Full text of "Parks : a manual of municipal and county parks compiled as a result of a nation-wide study of municipal and county parks conducted by the Playground and Recreation Association of America, in co-operation with the American Institute of Park Executives at the request of the National Conference on Outdoor Recreation"

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PARKS

A MANUAL OF MUNICIPAL AND
COUNTY PARKS

Compiled as a result of a nation-wide study of municipal and county parks
conducted by the Playground and Recreation Association of America
in co-operation with the American Institute of Park Executives
at the request of the National Conference on Outdoor Recreation.
The study was made possible through funds granted by
he Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial

:l V

EDITED BY L. H. WEIR

DIRECTOR OF THE STUDY

MUNICIPAL REFERENCE BUREAU

GENT HAL CXTr.nriON ClVIGION

UNIVCRGITY OF MINNESOTA

MINNEAPOLIS

—•—•——• - y oiume 1 'wo

NEW YORK

A. S. BARNES AND COMPANY

1928

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

THE MURRAY PRINTING COMPANY
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS

CONTENTS OF VOLUME TWO

Page
CHAPTER VIII. THE GENERAL EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT 507

Department composed of governing authority and executive organization — Position of govern-
mental authority in departmental organization— Officer organization, committee organization, by-
laws-Examples of by-laws — Executive sessions of board or commission— Minutes of meetings
of board and need of care in recording same — Raising and using funds— The governing authority
in the role of a legislature— Accounting to the public — Creation and maintenance of an executive
organization— Important duty of governing authority — Diagrammatic outline of an executive organ-
ization of a park department— General definition of functions of each division of the organization-
Examples of some existing executive organization presented in graphic outlines — The chief execu-
tive needed in modern park systems — How and where to secure executives— Powers and duties of
the chief executive — Relation of chief executive to governing authority; to his staff in general; to
department or division heads— Contacts of the executive with the public— General comments
concerning executive organization in small communities and large communities— Notes on scien-
tific management— Bibliography.

CHAPTER IX. OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 55 2-

Sfction I: Purposes and scope of chapter— Scope; point of view; need of better office facilities.
Section II: Organization and management; organization above office manager — Authority respon-
sible for keeping records; questions of policy; qualifications of secretary of a park and recreation
department; personal qualities; organization in control of the office manager— Evolution of the
office force; duties of employees; organization charts; individual qualifications; compensation and
grades; discipline and office character; the office manual; progress of office work.
Section III: Keeping the records; legislative acts establishing park department; official proceed-
ings—Of metropolitan boards and commissions; official orders where park department is gov-
erned by an individual; inventory of possessions — Real estate; inventory of structures and of
tools, equipment, merchandise and supplies; financial records of municipal funds — Funds; require-
ments of park accounting; financial records for management purposes; financial records for the
operation of business activities; special fund accounting; plan of park accounting and books of
account; methods of accounting entry; complete code of accounts of a park department; perform-
ance records and business statistics — In general, pertaining to financial records, showing the effects
of parks on property values; recreation statistics; social statistics — Summary.
Section IV: Uniform systems and records— Uniform accounting system; uniform park statistics-
Annual reports— Office libraries — Filing and indexing— Stock room — Balance sheet in park depart-
ment accounting— Receipts and disbursements — Revenue and expense— Method of obtaining
monthly expenditures on revenue producing activities— Appendix— Examples of duties of secre-
tary as defined in typical park and recreation systems— Tabulating machine codes.

CHAPTER X. THE PARK ENGINEERING DIVISION 618

Scope of functions of the engineering division — Relation of the engineer to other technical experts
—Methods of handling park engineering in different communities in the United States— Organ-
ization of the engineering division with illustrations of organizations in different cities — Engi-
neering records and filing methods — Methods of procedure in handling construction work— Deci-
sion of governing authority; preliminary plans and estimates by engineer; funds; decision of
governing authority as to whether work shall be done by day labor or by contract; different kinds
of contract— Advertisement; the proposal; consideration of bids and awarding of contract; the
agreement and contract; samples of contract forms.

CHAPTER XL MAINTENANCE 646

Fundamental requisites for effective maintenance— Adequate revenues, personnel and equipment-
Personnel— Examples for cities of various populations; employment; personal relations; reports
— Maintenance equipment — Service areas; structures — Dwelling homes; barns; shops; machinery
sheds; storehouses; greenhouses.

vi CONTENTS

Page

CHAPTER XII. HORTICULTURAL DIVISION . 669

Section I: Horticultural organization of a park department— Its fourfold functions — Design; pro-
duction; installation and maintenance — Equipment.

Section II: Notes in the different growing regions of the United States, together with lists of her-
baceous perennials and ornamental shrubs and trees best adapted to each region.
Section III: Diseases of park trees and shrubs, with suggestions as to their control.
Section IV: Insect pests and their control.

CHAPTER XIII. THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION . 708

Park department as a whole essentially a recreation department— Use of term "recreation divi-
sion" within park department in restricted sense— The two kinds of recreation service rendered by
park departments— Unorganized and organized — Scope of organized program— Children's play-
grounds—Scope of activities; suggestions for conduct of playgrounds; organization and conduct
of a general program of municipal athletics; various forms of physical activities conducted, together
with examples of rules and regulations governing them; nature study; community music; com-
munity dramatics — Social activities; picnicking, dancing; handcraft activities or constructive play;
swimming pool administration; golf course administration; general administration of the recre-
ation program— Staff organization and service salaries; training of workers; staff meetings; reports;
business management— General policies; permits; dues and charges — Problems of maintenance
—Relation to public— Bibliography.

CHAPTER XIV. PARK POLICING 747

Need of guidance of the people in use of property— Park rules and regulations— Methods used in
policing parks — Selection of park guards — Examples of civil service examinations for park guards
—Training of park guards — Series of ten lessons used in training of the West Chicago Police — A
few words of advice to park police — Organization of the park police — Milwaukee, Wilmington,
East St. Louis, Essex County, N. J., Westchester County, N. Y., South Park District, Chicago
— Examples of legal provisions giving police authority to park and recreation employees — Park
police pension fund — Examples of rules and regulations adopted by some park and recreation gov-
erning authorities for the government of the use of properties.

CHAPTER XV. PARK LIGHTING 792

Section I: General discussion of need of park lighting and of the different classes of lighting-
General park lighting— Specifications and sample set of specifications — Floodlighting— Lighting for
sports; lighting equipment for outdoor sports — Lighting notes on outdoor sports — Tennis court
lighting.

Section II: The illumination of parks, parkways and playgrounds— Desirability; benefits; current
and distribution; fixed installation factors; determining factors; testing and demonstrations; instal-
lation; conclusions and demonstrations; recommendations; installation; standards for spacing,
location and mounting height; lamps and glassware; upkeep; maintenance; cost items.
Section III: Specifications for supply electric current to the Park Department, Baltimore, Alary-
land— Specifications for lighting by electricity the parks, parkways and playgrounds and other
public lands under the management and control of the Board of Park Commissioners of the city
of Cincinnati — Bibliography.

CHAPTER XVI. PARK SANITATION 826

Sanitary problems with which park and recreation authorities have to deal — Water supply-
Amount of water required— Protection of water supply from contamination — Purification of
water supply — Distribution of water supply— Disposal of wastes — Sewage disposal— The sanitary
privy— Methods of disposing of contents of sanitary privies— The L. R. S. privy— The barrel-
sawdust privy — The pit privy — Army trench latrine — Chemical closets— The water carriage sys-
tem—Sewage treatment— Septic tanks — Disposal of sewage by dilution — Subsurface irrigation-
Underground filtration trenches — Intermittent filtration — Cesspools — Sanitation of toilet and privy
buildings — Disposal of bath water— Disposal of liquid kitchen wastes — Garbage and rubbish dis-
posal—Protection of refreshments and food served in park refreshment stands, restaurants and
camps — Example of the conditions and specifications governing the rental of refreshment stands
in one park system — Sanitation of sleeping quarters in camps— Insect control— Sanitary care of

CONTENTS vii

Page

areas and facilities of various kinds — Stream pollution in parks and reservations — Examples of
state laws relating to sanitation of swimming places, organized camps, tourist camps and picnic
grounds.

CHAPTER XVII. ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS 904

Zoological parks— Table giving important facts about the zoological parks in the United States;
planning of zoological parks; their administration; the director and staff; financing of zoological
parks; aquariums — Suggestions for their establishment; equipment necessary; their administra-
tion; the educational-recreational value and use of aquariums; a table of information regarding
the aquariums of the United States — Bibliography.

CHAPTER XVIII. BOTANICAL GARDENS 94°

Notes on the history of botanical gardens in the United States— The human service values of
botanical gardens— Elements of the design of a botanic garden— Plans of a few existing botanical
gardens in the United States— The administration of botanical gardens— Notes on financing botan-
ical gardens— Act of incorporation of the New York Botanical Garden.

CHAPTER XIX. EDUCATIONAL PUBLICITY 982

Importance of well organized educational publicity in park departments — Publicity relative to the
establishment of a park system — Publicity regarding facilities and their location — Pamphlets; lec-
tures; publicity by personal contacts in neighborhoods; special announcements; placards; posters;
parades and demonstrations; exhibits of pictures and handcraft work; publicity through the press;
annual reports; signs; bulletin boards — Publicity by word of mouth as the result of the merit of
the services rendered — Publicity designed to teach the people care in use of property and facili-
ties—Signs; rules and regulations; instructional services of the police; campaigns of education-
Organization for educational publicity — Duties of the educational publicity director— Bibliography.

CHAPTER XX. THE TRAINING OF PARK EXECUTIVES 995

First report of the Committee on Training of Park Executives, American Institute of Park Exec-
utives—Second report of the committee — Educational opportunities now being offered in various
institutions of higher learning which relate to the training of park executives — Suggested course
of study outlining briefly subjects for study, field work, and summer vacation activities; post-
graduate work.

CHAPTER XXI. GENERAL REFERENCES TO LITERATURE ON PARKS 1018

Bibliographies — Books — Periodicals — Reports.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

Tennis Courts in Prospect Park, Brooklyn Frontispiece

Questionnaire for Park Employees 560

Organization Chart for Park Department 563

Employees Performance Record Chart 568

Inventory Blank for Supplies and Tools 577

Perpetual Inventory of Merchandise and Supplies 578

Requisition Blanks for Park Department 579

Forms Used in Issuing Stock 580

Daily Report for Golf Links 594

Daily Refectory Report 595

Cost Report for Park Department 598

Sample Page of Ledger for Park System . 600

Chart of Books of Accounts for Auditing Department of Park System 601

Form for Labor 602

Form for Invoices 602

Form for Storehouse Supplies 603

Plan of the Layout of a Service Area, Park Department, Savannah, Georgia 654

Barn and Repair Shop, Park Department, Racine, Wisconsin 655

Floor Plan, Barn and Repair Shop, Racine 656

Plan of Lyndale Farmstead, a Service Area in the Park System, Minneapolis 656

Barn in O'Fallon Park, Park and Recreation Department, St. Louis 659

Cross Section of a Twenty-Four-Foot Bench, Semi-Iron House 665

Cross Section of a Forty-Foot Iron Frame House 665

Moderate Size Layout of Service House, Two Greenhouses and Frames 666

Extensive Layout of Ridge and Furrow Houses 666

Complete Semi-Iron Construction Greenhouse, with Inexpensive Work Room 667

Interior View of an Iron Frame Constructed House 667

Map of the United States Showing Regions with Similar Growing Conditions 674

The Mountain Pine Beetle 699

Galleries of the Western Pine Beetle 700

Galleries of the Hickory Bark Beetle in Bark and Wood 701

Mines of the Two-Lined Chestnut and Oak Borer 701

Galleries and Grub of the Elm Borer 701

The Woolly Maple and Alder Blight Aphid on Maple Leaves 702

Aphids and Honeydew on Tulip-Poplar Leaves 703

The Pine Leaf Scale 703

The Oyster Shell Scale 704

The Cotton Maple Scale 704

The Tulip Tree Soft Scale 704

Bagworms on Arborvitae 704

The Elm Leaf Beetle 705

The White Marked Tussock Moth 706

Play Day in One of Westchester County's Parks 709

Sailboats Constructed by Detroit Boys 712

A Stilt Contest in Evanston, Illinois 712

Horseshoe Pitching Has Its Appeal 714

Bowling a Popular Form of Park Recreation 715

An Exciting Game of Volley Ball 716

Swimming Lessons at Westchester County's Recreation Camp 717

An Exciting Hand Ball Game 718

An Artist in Snow 723

Community Music Wagon Used on the Playgrounds at Salem, Massachusetts 725

x LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

In the Puppet Theatre in Los Angeles "..,'.....-.. 727

Type of Moving Picture Booth Used in Conducting the Program Carried On by the Dallas, Texas, Park

and Recreation Department 728

A Pushmobile Race Has a Thrill of Its Own 729

Archery Equipment is Found in Many Parks 731

What is More Fun than Water Sports? . . 731

Lighting Standard Which Forms Inconspicuous Part of the Background 792

Statue of Minute Man Illuminated by L. I. Floodlighting Projectors 793

Night Lighting for Play Hours 795

An Example of Small Loads Widely Scattered at Lake Cliff Park, Dallas, Texas 796

Lighting Units in a Drive in a Cleveland Park 797

Three Harmonizing Sizes and Types of Lighting Standards 797

Standards Especially Suitable for Lighting of Park Drives 798

A Number of Small Lighting Units 799

The Bracket Arm Type of Lighting Standard 800

Defining a Drive with Standards on the Outside of the Curve 80 1

The RLM Standard Dome Reflector 803

Deep Bowl Spun Aluminum Reflector 803

Typical Angle Reflector 803

Wide Beam Floodlight Reflector 803

Plan View of Lighting System for a Single Tennis Court 806

Skirts Fastened on the Outside Rows of Reflectors in Tennis Court Lighting 806

Plan View of Lighting System for Two or More Adjacent Tennis Courts 806

View of Tennis Lighting System Showing an Outside and a Middle Row of Lighting Units . . . 807

Pump Shelter in One of the Rural Parks, Erie County, New York, Park System 827

Driven Well with Concrete Platform to Shut Out Surface Water 828

A Dug Well Showing Method of Excluding Surface Water from Opening 829

A Dug Well Showing Method of Excluding Surface Water by Use of a Concrete Platform .... 830

A Cross Section of Collection Box with Springs 830

Protected Spring from Which Water is Obtained through an Overflow Pipe 83 1

Inclosed Spring with Concrete Platform and Trench to Prevent Surface Water from Entering the Spring 832

Lyster Bag 833

Reservoir Showing Position of Inlet and Outlet 834

One Type of Apparatus for the Application of Liquid Chlorine 835

Drinking Fountain with Catch Basin 837

A Type of Drinking Fountain that is thoroughly Sanitary 838

Privy Box for One-Seated Sanitary Privy 839

Two-Seat Privy Box for Sanitary Privy Showing Vent Flue 840

A One-Seated Sanitary Privy 841

Receptacle for Use in a Sanitary Privy . . 842

Framework of Six-Seated Sanitary Privy 843

Front View of a Six-Seated Sanitary Privy 843

Details of a Fort Riley-McMunn Incinerator 844

The "Horsfall" Destructor 845

L. R. S. Privy with Concrete Tanks 846

L. R. S. Sanitary Privy 847

L. R. S. Privy in Which the Liquid Tank and the Effluent Tank Consist of Steel Drums . . . 848

L. R. S. Privy in Which a Barrel or Iron Drum is Used for a Liquefying Tank 848

Sawdust Barrel Privy ... 849

Pit Privy with Retaining Walls of Wood 850

Pit Privy with Urinal 851

Pit Privy with a Concrete Vault 852

Pit Privy with Retaining Walls of Wood 853

Army Trench Latrine Built without Partitions between the Seats . 854

Plan and Section of a Small Septic Tank Showing Dosing Tank and Automatic Siphon .... 855

Section through Septic Tank Showing the Position of the Baffle Boards 856

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi

Page

Septic Tank and Siphon Chamber for Twenty to Twenty-Five Persons 858

Septic Tank with Dosing (Siphon Chamber) and Absorption Field 859

Sewer Disposal System with Septic Tank, Siphon Chamber, Diversion Chamber and Absorption Field 860

Tile Fields for Subsurface Irrigation 861

Sectional View of a Diversion Chamber Showing Guards for Stop Planks 861

Plan of Diversion Chamber 862

Small Septic Tank Showing Method of Using Filter Trench and Ventilation System 862

Cross Section of Intermittent Filter 863

Schematic Tank of Crowfoot Distributor for Intermittent Filter 864

Subsurface Sewage Filter 865

Urinal for Use in Connection with the Soakage Pit or Privy 866

Urine Soakage Pit 866

Ablution Bench and Method of Disposing of Wash Water 867

Sketch of Grease Trap and Soakage Pits for Kitchen Wastes 868

Soakage Pit for the Disposal of Kitchen Wastes 869

Stand for Garbage Cans 870

Multiple Shelf Garbage Incinerator 870

Multiple Shelf Incinerator, Barrel Type 871

View of Incinerator for Resort Use .... . 872

Wire Baskets for Immersing Dishes in Boiling Water 873

Wire Baskets Filled with Dishes 874

The Ober Flytrap 885

Details of the Ober Flytrap 885

Hodge Window Sash Flytrap 886

Plan of the Chicago Zoological Park in Forest Park, Chicago,- Illinois 907

Revised Preliminary Plan for Zoological Garden, Franklin Park, Boston, Massachusetts 908

Plan of Zoological Garden, Hermann Park, Houston, Texas 910

Old Bear Pits, Philadelphia Zoological Garden, Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania . 911

Bear Exhibit in St. Louis Zoo 912

Showing Plan of Separating Cages 913

A Type of Fence Constructed of No. 6 Gauge Wire, etc 914

Illustrating Same Type of Fence as Shown in Plate 364 915

Illustrating Manner of Construction of Interior of Monkey House, Philadelphia Zoological Garden . . 916

Outside Enclosures for Monkeys, Philadelphia Zoological Garden . 917

A Table of Information Regarding Aquariums of United States 936

New Plan for the Botanic Garden of Harvard University 954

Plan of the Arnold Arboretum 956

Plan of the Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Missouri 958

Preliminary Plan of the New Site of the Missouri Botanical Garden, Gray Summit, Missouri . . .961

General Plan of the New York Botanical Garden, 1920 963

Board of Health Commissioners Exhibit at Health Show, Milwaukee 986

CHAPTER VIII

GENERAL EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF
A PARK DEPARTMENT

A park department comprises two distinct divisions: (i) the governing
authority; (2) the executive organization. In Chapter VI the various types
of governing authorities have been considered chiefly from the point of view
of the legal phases of their creation and existence, and of the various powers,
rights, duties and responsibilities which they exercise under the law. This
chapter will consider how these various agencies organize to discharge
these responsibilitieswith part icular reference to the executive organization.

POSITION OF GOVERNING AUTHORITY IN THE DEPARTMENTAL ORGANIZATION

In organizing the department it is important that the governing
authority never lose sight of the fact that its function is to govern and not
to execute. Much confusion has arisen and often halting execution of plans
and policies has resulted from attempts of authorities to act as executives
and to govern at the same time. It is not always easy to distinguish between
what is governmental and what is executive in the conduct of the depart-
ment. Some of the major phases of the act of governing may be said to
include the following: I. An interpretation of the intents and purposes of
the law or laws under which a governing authority operates. 2. The trans-
lation of the intents and purposes of the law or laws into a series of plans
and policies. 3. The raising and safeguarding of funds. 4. Consideration
and action upon all manner of proposals originating either from the members
of the board (in case of a park board or commission) or from citizens as
individuals or organized groups, or from the executive officer or officers of
the department or from any other source in the community. 5. The crea-
tion and maintenance of an executive organization to put into effect plans
and policies formulated and adopted. 6. The general oversight and super-
vision of the acts of executive officers. 7. Rendering an account of all acts
and doings to the people.

Officer organization. One of the very first acts of a governing authority
of the board or commission type has to do with its internal organization.
This consists of the election of officers and the formulation and adoption of
a code of procedure in the conduct of its business. The officers usually
ccmprise a president, vice-president, treasurer and a secretary. The first
two are always members of the board or commission. The treasurer may
be a member of the board or he may be the treasurer of the municipality

507

5o8 PARKS

or county in which the board operates. The secretary may be a member
of the board or the clerk of the municipality or some one selected by the
board from outside. If the secretary is not a member of the board and is
placed in charge of the records and the office organization in general he
should preferably be considered a part of the executive organization and
not an integral part of the governing authority organization. Officers are
usually elected for one year or until their successors are elected and quali-
fied. (For reference to the officer organization, see Chapter VI, pages
452-459.)

Committee organization. Most park boards have as a part of their
internal organization a system of committees. These are of two kinds,
standing committees and special committees. These are usually appointed
by the president.

While the committee system is an excellent method for division of
responsibilities and duties among the members and for keeping the interest
of the members alive and alert to the work of the department, the great-
est care should be exercised in defining their duties and powers. This is
especially true of standing committees whose duties in any way relate to
executive functions. As a rule the powers and duties of all committees
should be limited strictly to advisory functions only. An instance is noted
where a park and recreation board had ten standing committees and every
committee exercised executive functions. It is needless to say that the
chief executive became a mere figure head and the entire department was
hopelessly disorganized. In general it may be suggested that the adminis-
trative business of the average park department can be more expeditiously
and efficiently conducted in the committee of the whole than through a
number of sub-committees; and there is likely to be far less confusion
arising in the executive organization. On the other hand, it is often valuable
and desirable to appoint special committees from time to time to make
investigations and reports on specific situations and problems.

By-laws. The code of procedure by which a park governing authority
declares its plans and policies for conducting its affairs is usually embodied
in by-laws. In the case of independent park districts these by-laws are
generally enacted in the form of ordinances. The form and content of
by-laws are illustrated by the following examples of such codes formulated
and adopted by some of the park governing authorities in this country.

Their content may be summarized as follows: I. Statement of officer
organization. 2. Definition of duties of officers of the board or commission
and of certain of the executive officers. 3. Statement of committee organ-
ization and definition of the duties of committees. 4. References to handling
certain fiscal matters, especially those relating to contracts and financial

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT

509

reports. 5. Statement of the time or times and place of holding meetings
and order of the conduct of business. 6. Provisions for certain kinds of
reports. 7. Provisions for amendment of by-laws.

BY-LAWS GOVERNING THE PARK AND RECREATIONAL BOARD OF
THE CITY OF BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA

Be it resolved by the Park and Recreational Board
of the City of Birmingham, Alabama, that the by-laws
of said board be and the same are as follows:

1 . Officers. Election and term of office of president and
vice-president. The officers of the Park and Recreational
Board of the City of Birmingham, Alabama, shall be a
president, vice-president, secretary and a general super-
intendent. The president and vice-president shall be
elected by ballot of the board at the first meeting in
November of each year, shall be members of the board
and hold office for one year from date of election and
until their successors shall be elected and qualified.

2. Duties of president. The president shall be the
executive officer of the board. It shall be his duty to
preside at all meetings when present; sign all con-
tracts and other papers authorized by the board; to see
that all rules and regulations of the board are enforced
and all orders faithfully executed, and to have general
direction of all officers of the board whose offices are
created by the board.

3. Duties of vice-president. The vice-president, in the
absence of the president, shall be clothed with all powers
and perform all the duties of the president.

4. Secretary. Appointment, salary, duties and bond.
The secretary shall be a person not a member of the
board, and shall be elected by the board and shall hold
office during the pleasure of the board and at such
salary as the board may fix. The secretary shall not
be elected unless all members of the board are present
at the time of voting, or unless a majority of the board
are present and voting after all members of the board
have been notified that at said meeting a secretary
would be elected. The secretary shall have custody of
the corporate seal and of the books and papers pertain-
ing to the office, and shall attest and affix the corporate
seal to all instruments requiring such action when
authorized by resolution or vote of the board. The
secretary shall attend all meetings of the board and
keep a full and true record of its proceedings. The
secretary shall keep accurate records and books of
account, and shall prepare annually a full and detailed
report of the acts and doings of the board, together with
a complete itemized account of all receipts and disburse-
ments of money. The secretary shall keep the original
or true copies of all necessary accounts and vouchers
subject at all times to the inspection of the members
of the board, and shall make report to the board every
month or as often as desired by the board, showing the
amount of money on hand, the receipts and disburse-

ments since the last report. The secretary shall receive
and conduct the correspondence of the board, issue all
official notices and prepare all papers and reports for
the meetings of the board and for committees. He shall
be responsible for the tools, implements and supplies
held in store, and for the accuracy of the accounts of
the storekeeper and the maintenance of inventories of
supplies received and used. He shall be held responsible
for the economical purchase of all supplies and materials
received and for satisfactory competition in all pur-
chases. It shall be his duty to see that no purchases are
made on requisitions for materials, supplies, tools, im-
plements or other property, the cost of which will
exceed one hundred dollars, without bids being taken
thereon, the bids to be submitted to the board before
the contract is awarded. It shall be his duty to supply
properly, either from the storehouse or by purchase, any
materials, tools, implements or supplies needed by the
different park employees in their work. Purchases are
to be made only on properly prepared requisitions
authorized by the board. It shall be his duty to examine
the proposals received on advertisements for purchases,
and to prepare comprehensive tabulated statements for
purchases, and to give to the board his recommendation
as to the character and value of the work, material and
implements offered in the proposal. He shall also per-
form the duties of purchasing agent, and in that capac-
ity, shall, subject to the action of the board, have charge
of the purchase of all materials, tools, implements and
supplies. The secretary shall give bond in the sum of
not less than five thousand dollars, with surety to be
approved by the board, and shall give full time to the
duties of the office, at the office of the board in the
city hall. All calls for meetings of standing committees
or special committees shall be issued by the secretary
upon request by the chairman of the committee.

5. Treasurer and duties. The comptroller of the city
of Birmingham shall be custodian of the money and
funds of the board. The park and recreational fund of
the board shall be kept with the funds of the city of
Birmingham in such depository to the credit of the city
as the governing body of the city may direct, and all
payments and disbursements from this fund as and
when made shall be validated by the countersignature
of the officer or person designated by the governing
body of the city to countersign or validate checks drawn
for other municipal purposes, and such countersignature
of such officer of the city shall be made only upon the
authority of vouchers or resolution authorized by said

PARKS

board which have been certified by the secretary and
approved by the president. The comptroller shall at all
times, upon request of the secretary, furnish to the
secretary all such information as may be necessary to
enable the secretary to keep a complete itemized
account of all receipts and disbursements and balance
on hand pertaining to the park and recreational fund
of said board.

6. General park superintendent. Appointment, salary,
duties and bond. The general superintendent shall be a
person not a member of the board, and shall be elected
by the board, and shall hold office during the pleasure
of the board and at such salary as the board may fix.
The general superintendent shall not be elected unless
all members of the board are present at the time of
voting, or unless a majority of the board are present
and voting after all members of the board have been
notified that at said meeting a general superintendent
would be elected. The general superintendent, acting
under the president and members of the board, shall
have general management and supervision of all parks,
playgrounds and recreational activities. It shall be his
duty to see that his various departments are properly
and efficiently organized, and their various activities
coordinated and harmonized, and to this end he shall
have in a general way supervision of the work of all
of the departments and shall be responsible to the
president and to the board for the satisfactory and
economical administration and operation of all depart-
ments. He shall recommend to the board such rules
and regulations for the government of the different
departments as may be considered necessary and
proper. He shall be the general agent of the board in
matters respecting the upkeep, management, conduct,
development, improvement, equipment and mainte-
nance of parks, park areas, park boulevards, playgrounds,
recreational centers and storehouses pertaining thereto,
and shall employ, manage, control and discharge such
number of person^^s authorized by the board to be
employed as laborers and helpers connected with his
work, the wages of such employees first being deter-
mined by the board. The general superintendent shall
give bond in the sum of five thousand dollars, with
surety to be approved by the board if requested.

7. Committees, standing and special. All standing and
special committees shall be appointed by the president,
and in case of the absence or disability of a member of a
committee, the president may appoint another member
to act temporarily in his or her place. The president
shall be ex officio member of all committees. The duties
of all committees shall be defined by resolutions of the
board and actions of the committees shall be advisory
and not executive. The reports of all committees shall
be made in writing, and shall be signed by a majority
of the members of the committee and shall be recorded
in the minutes of the board by the secretary. The
secretary shall keep a record of the proceedings of every

standing committee, which shall be kept at the office
of the board, and subject to the investigation of all
members of the board.

8. Regular meetings. Regular meetings of the board
shall be held on the second and fourth Wednesdays of
each month at 10 A.M.

9. Special meetings. Special meetings of the board
shall be called by the president whenever he shall deem
it necessary, and shall be called by the secretary at the
request in writing of any two members of the board,
subject to be stated in call. Regular notices of all such
meetings shall be given the members of the board by
depositing same, properly addressed and stamped, in
the post office at least forty-eight hours before the
time of such meeting, or be personally served upon the
members at least three hours before such meeting.

10. Place of meetings. All meetings of the board
shall be held in its offices in the city hall, providing,
however, that special meetings or adjourned meetings
may be held at any place within the city of Birming-
ham with the consent of at least three members of the
board. Three members of the board shall constitute a
quorum for the transaction of business.

11. Reports and resolutions. All reports and resolu-
tions shall be in writing.

12. Board acts by yea and nay vote. The yeas and
nays shall be taken upon passing any resolution, and
upon all proposals which create any liability, or for the
expenditure or appropriation of money, and in all cases
upon the request of any member of the board.

13. Salaried officers and employees. Full-time service.
Disinterestedness in action of board. All salaried officers
or other persons in the employ of the board shall give
such proportion of their time and attention to their
duties as the board shall require. No officer or em-
ployee created by the board shall hold a salaried office
or have regular employment in any other business or
occupation. No officer or employee created by tht
board shall hold office or employment of appointment
under the city of Birmingham or any department of
the said city or any institution thereof, save only that
of the park and recreation board, nor shall any officer
or employee of the board be concerned in any contract
with the board of the said city, or any of its depart-
ments or institutions, either as a contractor, subcon-
tractor, or party directly or indirectly interested therein.
No salaried officer in the employ of the board shall
absent himself from duty without leave signed by the
president.

14. Order of business. Unless otherwise ordered by
a vote of the majority of members present, the following
shall be the order of business at regular meetings of the
board: I. Calling the roll. 2. Reading minutes of pre-
vious meeting. 3. Reports of standing committees. 4.
Reports of general superintendent. 5. Reports of special
committees. 6. Report of secretary. 7. Unfinished busi-
ness. 8. Communications and new business.

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT

15. Contracts, competitive bids. AU contracts exceed-
ing in amount the sum of one hundred dollars for work,
materials or supplies shall be let by the board, after
competitive bids have been taken thereon, to the low-
est trustworthy and responsible bidder, the right being
reserved to accept or reject any and all bids or parts
thereof. Contracts may be let without taking bids if
authorized by the vote of four members of the board.

1 6. Contractor's bond. Whenever any contract ex-
ceeding in amount the sum of five hundred dollars or
less amount, if board so directs, is authorized and the
specifications on which proposals for the award of said
contract are invited require the person to whom the
said contract is awarded to furnish bond for the faithful
performance of said contract, said contractor shall fur-
nish such bond in such amount as the board may desig-
nate, and containing such conditions and provisions as
the board may deem necessary and proper before deliv-
ery of duplicate contract to said contractor. Said bonds
shall be signed by some surety satisfactory to the board
in all respects.

17. Vouchers. Vouchers for the payment of money
shall be drawn on the comptroller by the secretary, and
shall be signed by the secretary, approved and counter-
signed by the president, and countersigned by the
officer or person designated by the governing body of
the city of Birmingham to countersign or validate
checks drawn for other municipal purposes.

1 8. Vouchers for salaries and wages. Vouchers for
payment of authorized salaries of all officers and wages
of all employees, and warrants for the payment of ma-
turing interest on any indebtedness of the board, and
also for the payments of estimates on duly authorized
contracts, may be drawn and issued as the same become
due and payable. No other warrants shall be drawn
except on resolution of the board.

19. On or before the tenth day of each month all
bills other than those specified in the preceding section
shall be filed with the secretary, who shall attach same
to the proper vouchers, and after examination by the
chairman of finance committee, together with his recom-
mendation, shall be presented by the secretary at the
next regular meeting of the board for action thereon.

20. Premiums on bonds of officer . Premiums on bonds
of officers required shall be paid by the board out of the
park and recreation fund.

21. Standing committees. The standing committees
of the park and recreation board shall be as follows,
each committee consisting of three members appointed
by the president, who shall hold office during the term
of the president appointing: i. Committee on finance.
2. Committee on maintenance and improvements. 3.
Committee on supplies. 4. Committee on recreation.
5. Committee on forestry and fine arts.

(a) Committee on finance. The committee on finance
shall examine all bills and claims having the order of
the secretary attached, which may be presented to the

park and recreation board, and report same to the board,
audited and approved, or rejected, with reasons for such
rejection. The committee, at least once a year, and
oftener if the board so desires, shall examine or cause
to be examined the books, inventories, accounts and
vouchers of the secretary, and shall report their correct-
ness to the board; and all officers and employees of the
board shall produce and submit to such accountants for
examination all papers, documents, accounts and vouch-
ers in their office belonging to the same or thereto per-
taining, and shall in every way assist said accountants
in their work. In the report to be made by such account-
ants they may make any recommendation they deem
proper as to the business methods of such officers or
employees. Said committee is charged with the duty of
preparing and submitting to the board for considera-
tion at least two months before the end of the fiscal
year, a budget of expenditures and expenses by and of
the board for the next ensuing fiscal year. Said com-
mittee is charged with the duty of suggesting to the
board ways and means by which needed revenues may
be raised, and shall be the general soliciting agent of
the board for contributions from the public of moneys
and lands.

(b) Committee on maintenance and improvements. It
shall be the duty of the committee on maintenance and
improvements to consider matters pertaining to the
maintenance, equipment and improvement of parks,
parkways, boulevards and buildings which may be
referred to it by the board, and to recommend to the
board such action as it may deem proper lor the best
interests of the board. It shall be the duty of this com-
mittee to open all bids for improvements and mainte-
nance work, and to submit same to the board with its
recommendations for action. The committee shall hold
public meetings whenever bids for public-lettings are
to be opened.

(c) Committee on supplies. It shall be the duty of the
committee on supplies to examine the reports of the
secretary concerning the purchase of supplies, and to
approve or disapprove same in its report to the board.
It shall recommend to the board for action such matters
as may require the approval of the board. It shall be
the duty of this committee to open all bids on material
and supplies exceeding the amount authorized under
Section 15, and to-submit same to the board, with
recommendations, at its next regular or called meeting
for this purpose.

(d) Committee on recreation. It shall be the duty of
the committee on recreation to consider matters per-
taining to the use of all recreational and social facilities
of the park system, including playgrounds, athletic
fields, bathhouses, swimming, skating, coasting, pic-
nicking and boating facilities, tennis courts, baseball
grounds, golf links, social centers, etc., which may be
referred to it by the board, and to recommend to the
board such action as it may deem proper for the best

512 PARKS

interests of the department. It shall recommend to the action as it deems proper for the best interests of the

board such action as it deems proper for the care, city in these matters.

maintenance and control of zoological gardens. 22. Fiscal year. The fiscal year of the board shall

(e) Committee on forestry and fine arts. It shall be the end September 30 in each year.

duty of the committee on forestry and fine arts, to con- 23. "Any article of the by-laws may be amended 'or

sider matters pertaining to music, art in museums or repealed, and any new article may be incorporated

galleries, sculpture. historical naming of parks, all therein by vote of the majority of the board of park

memorials in the park area and landscape gardening, commissioners. All such changes to be presented in

such as planting of trees, the care and removal of trees, writing, provided the proposed amendments, repeals

flowers, shrubs, grass, etc., in the parks and parkways or additions, shall lay over one meeting before a vote

and boulevards, as well as on the streets and thorough- be taken thereon, but by unanimous consent of the

fares of the city which may be referred to it by the board whole board, such matter may be acted on at once.

and to submit to the board recommendations as to fur- Adopted and approved by the board, this the

nishing or allowing music for any of the fine arts for the day of , 1924.

benefit of or contributed by the public in the parks or

park areas, and shall recommend to the board, such President.

A Few Provisions in Other Cities.

According to the provisions of the by-laws of the commissioners of
public parks, New Haven, Connecticut, the same person may be both
secretary and treasurer, serving without salary but being allowed such
clerical and incidental expenses — not to exceed five hundred dollars a year
- as he may deem necessary and as may be approved by the president.
There shall be an assistant secretary who may or may not be a member
of the commission, and an assistant treasurer annually appointed from the
members of the commission.

The standing committees of the New Haven Park Commissioners
include finance and estimates, purchase of lands, and restaurants and con-
cessions. There is also a committee for each park to have such oversight
of the "appropriation for the same and the mode of expending such an
appropriation, and to have such powers with reference to such expenditures
as the commission may order from time to time." Each committee shall
consist of not less than three nor more than four members, and each mem-
ber of the board shall serve upon at least one of the committees. No com-
mittee is permitted to spend over one hundred dollars on any work or
improvement without special authority from the commissioners.

