Most of the ash delivered to the Virginia factories comes
from without the State, North Carolina furnishing the largest part.

Beehives being placed in the open, exposed to the elements, are
in situations which favor decay. They are therefore usually well
painted with oil and leads before leaving the factory, which preserves
the outside, but to retard decay from the inside moisture, the natural
decay-resisting properties of the lumber used are depended upon.
Woods are selected with this point in view. Like the makers of
apiarist supplies in Wisconsin and Michigan, where probably the largest
number of beehives are made, the Virginia manufacturers use white

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

pine. It went into the hive proper, while basswood was used for the
honey sections. Cypress and redwood, like white pine, are favorite
out-door woods and are called on extensively in other States to meet
the demands of the beehive makers.

All of the incubators, brooders, and other apparatus, except coops,
used in Virginia by poultry raisers are shipped in from other States.
Chicken coops of many kinds, and especially crate coops for shipping
live poultry, are home made and large quantities of material annually
are required for making them. They are constructed with a view of
being as light as is consistent with the rough treatment they receive
and as strong as possible. The frames of -the coops are mostly chestnut,
the rods or rungs of hickory and the bottoms of some wood light in
weight, usually poplar, basswood and cucumber. Another design of
crates and coops growing in favor is the woven bottom coops. These
have poultry wire stretched over bent hickory ribs. The bottoms are
made of thin strips, split or shaved from white oak, black oak, white
ash, and probably cottongum. They are woven together in the same
fashion as the common splint basket. All of the material used for coops
was from Virginia grown timber.

TABLE 23.— DAIRY, POULTERERS AND APIARIST SUPPLIES.

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M.

Ash

360,000
135,000
58,200
26,000
24,000
20,200
12,000
10,000
2.000

$19.30
13.62
19.97
18.00
14.17
12.90
10.00
13.00
10.00

$6,950.00
1,838.25
1,158.50
468.00
340.00
258.00
120.00
130.00
20.00

10,000
135,000
58,200
26,000
24,000
20,200
12,000
10.000
2,000

350,000

Hickory

Cotton gum (Tupelo)

Totals

647,400

$17.44

$11,282.75

297,400

350,000

SHUTTLE BLOCKS.

This industry concerns the manufacturing of rough shuttles which
afterwards are sent to other facto res to be finished and polished. Bob-
bins are usually made by the same concerns, but in Virginia none of
the shuttle makers reported turning them. Dogwood and persimmon
are the principal woods the country over for shuttle making, and for
this purpose they both meet their most exacting demand. Persimmon
is probably used in the larger quantities. In Virginia, however, the

OF VIRGINIA

case is reversed. Here the stand of dogwood is more plentiful and the
quantity of it going into the rough shuttle manufacture naturally ex-
ceeds the amount of persimmbn. Table No. 24, giving the available
statistics, shows that this industry and the excelsior makers were the
only ones securing all of their raw material from Virginia grown tim-
ber.

TABLE 24.— SHUTTLE BLOCKS.

Total qua

ntity used

innually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1.000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
ofVa.

Feet B. M.

616,400

$13 70

$8,437 40

616 400

15 000

14 00

210 00

15 000

Totals

631 400

$13 71

$8 647 40

631 400

TOBACCO BOXES

Tobacco-box manufacture being a distinct industry from box mak-
ing, the material used for making them is presented in separate sta-
tistics. Plug tobacco boxes, cigar boxes, and tobacco retainers were the
commodities made in Virginia and included in Table 25. Red oak,
white oak, sycamore, and red gum were the woods used for plug to-
bacco boxes. The sugar maple alone served as material for retainer
sides, and yellow poplar and red gum with Spanish cedar and African
cedar met the demand of the cigar-box makers.

Cigar-box material is bought in the form of thin lumber and
veneer, the former usually 5-32 of an inch in thickness. This ma-
terial as is customary was purchased and reported by superficial meas-
ure. To make it comparable with the other tables of this report it was
reduced to board measure and the prices correspondingly raised. Ac-
cording to square measure the prices ranged from $20 to $30 for
Spanish cedar and African cedar, $14 to $16 for yellow poplar and
$12 to $14 for red gum. Many of the cigar boxes were made of two-
ply veneer. Spanish cedar served as the exterior layer glued! to the
cheaper domestic veneers like yellow poplar or red gum.

Plug tobacco boxes are lock-cornered, and like all lock^cornered
boxes they demand gluing. "The bevel-locked''', although not as much
as formerly, still remains in use. The bottoms of plug tobacco boxes
are often made of three-ply veneer, and sycamore and red gum are
favorite woods for this use. Solid bottoms and tops are also used, and
Mke the sides are made principally of white oak and red oak.

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

TABLE 25.— TOBACCO BOXES.

Total Quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f . o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown In
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M.

Bed oak . .

175,000
125,000
100,000
23,450
20,000
5,000
5,000
1,100

$13.43
13.52
27.50
35.00
68.00
52.00
120.00
138.00

$2,350.00
1,700.00
2,750.00
820.75
1,360.00
260.00
600.00
151.80

175,000
125.000

White oak

iob',000
23,450
20,000
5,000
5,000
1,100

154,550

Sugar maple

Bed gum

......._.

African cedar

Totals

454,550

$21.92

$9,992.55

300,000

PATTERNS

Table 26 shows the kinds of woods purchased and used for foun-
dry flasks and patterns. There are manufacturers in Virginia who
specialize in pattern making and sell their products to foundry men,
while a number of foundries have pattern departments in connection
and merely manufacture (heir own requirements. Foundry flasks are
frames holding the sand which is worked into relief shape ready to
receive the molten metal. The flask woods are not of high grades like
the pattern woods. Patterns are carefully cut from lumber into the
exact form of the article to be cast. White pine in all States is the
principal pattern wood and much of it shown in the table, especially
the 'high grades, went for this use. A large part of the white pine
was shipped from the Lake States. Close-grained woods, with incon-
spicuous figure and without resin, are the kinds the pattern makers de-
mand. Besides white pine, cherry and yellow poplar were used, while
the other wood shown in the table and yellow poplar went into the
foundry flasks. The average price of the woods grouped under this
industry exceeded twofold the cost of the same woods reported by
another class of manufacturers shown in this report. This high price
is because only the highest grades of expensive woods are used for the
•commodities mentioned. Only one-sixth of the material made into
flasks and patterns came from forests of the State.

TABLE 26.— PATTERNS.

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1.000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va. '

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M.

White pine

Ill-, 400
12,000
5,400
2,000

$91.24
30.00
43.80
42.00

$10.177.00
360.00
219.00
84.00

7,000
10,000
5,000

104,400
2,000
400
2,000

Cherry

Totals

130,800

$82.74

$10.840.00

22,000

108,800

OF VIRGINIA 67

MISCELLANEOUS

The products of those factories which could not be Hsted as
separate industries without revealing the identity of the informant are
grouped under Table 27. The twenty-two woods shown in the
list aggregate over eight and three-fourths million feet. Fifty-one
per cent of it was grown in Virginia and it was bought at a price
$2.31 less than the cost of woods shipped in from other States. The
demands of two establishments making plumbers' woodwork like ex-
terior tank linings and closet seats accounts for a large part of the white
oak and red oak shown in the table. This line of manufacture is of
considerable importance in Virginia

The makers of washing machines for domestic uses call on the
cypresses and the juniper (white cedar) to serve as raw material,
while for wash tubs and portable wood bath tubs, juniper
alone met the demand. Drugget and rug poles were made from the
black gum and red gum and clothes pins were turned from cotton gum.
The success of gum clothes pins calls attention to a new wood for a
use long held by beech, maple, and birch.

Dogwood croquet and duckpin balls and white ash baseball bats
were made in Virginia; the quantity of these woods as they appear
in Table 27 were for these uses. White and red oak , black
walnut, and red gum served for the exterior work of reed organs.
The action and many interior parts were made from sugar maple,
yellow poplar, sycamore, red gum, and white pine.

Silo makers reported only two woods for silo staves, longleaf
yellow pine, and white pine. Sugar maple alone went into the wood
parts of cider and wine presses.

Virginia consumes more wood than any other State for the
manufacturing of porch and Venetian blinds. From the standpoint
of wood utilization this is a most important industry. Twenty-four
woods were used of which all but the White pine, spruce, yellow poplar,
and silverleaf maple were high-grade expensive cabinet woods. A
number of them were foreign woods including silver ava and Philip-
pine walnut which so far have appeared in the wood-using report
of no other State

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

TABLE 27.— MISCELLANEOUS.

Total quantity used annually.

KIND OF WOOD

Feet B. M.

Average
cost per
1,000 ft.
f. o. b.
factory

Total
cost
f. o. b.
factory

Grown in
Va.

Feet B. M.

Grown out
of Va.

Feet B. M.

4,792,000
1,000,000
640,000
425,000
310,000
242,000
228,000
218,000
202,200
190,000
68,200
67,000
62,000
55,000
52,000
50,000
30,000
30,000
10,000
5,000
5,000
5,000
2,000
2,000
1,000
1,000
100
100
100

8,692,700

$19.40
12.00
15.25
18.94
16.90
23.53
21.11
31.60
30.80
26.19
22.79
15.00
9.00
18.19
16.52
15.00
40.00
40.00
30.00
180.00
60.00
50.00
72.00
180.00
600.00
100.00
200.00
200.00
200.00

$93,148.00
12,000.00
9,702.40
8,050.00
5,240.00
5,803.00
4,595.00
6,884.00
6,224.00
4,970.00
1,550.00
1,005.00
558.00
1,000.00
860.00
750.00
1,200.00
1,200.00
300.00
900.00
300.00
250.00
144.00
360.00
600.00
100.00
20.00
20.00
20.00

1,568,000
1,000,000

3,224,000

640,000
50,000
10,000
100,000
25,000
8,000
2,000
120,000
200
30,000

Black gum

Bed oak

375,000
300,000
142,000
203,000
210,000
200,200
70,000
68,000
37,000
62,000
55,000
50,000
50,000

White oak

Ash •

White pine

Dogwood

2,000
'"30.000

30,000
10,000

Silver maple (soft)

5,000
5,000

'"2,000
2,000
1,000
1,000
100
100
100

Butternut

5,000

White mahogany

Philippine walnut

Totals

$19.36

$167.753.40

4.435,200

4,257,500

OF VIRGINIA

THE USES OF WOOD BY VIRGINIA
MANUFACTURERS.

ASH

Baseball Bats

Buggy Poles

Butter Churns

Cabinet Work (Boats)

Cabinet Work (Houses)

Cabinet Work (Passenger Cars)

Cotton Planter Parts

Ditty Boxes

Drays

Fertilizer Distributor Parts

Fingers (Grain Cradles)

Fixtures (Exterior Work)

Frames (Buggy)

Frames (Carriage Bodies)

Frames (Drays)

Frames (Wagon Bodies)

Gear Parts (Vehicle)

Handles

Handles (Contractor's Shovels)

Handles (Grubbing Hoes)

Handles (Hay Fork)

Handles (Hoe)

Handles (Long Shovel)

Handles (Mallet)

Handles (Pitchfork)

Handles (Rake)

Handles (Small Tools)

Handles (Spade)

Head Blocks (Wagon)

Interior Finish (Houses)

Furniture (Case Good's)

Hay Ladders (Farm Wagons)

Locomotive Cabs

Mess Benches (Boats)

Mess Tables (Vessels)

Moulding (Window)

Panels (Wagon Bodies)

Partitions (Store and Office;

Peanut Picker Parts

Peanut Planter Parts

Poultry Coop Bottoms

Sanitary Wardrobes

Snathes (Grain Cradles)

Stools

Tables (Kitchen)

Trucks (Tobacco)

Trucks (Factory)

Trucks (Warehouse^

Venetian Blinds

Wainscoting

Wagon Tongues

Wardrobes

BASSWOOD

Balusters
Beehive Sections
Cabinet Drawers
Casing
Ceiling

Drawer Sides (Furniture)
Dust Guards (Cars)
Furniture (Hidden Work)
Handles

Mirror Backing
Partitions

Passenger Cars (Interior Work)
Porch Columns
Poultry Coop Bottoms
Siding

Store and Office Fixtures (In-
terior Work)

BEECH

Flooring

BIRCH (SWEET)

Cabinets

Cabinet Work (Passenger Cars)
Couches
Davenports
Ditty Boxes
Doors
Fixtures
Flooring

Furniture (Case Goods)
Handles (Saw)
Handles (Rake)
Handles (Hoe)
Interior Finish (House)
Lounges
Panels

Partitions (Office)
Parlor Furniture (Frames)
Sash

Stair Balusters
Stair Rails
Stair Rises
Stair Treads "

Store and Office Fixtures (Ex-
terior)
Wardrobes
Wainscoting

BUCKEYE

Casing

Ceiling

Cornice

Door Frames

Partition

Sash

Siding

Window Frames

BUTTERNUT

Cabinet Work (Boats)
Cabinet Work (Cars)
Store and Office Fixtures (Ex-
terior)
Venetian Blinds

CEDAR (AFRICAN)
Cigar Boxes

CEDAR (RED)

Casket Shells

Cedar Chests

Furniture

Outer Boxes (Caskets)

Venetian Blinds

CEDAR (SPANISH)
Cigar Boxes

CEDAR (WHITE)

Boat Boards

Boat Siding

Boats (Superstructure)

Buckets

Candy Pails

Lard Buckets

Pails

Tubs (Bath)

Tubs (Washing)

CHERRY

Boat Linings
Cabinet Work (Boats)
Cabinet Work (Passenger Cars)
Furniture (Case Goods)
Interior Trim (House)
Molds (Foundry)
Patterns (Foundry)
Store anil Office Fixtures (Ex-
terior)
Venetian Blinds

CHESTNUT

Boxes (Cheese)

Boxes (Glass Bottles)

Boxes (Handle)

Boxes (Meat)

Cabbage Crates

Casing

Casket Moulding

Casket Shells

Casket Tops

Church Pews

Cores (Veneer)

Crating

Doors

Fence Pickets

Fence Stubs

Flooring

Furniture (Backs)

Furniture Frames (Case Goods)

Furniture (Kitchen)

Interior Finish (House)

Outer Cases (Caskets)

Panel Work (House)

Pool Table Sides

Ribs (Poultry Coops)

Sash

Siding

Stair Balusters

Stair Rises

Stair Rails

Store and Office Partitions

Wardrobes

COTTONWOOD

Panels 3-ply (Trunks)
Sample Cases
Templets (Boats)
Trunk Boxes

CUCUMBER

Bottoms Poultry Coops

Ceiling

Partition

Porch Columns

Siding

CYPRESS

Blinds

Boat Bottoms
Boat Sides

Boat Construction (Superstruc-
ture)

Box Cleats
Box Shooks
Candy Pails
Casing
Cornice

Decking (Boats)
Doors

Door Frames
Fence Pickets

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

Fence Stubs

Hoppers

Davenports

Fixtures (Interior Work)

Lard Dishes

Doors

Flooring (Porch)

Beshippers (Beer)

Furniture (Exterior Work)

Interior Trim

Sample Cases

Interior Finish (House)

Lard Buckets

Table Legs

Landing Posts

Moulding

Tills

Newel Posts

Pails

Traveling Cases

Patterns (Foundry)

Partition

Truck Barrels (Veneer)

Pool Tables Sides

Porch Blinds

Trunk Boxes

Stair Rails

Porch Columns

Wooden Dishes

Stair Bises

Sash

Stair Treads

Siding

HEMLOCK

Store and Office Fixtures (Ex-

Staging (Boat)

"terior)

Stepping

Baseboards

Table Leaves

Store Fronts

Boxes

Table Tops

Tanks

Box Shooks

Tobacco Machinery Parts

Crates

MAHOGANY (WHITE)

Trunk Slats

Flooring (Sub)

Wagon Top Strips

Interior Trim (House)

Venetian Blinds

Wardrobes

Moulding (Window)

Window Frames

Outer Cases (Casket)

MAPLE (SOFT) SILVER

Window Sills

Sheathing

Venetian Blinds

Siding

Kitchen Tables

Porch Blinds

DOGWOOD

HICKORY

Venetian Blinds

Bowling Balls

Axles

MAPLE (SUGAB)

Croquet Balls

Braces (Grain Cradles)

Shuttle Blocks

Buggy (Gear Parts)

Bedsteads

Spools

Drays

Bed Slats

Fingers (Grain Cradles)

Chairs

DOUGLAS FIB

Handles (Ax)

Chairs (Porch)

Handles (Boats)

Chiffoniers (Exterior Work)

Barges

Handles (Chisel)

Drawer Sides

Cabinet Work (Boats)

Handles (Hammer)

Display Backs

Casing

Handles (Mall)

Flooring

Cornice

Handles (Mallet)

Furniture (Exterior)

Decking (Boats)

Handles (Mattock)

Handles (Saw)

Kelsons

Handles (Pick)

Kitchen Tables

Locomotive Cabs

Handles (Small Tool)

Locomotive Cabs (Floors)

Porch Work

Handles (Saw)

Parlor Furniture (Frames)

Spars

Hounds (Wagon)

Pipe Organs (Interior Work)

Scows

Insulator Pins

Pool Table Sides

Perches (Wagon)

Beed Organs (Interior Parts)

ELM (BOCK) SLIPPEBY)

Poles (Buggy)

Table Slides

Posts (Wagon Bodies)

Tobacco Machinery Parts

Basket Bims

Beaches (Vehicle)

Tobacco Betainer Sides

Hoops (Veneer Barrels)