The by-laws of the Board of Park Commissioners of Fort Worth, Texas,
provide for a music and entertainment committee of two members and
an emergency committee of two members to act in conjunction with the
superintendent to care for all emergencies occurring between board meet-
ings which cannot be delayed until the next meeting. This committee has
the authority to incur an expense not to exceed one hundred and fifty
dollars. The president may appoint a committee of one or more members
to act with the superintendent in supervising and planning any activities,
construction work, planning parks, laying out road work, tree, shrubbery

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT

or flower planting. The committees may act between meetings subject to
the approval of the board.

By- Laws in a County Park System.

ESSEX COUNTY, NEW JERSEY
Article I. Meetings

Sec. I. The annual meeting shall be held on the
fourth Tuesday in April in each year, at the rooms of
the commission, at three o'clock in the afternoon.

Sec. 2. The regular meeting shall be held on the
second Tuesday in each month, at three o'clock in the
afternoon, and at such other times as may be deter-
mined upon by a majority of the board before adjourn-
ment of any meeting.

Sec. 3. The president may call special meetings
whenever deemed necessary; and shall call special meet-
ings when requested by two commissioners. In the call
for special meetings, the subject matter for considera-
tion must be specified in the notice.

Sec. 4. . Three commissioners shall constitute a
quorum at any meeting, and a majority of each com-
mittee shall constitute a quorum.

Sec. 5. The secretary shall send written notices of
all meetings to each commissioner through the mails or
by messenger, at least twenty-four hours preceding the
date of said meeting.

Article II. Officers

The officers shall consist of a president, a vice-presi-
dent, a treasurer and a treasurer pro tern., who shall be
members of the board, and who shall be elected at the
annual meeting. A secretary, who shall not be a mem-
ber of the board, and such other officers and employees
as may be required, shall be appointed from time to
time, and shall hold office during the pleasure of the
board. In case of the secretary's absence or disability,
the office may be filled by temporary appointment.
Vacancies of offices may be filled at any meeting in the
manner provided, by a majority vote of the commission.

Article III. Duties of the President
The president shall preside at all meetings of the
commissioners, and shall be an ex officio member of all
committees. He shall execute all contracts and other
papers necessary to the transaction of the business of
the board.

Article IV. Duties of the V ice-President
In the absence of the president, the vice-president
shall exercise the powers and perform the duties of the
president. In case of the absence of both, the board
may appoint a president pro tern.

Article V. Duties of the Treasurer
Sec. I. The treasurer shall have charge of the funds
of the commission which shall be kept in such institu-

tions as the board may select. Transfers may be made
from one bank to another by the treasurer. Bills, after
approval, shall be paid by warrant approved by the
president or vice-president and the secretary and made
effective by the signature of the treasurer, or in his
absence or inability, by the treasurer pro tern.

Sec. 2. The treasurer shall keep proper books of
account.

Article VI. Duties of the Secretary

Sec. i. The secretary shall keep a correct record of
the proceedings of the board at all meetings, give
notices of all regular, adjourned and special meetings
and perform such other duties as may be devolved upon
him by the board.

Sec. 2. The secretary shall have the custody of the
seal of the commission.

Article VII. Committees

Committees may be appointed by the president at
any time, subject to the approval or by the direction
of the board.

Article VIII. Voting

All resolutions authorizing the making of contracts
or the payment of money shall require the affirmative
vote of three commissioners at any meeting of the
board. The yeas and nays may be called by any mem-
ber on any question which shall be subject to a vote
of the board, and such vote shall be duly recorded in
the minutes.

Article IX. Order of Business

The following order of business shall be observed at
every meeting, changes being allowed by unanimous
consent:

i. Calling of roll. 2. Reading of the minutes of the
preceding meeting and the report or reading of the pro-
ceedings of the committees. 3. Reports of officers. 4.
Report of secretary or other assistant. 5. Unfinished
business. 6. New business.

Article X. Seal of the Commission
The seal of the commission shall be the words "The
Essex County Park Commission" surrounding the
figures "1895."

Article XI. Changes of By-Laws
These by-laws may be altered, amended or added to
when notice of the same shall have been given at a
meeting at least one week prior to action upon them.
It shall require a majority vote of all members of the
board for their adoption.

5H PARKS

Meetings and Record of Proceedings.

It is in the regular and special meetings where the park board plays
its major formal role as a governing authority. Here all proposals arising
from any and every source are formally considered and formally acted
upon. Regularity as to time and permanency in place of meeting is of the
highest importance both in relation to the efficient administration of the
business of the department and in relation to the convenience of the public.
A meeting every two weeks appears to be sufficient for handling all the
administrative business of the average park department.

Special meetings may be necessary frcm time to time fcr the con-
sideration of matters needing immediate attention, but since the use of
special meetings is liable to great abuses it is desirable that they be used
sparingly and then only under strict rules as to timely notification of mem-
bers, place and time of meeting and a statement of the subject matter to
be discussed.

While it may be necessary, from time to time, to consider certain pro-
posals in executive session, such as the specific locations of properties in
a general plan, or subjects involving a marked change in policies, this
practice should be followed only when it unquestionably appears that the
public interest will thus be better served. Few practices are so likely to
arouse public suspicion and distrust, resulting in the loss of public confi-
dence, than that of holding executive sessions. Park governing authorities
should always bear in mind that they are merely servants of the people
and that all matters relating to this service for the people should be con-
sidered openly except in those rare instances where, in the judgment of
the governing authorities, the interests of their masters can be better served
in temporary secrecy.

The minutes or various recorded actions upon all proposals considered
and acted upon by the governing authority constitute, next to the organic
law under which it operates, the most important document or series of
documents in the possession of the department. These are not only an his-
torical record of the acts and doings of the governing authority but also a
reservoir of reference in case of any controversies that may thereafter arise,
and a constant declaration of policies and plans. It is extremely important
that these minutes or records be kept with great care as to accuracy and
usableness. They should be maintained, either in written or printed form,
in bound volumes, each volume being subjectively and alphabetically
indexed. A subjective, cross reference, card index file of these records
should be maintained so that any action of the governing authority on
any subject whatever, no matter how many years back, can readily be
found.

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT 515

Raising and Using Funds.

The r6le of a park governing authority in raising and using funds is
considered at length in Chapter VII, "Park Financing," pages 471-506.

A park governing authority can, perhaps, more easily win or lose
public confidence through the way in which it handles the money entrusted
to its care than through any other means. To handle it wisely requires a
discriminating conception and understanding of the needs of the people.
It also requires business acumen in keeping a proper balance between
improvement projects and income for operation and maintenance. It may
sometimes happen that a governing authority may act in the use of funds
on a line of action that does not happen to meet with public approval,
yet in the long run may represent a wiser policy than one which the people
might immediately approve. In such a case the authority can only have
the courage of conviction and take the consequences. On the whole, how-
ever, if there is unmistakable evidence of a widespread public demand for
a certain line of action, a governing authority cannot go far wrong to give
heed to it in the application of funds. It is a major responsibility of the
authority, as a governing authority, to seek out, analyze and weigh the
public needs and the public demands.

The Governing Authority in the Role of a Legislature.

In its legislative capacity a park governing authority assumes the
position of a ruler over its rulers. In this capacity it lays down rules and
regulations for use, by the people, of the properties under its control. These
rules and regulations are intended more as guides to the people, but they
nevertheless have all the force of laws and may be enforced in any court
of law of competent jurisdiction. This function of a park governing authority
is discussed in detail in Chapter XIV, "Park Policing," pages 747-791.

Accounting to the Public.

The best accounting that a park governing authority can give the
people is in the volume and quality of the services which it renders. But
unfortunately it is very difficult for the average citizen who uses one golf
course, or a tennis court, or who frequents one swimming center, or whose
children use one playground, to get a comprehensive and composite picture
of the volume or the quality of the services rendered by the department
for the community as a whole. There are in every community, also, many
who never come under the influences of any of the services rendered. One
of the outstanding weaknesses in park government throughout the country is
the failure of the governing authorities to provide for a method of general
education of the public except when a bond issue or an increased appro-
priation is desired. Most park authorities content themselves with making

516 PARKS

an annual report to the city council or to the county board of commissioners
as the case may be, and only comparatively few of these reports are ever
printed and made available for general distribution. A well-organized plan
of educational activity would be extremely valuable from two viewpoints:
it would more nearly give the governing authority a true and up-to-date
insight into the public needs and desires, and at the same time acquaint the
people more fully with the facilities and services now available. This sub-
ject is discussed in detail in Chapter XIX, "Educational Publicity."

Executive Organization.

The creation and maintenance of an executive organization is without
doubt one of the most important acts of government by a park governing
authority. The success or failure of the governing authority will largely
depend upon whether it does or does not recognize the value of expert
service and sets up an executive organization manned with trained officials.
This principle applies to small as well as to large communities. Indeed,
because of the versatility demanded of the one or the few executive officials
in a small organization, there is even greater need of more widely trained
leadership in small communities than in larger ones. Unfortunately this
need does not always harmonize with the financial resources available in
small communities.

The personnel of an executive organization will comprise a chief execu-
tive or superintendent, subordinate officials, the number depending upon
the size of the community and the functional services definitely and sepa-
rately organized, and laborers. From the viewpoint of major functions there
is no marked difference between a small park executive organization and
the executive organization of a large one, but there is, of course, a vast
difference in the number of definite functional divisions into which the
departments, respectively, may be organized.

DIVISIONAL ORGANIZATION OF A PARK EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION

The following diagrammatic outline of the divisional organization of
a park and recreation department will serve to visualize some of the various
functions which any department, small or large, will perform.

DIAGRAMMATIC OUTLINE OF A PARK EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION

General Park Governing Authority

Chief Executive

Off

Engine

ering

Hortic

ultural

Pol

Division

Legal

Maintenance

Recreation

Miscellaneous

Division

Divisions

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT 517

1. Office division. The primary executive function of this division is
to keep all the records of the department (records of the governing authority
and records of the executive organization), including the accounting system.
In some park systems the head of the office division discharges some of
the functions of a business manager.

The executive officer of the division is the secretary. For a definition
of the duties of the secretary in a few park systems, see by-laws, pages 509,
513, 526. (For a full statement of the organization and functions of the
office division, see Chapter IX, pages 552-617.)

In some small systems the secretarial work is performed by the super-
intendent, or by a member of the park board, or by another official of the
municipal government, such as the city clerk. Likewise the accounting for
the department may be done by the municipal treasurer or auditor.

2. Engineering division. The particular functions of this division relate
to the location, acquisition and development of properties. In detail the
division will survey and establish boundaries, conduct acquisition negotia-
tions, make topographical surveys, make surveys in execution of landscape
designs, and either supervise or actually carry out all construction work.
Often preliminary to boundary and topographical surveys, and certainly in
between boundary and topographical surveys and actual construction work,
there is need of another type of expert — the landscape architect or park
planner and landscape architect. It is the function of this expert to make
general plans for the system and to make all designs for the development
of properties. If the property is to be used for organized recreation primarily,
it is desirable to utilize the services of the organized recreation expert to
collaborate with the landscape architect in making the design. If there are
structures of any consequence to be erected the services of the building
architect will be needed.

The landscape architect may be regularly employed by the park gov-
erning authority and placed in charge of a landscape division as is the case
in some large systems, or experts in park planning may be temporarily
employed to make the plans. Even in large park systems the calling in of
professional landscape architects is customary. It is wise in such instances
to continue their employment in an advisory capacity even after the work
is completed. Occasionally municipal landscape architects are found who
do necessary work for park and recreation departments.

The recreation expert may be the superintendent of the division of
recreation or someone called in from the outside. Building architects are
usually called in from the outside, but a few instances are found of an archi-
tect being employed regularly by a park department or else employed by
the municipal government for services to all departments of the city.

5i8 PARKS

In many municipal park departments and in some county park depart-
ments the engineering work is done by the city engineer and the county
engineer respectively. In a park department having a regularly organized
engineering division the chief executive officer is known as the chief
engineer. Except in very large departments where there is a continuous
demand for engineering services, this division is likely to be a more or less
temporary division, for upon the completion of major construction projects
its duties are gradually assumed by the maintenance division.

3. Legal division. From the very beginning of the work of a park
governing authority, legal advice and counsel are likely to be needed. The
law under which the governing authority acts may need interpreting, titles
of property must be investigated, contracts of purchase drawn, condemna-
tion proceedings instituted and carried through the courts, deeds to prop-
erty made out and properly recorded, the terms and conditions of bond
issues and sales determined, construction contracts drawn and enforced,
rules and regulations formulated and promulgated, personal injury and
property damage suits defended, amendments to the law or new laws drawn
and presented to the proper legal authorities for passage and similar duties
performed. The chief executive officer of this division is known as the
counsel or attorney for the department. In many park systems, especially
in the smaller ones, the legal needs of the department are handled by the
city or county attorney respectively, there being no regularly organized
legal division.

4. Maintenance division. The functions of the division comprise the
upkeep and care of all properties and facilities, the performance of minor
construction work, care and repair of all tools and equipment, and responsi-
bility for the storehouse and the storage and issuance of supplies, materials,
tools and equipment. The chief executive of this division is the superin-
tendent of maintenance. In small systems this work is usually looked after
by the general superintendent directly or by a foreman of maintenance
(see Chapter XI).

5. Horticultural division. The propagating, planting and care of plants
of all kinds used in park work is recognized as a science and an art in itself.
While functionally much of the work of this division is closely related to
the functions of the maintenance division, it is, in fact, a form of service
that requires scientific knowledge, training and skill of a peculiar type. It
is quite correctly placed in a separate division in the larger systems. In
some systems this division is called the landscape gardening division. In
small systems the functions of this division are performed by the general
superintendent if he happens to have horticultural training. If the superin-
tendent does not possess this knowledge a gardener is usually employed.

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT 519

Forestry. In many instances the propagating, planting and care of
trees is set up as a special division separate from the horticultural division;
and not infrequently, so far as the planting and care of street trees is con-
cerned, set up as a separate municipal department independent of the park
department.

Botanical gardens, arboretums, conservatories. Special highly developed
horticultural institutions of these types are sometimes carried in large park
systems as separate divisions in the general executive organization. Often
they are under separate management entirely (see Chapter XII, "Horticul-
tural Division"; Chapter XVIII, "Botanical Gardens").

6. Police division. The primary functions of this division include the
guidance of the people in the use of the properties and facilities in a park
system and the enforcement of the rules and regulations that have been
adopted by the governing authority for the governance of the properties.
A widespread practice of utilizing the regular city police in policing or
guarding municipal parks is now in vogue, a system that is, for the most
part, unsatisfactory in the larger systems. In small systems guard func-
tions may quite properly and adequately be performed by the local police
officers. In many instances the general superintendent and other employees
may perform the functions of this division through being clothed with
police power. The executive officer of this division, in systems having inde-
pendent police or guard forces, is the chief of park police or park guards.
(For detailed discussion of the organization and functions of this division,
see Chapter XIV, pages 747-791.)

7. Recreation division. The general functions of this division com-
prise the promotion of the use of properties and facilities thereon, and
whenever necessary, the leadership of the people in the use of the properties
and facilities. In modern park and recreation systems this division assumes
a position of the highest importance. Its activities represent the culminat-
ing point of much of the activity of the entire department relating to the
planning, acquisition, development and maintenance of properties and facil-
ities. While it is true that open spaces in ccmmunities, especially in large
centers of population, have a value quite apart from their active use by
the people, either in an organized or unorganized manner, in their health-
giving properties in admitting sunlight and air, in aesthetic values and in
the increase of property values in the vicinity of them, these values alone
would hardly justify the enormous expense of their acquisition, develop"
ment and maintenance. The benefits to be derived from an extensively
organized and unorganized use of the properties and facilities by the people
constitute the basic justification for the energy and expense of their acqui-

sition, development and maintenance.

'he measure of the. success of the

MUNICIPAL REFincrn : DUREAU

GENrr/ s. f-xr;. -oi; r.ivir'OM

UNivcnrnv ( F Lin r~oT\

520 PARKS

division of recreation in performing its functions is to a very large degree
the measure of the success of the entire department.

In a sense it is a misnomer to speak of a recreation division within a
department; that is, of a "recreation department." The activities of the horti-
culturist, the director of the zoo, the botanical garden, the arboretum,
the aquarium, the conservatory, are just as truly recreational as are the
plays, games, sports, music, dramatics and social activities of the division
of recreation. This contradiction could be overcome by splitting the recrea-
tion division into functional divisions, e.g., the division of children's play-
grounds, the division of community athletics, the division of community
music, the division of community dramatics and others, as is done in some
departments organized as separate recreation departments. Where there is
a unified department of parks and recreation the general superintendent or
chief executive is, in point of fact, the superintendent of recreation just as
truly as the superintendent of the separate department of recreation is a
superintendent of recreation. (For a detailed discussion of the organization
and conduct of the functions comprehended under the general term recrea-
tion, see Chapter XIII, pages 708-746.)

8. Miscellaneous divisions. The fact has already been mentioned that
forestry, conservatories, botanical gardens and arboretums are sometimes
carried as separate and independent divisions in some large park systems.
This is also true of zoological gardens and aquariums. These are educational1
recreational institutions requiring special technical knowledge and skill in
management and as such may quite properly be carried in the genera]
executive organization as separate divisions.

In some park systems certain types of services of a public utility char-
acter, extensively and highly developed, are classified as separate divisions.
Thus in the park and recreation systems of Minneapolis and Hartford the
management of the refectory service is organized as a separate division.
Golf courses in some systems are similarly managed, although there appears
no special reason why golf courses and all other organized active recreation
facilities should not be grouped under one general division.

The foregoing outline of the divisional organization of a park execu-
tive organization should be taken in a diagrammatic sense only. In actual
practice there are as many modifications of this divisional organization as
there are systems. In order to show examples of actual practices through-
out the country in executive organization a number of organization charts
of park executive organizations are presented in the pages immediately
following.

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT

521

ORGANIZATION CHART OF THE SOUTH PARK DISTRICT PARK DEPARTMENT

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

South Park Commissioners

President

Auditor

Treasurer

Secretary

Law Department

Attorney for the

Board

Accounting Department
Secretary

Operating Department
General Superintendent

Divisic

>n of

Enginee

ring and

Divis

ion of

Mainten

ance and

Police D

vision

Landscap

e Gardening

Playgrounds

Construction Div.

Mechanical and

Repair Division

Division

and Sports

Electrical

•

Engineering

Landscape Gardener

Superintendent

Chief Engineer

Superintendent

Captain of

Mechanical and

Police

Electrical Engineering

The president, auditor, treasurer and secretary are known as charter officials, that is, these officials are
specifically provided for in the law creating the South Park District and the Board of South Park Commissioners.

The board has the authority to create by ordinance as many executive departments as it deems necessary
to carry on the business of the general department. Under this authority the board has created three distinct
executive departments, viz., law department, accounting department and operating department, the heads of
which are appointed by the board and subject to removal at any time, although the term of their employment
usually covers one year.

The duties and responsibilities of these several executive departments as defined by the ordinances of the
Board of South Park Commissioners are as follows:

1. Law department. There is hereby created the
office of attorney. The attorney shall be head of the
law department and as such shall have charge of all
litigation to which the commissioners shall be a party.
He shall give information on all questions and draft all
instruments referred to him by the commissioners or
any committee or officer thereof, or by the civil service
board or any officer thereof.

2. Accounting department and secretary. The secre-
tary shall have custody of the corporate seal, and of
all books and papers pertaining to his office; shall attest
and affix the corporate seal to all instruments requiring
such action, when authorized by ordinance or vote of
the board, and shall cause all ordinances, resolutions
and other actions of the commissioners requiring publi-
cation to be duly published. He shall attend all meet-
ings of the commissioners and keep a full and true
record of their proceedings. He shall give such bond
for the faithful performance of his duties as the com-
missioners may from time to time require.

Acting under the commissioners he shall have the
management and control of the accounting department,
and in this capacity shall have charge of the system of
accounting and all books of account. He shall appoint
according to law all assistants and employees in his
department and shall prescribe their duties and super-
vise their work.

3. Operating department and general superintendent.
There is hereby created the office of general superin-
tendent. The general superintendent, acting under the
commissioners, shall have the general management and
control of the operating department. (For full state-
ment of the duties and responsibilities of the general
superintendent, see page 538 of this chapter.)

The operating department is organized with the
following divisions: (a) Engineering and construction
division, in charge of a chief engineer, (b) Maintenance
and repair division, in charge of the superintendent of
maintenance and repair, (c) Division of playgrounds
and sports, in charge of the superintendent of play-

522

PARKS

grounds and sports, (d) Mechanical and electrical
engineering division, in charge of the mechanical and
electrical engineer, (e) Police division, in charge of a
captain of police. (/) Landscape gardening division, in
charge of a landscape architect.

The scope and functions of these several divisions and
the responsibilities and duties of the official in charge
of each are as follows:

1. Chief engineer. Shall have charge of the engi-
neering and construction service, surveying and draft-
ing, and shall have charge of and be the chief authority
over all improvements and construction work. He shall
make all designs and plans for improvements and con-
struction except such as may be specially assigned to
the mechanical and electrical engineer or architect, and
will be responsible for the proper carrying out of all
works of construction and improvements, having the
necessary authority to prescribe and inspect the meth-
ods and materials used. He shall prepare all specifica-
tions for construction work, applications for work
orders, examine all contracts, and keep in his office
proper records of costs and file and record all plans,
estimates and other matters pertaining to his division.
All officials shall promptly furnish him with such in-
formation and assistance as he may require.

2. Superintendent of maintenance and repair. Shall
have charge of all park maintenance employees engaged
in the doing of all work in connection with construc-
tion, maintenance and repair throughout the parks and
boulevards and other services relating thereto. He shall
have charge of the following subordinate services: (a)
The repair shop and outside repairs, in charge of the
master mechanic, (b) The horse service, in charge of
the stable foreman, (c) Boating, in charge of managers
at different landings, (d) Laundries, in charge of a
manager.

He shall be held responsible for making of proper
repairs, upkeep, renovation and tidiness of all buildings
under his charge, and for the satisfactory condition and
appearance of all drives, roads, walks, lawns, water
supply, drainage, lake shore protection, inland lakes
and surfaces generally throughout the parks and boule-
vards, and all horse-drawn vehicles and other park
equipment not specifically placed under the care of the
head of any of the other divisions of the operating
department. He shall promptly and efficiently make
any repairs and give such assistance from the mainte-
nance and repair division as may be requested at any
time by the head of any of the different divisions of the
operating department.

3. Superintendent of playgrounds and sports. Shall
have general charge of the field houses, gymnasiums,
playgrounds, swimming pools, bathing beaches, games,
races, pageants and other sporting events and contests
in all parks and boulevards under the control of the
commissioners. He shall have charge of the work re-
quired to properly prepare for and carry on the activ-

ities placed under his charge and to this end shall have
the prompt and efficient assistance of all other divisions
and the supervision of the men in doing the things
required for the service of his division; the technical
methods employed by such men shall, however, be those
indicated by the heads of their respective divisions.

He shall examine and report to the general super-
intendent in writing upon all plans for improvements
or alterations in parks or buildings as to the accommo-
dations provided for the services placed upon his charge.

4. Mechanical and electrical engineer. Shall have
charge of the maintenance and operation of the entire
electric lighting system, including the power house in
Washington Park, all electric substations, and the
heating placed under his charge in all the parks and
boulevards and of the pumping stations, the machine
shop, garage, motor vehicles, asphalt plant, launches
and police boats, chauffeurs and steam fitters and the
upkeep and operation of all of the properties and serv-
ices named, and shall be responsible for the mainte-
nance and good condition of all motor vehicles, launches
and police boats. He shall be held responsible for all
electrical construction within the parks and boulevards
and for the preparation of plans and specifications for
such construction, supplies, materials and other things
needed for the upkeep of the property and service in
his charge.

5. Captain of police shall have immediate charge of
the police division and all officers and employees
therein. He shall see that all his subordinates render
satisfactory service to the heads of the different divi-
sions not inconsistent with the laws, ordinances and
regulations and the just rights of the public in the full
enjoyment of their privileges.

6. Landscape gardener shall have charge of all plan-
tation, floral display, nurseries, conservatories and
propagating houses in the parks, the employees con-
nected therewith, and the execution of the work neces-
sary for the proper maintenance and upkeep. He will
be responsible for the faithful carrying out of all plans
in plantation for new construction given him for the
development of the park system. He shall also be
responsible for the proper preservation of the trees
and shrubs and the maintenance of satisfactory con-
ditions in all plantations.

The officials in charge of the different divisions shall
be subordinate only to the general superintendent and
shall operate their different divisions under his direc-
tion. The general superintendent shall make such rules
and regulations for the government of the different
divisions as he may consider necessary or proper, not
inconsistent with the ordinances of the commissioners.

The officials shall be directly responsible for the suc-
cessful, economical and satisfactory performance of all
work and the serving of the public in connection with
the operation of their divisions; for the buildings and
other property placed in their charge, and for the

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT

523

efficient and satisfactory conduct of the officials and
employees working under their direction and they shall
perform such other services as the general superintend-
ent may from time to time direct.

The official in charge of each division of the operating
department will prepare and submit to the general
superintendent, when requested by him, a complete
statement of, and any suggestions he may have to make
as to the existing rules and regulations governing the
operation of his division and a chart showing the existing
organization of his division, including all the employees
thereof and a further chart showing his suggestions as
to reorganization of his division, making an estimate
of the increase or decrease in annual expenditure.

He will also submit, not later than the eighth day of
each month, a written report to the general superin-
tendent, recording the operation of his division during
the month, giving such statistics as desirable, care being
taken to recite any unusual occurrence or unsatisfac-
tory condition, which report will be transmitted by the
general superintendent to the commissioners monthly,

with such suggestions and recommendations as he deems
wise. He is expected to submit at any time, in writing,
any information he may have indicating that the meth-
ods, rules and regulations are unsatisfactory, with his
recommendation thereon, or reports on any other
matters.

It shall be the duty of the official in charge of each
division to call upon any other division of the operating
department for such assistance as may be necessary to
successfully carry on his work and all officials will
promptly respond to such requests and particularly
shall this be the case where the service asked is for
assistance in giving proper attention to the comfort
and convenience of the people in the enjoyment of any
of the facilities, games and sports in the parks. — Munic-
ipal code of the South Park Commissioners, excerpts
from Chapter II, pages 4-11 inclusive, edition 1923.
Statement concerning the secretary and the accounting
department from Chapter I, Section 4, Municipal Code
of the South Park Commissioners, 1923.

ORGANIZATION CHART OF THE UNION COUNTY PARK DEPARTMENT
UNION COUNTY, NEW JERSEY

Board of Park Commissioners

Legal Department

The Counsel

General Law Work

Closing of Titles

Condemnation Proceedings

General Executive Department
Engineer and Secretary

Landscape Design

Forestry
Consulting Landscape Architect

Superintendent Executive Cle-k Senior Assistant Superintendent Principal Recreation Department

of Police and Auditor

Police Work Accounts
Inspection Payrolls

Office Records
Rents

Engineer. Construction

Land Acquirements and Maintenance
Surveys, Maps Development Work
Plans, Design Planting. Forestry
Construction Maintenance

Inspection

Engineer.
Purchasing
Engineering
Contracts
Photography
Plant and
Equipment

Superintendent of
Recreation

Recreational Activities

The treasurer of the department is a member of the board. The legal department is directly responsible
to the board of park commissioners, as is likewise the consulting landscape architect. The chief engineer or chief
executive combines with the office of chief executive that of the secretary. This is one of the ways of overcoming
a situation that is, in general, undesirable from an executive viewpoint, viz., of having the secretary a separate
official and wholly independent of the chief executive. The prominence of engineers in the department at the
present time (1926) is due to the fact that the department is a new one and a great deal of land acquisition and
construction work is being carried forward.

524

PARKS

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EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT

ORGANIZATION CHART, WESTCHESTER COUNTY PARK DEPARTMENT
WESTCHESTER COUNTY, NEW YORK

Board of Park Commissioners, 1926

I
Chief Engineer

525

Secretarial Maintenance Real Estate
and Accounting and Operation Acquisition

Engineering an

General Planning and Public
Law Work Landscape Design Information

i Construction

1
Engineering Design

Western Division

Construction by
Commercial Forces

Eastern Division

Chief of Staff

This is another example of an executive organization under a board of park commissioners of a county. As
can readily be seen from the chart the organization is largely an engineering construction organization. This is
because there is an immense amount of planning and construction work being done. The division of maintenance
and operation, in charge of a general superintendent, is still under the control of the chief engineer.

ORGANIZATION CHART OF THE WEST CHICAGO PARK DEPARTMENT, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

West Chicago Board of Park Commissioners

President

I .
Vice-President

Secretary Auditor Treasurer
Superint
Chief E:

Counselor Attorney Superintendent
of Employment
endent

igineer

Superintendent Stenographer
of Recreation
Secretary to
Superintendent

Chief Accountant Captain of Police

1.
Engineering Electrical Heating Landscape Flo
Division Division Division Division Divi

1 1
-al Repair Motor Boulevard Paving

sion Division Vehicle Division Repair
Division Division

Two distinguishing features of the organization of the West Chicago Park Department are: first, the president
functioning practically as chief executive; second, the number of officers directly responsible to the president
and the board instead of to the superintendent.

PARKS

EXCERPTS FROM THE ORDINANCES OF THE WEST CHICAGO PARK COMMISSIONERS

RELATIVE TO THE DUTIES OF VARIOUS EXECUTIVE OFFICERS
CHAPTER I, SECTIONS 3 TO 14 INCLUSIVE, PUBLISHED BY THE COMMISSIONERS, 1924

Section 3. Officers. Terms of Office. The following
named officers shall be elected by the commissioners:
president, vice-president, secretary, treasurer, auditor,
chief engineer, superintendent, superintendent of em-
ployment, captain of police, attorney, and such other
officers or heads of departments may be selected and
appointed by the commissioners from time to time, con-
formable to law, as they deem advisable or necessary.
All regular officers shall be elected at the annual meet-
ing of the commissioners, hereinafter provided for, and
shall hold office, unless their terms be sooner terminated,
for one year, and until their successors are elected and
have qualified.

Section 4. The president shall: (a) Be the chief
executive officer of the commissioners, (b) When pres-
ent, preside at all meetings of the commissioners, (c)
Sign all contracts and other documents authorized by
the commissioners, (d) See that all ordinances of the
commissioners are properly enforced, (e) See that all
orders of the commissioners are faithfully executed.
(/) Have the general direction of all the other officers of
the commissioners, (g) Examine all bids and claims
against the commissioners and endorse his written
recommendation thereon, (h) Countersign all warrants
authorized by ordinance or by vote of the commis-
sioners, (i) Return all orders countersigned by him to
the secretary within five days next after having received
the same, either duly countersigned or accompanied by
a statement in writing of his reasons for not counter-
signing the same, so that the commissioners may make
such order thereon as they deem proper.

Section 5. The vice-president shall: (a) In the
absence or inability of the president to act, perform all
the duties which should be performed by the president
if he were present, (b) In the event of such absence
or inability, be vested with the same powers as the
president.

Section 6. The secretary shall: (a) Keep the cor-
porate seal and affix the same to all papers which require
it, and attest the same with his signature, (b) Keep all
records and papers belonging to the commissioners.
(c) Keep a full and accurate record of every proceeding
in a journal for that purpose, (d) Record all ordinances,
orders, rules and resolutions passed by the commis-
sioners in a book to be kept for that special purpose,
immediately after their passage and before the next
regular meeting of the commissioners, (e) Cause due
publication to be made of all ordinances or resolutions
which require publication, (f) Prepare an estimate each
year of the commissioners' probable requirements for
the succeeding year, and present the same to the com-
missioners for their consideration and action thereon,
(g) Purchase all supplies and equipment for the needs of
the parks where the amount to be expended does not

exceed the sum of five hundred dollars ($500); provided,
however, requisition for the same has been previously
approved by the president or his authorized agent.
(h) Be held responsible for the economical purchase of
all supplies and material, either made by himself or
those authorized by him to do so, and for the obtaining
of satisfactory competition in making all purchases,
(j) Prepare for the commissioners proper and complete
specifications and other necessary data required for
bids or proposals for necessary work or supplies. (;') Per-
form such other duties as may be required of him by law
or imposed upon him by any and all ordinances, orders
or resolutions of the commissioners.

Section 7. The treasurer shall: (a) Collect and
receive all moneys payable to, or belonging to, the
commissioners, and keep an accurate and correct ac-
count thereof, (b) Only pay out such money so received
by him upon and for the purposes and to the payee
stated in warrants regularly drawn, in the manner pro-
vided by ordinances, (c) Hold and safely keep all bonds
and other securities belonging to the commissioners,
and receive and hold the same for such account and
purpose as he may, from time to time, be directed by
them to do, and to make such delivery or disposition of
the same only as he may be directed by warrant and
voucher directed to him by the secretary and signed by
the president or vice-president when the latter is acting
as president, and by the secretary, which warrant and
voucher shall be drawn only upon the order of the
commissioners, (d) Collect all interest as it becomes due
upon any such bonds and other securities so placed in
his custody, and place the same to the credit of the
commissioners upon the treasurer's books, (e) Make
monthly report of all receipts and disbursements made
by him, and submit to the annual meeting of the com-
missioners a detailed annual report showing all receipts
and disbursements of money during the preceding year,
and an inventory of all bonds or other valuable property
of the commissioners in his hands. (/) Give a bond in a
penal sum to be fixed by the commissioners, with suffi-
cient sureties acceptable to the commissioners, provided,
however, that the amount of such bond may be increased
or diminished from time to time by resolution and order
of the commissioners.

Section 8. The superintendent. (For duties of the
superintendent, see page 538.)

Section 9. The attorney shall: (a) Have charge of
all legal matters and all litigation to which the commis-
sioners shall be a party, except as they may, in the
exercise of a sound official discretion, otherwise direct.
(b) Draft all instruments requested by the commis-
sioners, (c) Give opinions on all questions referred to
him by the commissioners or any committee thereof, or
by the park civil service board.

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT 527

Section 10. The auditor shall: (a) Audit all ac- regular officers shall be fixed at the annual meeting of
counts of fixed charges against the commissioners, and the commissioners each year, and of all additional offi-
perform such other duties as to audits as may be cers, agents or employees, at the time of their employ-
assigned him by ordinances of the commissioners. ment, and shall be payable semi-monthly.

Section n. Additional Officers or Agents in addition Section 13. Removal of Officers. Any officer or agent

to the foregoing list of Officers. The commissioners may elected or appointed by the commissioners may be sus-

appoint such other officers and agents from time to time pended or removed by the president at any time, and

and for such periods of time, consistent with the law, as all vacancies caused thereby shall be filled by the presi-

they may deem advisable. Such additional officers and dent for the unexpired term, or the office abolished at

agents shall be appointed at the annual meeting of the any regular or special meeting of the commissioners,
commissioners or at such other times as they may deem Section 14. All books of record required to be kept

necessary, and the appointees shall hold office until their by any officer, agent or employee of the commissioners,

successors are elected and qualified, or until the position in which any West Chicago Park District records are

is abolished by order of the commissioners. kept, shall be the property of the commissioners.

Section 12. Salaries of Officers. The salaries of all

The organization chart on page 528 is an example of a park and recrea-
tion organization under a Federal plan governed city. The director of
public welfare is appointed by the mayor. The director in turn appoints
the commissioner of parks and recreation, who has general executive control
over all the divisions of the department. The zoological garden is under
a separate board of control, of which the commissioner of parks and recrea-
tion is a member. The garden is likewise separately financed by special
millage tax. Municipal opera presented in the municipal theatre in Forest
Park is under the control of a private organization. Tower Grove Park,
a park adjunct to the Shaw Botanical Garden, and partially financed from
the budget of the park and recreation department, is under the control of
a special board or commission. These features do not appear on organization
chart, although very important assets in the recreational life of the city.

The chart on page 531 is an example of an executive organization of
a park department under a complete council-city manager form of govern-
mental control. An extensive organized recreation program is not carried
on for the reason that most of the organized recreation service in Pasadena
is provided by a private-public organization known as the Playground
Community Service of Pasadena. This organization is jointly supported
by the city government and the board of education, each contributing half
of the annual budget.

In Sacramento, California, another city manager governed city, there
is a department of parks and department of recreation each in charge of a
superintendent appointed by the city manager. In Fort Worth, Texas,
there is a board of park commissioners and a board of recreation commis-
sioners, each in charge of a department. In each case the commissioners
are responsible for the setting up and supervision of executive organizations
independent of the city manager.

The organization of the Department of Parks and Boulevards in Detroit
is an example of such an organization in a Federal plan governed city. The

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529

mayor appoints a commissioner of parks and boulevards who is in fact the
chief executive of a principal department of the city government. In all
matters pertaining to general plans and policies, appropriations, bond
issues, etc., the city council acts in the capacity of a board of park and
boulevard commissioners. Note that of two general divisions of the execu-
tive organization, the service of one, the police division, is wholly supplied
by a general department of the city, and another, the engineering and con-
struction division, the service is partially provided by the city engineers'
office. This is an example of cooperative service between park and recrea-
tion departments and general city departments, especially in these two
fields of activity, that is quite common throughout the country. In fact
this is more or less the established custom in all Federal plan governed
cities, commission, and city manager governed cities. It is a practice that
is frequently found in cities where parks and recreation are under a park
board or park and recreation board, or a park board and a recreation board.
Another situation in Detroit which requires a high degree of coopera-
tion arises from the fact that there is a recreation department coordinate
in rank with the department of parks and boulevards. This department,
in addition to using properties and facilities which it directly controls, must
of necessity use many properties and facilities controlled directly by the
department of parks and boulevards, as well as properties and facilities
controlled by other public and private agencies.

ORGANIZATION CHART, DIVISION OF PARKS AND RECREATION, ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI

Director of Public Welfare

Commissioner of Parks and Recreation

Superintendent
Recreation

Architect Superintendent
Maintenance

Supervision

Plans Maintenance

Operation

Construction

Municipal

Specifications Parks and

Refectories

Buildings, Roads,

Athletics

Estimates Playgrounds

Collections

Bridges, etc.

Bathhouses

Park Dept.

Operation

Janitor Service

Office

Repairing

Community

Buildings

Centers

Operation

Equipment

Greenhouses

Swimming

Nurseries

Surveying, Drafting

Pools

Storehouse

Map Making

Stables

Chief Clerk Superintendent Secretary City Forester

Construction

Forestry

and
Office

Street

Tree

Planting

Maintenance

Playgrounds

Policing

Parks and

Playgrounds

Operation

Park Busses, Transport

Carpenter, Blacksmith

and Paint Shop

Concrete Work

530

PARKS

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Band Concerts

Spring Festival, Pagcan
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Street Showers

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EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT

ORGANIZATION CHART, BUREAU OF PARKS, BUREAU OF RECREATION
DEPARTMENT OF PARKS AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS, BUFFALO, NEW YORK

City Council
Department of Parks and Public Buildings

Bureau of Parks

Bureau of Recreation

Divis

ion of

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door

Landscape

Engineering

Construction Playgrounds Athletics

Recreation

Architecture

Centers

Division of

the Zoo

the Botanical

Supplies and

Garden

Maintenance

This is an example of the executive organization of parks and recrea-
tion in one commission governed city. The superintendent of parks and
the superintendent of recreation are respectively appointed by the director
of the department of parks and public buildings, who is also one of the
elected commissioners of the city. Coordination of the two bureaus is
effected through the director of the general department.

ORGANIZATION CHART, DEPARTMENT OF PARKS, PASADENA, CALIFORNIA

City Council

City Manager

Superintendent of Parks
(Clerk, Stenographer and Foreman)

Const

ilting

Engine

:r and

Super

visor

Forems

n Street

Landscape

Draftsman

Municipal Plunge

Tree Department

Architects

Surveys, Maps and

Cashier, Life Guards

Tree Trimmers

Estimates

Mechanic, and Locker

and Planters

Construction

Girls and Boys

Foreman and
Mechanic

1
Storekeeper

Park Maintenance

(Teams, Trucks,

Mechanics and

Roving Gang)

Construction and Repairs

Foreman Municipal
Nursery

Propagation
Distribution of Plants
and Planting in Parks

Caretakers in
Parks

Stadium Custodian

Matrons in
Ladies Rest Rooms
Gardeners and
Laborers

Miscellaneous

Boulevards
Wood Lot
City Dump

Public Squares
Bridle Paths
Golf Links

and Concessions

532 PARKS

ORGANIZATION CHART, DEPARTMENT OF PARKS AND RECREATION
WINSTON-SALEM, NORTH CAROLINA

Board of Aldermen and a Mayor who Serves as Chairman of the Board

Board of Education, Composed of Two Members of the Board of Aldermen
and Five Members Appointed by the Board of Aldermen from Citizens at Large

I
Superintendent of Schools

I
Superintendent of Parks and Recreation (also Director of Physical Education in the Schools)

r~ ~T~ i

Landscape Architect Playgrounds and Recreation Maintenance

l_ I

Play Leaders and Swimming Instructors Foreman, Laborers

This unusual plan of organization came about for the reason that by
far the larger majority of the recreation areas of the city are combined
park and school grounds. Of a total of two hundred and sixty-five acres
of recreation area only fifteen acres (in one property) is separate from a
school site. The budget for the department of parks and recreation is
passed directly by the board of aldermen. The budget for the department
of physical education is passed directly by the board of education. During
the school year the entire program of play and recreation is organized and
conducted through the department of physical education. During the three
months of summer the program is conducted with moneys from the budget
for the department of parks and recreation. The landscape architect and
certain maintenance employees in the park and recreation department are
employed the year round. In landscape matters pertaining to the develop-
ment of school grounds outside of recreation areas the landscape architect
deals directly with the superintendent of schools. In the planning and
development of parks and other recreation areas, he is under the control
of the superintendent of parks and recreation who, in turn, reports to the
superintendent of schools.

The foregoing examples of departmental and executive organization of
park departments are presented only as examples illustrating practices in
various cities and counties at the present time (1926). They are not pre-
sented as models, although all of them are apparently functioning efficiently
in their several fields. Every park governing authority will of necessity
develop its executive organization as nearly in harmony as possible with the
service needs of the community or area in which it operates as the gov-
erning authority views those needs. Where the park governing authorities
are in charge of the community recreation program, the executive organiza-
tion would necessarily include all the various divisions found in the most
highly developed park department and in the modern recreation depart-
ment. The following idealized chart suggests how a park department might
include all its own functions and those of the modern organized recreation
system. The chart is, as has been stated, merely suggestive and would
require adaptation to meet local conditions.

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT

533

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534 PARKS

In the beginning of a new system the service functions as outlined
on page 533 would be reversed. Planning and landscape design, design of
structures, and construction engineering would come first. These would no
doubt require the intensive and active services of the legal division. The
office division would at once begin to function also. Probably the next in
order would be the maintenance and guard services followed by the various
social-recreational features. In an established system the emphasis would be
upon the recreational-social-educational services, the services involved in
maintenance, legal advice, architectural and landscape planning and design
being auxiliary and aids to the use services.

For a large system two assistant superintendents are suggested, one
being highly trained in the organization and conduct of recreational-social
service activities and the other in those fields of activities pertaining to
material properties and equipment. Municipal athletics would include golf,
swimming and water sports of all kinds in addition to the usual highly
organized major and minor games and sports. The division of information
and service would include educational publicity and cooperative services
with all manner of private organized groups and institutions and with
public agencies and institutions. It might possibly include the operation
of community centers, although this could be set up as a separate division.
The horticultural division would, of course, include the propagation, plant-
ing and care of all kinds of plants used in landscape work in addition to
general supervision of special institutions and activities of the types men-
tioned. Other use divisions might be found necessary, such as a division
of municipal camps, a division of handicraft activities including farm
gardens, handicraft arts and similar activities.

THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE OR SUPERINTENDENT

Outstanding park systems in this country are outstanding chiefly be-
cause of the character, personality, vision, organizing power, business ability
and general efficiency of their chief executives or superintendents. The selec-
tion of this official is, without question, one of the most important of the
governmental acts of a governing authority. He is the official who must
translate the specific and general plans and policies of the governing authority
into concrete expression. His is the immediate controlling mind and direct-
ing force over all the executive functional services of the department.

Type of chief executive needed in modern park systems. In that period of
park-recreation development in the United States when most public recrea-
tion areas, in design and treatment, were closely identified with the original
definition of a park, it was only natural that the superintendents chosen to
head executive organizations should have been men having horticultural

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT 535

training and experience. In 1890 the number of park areas and the gross
acreage of park properties in American cities, even in the larger cities, was
comparatively small. Almost universally, with a few exceptions, these areas
were wholly landscaped and their use by the people much restricted. Dur-
ing the decade following 1890 a wider social significance of parks began to
be realized in terms of a broader interpretation of recreation, but there
were no outstanding changes over previous decades so far as the prevailing
form and spirit of park service was concerned.

Since 1890 the emphasis has shifted rapidly toward a larger social
viewpoint of the functions of park departments indicated by a wider use of
existing properties of all types by the people, the addition of several dif-
ferent types of properties previously not found in park systems, new types
of designs of properties providing for many different kinds of activities
formerly not contemplated, and the inclusion of new types of workers on
the executive staffs. The inception of this new ideal of service also involves
a wider range of cooperative relationships. The executive must not only see
to it that the properties and facilities under his immediate control yield the
greatest possible dividends in terms of human service, but properties and
facilities under the control of private organizations and institutions and
other public agencies often present additional opportunities for service at
slight cost to community funds. He should see and understand in all this
that as an antidote to the human ills of modern urban industrial ways of
living and working, as a constructive force for releasing the qualities and
powers of the people during their leisure time and hence promoting their
physical, mental, moral, civic and cultural development, modern park service
represents one of the great social achievements of American civilization.

The modern park executive should first of all, then, be a student and
interpreter of the social needs of the people, in so far as these needs can be
met through their leisure time. He must not only be a student and inter-
preter of these social needs, but in addition he must be a promoter, a leader
and organizer of the people in a great variety of activities designed, on the
one hand, to remedy the human ills resulting from the inherent defects of
abnormal living conditions, especially in urban communities, and on the
other hand, to aid the people to gain a greater measure of happiness in
living and a "more expressive life for all."

The acquisition of every piece of property, every step in the develop-
ment of properties, every piece of equipment placed therein, the use of
every dollar of money expended, must be predicated upon the above prin-
ciple and ideal. Coincident with expanding functions and consequent
increase in properties and facilities and activities, larger sums of money
are being invested yearly in recreational service. The detailed expenditure

536 PARKS

of these funds is largely in charge of the chief executive. He must prepare
the budget for the consideration of the governing authority, must see that
every dollar is properly accounted for and be ready to give an intelligible
explanation of where, how and why the funds were used. All this involves
business ability of a high order. It is desirable, therefore, that the modern
chief executive have training and experience in business organization and
management.

With respect to technical training in landscape design, horticulture,
construction , engineering and other technical subjects, it is desirable that
the chief executive be trained and experienced in at least one of these fields,
preferably in either horticulture or construction engineering. A knowledge
of the other fields of technical knowledge involved in park services of the
above types is very desirable to the extent, at least, of knowing principles,
terminology and the character of the operative processes involved.

In handling the affairs of the executive organization in general the
executive must be a capable organizer and administrator, and possessed of
personal qualities that inspire confidence and loyalty in subordinates. The
executive who is unable to transmit to his subordinates something of
his own vision, ideals and enthusiasm is unfit to be a chief executive. As
to that intangible quality or qualities called personality, which plays so
large a part in making the successful executive, nothing can be said except
that personality qualities are born, not made, and while the efficiency of
anyone possessing the personal qualities of a leader, organizer and admin-
istrator can be greatly increased by training in one or more of the several
fields of functional services under his charge, no amount of training will
make a successful executive of anyone lacking these personal qualities.
(For a detailed consideration of the training of executives, see Chapter XX.)

How and where to secure executives. How and where to secure executives
of wide social vision, of personality, and a high degree of organizing and
administrative ability, to say nothing of technical training in one or more
of the functional services involved in handling the affairs of a modern park
system, is one of the most important problems in the park movement in
America today. Some of the most capable executives in charge of systems
today have come from the field of engineering, others are landscape archi-
tects, others horticulturists, others were trained recreation leaders and
some have had no special training in any of these fields. At the present
time there is no higher institution of learning that is specifically giving a
course or courses for the training of park executives. Many are giving courses
for landscape architects, horticulturists, engineers, business administra-
tors and organized recreation leaders. There is not a consensus of opinion

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT 537

as yet among the park executives of the country as to what the content of
such a course of training should be. For the past several years the American
Institute of Park Executives has had a committee working on this subject,
but the successive reports and recommendations of this committee have
never been adopted by the institute. Some of the training schools for land-
scape architects are broadening their courses to the extent of including
certain courses in social-recreational organization and leadership for those
students intending to enter park and recreation service. The Playground
and Recreation Association of America inaugurated in the autumn of
1926 the National Recreation School for professional graduate training of
recreation executives. The courses offered by this school will be exceedingly
helpful in providing the training for the recreational features of the park
superintendent's responsibilities. It is possible that to these courses will be
added elementary work in performance of horticulture, landscape design
and construction as related to the development of parks and other recreation
areas.

One possible source of future executives is from the ranks of subordi-
nates now in existing systems. Even if there were schools designed espe-
cially for the training of executives, this source of securing executives should
never be overlooked. In all well-established park systems it should be one
of the duties of both the governing authority and of the existing executive
to have one or more subordinates in training for the general executive's
position. For various reasons there is a considerable turnover in the ranks
of park executives, and it is often wise for a general executive to make a
change after five or ten or fifteen years of service, or sooner if a better
opportunity offers. It should be held as a signal failure of a general executive
if, at the end of five years as a minimum, he has not at least one subordinate
who is more or less prepared to take his place. Experience is the best of
all teachers, and training through experience in the services of a highly
developed, well organized system is one of the best possible places for prep-
aration for executive work. In one of the most highly developed and organ-
ized recreation systems in this country the first superintendent and the
board adopted a policy of employing one or more subordinates with marked
executive possibilities. The successor to this superintendent was trained in
the department. The second superintendent, when going to a larger field
of work, was succeeded by a third trained in the department. Promotion
from the ranks should always be on merit solely and not because of political
influence as has sometimes happened in park and recreation systems.

Because the training of subordinates is not widely practiced in park
and recreation systems throughout the country, governing^ authorities gen-
erally have to go outside the system for executives. In selecting executives

538 PARKS

for newly organized systems this of course is obligatory. In such cases the
appointing authorities may consult the office of the American Institute of
Park Executives, the Personnel Bureau of the Playground and Recreation
Association of America (especially for organized recreation executives), or
the officials in well established systems throughout the country for sugges-
tions and recommendations. In some communities the appointment of a
general executive is under civil service. In those systems where the gov-
erning authority is elected by popular vote, or appointed by a superior
authority subject to election, every two or four years, as in commission,
Federal plan and city manager governed cities, civil service is a measure of
protection to the general executive. This method of selection is not generally
practiced in systems governed by boards or commissions, nor is it generally
approved by park authorities. Wherever practiced, the opportunity to take
the examination should be open to candidates from any section of the
country instead of limited to the local community or the state in which
the local community is situated.

Powers and duties of the chief executive. The powers and duties of the
chief executive are usually stated in the by-laws of the governing authority.
Sometimes they may be stated in the organic law (charter) of the munic-
ipality. The following are a few examples of the definition of the powers
and duties of the chief executive as stated by some governing authorities.

i. South Park System, Chicago, Illinois. (Municipal code of the South
Park Commissioners, Chapter II, Section 7, 1923.)

(a) The genera) superintendent, acting under the (e) He will be held entirely responsible for the eco-
commissioners, shall have the general management and nomical purchase of all supplies and materials, either
control of the operating department and in this capacity made by himself or those authorized by him in writing
shall have charge of the operation, maintenance, repair to do so, and for the obtaining of satisfactory compe-
and extension of all structures, grounds and waters over tition in all cases.

which the South Park Commissioners have jurisdiction. (/) It shall be his duty to see that no purchases are

(b) He shall appoint, according to law, all assistants made on requisition for materials, supplies, tools, im-
and employees in his department and shall direct and plements or other property, the cost of which will exceed
supervise their work. #500, without advertisement, the bids to be opened by

have charge of all purchases of materials, tools, imple- (g) It shall be his duty to supply promptly either

ments, supplies and the collection of proper specifica- from the storehouse or by purchase all the materials,

tions and other data for advertising for proposals on tools, implements and supplies requisitioned for by the

contracts. different park officials. Purchases are to be made only

(d) He shall have charge of the storehouses and of on properly prepared requisitions approved by him.
the employees connected therewith and of the main- (h) It shall be his duty to examine the proposals
tenance of property and adequate stocking of the store- received on advertisements, and to prepare a compre-
houses with materials and supplies necessary to meet hensive, tabulated statement of such proposals and to
the demands, and will be held responsible for the tools, obtain from the heads of the different divisions reports
implements and supplies held in store and for the on the character and value of the work, material and
accuracy of the accounts of the storekeeper and the implements offered in the proposal.

maintaining of inventories.

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT 539

This statement embodies most of the fundamental principles of good
executive organization, which include:

(a) Complete charge of operation, maintenance, repair and extension
of all structures, grounds, waters, etc., over which the governing authority
has jurisdiction.

(b) Power to appoint his subordinates and to order and direct their
work (subject in this instance to a civil service law).

(c) Power to purchase, care for and control the use of all tools, equip-
ment, materials and supplies used by the executive in the conduct of the
business of the department. This is based on the principle that a trained
executive knows better than anyone else what tools, equipment, supplies
and materials he will need, how to care for them and how to handle their use.

(d} Absolute responsibility for the handling of funds allocated to the
use of the chief executive.

In the South Park organization two major departments are not under
the control of the chief executive, viz., the legal department and the account-
ing department, each of which is directly responsible to the governing
authority. From the viewpoint of governmental organization there are some
very good reasons for this arrangement, and from the viewpoint of executive
organization there can be no serious objections.

2. West Chicago Park System, Chicago, Illinois. (General Ordinances
of the West Chicago Park Commissioners, Chapter I, Section 8, 1924.)

(a) The superintendent shall have full and complete accordance with the rules and regulations which may
charge of the use, housing, preserving, maintaining and be passed from time to time by the park civil service
repairing of all park property, real, personal and mixed, commissioners, appoint and dismiss such clerks, assist-
together with all the improvements thereon; and with ants and other employees as the good of the service
the use, maintenance and preservation of all waters, may require; subject, however, to the approval of the
boulevards, streets, water craft and boats over which superintendent of employment. Nothing in this see-
the commissioners have jurisdiction; subject, however, tion, however, shall be construed or understood as
to the approval, order and direction of the president. conflicting or interfering with, or in any degree, dimin-

(b) From time to time make such specific rules and ishing the power of the president over all employees,
regulations as he may deem advisable for the purpose and particularly his power and authority to remove
of protecting said property and of carrying out and officers and employees.

enforcing all the ordinances, orders, resolutions and (<?) Make such rules and regulations as he considers

rules of the commissioners relative thereto, subject, advisable, subject to the approval of the commissioners,

however, to the approval of the commissioners. for the regulation and control of all parks under the

(c) Have control and direction of all departments in control of the commissioners, boulevards, parkways,
all the parks, subject, however, to the order, control driveways, streets, walks, waters, field houses, con-
and direction of the president, with supervisors under servatories, playgrounds, boats, bathing and all im-
and subordinate to him assigned to certain parks in and provements thereon, and shall permit no trespass upon,
of the West Chicago Park District, who shall report to or interference with, any part thereof, except upon
him; but the employees of the respective park or parks permits issued by him and upon the conditions and
shall report to the supervisor of the particular park or terms imposed therein.

parks wherein said employees are employed. (f) Approve requisitions for all supplies and equip-

(d) From time to time, in conformity with the park ment for the physical needs of the parks,
civil se-vice law and all amendments thereto, and in

540 PARKS

One disturbing factor in this otherwise excellent statement of the duties
and powers of the chief executive is the constant reiteration of the supreme
executive power of the president. Under the board or commission type of
governmental control no superintendent or chief executive, from the view-
point of good executive organization, should ever be subjected to the com-
plete dominance of a single member of the board, even though that member
is the president. This is especially true with respect to the employment
and discharge of subordinates. All the responsibilities of the superintendent
should relate only to the commission as a whole.

3. Birmingham, Alabama. See by-laws of the park and recreation com-
missioners, Section 6, pages 509-510.

One possible source of weakness in the executive set-up of the Birming-
ham Park and Recreation Department, from the point of view of a unified
executive organization, is the complete separation of the office division
from the control of the superintendent. The secretary, in charge of the
office division, is directly responsible to the board. In addition to his work
of keeping general records and looking after the accounting system, he is
the purchasing agent of the board and as such also has charge of the store-
house and the issuance of all supplies, tools, materials and equipment. It
is conceivable that this arrangement might cause the chief executive or
superintendent no end of annoyance and trouble. On the whole this state-
ment of the duties and powers of the general superintendent embodies most
of the fundamental principles of good executive organization.

4. Park and Recreation System, Nashville, Tennessee. (Rules and regu-
lations governing employees, manual of the Board of Park Commissioners,
page 52.)

(a) The superintendent of parks shall have charge and shall make a report in writing upon all matters
of the work assigned to him, and shall be governed by requested by the board.

such regulations and instructions as shall be prescribed (d) He shall keep a "force book," which shall show

by the board. the name and place of residence of every member of

(b) The superintendent shall select such foremen as the park force, with the date of his joining and leaving
may be required in accordance with their efficiency, the same.

and shall direct all work and is vested with power to (i) He shall cause to be read and explained to the

discharge any employee, except the police force, not members of his command all general orders, and all

engaged in executive work. decisions of the board in case of complaint against

One feature in the above definition of the powers and duties of the
superintendent which appeared only by implication in all the other examples
presented is the obligation of the superintendent to attend the regular meet-
ings of the board. This is a highly desirable practice in all systems under
board governmental control.

In the Nashville Park System, the secretary, by order of the board, is
in fact the executive officer of the board and not the superintendent of parks,

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT 541

a situation that may practically arise in any system where the secretary
is not an integral part of the executive organization, whether by order of
the board or not.

5. Sacramento, California, (a) Park Department. (Charter of the
City of Sacramento, Article XIV, Sections 137 and 138.)

(a) The superintendent of parks shall have control (d) To plant and exercise supervision over all shade
and management of all land and water parks, parkways, trees, shrubs and plants of all kinds on or in the streets
squares and public pleasure grounds, and of the land- and public areas and about the public buildings of the
scape of all cemeteries owned or controlled by the city city, except school buildings.

of Sacramento, and of all grounds surrounding public (^ To make and provide for the enforcement of rules

buildings of the city with the exception of the school anj regulations as to the use of the parks and other

grounds, and of properties now or hereafter acquired pleasure grounds and the highways thereof by the public.

Jt apart for recreational areas and children's play- (/) TQ improve and adom ^ ^^ ^ Q^ ^^

grounds and do all things necessary and proper to

(b) Shall have power to plan, lay out and locate drive- render them of the utmost value to the public.

ways and regulate traffic in, and have the care and (g) TQ prepare) in conjunction with the engineering

improvement (except as to the construction, paving department of the city, the plans and specifications for

and maintenance of driveways) of all parks and all the erection of a]1 buildings and other structures to be

parkways owned or controlled by the city, whether erected with;n the pafks Qr Qn public grounds pertain-
ing to park purposes, provided that the preparation of

(f) Shall have power to make rules and regulations plans and specifications of any such buildings or struc-

for the conduct of the officers and employees of the tures may, subject to the approval of the city manager,

department and to prescribe the duties of the same. be assigned to a practicing architect.

These quotations from the charter of the city of Sacramento are illus-
trations of the definitions of the powers and duties of the chief executive
officers of a park department operating under the general supervision of
the city manager.

For additional examples of such definition of powers and duties in the
organic law of a city, see copies of the charter provisions of the charter of
the city of Detroit relating to the commissioner of recreation and the com-
missioner of parks and boulevards, Chapter VI, pages 431-433.

Relation of superintendent to governing authority. The important factor
in the relation of the superintendent and the governing authority is for the
governing authority to give the superintendent a free hand, within the
limits of the policies laid down by the governing authority, to organize
and carry on the affairs of the department as long as his efforts produce the
results expected by the governing authority and as long as they meet with
the general approval of the public. In no other way can a superintendent
do his best work. In no other way will a governing authority receive the
full benefit of the originality, resourcefulness, initiative, technical knowledge
and skill of the superintendent.

There will be, of course, constant action and interaction between the
superintendent and governing authority both as to governmental functions
and executive functions. Out of the suggestions of the superintendent will

542 PARKS

no doubt come many of the formal plans and policies of the governing
authority. Conversely, a governing authority may be of very great aid to
the superintendent in purely executive functions. This is especially true if
the governing authority happens to have one or more members (as in the
case of a commission) who is technically trained in some particular executive
service or services, or has had wide experience in handling executive problems
similar to the problems facing the superintendent. The wise executive will
welcome such assistance.

Relation of superintendent or chief executive to his staff. The discussion
thus far has been concerned chiefly with the relations which the superin-
tendent or chief executive bears to the governing authority. In this rela-
tionship the superintendent is the servant to do the will of the governing
authority. In carrying out the will of the governing authority an entirely
new set of relationships begin, involving relationship to staff employees,
program of activities and a relationship to the entire community. Relation-
ship to the staff begins with the act of employment. It has already been
indicated that in a properly ordered executive organization the superin-
tendent should have authority to employ his subordinates, whether these
subordinates be skilled or unskilled, full time or part time workers, and the
authority to discharge them.

The superintendent will be limited in the act of employment by the
policy of the governing authority with respect to type and number of each
type of employee; and he may be further limited by the rules and regula-
tions of the civil service laws prevailing in his municipality or county. The
rates of pay will also be determined by formal resolution of the governing
authority or by the rates prevailing in the municipal government as a
whole, fixed either by council or by the civil service commission. Where
a superintendent has direct freedom, subject to the policies of the governing
authority, to select his subordinates, he has the best possible opportunity
to show whether he is fit to be a superintendent or not. If he displays poor
judgment in selecting the various types of employees needed he is a misfit
and would better resign, for the success of the entire executive organization
depends very largely upon the quality of the staff.

Civil service. In most of the larger park systems throughout the
country, and in many of the smaller ones, the selection of employees is
made through the civil service. There has been a good deal of criticism
among park executives of this method of employment. It is asserted that
the customary examinations conducted by civil service commissions cannot
gauge personality which is so important a factor in several different branches
of park and recreation service; that it is exceedingly difficult to get rid of
an employee that happens to be a misfit, and that certain types of workers

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT 543

who deal largely with the human element in society have to be bound by
minute technique and rules and regulations which apply to unskilled workers
or workers whose duties do not bring them intimately into contact with
the public.

There is in reality very little basis for these criticisms. Practically
every civil service department is more than willing and anxious to work
out with superintendents and governing authorities the employment prob-
lems confronting them. Some of the civil service laws specifically provide
that the employing authority can be called upon to assist in conducting
examinations or actually conduct the examinations, during the course of
which he would perhaps have a better chance to study the various applicants
than if he were to meet them for consultation outside. The civil service
procedure has the advantage of orderly and scientific consideration of the
various points of qualification. Practically every civil service law provides
for a period of probation of from six months to one year, during which time
any employee can be dropped without cause being assigned. Surely within
this period any observing superintendent or supervising officer can determine
whether any given employee is a misfit or not. It is only just and right that
any employee that has passed the period of probation successfully should
be given real reasons for his discharge and the right to a hearing before an
impartial tribunal if he so desires.

The selection of employees through civil service is on the whole a
distinct advantage to a superintendent. Some of the reasons why this is so
are: (i) It frees him from the political pressure which was so annoying to
superintendents in the time before the introduction of civil service and to
those superintendents today in communities where civil service is not prac-
ticed. (2) It provides him with an orderly and fairly scientific method of
selecting employees. (3) It aids him in establishing a system of job analysis,
the establishment of which forces him to make a systematic, detailed study
of the requirements of each position and the type of person or persons who
ought to be secured to fill the position acceptably. (4) It provides him
with a proper classification of employees and a system of rating their effi-
ciency. (5) It provides him with a method of orderly promotion. (6) It
gives him a real safeguard in handling payrolls.

In addition to these advantages he can secure from the civil service
department assistance in: (i) Methods of promoting and organizing the
instruction of new employees. (2) Establishing standard policies in respect
to working conditions, health and safety. (3) Establishment of standard
practices in regard to hours of employment, vacations, holidays and sick
leave. (4) Methods of transfer rather than the discharge of employees who
are unsuited for their positions. (5) Carrying on research for the purpose
of improving the administration of employment problems.

544 PARKS

From the viewpoint of the employee civil service has the advantage
of: (i) Providing him a reasonable security in tenure of employment. This
often is more theoretical than real, since an employee or a group of employees
can be dropped by the governing authority abolishing the position. (2)
Freeing him from the necessity of playing politics in order to hold his posi-
tion. Most civil service laws specifically order that employees shall not
participate in political activities, or be assessed or make contributions
toward the support of any political organization or campaign. (3) Secur-
ing promotion by an orderly process where through his own efforts at study
or keen observation and practical experience he fits himself for a higher
and larger field of work. (4) Providing him with a means of securing an
impartial hearing in case the employing officer for an unjust reason attempts
to discharge him.

In order to get the best results from the civil service method of employ-
ment in filling positions requiring technical training and experience of the
employees, it is highly desirable that competition be open to applicants from
a far wider radius than the local community. The smallest possible unit
should be the state, and it would be better if competition was open to appli-
cants from the entire country. The highest welfare of the service is often
defeated if only citizens of the local community are allowed to become
applicants. In making promotions the rule of seniority should not be too
strictly adhered to. A subordinate who, by diligent study, close application
to his work, exercise of his powers of observation and accumulation of prac-
tical experiences, fits himself for a larger responsibility, should not be denied
the chance to assume this responsibility over a senior if the senior has
merely been a time server and made no special effort to increase his effi-
ciency.

Services requiring very high technical qualifications, whether of a purely
temporary or permanent nature, in an advisory capacity, such as may be
rendered by a landscape architect in planning a park and recreation
system and designing of properties, or a building architect in designing impor-
tant structures, or an engineer in designing important construction projects,
or an organized recreation expert in setting up an organized recreation
system, should not, as a rule, be subject to civil service. The governing
authority and the superintendent should have perfect freedom to go any-
where to get the best possible assistance available.

Because of the seasonal or periodic nature of park service, it will always
be necessary in practically every park system to employ various types of
workers on a plan other than a per annum basis. This is especially true in
organized recreation, horticultural, policing and general maintenance serv-
ices. In periodic construction work also this will be true. A civil service

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT 545

department may carry special lists from which part time workers can be
drawn whenever needed or a special arrangement may be made whereby
the appointing authority in the park and recreation organization may
appoint such workers directly.

The superintendent and his department heads. From the time of employ-
ment there is a more or less constant contact between the employees and
the superintendent. The most intimate contact will naturally be between
the superintendent and the heads of the various functional divisions into
which the department is organized. Just as the superintendent receives his
general and specific instructions from the governing authority, so he in turn
must determine the policies and plans for the organization and conduct of
the executive work through his subordinates. These may be embodied in
general rules and regulations promulgated by him for their guidance, in
written orders issued from time to time, and in verbal instructions.

Just as the governing authority should not concern itself with the inti-
mate details of executive activity, so the capable executive will not attempt
to follow every detail of the work of his subordinates. Every chief subordi-
nate should be judged primarily by the results of his work, so long as his
methods square with general policies. Every chief subordinate should feel
that he will have the chance to use what originality, initiative, resourceful-
ness and knowledge he has. Every man, no matter how limited his capacity,
likes to feel himself a creator. His dignity and self-respect depend upon
possessing this feeling. His interest and enthusiasm are based upon this.
Any superintendent who meddles constantly with the intimate details of
the work of his chief assistants not only renders himself incapable of func-
tioning efficiently in the larger phases of executive administration, but at
the same time destroys the spirit of his organization. To do this is the sure
sign of an executive of small capacity. Assistants to chiefs of divisions should
be required to look to their chiefs for instructions and for supervision, and
not to the chief executive or superintendent. However, it is wise for the
superintendent from time to time to keep an eye on the efficiency ratings
and actual efforts of employees of all grades in positions requiring the
exercise of skill with a view to discovering individuals of capacity for larger
responsibilities.

One of the major executive problems of the superintendent will be the
maintenance of harmonious working relationships among the heads of the
several functional divisions of the executive organization. While each
separate division represents a special type of service, or types of services,
each division is somehow related to every other division and there will be
absolute necessity for close cooperation among them. This question of
cooperative relationships is so fundamental that it is sometimes made the

546 PARKS

subject of a special statement of policy by the governing authority, as in
the case of the code of the South Park Commissioners in Chicago (see
page 523). Cooperative relations among the several divisions may be greatly
facilitated if the superintendent, in defining the duties of the several divi-
sions, includes explicit directions as to the services which each division is
to render the other under given circumstances. However, it will not be
possible to foresee all the contingencies which will arise and old directions
may be forgotten. It is desirable, therefore, that the heads of all the divi-
sions be formed into a kind of cabinet and that regular weekly, bi-weekly
or monthly meetings be held under the direction of the superintendent. At
these meetings the instructions of the superintendent can be given and all
problems of a common interest can be presented, discussed and decisions
made if definite decisions are necessary. In these meetings the utmost
frankness should prevail but always in a friendly and impersonal spirit. A
similar organization of the staff of each division employing a number of
skilled workers would likely be found to be most helpful in the conduct of
the affairs of the division. Thus in the division of organized recreation with
a staff composed of supervisors, play leaders, leaders of special activities,
and others, regular weekly meetings are a practical necessity. These meet-
ings not only serve as a time saver to the head of the division, but they
accomplish the far greater purpose of promoting mutual acquaintance among
the members of the staff, and provide the medium whereby the lowliest
members of the staff can gain a vision of the essential unity and the scope
of the entire program of activities.

In addition to regular meetings of the superintendent's cabinet and of
the staffs of divisions, any superintendent can improve the quality of his
executive organization by organizing and conducting short course training
classes for various types of workers. It makes no difference how carefully
workers have been selected or how well qualified they may have been at the
time of selection, there is no single member of the general staff occupying
a position requiring skill, to a greater or less degree, in some particular field
of activity who cannot improve himself by systematic study and instruction.
This applies particularly to the staffs of those divisions whose functions
bring them constantly into intimate contact with the public such as the
organized recreation division staff and the police division force; but such
courses would be of decided value to horticultural workers and office workers
also. (See Chapter XIV, "Park Policing," pages 760-769, for suggestions for
a course of training for park guards or police; Chapter XIII, pages 742-743,
for suggestions for training courses for organized recreation workers.)

The custom followed by some business organizations of holding an
annual picnic and an annual dinner followed by a social good time, the

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT 547

organization and conduct of the affair in each case being largely in the hands
of the employees themselves, is a custom that may profitably be imitated
by a park and recreation executive organization. In fact, these occasions
should be departmental affairs, including the governing authorities as well
as the members of the executive organization. This is merely practicing in
a limited way what the organization is doing daily for the general public.
As a means of fostering mutual acquaintanceship and good will, and that
intangible thing called the spirit of the corps, affairs of this character have
great value.

Personal contacts. All that has been said heretofore concerning the rela-
tion of the chief executive or superintendent to his staff has been considered
from the viewpoint of group contacts. This phase of the administration of
an executive organization has been emphasized because of its fundamental
importance in facilitating the conduct of the business of the organization,
and because it is only in this way that the workers can secure a clear and
comprehensive vision of the aims and purposes of the entire organization
and of the relationship that each individual group bears to the whole and
to each other divisional group. Aside from dealings with the staff on a
group basis, many personal questions will arise which will have to be handled
by personal contact between the superintendent and chiefs of divisions and
perhaps with individual members of the staffs of divisions. These questions
may involve matters relating to the internal organization and conduct of
divisions, problems which will be solved by the individual chiefs of divisions
and the superintendent in conference either in the office or in the field or
both, or they may involve matters pertaining to transfers, promotions, dis-
charges, discipline, or personal difficulties, outside of work problems, of
individual workers. The good executive is more or less in the position of a
foster father to his assistants of all grades if he has their liking, confidence
and respect.

In dealing with employees below the grade of division chiefs, care
should be taken that the division chief is always made acquainted with
the nature of the contacts between the superintendent and the worker,
otherwise the authority of the chief may be easily undermined and the
system be disorganized. In all personal contacts with members of his staff
the superintendent should have and manifest a genuine, sympathetic inter-
est both in the individual and in his problem or problems. If assistance can
be given it should be given promptly and without stint. If reproof and
discipline must be administered let it be done firmly, tempered with friend-
liness. It is one of the highest achievements of a good executive, as far as
relations to his staff are concerned, to have every member feel that he can
expect a sympathetic hearing and a just judgment from his leader, the
superintendent.

548 PARKS

Contacts -with the public. The responsibilities of a park executive would
be comparatively easy if his contacts were concerned only with his govern-
ing authority and with the organization and direction of his staff. It is as
a public character, more or less constantly in the limelight, that his real
cares and responsibilities begin. As the head of an organization which
touches the people of every degree so intimately and in such a variety of
ways, he is called upon to exercise infinite patience, correct judgments and
statesmanlike qualities. Individual citizens of every type, the press, the
pulpit, political, business, civic, social, cultural organizations and societies,
will take cognizance of what he is doing or not doing, and frequently make
demands upon his time, patience and knowledge. Much of the time of his
regular office hours will be consumed by the public; in fact, that is the chief
purpose of having regular office hours. He will be the recipient of com-
plaints and criticisms, commendations and flattery. He will be called upon
to give talks or addresses before many different kinds of organizations and
at many different occasions, both by groups who are genuinely interested
in some particular phase of the work of the department or in the work of
the department as a whole, and by groups who are interested chiefly in
filling up a program. As the leader of a great social movement he will be
expected to know more about the community and its leisure time needs
than anyone in the community. His advice and assistance will be frequently
sought. Moreover, in the very nature of modern park service, the superin-
tendent is bound to initiate certain contacts with individual citizens and
with organized groups of private and public institutions.