Bims

Stands (B'edroom)

Boad Carts

Wagon Bodies (Bottoms)

ELM (SOFT) WHITE

Bods (Poultry Crates)

Bungs (Poultry Coops)

OAK (BLACK)

Bands (Baskets)

Shafts (Vehicle)

Hoops (Veneer Barrels)

Single Trees

Bedsteads

Trunk Slats

Spring Bars

Box Shooks

Spokes

Buffets

GUM (BLACK)

Tobacco Machinery Parts

Dressers (Exterior Parts)

Tobacco Truck Parts

Flooring

Baskets

Trunk Slats

Furniture (Case Goods)

Berry Cups

Vehicle Stock

Interior Finish (House)

Boxes

Wagon Tongues

Plug Tobacco Boxes

Box Shocks

Wheels (Vehicle)

Sideboards (Exterior Work)

Hoppers

Whiffle Trees

Washstands

Hubs

Keels

JABBA (AUSTBALIAN

OAK (BED)

Lard Dishes

EUCALYPTUS)

Malls

Baseboards

Paving Blocks

Wardrobes (Flooring)

Bedposts

Reshippers (Bottle Crates)

Show Window Displays

Bedrails

Boilers (Boats)

Bedsteads

Bug Poles

LOCUST

B'oat Construction

Table Legs

Boxes

Veneer Barrels

Insulator Brackets

Box Shooks

Insulator Pins

Buffets

GUM (COTTON)

Trunnels (Boats)

Buggy Bodies (Bottoms)

Spokes (Boat Wheels)

Bureaus

Baskets

Cabinets (Boat)

Berry Cups

MAHOGANY

Cabinets (Passenger Cars)

Boxes (Cracker)

Casing

Boxes (Dovetail)

Cabinet Work (Boats)

Caskets

Boxes (Interlocking)

Cabinet Work (Passenger Cars)

Ceiling (Boats)

Clothes Pins

Caskets

Ceiling (House)

Coop Bottoms (Poultry)

Casket Shells

Chairs

Crates (Roshippers)

Chairs

Chairs (Dining)

Crating

Couch Frames

Chairs (Bocking)

OF VIRGINIA

Chairs (Mission)

Buffers (Cars)

Sills (Wagon Bodies)

Chiffoniers (Exterior Work)

Buffets

Single Trees

China Closets

Buggy Bottoms

Spokes

Church Altars

Bureaus

Spring Bars (Buggy)

Coffins

Cabinets

Stands (Bedroom)

Commodes

Cabinet Work (Boats)

Stair Balusters

Couch Frames

Capping (Boats)

vStair Rails

Davenport Frames

Casing

Stair Rises

Desks (Office)

Caskets

Stair Treads

Doors

Ceiling (Boats)

Stairwork

Drays

Ceiling (House)

Sterns

Dressers

Chairs

Stretchers (Table)

Felloes (Wagon)

Chairs (Dining)

Surgical Splints

Fence Pickets

Chairs (Mission)

Tables

Fixtures (Exterior)

Chairs (Rocking)

Tables (Extension)

Flooring

Chiffoniers (Exterior Work)

Table Leaves

Furniture (Case Goods)

China Closets

Tables (Library)

Handles (Saw)

Church Pews

Table Slides

Hounds (Wagon)

Chute Boards (Cars)

Table Tops

Insulator Brackets

Cider Presses

Telephone Boxes

Interior Finish (House)

Coffins

Tie Beams (Cars)

Kitchen Cabinets

Commodes

Thresholds

Landing Posts

Couch Frames

Tobacco Truck Frames

Lounge Frames

Cotton Planters

Toilet Seats

Mantels

Davenports

Tree Blocks

Newel Posts

Desks (Office)

Truck Bolsters (Freight Cars)

Panels (Furniture Sides)

Doors

Truck (Freight Cars)

Pilasters (Furniture)

Draft Timber (Freight Cars)

Venetian Blinds

Pilasters (Mantels)

Drays

Wagon Bodies (Bottoms)

Pilots (Locomotive)

Dressers

Wagon Gear Parts

Pipe Organs (Exterior)

Dump Carts (Bodies)

Wagon Tongues

Platforms (Cars)

End Sills (Freight Cars)

Wagon Tops (Ribs)

Plow Beams

Engine Beams (Freight Cars)

Wardrobes

Plow Handles

Felloes (Wagon)

Washstands

Plow Bungs

Fence Pickets

Whiffle Trees

Plug Tobacco B'oxes

Fertilizer Distributors

Window Sills

Pole Steps (Telephone)

Fixtures (Exterior Work)

Beading Desk (Church)

Flooring

OSAGE ORANGE

Beed Organs (Exterior Work)

Flooring (Boats)

Kims (Wagon)

Frames (Wagon Bodies)

Hounds (Vehicle)

Koad Carts

Furniture (Case Goods)

Sash

Guards (Boats)

PERSIMMON

Sheathing

Handles

Sideboards

Handles (Saw)

Shuttle Blocks

Spokes

Hounds (Wagon)

Stair Balusters

Hubs

PINE (LOBLOLLY)

Stair Bails

Insulator Brackets

Stair Bises

Insulator Pins

Balusters

Stair Treads

Interior Finish (Horse)

Baseboards

Stairwork

Keel Blocks (Boats)

Basket Bottoms

Stands (Bedroom)

Kelsons (Boats)

Blinds

Stretchers (Table)

Kitchen Cabinets

Boat. Construction

Tables (Extension)

Log Trucks (Freight Cars)

Boxes

Tables (Library)

Lounges

Boxes (Coffee)

Table Leaves

Locomotive Bumpers

Boxes (Dry Goods)

Table Slides

Mantels

Box Shooks

Table Tops

Panels

Cabbage Crates

Telephone Boxes

Partitions

Cabinets

Thresholds

Peanut Pickers

Car Decking

Tobacco Machinery Parts

Peanut Planters

Car Siding

Toilet Seats

Pilasters (Furniture)

Casing

Tree Blocks

Pilasters (Mantels)

Ceiling

Truck Parts (Cars)

Pilots (Locomotive)

Clapboards

Venetian Blinds

Pipe Organs (Exterior Parts)

Coffins

Wagon Bodies (Framework)

Pool Table Rails

Conduits

Wardrobes

Pool Table Sides

Cornices

Washstands

Pole Steps

Crating

Window Sills

Planking (Motor Boats)

Decking (Freight Cars)

Platforms (Cars)

Doors

OAK (WHITE)

Plow Beams

Door Frames

Plow Handles

Dunnage (Freight Cars)

Altars (Church)

Plow Rungs

Excelsior

Altars (Lodge Boom)

Plug Tobacco Boxes

Fixtures

Baseboards

Rails (Boats)

Furniture Backs

Barge Construction

Reed Organs (Exterior Work)

Furniture (Veneer Cores)

Bedposts

Reading Desks (Church)

Flooring

Bedrails

Rims

Flooring (Factory)

Bed Slats

Road Carts

Flooring (Freight Car)

Bedsteads

Rungs (Poultry Coops)

Grain Doors

Bitts (Boat)

Sash

Insulator Pins

Boat Construction

Scows

Interior Trim (House)

Body Bolsters (Freight Cars)
Bolsters (Freight Cars)
Box Shocks

Shafts (Dump Cart)
Sheathing
Sideboards

Kitchen Safes
Landing Posts
Lining (Freight Cars)

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

Mouldings

Casing

Poultry Coops (Bottoms)

Newel Posts

Crating

Reed Organs (Interior)

Outer Cases (Casket)

Door Frames

Reshippers

Panels (Furniture Sides)

Excelsior

Screens (Doors)

Partition

Flooring

Screens (Windows)

Pilasters

Packing Cases

Siding

Poultry Coop (Bottoms)

Roofers

Silo Staves

Roofers

Thresholds

Spars (Boats)

Sample Cases

Window Frames

Storefronts

Sash

Trunk Boxes

Screens (Door) .