The conditions of his organization may require that he establish and
maintain relations with the civil service, the purchasing, the legal, the
police, the financial, the engineering departments of the city or county, as the
case may be. In the conduct of negotiations for the purchase of properties,
or in the making of contracts for improvements, or the purchase of supplies,
tools, materials, equipment, he must establish relations with many indi-
viduals and corporations. He may need publicity in order to make some
particular service effective, or to put through some particular project. He
may call upon the press, the pulpit, the public schools and other avenues for
disseminating information. If the governing authorities adopt a policy of
using properties and facilities not under their own direct control in order
to extend their services, he will need to establish contacts with individuals
possessing properties adaptable for use, or with the public school system,
or with private organizations and institutions possessing indoor and out-
door facilities which cari be turned to public use. He may desire to promote
certain types of recreational activities and may therefore call upon a golf
association, a tennis association, an athletic association or dramatic society,

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT 549

a music club or similar group, to assist. He may, with the approval of
the governing authority, desire certain amendments to the laws. This is
likely to involve a campaign of education in which he will of necessity take
an active part and ultimately result in establishing contacts with leading
legislators.

It is impossible to enumerate all the many kinds and occasions of con-
tacts an active, able, broad-visioned superintendent will make with the
public. Their nature and extent will vary as widely as conditions in dif-
ferent communities vary. In a great many instances these contacts will be
actually carried out through subordinates under the general supervision of
the superintendent. It may be wise in some instances to use the services of
individuals entirely outside the departmental organization. After all, the
mark of a genuine executive is his ability to utilize the services of other people.

In all this broad field of public contacts there are certain rules or
principles that the executive should keep in mind. An executive, especially
a new executive, should be exceedingly careful not to push himself forward
too rapidly. He cannot escape public contacts, but when the opportunity
does come, either by invitation or by necessity, it is desirable that his attitude
be more reticent than forward, and that all his dealing with the public be
marked by a frankness, sincerity, clearness of statement and soundness of
judgment that will at once inspire confidence. Too many words do not
make truth. They more often serve to cause confusion in thinking and to
cover up truth. In all publicity resulting from public contacts or arising
from the activities of the department, the executive should be very careful
not to permit the entire credit to go to himself. In publicity resulting from
public contacts or from interest in activities growing out of the efforts
of the organization, credit should be given to the department or to members
of the governing authority or of the staff, if they deserve the credit. Some
otherwise good executives have raised a host of enemies and limited their
own usefulness in their communities by appearing too frequently in the
public eye.

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION IN SMALL COMMUNITIES AND
LARGE COMMUNITIES

Much that has been said heretofore in this chapter applies only to
executive organization in large park and recreation systems involving divi-
sional or departmental organization with various types and grades of
subordinate executives. However, with respect to the relations of the super-
intendent to the governing authority, to individual members of the staff
and to the general public, the general principles that have been stated apply
equally as well in a small system as in a large one.

550 PARKS

In the small system the superintendent must of necessity play the
double role of the chief executive and most of the parts played by the
divisional chiefs or subordinate executives in large organizations. The
functional activities in a small system are not greatly different in content
from a large system. Records must be kept, planning and construction
work must be done, plantations must be cared for, recreation activities
must be provided for and supervised, general maintenance must be carried
on, funds must be spent and accounted for and reports must be made. In
the small systems the superintendent must take personal charge of all these
activities and in many of the systems actually perform most of the duties.
He is chief executive, clerk, director of play and recreation, gardener,
maintenance foreman, all in one. However, even in small systems, it is
desirable to introduce, wherever possible, the semblance of a divisional
organization consisting at least of an office division, and if no other provision
is made for community recreation, an organized recreation division and a
maintenance division. Too many superintendents, even in fairly large sys-
tems, are expected or required to spend too much time in clerical work, the
result often being that full and complete records are not kept. Every park
governing authority in a small community that considers it worth while
to employ a trained superintendent should provide the superintendent with
an intelligent stenographer-clerk, even if it is only on part time. If the
superintendent is not himself a trained recreation organizer, he should be
provided with an assistant who is. It is highly desirable, however, that the
park and recreation superintendent in small communities be trained in play
and recreation organization and leadership. Horticultural training is like-
wise of fundamental importance in a unified system, not only because of
the constant need of this knowledge in park work but also because of its
possible use in the recreational program, a use that has been too much
neglected even in the larger systems. Trained play leaders, the number
depending upon the number of centers maintained, a few laborers for
maintenance, with possibly a capable foreman where the number of laborers
and the extent of the maintenance work warrants the employment of a
foreman, would complete the staff.

It is often one of the unfortunate conditions in a small community that
the salary which the community is willing or able to pay is not commen-
surate with the all round training, versatility and resourcefulness required
in the chief executive or superintendent. Park governing authorities in
small communities should not hesitate to invest a goodly percentage of
their budget in a capable, well-trained executive. They should remember,
too, that this expenditure does not represent executive overhead but
stands for executive overhead plus the varied services rendered by the

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT 551

superintendent which in the larger systems would be performed by subordi-
nate executive officials. It will and should always be true that relatively a
larger proportion of the budget in a small community should be invested
in personnel (staff) than will be the case in a large community.

Scientific Management.

The eight rules on how to manage, by W. H. Leffingwell, as stated in
the April News Bulletin of the Department of Commerce, have much to
offer park superintendents in planning their work:

"(i) Define your purpose. You must know what is to be done before
you can know how. This is your master task. (2) Analyze your problem.
Your master task will then break up into many detail tasks. Consider them
all --neglect none. (3) Seek the facts. Study every condition governing
each task and the undesirable element to be eliminated and the desirable
element to be retained. Then standardize right conditions. (4) Devise the
one best method. Aim to conserve energy, time, space, material. Determine
relation of details to master task. (5) Find the person best fitted. For each
task certain personal qualities are essential. In each person certain qualities
predominate. Find the person best fitted. (6) Teach the person best fitted
the one best method. Not by driving, but by thorough, patient teaching
are understanding and skill developed. (7) Plan carefully. Right planning
of arrangement and sequence of work will enable you to accomplish tasks
in logical order, accurately, quickly, economically. (8) Win cooperation.
Cooperation means working together. It cannot be demanded; it must be
won. Accept your share of the responsibility. Respect the rights and
aspirations of others. This is scientific management, and through scientific
management may we expect to eliminate waste."

BIBLIOGRAPHY
EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION

"Relations of Park Board and Executive," William concerning the services of gardeners in park work and

H. Walker, Superintendent of Parks, South Bend, Indi- the knowledge that they should possess,

ana. Parks and Recreation, Vol. X, No. 2, November- "Duties of Park Superintendents," W. R. Adams.

December, 1926, pages 118-119. Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Convention of the

" Plans of Organization and Accounting." Report of American Association of Park Superintendents, August,

Olmsted Brothers, fifth annual report of the Metro- '9°9' P^es V'1*' Discussion following address, pages

politan Park Commission of Providence Plantation to

.. /-. i A , , »ni j T i j Duties of a Park Superintendent." Bulletin No. 7,

the General Assembly of Rhode Island, 1909, pages 58- „ , ,

~, r. .... r ebruary 1911, American Association of Park Super-

71. Ine nrst part ot this report contains some very , . ... .

1 mtendents. A symposium by various park executives

pertment suggests relat.ve to general departmental concerning the duties and responsibilities of a k

organization. superintendent.

"About Park Gardeners." Bulletin No. 5, January, "Duties and Value of a Park Superintendent," Theo-

1909, American Association of Park Superintendents, dore Wirth. Parks and Recreation, October, 1920, Vol. 4,

pages 25-29. Symposium by various park executives No. I, pages 24-27.

CHAPTER IX
OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

BY CHARLES E. DOELL
Secretary Board of Park Commissioners, Minneapolis, Minnesota

Scope. The information in this chapter does not attempt to cover
completely the field of general office management or general bookkeeping
and accounting practice. It rather supplements standard works on such
subjects as office management, accounting, bookkeeping, statistics, office
personnel, etc. An attempt will be made in this chapter to apply the general
principles obtained in such standard works to the specialized field of park
office management. The assumption therefore is that the reader already is
familiar generally with detailed office planning and layouts, office equip-
ment and appliances, the qualifications and personal requirements of office
employees, ordinary methods of compensation, etc. Such subjects will be
touched upon later in this chapter but only incidentally.

Point of view. In directing a work of this kind, selection of the proper
point of view is essential. The great variation in the size of communities
who are apt to refer to this chapter makes it very difficult to choose the
angle from which to attack the problem. For example, according to the
1924 census, there were approximately fifteen thousand incorporated vil-
lages, towns and cities under ten thousand population; some five hundred
cities from ten to twenty-five thousand population, and a materially lesser
number above twenty-five thousand population. The need for park records
necessarily varies materially between the smaller cities and the larger ones.
Nevertheless the need is present in all classes of cities, and since practically
the same records are fundamental in all cities, the larger being only more
complicated and involved than the smaller, it is only natural that the point
of view of this chapter shall be directed at a sort of evolution of the need
of the smaller community to that of the more complex systems. In this
way, even the small communities can see the future growth of their own
departments and can design their needs in the light of future requirements.

Need for better office facilities. There is an apparent lack of appreciation
by the majority of the park and recreation governing authorities through-
out the whole of the United States of the importance of keeping accurate
and thorough records with a consequent lack of proper provision for either
clerical staff or office equipment. This is not confined to only the small
communities but is found also in many of the larger cities. Records are of
vital importance. It is just as important to keep complete and accurate

552

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 553

records in the handling of the affairs of a small department as it is in the
large department. While it is true that in some cities records pertaining
to park and recreation matters are kept by employees in charge of other
municipal departments, nevertheless the records should be complete and
correct in all details.

Organization above Office Manager.

I. Authority responsible for keeping records. The majority of the ordi-
nances, charter provisions and state laws that form the basic legal authority
for the establishment of park and recreation systems in both municipalities
and counties require of the general governing authority of such systems
that certain reports, chiefly fiscal, be made annually (sometimes more
often) to some other superior authority such as the mayor, city council,
county board of commissioners or supervisors or county court, or, as in the
case of certain independent park districts, to the state. Thus the definite
responsibility for keeping records is laid upon the authority immediately
in charge of the park and recreation system, whether that authority is a
city manager, a commissioner of public welfare, or a commissioner of public
works, a commissioner of parks and public properties, or a park and recrea-
tion board or commission. This duty of keeping records and making reports
is generally delegated to an employee under the governing authority. In
most of the small systems the superintendent is responsible, sometimes with
and sometimes without the aid of an employee variously called stenographer,
stenographer-clerk, clerk, or secretary, and in a few of the large systems
this same plan prevails. In a considerable number of the laws establishing
park and recreation systems the general governing authority is specifically
empowered to employ a secretary. This secretary may or may not be a
member of the board or commission under this form of general adminis-
trative control.

2. Questions of policy. The requirement in some laws setting up the
park and recreation board or commission plan of general administrative
control, whereby a member of the board is directed to act as secretary, is
deemed unwise in principle for the reason that a non-salaried board member
is not likely to have the time necessary to keep the records thoroughly and
always up-to-date, and possibly he would not be qualified even if he had
the time. Moreover, a board member should not be required to engage in
such executive details as record keeping.

Some legislation setting up the park and recreation board or commis-
sion type of general administrative control specifically authorizes the board
to appoint a secretary who shall not be a member of the board but who
shall be wholly responsible to the board and independent of the chief execu-

554 PARKS

tive officer. In the stage of park development in this country when the
chief executive officer was primarily a horticulturist and perhaps presumed
not to be well trained in business and social service organization and man-
agement, there may have been some vital reason for making the secretary
wholly independent of the chief executive. But with the type of chief
executive or superintendent which a modern park department demands,
this plan of divorcing the office division from the control of the chief execu-
tive is contrary to the principles of efficient business organization and
management. Not infrequently points of friction have arisen between the
secretary and the chief executive under the divided plan. The secretary,
because of his intimate knowledge of the records of the department and
his close personal contact with the members of the board, can easily create
situations very irksome to the chief executive. The secretary, if long con-
tinued in office, will likely tend gradually to assume a kind of proprietary
right in managing certain phases of or even all the affairs of the depart-
ment — a right which properly belongs to the chief executive. The chief
executive or superintendent should be chief executive in fact over all divi-
sions of the department. This should be adopted as a vital principle of
efficient business organization in all park and recreation departments.

In modern movements toward concentration of power in municipal
governments represented by the city manager, commission and Federal
plans of municipal government, there has been, curiously enough, a decen-
tralization of responsibility that organically belongs in different departments
of the city government. Thus the purchasing department makes purchases
for all city departments; the city attorney acts as adviser for all depart-
ments; the treasurer keeps all finance records; the city engineer performs
the duties of an engineer for all departments, and the city clerk keeps the
records for different departments, etc. With reference to park and recrea-
tion departments under such systems of city government, record keeping,
instead of being an organic function of the chief executive officer with a
clerical force under and directly responsible to him, has been split up among
several different departments of the city government. This plan is perhaps
commendable from the standpoint of economy, but it is likely to result in
the department not having collected and organized in a thorough and com-
prehensive manner those records that it should have in its own possession
and with which it should be very familiar.

In very small departments where the budget is only a few hundred
or a few thousand dollars and the scope of activities limited, this plan is
perhaps the only practical method of handling record keeping as well as
performing general and specific executive functions. But as soon as any park
and recreation department begins to utilize an operation budget of, say,

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 555

from eight to ten thousand dollars and upwards, and to function as a com-
munity recreation agency, it should have a definite office headquarters with
a clerk or secretary in charge whose primary duties shall be the accurate
and comprehensive keeping of all the basic records of the department. This
clerk or secretary should be directly responsible to the superintendent who
is in the last analysis responsible for all record keeping as well as all other
functional activities of the department. In fact, it would be advisable in
most cases for the park and recreation commission to elect the superintend-
ent secretary of the department. This would clearly place the responsibility
of organizing and managing the office division upon the superintendent just
as he is responsible for the organization and management of other divisions
of the department. When the budget is as small as the minimum set here,
and even considerably larger, the entire time of the secretary might not be
needed for keeping the records. In this case he or she might be required to
perform some other duties in the department, such as acting part time as
play leader on a playground, or in charge of some sport, or as swimming
instructor, etc. This plan might be followed until the affairs of the depart-
ment grew large enough to employ the full time of the secretary. As the
scope of the activities of the department increase, other office workers would
be added from time to time until the stage of development of the office is
reached as found in the office organizations of the larger park and recreation
systems of this country.

This plan of office organization development is recommended to all
park and recreation departments of the country, irrespective of the form of
city government under which they operate.

j. Qualifications of the secretary of a park and recreation department.
The training and personal abilities required of a secretary of a park and
recreation department will, of course, vary with the nature and extent of
the duties to be performed. In the smaller systems his duties will be chiefly
of a routine nature, requiring technical knowledge within certain fields. In
the larger systems his duties will be largely supervisory and to some extent
executive, requiring a technical knowledge of the several phases of the
entire field of business organization and management. In very small systems
where only one secretary may be needed, the training should include a
knowledge of stenography and typewriting, bookkeeping, taking and keep-
ing of minutes, filing, how to properly take and answer telephone calls,
etc. If the office duties do not require the full time of the secretary, it is
advisable for the secretary to be qualified to perform some other duty in
the operation of the department. Educationally the secretary in such a
department should be at least a graduate of high school in the business
course or its equivalent in some business college.

556 PARKS

When the system grows large enough to warrant the employment of a
full time stenographer this phase of business training might be dropped
from the training required of the secretary. But a thorough knowledge of
business transactions, and of keeping finance records, as well as other records
of the department, should be required. When the business of the depart-
ment demands the employment of a number of office employees such as
assistant secretary, bookkeeper, clerks, tabulating machine operator, stenog-
raphers and telephone operators, the duties of the secretary become almost
wholly supervisory and executive. The secretary should in such a situation
be broadly and intimately trained in the entire field of business organization
and management and in the handling of employees.

4. Personal qualities. Being in charge of the office the secretary will
naturally come much into contact with the public. This is especially true
of the small and medium-sized cities and the smaller county park and
recreation system. This may also be true of the larger systems, but the
more highly organized and specialized office force of such systems makes
it unnecessary for the secretary to meet everyone coming to the office for
information or other services.

Personal qualities desirable in a secretary who comes frequently into
contact with the public are a spirit of friendliness, helpfulness, courtesy and
tact. He should be businesslike without being abrupt, mentally alert, with
a manner of attending to the desires of the caller which shows a thorough
knowledge of the affairs of the department. The good will and prestige of
the department depends not alone upon the services rendered through
different facilities in various sections of the community but also upon the
favorable impressions which citizens get when their desires bring them to
the office. The secretary has it within his power to create a favorable or
very unfavorable impression at this point. In the larger systems where the
secretary serves largely in a supervisory and directory position, the personal
qualities should be such as to win the confidence and esteem and good will
of the employees under him and of the employees of other departments
with which his duties bring him into contact. (See pages 558-616 for sample
duties of secretary.)
Organization in Control of Office Manager — Its Management.

i. Evolution of the office force. For a clear understanding of the organ-
ization of a park office it is best to describe in detail that which has already
been intimated — the evolution of such an office. There are those depart-
ments so small that the park executive must be horticulturist, engineer,
recreation director and office force combined. So ramified and so numerous
are his duties that he begins letting the "lesser important" things slide.

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 557

Office work is one of the first of his duties which he leaves for a "rainy
day." The "rainy day" does not come as often as he anticipated it would,
with a result that office records in many cases are poorly kept or not kept
at all. The park executive himself sooner or later realizes this fact and
feels he must have an office assistant. In the smallest departments this
is often someone who is expected to answer office calls, both personal and
telephone, probably type a letter or two and otherwise "just be there" if
something happens. As the department business increases, personality
becomes a more important factor, calls are more frequent, letters more
numerous and "books" become necessary. A combination bookkeeper and
stenographer is the person best suited for the job until the business is great
enough to justify and demand the services of both a stenographer and a
bookkeeper.

The first division of labor has now occurred in the office organization.
The development of the office is now just a continual repetition of this same
process, and the only criterion of the stage at which this division should take
place is determined by the amount of work to be done as revealed by expe-
rience and careful investigation of each individual case. Where we had
one stenographer, we now have several of somewhat different capacities -
the typist, the true stenographer, the secretarial assistant, the expert short-
hand reporter as well as the dictaphone and mimeographer experts and the
like. Our one bookkeeper has become chief bookkeeper, auditing clerk,
timekeeper, cost accountant, statistician, bookkeeper on this set of books,
bookkeeper on that set of books, etc. And we also have telephone operators,
information clerks, file clerks and miscellaneous clerks of all kinds. Not
only has the personnel become larger and more varied but we at last reach
a point where it is more economical to supplant manual methods with
machine methods. Adding machines make their appearance early, but later
on the manager is confronted with the economical necessity of adopting one
of many possible bookkeeping and statistical systems. This introduces the
various appliance operators. Filing becomes complicated and special labor-
saving filing equipment makes its appearance. Stock records become neces-
sary, and we have a stock room and stock shelving and similar equipment.

The stranger entering this office does not recognize any similarity
between it and the little stenographer and bookkeeper office pictured above.
It is absolutely necessary, however, that the manager of the complex office
does recognize the resemblance between the two; that his mind be broad
enough to see in his ramified departments the work as of one man aiming
at one goal. One of the first duties of a new manager is to chart his organ-
ization to see that the greatest division of labor is possible, that the proper
promotion possibilities are available to all employees, that the work itself

558 PARKS

is efficiently assigned, that proper sub-management exists and that similar
questions of office management are properly handled. It is fatal for a
manager to get lost in the details of his organization, losing sight of the one-
purpose aim and one-man personality of the department as a whole. In
fact, the manager is the department and the employees are his personal
functionaries. He has assigned no routine duties to himself except to coordi-
nate the functions of his subordinates as the brain coordinates actions of
arms, legs, fingers and body.

It is likewise important for the one-man department to imagine him-
self broken up into functions as our office manager has been dissected, not
only that he may see how well rounded his own capabilities are, but that
he may acquire and maintain the point of view he must maintain if he is
to head any kind of an organization. Keeping this thought in mind, the
reader from large and small communities alike will find interest in the
further discussion of office management.

2. Duties of employees. Every employee is entitled to a written state-
ment of what his duties are. The office manager is entitled to his. He may
have to obtain these duties from the park laws and ordinances or he may
be fortunate enough to have them given to him, but however he gets them
they will be very brief and very general and it will be necessary for him in
writing out duties for employees under him to analyze them carefully, reduce
the general terms to specific terms and consequently more voluminous
matter. These again will be carefully studied and assignments determined
according to functions to be performed. The manager is merely breaking
up his own duties and reassigning them to his subordinates.

The following is cited as an example of how the duties of the secretary
are reduced from general terms to specific terms and transferred to his
employees. A certain city charter has this to say concerning the secretary
of the board of park commissioners:

"Appoint annually a secretary who shall not be a power and is hereby authored to administer oaths in

member of said board. The person elected as secretary all proceedings under this chapter and incident thereto,

before entering upon the duties of this office, shall file It shall be the duty of the said secretary to submit

with the comptroller of said city a bond in the penal to the said board, at the first meeting in January, a

sum of ten thousand ($io,ooc) dollars, with at least report showing the transactions of his office and other

three (3) good and sufficient sureties acceptable to said information necessary for the conduct of his business."
board of park commissioners. Said secretary shall have

This charter also gives the board of park commissioners power to make
rules governing its own proceedings, and in its rules the board has enlarged
upon the duties of the secretary as follows:

"The secretary shall perform the duties required by board may from time to time direct. He shall attend

law, and all duties properly devolving upon such officer. all meetings of the board and of its committees when

He shall have charge of and attend the office of the required. He shall keep a true and complete record of

board when the board shall not be in session, as the the proceedings of said board, and of committees, and

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 559

have charge of all books, documents and papers which nate in the name of the Board of Park Commissioners,

properly belong to his office. He shall draw all check- He shall draw all checks on such account in the name

warrants, payable out of the City Park fund, for all bills of the parties to whom the money is due and sign such

ordered paid by the board; which check-warrants shall checks as secretary.

be signed by the Piesident, Secretary, City Comptroller On the first and fifteenth of each month, or as soon

and City Treasurer. He shall keep, in proper form, thereafter as practicable, he shall make out or cause

books of accounts, showing the moneys received to be made out, semi-monthly statements showing all

by and paid out of the City Park fund. He shall payments from the City Park fund and also from the

cause all paid vouchers to be filed and properly pre- contingent fund, certify to their correctness and submit

served and have custody of the corporate seal, attach- the same, together with all vouchers or other data from

ing the same to all documents which require sealing. which they are prepared, to the standing committee on

He shall furnish any information obtainable from the finance for audit. He shall supervise or cause to be

books of the board, at the request of any commissioner. supervised the payment of employees upon the work,

He shall have the custody of a fund for the payment of and shall take and file in his office receipts for amounts

emergency items, as may be fixed by the board, to be paid them. He shall supply new members on their

called the Contingent Revolving Fund. He shall de- election to the board with a copy of these rules and

posit the Contingent Revolving Fund and all other ordinances."
funds in such bank or banks as the board may desig-

The duties so enumerated are still in very general terms, consequently,
after assigning to himself such duties as attendance at all board meetings
and committee meetings, the preparation of all committee reports, the keep-
ing of the records of committee and board meetings, including the proof
reading of all printed minutes, the preparation of resolutions of varying
character presented to the board, the publishing of all legal notices, the
signing of contracts and check warrants and related duties, the secretary
has assigned the following duties to be cared for by employees of his depart-
ment which, for the most part, include restatement of the general terms
included in the city charter and the rules of the board:

(a) Financial records. Keep record of all receipts and expenditures of
the board, including whatever detailed cost and sales records are necessary
or desirable to aid in the management of the various departments.

(b) Special assessments. To make all special assessment rolls and do
whatever clerical work is required by the commissioners appointed to make
such assessments and appraisals.

(c) Land records. Keep record of all land transfers, properly index and
preserve all title documents, and supervise the preparation of record plats.

(d) Cash audits. Make periodical audits of the cash at all sales sta-
tions and design methods of check and report systems in order to see that
all revenues taken in arrive safely in the city treasurer's hands.

(e) Legal service. As an aid to the attorney, draw and check all land
descriptions, draw up ordinary contracts, resolutions and other legal docu-
ments so that only his O.K. will be required.

(/} General. Perform general office work of whatever nature required
for all other departments. In this connection, keep in close touch with the
bond and commoditv market so as to be able to advise on these matters.

560 PARKS

Please answer all of the following inquiries and return the blank as soon as possible

1. Name

2. Title or Position

j. What is your principal duty? (Describe fully, using extra sheet if necessary.}.

4. W hat forms do you handle in above work and from whom do you receive them and
to whom do you pass them?

5. How much of your time is occupied in the above work?

6. What suggestions have you for shortening the time or increasing the value of your
work? (State fully, using extra sheet if necessary.)

7. Who consults your records of above work and how often?

8. Describe separately but briefly every other task you do, giving form numbers of
records you keep or blanks handled. Designate as daily, weekly or monthly

p. Who consults these records and how often?.
10. To whom are you directly responsible?

Fig. I. From "Accountants' Handbook'' by E. A. Sailers, published by Ronald.

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 561

In this case, as is true in most cases, it is impossible for the sake of
economy in organization for the office manager to assign one or more persons
exclusively to financial records and another group to special assessments.
It has been necessary for him to describe in detail the general processes of
the office and the records to be kept in each of the above classifications and
then assign various employees to handle the records and be responsible for
certain of the processes so described.

To illustrate: One of the positions exclusively assigned to financial
records is that of principal bookkeeper, whose duties have been enumerated
as follows: "Under direction of the chief clerk, to either post or have posted
the general journal and general ledger and subsidiary ledger, all of which
contain the controlling figures of all receipts and expenditures of the board;
under the direction of the assistant superintendent, to have charge of the
compiling of the budget of the board of park commissioners and the plan
of expenditure for the year; to supervise directly the work of the senior
bookkeeper and the junior bookkeeper; in general, under the direction of
the chief clerk, to have charge of all bookkeeping processes of the depart-
ment and to be responsible for the issuance of regular monthly statements
which are to be out not later than the tenth of each month; and to perform
related work as required." These duties have been described in minute
detail under the "approved methods" of that position in the same manual.

Should the manager be stepping into an old organization, it probably
will be necessary for him to conduct a simple survey to determine how well
delegated his own duties are. Having each employee turn in a question-
naire similar to Figure I will probably suffice. A comparison of these, with
the duties of the manager, reveals loopholes that the manager must fill.
He does so by a reassignment of duties as outlined above. Where his ideas
differ greatly from his predecessor, an office reorganization results. Except
where the former organization was generally conceded to be grossly ineffi-
cient, a new manager will do well to make changes very gradually.

j. Organization charts. When the manager has successfully analyzed
his own duties and delegated them to real or imaginary employees, he is
ready to construct an office organization chart. It is his "architect's plan"
of the "organization structure." It is a system of oblong enclosures on
paper, in each of which is written the name of the positions the manager's
duty analysis has created and the positions connected with lines repre-
senting the lines of authority in the organization. Figure 2 is an example.
Such a chart, once devised, clears up many misunderstandings as to duties,
authority and responsibility. It should be familiar to all employees. A
study of the chart brings up for solution such problems as the determination
of individual qualifications, grades of employees and compensation.

562 PARKS

4. Individual qualifications. After the chart of organization has been
prepared, and in fact even while it is being prepared, the qualifications of
the individual assigned to each one of the positions are given careful con-
sideration. Obviously there will be general qualifications (largely qualifica-
tions of character) which vary somewhat in each individual position. These
will be such attributes as honesty, truthfulness, neatness, tactfulness and
alertness. There is another group of qualifications which pertain to ability
as revealed by training and experience. Some positions require no particular
training except grammar school training, while others require a highly
specialized technical education, and in between innumerable variations of
the one subject of training. Oftentimes experience is able partially at least
to offset deficient training, and in still other cases it is necessary to insist
upon a certain amount of experience in addition to rigid training qualifica-
tions. All these qualifications should be determined for each individual
position, and in that way all of the characteristic qualities of each individual
are available for ready reference at the time of filling the position and for
analyzing the weak and strong points of people already in the organization
and requisitioning employees from the civil service in case such a department
is in existence.

As an illustration of this we quote again from the office manual con-
cerning the qualifications of the principal bookkeeper: "Education equiva-
lent to graduation from high school; at least four years successful experience
in accounting, bookkeeping and auditing work, two years of which should
have been in connection with the bookkeeping work in the office of the
board of park commissioners; thorough familiarity with the accounting,
classification and forms used by the department; knowledge of the theory
and practice of accounting; good penmanship; ability to operate a type-
writer desirable; supervisory ability, extreme accuracy, carefulness, thor-
oughness, good judgment, good health, and such additional qualifications
as may be prescribed from time to time."

5. Compensation and grades. With the aid of the organization chart
and the individual duties and qualifications determined, it is possible to
divide the various employees in the office into various grades, as, for example,
into junior, senior and principal grades. The reason for doing this is largely
one of giving like compensation to those doing like work and of maintaining
a spirit of contented cooperation throughout the entire office. It is perhaps
even more important to be impartial and fair to all employees in a city
departmental office than in a private institution. There should be no
opportunity whatsoever for justified criticisms of ill treatment or insufficient
or unequal compensation.

In many municipal offices the entire matter of compensation is con-

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

563

ORGANIZATION CHMLT fon GtNt-UL Of-nct-

&OAR.D OP

COMMISSIONS

CIV U. StflNACt

F- \qure Z -ISA-

564 PARKS

sidered at the budget-making time annually and so-called "adjustments"
of salary are made annually. Although in some places this may work out
reasonably well, unless the idea of uniform pay for uniform grades is kept
in mind by the financial authorities this process can be made very unequal
in its application.

A better method is to determine impartially a maximum and a mini-
mum compensation for each grade, giving the head of the department dis-
cretion in setting the rates of pay between these limits, or still better, to
allow for an automatic increase from year to year between these limits for
those employees who continue efficient, it being assumed that all others
will be eliminated from the payroll entirely. Such a plan answers the usual
requirements of the city department. Those to whom the head of the
department reports can, by limiting the number of employees in the various
grades to a definite number and by appropriating a fixed amount in the
annual budget for personal service in the office, restrict the office manager
entirely to expenditure of funds and yet at the same time give him enough
leeway to organize his office in the most efficient way possible and place
the responsibility for its operation directly upon his own shoulders. It
might be added that promotion from one grade to another can be obtained
only through a vacancy occurring in the next higher grade and that the
employee, going from, say a junior grade to a senior grade, must qualify
to the next higher grade either by examination or by methods satisfactory
to the department head.

It will be noted by referring to Figure 2 that the organization chart
provides for certain grades and compensation of employees a certain number
of years to go from the minimum compensation of that grade to the maxi-
mum compensation of that grade. The following is quoted from the minutes
of the board establishing such a plan of compensation:

January 7, 1925.
To the Honorable Board of Park Commissioners.

Gentlemen: Your Standing Committee on Finance respectfully reports and recommends that the following
policy concerning the salary of employees in the administrative office of the board be hereafter followed, effective
January i, 1925:

1. That the employees in the administrative offices of the engineering department, recreation department
and general office be classified as provided for by civil service rules.

2. That a maximum and minimum salary for each rank be fixed as indicated below.

3. That the number of persons employed in each rank be limited to the number indicated below.

4. That all new employees entering the service commence at the minimum salary for that grade and their
salary be automatically advanced on each anniversary of their entrance by one-fourth or one-fifth the difference
between minimum and maximum salaries, depending on the number of years it takes to go from the minimum
to maximum as indicated below. Persons being transferred from other departments and present employees are
to be given credit for the number of years already employed in their grade. Advance from one grade to the next
can only be effected by proper vacancies occurring in the higher rank and by the usual civil service examinations.

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 565

Number of Monthly Salary Years to Reach

Employees Grade Minimum Maximum Maximum
General Office:

10 Juniors $80.00 $100.00 4

6 Seniors 1 10.00 130.00 4

5 Principals 140.00 170.00 5

I Chief 180.00 220.00 4

Engineering Department:

3 Rank I. Utility 4.00 5.00 Daily Rate

9 Rank II 130.00 170.00 5

i Rank III 180.00 225.00 5

Recreation Department:
(Recreation Service)

i Instructor Community Center 75-OO 100.00 5

I Assistant Recreation Director 105.00 130.00 5

1 Assistant Director Recreation Center 115.00 140.00 5

5 Assistant Director of Recreation 160.00 200.00 5

(Clerical Service)

2 Juniors 80.00 100.00 4

I Senior 1 10.00 130.00 4

Note. The positions included in the various grades in the engineering and clerical service are as established
by the civil service commission. This recommendation contemplates no reduction of the present salary of present
employees.

Respectfully submitted.

Committee.
Adopted.

6. Discipline and office character. There is nothing quite so conducive
to an efficient office as an equitable compensation system. After all is said
and done, an employee is working to earn enough money to buy those things
which tend to make him happy and contented. Since the employee's ambi-
tions and ideas of happiness are continually enlarging, it is not surprising
that promotions are continually in sight and that no blind-alley jobs are
in the office. Every job should lead to the top if it is at all possible, the
restrictions for advancement being entirely in the hands of the employee
and his own limitations.

There are, however, other contributing factors to an efficient office,
all revolving about the central idea of contented workers. There should
be sufficient labor-saving devices to make the work pleasant. Light, air,
and, if possible, sunshine and, generally speaking, a comfortable office should
be available. Truthfulness and frank informality should at all times be
cultivated. An office that has one set of standards when the "boss" is
around and a different one when he is not around cannot possibly be relied
upon to give whole-hearted cooperation to the program of the office itself.
In such cases there is something wrong with either the boss or with the
employees, with the chances in favor of the boss being wrong. An employee
has a right to expect the confidence of the office manager in all things per-
taining to his particular job.

566 PARKS

The employees of one park office have received the following admoni-
tions and suggestions from their manager. It is worth careful study.

"Rather than give a list of rules of conduct — which shall request that it be done. At the same time, I expect

I think brands an office as being composed of mediocre the request to be complied with wholeheartedly, not be-

individuals — I prefer to give you my conception of cause it comes from a superior but because you are

the proper attitude to assume and let the individual be interested in the welfare of the department, believe in

himself. I am an idealist and expect every one in the parks and are anxious to do your bit to the best of your

office to believe that the best man wins and that honest, ability. In other words, you are truly cooperating,

conscientious, charitable effort invariably supplants and The office hours are from 8.15 a.m. to 12 m. and from

predominates effort of the opposite character. I con- l.oo p.m. to 5.00 p.m. on each day of the week except

sider this the fundamental attitude, for it is what makes Saturday when the hours are from 8.15 a.m. to 12.00 m.

one genuinely cheerful and happy even in times of ad- No work on Sunday. We have no time clock and never

versity, for then it is conducive to self-examination and expect to purchase one. In spite of office hours, remem-

prevents personal depression. Moreover, it is a fact. ber you have a job to perform upon which your effi-

Moments of success, you have the personal satisfaction ciency is judged. You are the first one who knows that

of knowing, are the result of faithful and thoughtful additional time should be spent on your work and it

service and, on the other hand, defeat discloses your should not be necessary to tell you so. On the other

own shortcomings and frailties which tends toward sym- hand, any reasonable requests for additional time off

pathetic consideration of others and a reduction of at noon or otherwise are always granted. Vacation of

personal egotism. two weeks and a two-week sick leave are given as pro-

In accordance with the above, I shall expect all of vided for by civil service rules. The time of vacation

us to treat each other, not as superiors and subordinates. is determined in as fair a manner as possible to suit

but as free and equal American citizens. To be sure, both the employee and the department.

we are of different capacities for the work of the office, It does not seem necessary to go further into the

but that does not mean that we are of the same rela- deportment of the employees at the present time.

live total mental capacity. A subordinate in the office Remember only that you are expected to give good,

may be a superior outside the office. We are working honest, conscientious, constructive service and are to

tozetker and with each other and every respect and be treated and respected in a dignified and sympathetic

courtesy should exist among all employees. manner."

I never expect to order anyone to do anything — I

Whole volumes have been written on this one subject of office discipline,
some containing very good ideas. The park office will do well not to go in
much for social welfare work or fads and fancies of any kind. These are
frequently resented by the class of employee one would like best to have
in a park office. Nevertheless, many of the newer ideas can be modified by
old-fashioned common sense and often will work out to good advantage.

7. The office manual. The office manual has for its purpose the record-
ing of the various processes of the office, the duties of the individual and
such other information as will provide the employee with complete knowl-
edge of the conditions under which he is endeavoring to carry on his work.
It should contain a complete description of the duties and qualifications of
the employee in each of the positions of the office, and where possible the
approved methods of doing each particular job should also be outlined.
It should also tell in detail the conditions under which each of the employees
is working, lines of promotion, rates of pay, office hours and rules of con-
duct and similar general information. There should also be discussed within
its pages the general process of work to be done so that the individual can
tie his bit of work up with the rest of the office machinery. An office manual

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 567

describes all the things heretofore discussed under the general heading of
management; it affords not only a guide post to the employee but it also
presents to the employer any loopholes in his process which may exist,
and frequently reveals the cause of lack of cooperation between employees
and acts as a measuring stick when making decisions affecting processes of
work and compensation of employees. It is the standard by which all work
is judged and all employees are judged. Its advantage lies in that it does
not change from day to day as the mental attitude of the office manager
may change. Once fixed it is there unless revised by proper authority and
is subject to consultation by all interested.