PINE (SHORTLEAF

Wardrobes

Screens (Window)

Window Frames

Siding

Barges

Siding (Freight Cars)
Stair Rails

Boat Construction
Boat Ceiling

RED GUM

Stairways
Store Fronts

Boxes
Boxes (Dry Goods)

Barrel Veneer

Trunk Boxes

Box Shooks

Baskets

Wagon Panels
Wardrobes
Window Frames

Boats (Superstructure)
Cabin Work (Boats)
Ceiling

Bedsteads
Boxes (Cracker)
Boxes (Veneer)

Wire Reels

Conduits

Box Shooks
Cabinets

PINE (LONGLEAF)

Crating

Chiffoniers (Exterior Work)

Balusters
Barge Construction

Decking (Cars)
Doors

Commodes
Couches

Boxes
Boxes (Projectile)
Braces (Freight Car)
Bridge Poles (Cars)

Door Frames
Fixtures (Store and Office)
Flooring
Flooring (Factory)

Crating
Davenports
Dressers (Exterior Work)
Drugget Poles

Cabbage Crates
Car Decking
Carline
Car Lining
Car Siding
Car Sills

Furniture Backs
Interior Trim
Lining (Cars)
Outer Cases (Caskets)
Partitions
Pilasters

Flooring
Hoppers (Fruit)
Lids (Fruit Baskets)
Panels (Furniture Sides)
Planter Handles
Plug Tobacco Boxes

Car Flooring
Corner Post (Freight Cars)
Cross-arms
Cross-tie Timber (Gondola Cars)

Roofers
Sash
Siding (Freight Cars)
Siding (House)

Reed Organs
Reshippers (Beer)
Store and Office Fixtures (Ex-
terior Work)

Deck Beams (Boats)
Decking (Boats)
Doors
Dump Cart Bottoms
Fixtures (Store and Office)
Flooring

Staging (Boats)
Stepping
Trunk Boxes
Window Frames
Wire Reels

Tills
Tobacco Truck Bottoms
Trunk Boxes (3-ply)
Venetian Blinds
Wagon Panels
Washstands (Exterior Work)

Frames (Freight Cars)
Grain Doors

PINE (SUGAR)

ROSEWOOD

Head Blocks (Boats)
Hopper Siding (Freight Cars)
Interior Trim (Houses)

Blinds (Window)
Doors
Sash

Pool Table Rails
Venetian Blinds

Lining (Cars)
Lining Stud (Freight Cars)

Storefronts

SASSAFRAS

Locomotive Parts
Moulding

PINE (WHITE)

Furniture (Case Goods)

Paving Blocks
Peanut Pickers

Beehives
Blinds

SILVER AVA

Planking (Boats)
Plates (Cars)

Boxes (Axle)
Boxes (Dovetail)

Venetian Blinds

Ridge Pole (Freight Cars)
Roof Ribs (Freight Cars)

Boxes (Interlocking)
Box Shooks

SPRUCE

Scows

Cabinet Work (Passenger Cars)

Shelves

Casings

Boxes

Siding (Cars)
Side Planks (Gondola Cars)
Side Plates (Freight Cars)
Sills (Cars)
Silo Staves

Ceiling (Boats)
Ceiling (House)
Crating
Decking (Boats)
Doors

Boxes (Butter)
Box Shooks
Clapboards
Flooring
Spars (Boats)

Stair Rails

Door Frames

Stair Rises

Oresser Backs

SYCAMORE

Stair Treads

Flasks

Stairways

Furniture Parts

Boxes

Stakes (Gondola Cars)

Interior Finish (House)

Boxes (Veneer)

Stepping

Locomotive Cab Parts

Box Shook

Thresholds

Mantels

Filling (Furniture Panels)

Tobacco Machinery Parts

Molds (Foundry)

Furniture (Case Goods)

Upper Belt Rails (Freight Cars)

Moulding

Handles (Hoe)

Wagon Bodies (Bottoms)

Outer Cases (Coffin)

Handles (Rake)

Window Sills

Outer Cases (Casket)

Handles (Saw)

Panels (Wagon Tops)

Plug Tobacco Boxes

PINE (SCRUB)

Patterns (Foundry)

Reed Organs (Exterior Parts)

Barn Siding

Pipe Organs (Interior Work)

Reed Organs (Interior Parts)

Boxes

Porch Columns

Store and Office Fixtures (Int.)

Box Shooks

Porch Flooring

Venetian Blinds

OF VIRGINIA

TEAKWOOD

Armor Tacking (Boats)
Pilothouse Work (Boats)
Venetian Blinds

WALNUT (BLACK)

Cabinet Work (Passenger Cars)

Caskets

Coffins

Gun Stocks

Furniture (Case Goods)

Interior Finish (House)

Newel Posts

Pipe Organs (Exterior)

Reed Organs (Exterior Work)

Store and Office Fixtures (Exter.)

Venetian Blinds

WALNUT (CIRCASSIAN)
Fixtures (Exterior Work)
Venetian Blinds

WALNUT (PHILIPPINE)
Venetian Blinds

YELLOW POPLAR
Balusters
Backs (Dresser)
Bands (Berry Baskets)
Bedsteads

Berry Baskets

Blinds

Boxes

Boxes (Axle)

Boxes (Butter)

Boxes (Insulator Pins)

Cabinets

Casings

Casket Shells

Ceiling

Ceiling (Boats)

Cigar Boxes

Clapboards

Coffins

Crating

Doors

Doors (Poultry Coops)

Drawer Bottoms

Drawer Sides

Flasks

Filling (Furniture Panels)

Handles

Interior Finish (House)

Kitchen Cabinets

Kitchen Safes

Kitchen Tables

Locomotive Cab Parts

Lounge Frames

Mantels

Mirror Backing

Moulding

Packing Cases

Panels (Delivery Wagon Tops)

Panels (Furniture Sides)

Panels (Interior House Trim)

Panel Sides (Passenger Cars)

Partition

Peanut Pickers Parts

Pilasters (Mantels)

Plug Tobacco Boxes (3-ply)

Pool Table Sides

Porch Blinds

Porch Columns

Porch Posts

Poultry Coop (Bottoms)

Poultry Coops (Frames)

Reed Organ (Interior Parts)

Sample Cases

Sash

Shelves

Siding

Siding (Passenger Cars)

Staging (Boats)

Stair Rises

Spars (Boats)

Traveling Cases

Trunk Boxes

Trunk Compartments

Trunk Trays

Wagon Bodies

Wagon ^Boxes

Wardrobes

Window Frames

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

MANUFACTURERS.

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.
Clarksville Plow Works, .. Clarksville, Va.
Cumberland Planing Mills, Cumber-

land, V.a

Buffalo Manufacturing Co., Farmville, Va.
Farmville Manufacturing Co., Farm-.

ville, Va.

The Chas. E. Hunter, F. F. Plow

Works, Fredericksburg Va,

P. Bradley & Sons, Harrisonburg, Va.

Lynchburg Foundry Co.. ..Lynchburg, Va.

Look & Lincoln, Marion, Va.

C. Billings Son & Co Norfolk, Va.

R. W. Whitehurst, Norfolk, Va.

Phenix Planing Mill, Phenix, Va.

E. C. Brinser & Sons, Richmond, Va.

The Cardwell Machine Co., Richmond, Va.
Starke's Dixie Plow Works, Inc., Rich-

mond, Va.

R. B. Hedrick r. Rural Retreat, Va.

Benthall Machine Co Suffolk, Va.

Vesuvius Plow Works, Vesuvius, Va.

BASKETS, FRUIT AND VEGETABLE

PACKAGES.

Chesapeake Barrel Co., ..Chesapeake, Va.
Greenbush Manufacturing Co.,..Green-

bush. Va.

M. J. Kelly, Groseclose, Va.

The Peninsula Barrel and Package Co.,

Hampton, Va.

A. J. Payne, Keokee, Va.

Farmers Manufacturing Co., Norfolk, Va.
Planters Manufacturing Co., ..Port

Norfolk, Va.

Planters Manufacturing Co., Pughs,

Va.

Kellman & Watson, Shady Side, Va.

Nansemond Truck Package Co., Suffolk, Va.
The Toano Truck Package Co., Toano, Va.

BOXES

J. K. Buckley & Sons Abingdon, Va.

Atkins Bros., Attoway, Va.

J. E. Stiveley, Bealton, Va.

Blackstone Lumber & Manufacturing Co.,

Blackstone, Va.

J. Thuma & Son, Bridgewater, Va.

G. W. Truitt & Co., Capron, Va.

W. H. Vincent, Capron, Va.

Jeffreys Spaulding Mfg. Co., Inc.,

Chase City, Va.

Claremont Lumber & Box Co., Clare-

mont, Va.

Franklin Bros Colonial Beach, Va.

Wood & Harvey, Concord, Va.

F. W. Thayer Co., Damascus, Va.

Heidelbach Lumber Co., ....Danville, Va.
The Baker-Minter Lumber Co., Inc.,

Delaware, Va.

Surry Lumber Co., Dendron, Va.

Emporia Manufacturing Co., Emporia, Va.
Greensville Manufacturing Co.,

Emporia, Va.

Virginia Buggy Co., Franklin, Va.

The Locust & Pin Co., Front Royal, Va.

Carl Stossel & Co., Front Royal, Va.

Greenbush Manufacturing Co.,

Greenbush, Va.

Truitt- Vincent Co., Jarratt, Va.

Hassinger Lumber Co., ..Konnarock, Va.
F. J. Kress Box Co., Va. Corp.,

Kress, Va.

American Box Co Lynchburg, Va.

Hughes Buggy Co., Lynchburg, Va.

American Furniture Co.. Martinsville, Va.
Meherrin Planing Mill Co., Meherrin, Va.

Bellows & Squires, Inc., Ocran, Va.

Appomattox Box Shook Co., Inc.,

Petersburg, Ya.

Petersburg Wood Supply Co., Petersourg,

Va.

South Side Manufacturing Co.,

Petersburg Va.

Virginia Lumber & Box Co.,

Petersburg, Va.

Old Dominion Table Works, Port Nor-

folk, Va.

The Allegheny Box Co., ..Richmond, Va.

J. F. Biggs Richmond, Va.

The Cardwell Machine Co., Richmond, Va.
Crescent Box & Lumber Co., Roanoke, Va.

David M. Lea & Co., Richmond, Va.

Miller Manufacturing Co., Richmord, Va.

E. H. Barnes Co., Norfolk, Va.

Berkley Box & Lumber Co., Norfolk, Va.

C. W. Cake, Norfolk, Va.

The Dickson Lumber Co., ..Norfolk, Va.

Fosburg Lumber Co., Norfolk, Va.

Henry Mayo Box Co., Norfolk, Va.

Peart, Nields & McCormick Co., North

Emporia, Va.

Surry Lumber Co., ...'.... .Norfolk, Va.

Tunnis Lumber Co., Norfolk, Va.

Sitterding-Carneal-Davis Co.,

Richmond, Va.

The Tredegar Co Richmond, Va.

South Hill Manufacturing Co., Inc.

South Hill, Va.

A. L. Matthews, Spring Grove. Va.

Montgomery Lumber Co., .... Suffolk, Va.

R. E. Richardson Tunstall, Va.

Winn & Coleman, Warfield, Va.

CAR AND LOCOMOTIVE CON-
STRUCTION.

Virginia Iron & Coal Co., Fosters Falls,
Va.

OF VIRGINIA

Chesapeake & Ohio R. R. Co.,

Newport News, Va.

Norfolk & Southern R. R. Co., Norfolk,

Va.

Norton Car & Foundry Co. Norton, Va.
Seaboard Air Line R. R., Portsmouth, Va.
American locomotive Co., Richmond, Va.

Chesapeake R. R. Co., Richmond, Va.

Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac R. R.

..Co., (Hermitage) Richmond, Va.
Sitterding Carneal Davis Co., Rich-

mond, Va.

Southern Railway, Richmond, Va.

The Tredegar Co., Richmond, Va.

Washington Southern Railroad Co.,

Richmond, Va.

Norfolk & Western Railway, Roanoke, Va.

CASKETS AND COFFINS.

L. A. Hylton Floyd, Va.

J. A. Willis, Keysville, Va.

Newport News, Casket Co., Newport

News Va.

Virginia Coffin & Casket Co., Norton, Va.
Richmond Wood Working Co., Richmond,

Va.

J. C. Close, Zeus, Va.

CHAIRS.

Piedmont Chair Co., Bassetts, Va.

Close & Hawkins, Brightwood, Va.

Wm. H. Kephart Herndon, Va.

U. S. Navy Yard, Norfolk, Va.

Troutdale Chair Mfg. Co., Troutdale, Va.
C. W. Alexander & Bros., Waynesboro, Va.
Jas. C. Close, Zeus, Va.

EXCELSIOR.

Dillard & Chewning, Chilesburg, Va.

Golansville Excelsior Co., Golansville, Va.

W. N. Blatt & Co., Milford, Va.

Gray Bros., Ruther Glen, Va.

Geo. P. Lyon Excelsior Co. Woodford, Va.

FENCING.

Charlottesville Lumber Co.. Charlottes-

ville, Va.

King Lumber Co., Charlottesville, Va.

Tunis Lumber Co Norfolk, Va.

Hobbs-Hoy Co., Petersburg, Va.

Port Norfolk Supply Co., Port Norfolk, Va.

Gray-Lattimer Co., Waverly, Va.

The Gray Lumber Co., Waverly, Va.

Valley Builders Supply Co., Woodstock,

Va.

FURNITURE.

M. L. Risheill Alexandria, Va.

Consolidated Furniture Works, Inc.,

. Altavista, Va.

Basic Furniture Co., Basic City, Va.

Bassett Furniture Co., Main St.,

Bassett, Va.

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg,

Va.

Phoenix Furniture Corp., . . Cambria, Va.
Nicholson Furniture Co., Chase City, Va.

L. A. Hylton Floyd, Va.

The Galax Furniture Co., Galax, Va.

Hampton Normal & Agricultural Institute,

Hampton, Va.

Wm. H. Kephart Herndon, Va.

Lewis Creek Planing Mill Co., Honaker,

Va.

Toler & Sons Manchester, Va.

W. C. Seaver & Sons, Marion, Va.

Virginia Table Co Marion, Va.

American Furniture Co., Martinsville, Va.

Jas. G. Wilson Mfg. Co Norfolk, Va.

U. S. Navy Yard, '. Norfolk, Va.

Air Line Mfg. Co.,.. Port Norfolk Sta.,

Norfolk, Va.

Old Dominion Table Works, Inc.,

Port Norfolk, Va.

J. B. Lacy Pratts, Va.

J. F. Biggs, 521 E. Main St. Richmond, Va.
James River Furniture & Mat. Co.,

Richmond, Va.

C. W. Montgomery Richmond, Va.

Richmond W. W. Co., Richmond, Va.

Toler & Sons Richmond, Va.

Central Mfg. Co., Roanoke, Va.

Bald Knob Furniture Co., Rocky Mount,

Va.

T. W. Heath Scottsville, Va.

A. J. Livick, Staunton, Va.

C. W. Alexander & Bro., Waynesboro, Va.

Lambert Mfg. Co., Waynesboro, Va.

West Point Panel Co., ..West Point. Va.
Valley Builders Supply Co., Woodstock,

. Va.

Wytheville Mfg. Co., . . . .Wytheville, Va.

FIXTURES.

F. A. Rauch & Sons, ..Eagle Rock, Va.

Chesapeake Mill Co., Hampton, Va.

James G. Wilson Mfg. Co., Norfolk, Va.

White Lumber Co., Norfolk, Va.

American Furniture & Fixture Co.,

Richmond, Va.

C. P. Dean Corporation, Richmond, Va.

J. C. Fletcher, Richmond, Va

C. W. Montgomery, Richmond, Va.

Thos. E. Stagg, Richmond, Va.

Central Mfg. Co., Roanoke, Va.

T. W. Heath, Scottsville, Va.

G. W. Fretwell, Stauntor, Va.

C. W. Alexander & Bro., Waynesboro, Va.

HANDLES.

Atkins Bros., Attoway, Va.

H. P. Baker & Co ..Columbia, Va.

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

H. W. & W. W. Beaty, Front Royal, Va.
Carl Stossel & Co., ..Front Royal, Va.
Kenbridge Handle & Spoke Co., Ken-

bridge, Va.

Hardwood Novelty Co., . . Powhatan, Va.

M. W. Nicholls Powhatan, Va.

W. E. Dillard Mfg. Co., Petersburg, Va.

E. C. Bruiser & Sons, Richmond, Va.

Baldwin Tool Works, Richmond, Va.

Blue Ridge Handle Co., . . Round Hill, Va.

J. L. Marcus Round Hill, Va.

Rural Retreat Handle Co., Rural Retreat,

Va.

West Point Handle Co., Inc., West

Point, Va.

INSULATOR PINS. BRACKETS AND
CROSS-ARMS.

American Cross Arm Co., Buell, Va.

Brodie Bros. Co Figsboro, Va.

Rappahannock Locust Pin Co., Flint Hill,

Va.

The Locust Pin Co., ..Front Royal, Va.

B. F. & R. P. Gravely, Martinsville, Va.

Norfolk Creosoting Co., Norfolk, Va.

D. L. Moatz, Round Hill, Va.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Broadway Hardwood Mfg. Co.,

Broadway, Va.

Carl Stossel & Co., Front Royal, Va.

American Mfg. Co., Grottoes, Va.

Wm. H. Kephart, Herndon, Va.

R. Whitehurst Co., Norfolk, Va.

Jas. G. Wilson Mfg. Co., ..Norfolk, Va.

L. D. George Penola, Va.

M. W. Nicholls, Powhatan, Va.

The Cardwell Machine Co., Richmond, Va.
Richmond Cedar Works, . . Richmond, Va.
Richmond Woodworking Co., Richmond,

Va.

E. C. Brinser & Sons, South Richmond, Va.
W. W. Putnam & Co Staunton, Va.

PATTERNS.

Lynchburg Foundry Co., Lynchburg, Va.
Newport News Ship Building & Dry Dock

Co., Newport News, Va.

Atlantic Iron Works, Norfolk, Va.

Donahue & Marsden Norfolk, Va.

Eagle Iron Works Norfolk, Va.

Elizabeth Iron Works Norfolk, Va.

Etna Iron Works, Norfolk, Va.

Norfolk Iron Works, Norfolk, Va.

Norfolk & Southern R. R., Norfolk, Va.