Every office should have an office manual and it would be a fine experi-
ence if every office manager would write his own. A possible outline of an
office manual is included here for illustration purposes: Introduction. Giving
the purposes of the manual, and including the general conditions under
which the employees of the office are working. Part One: Work to be done.
Being a general description and classification of the work carried on in the
office regardless of who handles the various parts of the work. Part Two:
Organization and duties. Being a description of the various classifications
of employees in accordance with civil service rules and a detailed description
of each office position, including the name of the position, the qualifications
of the one filling the position, the approved methods of carrying on the
work of that position described in minutest detail, the lines of promotion
from this position to the next higher position and the salary connected
with the position.

S. Progress of office work. The general object of any office organization
is to accomplish a certain amount of work or a certain kind of work in a
certain length of time. An office manager is weak if he does not know at
all times the status not only of the routine work of the organization, but
of special jobs as well. It is not safe for him to rely upon his memory or
mere observation to determine these facts. It is much safer for him to
have his office processes charted so that a daily progress report may be
simply obtained and that the progress reports on all special jobs are avail-
able at all times. Weaknesses in the organization are easily detected, and
in fact slow tendencies are easily observed so that immediate action can
be taken before office calamities occur.

Figure 3 illustrates such a chart, and the following comment is made
on that portion of it pertaining to the work of the time clerk and the assist-
ant. It will be noted that the routine functions necessary in keeping track
of the time of each of the employees of the department are analyzed and
noted on the chart. In this particular case the time is mailed in daily by
various foremen and employees on the job and the first item on the chart

568

PARKS

notes when the time is in from, all foremen. Under the column, say, for
the fifth of the month, time will probably all be in for the third, which will
be noted in that column. If the work is up to date by the end of that day
(the fifth), the time for the second or possibly the third will be posted. The
chart allows for notations to be made on all of these functions and any slow
tendencies can easily be corrected so long as the chart is posted after each
work day. In a like manner, each position in the office can be analyzed
into its various functions and similar charts made for each position, all of
the memoranda being made thereon at the close of the day's work so that
the office manager can view the composite chart the first thing in the morn-
ing and learn the status of all the routine office work as of the night before.
These charts refer to routine work only. Special jobs coming into the
office can be likewise charted on various forms of progress charts. Many
of these charts are designed primarily for factory work but are frequently
applicable to office work as well. Although of various types and design,
all of them rely upon analyzing the job at hand into its elemental functions
or steps and the progress of each step noted each day. When one realizes
this fact one is in a position to design simple charts for the particular work
at hand. It is important, for the new office manager particularly, to keep

a\fo\zi nun zs\x n

M 31 jSy a/ AfenJi -. / J J *\J

a a a /Af

ast.

* j<y~H"S~+

i±t

FIGURE 3

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 569

such charts religiously in order that he need not rely upon his knowledge
of the office to ascertain those parts of the routine which are getting behind.
The new man is not so familiar with the office routine that he can afford
to rely wholly upon his intuition. After experience is gained, he may be
able to dispense with the use of the charts, but too often he is apt to neglect
them entirely until one or two bad experiences force him to rely upon
them again. After all, the amount of energy necessary to keep these charts
up-to-date is small and the value of the record both for managing purposes
and as a record for future reference is worth much more than the effort
necessary in keeping them.

Keeping the Records.

In this part of the chapter are discussed the various records to be
kept in the park department and suggestions as to the method of their
recording. Records have been divided into five general classes: (i) Laws
establishing and governing the park department; (2) Official proceedings
of the deliberations of the governing body; (3) An inventory of park pos-
sessions including a brief discussion on insurance; (4) Financial records;
(5) Performance records and business statistics. Park departments will find
other records than those described convenient in the operation of their
park system, those outlined here being only of the most essential character.

Legislative acts establishing park department. The secretary should make
a compilation of all state laws and statutes as well as provisions of the city
charter and any general county laws bearing upon the establishment of
the park department and defining its duties and powers. This may all be
found, in fortunate cases, in one legislative act or city charter provision,
but in other cases, especially those of the older commissions, acts relating
to the legal establishment of the commission may be found in various
places. All these should be gathered together and made available for ready
reference at all times.

Supplementing such compilation of laws, statutes and ordinances, all
important court decisions and attorney's opinions on various detailed sub-
jects involving the interpretation of the law should be gathered together
as a most necessary addendum to the original laws. When it is realized
that these documents constitute the rules of the game for the park depart-
ment, the importance of their collection is readily seen and it is obviously
the duty of the secretary to be thoroughly familiar with them and to see
that all actions, official or otherwise, are taken in accordance with them.
In many cases, he may be fortunate enough to have the legal advice and
assistance of an attorney, but even when such is the case, he should be just
as familiar with these documents as his limited legal knowledge will permit
him to be.

PARKS

Besides being a guide to the official acts of his board or commission,
the secretary's knowledge of the foregoing laws, court decisions and similar
matters enables him to prepare the minutes of all meetings of the official
body in the light of the legal requirements of various acts. For instance,
in the laws establishing some commissions, it is necessary that at least two-
thirds of the board members act favorably upon such important questions
as the acquisition of lands, the creating of bonded indebtedness or the filling
of a vacancy within their own ranks and various other questions. In such
cases the secretary must be careful to note that the required number of
votes are cast and so recorded in the official minutes of the proceedings
that the legality of the action can be readily sustained.

Again, the laws of certain commissions may require that various actions
shall be taken either by the passage of an ordinance or by the passage of
proper resolutions. The secretary should be prepared at all times to see
that such ordinances and resolutions are ready at the appointed time and
that the passage is taken by the proper number of votes and properly
recorded. While it is true that these questions border on the legal phase of
park questions, yet, in most cases, the attorney is not presumed to be able,
offhand, to know all the various provisions of the law relating to this par-
ticular department because the attorney quite frequently is a part-time
man. He is usually available, it is true, for consultation and legal advice
and can ascertain these facts upon research, but the secretary should be
prepared with the working knowledge of the provisions of the law so as to
guide the deliberations of the governing body in ordinary routine affairs.

Official proceedings. It should go without saying that the careful record-
ing of all official actions of the governing body, be that body an elected or
appointed board or commission or an individual manager, is of prime impor-
tance. Minutes of official meetings or compilations of official records are
the authority for acts of the department; they are the recorded history of
the department, the guide posts of future park policies ensuring careful
deliberation on all issues and a continuity of purpose in all acts; they record
park character even as our daily acts and deliberation form and record our
individual characters. Without such records a park department has no
traditions, no soul, no fixed purpose or policy, no beneficial public service
and usually no park "system." The importance of these records emphasizes
the need of them and the care which should be taken in their make-up.

i. Of metropolitan boards and commissions. The minutes of all meet-
ings of the official body should be kept in accordance with Robert's Rules,
of Order or such other guide or special rules as are given. How much detail
should be recorded is a question that the secretary must decide. While
the reporting of much of the discussion and debate gives considerable

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 571

information to the hidden meaning and intent of the official acts, yet its
mere recording is bound to inject a personal opinion into the official records
which cannot possibly be unbiased unless, perchance, every word of the
debate is taken down in shorthand and thus recorded. The necessity of
this procedure is in most cases questionable, although there may be cer-
tain local conditions which make such procedure imperative. Ordinarily
its cost is out of proportion to the benefits received. It is probably the
best policy to adhere to the recording of only actual facts. It is well for
the rules to require that all motions and committee reports be presented
in writing, properly signed by the makers of the motion or the committee
members, as the case may be. It is well for the secretary to have a thorough
knowledge of Robert's Rules of Order or the rules under which the board
or commission is acting, and it might be added that there are good points
of instruction, in the recording of minutes found in Robert's Rules.

If the secretary can exercise any influence in the writing of committee
reports (quite frequently these reports are actually compiled by the secre-
tary and signed by the committee members) it might be well for him to
keep in mind the answering of those questions which future generations will
be bound to ask upon the passage of certain motions and reports. They
should be brief and yet not so brief as to give no information concerning
the motive actuating the decision by which future generations may learn
the lessons of past experience. This is especially true when milestones in
the history of the department are being made, when valuable acquisitions
are made, important improvements carried out, a definite policy decided
upon, or the attitude toward inventions, such as the automobile or the
airplane, is determined. All such actions should be accompanied either by
resolution or by a rather detailed committee report setting forth the "why
and the wherefore" in taking such action.

In the case of some commissions, the minutes of the meetings are
printed and when this is done the minutes of the meeting should always be
approved as printed. This makes the printed minutes official, and the original
notes of the proceedings, although of importance and of permanent value
(and consequently worth keeping), are not of the legal importance of the
printed minutes. Whether the minutes are printed or not, they should be
very carefully and permanently kept in just as secure a fashion as possible.
A complete index to each fiscal year's minutes should be compiled and there
should be a master index made which will apply to all minutes from the
date of establishing the commission to the present date. Although indexes
take time and are difficult to prepare, a great deal of time will be saved by
their compilation. In fact, without indexes it is frequently next to impossible
to locate all actions of the commission when they are wanted the most.

572 PARKS

No doubt the commission or board will have authority to establish
rules and regulations for the conduct of its own affairs and ordinances for
the use of the parks and parkways under its jurisdiction not inconsistent
with the laws establishing the commission. When this is the case the rules
and regulations should be carefully compiled, as should also the ordinances
of the department. If possible both should be printed in separate pamphlets,
one for the use of the members of the commission and the other for the
information of the general public.

To the experienced secretary, many other things related to the keep-
ing of minutes and recording of proceedings will come to mind. For example,
in long, intricate and involved condemnation proceedings or bond proceed-
ings, a memorandum of the various steps is necessary and the required
legal time between the various steps is of great help.

2. Official orders where the park department is governed by an individual.
In the cases of commission or city manager forms of government, usually
the park department comes under either a director of parks or a commis-
sioner of parks. His actions are limited to the duties and powers prescribed
by law much in the same general way as a governing board or commission.
His acts, however, are not acts of a commission but are the orders of an
individual. The executive head of the park department should carefully
compile the orders of his chief, as it goes without saying that such orders
should, so far as possible, be entirely routine. They will naturally be of a
very general nature and there will be comparatively few of them. These
orders are to the executive park head what the minutes of the board or
commission meetings are to the head of the park department in the form
of government heretofore discussed. Keeping this in mind, the writer will
be able to glean sufficient information from the foregoing discussion to
enable him to apply them to his particular local situation. For the proper
protection against misunderstandings, as well as for the guidance on such
situations concerning which there are no particular orders, all official orders
should be as carefully kept and as carefully read and thoroughly under-
stood as the minutes of a commission meeting and the policies established
by such meetings.

Inventory of possessions. Every park department should carefully make
an inventory of its possessions at a set time during each fiscal year. This
is necessary for the purpose of making annual financial reports and of estab-
lishing liability in the case of land and equipment expenditures, and for
insurance collection purposes in the case of fire and theft, etc. There is still
another reason, perhaps not so generally taken for granted, and that is that
a municipality in a way is a very impersonal thing; the right of ownership
must be continually established and its fact recorded in order to prevent

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 573

loss of property, in some cases unnecessary expense of duplication of equip-
ment that is not known to exist, and other similar situations. The law
usually requires that an inventory be kept, but whether that requirement
is present or not it is of extreme importance that an up-to-date inventory
be always available. The possessions of a park department usually fall into
the headings of real estate, tools and equipment, merchandise and supplies,
money and other assets. The question of insurance is so intimately related
with that of inventories that it will be discussed here. Upon what costs an
inventory should be based is a problem too large for a discussion here. It
is a question of first importance requiring the detailed study of standard
works on that subject. It will be touched on but incidentally here.

i. Real estate. It seems strange to say that a complete list of park
possessions should always be available, but in many park departments of
the country such a list is actually unobtainable without special research.
If your department has not such an inventory, make one immediately.

An inventory presumes both a listing of the items and a value attached
to each item. The value of park lands has often been argued from various
points of view, but it is rather an elusive thing because the establishment
of a park has itself a material influence upon real estate values in the imme-
diate vicinity. And, too, the value of a piece of property depends some-
what on the use to which it can be put, and since parks can be used only
for public purposes, their value as a park is different from their value if
converted into ordinary uses; since parks are things which are not ordi-
narily bought and sold as such, no sale value has actually been placed
thereon. It seems wise, therefore, in placing an inventory value opposite
each park and parkway of the system, to record that value on a basis of
what it actually cost the department to acquire it. In the case of donations
it will be necessary to place a reasonable value on the tract of land on the
basis of what that land was worth in the open market at the time. Dona-
tions should be recorded separately from actual cash outlays.

To establish a different basis of cash value on park properties would
involve an annual valuation or at least a periodical valuation by a com-
petent group of experts who, in turn, would encounter the difficulties here-
tofore mentioned, and the result would be of no material value after it
had been obtained. Consequently it seems best to place the value of park
possessions upon the actual cost price.

The question of land and structural improvement values in our park
inventory is not so readily determined, for one set of improvements may
wear out and be replaced by another set of similar nature. To record con-
tinually a duplication of the cost of structural improvements would obvi-
ously create a very wrong impression. However, since the value of making

574 PARKS

a periodical valuation of the complete land and structural improvements
would be questionable, it is probably best simply to record the accumulated
costs of such improvements to date.

All this discussion is concerning a summary of a park and parkway
inventory and does not pertain to the inventory of material, supplies, equip-
ment, buildings and similar insurable property concerning which more will
be spoken later on.

Land records. Continuing the discussion of the inventory as applied to
real estate, it is of sufficient importance to take the space here to describe
a method of recording, indexing and filing deeds, abstracts, land plats, etc.
The system here described is not the only one possible but the concrete
examples given will open up various possibilities to other cities and park
departments.

There should be available an accurate land survey plat of each piece
of park property. In some cases the law requires that such a plat be on file
with the registrar of deeds of the local county. In these cases the number
of copies of each plat is provided for by the law or the registrar of deeds
himself and these plats are usually required to be of a uniform size. Usually
there appears on the plat (a} a correct representation of a true survey of
the park itself drawn to some arbitrary scale sufficiently large to accurately
show all details; (b) a dedication of the form shown below; (c) surveyor's
certificate; (d) the usual stamps and seals of the registrar of deeds office.

The dedication usually reads something like the following:

"I hereby certify that the Board of Park Commissioners of the City

of , owners of the following described property situated

in the County of , State of , to wit:

(Description of property)

has caused the same to be surveyed and platted as (official name of park)
said land being colored ..on the plat.

Secretary, Board of Park Commissioners."

The surveyor's certificate usually reads as follows:

"I do hereby certify that I have surveyed the property described on
this plat as (official name of park), that this plat is a correct representation
of said survey; that all distances are correctly shown on the plat in feet
and decimals of a foot; that the monuments for guidance of future surveys
have been correctly placed in the ground as shown on the plat and that
the outside boundary lines are correctly designated on the plat.

Surveyor."

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 575

Both the dedication and the surveyor's certificate are usually sub-
scribed and sworn to before a notary public.

The complete file of these plats may be placed in a book for ready
reference. It is this book that is usually referred to when any question of
ownership or boundaries arises, and therefore it should be complete and
up-to-date at all times. Frequently it happens that various conditions have
been attached to deeds to some of the property or that for some reason or
other the abstract to the property may be called for at any time. For this
reason the plat should be so made that it indicates parcels of land con-
veyed by each deed, a copy of which will be in the office of the secretary.
These parcels have placed upon them some index number or other identi-
fication mark so that the deed can be readily obtained from the files. If
the deeds are numbered the deed number can be placed on the parcel of
land on the plat, or book and page number in which the deed is recorded
in the register of deeds office may be placed on the parcel of land represented
on the plat. Any designating mark that will readily locate or identify the
deed will be sufficient.

There should, too, be a separate system of parceling carried out in a
similar manner to locate the abstracts to the property. Probably a third
system of parceling may be necessary in complicated cases in order to locate
the various proceedings of acquisition which have been completed in the
acquisition of the park itself. More often, however, the important deeds
of the acquisition can be recorded by a stamp or by footnotes. These
suggestions take it for granted that there will be kept a complete and sys-
tematic file of all deeds and miscellaneous papers having to do with the
title of property, and that a separate file will be kept for the abstracts. It
is possible, of course, to combine the abstracts and the deeds into one file,
but too often the abstracts cover a great deal more property than do the
individual deeds, and consequently the combining of the two into one file
often becomes very complicated.

It is also taken for granted that a complete file of each proceeding for
the acquisition of park property is maintained. These files are matters of
individual design for the case of each particular park system. Experience
will tell exactly which additional files and indexes will be necessary to keep
in this connection, but whatever the system is the answers to the following
questions should be always readily available from the records kept:

How much park property is owned?

What are the exact boundaries of each park in the system?

Under what legal proceedings was each park acquired?

On what pieces of park property are there conditions of conveyance
attached which conditions have not been fulfilled?

576 PARKS

Be able to substantiate the title claim to every piece of park property
owned.

2. Inventory of structures. An inventory of all insurable structures, par-
ticularly buildings, should be available at all times. This inventory is based
upon the present replacement cost of the building, less its depreciation over
the life of the structure to date. This method of keeping the inventory is
probably the most widely accepted of the many varied methods and usually
will satisfy and be acceptable to the insurance companies of most states.
However, since this inventory is kept almost for the sole purpose of being
properly protected by insurance, it is well to consult local underwriters as
to the proper methods of its make-up. In some cases where the system is
large enough and where the insurance companies are so equipped, they may
be willing to keep up such valuations for their clients, but even under these
circumstances it is well for the park department to obtain at least periodi-
cally its own independent valuations.

j. Inventory of tools, equipment, merchandise and supplies. This inven-
tory is the one most common, and the one with which, unfortunately,
almost everyone is more or less familiar — unfortunate because the popular
knowledge of this kind of inventory has caused indistinct classifications of
articles resulting in aggravating misunderstandings. As a result, a great
deal has been written to clarify the situation. The following description of
classifications is taken from the orders of the public examiner's department
of a state which requires all municipalities and departments thereof to
make annual inventories and is a fair example of the general trend of thought
on inventory classifications:

Equipment. Appliances, furniture, implements, vehi- transaction of business, sustaining of life, production of

cles and things adapted to continuing use acquired to heat, energy and power, capable of being used only

facilitate the transaction of business of aid in the accom- once, the portion used being of no further value for the

plishment of purposes and add to the comfort of persons, purpose originally intended, such as stationery, provi-

including live stock used for hauling, transportation, sions, fuel, clothing, cleaning and disinfecting supplies,

dragging, etc., and animals for the furnishing and pro- household supplies, office supplies, postage, library and

duction of foods or products capable of being used in educational supplies, forage supplies, blank books and

the manufacture of commodities; and including every forms.

thing attached to the building by its own weight or by Material. All things other than supplies, equipment

cleats to give it stability and can be easily removed with- or structures, which are suitable by nature or treatment

out in any way interfering with the efficiency of the as part of supplies, equipment or structures, or articles

building or defacing it, such as tools, implements, ma- which are a part of a completed thing but which stand-

chinery, vehicles, harness, horses, cattle, pigs, poultry, ing alone are not adapted to continuing use, such as

tables, chairs, beds and bedding, crockery and glassware, brick, lumber, stone, cement and building material,

cutlery, kitchen utensils, books (other than record), fibre, metal and other supplies, for manufacturing,

apparatus and instruments, furniture and furnishings, Merchandise. Commodities, articles and things kept

files and cabinets, safes not attached to walls, movable in stock and disposed of for cash or its equivalent, such

stoves and radiators, pictures and other removable as stationery, books, office supplies, confectionery and

decorative objects, writing, talking and computing foods, twine, machinery, vehicles, implements and

machines. clothing.

Supplies. Commodities and things needed for the

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

577

Quantities, of course, are recorded as actually counted, and in most
departments the count is compared with previous inventories and receipts
and issues since last inventory and consequently every article accounted for.

A form containing the following headings can be used in taking the
inventory of tools and equipment: Previous Inventory, Year's Purchases,

Form Storehouse 5 4-23

CAUTION i— Each foreman U held strictly accountable for all article* delivered to him. To avoid mlit»ke» you muit count
and inspect all deliveries and report any errors on the back of this receipt.

Board of Park Commissioners

GENERAL STOREHOUSE

List supplies and

tools on
separate sheets

Date.

RECORD OF SUPPLIES OR TOOLS TRANSFERRED

_ Number

The following articles have been delivered in good condition.

For us** ?>t

Park

Pmm

Foreman at

Park

QUANTITY

Unit of
Measure

ARTICLE

CO.

Received the above articles in good condition.
Account Dr. Signed

Account Cr. Foreman at

Park

FIGURE 4
THIS FORM IS PRINTED IN TRIPLICATE, EACH OF THE FORMS BEING OF A DIFFERENT COLOR

One copy is transmitted with the tools and equipment to the foreman on the job and two copies are kept
by the storekeeper for filing.

578

PARKS

Price, Worn Out, Present Inventory, Article, Price, Amount, Location. In
order to keep track of the tools and equipment issued from the storehouse
during the season, the form shown in Figure 4 is used. One copy of this is
transmitted with the tools and equipment to the foreman on the job, and
two are kept by the storekeeper for filing in two different manners.

Merchandise and supplies are best kept track of through the operation
of a supply storehouse and the keeping of perpetual inventory records. The
office records usually consist of a book record of purchases, issues, prices and
balances similar to Figure 5.

When issues are made from stock, various copies of a form similar to
Figure 6 are made out, one going to the office, enabling the office to maintain
the perpetual inventory record above outlined.

A perpetual inventory record may be kept in various ways, even by
tabulating and bookkeeping machines, but the principle is still the same
as the one here outlined.

BOARD OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

FIGURE 5

FORM FOR KEEPING PERPETUAL INVENTORY OF MERCHANDISE AND SUPPLIES AT

THE STOREHOUSE

A book record similar to this form is kept at the central office for the department.

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

579

CITY OF

Board of Park Commissioners

ISSUES FROM STOREHOUSE

Date 192

For

Requisition No. Job No. Per inst. of

QUANTITY

ARTICLE

VALUE

M P 7V*^

No. L < .JO w
FIGURE 6. No. i
CITY OF

Board of Park Commissioners

F«r

Requisition

No. Jol> No. P^i- inst. of

QUANTITY

ARTICLE

NO. E 7533

FIGURE 6. No. 2

No.

E 7533

58o

PARKS

For

Requisition

No loK No. P*r J««f of

QUANTITY

ARTICLE

No. F 7533

FIGURE 6. No. 3. FORMS USED IN ISSUING STOCK FROM THE STOREHOUSE

One form goes to the general office of the department providing data for maintenance of perpetual inventory
mentioned under Figure 5; one form to person receiving the stock and one retained by the storekeeper.

In pricing the articles the general rule of using the cost price or market
price, whichever is the lowest, is generally accepted. There are times to
be sure, for example in 1920-1921, when it was even advisable, especially
for business concerns, to take even a more conservative viewpoint toward
inventories. This was true at that time because prices appeared to have
reached a point of extreme inflation, and rather a precipitous drop was apt
to occur at any time. The actual facts eventually sustained that opinion.
However, when prices are fairly stable, one is generally safe in using the
rule, cost price or market price, whichever is the lower.

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 581

Insurance. For want of a better place, the item of insurance will be
briefly discussed here.

Insurance is a specialized work and the underwriters should be freely
consulted for advice on all occasions. The amount of insurance to be carried
on various properties and classes of risks will be the result of the policy of
the governing body. But should the executive in charge have any discre-
tion at all he will see that all his buildings and inflammable structures
of any kind are amply protected from loss by fire, tornado or any similar
disaster which might occur in that locality. Exactly to what extent cover-
age should be obtained depends upon other factors than the judgment of
the department itself, and of these the character of the improvement is
not the least. Generally speaking, fire insurance for eighty per cent of the
value of the property would ordinarily be ample, but individual cases arise
which may necessitate one hundred per cent coverage. Still other cases may
require only fifty per cent. If co-insurance is carried, particular care should
be taken of the valuation of the property itself, that its real value actually
corresponds with the value on the insurance policy. It is well, if possible,
to have no more than one insurance company on each building so that all
policies in connection with any one building may be concurrent and that
facility of adjustment may be readily obtained. Other forms of insurance,
such as general liability, workmen's compensation, robbery, theft, etc.,
should all be investigated carefully and the entire problem laid before the
local insurance underwriters to see that all phases of the work are amply
protected.

It is rare that the park department will find it to its advantage to
carry its own insurance on any kind of a risk, except perhaps workmen's
compensation.

Financial Records of Municipal Funds.

I. Funds. An understanding of municipal funds is prerequisite to a
clear understanding of municipal finance, consequently it is discussed first
in the financial records.

Classification and definition. There are two general classes of funds
known as (i) general or current expense funds and (2) special funds. General
funds are available for any purpose which the spending body has authority
to use money for. Special funds are restricted in their use to special items
of expenditure. The revenues for general funds are the receipts from taxes
and miscellaneous general sources.

Special funds. Special funds include (a) capital funds, (b) sinking funds,
and (c) special and trust funds. They are usually the result of revenues
obtained from the sale of municipal securities, and funds so derived are

582 PARKS

used for a special capital expenditure, such as the acquisition of a special
piece of park property or the construction or improvement of a certain
park. A fund so created is a capital fund, or it may be termed the construc-
tion or the acquisition fund, as the case may be.

The municipal securities sold to create the capital fund usually take
the form of bonds, which in turn may be secured either by general taxation
or by special assessment against specially benefited property. In either
case the funds accrued from receipts obtained from the collection of these
special assessments are tax levies, and their subsequent reinvestment, if
any, constitutes what is generally known as the sinking fund or sometimes
called the interest and certificate fund. It is that fund which is accrued for
the payment of interest on the bonds and for the repayment of the principal.

Special and trust funds include all classes of funds which are reserved
for special purposes, usually at the instance of some trust for which the city
is administrator or trustee. Park departments are especially apt to have
trust funds.

Operating fund. There might be added still another classification of
funds which is created simply as an aid to a common procedure. This
fund, which might easily assume the name of operating fund, is often only
an accounting term or book accounting, there being no actual cash existing
in the fund or in any case a comparatively nominal amount. The object
of the fund is to provide a means of carrying accounts whose income and
expense are designed to equalize during the year, or where the operation
of revenue producing activities can be carried on and the net results trans-
ferred to the general fund at the close of the year's business, thus elimi-
nating from the accounts of the general fund extraneous matter which in
some instances may hamper the efficiency of the financial procedure of the
municipality.

Summary of fund classification: (i) General funds; (2) Special funds —
capital funds, sinking funds and special funds; (3) Operating funds.

Fund procedure. The purpose of establishing anything but a general
fund is to ensure that means are provided for the carrying out of particular
projects. Those in authority are responsible to the people who elected
them to office for the acts which are carried out, and when funds are once
provided for a specific object they want to be sure that the funds made
available are used to carry out that object and for no other purpose, and
also that the funds provided are not exceeded by the expending officers.
Inasmuch as the creation of funds is necessary, it becomes equally neces-
sary that the accounting processes set up in the offices of a park department
shall be SD designed as to present statements at stated periods showing the
financial status of each of the funds operating within the department.

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 583

There are four principal steps in connection with funds which have, a
bearing on the records to be kept. They are: (i) The establishment of the
fund; (2) The authorization of expenditure; (3) The operation of funding;
(4) The operation of spending.

Funds are generally established by legislative act, particularly in regard
to general and special funds, and special funds are created from time to
time by the governing body in accordance with the terms of the law under
which that governing body is operating. Many park departments are not
particularly interested in the establishment of the fund, inasmuch as their
funds are a part of a general city budget and are provided for as an appro-
priation from the common council or principal governing body of the city.
The authorization for expenditure is ordinarily an act of the governing
body. Sometimes it must be provided for by the passage of an ordinance;
at other times by the passage of a resolution. As previously stated, the
establishment of the funds and authorization for expenditure in many
park departments are for all practical purposes combined in the one term
"appropriation" by the governing body of the city. Likewise those depart-
ments will not be particularly interested in the operation of funding which
consists in the collection of revenues to create the fund and to provide means
for the fund's retirement and payment of its interest.

The operation of spending is common to all agencies of the city gov-
ernment including park departments and it is the one requiring the greatest
number of financial records. Spending includes: (i) Issuance of purchase
orders or contracts; (2) The auditing of such bills, payrolls and invoices; (3)
Payment of the approved bills by the treasurer.

2. Requirements of park accounting. Municipal accounting purposes to
provide historical records of financial transactions, a complete account of
revenue and expense on all special funds, and management records in the
form of statements and financial reports on general and operating fund
procedure. It is not sufficient for a park department to make a report only
on receipts and disbursements in the various funds which, after all, is only
an indication of the honesty of the officials charged with the duty of receiv-
ing and disbursing the public funds. Park business, just as much as a mer-
cantile business, requires strict and careful management and consequently
statements must be provided to enable the park executive to manage his
expenditures just as scientifically as the merchant. As a matter of fact,
in many park departments the operation of revenue-producing activities is
quite an item and is of great enough magnitude and importance to demand
very detailed records.

The budget. In most municipalities it has become a matter of legal
requirement for the various departments of the city government to adopt

5 §4

PARKS

a budget of receipts and expenditures at the beginning of each fiscal year.
Whether it is required or not, every park department, however governed,
which derives its funds from an appropriation that is a part of the general
city appropriation, should provide and adopt a budget, and carry on its
activities in accordance with the provisions in that budget.

A budget is an estimate of the receipts and expenditures for the depart-
ment for the forthcoming year. The act of making up the budget requires
foresight into the coming year's business and necessitates premeditated
planning; from the taxpayers' point of view it establishes a program of
activity in which he is much interested. The park department is com-
mitted to this program by the adoption of the budget, and all financial
transactions during the ensuing year are guided in accordance therewith.
Although all budget experts do not agree on the exact form the budget
should take, there is a sufficient agreement to enter into at least a general
discussion of the form here. If your park department is operating under a
separate governing body which has the power to levy taxes, its procedure
is identical with the procedure of the compilation of a general city budget.
In those cases where the park department is but one of the sub-depart-
ments, of the general city government, the general method followed is for
the proper authorities of the city to call for budget estimates to be submitted
by all departments by a certain date. These departments, including the
park department, compile their anticipated receipts and expenditures for
the coming fiscal year, arranged into classifications which have now become
fairly well standardized. Such a classification follows:

too Personal service.

101 Salaries and wages, permanent.

102 Salaries and wages, seasonal.

103 Salaries and wages, temporary.

104 Fees and compensation for expert services.

105 Teams with drivers.

200 Contractual services.

201 Transportation of persons.

202 Telephone and telegraph.

203 Freight, express and drayage.

204 Hire of horses and of vehicles.

205 Subsistence of persons.

206 Subsistence and care of animals.

207 Storage and care of equipment and materials,
etc.

208 Advertising.

209 Printing and binding.

210 Water rent.

211 Ice and drinking water.

212 Lighting public buildings.

213 Lighting streets and parks.

214 Power, rental of.

215 Heating public buildings.

216 Gas and electricity.

217 Cleaning service.

218 Music and entertainment.

299 Contractual service not otherwise classified.

300 Supplies.

301 Office.

302 Postage.

303 Fuel.

304 Gasoline, kerosene, distillates, etc.

305 Lubricants.

306 Mechanical, electrical and shop.

307 Provisions.

308 Animal (forage veterinary zoo).

309 Wearing apparel and dry goods.

310 Recreational.

3 1 1 School.

312 Laboratory, medical and chemical.

313 Agricultural and botanical.

314 Street sprinkling.

315 Cleaning, toilet and laundry.

316 Lighting.

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

585

317 Bindery.

399 Supplies not otherwise classified.

400 Fixed charges and contributions.

401 Rent.

402 Insurance.

403 Pensions.

404 Redemption of debt.

405 Contributions and awards.

406 Interest.

407 Taxes and fees.

500 Special and contingent.

501 Premiums and accruals.

502 Miscellaneous losses.

503 Refunds and indemnities.

504 Examination of titles.

600 Temporary expenditures.

601 Materials.

602 Refectory and lunch room supplies.

603 High school textbooks and school supplies.

604 Equipment.

605 Accommodation loan.

700 Repairs and replacements.

701 Office furniture and appliances.

702 Furniture and furnishings other than office.

703 Fire apparatus other than motorized equip-
ment.

704 Motor transport equipment.

705 Heat, light, power and refrigerating plants.

706 Shop equipment and mechanics' tools.

707 Miscellaneous machinery and implements.

708 Horse-drawn vehicles and harness.

709 Animals.

710 Books, maps, charts.

711 Instruments and apparatus.

712 Medical and surgical appliances.

713 Educational and recreational.

719 Equipment not otherwise classified.

720 Land.
730 Buildings.

740 Other structures.

800 Permanent improvements and acquisitions.

801 Office furniture and appliances.

802 Furniture and furnishings other than office.

803 Fire apparatus other than motorized equip-
ment.

804 Motor transport equipment, other than fire
apparatus.

805 Heat, light, power and refrigerating plants.

806 Shop equipment and mechanics' tools.

807 Machinery and implements.

808 Horse-drawn vehicles and harness.

809 Animals.

810 Books, maps, charts.

811 Instruments and apparatus.

812 Medical and surgical appliances.

813 Educational and recreational.

819 Equipment not otherwise classified.

820 Land and improvements.
830 Buildings.

840 Structures other than buildings.

850 Rights and privileges.

poo Automotive equipment.
Rental of equipment.

901 Hire of axitomobiles.

902 Hire of trucks, tractors, etc.

Operation and maintenance of city-owned equipment.

903 Automobiles.

904 Motor cycles.

905 Ambulances, busses and patrol wagons.

906 Trucks.

907 Tractors.

908 Fire apparatus.

909 Miscellaneous.

Outlay, purchase or construction price of city-oicned
equipment.

910 Automobiles.

911 Motorcycles.

912 Ambulances, busses and patrol wagons.

913 Trucks.

914 Tractors.

915 Fire apparatus.

916 Miscellaneous.

1000 Revenue deductions not otherwise classified.

1001 Transfer of revenue.

1002 Cancellations and abatement of taxes.

It will probably be necessary in many of the classifications to support
the budget requests for expenditures by a schedule of salaries proposed to
be paid to the various classes of employees, and by various other schedules
which will become apparent during the making up of the budget itself.
These departmental budget requests are gathered together and compiled
into one general city budget, or, in the case of park departments having

586 PARKS

their own governing bodies, the budgets of the sub-departments are gathered
together and compiled into one consolidated budget.

When the total expenditure is tentatively agreed upon, the tax rate
is determined in the following manner: The difference between the total
expenditures and the miscellaneous receipts from revenue-producing activi-
ties and other sources is determined and from this difference is subtracted
the deficiency in annual tax collection which is an empirical percentage of
the total amount to be raised by taxation. This divided by the assessed
valuation gives the tax rate.

Budget for revenue-producing activities. It is perfectly feasible to carry
the budget idea even into revenue-producing activities, such as the opera-
tion of refectories, golf links and boat docks, even as the budget procedure
is being adopted by manufacturing and merchandising concerns the coun-
try over. Here the question of revenue, which represents sales, is quite
frequently a goal and may be missed widely, but if proper and careful
analysis and planning are taken in its estimating, the goal is ordinarily
reasonably close to the budget estimate of income. The classification of
expenditures will probably have to be altered from the classification here-
tofore enumerated in order to be of service for managing purposes. However,
expenditures can be classified in accordance with the codes above mentioned
if required by the tax-reviewing body of city government, but unless reclas-

MISCELLANEOUS REVENUE STATEMENT

Actual
oTlS?

Actual
Receipt!
of 1925

E.timated

Receipt!
of 1926

Estimottd
Receipts
of 1927

Special Assessment Collections:

Road Oiling

$2 812 87

Tree Planting

5 741 19

Park Acquisitions

2 807 86

$ 2,743.24

$ 21480.00

$ 2,480.00

Revenuc-Prortuclng Accounts: ( Gross .Revenue)
Boats — Calhoun

% 11,361.92
. . .". % 9,858.40

$ 2,743.24
% 10,018.45

$ 2,480.00
% 9,000.00

% 2,480.00
$ 9,000.00

Boats — Harriet

. . . . 9,976.65

6,638.85

6,000.00

4,000.00

Baths — Calhoun

. ... 4,514.44

5,150.82

5,000.00

2,500.00

Baths — Camden

. . . . 356.00

375.00

400.00

200.00

Baths — Glenwood

. ... 561.45

605.35

500.00

250.00

Baths — Nokomis

. ... 8,770.68

8,351.80

8,100.00

4,050.00

M iscellaneous :

Comfort Station

$ 34,037.62
. ... $ 1,764.70

$ 31,140.27
$ 1,674.16

$ 29,000.00
$ 1,700.00

$ 20,000.00
$ 1,600.00

. . . . 3,272.00

2,827.75

2,300.00

2,000.00

- Privileges

670.00

715.00

600.00

Court Collections

11,761.00

10,567.00

8,000.00

6,000.00

Skating Rinks

. ... 1,927.85

3,231.50

3,000.00

Rental — Buildings

. ... 4,267.39

2,463.40

2,400.00

2,800.00

Ref rectory Profit . . ( i;e.t)

14,192.03

6,326.13
3,550.84

8,000.00
3,500.00

8,000.00
3,000.00

13,809.77

8,504.60

8.000.00

5,079.39

2,024.70

500.00

520 00

. . . . 3,524.23

82.50

Park Teams

, . . . 2,273.00

... 11,415.50

5,520.00

$ 73,956.86

$ 41,967.58

$ 43,520.00

$ 27,520.00

. ... $110,356.40

$ 75,851.09

$ 75.OOO.OO

$ 50.OOO.OO

. . . . 3,848.55

(1) 45,752.70

31,482.47

3,482.88

Total Receipts Other than Taxes . .

$123,201.05

$121,003.70

$100,182.47

$ 53,482.88

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

587

sified into items familiar to managers of these departments, statements of
expenditures will be of little value for managing purposes.

To be more specific, the budget was made up anticipating a certain
number of dollars as the gross sales for the year. It was estimated that the
merchandise to be dispensed would cost a certain amount of money and
that it would take a certain amount of labor to dispense the merchandise;
that the upkeep of the buildings and overhead management would be a
certain amount and that the sum of the expenditures would be less than
the gross sales by a certain amount which would be profit. The manager
thinks along these lines and consequently his classification of expenditures

ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE

Actual

Expenditui

of 1S25

Estimated

Requirement

for 1927

100
101
102

200
201
2U2
203
204
206
207
203
209
210
211
212
213
214
216
217
21S
209
SOO
SOI
302
i03
306
3C7
SOS
309
310
312
313
314

316
399
400
401
402
404
405
406
407
500
£02
503
504
600
602
700
701
702
705
706
707
708
711
713
719
720
730
740

Personal Service:

Salaries and Wages — Permanent
Salaries and Wages — Seasonal . .
Salaries and Wages — Temporary .
Compensation for Expert Service

Total — Personal Service

Contractual Service:

Transportation of Persons

Telephone and Telegraph

Freight, Express and Drayage . .

Hire of Horses

Subsistance of Animals

Storage .-

Advertising

Printing and Binding

Water Rent

Ice and Drinking Water

Lighting Public Buildings

Lighting Parks

Rental of Power

Gas and Electricity

Cleaning Service

Music and Entertainment

Miscellaneous Service

Supplies:

Office Supplies

Postage

Fuel

Mechanical and Shop Supplies . . ,

Provisions

Animals

Wearing Apparel and Dry Goods .

Recreational Supplies

Medical and Chemical Supplies . .

Agricultural and Botanical

Street Sprinkling Supplies ......

Cleaning. Toilet and Laundry . .

Lighting Supplies

Supplies Unclassified

Fixed Charges:

Rent

Insurance

Redemption of Debt

Contributions and Awards

Interest on Bonds

Taxes and Fees

Special and Contingent:

Miscellaneous Losses

Refunds and Indemnities

Examination of Titles

Temporary Expenditures:

Articles for Resale

Repairs and Replacements:

Office Furniture and Appliances

Furnishings Other than Office . .

Heat, Light and Power

Shop Equipment

Miscellaneous Machinery

Horse-Drawn Vehicles

Instruments and Apparatus ....

Recreational

Miscellaneous Equipment

Land

Buildings

Other Structures . .

$145,393.16

23,440.55

140.977.09

296.00

779.30

2,519.53

3,003.97

40.00

2,064.26

19,983.62

601.81

411.26

1. 825. 25

19,997.54

5,364.12

1,519.18

1.423.20

4.7S9.98

7.22

476. S4

242.85

1,242.50

65.42

2,233.77

3. 817. 11

2,404.38

498.61

2,784.79

2,383.68
5,100.00
500.00
2,450.00
1,185.56

.93

2,961.84
3.28

907.73

163.15

59.09

34.32

1,024.16

1,633.78

86.07

10.78

3,030.72

890.34

5.976.29

4,249.01

15.569.26

$136,729.84

21.888.03

157,223.44

50.00

$310,100.80 $315,891.31

$ 647.00

1,269.98

25.64

10,616.11

S5.28

$140,291.00 $138,516.00

22,110.00 20.795.00

160,257.00 160,854.00

50.00

$322,708.00 $320,165.OO

$1. 775. 00

1,315.00

597.00

50-00

1.552.98
95.55
9,014.88

1,356.00
90.00
7,420.00

1,364.00
70.00
7,187.00

8.00

20.00

233-00

33 00

22 00

22-00

808 64

800 00

4,267.26
3,669.76
50 00

4,175.00
3,990.00
50 00

4,085.00
4,590.00
50 00

90-00
600.00

2,715.94
21,217.40
341.83
423.24

2,993.00
24.900.00
2,540.00
427 00

3,243.00
27,400.00
3,375.00
427 00

250.00
2,500.00
835.00

1.657.31
20 668 76

2,015.00
16 660 00

1,865.00
16 660 00

150-00

2,146.63

2,026.55
893.15

3,293.00

2,505.00
900 00

2,890.00

2,280.00

900 00

403-00

225-00

6,059.49
5.14

6,660.00
5.00

7,835.00

1.175.00
5 oo

3.75

335.74
256 73

340.00
200 00

330.00
200 00

70-00

153.33
148.96
2,855.08
3.835.32
1,710.34
300.43
2,082.79

125.00

195.00
124.00
3,502.00
3,950.00
1,923.00
381.00
2,229.00

128.00
130.00
3,006.00
3,900.00
1.652.00
307.00
1,854.00

<J7.00
6.00
496-00
50- CO
271-00
74.00
375.00

1,807.09
5,395.70
25.00

2,606.00
5,400.00
25.00

2,222.00
5.560.00
25 00

384-00
160.00

2,450.00

2,450 00

2 450 00

1.979.70

2,265.00

2,015.00

250-00

2.375.62

27.84

2,455.00

2.340.00

115-00

948.97
1.35

1,030.00

983.00

47-00

5 00

226.85
335.12
733.51
203.23
4.41

495.00
378.00
685.00
200.00
10.00

180.00
295.00
536.00
150.00
10.00

315-00
83-00
149-00
50-00

5,709.66
316.24
2,087.60
9,066.80
9,871.67

5,475.00
370.00
6,159.00
8.505.00
20.718.00

4,718.00
285.00
6.557.00
7,476.00
23.228.00

757-00
S5-00
398.00
1.029-00
2.510.00

588

PARKS

ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE

Actual
Expenditure
of 1924

Actual
Eipenditure
of 1925

Proposed
Expenditure!
for 1926

Estimated
Requirement
for 1927

800 Acquisitions and Improvements:
801 Office Furniture

$ 15 81

$ 1,064.49

$ 760 00

S 760 00

802 Furnishings Other than Office

739 82

226.04

803 Fire Apparatus

567.68

806 Shop Equipment and Tools .

1 211 49

300 00

807 Machinery and Implements

2 355 09

5 688.26

2 000 00

813 Recreational

6 060 40

97.57

3,000 00

2 000 00

I 000 00

814 Bath House Equipment

5 246 02

1,446.61

819 Miscellaneous Equipment

2 489 13

1,195.87

1,000.00

1,000 00

820 Land Improvement

7,378 91

3,349.15

3,655.00

3, 655.00

830 Buildings

7 563 57

734 81

840 Other Structures

296.38

4,743.87

3,350.00

3,350-00

900 Automotive Equipment:
901 Hire of Automobiles

1,680 00

1 995.00

' 315 00

902 Hire of Trucks

18 879 90

21 678 26

16 895 00

18 115 00

1 220 00

903 Operation of Automobiles

2 319 64

906 Operation of Trucks

2 261 22

909 Operation of Other Equipment
910 Purchase of Autos

2,058.29
4,314 04

1,825.36
4,187.44

1,876.00

1,767.00

109-00

913 Purchase of Trucks

1,427.42

914 Purchase of Tractors

1,275.00

4,199.69

2,600.00

1 200 00

1,400 00

3 000 00

2 000 00

Total — Other than Personal Service.

$202,802.64

$184,605.05

$193,592.OO

$186,535.00

$7,057-00

Totnl Requirements

$512,009.44

$500,490.36

$516.300.00

$5O6,7OO.OO

$9,600 00

CONDENSED BUDGET ESTIMATE

Actual
Expenditure*
1924

Actual

Expenditures
1925

Prop r *ed
Expenditures
for 1926

Requirements for Year:

$310,106.80

$315,891.31

$322,708.00

$320,165.00

Other than Personal Service

202,802.64

184,605.05

193,592.00

186,535.00

Less Misc. Revenue Receipts

$512,909.44
123,204.95

$500,496.36
121,603.79

$516,300.00
106,482.47

$506,700.00
53,482.88

$389,704.49

$378,892.57

$409,817.53

$453,217.12

2,284.03

Tax Levy Requested for 1027 . . .

$455,501.15

FUNCTIONAL DISTRIBUTION OP EXPENDITURES FROM PARK GENERAL FUND

Police

Animals

Lighting Parks

Forestry Work in Parks

Music

Road Oiling

Land Purchase

Improvements

Replanting Trees

Interest on Bonds

Tools and Equipment

Special Repairs to Buildings

Special Road Repairs

Water Rent

Floriculture

Care of Tools and Equipment

Administration

Nursery ;

Park and Parkway Maintenance

Boats — Calhoun

Boats — Harriet

Baths — Calhoun

Baths — Camden

Baths — Glenwood

Baths — Nokomfs

Park Teams

Park Trucks

Preliminary Surveys

Park Acquisitions and Improvements

Sidewalk Construction

Reserve for Miscellaneous

Improvement — Street Tree Planting .
Auto Tourist Camp

Total

66,007.96
62.13

20,041.16
4.424.98

20,025.04
6,607.34
2,583.84

10,192.74

2,450.00

16,668.04

129.15

2,115.85

2,611.77

8,230.21

20,244.66

68,415.05

4,853.48

197,408.59

6,624.58

9,019.23

10,663.91

3,398.64

3,227.67

13,891.75

1,721.08

9,091.33

15.77

5,395.70

3.27

1,208.62
6,575.90

65,324.18

$ 65,975.00

65,000.00

$ 975-00

21,242.87
24,579.37
20,982.41

25,000.00
6,200.00
16,660.00

27,500.00
7,454.00
16,660.00

2,500.00
1,254.00

4,229.13

4,300.00

83.94

7,026.90
5,978.09
2,450.00

13,755.00
3,000.00
2,450.00

•11,000.00
4,000.00
2,450.00

2, 755-00
1,000.00

18,405.95
2,972.37

11,900.00
5,000.00

8,500.00
5,000.00

3,400-00

1,284.56

4,000.00

3,176.73
8,815.50

3,500.00
9,000.00

3,600.00
9,000.00

100.00

21,039.18
59,631.60
7,236.03
174,623.39
7,166.58
7,522.71
9,372.92
2,895.59
3,089.46
8,388.89

22,400.00
61,400.00
7,800.00
206,200.00
7,360.00
6,500.00
9,500.00
3,250.00
3,300.00
9,550.00

21,700.00
60,080.00
7,770.00
203,066.00
7,160.00
4,000.00
8,500.00
6,000.00
3,000.00
8,500.00

700-00
'1,320-00
30-00
3,134-00
200-00
2,500-00
1,000-00
2,750.00
300-00
1,050-00

1,008.53

2,900.00

5,395.70

5,400.00

5,560.00

160.00

2,178.08

4 395.70

$512,909.44 $500.490.30 $510,300.00 $5O6,700.OO

9.600-00

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 589

should be made up along these lines and not in accordance with the code
used in the general fund budget.

If the records pertaining to the operation of these businesses can be
held together in an operating fund and only the net result used in the
make-up of the park department budget, fewer complications will result
and more detailed analyses of these businesses will be greatly facilitated.
These activities can be operated very efficiently on a budget basis. The
total receipts and the total expenditures of the business may vary greatly
in total from the budget figures, but the resulting profit may not show so
great a variation, and when this variation is transferred to the total receipts
in the general park budget, its effect upon the totals of that budget is
indeed very small. On the other hand, had the total receipts and expendi-
tures of the business enterprise been carried in total in the general park
budget, the variation in carrying out the budget would have been great
indeed and the actual accomplishments would not be a measure of the
efficiency of the manager; nor, in fact, would they answer the purpose of
the general budget itself.

The general budget is compiled with the idea in mind that where taxes
are augmented by the receipts from revenue-producing activities, it is the
net receipts from those activities which result in a reduction in the amount
necessary to be raised by taxation and not in the gross receipts of such
revenue-producing activities. For if the gross receipts are used, then the
gross expenditures must be allowed, and it is not the intention of the budget-
making authorities to authorize the expenditure of more money than is
actually taken in.

Summary of budget discussion. The purpose of the budget, it is observed,
is to require the spending authorities to disclose to the public and to the
official auditing and tax-reviewing bodies a distinct plan of operation for
the ensuing year, and also to provide, by the making up of the budget, a
basis of comparison at the close of the fiscal year for determining whether
or not those plans were actually carried out, whether the funds were judi-
ciously spent as authorized by the adoption of the budget and, in short, to
measure in a way the efficiency of the department manager. The budget,
although answering these purposes in a generally satisfactory manner, yet
frequently is not sufficient for all managing purposes and consequently
needs the aid of supplemental records which we will here call "financial
records for management purposes."

j. Financial records for management purposes. In estimating the budget
requirements for a park system, the expenditure figures are usually the
result of consolidated estimates of expenditures on many different parks
and park activities. In other words, .the expenditures required for Audubon

590 PARKS

Park are estimated and classified according to the codes above described
and are combined with like estimates representing the requirements of
Lincoln Park, Washington Park, etc. Now, in conscientiously carrying out
this program of expenditure and in seeing from month to month that the
plan is actually adhered to, especially in cases where a large system is
involved, it is necessary to have the records which are compiled each month
issued in exactly the same form as the budget. It is frequently required
that these records be further detailed into the expenditures properly clas-
sified on each of the parks in the system. In many cases this may be suffi-
cient for all management purposes, so far as the maintenance of the park
system is concerned. However, it will be noted by a further reference and
study of the code classification above referred to, that the carrying out of
certain minor improvements or larger repairs may entail expenditures in
several of the classifications mentioned. When this occurs, it may be neces-
sary to go to the trouble of compiling expenditure records on an additional
classification than the standard code classification.

For example, in making up the budget it has been estimated that
$3,000 will be required for repairing a certain building. In carrying out
this plan, various materials in various classes are purchased, both perma-
nent and temporary labor is used, and in fact expenditures in half a dozen
or more classifications may be made. These expenditures are combined with
expenditures on various other repairs, probably to the same park, and the
$3,000 item which was the basis of the estimate finds no one corresponding
figure in the expenditure records. It would therefore be a great aid to the
manager if a classification on the basis of functions performed were com-
piled in order to facilitate the close scrutiny which the manager requires
for his purposes. The sample budget presented on page 587 shows such a
reclassification in general terms.

Only experience will determine whether it is necessary in any one par-
ticular system to compile records on more than one classification basis,
the size of the system and the amount of work performed often being the
deciding factor in such determination. The purpose for which the record
is sought determines how that classification shall be made up, and the con-
crete illustration given above is an example of a general principle which
exists in the compilation of all financial records, that is, to compile financial
records in the manner which will answer the purpose or purposes for which
the records are kept. The principle itself is obvious, but practically it is
often lost sight of in the detail of compiling the records themselves.

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 591

4. Financial records for the operation of business activities.

Profit and loss statement. Records required for the operation of a busi-
ness enterprise, as any revenue-producing activity actually is, are varied
both in quantity and nature in accordance with the amount and variety of
business done. First and foremost in the operation of any business enter-
prise is the statement of revenue and expense, or profit and loss. In munic-
ipal businesses the balance sheet is of less importance, usually because the
equipment and capital investment in the business itself is a part of the
general park assets. In most instances, the amount of business done by
any park department justifies no more than a fairly well detailed statement
of revenue and expense. Even in some of the larger systems, a further
detail of this statement is all that is required.

An example is given of such a statement for a public golf links, whose
rather elaborate building is used for social functions, especially in the winter
time. Succeeding pages of the statement detail and support the various
figures shown on the page of the statement submitted on the following page.

Comparison of sales with value of merchandise dispensed. There is always
a possibility of a loss of merchandise either because of natural shrinkage,
breakage, spoilage or because of the fact that clerks give merchandise away
without taking in money for it, or use the merchandise themselves. In
order to reduce such leaks to practically nothing, it is quite essential that
the sales be compared with the retail value of the merchandise dispensed.

The idea is comparatively simple. If the check-up is to be made once
a month, an inventory of all merchandise is taken just before the beginning
of business on the first day of the month. A record of all deliveries made
during the month is kept and these deliveries are added to the first of the
month inventory. After the close of business on the last day of the month
and before the beginning of business on the first day of the succeeding
month, another inventory is taken of all merchandise on hand. The dif-
ference between this inventory and the sum of the monthly deliveries and
the first of the month inventory, gives the amount of merchandise which
has been dispensed; the retail value of it should check exactly with the
monthly sales.

Theoretically this is simple, but practically it is not quite so simple.
With careful study and analysis, however, it can be worked out with com-
plete success. Such definitely priced articles as cigars, bar candy, golf
balls, bottled drinks present no problem, but such items as ice cream cones,
sodas, mixed drinks and lunches require an analysis to determine how much
of the bulk merchandise is used in the make-up of the items dispensed. A
knowledge is required of how many slices of bread are in a loaf, how many
scoops of ice cream in a gallon, in order to determine the retail value of a

592

PARKS

STATEMENT OF REVENUE AND EXPEXSE

at Golf Links

As of May 31, 1927

As of As of

May j/, 1927 May 31, 1926
Income

May
IQ27

Total expenditures .

Plus increase in encumbrance:

General

Refectory

Total expenditures and encumbrances
Less increase in inventory:

General

Refectory

Income less expense

1 Rounds of golf played:

165.00

399.00

12,259.61

119.00

747-oo

$i 1,393 .61
#408.04

179.00

605.00

10,915.15

1,317.00

£9,598-15
$4,536.28

65.00
33.00

34.00
145.00

$3,726.69
$1,798.12

1926
1927

Month

325 at 25 cents

11,790 at 40 cents

140 at 25 cents

8,310 at 40 cents

Year

611 at 25 cents
15,910 at 40 cents

196 at 25 cents
12,927 at 40 cents

May

IQ26

Cafe and miscellaneous:
Cafe

$343.00

Party refreshments .

$1,280.85

1,507.85

$I95.6o

$117.35

Hall rentals . . . .

780.00

I.OII.OO

iSo.OO

25I.OO

Partv checking

351 .40

391.00

47-00

64.70

206.00

•J4.C.CQ

Miscellaneous .

4.00

Candy ci°ars and lunch .

3,181.15

3,04.8.40

1,377.56

1,74442

Total

$5, 80-; .40

$6,646.75

$1,800.16

$2,177.47

Golf:
Temporary lockers

30.50

67.75

22.25

55.25

Seasonal lockers

313.00

422.0O

77-00

I74.OO

Club rentals

250.00

332.60

159.30

256.60

Plaving fees1

5,219.80

6,516.75

3,359-00

4,797.25

Checking

48.1:0

30.OO

Ladies' locker key deposits

I2.OO

4.OO

Soap towels and repairs . . . .

136.45

136.58

77.IO

83.08

Total

$5,998.25

$7,487.68

$3,724.65

$5,370.18

Grand total income

$11,801.65

$14,134.43

$5,524.81

$7,547.65

General building

Expenditures
$4,381.81

$2,958.98

$918.74

$550.33

Refectory. ...

4,331.86

4,256.39

1,285.67

1,179.03

Golf

590.90

821.72

4OI.02

52O.57

Course maintenance

1,846.19

1,831.00

9IO.26

1,111-35

1:44.85

263 .06

159.46

$11,695.61 $10.131.15 $3,515-69 £3,520.74

8.63
3.529-37

317.00

$3,212.37
£4,335-28

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 593

loaf of bread or a gallon of ice cream purchased at wholesale. These diffi-
culties are not insurmountable and should not deter any park department
from keeping such records. Cases have been found where the leakage has
been as great as twenty per cent of the gross sales, and before such a system
as that outlined above was installed, an average of ten per cent was not
infrequent. The installation of a check-up system should reduce such
leakage to one per cent or less.

A monthly check-up on seasonal activities is not frequent enough if
the season lasts only two or three months. In such cases, a weekly check-up
should be made and where the operation of taking the inventory is simple,
a daily check-up is not impractical.

Manager's daily reports. The manager of each revenue-producing station
should be required to make out a daily report of the business transactions
of the day. This report should show the amount of cash on hand at the
beginning of the day, the day's sales classified into the various methods of
taking in the cash which are at his disposal, such as cash registers and
their readings, rolled tickets and their readings. These reports should be
checked, extensions verified and results posted daily at the central office.
Figures 7 and 8 are examples of such reports.

Cash audits. Quite frequently during the business season the cash at
the various revenue-producing stations should be counted and compared
with the daily reports so that it is a known fact that the cash which is
reported actually exists at the station. These audits should be made by
someone from the auditing department at times when the manager of the
revenue-producing station is least expecting such an audit. Frequently an
audit will disclose matters of poor financial management such as the indis-
criminate loaning of money and other practices not conducive to good
financial management.

Other records on business activities. Certain revenue-producing activities
require and justify other detailed studies, such as comparison of sales with
weather reports and with financial conditions; studies of past performances
in order to project these experiences into the future and anticipate future
business possibilities; in fact, all studies which might be applied to any of
the usual retail businesses can likewise be applied to the retail business
carried on by a park department.

5. Special fund accounting — construction records. As has been pre-
viously stated, special funds are created for special purposes and usually
for the purpose either of acquiring new park areas or for carrying out some
park improvement project. The expenditures from these funds are not in
the nature of annual expenditures but rather of project expenditures and
hence no annual budget is feasible. In its place there should be required

594

PARKS

BOARD OF PARK COMMISSIONERS— Recreation Department

DAILY REPORT

GLENWOOD GOLF LINKS

-192-

Cash Balance from Previous Report

^7?

Service

RECEIPTS

3^ ^- 2^

0—6

Cy r~

Serial No.

Seasonal
Lockers

Present
Previous
No. Sold

• /^^

Temporary
Lockers

Present
Previous
No. Sold

Lessons

Present
Previous
No. Sold

'/TjP^t--*,*'

>-c^t/ /fee

<*-i ^t-^yz,-

^3.00

£j^<^

/-„ ^

x^-C^ xl-'*"

7 '

1 — g^—-A-^4_^\J/f

/Irl^^

'T--C-C_-<X_-tfC-

(^L^

43£!

Rentals

Present
Previous
No. Sold

Golf Permits

Present
Previous
No. Sold

^-/C,

0.7°

//S"/

— f

5%-s-6

3 / S"

6 /?

>OA /

S^l£

^^/

//^c.

«si^

Z/-o O'

^ ZJ^

Towel & Soap

/5~6^/ - IS' ^7 - -2- 3 ^ ^ ^

/s~

Miscellaneous

2 C/-J~ 7 -x - ,2 7 s^ 3 ^ - / 7 <£> / «=• ^

Repairs

/ T

*-ti

Cash
Summary
^Vt-t

^1,1 -**^(Lc*^<?*-<-^L

TOTAL RECEIPTS

^0^

TOTAL CASH fJ-fS'

(z> 0

Amount deposited with City Treas. ^2 / o~

3£

Balance on hand this day ^ ^-,
? / 0

> ~^

FIGURE 7

Manager

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT
BOARD OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

DAILY REFECTORY REPORT

. /t-c •• / <~ '<• D „„,,-. XT.V ./"" '/ Date. •* ^-" — ~<^*--'

595

192J-

TICKETS SOLD

NUMBER

UNIT
PRICE

AMOUNT

DEPARTMENT

PRESENT

SALES TODAY

REMARKS

•231 i

C /.'

Lj 0

Cafe

U U <? /J~

6: ^V~

y ->^

r ^

Picnic

£7

£-0

lOc

*~) fi £_J

Soda and Ice Cream

f/.£

*7 o

Cigars

£ozz£5_

^££.5£

£^

c-v

15c

Candy

ILJ IL?7

/5 7 «/ 3 7

/ ," -r

C — a

Souvenirs

(- "S*y

<^ -^'7-^ 7

3 o

Parcel Checks

Commissions

U^y

P t

AST

U. S. REVENUE TAX

CASH SUMMARY

AMOUNTS

Syrups Mfd

gals

Sales for the day . .

BtUnce on hind from Prcriou* Day

/ 14 ft % ^ J~

Taffey Sales > ' $ "°-ao

l (r ' C'»

TOTALS

^*7 / ^

Candv

Available Cash ....
Amt. Dep. with City Treas.
Balance on Hand this day

/ C yo jf

Cigars'

1 ^) 0-0 ^

97* TT

DEBIT SODA

Cashier No.

lOc

15c

Present Number

/•-:,••; / MJ;

/;; ^- y>3i-

^^ /6</o

Previous Number

££2££/

/>£3 3 /J~

^l V o-r-r /

Number Sold

nsi

JT^20

/639

Cash«r No.

lOc

15c

Present Number

KLS-ti-W*

£fA5 3-7

Previous Number

/ y J~ e— f-o /

^ v ^ /*-« '

Number Sold

U~IC"

/ 2> c 6

Cashier No.

lOo

lOc

15c

Present Number

Previous Number

Number Sold

WEATHEF
Morning
AfternocM
Evening

MEALS SERVED DEPARTMENT EMPLOYEES

Cafe

Picnic

Lunch

Soda

Cigars

Candy

Souvenirs

General

Total

No. Employees

•- ...jfei-aweuL-fc: slsJ^c-r.rs:. Manager

FIGURE 8

an adopted estimate of the cost of carrying out the project enumerated
in sufficient detail to permit visualizing the completed project fairly well.
It is well for a park department to provide that all estimates be made
out in much the same form so as to facilitate keeping of financial records.
The expenditures on practically all park improvement projects can be
classified into the following headings:

596 PARKS

1. Dredging and filling. n. Walks and fences.

2. Park grading. 12. Miscellaneous park equipment.

3. Road grading. 13. Playground apparatus.

4. Road surfacing. 14. Plantings.

5. Curb and gutter. 15. Seeding and sodding.

6. Walks and steps. 16. Sundry expenses.

7. Sewers and drains. 17. Construction machinery charges.

8. Water supply. 18. Special items.

9. Bridges. 19. Engineering and contingencies.
10. Buildings. 20. General park office administra-
tion.

Page 597 is a sample of an engineer's estimate of the cost of a construc-
tion project.

The purpose of keeping financial records in this case is to ascertain
the exact cost of the project, to see that the total cost does not exceed the
appropriated funds and to provide the engineer with progress statements
so as to control the costs both in detail and in sum total as the work pro-
gresses. It is therefore obvious that the financial records should be so kept
that a comparison both in sum total and in detail with the engineer's esti-
mate may be available at all times. Ordinary monthly statements of expend-
iture are sufficient for most purposes, although when the completion of
one phase of the work or one detail of the work is close at hand more fre-
quent statements on that particular part may be required.

The engineer must have, in order to compile his estimates, very authen-
tic cost records. For his purpose it is therefore necessary to obtain even
in more detail than his estimate, costs on various phases of the work.
For example, he must be provided with the cost per square yard of the
completed pavement and a statement as to how that unit cost is made
up. Page 598 is an example of a completed cost report which has been com-
piled from the actual record of expenditures received from the auditing
department.

Quite frequently the engineering department will make up these detailed
cost reports from the records of the accounting department, and sometimes
the engineer will keep his detailed costs independent from the accounting
department by observation in the field. Cost records which are not thor-
oughly tied up with the actual expenditures as revealed by the accounting
department are very apt to be unreliable because all costs are not included
therein or because all the cost information has not been available to the
engineer. A more reliable method is for the accounting department, if it
is at all possible, to keep in sufficient detail all costs on the construction

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

597

project so as to allow for any compilation whatsoever which either the
accounting department or the engineering department may wish to make
at any time either during construction or after construction.

A TYPICAL NEIGHBORHOOD PARK

Grading:

Fill 65,000 cubic yards at $0.50 $32,500.00

Clay subgrade, 6 inches 6,000 cubic yards at .70 4,200.00

Loam surface, 6 inches 6,000 cubic yards at 1.20 7,200.00

$43,900.00

Walks:

Park 2,240 square yards at 1.35 $3,024.00

Street 1,280 square yards at 1.35 1,728.00

4,752.00

Curb and gutter:

Standard i-foot street curb i,9°o linear feet at .70 $1,330.00 1,330.00

Rails and fences:

At building 200 linear feet at .30 60.00

Horse shoe courts 340 linear feet at .30 102.00 162.00

Sewers and drains:

Tennis courts, lo-inch sewer tile 400 linear feet at i.io $440.00

Skating rink to creek, lO-inch sewer tile 710 linear feet at i.io 781.00

Building to cesspool or sewer, 12-inch sewer tile. . 110 linear feet at 1.90 209.00

Catch basins 1 1 at 50.00 550.00

1,980.00

Water supply i ,200.00

Building 17,000.00

Tennis courts:

Ten, concrete 6,070 square yards at 1.55 $9,408.50

Backstops 1,280 linear feet at 3.00 3,840.00

13,248.50

Wading pool (i):

Curb 150 linear feet at i.io $165.00

Floor 142 square yards at 1.50 213.00 378.00

Canvas-covered play court 35O.OC

Playground apparatus 3,000.00

Lighting equipment 3,000.00

Pergolas (2) 2 at 700.00 1,400.00

Plantings:

Street trees 48 at 8.00 $384.00

Park trees 40 at 20.00 800.00

Shrubs 2,000 square yards at .75 1,500.00

Seeding and rolling 8 acres at 100.00 800.00 3,484.00

Total $95,184.50

Plus 4% engineering and contingencies 3,807.38

Total estimated cost : $98,991.88

6. Plan of park accounting and books of account. Only the general plan
and a very brief description of the books of account can be attempted here.
How these books shall be kept is a matter of bookkeeping procedure which
may be determined from standard works on that subject. Consequently no
attempt will be made to describe the process or to enumerate the accounts
necessary.

598

PARKS

FIGURE 9

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 599

Of elemental importance in any park department, be it large or small,
is the existence of a general journal and a general ledger. Briefly, the general
journal is a chronological record of the financial transactions of all park
activities. It contains a detailed entry of all appropriations and their pur-
poses, all bills paid and money received, but may contain only a summa-
rized entry of monthly expenditures for labor and similar items which are
elsewhere kept more in detail. The important thing is that it contains an
entry of each and every financial transaction affecting the activities of the
park department — it is the authentic record. On page 600 is a sample
page of the general journal of a comparatively large park system. The
general ledger contains the same information as the general journal, except
that the information is here ledgerized into various classifications, usually
as to funds. In many of the small park departments these two books may
be so designed as to answer all the purposes for which financial records will
be required. Other park departments will find it necessary to compile more
detailed information than that shown in the general ledger and consequently
will have additional books of account known as subsidiary ledgers in which
is subdivided into more detailed classifications the information found in
the general ledger.

In systems which expend hundreds of thousands of dollars annually,
very likely this information will not be sufficient and it will be necessary to
supplement the subsidiary ledger with supporting ledgers, statements and
compilations of various sorts. There will come a time in the department's
history when the method of making the entries in these books will require
considerable thought in order to determine the most economical method.
The books of account in the larger park departments will obviously be
varied, their relation one with the other will be quite complicated and known
to perhaps not more than one or two in the organization. Frequently the
relationship between certain of the books is so seldom referred to that it
is often beclouded on account of infrequent usage. It is of great assistance
to chart all the books of account in the office much in the same manner
that an organization chart is compiled.

It will be noted that the receipts are charted on the left hand side of
the chart and the expenditures on the right. At the bottom of the chart
is shown the original sources of information. Next above it occur the first
postings of that information in the books of account. This is not generally
in the most usable form and consequently reports and compilations occur
which are grouped in the third row from the bottom. All of this information
has also been posted in the general ledger and the general journal which
are indicated at the top, and the figures in these two books control and
verify the figures in the "most usable form" group. A brief description of

6oo

PARKS

each of the records is given in each of the rectangular enclosures; the lines
between the various groups show which information is posted in each of
the books of account. This particular chart is for a park department which
uses a tabulating machine bookkeeping system together with several manu-
ally kept books of account.

7. Methods oj accounting entry. Obviously, the smaller systems will use
the ordinary pen and ink or manual method of making entries, but where
the entries run into the many thousands and hundreds of thousands, vari-
ous machine methods are carefully considered. Most bookkeeping machines
on the market are designed more for business enterprises than for municipal
accounting and do not always answer the purposes of municipal accounting.
The ingenuity of the office manager will be taxed in applying the principles
of such machines to carry out the work which he finds it necessary to do,
but careful thought and analysis will enable him to apply the following
general principles to his own work.

It will be seen from the foregoing discussions that, generally speaking,
park department accounting is, aside from its historic requirements, one of
continually breaking down the total cost into various degrees of detail in
order to answer the different questions which may be asked. The budget
of the department itself requires that records be not only kept in the detail
shown on the budget, but time and again items must be broken up into

CITY OF MINNEAPOLIS

GENERAL JOURNAL Q

FIGURE 10

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

601

GENERAL LEDGER.

The contr<?llirt^ 4i'aurc oa all Park.

. PUHOS I9H-1522

ACQUISITION FUN03 A'GG
*»R*. QPfWlHG

RECEIPTS

CITY Of-

BOARD OF PARK. COMMISSIONERS

CHART Or THE BOOKS
OP ACCOUNTS

IH USE IM THE.

AUDITING DEPARTMENT
May 25, 1924

Man-. F«\.\. Lmts DENOTE OIMKT POSTIN

0«TTE» UHES - CHECK 0«LY

-*-EX ft EN'Dl TUPLES

. .____ — 1_ — — — — — .

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6O2

PARKS

still more detailed compilations and in some cases even a third compilation
is required.

The accounting of business activities is likewise one of obtaining various
compilations of the minutest detail of the business itself. Special fund
accounting, especially where it pertains to construction, is in the same
classification. As a matter of fact, for all park management purposes finan-
cial control is obtained by controlling the elements of receipts and expendi-
tures which have to do with the cost of labor of the individual man, the
cost of the individual items of supply and merchandise and equipment,
and then, in order to get a "bird's-eye view" of the thing the manager wants
these various costs collected, summarized and recapitulated.

(Form for Labor)

Ho.

Day

Yr.

Bd ofEst.

Foreman

Fund

On.

Man No.

Kate

Hours

Amount

Prim.

Sub.

Code

No.

Accl.

Acct.

A.CCI.

0 0

0000

0 0

000

000000

0000

0 0 0|0 0

0 0:0

0 0 0:0 0

0 0

0 0 U

ID 1

1 1

1111

1 1

1 1 1

111111

1111

1 1 1J1 1

11:1

111:11

1 1

1 1 ?

D V

§ 2

2 2

2222

2 2

222

222222

2222

2 2 2;2 2

2 22

22222

2 2

22,

3 3

3333

3 3

333

333333

3333

3 3 3:3 3|

3 3;3

333i33

3 3

3 3-

5 5

5555

5 5

555

555555

5555

5 5 5i5 5

5 5J5

5 5 5:5 5

5 5

R d *

5 5 o

6 6

6666

6 6

666

666666

6666

6 6 6:6 6

6 6J6

6 6 6:6 6

6 6

663!

;

7 7 >

8 8

8888

8 8

388

888888

8888

38888

8 8:8

88888

8 8

9 9

9999

9 9

999

999999

9998

99999

9 9I9

9 9 9!9 9

9 9

FORM FOR LABOR

/ P

•6up. Slip. No. or

Koremmi or

I'uml

Cen'l

I'riin.

Suti.

Quantit

Unit

Kind of

Material

Amount

Bd. of Hot 3

J'ur. or.lei No.

Vendor

Aivl.

Aivt.

Acct.

Class

Code

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0000

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1111

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s ?

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2222

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[

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4 4;4 4 4

4444

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444

4 4

4444

4 4

444

4:4 4 4;4 4

4444

| |

5 5:5 5 5

5555

5 5

555

5 5

5555

5 5

555

5:5 5 55 5

5555

6 66 6 6

6666

6 6

666

6 6

6666

6 6

666

66 6 66 6

6666

7 7J7 7 7

7777

7 7

777

7 7

7777

7 7

777

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7777

88888

8888

8 8

888

8 8

8888

8 8

888

88 8 88 8

8888

99:999

9999

9 9

999

9 9

9999

9 9

999

99 9 99 9

9999

FORM FOR INVOICES

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

603

/ D'iv

Sup. Slip No. or

Foreman or

Fund

Gen'!

Prim.

Sub.

Quantity

Unit

Kind of Material

Amount

lid. of E»l. X

Fur Order No.

Vendor

Acct.