The Norfolk Foundry, Norfolk, Va.

Union Iron Works, Norfolk, Va.

Virginia Iron Works, Norfolk, Va.

R. W. Whitehurst, Norfolk, Va.

Norton Car & Foundry Co., Norton, Va.
The Cardwell Machine Co., Richmond, Va.

Seaboard Air Line R. R., Richmond, Va.

The Tredegar Co., Richmond, Va.

Vesuvius Plow Works, .... Vesuvius, Va.

PAVING BLOCKS AND CONDUITS.

American Cross Arm Co., ..Norfolk, Va.

Norfolk Creosoting Co Norfolk, Va.

United States Wood Preserving Co.,

Norfolk, Va.

The Wyckoff Pipe & Creisoting Co.,

Portsmouth, Va.

PLANING MILL PRODUCTS.

J. K. Buckley & Son, Abingdon, Va.

Whiting Manufacturing Co., Abingdon, Va.

S. R. Gobble, Abingdon, Va.

Jno. A. Ternell, Auburn Mills, Va.

G. A. Glenn Lbr. Co., ..Basic City, Va.

F. Preston Jones Basic City, Va.

Chas. Hardenburgh & Son, Beaver Dam,

Va.

W. C. Harris, Beaver Dam, Va.

D. W. Raper & Son, Berkeley, Va.

Wm. Eugene Brace, Blacksburg, Va.

Gordy & Chandler Bloxom, Va.

I. M. Hite Bowmans, Va.

Gleck Bros., Bridgewater, Va.

J. Thuma & Son Bridgewater, Va.

J. A. Riddle, Bridgewater, Va.

Deer Creek Lumber Co., ..Cambria, Va.

H. A. Wells, Centralia, Va.

A. A. Overbey, Ceres, Va.

L. A. Marston, Charles City, Va.

Charlottesville Lumber Co., . . . Charlottes-

ville, Va.

King Lumber Co., Charlottesville, Va.

R. E. Baker, Chester, Va.

Flanagan Furniture Co., Christiansburg,

Va.

Claremont Lumber & Box Co., Claremont,

Va.

Mathews Curtis Co., Inc., Clifton Forge,

Va.

Cumberland Planing Mill, Cumberland, Va.
Danville Lumber & Mfg. Co., Danville, Va.

Heidelbach Lumber Co., Danville, Va.

Phoenix Lumber Co., Danville, Va.

C. T. Ellis Dooley, Va.

E. G. Flaherty, Eagle Rock, Va.

F. A. Rauch & Sons, Eagle Rock, Va.

W. A. Fisher Emmerton, Va.

F. P. Caldwell Fincastle, Va.

Va. Iron, Coal & Coke Co., Fosters Falls,

Va.

Camp Manufacturing Co., ..Franklin, Va.
Fredericksburg Lumber Co., Inc.,

Fredericksburg, Va.

J. W. Masters, Fredericksburg, Va.

J. C. Reavis, Galax, Va.

W. H. Tayloe, Galax, Va.

I. B. Weaver, Gloucester, Va.

OF VIRGINIA

Keys Planing Mill Co Graham, Va.

E. H. Ritter Planing Mill Co., Graham, Va.

Eutsler Bros., Grottoes, Va.

The Grow Biggs Co., Inc., Buena Vista,

Va.

Hampton Normal & Agricultural Institute,

Hampton, Va.

The Heffelfinger Co Hampton, Va.

J. S. Dovel & Co., . . . .Harrisonburg, Va.
Lewis Creek Planing Mill Co., Honaker,

Va.

R. J. Baber Howardsville, Va.

Jarvis & Abdell Jamesville, Va.

J. H. Willis Keysville, Va.

Geo. W. Cooke King & Queen, Va.

Hassinger Lumber Co., . . Konnarock, Va.

Cohansey Lbr. Co Lanexa, Va.

Woodson & Graves Lynchburg, Va.

H. L. Smyth, Meadow View, Va.

Weaver Bros Newport News, Va.

Meherrin Planing Mill Co., Mehein, Va.
Atlantic Coast Dumber Corp., Norfolk, Va.

C. W. Cake Norfolk, Va.

Fosburgh Lumber Co Norfolk, Va.

Goffigan Carper, Simpson Co., Norfolk, Va.
Portsmouth Building Corp., Portsmouth

Sta Norfolk, Va.

Port Norfolk Supply Co., ..Norfolk, Va.
Roanoke R. R. & Lbr. Co.. ..Norfolk, Va.
John L. Roper Lbr. Co., ....Norfolk, Va.
Sawyer Walker Lbr. Co.. ..Norfolk, Va.
Surrey Lbr. Co., Planing Mill, Norfolk, Va.

The Tunis Lbr. Co., Norfolk, Va.

H. L. Wats, Norfolk, Va.

White Lbr. Co., Norfolk, Va.

Peart, Nields & McCormick Co., North

Emporia, Va.

Norton Lbr. & Planing Mill Co.,

Norton, Va.

Bellows & Squires, Inc., ....Ocran, Va.

C. M. Hailey, Ontario, Va.

H. E. Grasty & Bros., Orange, Va.

R. N. Earman Penn Laird, Va.

L. D. George Lbr. Co Penola, Va.

Hobs-Hoy Co., Petersburg, Va.

Jacob Swage, Petersburg, Va.

Petersburg Wood Supply Co., Petersburg,

Va.

Petersburg Woodworking Co., Petersburg,

Va.

Fosburg Lbr. Co., Inc., Petersburg, Va.
Phenix Planing Mill Co.,.. Phenix, Va.
Intermont Planing Mill, ..Phlegar, Va.

R. F. Slaughter, Phoebus, Va.

John N. Hart Lbr. Co.,« Inc., Portsmouth,

Va.

Phillips Mahoney Co., Inc., Portsmouth,

Va.

M. W. Nichols, . .Powhatan, Va.

J. B. Lacey, Pratts, Va.

Oscar Laughon, Pulaski, Va.

Chas. W. Hardwicke Richmond, Va.

Jos. Heppert Richmond, Va.

W. D. Newsome Richmond, Va.

Sitterding-Carneal-Davis Co., Richmond,

Va.

Ide Lumber Co Roanoke, Va.

Va. Lbr. & Mfg. Co Roanoke, Va.

Purdue & Stone Rocky Mount, Va.

E. S. Adkins Wardtown, Va.

T. W. Heath Scottsville, Va.

A. G. Wallace Sebrell, Va.

Jno. H. Blackburn & Son, Staunton, Va.

G. W. Fretwell, Staunton, Va.

Jas. L. Gardner Stephens City, Va.

A. M. Jenkins Strasburg, Va.

E. L. Griner Stuarts Draft, Va.

Montgomery Lbr. Co Suffolk, Va.

J. B. Philhower & Sons Suffolk, Va.

R. E. Richardson Tunstall, Va.

C. B. & S. D. Mangus, Vesuvius, Va.

Banks & Donaldson Victoria, Va.

J. A. Glenn Lbr. Co., . .Waynesboro, Va.

Winn & Coleman, Warfield. Va.

Valley Builders Supply Co., Woodstock,

Va.

Wytheville Mfg. Co., Wytheville, Va.

POULTERERS SUPPLIES.

/. K. Buckley & Son, Abingdop, Va.

J. A. Riddle Bridgewater, Va.

W. J. Carpenter, Brightwood, Va.

J. S. Dovel & Co., ....Harrisonburg, Va.

G. E. Funkhouser, Jerome, Va.

Richmond Cedar Works, . . Richmond, Va.

W. L. Smith, Richmond, Va.

E. W. Miller Rochelle, Va.

E. C. Brinser S. Richmond, Va.

J. H. Chandler & Son, Stuarts Draft, Va.
Geo. F. Bull & Son, Timberville, Va.

SASH, DOORS, BLINDS AND GEN-
ERAL MILL WORK.

Abingdon Column & Lbr. Co.. Inc.,

Abingdon, Va.

J. K. Buckley & Son Abingdon, Va.

S. R. Gobble, Abingdon, Va.

Henry K. Field & Co., Alexandria, Va.

M. L. Risheill, Alexandria, Va.

W. H. Perrin, Ashland, Va.

F. Preston Jones Basic City, Va.

J. E. Stiveley, Bealeton, Va.

W. C. Harris, Beaver Dam, Va.

D. W. Raper & Son, Berkeley, Va.

Goodloe Bros Big Stone Gap, Va.

Wm. Eugene Brace, Blacksburg, Va.

Gordy & Chandler Bloxom, Va.

S. W. Broaddus, ....Bowling Green, Va.

I. M. Kite, Bowmans, Va.

J. A. Rddle, Bridgewater, Va.

J. Thuma & Son, Bridgewater, Va.

Broadway Hardwood Mfg. Co., Broadway,

. . Va.

WOOD- USING INDUSTRIES

The Grow, Biggs Co., Inc., Buena Vista,
Va.