C.xle ^

Class

Code

0 0

00000

0000

0 0

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0 0

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0 0

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oo o o;o o

o o o o 3

R 1 1

IM '

11:111

1111

1 1

1 1 1

1 1

1111

1 1

5 Ql

1 1 1

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1111^

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22222

2222

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222

2 2

2222

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2:2 2 2:2 2

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Fl W

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3 3

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3333

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5 5|5 5 5

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6 6

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6 6

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7 7

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7 7

777

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8 8

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99:999

9999

9 9

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9 9

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9 9

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9i9 9 9:9 9

9999

"* '

FORM FOR STOREHOUSE SUPPLIES

Wherever the manual method of record keeping is employed, each
time an additional degree of detail is required, an additional bookkeeping
entry and an additional verification of totals is necessary. This means
a continual duplication of entry. If machines can be obtained which will
eliminate the duplication feature, their additional cost can soon be justified.
Tabulating machines solve this problem of duplication, are in general more
thorough than other machines, for here all the detail, the finest detail
obtainable, is recorded on punched cards which can be tabulated and com-
piled into any sort of tabulation or compilation required. Hence the ver-
satility of these machines is virtually one hundred per cent and generally
speaking will answer the most difficult accounting question. Incidentally,
their use on purely statistical information adds materially to their useful-
ness in a park department.

However, tabulating machines are not the only machines which will
answer various degrees of bookkeeping procedure. Bookkeeping machines
may be obtained for specialized forms of accounting as well as for general
accounting purposes, and for the less complicated departments they may
be more efficient in particular cases than the tabulating machines. In one
park department where the tabulating machine method is being used, three
forms of tabulating cards are necessary: one for all labor charges, one
for all invoices and book transfers and one for all supplies issued from the
park storehouse, these being the only three sources of expenditure which
exist. They are here reproduced. (See pages 602 and 603.)

8. Complete code of accounts of a park department. As it is necessary
to code all information which is punched on tabulating machine cards, this
same park department has devised a system of codes of interest in showing

604 PARKS

how the general information is by degrees broken up into its more detailed
and usable forms by the use of funds, general accounts, primary accounts
and sub-accounts. Incidentally these will give the names of classifications
which will be found to be of interest to all park departments.

In this particular case the funds are each conceived to be broken up
into what is known as general accounts. These accounts pertain to the
individual parks and to overhead and general items. The general accounts
are in turn broken up into primary accounts which add to the detailed
functions of activity and items of expenditures. Where these are not of
sufficient information or detail, sub-accounts are necessary. All of these
accounts are independent of a separate classification, referring to the classi-
fications under the general park budget.

Performance Records and Business Statistics.

1. In general. Cost is always an important factor in determining the
degree to which records should be kept. No records should ever be kept
which are not worth the cost of compiling and keeping them. However,
quite frequently it happens that records which are of extreme importance
in a large and general way are not kept because they are not of current
interest and importance. In the business enterprises of a park department -
and this is also true of any business enterprise — certain tendencies which
are so gradual as to be unnoticed from season to season prove to be the
making or the breaking of the enterprise itself. These tendencies are seldom
charted but where they are charted their trend is guided by the hand of
the manager. The records necessary for this charting process are ordinarily
considered not important, and from day to day they are not important,
but from year to year it is seen that they are quite essential. Of late years
many business institutions have realized the desirability of such records
and some of them have gone to the other extreme of fatally overdoing a
good thing. The office manager must therefore pursue a very careful and
sane course in these matters, having a very definite reason and a very
definite purpose for each class of statistics kept. A few of these types of
statistics are here discussed in not a very thorough or detailed manner but
in a suggestive way which will open up the field to greater possibilities.

2. Pertaining to financial records. All statements submitted to the
executive department heads should show comparative figures. Figures
unaccompanied by any measuring stick are of little interest and of little
information to either the busy executive or the general public. Operating
costs, maintenance costs, etc., should be compared with the previous year's
performances; construction costs, with costs of other city departments,
local contractors' costs, and costs from other cities; revenue from taxes

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 605

should be compared with other city departments and similar departments
from other cities. Comparison should always be made on a fair basis.

Financial records should be supplemented with records showing the
unit quantities received from the money expended and various other records
which will tend to show the efficiency with which the department is oper-
ating. City departments in general are accused of being operated in a most
inefficient manner, and park departments should be ready and equipped at
all times to show conclusively how efficient they really are. Incidentally,
the keeping of these records may show what branches of the department
can be operated in a better manner and may reveal possibilities for increased
efficiency well worth the cost of keeping such records.

5. Showing the effect of parks on property values. Especially where
parks are acquired by levying special assessments against benefited property,
and consequently where the question of benefits is open to argument, it is
well for the park department to be equipped with statistics showing the
rise in real estate values which can be traceable to the establishment of
parks. If possible, statistics should be compiled which will tend to show
that parks maintain property values after they are once established in
spite of the fluctuation of property values some little distance away from
park areas. Such statistics are ordinarily left for rainy day compilation if
thought of at all. They are worthy of greater consideration.

In one city where the acquisition and improvement of neighborhood
parks was paid for by special assessment on the local benefited district,
assessments had ranged from $125 a lot facing the neighborhood park to $10
a half mile distant. Four years after the levy was made and the park acquired
and improved, it was found that the rise in real estate values of property
immediately facing the park was about $400, while the rise in values of
property a half mile away was of course immeasurable. This analysis,
together with others all revealing the same relationship between assessments
and rise in values, showed that assessments were not as equitable as they
might have been, and consequently the policy was revised on future assess-
ments. Similar experience on the assessment of parkways shows that prop-
erties immediately facing the park improved were not assessed as much
in proportion to benefits received as those a little way from the park.
This illustrates the importance of making these special investigations.

4. Recreation statistics. Statistics showing the effect of parks on the
health and happiness of the citizens, and attendance records of all sorts
should be available, but very great care should be exercised in determining
methods of estimating these attendances and their significance. Records
showing the number of people actually organized into various groups and
all sorts of information concerning the type of people interested in various

606 PARKS

activities should be maintained. In fact statistics which are generally com-
piled by social service organizations should be kept.

5. Statistics showing the effect on the morale, juvenile delinquency, etc.
Cooperation of the park department and the local court authorities should
be of such a nature as to facilitate the keeping of court records in a form
which will be of use to the park department. This involves keeping the
juvenile court records in such a form that the time when the delinquency
occurred can be readily ascertained — both the time of day and the time
of year — and also the type of delinquency itself, so that the effect of play-
grounds on the morals of the youth of the community may be ascertained.
Where actual measurable effect cannot be obtained, the statement of prison
authorities and court officers and police records are of importance.

6. Summary. The whole purpose of these and similar statistics is to
measure the use or the value of park areas to the people of the city. These
records are the most intangible of all those kept by the department, yet
they are the records which are quoted and referred to in determining any
policy involving additional park areas and the enlargement of a park system.
They tend to justify or not to justify the existence of the park department
itself. They form the basis of propaganda work where propaganda work is
justified at all. They are important.

Uniform Systems and Records.

I. Uniform accounting system. The opinion is often expressed that a
uniform accounting system for all park departments would be a blessing
to those compiling statistics of the various systems of the country. Since
practically all park executives are making such comparisons continuously
the significance of this statement at once becomes apparent. However, it
seems hopeless and, in fact, it would be impractical to hope that a uniform
accounting system should be adopted by all departments. Each has its
own local problems to solve and each must keep its financial statistics in
such a manner as to answer best the local questions which would be asked.
There are, however, certain questions the answers to which are uniform
and desired by all park executives, and no matter how the records are
actually kept and what detail is gone through to arrive at the results, the
answers to these questions should be available to all persons interested.
The necessity for having these figures available is so obvious that it would
be unnecessary to make special mention of it here were it not for the fact
that these figures are not generally available.

Referring back to our discussion on funds, we recall that the first sub-
division consisted of general or current expense funds and special funds.
In those park departments having only a general appropriation for current

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 607

expenses and capital expenditures alike, accounts should be so kept as to
make it possible readily to separate the two classes of expenditure. Facts
concerning the current expense funds are the most sought after and the
most interesting to park officials of other cities. Figures on special funds
usually involve capital investments including acquisitions and improve-
ments of parks and parkways and are of interest to other park officials
only on certain occasions. The following items of a brief budget on the
current expense funds should always be available.

c
STATEMENT OF INCOME AND EXPENSE ON CURRENT EXPENSE FUND

Income:

1. Balance at beginning of current year.

2. General taxes.

5. Special assessments (road oiling, sprinkling, sidewalks, etc.).

4. Operation of revenue producing activities (give only net income).

5. Miscellaneous (donations, court fines, etc.).

Total income.

Expenditures:

1. Direct cost of maintenance of parks, parkways and playgrounds.

2. Capital expenditures (if any).

3. Repair and replacement of equipment.

4. Playground instructors, supervisors and general playground office.

5. Administration and general park office.

Total expenditure.
Balance.

The items listed under income are all self-explanatory, but some of the items under expenditures probably
call for a little more detailed explanation.

Item No. i, although calling for direct cost, may or may not contain such general overhead items as police,
music, etc. But should it not contain these items, then a separate item should be made in the list of expenditure
items for police, music, etc.

Item No. 2 is not ordinarily included in current expense funds, but there are bound to be some minor improve-
ments or new equipment purchases or land purchases which will be made out of the current expense fund, and
the items are put in here so that they can be readily identified.

Item No. 3 is self-explanatory. It contains no expenditure for the purchase of new equipment other than
that required for replacement purposes.

Item No. 4 is self-explanatory, and of course in such systems which do not operate a playground system
th's item will be missing.

Item No. 5 takes care of all overhead expenditures and items not listed previously.

No attempt will be made to suggest a uniform system of special fund
expenditures since such figures do not ordinarily occur in budget form and
are usually requested for specific purposes easily ascertainable.

2. Uniform park statistics. A comparison of statistics of the various
park departments of the country is continuously in progress by one or more
of the individual departments. Since these comparisons are likely to go on
indefinitely, it is well for the various departments to have available answers
to what might be termed a model or standard questionnaire here reproduced.

Questionnaire No. i is to be sent out to cities served by one park
system:

6o8

PARKS

/. Identification.

(a) Name of city.

(b) Name of county,
(r) Name of state.

2. Population of city.
J. City areas.

(a\ Land area of city.

(b) Water area of city.

4. Park areas.

(a) Land area of parks.
(b} Water area of parks.
(c) Total area of parks.

5. Approximate percentage of park system developed.

6. City finances.

(a) Money raised by taxation for current expense

of all city departments including parks.
1(b) Money raised from miscellaneous sources for
current expense of all city departments includ-
ing parks.

(c} Total money raised for current expense of all
city departments including parks.

7. Park finances.

(a) Money raised by taxation for current ex-
pense of all parks.
1(b) Money raised from miscellaneous sources for

current expense of all parks.

Questionnaire No. 2 is to be sent out to districts served by county,
metropolitan or district park systems.

/. Identification.

(a} Name of the park system.

(b) District served.
2. Population of district served.
5. Area of district.

(a) Land area of district.

(b) Water area of district.

4. Park areas.

(a) Land area of parks.

(b) Water area of parks.

5. Approximate per cent of total park area developed.

6. District finances.

(a) Money raised by taxation for current expense
of all district purposes.

1(b) Aloney raised by miscellaneous revenue for

current expense of all district purposes.
(c) Total money available for current expense

of all district purposes.
7- Park finances.

(a) Money raised by taxation for current expense

of parks.
l(b) Money raised by miscellaneous sources for

current expense of parks.
(c) Total money available for current expense of

parks.

8. If your district included any municipality function-
ing independently from you and whose statistics are
not included above, name it.

Questionnaire No. I is applicable to all park departments in the country
except for those cities which are served by more than one park system or
where the system consists of a county or a metropolitan system embracing
more than one city. In such cases Questionnaire No. 2 is applicable.

A close study of the questionnaire will recall the simplicity and yet
the thoroughness of it, and if used by all departments would result in much
saving of time and energy. A brief discussion of data contained in the
questionnaire might be of advantage.

Both questionnaires are asking for the name of the park system and
the population served, so that the achievements of the various localities
may be grouped inot those of similar size.

Next, the area of the city or district, the park areas and the approxi-
mate percentage of park area developed are called for. These show the rela-

1 If miscellaneous revenue included receipts from the operation of revenue producing activities, include only
the net receipts from such operation.

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

609

tive importance given to parks in that particular locality and provide some
measure of the achievement of the locality itself so far as physical features
of parks are concerned.

The next group of questions relates to the financial progress and asks
for the amount of money raised by taxation and other sources. Both
amounts, compared to the amount similarly raised by the locality itself,
give us the relative importance from a monetary standpoint that parks
enjoy in the public eye of that locality.

These are the major points of comparison between various park systems
and if the information about them is always available it is possible for an
interviewer to obtain a fairly comprehensive idea of the park department
and the locality served which will produce a background for him to inquire
into specific phases of the subject in which he is particularly interested.

It will be noticed that of the questions asked only one calls for a deduc-
tion on the part of the one answering the questionnaire; that is, the approxi-
mate percentage of the total park area developed. All others are simple
facts, but from these simple facts may be made all sorts of comparisons and
calculations as the following table will show:

City

Area per 1,000
Population

Per Cent per
Area in Parks

Cost per
Developed Acre

Cost per
Capita

Per Cent Tax
for Parks

Buffalo, N. Y.

San Francisco, Calif

Milwaukee, Wis

Washington, D. C

Newark, N. J

Cincinnati, Ohio

New Orleans, La

Minneapolis, Minn

Kansas City, Mo

None of the foregoing information is called for directly in the question-
naire, and yet it is some similar form which would most likely be ultimately
used for comparison. These deductions should be made by the city using
the information.

Annual reports. The ordinary annual report of a park department has
but little significance to anyone who does not already know the park
system intimately - - both as to its size and character and to its past achieve-
ments. The ordinary annual report, however, is of great value to those —
and only those — particularly interested in the work of the department.
Realizing the latter fact only too well and the former fact but little, if at
all, most park officials exchange reports religiously, amass a file of such

6io PARKS

reports for reference purposes and refer to them but rarely except for inter-
esting pictures and plans.

A much more effective distribution of information would be to limit the
distribution of annual reports — which deal with the achievements of the
park departments for the past fiscal year — to those particularly interested
in that particular park system. For all others, a pamphlet giving information
concerning the size, importance, special features, costs and achievements of
the park system, would be much more interesting and instructive than
mere annual reports. The distribution would naturally be much larger than
that of annual reports.

Some park departments of the country are already issuing general
descriptive pamphlets, some of them very beautifully illustrated and others
very simply gotten out, giving only statistics and general information.
Other departments are actually getting out two sets of booklets, one of
them an illustrated booklet with but very brief descriptive matter con-
taining over ninety per cent pictures, and the other containing no pictures
but all descriptive and statistical matter. Regardless of whether one or
two booklets in this class are issued, the information which is compiled is
usually of the following classifications:

A brief history of the city. A brief history of the park and parkway
system. A chart of the political organization of the park department.
Statistical information which includes the number, size, value of parks as
a whole and all sorts of interesting information as well as statistics on the
various facilities in the parks such as playgrounds, athletic fields, skating
rinks, craft on the lakes, water areas, shore lines, etc. Current expense
budget. List of the capital investments made in the last five years. A
chart or table comparing park taxes with city taxes. Description of the
methods of financing capital investments. A complete list of parks and
parkways with their acreage, the year they were acquired, the cost of the
department and their location. A listing of historical parks and the inci-
dents of history connected with them. A listing of the special points of
interest. A list of the statues, tablets and memorials. A listing of the special
recreational and entertainment features. An outline of one or more itin-
eraries of the park system. A listing of the interesting views from various
points of vantage. A few general city statistics and statistics on private
enterprises which include the number of railway lines, miles of street car
lines, number of factories, wholesale firms, and the value of their output,
number of hospitals, churches, theatres, the bank clearings, etc.

Office libraries. It is probably well understood by park executives that
a reasonable number of volumes on specialized subjects should be available
to the employees for reference and for study. It is not often that a park

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 611

department has its own library, as these reference books are usually dis-
tributed among the offices of the people most interested in particular sub-
jects. If a central library were possible, with a librarian in charge, conditions
would be almost ideal, but few park departments can afford to go to that
expense.

Probably just as useful and sometimes more useful than textbooks is
the information which is gleaned from the reading of various magazines
and newspaper articles by various divisional heads of park departments.
It is seldom that this information is jotted down as it is read and it soon
slips the minds of even the most alert. Were it possible for this information
to be gathered together and properly indexed, a great deal of useful current
information would be available at all times.

In a park department large enough for two or three sub-department
heads, a very useful system can be worked out along the following lines:
Each of the department heads who reads an article which he considers of
material value, notes that article and gives reference to it to the file clerk.
The file clerk issues a listing of these articles, once every two weeks or
once a month, and the list is passed around to those interested in that
department, giving them an opportunity to call for these articles and to
read them. The result is that any article which one person reads which is
of interest to others in that department is automatically referred to them
in this manner. In the course of time a valuable collection of current ideas
and opinions on park matters is obtained. It now becomes necessary to
index the information. This the file clerk can do by devising a compara-
tively simple subject list, and we have then the foundation of an extremely
valuable business library on park activities. If this matter is continually
kept up to date and only the best of the articles retained, the value of the
library increases tremendously.

This system might also be used by various employees who make trips
out of town to other park departments. If they would simply jot down on
memorandum cards little bits of information which they find of particular
note and give these to the file clerk upon their return so that others may
have the benefit of the observations, an additional usefulness becomes
available. Better still than jotting down the information as one sees it, it
should be made a practice in every park department that all of those who
are sent away at the expense of the department to other cities should be
required to make a complete report of their observations upon their return.
This report becomes a part of the business library and of course carries
comparatively more information than mere isolated memoranda.

Filing and indexing. Comment is here made upon the subject of filing
and indexing, more to emphasize its importance than to describe particular

612 PARKS

methods. In fact no attempt is here made to describe methods of filing and
indexing because the best information that is available is found in current
trade publications and manufacturers' catalogues, which go into the subject
much more thoroughly and in a much more up-to-date manner than any
general textbook on the subject.

An office manager cannot give too much consideration to, and lay too
much stress upon the importance of filing and indexing. His filing depart-
ment is his storehouse of information, and if the information is not readily
available at all times it becomes useless. The file clerk in charge of the
department is much more of an expert than most office managers give her
credit for being. In fact, if she is not an expert and is not capable of devising
a new method or improved method of filing and indexing, she is not fit for
the job at hand. Too many filing departments are so designed and so
operated that when the file clerk is away the filing system is of no use, and
when the end of the year rolls around and the file clerk is incapacitated for
one reason or another, then the office is in a "mess." In order to obviate
these unpleasant situations, it is necessary for the office manager to have
available the general layout of the filing department and certain informa-
tion in regard to the type of information filed. All of these instructions can
be put in an office manual, in fact, the following is quoted from an office
manual:

"Filing and Indexing. There should at all times be available at the
file clerk's desk and also at the chief clerk's desk, a chart or plan of the
location of the various files in the vault. This chart will indicate the various
files and the drawers in the files, labeled the same as the files themselves,
as, for example: Paid Bills 1922; Original Notes on Board Proceedings 1917;
Assessment Rolls and Plats; Pending Proceedings; Concert Programs.

A chart of the filing cases in the storehouse should also be kept by
the file clerk and a copy for the chief clerk. The files in the storehouse
should be in just as good shape as those in the general office, even though
the cases may not be so convenient, may be older and out-of-date.

Unless printed, the guides and folders are to be neatly typed. No
papers are to be left protruding from the folder and each file should at
all times present a uniform and neat appearance. All papers and documents
sent to the filing clerk for filing must be filed and indexed the same day.
It is imperative that an 'out' system be maintained so that the location
of any paper or document not in the files may be readily ascertained. It is
the duty of the file clerk to read various trade publications and to file pam-
phlets so as to be always informed on the latest developments in this direction.
The file clerk should be prepared to suggest improvements from time to time
as the needs of the departments may require.

At the beginning of each year, the file clerk shall transfer from the
cases in the vault to the cases in the storehouse one year's supply of all the
papers that the accompanying schedule calls for transferring. Such papers

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

613

and documents, of which only one or two years' supply is kept, may be

destroyed at the beginning of the second or third year, as the case may be.
All index cards shall either be typewritten or very legibly written in
long hand."

CONTENTS OF FILING VAULT

Number of Number of
Number of Years Years

Items Sn-f of File Drawers to be Kept in Fault How Filed

Original notes on board proceedings nj^ x 17 10 All 10 Chron.

Truck operator's reports 11^x17 i 2 2 Truck

Miscellaneous papers on acquirements and

improvement proceedings 11^x17 4 All All Chron.

Payrolls 5^6 x 17 4 All 5 Chron.

Pending proceedings 11^x17 i All All Chron.

Assessment rolls and plats n/^ x 17 3 All 10 Parks

Bond matters and miscellaneous assessment

rolls 11^x17 i All 10 Chron.

Committee books 11^x17 i All All Alpha.

Contracts and fidelity bonds 11^x17 i All 10 Chron.

Abstracts (one empty, one miscellaneous

assessment rolls) ii^i x 17 6 All All Park

Certificate and interest coupons paid 11^x17 2 All 10 Chron.

Bound proceedings 7)^ x 22 3 All All Chron.

Deposit slips 7^ x 22 I 2 2 Chron.

Annual reports 7}^ x 22 2 All All Chron.

Concert programs 7^ x 22 i All 10 Chron.

Proceedings printed 7^ x 22 5 All 10 Chron.

Paid bills 9^ x 22 44 All 5 Chron.

Park museum vouchers 9^ x 12 I IO 10 Chron.

Refectory orders 9^ x 12 I 2 2 Vendor

Improvement material orders 9}/2 x 12 I 2 2 Park

Worksheets 9^x12 i All All Chron.

Storekeepers' supply slips 9^ x 12 i 2 2 Chron.

Miscellaneous covers, indexes, etc 9^ xi2 I .. ..

General correspondence 11^x14 155 Subj.

General correspondence 11^x17 455 Subj.

Assessment cards 5^ x 14 24 All All Parks

Workmen's compensation i \}/i x 14 }/% All All Alpha.

City comptroller's letters 11^x14 J^ 2 2 Chron.

Purchase orders 11^x14 222 Vendor

Requisitions 11^x14 122 Subj.

Daily reports 11^x14 2 2 2 Chron.

Improvement time cards 11^x14 2 2 2 Foremen

Pictures 11^x14 I All All Subj.

Boat tickets 11^x14 i i i

Indexes and mailing lists 5^ x 14 6 2 2 Alpha.

Extra copies old annual reports 11^x14 i 10 10

Tourist camp register 11^x14 ^ 2 2 Chron.

Voucher listings 11^x14 ^ 10 10 Chron.

Cabinet :

General ledgers and journals.

Stock room. Any park department which uses an appreciable amount
of office supplies should take care of them in such a manner as to reduce
waste to a very minimum. All printed forms and office supplies should

6i4 PARKS

be kept under lock and key and issued in just as efficient a manner as supplies
and tools are issued from a storehouse. It will be found economical to pur-
chase most printed forms, pencils, paper and other merchandise in fairly
large quantities in order to get as low a price as possible. This necessitates
keeping a considerable stock on hand, and it should not be assumed that
this stock can be just piled up somewhere. Suitable shelves, preferably of
steel construction, should be provided and labeled as to their contents, and
the stock arranged neatly and in a logical order on them. The responsibility
of keeping the stock in good shape should rest upon the shoulders of only
one person, whose duty it should also be to keep record of all issues from
stock.

In order to reduce the number of trips to the stock room and conse-
quently the time taken in making those trips, it might be advisable to have
one person delegated to inquire from the office employees each morning
exactly what they will need from stock for that day's business. The stock
can then be procured and delivered to the employees.

The stock room clerk can keep a perpetual inventory record of all
printed forms and stock on hand with suitable memoranda indicating the
time for reordering of the various stock. Besides reducing the quantities
used to a minimum, the operation of such a stock room will also ensure
having supplies and printed forms on hand when they are needed.

The balance sheet in park department accounting. The balance sheet,
listing on one side the assets of the department and on the other side the
liabilities, finds very little practical use in the operation and management
of a park department. The office manager will obtain some little information
from the experience gained in making one up occasionally, but practically
it is seldom if ever used.

On the assets side will be listed, among other things, the value of land
and improvements, and the net value of these items will be found on the
other side of the ledger under liabilities, listed as surplus or capital invest-
ment. The difficulty in obtaining an intelligent figure on the value of park
land and improvements has already been discussed. No matter what figures
are used, it is simply an opinion and consequently the net worth of the
park system will also be an opinion only.

Moreover, a park department is in a different position from a mer-
cantile or industrial establishment and does not find the use for such a state-
ment that business concerns do. As has been said, it is well to know the
make-up of the balance sheet as far as the office manager is concerned, but
its practical use is very small indeed.

Receipts and disbursements — revenue and expense. Confusion fre-
quently exists in making up statements of receipts and disbursements and

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 615

revenue and expense. A statement of receipts and disbursements lists all
moneys received as receipts and checks written as disbursements. A state-
ment of this sort has little practical value as far as the operation of a park
system is concerned. As has been previously stated in this chapter, it is
an indication of the honesty of the disbursing official and provides means
for financial check-up on his transactions, but so far as assisting in the
management of a park system it is of very little help.

A statement of revenue and expense shows the sources of income (either
received or to be received) and expenditures which mean obligations incurred,
whether cash disbursements or orders encumbering cash, and will result in
cash disbursements later on. Expense indicates amount of money which
the department is under obligation to pay. Disbursements is money already
paid. The two may or may not be the same.

A statement of revenue and expense gives the true status of the park
transaction as it ultimately will be. It is the final result and, as a matter
of fact, is the thing the park executive is interested in. This does not mean
that statements of receipts and disbursements are to be dispensed with.
Such statements show the status of the cash and must be available in order
to account for it, but for management purposes the statement of revenue
and expense tells the real story.

Method of obtaining monthly expenditures on revenue-producing activities.
It is rather confusing in analyzing monthly statements of a business enter-
prise, such as refectories and golf links, to segregate the actual cost of doing
business for any one month. The following explanation will clarify this
difficulty.

Assume that we want to know the cost of goods sold in May in order
to compare it with the income to obtain the net income. Obviously the
goods sold in May is equal to what we had on hand May I, plus what we
purchased during May, less what is on hand May 31. This gives us equation
(A] as follows:

(A) Cost of goods sold in May = May I inventory +May purchases
-May 31 inventory.

But we do not conduct a "cash and carry" business, so our purchases
in May do not equal our May payments. In May we pay for goods often
delivered in April, and usually much of the goods delivered in May is not
paid for until June. Our May purchases must equal our May payments
less goods delivered in April, but not paid for, plus goods delivered in May,
but not paid for until June. This gives us equation (B) as follows:

(B} May purchases = May payments -May I encumbrance +May 31

encumbrance.
Now substituting in equation (A] we have:

6:6

PARKS

Cost of goods sold in May =[5/1 inventory + May payments —5/1
encumbrance +5/31 encumbrance] —inventory 5/31.
or

Cost of goods sold in May =May payments +[5/1

Inventory —5/31

Inventory] —[5/1

Encumbrance] —5/31

Encumbrance

= May payments [5/31
Inventory —5/1
Inventory] +[5/31
Encumbrance —5/1
Encumbrance]

In other words, correct the monthly payments by subtracting loss of
inventory for the month and adding loss of encumbrance during the month
to obtain the actual monthly expenditure.

Appendix.

i. Examples of Duties of Secretary as Denned in Typical Park
Systems.

chase of all supplies and materials received and for
satisfactory competition in all purchases.

14. Shall be his duty to see that no purchases are
made on requisitions for materials, supplies, tools, im-
plements, or other property, the cost of which will
exceed one hundred dollars, without bids being taken
thereon, the bids to be submitted to the board before
contracts are awarded.

15. Shall be his duty to supply properly either from
the storehouse or by purchase, any materials, tools, im-
plements or supplies needed by the different park em-
ployees in their work. Purchases are to be made only
on properly prepared requisitions authorized by the
board.

1 6. It shall be his duty to examine the proposal re-
ceived on advertisement for purchases, and to prepare
comprehensive tabulated statements for purchases, and
to give the board his recommendation as to the char-
acter and value of the work, material and implements
offered in the proposal.

17. He shall perform the duties of purchasing agent,
and in that capacity shall, subject to the action of the
board, have charge of the purchase of all materials,
tools, implements and supplies.

1 8. All calls for meetings of standing committees or
special committees shall be issued by the secretary on
request by the chairman of the committee.

19. The secretary shall give bond in the sum of not
less than five thousand dollars, with surety to be ap-
proved by the board.

20. Shall give full time to the duties of the office.

Birmingham, Alabama:

1. Custody of the corporate seal of the department.

2. Custody of the books and papers pertaining to the
office.

3. Affix the corporate seal to all instruments requir-
ing such action when authorized by resolution or vote
of the board.

4. Attend all meetings of board and keep a full and
complete record of its proceedings.

5. Keep accurate records and books of account.

6. Prepare annually a full and detailed report of the
acts and doings of the board.

7- Prepare annually a complete itemized account of
all receipts and disbursements of money.

8. Shall keep the original or true copies of all neces-
sary accounts and vouchers subject at all times to the
inspection of the members of the board.

9. Make a report to the board every month, or as
often as desired by the board, showing the amount of
money on hand, and the receipts and disbursements
since the last report.

10. Shall receive and conduct the correspondence of
the board.

n. Issue all official notices and prepare all papers
and reports for the meetings of the board and for com-
mittees.

12. He shall be responsible for tools, implements and
supplies held in store, and for the accuracy of the ac-
counts of the storekeeper and the maintenance of inven-
tories of supplies received and used.

13. Shall be held responsible for the economical pur-

OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

617

South Park Commission, Chicago:

1. Shall have custody of corporate seal.

2. Custody of all books and papers pertaining to his
office.

3. Shall attest and affix the corporate seal to all in-
struments requiring such action, when authorized by
ordinance or vote of the board.

4. Shall cause all ordinances, resolutions and other
actions of the commissioners requiring publication to
be duly published.

5. Shall attend all meetings of the commissioners and
keep a full and true account of their proceedings.

6. Shall have the management and control of the
accounting department and in this capacity have charge
of the system of accounting and all books of account.

7. He shall appoint according to law all assistants
and employees in his department and shall prescribe
their duties and supervise their work.

8. He shall give such bond for the faithful perform-
ance of his duties as the commissioners may from time
to time require.

West Park Commission, Chicago:

1. Keep the corporate seal and affix the same to all
papers which require it, and attest the same with his
signature.

2. Keep all records and papers belonging to the com-
missioners.

3. Keep a full and accurate record of every proceed-
ing in a journal for that purpose.

4. Record all ordinances, rules and resolutions passed
by the commissioners in a book to be kept for that pur-
pose, immediately after their passage and before the
next regular meeting of the commissioners.

5. Cause due publication to be made of all ordinances
or resolutions which require publication.

6. Prepare an estimate each year of the commis-
sioners' probable reouirements for the succeeding year,
and present the same to the commissioners for their
consideration and action thereon.

7. Purchase all supplies and equipment for the needs

of the park where the amount to be expended does not
exceed the sum of five hundred dollars: provided, how-
ever, requisition for the same has been previously ap-
proved by the president or his authorized agents.

8. Be held responsible for the economical purchase of
all supplies and material, either made by himself or
those authorized by him to do so, and for the obtaining
of satisfactory competition in making all purchases.

9. Prepare for the commissioners proper and com-
plete specifications and other necessary data required
for bids or proposals for necessary work or supplies.

10. Perform such other duties as may be required of
him by law or imposed upon him by any and all ordi-
nances, orders and resolutions of the commissioners.
Los Angeles, California:

1. Secretary shall keep a full account of all prooerty,
money, receipts and expenditures.

2. Shall keep a record of all proceedings of the board.
Nashville, Tennessee:

1. Secretary shall keep accurate record and books of
account.

2. Prepare annually a full and detailed report and
statement of all the sets and doings of the board, to-
gether with a complete itemized account of all receipts
and disbursements of money.

3. Shall prepare all papers and reports for the meet-
ings of the board and for committees.

4. He shall draw all checks on the treasurer.

5. He shall receive and conduct the correspondence
of the board.

6. He shall issue official notices.

7. Receive the reports of all employees and perform
such other duties as the board may from time to time
direct.

8. He shall preserve and keep record of all reports,
maps, books or documents which may be purchased or
presented to the board and shall exchange, in the name
of the board, annual reports and public documents of
the board with other public institutions, libraries, etc.,
in this and other countries.

CHAPTER X
THE PARK ENGINEERING DIVISION

Park engineering is concerned primarily with problems involved in the
selection and construction of parks. Some of the problems involved in the
selection and development of park properties have been discussed in Chapters
II, III and IV; and the general functions of the engineering division of a
park department have been touched on in Chapter VIII, page 517. Engi-
neering problems involved in general lighting and sanitation have been
discussed in the chapters devoted to those subjects respectively. The
subject matter of the present chapter will be chiefly confined to a considera-
tion of the organization and conduct of the engineering division of a park
department.

FUNCTIONS OF ENGINEERING DIVISION

At the risk of repetition it is considered desirable at this point to give
a resume of the functions of an engineering division. William T. Lyle, in
his excellent work on "Parks and Park Engineering," page 17 (published by
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1916), gives the following summary
of the work of an engineering division of a park department:

(a) "Property surveys of lands to be acquired with the accompanying
searches in the office of the recorder of deeds, and the preparation of prop-
erty descriptions to be incorporated in deeds of conveyance prepared by
the counsel or his assistants.

(b) Topographical surveys prepared for the use of the landscape archi-
tect in the preparation of his plans.

(c) Designs of sewer, drainage, water supply and lighting systems,
together with the design of all essential engineering features of walls and
bridges and roadways.

(d) The preparation, letting and supervision of all contracts for con-
struction work. This includes the direction in detail of all construction
operations.

(e) Planting and gardening operations.

(/) The maintenance of the work until it can be turned over to a
superintendent's department, which need not be organized until the work
is well under way or even completed.

(g) The policing of all acquired areas."

In this summary of the functions of the engineering division it is
obvious that Mr. Lyle had in mind the functions of the engineering divi-
sion or department in the preliminary stages or years of the development
of a park system. This is the period or time when the engineering division

618

THE PARK ENGINEERING DIVISION 619

occupies a position of major importance and in fact is practically the entire
executive department. During this period the chief engineer may actually
have charge also of conducting negotiations for the acquisition of the prop-
erties desired for park purposes. And, in case it is necessary to resort to
condemnation proceedings, the engineer must provide the attorney, the court
and the appraisers with all the necessary technical data upon which the
proceedings are conducted.

It is a very important function of the engineering division to keep
careful, detailed accounts of each construction project. Mr. A. C. Godward,
engineer of the Minneapolis Park Department, in an article on "Engineer-
ing in Park Development" (Parks and Recreation, Vol. VI, No. i, September-
October, 1922, pages 26—27), enumerates the following reasons for keeping
careful accounts:

(a) "To guide the work of the field organization in such a way that
the engineer and superintendent will know each day that all work is being
carried out as to schedule; that work is being done economically and within
the limits of the estimates; that quantities of materials being used are such
as comply with the specifications. Only by true and up-to-the-minute
accounts can the progress, efficiency and honesty of public work be main-
tained.

(b) To provide reliable data for the basis of future estimates.

In the preparation and enforcing of contracts and in conducting liti-
gations frequently arising out of construction work, the engineer must pro-
vide the attorney with the necessary technical information to enable him
to prepare and conduct the case or cases intelligently and successfully.
A great deal of such litigation may be avoided if the engineer is himself
thoroughly familiar with the laws governing construction operations and
endeavors to organize and conduct his work accordingly.

RELATION OF THE ENGINEER TO OTHER TECHNICAL EXPERTS

Relation to the landscape architect. In the processes of selection and
development of properties the activities of the engineer are in a measure
subordinate to and under the general supervision of the landscape architect
as the general planner of the system and the designer of individual prop-
erties and of special features in those properties. But at the outset the
services of the engineer are indispensable to the architect in making boundary
surveys and topographical and hydrographical surveys. The preparation
of a map or maps embodying the data of these surveys is the work of the
engineer. The preparation of a general plan map or maps showing the
location of the different types of properties in the system, design maps and

620 PARKS

plans of individual properties and drawings of special features, grading and
planting plans, etc., are the work of the landscape architect. When the
period of construction work arrives the preparation of engineering designs
based upon the plans of the architect, the making of estimates, drafting of
specifications, formulation of contracts, handling of bids, inspection of
supplies and materials and general supervision of labor are functions of the
engineer. If the work is done by day labor the engineer will be directly
concerned with the purchase of supplies, materials, tools, machinery and
employment as well as supervision of labor and the direction of all con-
struction operations. However, in carrying out all grading and planting
plans the engineer will work under the general supervision of the landscape
architect.

Relation to the building architect. The landscape architect is responsible
for the general designs of buildings, gateways, walls, steps and bridges, and
in the case of some of these features he may be responsible for the detailed
plans. But in the case of important buildings and possibly of other struc-
tures the detailed construction plans may be done by a building architect.
In carrying out the actual construction operations the engineer will work
under the general supervision of the building architect.