A. A. Overboy, Ceres, Va.

Charlottesville Lbr. Co., . . Charlottesville,
Va.

King Lbr. Co., Charlottesville, Va.

R. E. Baker, Chester, Va.

Childress Mills, Childress, Va.

Kemerer & Costenboder, . . Claremont, Va.

Wood & Harvey, Concord, Va.

F. W. Thayer Co., Damascus, Va.

The Danville Lbr. & Mfg. Co., Danville,

Va.

Heidelbach Lbr. Co., Danville, Va.

Phoenix Lbr. Co., Danville, Va.

G. W. Bryan, Dayton, Va.

C. T. Ellis, Dooley, Va.

Dublin Mfg. Co., Dublin, Va.

F. A. Rauch & Son Eagle Rock, Va.

Buffalo Mfg. Co., Farmville, Va.

Peffer-Cone Lbr. Co., ..Front Royal, Va.

Gillespie Bros., Galax, Va.

J. C. Reavis Galax, Va.

Keys Planing Mill Co., Graham, Va.

Eutsler Bros., Grottoes, Va.

Chesapeake Mill Co., Hampton Va.

The Heffelfinger Co., Inc., Hampton, Va.
Hampton Normal & Agricultural Insti-

• tute Hampton, Va.

K. S. Bassford, Harrisonburg, Va.

W. M. Busher & Son, Harrisonburg, Va.
J. S. Dovel & Co., ..Harrisonburg, Va.

Hern don Lbr. Co Herndon, Va.

J. W. Crowell., Jonesville, Ya

Kenbiidge Planing Mills, Kenbridge, Ya.

Ncrris Bros., Leesburg, Va.

Tames Bros., Locustville, Vi.

Bailey Bros., Luray, Va.

Lloyd Moore, . . Lynchburg, vi.

C. R. Gregory Martinsville, Va.

H. I,. Smith, Meadow View, Va.

Weaver Bros Newport News, Va.

C. W. Cake, Norfolk, Va.

Goffigon, Carper, Simpson Co., ..Norfolk,

Ya.

Phillips Mahoney, Co., Norfolk, Va.

Portsmouth Building Corp., Norfolk, Va.
Tidewater Sash, Door & Blind Co., Inc.,

Norfolk, Va.

White Lbr. Co., Inc Norfolk, Va.

Geo. P. Hall & Co., North Tazewell, Va.
Norton Lbr. & Planing Mill Co., Norton,

.Va.

R. N. Earman, Penn Laird, Va.

L. D. George, Lbr. Co., Pehola, Va.

Builders Supply Co., ....Petersburg, Va.

Hobbs-Hoy Co., Petersburg, Va.

Petersburg Woodworking Co., Petersburg,

Va.

R. F. Slaughter, Phoebus, Va.

Port Norfolk Supply Co., Port Norfolk, Va.
Hardwood Novelty Co., ..Powhatan, Va.

J. B. Lacey, Pratts, Ya.

Oscar Laughon, Pulaski, Va.

E. H. Hirst Purcellville, Va.

C. W. Davis & Co., Piedmont, Va.

Chas. W. Hardwicke & Co., Richmond, Va.

Jos. Heppert, Richmond, Va.

Miller Mtg. Co., Inc., ..Richmond, Va.
Montague Mfg. Co., Richmond, Va.

C. W. Montgomery, Richmond, Va.

W. D. Newsom Richmond, Va.

D. W. Shrecengost, Richmond, Va.

R. A. Siewers Est., Richmond, Va.

Sitterding-Carneal-Davis Co., ..Richmond,

Va.

Thos. E. Stagg, Richmond, Va.

W. J. Whitehurst & Son, Richmond, Va.
Adams Payne & Cleaves, Inc., Roanoke,

Va.

Central Mfg. Co., Roanoke, Va.

Va. Lbr. & Mfg. Co., ....Roanoke, Va.

Purdue & Stone Rocky Mount, Va.

T. W. Heath Scottsville, Va.

South Boston Lbr. Co., South Boston, Va.

A. B. Lotts, Spottswood, Va.

Jno. H. Blackburn & Son, Staunton, Va.

G. W. Fretwell, Staunton, Va.

R. J. Livick, Staunton, Va.

L. W. Puffenberger & Co., Staunton, Va.
Jas. L. Gardener, .... Stephens City, Va.

A. M. Jenkins, Strasburg, Va.

Crocker Brinkley Lbr. Co., ..Suffolk, Va.

J. E. Banks, Toano, Va.

Toano Truck Package Co., Toano, Va.

R. E. Richardson," Tunstall, Va.

Warrenton Planing Mill Co., Warrenton,

Va.

M. B. Carpenter, Waverly, Va.

Lambert Mfg. Co., Waynesboro, Va.

Wytheville Mfg. Co., . . . .Wytheville, Va.

Valley Builders Supply Co., Woodstock,

..Va.

SHIP AND BOAT BUILDING.

Machine Shop & Railway Co., Irvington,

Va.

Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock

Co., Newport News, Va

Colona Marine Railway Norfolk, Va.

Norfolk Marine Ry.. Berkeley, Norfolk,

Va.

Norfolk & Southern R. R. Co., Norfolk,

Va.

Portsmouth Marine Ry., Portsmouth, Va.

Smith & McCoy,- Norfolk, Va.

W. E. Thomas & Co., Berkeley, Sta.,

Norfolk, Va.

U. S. Navy Yard, Portsmouth, Norfolk,

Va.

Reedville Marine Ry., Reedville, Va.

Owens Marine Railway, Weems, Va.

Rappahannock Marine Ry.. . .Weems, Va.

OF VIRGINIA

SHUTTLES.

Austin Lush, Amelia C. H., Va.

Woodward Bros. & Young, Clayville, Va.

Hardwood Novelty Co., ..Powhatan, Va.

M. W. Nicholls, Powhatan, Va.

TOBACCO BOXES.

T. J. Belcher, Crawford, Va.

David M. Lea & Co., Richmond, Va.

Andrew Krouse, Richmond, Va.

Richmond Wooden Ware Co., Richmond,

Va.

T. J. Belcher, Snow Creek, Va.

TRUNKS.

F. J. Kress, Kress, V a.

Petersburg Trunk & Bag Co., Petersburp,
Va.

Seward Tiunk & Bag Co., Petersburg, Ya.
Virginia Trunk & Bag Co., Petersburg, Va.
H. W. Rountree & Bro. Trunk & Bag Co.,

Richmond, >Ta

Union Trunk & Bag Co., Richmond, Va.
West Point Panel Co., West Point, Va.

VEHICLE AND VEHICLE PARTS.

Atkins Bros., Atoway, Va.

Gleck Bros., Bridgewater, Va.

Wheel & Wood Bending Co., Burke-

ville, Va.

The Wheel & Wood Bending Co., Burke-

ville, Va.

Chase City Mfg. Co., ..Chase City, Va.

R. E. Baker, Chester, Va.

C. H. Russell & Son, . . Clarksville, Va.
James A. Kline, Columbia Furnace, Va.
W. P. Homer Wagon Mfg. Co., Danville,

Va.

Va. Buggy Co., Inc., Franklin, V a.

Galox Buggy Co Galox, Va.

Hampton Normal Agricultural Institute,

Hampton, Va.

Bonham Bros., Jonesville, Va.

Kenbridge Handle & Spoke Co., Inc.,

Kenbridge, Va.

Hughes Buggy Co Lynchburg, Va.

A. M. Shaner Co., Inc., Lynchburg, Va.

Thornhill Wagon Co., ..Lynchburg, Va.

Look & Lincoln, Inc Marion, Va.

Virginia Spoke & Bending Co., Martins-

ville, Va.

Va., Wagon Co New Boston, Va.

Allen & Gildersleve Norfolk, Va.

J. W. Borum Son & Co., Norfolk, Va.

W. T. Godfrey & Co Norfolk, Va.

Morgan & Wilbur, Norfolk, \a.

W. J. Scultatus Norfolk, Va.

R. W. Whitehurst, Norfolk, Va.

A. Wrenn & Sons-, Norfolk, Va.

C. E. Wright & Co Norfolk, Va.

W. E. Dilliard Mfg. Co., Petersburg, Va.
Petersburg Rim & Veneer Co., Petersburg,

Va.

Hardwood Novelty Co.. ..Powhatan, Va.

M. W. Nichols, Powhatan, Va.

M. W. Nicholls Powhatan, Va.

R. H. Bosher Sons Richmond, Va.

Bartholomew C. Bristol, ..Richmond, Va.

Julius A. Grasberger Richmond, Va.

Conrad Gross, Richmond, Va.

A. Meyers Sons, Richmond, Va.

E. F. Moore, Richmond, Va.

Patterson & Hughes, Richmond, Va.

Richardson & Bros Richmond, Va.

Sitterding-Carneal-Davis Co.,. .Richmond,

Va.

Joseph L. Smith, Richmond, Va.

Va. N. C Wheel Co Richmond, Va.

Va. Carriage Factory, Roanoke, Va.

Blue Ridge Handle Co., Round Hill, Va.
Belmead Wagon Works, Rock Castle, Va.

Salem Wagon Works, Salem, Va

C. H. Gentry Somerset, Va.

E. L. Griner, Stuarts Draft, Va.

W. S. ^racy, Toano, Va.

Banks & Donaldson, Victoria, Va.

West Point Handle Co., West Point, Va.
Foote & Johnson, Wytheville, Va.

WOODENWARE AND MATCHES.

R. W. Whitehurst Co Norfolk, Va.

Lay & Balcom Mfg. Co., Portsmouth, Va.

Richmond Cedar Works, ..Richmond, Va.

Acme Match Co., Inc., Roanoke, Va.

Central Mfg. Co Roanoke, Va.

SUPPLEMENT.

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

SUPPLEMENT

The manufacture of slack and tight cooperage stock and paper
pulp in Virginia should properly be included in a study of the wood
using industries, because staves, hoops and heading, and pulp are
commodities in finished form, subject to no further manufacture,
and therefore, within the scope of the study. Tables representing
these commodities were not presented heretofore, owing to the fact
that the Bureau of Census in cooperation with the Forest Service
annually collects information concerning their production, and it was
deemed inexpedient to solicit similar information twice in the same year.
In order not to omit these important industries altogether, data was
taken from the Census Bulletin, reduced to the equivalent quantity
board measure, of forest material necessary to manufacture them and
compiled into tables comparable with those of the foregoing report.
The statistics following, therefore, are the result of computation,
while the tables of the report are a tabulation of data furnished by
manufacturers. The distinction accounts for the separation of the
copied information and its presentation in the supplemental chapter.

SLACK COOPERAGE

Table 28 below represents the quantity of material used for
the manufacture of staves and headings for slack barrels as reported
by the Virginia manufacturers for 1909. The average cost of the raw
material does not appear in the Census Bulletin. The prices given
were taken from reports of a few Virginia manufacturers incidentally
collected by the Forest Service agents during the field work in con-
nection with the wood using industry study.

TABLE 28.— SLACK COOPERAGE.

KINDS

Quantity

Equivalent
total quantity
of raw material
required
Feet B. M.

Average price
per M feet in
bolt form

Total Cost

Staves

199 822 000

158 400 000

Heading (sets) .

9 686 000

95 4Qo 000

Total

253 800 000

$6 95

$1 737 500 00

In comparing the quantity of material used by the slack cooperage
manufacturers with the other industries of Virginia listed in Table
3, it stands third in importance. Red gum, loblolly pine, white pine,
shortleaf pine, cotton gum, chestnut, oak, cotton wood and yellow pop-
lar, were the woods used. It will be noted that the hoop
material is not given. The number manufactured, compared

OF VIRGINIA

with other States, was so few, that the Bureau of Census
did not list the Virginia hoops separately. Soft elm, slipperv
elm, red gum, and white oak, probably in the order named,
were the woods which met the small demand of the hoop manufacturers.

TIGHT COOPERAGE STOCK

The Virginia manufacturers reported making only sawed staves
and heading for tight barrels in 1909. The 1,899,000 staves and the
445,676 sets of heading which these manufacturers turned out required
more than 16,000,000 feet of material purchased in bolt form to make
them. Oak, principally wihite oak, met more than three quarters of
the demand. Among the other woods used were red gum, ash, and
cypress, and a few miscellaneous woods reported only in small quan-
tities. Virginia tight staves were reported sold at an average of more
than $20.00 per thousand, and heading at a little over 10^ cents per
set.

TABLE 29.— TIGHT COOPERAGE.

KINDS

Quantity

Equivalent
total quantity
of raw material
required
Feet B. M.

Average price
per M feet in
bolt form

Total Cost

Staves

1 899 000

7,592,400

Heading (sets)

445 676

8 483 992

Total

16 076 392

$15 20

$244 355 00

PULPWOOD

The quantity of wood consumed for making paper pulp in Vir-
ginia according to 1909 figures makes this industry fifth in importance
among the wood using industries of the State. Nearly 89,000,000
feet of wood was required and was purchased in terms of cords. Con-
siderably over half of the total consumption was spruce, the next im-
portant wood was poplar. Pine and miscellaneous woods were re-
ported only in limited quantities.

TABLE 30.— PULPWOOD.

KINDS

Quantity
Cords

Equivalent
total quantity
of raw material
required
Feet B. M.

Average price
per M feet in
bolt form

Total Cost

46 089

49 776 120

30 468

32 904 440

5 638

6 089 040

All others

56,160

88,825,760

$68.880.00

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

THE AGGREGATE CONSUMPTION OF WOOD

The total amount of wood consumed in manufacture by all classes
of factories in Virginia is set forth in Table 31. The quantity
and cost of material as given in the tables for making tight cooperage
slock, slack cooperage stock and paper pulp are added to similar items
of Table 3, w.hidi gives the total of the twenty-four industries of the
preceding report. The results are as follows:

TABLE 31.— TOTAL CONSUMPTION OF WOOD.

Quantity
Feet B. M.

Average
price
Feet B. M.

Total Cost

Total consumption of 24 industries. Table 3
Slack cooperage stock

894,442,000
253 800 000

$15.00
6 95

$13,420,921.99
1 737 500 00

16 076 000

15 20

244 355 00

Pulpwoocl

88 826 000

7 88

68 880 00

Totals

1 253 144 000

$12 34

$15 471 656 99

APPENDIX.

0$ VIRGINIA

PRODUCTION OF FOREST PRODUCTS

The foregoing report deals with the quantity of wood from which
varions commodities are made. The appendix on the other hand
concerns the quantity of rough forest products manufactured in Vir-
ginia. The former is based on the consumption of wood, the latter
presents information from the view point of production. The figures
'given in the following tables are an exact copy of Bulletin No. 10
of the Bureau of Census to the extent to which it refers to Virginia.
They include statistics separately of the production of lumber, veneer,
and laths and shingles, and are appended herewith merely for the
convenience of the reader who may not have a copy of the Census
Bulletin at hand. Tables covering the cross-ties and wire poles were
necessarily omitted, because statistics given in the Census Bulletin
concerning their production were not presented according to States.

LUMBER

Table A presents statistics for the Virginia lumber cut according
to species in quantity and total cost.

TABLE "A"— PRODUCTION OF ROUGH LUMBER.

KINDS OF WOOD

. Quantity feet
B. M.

Total Cost

Yellow pine

1,221,691

$14,330,435

Oak

387,937

5,698,795

Yellow poplar

114,503

2,622,119

White pine .... . .

96,061

1,262,242

79 672

1,097,083

Chestnut . . . . .

67,996

945,824

Hemlock

42,359

551.514

Tupelo .

20,942

215,493

14,907

380,723

Red gum . . . .

13,760

159,616

9,658

176.452

Maple

6,104

73,919

Ash

5,590

102,241

Hickory

5 528

88,946

Walnut

2,308

77,618

Beech

2,238

25,357

980

10.692

Birch

843

14,862

254

2,504

Elm

244

3,177

Cherry

220

7,935

All others

2,478

68,674

Total

2.096,273

$27,916,223

VENEER

Table B shows the 1909 output of veneer in Virginia. It was
practically all rotary cut, ranging in thickness from 5-16 to 1-20 of
an inch. More red gum was used than twice the amount of ten other
woods. Cotton gum, yellow pine, and yellow poplar, in the order

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES OF VIRGINIA

named, were next to red gum, according to quantity. These woods
were cut mostly into cheap veneers used for making veneer boxes,
baskets, built-up lumber, panels, and hidden work of furniture.

TABLE "B" —PRODUCTION OF VENEER.

KINDS OF WOOD

Quantity, 1000 Feet
Log Scale

14 339 000

'J, 786 000

1 S13 000

1 412 000

Red Oak

1 047 000

White Oak

88 000

Chectnut . "

79 000

Ash

29 000

Maple

10 000

Walnut

6 000

Total

21 609 000

LATHS AND SHINGLES

Table C shows the number of laths and shingles produced an-
nually in Virginia, and their equivalent in board feet. A list of the
woods for making them can not accurately be given as they do not
appear in the Census Report. A large per cent of the laths, however,
were probably from yellow pine, white pine, spruce, and yellow poplar,
while the shingles were cut principally from cypress and white cedar.

TABLE "C"— PRODUCTION OF LATH AND SHINGLES.

PRODUCTS

Quantity

Equivalent
Total Feet
Board Measure

Average Cost
Per 1,000 Feet ,

Total Cost

Lath

127 555 000

42 449,000

$934 365 00

Shingles

39 172 000

4 230 576

165 636 00

46 679 576

f 1 100 001 00

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

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