Relation to other specialists. Lighting and sanitation are special branches
of engineering with which the park engineer may himself be sufficiently
familiar, not only to carry out the construction work but also to prepare
the necessary designs. But in case he is not sufficiently trained in these
branches of engineering it may be necessary to call in specialists in these
fields to prepare the original designs.

METHODS OF HANDLING PARK ENGINEERING IN DIFFERENT COMMUNITIES

IN THE UNITED STATES

There are four methods of handling park engineering in the municipal-
ities and counties of the United States. These may be enumerated as follows:

1. By the general executive when the executive is a technically trained
engineer. A considerable number of park executives or superintendents
are graduates of engineering schools or have had practical experience in
civil engineering. In most of the departments where this is the case the
superintendent, in addition to acting as chief executive of the entire depart-
ment, acts as a chief engineer.

2. By calling in an outside engineer to serve temporarily for making
surveys or to take charge of one or more construction projects. This method
is comparatively rare.

3. By an engineer regularly employed by the park governing authority
and having charge of an engineering division staffed with as many different

THE PARK ENGINEERING DIVISION 621

types of assistants as are deemed necessary. As a rule a regularly employed
engineer and assistants are not found in the municipal and county park
departments of the United States outside of the thirty or forty largest
cities and a few of the most highly developed county park systems, and not
all of these larger cities and counties maintain engineering divisions.

4. By the city or county engineer, as the case may be. This is by far
the most common method of handling park engineering in municipalities
and counties. This is especially true in city manager and commission gov-
erned cities and in practically all villages and small cities where parks are
under the direct control of the city council. This method will in all prob-
ability continue to be the most common practice for the reason that since
the services of an engineer will be needed only periodically the park engi-
neering can be done more economically by utilizing the services of a municipal
or county engineer who is usually permanently employed. Practically every
county has a county engineer and the larger counties have highly developed
engineering departments.

In a few instances in the larger cities and middle class cities one or
more engineers are detailed from the city engineer's office to handle the
park engineering work. Such details serve as permanent workers in the
park department so long as necessary.

ORGANIZATION OF THE ENGINEERING DIVISION

In those park departments maintaining a permanent engineering divi-
sion the personnel usually consists of a chief engineer, one or more assistant
engineers, instrument men, chainmen, rodmen, inspectors, foremen and
laborers. In the preliminary development of a large system a chief gardener
with assistants, a chief of police and patrolmen and other employees may be
included in the organization personnel. For an example of a departmental
organization that is primarily an engineering organization, see the organiza-
tion chart of the Westchester County Park Department, Chapter VIII,
page 525. The following are a few examples of the personnel organization
of engineering divisions in systems maintaining permanent divisions (Sta-
tistics as of 1925-1926): •

EXAMPLE i. POPULATION OF CITY APPROXIMATELY 450,000
PARK AREA APPROXIMATELY 4,800 ACRES

Personnel Number Rate of Pay

Chief engineer I $275 per month

Draftsman 2 $154 to $170 per month

Instrument men 2 $154 to $170 per month

Rodmen I $4 to £5 per day

Inspectors i $125 to #150 per month

Laborers 46 £5 per day

Clerk I £170 per month

622 PARKS

In addition, two rodmen, one inspector, 14 foremen and 179 laborers
were employed on part time at the same rates of pay for the full time
employees respectively.

EXAMPLE 2. POPULATION OF CITY APPROXIMATELY 800,000

AREA OF PARKS APPROXIMATELY 2,700 ACRES

Personnel Number Rate of Pay

Chief engineer I $3,000 to $3,200 per year

Assistant engineer 2 $2,100 to $2,300 per year

Draftsman I $i, 800 per year

Draftsman and transit man i $1,700 to $i, 800 per year

Transit men I $1,700 per year

1 $2,000 per year
Rodmen n

Engineers in charge 15 $36 to $39 per week

Inspectors I chief $2,000 per year

2 assistants $1,800 per year

EXAMPLE 3. POPULATION OF CITY APPROXIMATELY 800,000

PARK AREA APPROXIMATELY 3,000 ACRES

Personnel Number Rate of Pay

Superintendent of construction I $2,700 per year

Architect I $2,760 per year

Draftsman I $2,460 per year

Instrument men 2 each $1,680 per year

Head shop foreman I $2,280 per year

Automobile mechanics 2 $0.90 per hour

Blacksmith I $1.00 per hour

Blacksmith helper 2 $0.80 per hour

Carpenter foreman I $1.715 per year

Carpenters 5 $1.50 per year

Painter foreman I $1.42^ per hour

Painters 5 $1.30 per hour

Cement finisher foreman I $1.62^ per hour

Cement finisher i $1.50 per hour

Concreters 4 $0.87^ per hour

Foremen 4 each $i, 800 per year

Laborers 59 $3-5° to #4-4° per day

Truck drivers 6 $130 per month

In this city the department is known as the construction department
and obviously includes employees used in maintenance work.

EXAMPLE 4. POPULATION OF CITY APPROXIMATELY 900,000

PARK AREA APPROXIMATELY 2,500 ACRES

Personnel Number Rate of Pay

Engineer I $2,100 per year

Rodman 2 each $1,260 per year

Chainman I $821 per year

In this city the chief executive and his chief assistant are engineers.

THE PARK ENGINEERING DIVISION 623

EXAMPLE 5. POPULATION OF CITY APPROXIMATELY 350,000

PARK AREA APPROXIMATELY 2,570 ACRES

Personnel Number Rate of Pay

Engineer I $3,600 per year

Draftsman i $2,400 per year

Office draftsman I $i,5°° per year

Rodmen 3 $1,200 to $1,800 per year

Inspectors 2 $1,200 to $1,800 per year

Foremen i chief $2,272 per year

I $1,800 per year

Shop foreman I $1,872 per year

Storekeeper I $1,800 per year

Assistant storekeeper I $1,200 per year

Laborers 75 $3.50 to $4.80 per day

Obviously certain employees are carried in the engineering division
who might properly be classified in the maintenance division.

EXAMPLE 6. POPULATION OF CITY APPROXIMATELY 375,000

PARK AREA APPROXIMATELY 3,240 ACRES

Personnel Number Rate of Pay

Engineer I $3,000 per year

Draftsman 3 I at $3,000 per year

2 at $1,960 per year, each

Instrument man I $1,960 per year

Inspectors 4 #5-3° Per day

EXAMPLE 7. POPULATION OF CITY APPROXIMATELY 500,000

AREA OF PARKS APPROXIMATELY 3,500 ACRES

Personnel Number Rate of Pay

Engineers 5 $2,000 to $4,400 per year

Draftsmen 4 $2, 100 average per year

Instrument men 4 $1,800 per year

Rodmen 4 $3-44 Per day

Inspector I $2,100 per year

Foremen and laborers 6 $3.04 per day

Employed part time, 15 rodmen at $3.44 per day, and 15 laborers at
$3.04 per day.

RECORDS

Some of the records arising out of the engineering operations of a park
department, aside from employment records, payrolls and other records
common to the department as a whole, include (i) plans; (2) field books;
(3) estimates; (4) cost records; (5) land plats; (6) engineering correspondence
and catalogues. The usefulness of these records is greatly enhanced by a
proper system of filing. This should be done in such a manner that any
particular record can be found without loss of time. It is very desirable
that filing receptacles for maps, plans, land plats and similar material be
as nearly dust and soot proof as possible. The following is the method of

624 PARKS

filing engineering records employed in one of the most highly organized
park departments in this country:

"Tracings are filed in Beck Wall Files. Sizes from 8>^ x n to 36 x 42
inches. Larger tracings are rolled and filed into pigeonholes. The plans
have a colored card index, the color denoting whether they are tracings,
negatives, prints or working drawings. Tracings are numbered thus:
C-E-I42; 'C' indicating the case, 'E' the envelope in the case and
'142' the number of the tracing. One size tracings are numbered consecu-
tively. Negatives bear the same number as the tracing but are placed in
the envelope following and marked with exponent '2' as C-E2-I42. Like-
wise the prints, only they bear the exponent 3, as C-E3-I42. The working
drawings are similarly marked and placed in envelopes near the back of
the file.

Field records are kept in regular surveying books which are numbered.
These are also recorded on a colored card index, the colors denoting land
surveys; topography and soundings; bench marks; grading and sewers,
walks and curbing.

Land record plats are drawn to such a scale that they can be put on a
20 x 3O-inch sheet. These are numbered and put into a loose leaf book,
which has an index on the fly leaf. These plats show the property lines with
the distances, angles and curves. They are colored different shades of green
according to the time they were acquired. Proposed acquisitions are shown
in pink. A copy of the deeds to the property are put in a loose leaf book.
The plans show the time of designation, awards, street vacations, when
and what named, the play recorded, the survey made, the monument set
and the area in acres. Also the number and page of the copy of the deed
is recorded on the plan.

Estimates are filed in a regular vertical letter file under separate parks,
as they are typed on regular 8>^ x I i-inch paper. Cost data are kept in a
loose leaf book separated according to class of work instead of different
parks, like the plans and field books. One part of the book is set aside for
pavements, under which there are two classifications, namely, base and
surface. Likewise, colored cement work which is divided into walks, curbing
and steps."

There are several different methods followed by engineers in park
departments in filing maps, plans, etc. Among these are:

i. Large cabinet divided into pigeonholes of varying sizes into which
the rolled records are placed without any protective covering. Such a case
may or may not have doors. Unless the pigeonholes are deep enough to
receive the full length of the drawings it would, of course, be impossible
to use doors. Doors are very desirable, however, for the double purpose of
keeping out dust and soot and preventing the records from being disturbed
by unauthorized persons. A tag bearing the number of the record is fastened
to the record in such a manner that it is always visible when the record is

THE PARK ENGINEERING DIVISION 625

in place, and in addition the number may be pasted on the partition wall
of the pigeonhole either above or below.

2. A cabinet similar to the above with the drawings enclosed in cartons
with metal tops, the number of the drawing or drawings being posted on
the metal caps. This method is especially commendable because it ensures
absolute cleanliness of the records.

3. A large case or cabinet having a number of shallow drawers into
which the record may be filed flat. The chief advantage of this method is
that the records are easily handled, being always unrolled. Unless, however,
a very large case or several cases are provided, it is very difficult to segregate
the records in such a manner as to facilitate the finding of a particular
record. The number of each record is usually printed in prominent letters
on the lower right-hand corner, and a list of the records in each drawer
may be posted on the front of the drawer. For cross reference purposes
each drawer may also be given a letter or a number. This method of filing
does not protect the topmost record from becoming very dirty unless a
sheet of paper or a cloth the size of the inside of the drawer is kept constantly
on top therein.

4. A cabinet similar to the above is sometimes used except that the
drawers are deeper and the records are rolled and placed in the drawers.
This is the least desirable form of filing because of the difficulty of finding
any particular record desired.

5. In park offices where the engineering records are not very numerous,
an upright cabinet with a lid opening outward so that it can serve as a
table is sometimes used. Inside are a number of clamps into which the
records are fastened and suspended vertically in the cabinet. Each record
bears a number, and an index of the records may be posted on the inside
of the lid.

6. Another type of filing cabinet is sometimes used which from the
outside has the appearance of a large drawer cabinet turned on end. Each
one of the upright compartments is suspended on a roller bearing appliance
which permits ease of movement outward and inward. On either side of
each compartment is arranged a series of V-shaped receptacles into which
the rolled records are placed. Each record bears a tag showing its number
and on the outside of each compartment is an index of all the records in
that particular compartment.

These various types of filing cabinets may be of metal or wood. While
the steel cabinets would not preserve the records during an intense fire,
they do ensure a measure of protection against fire not possessed by wood.
In connection with any of the different methods of filing this type of record,
a cross reference card index system is absolutely essential to keeping track
of the records.

626 PARKS

With respect to field notes, some park engineers use a loose leaf system
of keeping such records. While this has some advantages over the ordinary
bound surveying books, there is always danger of the leaves being misplaced
or lost entirely.

METHODS OF PROCEDURE IN HANDLING CONSTRUCTION WORK

The various steps in handling construction work in parks may include:

1. Decision by the park governing authority that it is desirable to
undertake a given construction project or a series of projects.

2. The governing authority must know something of the probable
cost or costs and calls on the engineer to make the necessary surveys, plans
and estimates and a detailed report.

3. If the money is not available the governing authority must go before
the proper municipal or county fiscal authorities, present the plans and the
estimates and ask for the necessary appropriations or for the issuance of
bonds. This may involve a public campaign of education and a popular
election to vote on the issuance of bonds, or an appeal to the legislature
for authority to conduct an election. If the project can be financed from
current revenues the governing authority can, of course, proceed at once
to the execution of the project.

4. When the money is available the governing authority must decide
whether the park department will carry out the project by day labor through
its own engineering division or by contract. Sometimes this decision is left
to the engineer.

A great deal has been said and written as to the respective merits of
performing park construction work by day labor or contracts. Certainly
a small park system will find it more economical to use the contract method
for the reason that it could not afford to assemble, organize and direct the
necessary labor force and purchase the tools and equipment to carry out
a project of any considerable size. Even a large system that is so far devel-
oped as to have only occasionally a large construction project will find it
cheaper to resort to the contract method. It is only in the beginning of
large systems, where there is a great deal of heavy construction work to
be done which may extend over a period of several years, or in the extension
of a system involving similar conditions, or in an exceedingly large system
where construction problems of considerable importance are continually
arising, that a department is warranted, economically, in building up a labor
and supervisory force and investing in the necessary tools, equipment mate-
rials, supplies. On the other hand, in either small or large systems, construc-
tion work such as garden operations — smoothing topsoil, preparation for
planting and planting — can usually be done more satisfactorily by day labor.

THE PARK ENGINEERING DIVISION 627

Where the volume of construction work is large enough to warrant
a park department's equipping itself to carry on construction projects by
day labor, a fundamental requisite of success is absolute freedom to select
and discharge its employees at will. Political influence which causes the
employment and retention of inefficient men is sure to cause the loss of all
the gains that a department might make over the contract system in quality
of work and in saving the profit of the contractor. A few park departments
maintain a construction division or department which takes under its juris-
diction all minor construction work which ordinarily would fall under the
jurisdiction of a maintenance division. This method enables the holding
together of at least the skeleton of a construction organization which can
easily be augmented when large projects arise. While many park depart-
ments favor the day labor system of performing park engineering projects,
on the whole, any form of park engineering which requires a large labor
force and the use of elaborate equipment can best be done under the contract
method.

5. When a park governing authority has decided on the contract
method the contract may be let either under the lump-sum system or the
unit system. Under the former system one bid only is asked for the entire
project and the contract is let to a single contractor. Under this system
the estimates must be very exact and the amount of work to be done should
be fully and accurately known beforehand. Definiteness in such cases
forestalls the possibility of difficulty with the contractor over extras. This
is a desirable system of handling a project if the project is comparatively
simple in its elements and does not involve construction features requiring
different kinds of technical skills.

Under the unit system the project is divided into units; for example,
in the case of the construction of a building bids might be asked for general
construction, heating and ventilating, plumbing, electrical work, or in the
case of the development of a given area of ground bids may be asked for
grading, excavations, sewers, cast iron, roadways, etc., or in the case of the
construction of a group of park buildings bids may be asked for general
construction, electric wiring and lighting fixtures, plumbing, sewers, water
supply and gas fitting, marble work and terrazzo floors, roofing and sheet
metal work, steam heating installation and equipment, and heat insulating.
Under this system an individual bid is asked for each element of the project.
This system is more elastic than the lump-sum system and it is not so
absolutely necessary for the engineer to be as accurate and complete in his
estimates beforehand.

6. Advertisement. When the park governing authority is ready to
ask bids for a given piece of construction work an advertisement is inserted

628

PARKS

in the official city paper, if there is one, in one or more of the daily or weekly
papers and sometimes in technical journals. This is usually done from ten
days to two weeks before the time for the submission of bids. We give an
example of such an advertisement used by the Board of Park Commissioners

of the South Park District, Chicago, in
connection with the construction of cer-
tain bridges.

The essential elements of this adver-
tisement may be enumerated as follows:

(a) Statement as to time and place of
receiving proposals, nature of the work
to be done and where prospective bidders
can secure copies of the specifications.

(b) Conditions under which bidders may
be allowed possession of copies of the
specifications and plans or the use of the
plans, (c) Conditions under which pro-
posals may be submitted, (d) Responsi-
bility of the successful bidder, (e) In-
structions as to how the proposals shall
be submitted, (f) Reservation by the
park governing authority of the right to
reject any or all bids.

7. The proposal. After the contrac-
tor has carefully examined the specifica-
tions, plans and the conditions under
which the contract is to be executed, per-
haps including also a personal examina-
tion of the site where the work is to be
done, he prepares on a form provided by
the park authority a proposal embodying
a statement of the amount or amounts of
money for which he will perform the work, accepting the conditions im-
posed by the park governing authority and binding himself, if his bid is
accepted, to enter into a contract for the faithful performance of the work.
The proposal is generally accompanied by a surety bond approved either
by the attorney of the park governing authority or by the city attorney.
On the opposite page is a form of proposal used by the Board of Park
Commissioners of Milwaukee.

8. Consideration of bids and awarding of contract. On the day set for
receiving or opening the bids the park authority, generally and preferably

COPY OF ADVERTISEMENT

BY
SOUTH PARK COMMISSIONERS

FOR

SEALED PROPOSALS FOR FOUNDATION
WORK AND STRUCTURAL STEEL WORK FOR
THE BRIDGES NORTH OF TWELFTH STREET,

CHICAGO

Sealed proposals will be received by the South Park
Commissioners, 5 7th Street and Cottage Grove Avenue,
Chicago, Illinois, until 12.00 noon, September 2, 1925,
for doing all the work, to sink caissons, drive piles, con-
struct the abutments for six bridges, furnish and erect
the structural steel for two bridges and furnish and
erect sub-columns and bearing boxes for four bridges,
all to be constructed over the Illinois Central Railroad
at Jackson Street, Van Buren Street, Congress Street,
Harrison Street and Seventh Street, Chicago, Illinois,
in accordance with the drawings and specifications en-
titled " Bridges North of Twelfth Street," prepared by
the South Park Commissioners. Copies of these speci-
fications, including bidding sheets and plans, may be
obtained at the office of the South Park Commissioners,
57th Street and Cottage Grove Avenue.

No separate bids will be received on any of this work,
the instructions being to award the whole work to one
contractor. Only bids from those of record in the office
of the South Park Commissioners as having received
specifications will be considered.

Two copies of specifications and one set of plans will
be furnished to each prospective bidder upon applica-
tion and the deposit of #50, which deposit will be re-
funded upon return of plans in an unmutilated and
serviceable condition. Bidding blanks to be used will
be found in specifications. Facilities will be provided
for preliminary examination of plans by bidders who
may not desire to remove the plans from the office.

A deposit to the amount of five per cent (5%) of the
aggregate amount of the highest proposal named in the
submitted bid, either in currency or certified check
payable to the South Park Commissioners, must accom-
pany proposals as a guarantee of the good faith of
bidder.

The successful bidder will be required to enter into
a contract and give a surety bond of twenty-five per
cent (25%) of amount of contract.

All proposals must be placed in a sealed envelope,
plainly marked as stated below, which envelope will
delivered to the secretary of the South Park Com-
nissioners, 57th Street and Cottage Grove Avenue,
Before the time limit stated above.

The envelope shall be marked as follows:

"Proposal for construction of bridges north of
Twelfth Street."

The South Park Commissioners reserve the right to
reject any or all proposals.

E. J. WHITTY, Secretary,
South Park Commissioners.
August 2, 1925.

THE PARK ENGINEERING DIVISION 629

To the BOARD OF PARK COMMISSIONERS,
of the City of Milwaukee.

e, vvis.,

I, the subscriber, do hereby propose to furnish all material and do the work according to plans
and specifications on file in the office of the Board of Park Commissioners, of

agreeably to the tsrms of your advertisement inviting proposals for such work, and pledge myself to
enter into a written contract with THE CITY OF MILWAUKEE, with satisfactory sureties for the
performance of the same.

(Name)

(Address)

DIRECTIONS TO BIDDERS

Bids must be put in separate sealed envelope, which, together with the bond must be put in a second envelope, directed to
the Board of Park Commissioners, and endorsed With the name of Bidder and nature of work.

Bond must be approved by the City. Attorney BEFORE placing same in the envelope.

All bids to be accompanied with a bond to the City of Milwaukee, in such pena! sum as may be stated in the advertisement
Of the particular work to be bid on, and which bond must be signed by the bidder and two or more sureties, which sureties must
each make an affidavi* that he is worth the penal sum of the bond over and above all his debts and liabilities, in property in the
City of Milwaukee, subject to execution. This affidavit may be made before any officer qualified to administer oaths.

Surety Company bonds will also be accepted.

No bids will be received after the hour advertised — and no bids can be withdrawn, changsd or amended after that hour.

in open session, causes the bids to be opened and read by the secretary.
The usual rule is to accept the lowest bid or bids if the bidder is a respon-
sible contractor. The park authority, however, always reserves the right
to reject any or all bids. The rejection of the lowest bid may be caused by
the belief of the park authority that the lowest bidder is not qualified to
carry out the work successfully or the bid may be greatly in excess of the
lowest estimate of the park engineer. If the rejection is caused by the belief
that the lowest bidder cannot successfully perform the work the contract
may be awarded to the next lowest bidder, etc. Usually the contract is
awarded the same day the bids are considered, although final decision may
be deferred several days in order to give the park authority time to investi-
gate the standing of the lowest bidder, if this standing is not fully known,
or to give time to make additional estimates.

9. The agreement or contract. After a bid has been accepted the suc-
cessful bidder is required within a specified time, usually ten days, to enter

630 PARKS

into a formal contract with the park governing authority and often with
the city or county as a third party. This contract embodies the bid or bids,
the general conditions under which the work is to be conducted and includes
all plans and specifications proper, together with acceptable individual or
surety bonds provided by the contractor for the faithful performance of
his duties and responsibilities under the agreement. Sometimes a main-
tenance bond is required in addition, binding the contractor to make good
any deficiencies that may appear in his work for a given number of years,
ranging usually from one to three years. Contracts are usually drawn in
conformity with state laws regulating the letting of contracts for public
work in municipalities or counties as the case may be.

The following is an example of the form of agreement used by the
Board of Park Commissioners of Milwaukee:

ARTICLES OF AGREEMENT, made this day of

in the year , by and between

of the City of Milwaukee, part of the first part:

and .'

party or parties of the second part; and the City of Milwaukee, party of the third part.

Whereas, the said party of the first part has made a proposal in writing to the Board of Park Commis-
sioners of the City of Milwaukee, to furnish the materials and do the work hereinafter mentioned for the said
City of Milwaukee, for the price and within the time hereinafter mentioned, and according to the plans and
specifications thereof on file in the office of the said Board of Park Commissioners, and the said Board has
awarded the said work to the said party of the first part according to law;

Now, therefore, the said party of the first part, for and in consideration of the payments hereinafter pro-
vided, for himself, his heirs, executors and administrators, or for itself, its successors and assigns, as the case
may be, hereby covenants and agrees to and with the said City of Milwaukee, to well and truly execute and
perform the said work and furnish the said material under the superintendence of the said Board of Park Com-
missioners, for the said price, and within the said time, and according to the said plans and specifications, that
is to say:

And the said party of the first part hereby further covenants and agrees to and with the said City of Mil-
waukee to complete the said work in manner and form aforesaid on or before the time above specified.

And it is hereby mutually agreed between the said parties hereto, that the said Board of Park Commissioners
shall have the right and power, and the same is hereby reserved to said Board, to adjust and determine finally
all questions:

First, as to the proper performance of these presents and the doing of the said work by the said party of the
first part, and in case of the improper or imperfect performance thereof, to suspend the said work at any time,
or to order the entire reconstruction of the same, if improperly done, or to relet the same to some other com-
petent party, and in case the said work shall not be prosecuted with such diligence and with such number of
men as to ensure its completion within the time limited by these presents, to suspend the said work and relet the
same to some other competent party, or employ men and secure material for the completion of the same, and
charge the cost thereof to the party of the first part; and

Second, as to the amount earned under these presents by the party of the first part according to the true
intent and meaning thereof.

And it is further mutually agreed, that any and every such adjustment and determination by the said Board
of Park Commissioners shall be final and conclusive between the said parties to these presents, and binding
upon them. And that if, upon any such adjustment or determination by the said Board of Park Commissioners,
the damages to be paid to the said city according thereto, should exceed the amount due from the said city to
the said party of the first part according thereto, then and in that case the said parties of the first and second
parts, for themselves, and for their heirs, executors and administrators, or successors and assigns, as the case

THE PARK ENGINEERING DIVISION 631

may be, hereby jointly and severally covenant and agree to pay the same to the said City of Milwaukee on demand.

And it is further mutually agreed between the said parties hereto, that in case the said party of the first
part shall, in the performance of this contract, dig up, use or occupy any street, alley, highway or public grounds
of said city, the said party of the first part will, during the night time, put up and maintain such barriers and
lights as will effectually prevent the happening of any accident in consequence of such digging up, use or occu-
pancy of said street, alley, highway or other public grounds, for which the city might be liable, and the said parties
of the first and second parts, for themselves and for their heirs, executors and administrators, or successors and
assigns, as the case may be, hereby jointly and severally covenant and agree, that they shall, and they do
hereby assume the liability for, and will pay on demand, any and all damages occasioned by the digging up, use
or occupancy of said street, alley, highway or public grounds by the party ol the first part, or which may result
therefrom, or which may result from the carelessness of said party of the first part, or the agents, employees or
workmen of said party of the first part.

And it is further mutually agreed that, in case the said party of the first part shall proceed properly to per-
form and complete this contract, the Board of Park Commissioners may, in its discretion, from time to time as
the work progresses, grant to the party of the first part an estimate of the amount already earned — reserving
fifteen per cent thereon — which shall entitle the holder thereof to receive the amount due thereon, when the
amount applicable to the payment of such work shall have been collected, and the condition, if any, annexed
to such estimate shall have been complied with. The granting of any such estimate shall not be construed as an
acceptance of the work or any portion thereof.

And the said City of Milwaukee, in consideration of the covenants of the parties of the first and second
parts herein contained, hereby covenants and agrees, that upon the completion of said work by the said party
of the first part, pursuant to the terms of this contract, and according to the plans and specifications of said work
on file in the office of the said Board of Park Commissioners, and the true intent and meaning of this contract,
and after the acceptance of said work by the said Board of Park Commissioners, the said city will pay to the
said party of the first part any balance then remaining due and payable by the terms of this contract for said
work, when the amount applicable to the payment of said work shall have been collected.

And the said party of the first part hereby agrees to pay all claims for work and labor performed and
materials furnished under this contract.

And the parties of the first and second parts hereby agree that default, neglect or delay of other contractors,
or the extension of time by the City of Milwaukee for the completion of work by any other contractors, shall
not render the City of Milwaukee liable to said parties of the first and second parts in any manner or sum
whatsoever; that no assignment, subletting, alteration, or modification of this contract, or change in the work
covered thereby, nor any extension of time for the completion of the work of this contract, nor any default,
neglect or delay of any other contractors upon the same public improvement, nor the extension of the time to
such other contractors for the completion of the work by such other contractors, shall in any way release the prin-
cipal, surety or sureties, their heirs, executors, administrators, successors or assigns from full liability under this
contract, notice of any such alteration, modification or assignment, the subletting or extension of time on this
contract, or the default, neglect, delay or extension of time on any other contract, being hereby expressly
waived by the contractor and surety or sureties herein.

And it is hereby mutually agreed that the said party of the first part shall not assign this contract, or any
interest therein, nor sublet the said work, or any part thereof, without the consent in writing of the said Board
of Park Commissioners first obtained; and that if the said party of the first part shall so assign or sublet, without
such consent, then the said Board of Park Commissioners shall have the right, in its discretion, to rescind this
contract and to declare the same null and void, or to relet the said work to some other competent party; there-
upon adjusting and determining the damages to the said city arising thereby; and the said party of the first
part shall be liable to the said city for such damages as the said Board of Park Commissioners shall so adjust
and determine, which adjustment and determination thereof shall be final and conclusive on the parties hereto.

And the said party or parties of the second part, in consideration of the letting of this contract to said party
of the first part, for itself, its successors and assigns, or for themselves, their heirs, executors and administrators,
as the case may be, hereby guarantee and covenant and agree to and with the said City of Milwaukee, that the
said party of the first part shall and will well and truly execute and perform this contract under the superin-
tendence and to the satisfaction of said Board of Park Commissioners, and that the said party or parties of the
second part will well and truly pay on demand to the said City of Milwaukee, any and all damages, and sums
of money, which the said party of the first part shall be liable to pay to the said city under this contract or any
clause or agreement therein.

And the said parties of the first and second parts, in consideration of the premises, for themselves, and for
their heirs, executors and administrators, or successors and assigns, as the case may be, further covenant and

632 PARKS

agree, that they will well and truly save and indemnify and keep harmless, the said City of Milwaukee, against
all liabi'ity, judgments, costs and expenses, which may in any wise come against said city in consequence of the
granting of this contract to the said party of the first part, or which may in any wise result from the carelessness
or neglect of the said party of the first part, or the agents, employees or workmen of said party of the first part,
in any respect whatever, and in every such case whe-e judgment is recovered against the city by reason of the
carelessness or negligence of such person, persons, firm or corporation so contracting, or his, their or its agents,
employees or workmen, and when due notice has been given of the pendency of such suit, such judgment shall
be conclusive against such person, persons, firm or corporation, and his, or their, or its sureties on such bond,
not only as to the amount of damages, but as to their liability to said city, and that in case the said party of the
first part shall fail to fully and completely perform this contract within the time herein limited for the perform-
ance thereof, they shall and will pay to the said City of Milwaukee, as liquidated damages for such default, the

sum of

dollars per day for each and every day's delay in completing said contract, after the expiration of the time herein
limited for its completion.

The Board of Park Commissioners may extend the time for the performance of this contract without the
consent of the surety or sureties herein.

This contract is, by consent of all parties hereto, made expressly subject to all the provisions of Chapter 261
of the laws passed at the session of the legislature of Wisconsin in the year 1882, entitled "An Act to Amend
Chapter 332 of the Laws of 1878, entitled an Act to P-otect Laborers and Material Men in the City of Milwaukee."

And it is hereby agreed and declared that this contract is made expressly subject to the powers given to
said Board of Park Commissioners by Chapter 179 of the laws of the State of Wisconsin of the year 1891, and
all subsequent amendments thereto.

The party of the first part hereby agreed to pay all claims for work and labor performed, and materials
furnished for, or in, or about or under this contract, and to comply and be subject to the ordinances of the City
of Milwaukee and all subsequent amendments thereto and to ordinances and resolutions relating to a prevailing
minimum wage scale and hours of labor of laborers and skilled laborers employed by contractors and sub-con-
tractors on all public work.

The contractor and sureties hereby further agree for themselves, their heirs, executors, administrators, suc-
cessors, or assigns, as the case may be, to procure and maintain at their own expense, insurance insuring against
all liability under the Workmen's Compensation Law of Wisconsin and to comply with all the terms and pro-
visions of said law, and also to indemnify and save harmless the City of Milwaukee against any and all costs,
expense or liability of any kind that may be incurred by said city because of any injuries or occupational disease
sustained by any employee or employees of the contractor.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the said parties of the first and second parts hereunto set their hands and
seals, and the said City of Milwaukee has caused these presents to be subscribed by the said Board of Park Com-
missioners, the day and the year first above written, and countersigned by the Comptroller of said city.

[SEAL]

....[SEAL)

Sealed and delivered in presence of

.[SEAL]
.[SEAL]
.[SEAL]

Park Commissioners

_ Countersigned this day of

Comptroller.

STATE OF WISCONSIN 1
County of Milwaukee J

of the City of Milwaukee, being severally duly sworn, severally say and each for himself saith that he is the person
of that name who signed the above and foregoing contract as surety, that he is the owner of real estate in the
County of Milwaukee, over and above all incumbrances and subject to execution, of a cash value equal to the

THE PARK ENGINEERING DIVISION 633

•sum of

•dollars, and that he is worth said sum over and above all his debts and liabilities, in property in said county,

subject to execution.

Note (Sureties sign here before swearing).

Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of

My commission expires

Notary Public, Milwaukee County, Wis.

The following is a part of the form of a contract executed by a contrac-
tor with the Board of Park Commissioners and the City Council of Kansas
City, Missouri, for the construction of certain concrete sidewalks. Particular
attention is called to the number of signatures to this contract, including
not only the contractor and the board of park commissioners but also a
representative, respectively, of the city counselor's office, city comptroller's
office, office of the board of park commissioners and the city clerk's office.

APPROXIMATE ESTIMATE

Sidewalk square feet

BOARD OF PARK COMMISSIONERS OF KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI

RESOLUTION No

CONTRACT FOR CONSTRUCTING CONCRETE SIDEWALK
on side of

from

THIS CONTRACT, made and entered into this day of 19 ,

by and between

as principal and party of the first part, whose address is

Kansas City, Missouri, and

.as sureties, parties of the second part, and KANSAS CITY, party of the third part.

Witnessed: That whereas, the said party of the first part is the lowest and best bidder for making the follow-
ing city improvements, viz.:

Constructing and guaranteeing for a period of three (3) years, concrete sidewalk on

side of

from

Now, therefore, the said party of the first part hereby agrees and binds himself, his heirs, executors, adminis-
trators and assigns, itself and its successors and assigns, to furnish all the material and do all the work necessary
to complete the said improvements within the time provided for in this contract, according to plans and speci-
iications for said improvement adopted, perfected and approved by the Board of Park Commissioners on the

day of , 19 , by Resolution No and on file

in the office of said Board, which said plans and specifications are hereto attached, and made a part of this con-
tract, and to the satisfaction and acceptance of the Board of Park Commissioners of Kansas City. And the

634 PARKS

said party of the first part does hereby guarantee that the work herein mentioned shall be constructed with such
materials and in such manner that the same shall endure without the need of any repairs for a period of three
(3) years from and after the completion and acceptance of the same, without further compensation than that
provided for in this contract for the first cost of said work, and the acceptance of the work done hereunder and
the issue of special tax bills in payment therefor shall not be held to prevent the maintenance of an action on
the contractor's bond for failure to construct said work with such materials and in such manner that the same
shall endure without the need of any repairs for the required period.

Terms "contractor" and "superintendent of parks." Whenever the term "contractor" or pronoun in place
thereof occurs in this agreement, it is understood to mean the party or parties of the first part to this contract.
And whenever the term "board of park commissioners" or "superintendent of parks" occurs, it is understood
to mean the Board of Park Commissioners of Kansas City or Superintendent of Parks of Kansas City, respectively.

Manner of prosecution. The work herein contemplated shall be commenced at such point or points, and
prosecuted in such manner and with such force as the board of park commissioners may direct.

Detention. No additional time to that stated in this contract for the beginning or completion of the work
shall be allowed except for reasons that shall appear sufficient to the common council, in which case the additional
time to be allowed shall be fixed by an ordinance of the city, after being approved by the board of park
commissioners.

Workmen. The contractor shall employ only competent foremen and skilled laborers, and shall promptly
discharge any man or men who refuse to obey the orders of the superintendent of parks or his authorized agent,
or who are considered by him incompetent or disorderly.

Assignment of contract. The contractor shall not transfer this contract without the approval of the board
of park commissioners and the common council. No transfer shall, under any circumstances, relieve the contractor
of his liabilities and obligations under this contract.

Precautions. The contractor shall put up and maintain sufficient lights at night, suitable barricades, and
take any other and all precautions to guard against damage or injury to person or property, and shall interfere
as little as practicable with the use of said boulevard.

Grade. The term "grade" used in the specifications hereto attached is understood to refer to and indicate
the legally established grade of the boulevard, parkway, road, street, avenue or alley.

Price includes. The price per square foot of sidewalk, as hereinafter mentioned, includes and is in full com-
pensation for all the labor, material, tools or supplies of whatever nature that are employed or used in the
prosecution, construction, preservation, or are in any manner whatsoever stated, implied or involved in the
proper execution and protection of the work herein contemplated, according to the terms and conditions of this
contract and specifications.

Inspector. The superintendent of parks may appoint an inspector or other subordinate who shall represent
him on this work, and any orders such inspector may give relative to any detail of the work shall have the same
force and effect as if given by the superintendent of parks in person.

Plans and specifications. The plans and specifications on file in the office of the board of park commissioners
relating to the work herein contemplated, and all plans which may be made subsequent to the date of this con-
tract, of an explanatory nature thereto, are understood to be a part of this contract and specifications.

The quantity, the aggregate cost of the work and the amount due the contractor for work done under this
contract according to the price named herein shall be determined by the board of park commissioners. This
amount, less any and all deductions which the board of park commissioners is empowered or instructed to make
in accordance with the terms of this contract and specifications, shall, in the event of the faithful performance
and due acceptance of the work, constitute the whole amount due under this contract for which special tax bills
shall be issued according to law on the completion and acceptance of the work.

All materials and workmanship used in the work contemplated in this contract shall be subject to the
inspection of the superintendent of parks, and his decision as to what conforms to the specifications shall be
final and conclusive on all parties, and any work which he shall decide to be defective shall be removed, rebuilt
or made good by the contractor at his own cost. All condemned materials shall be immediately removed from
the vicinity of the work.

Failure or neglect on the part of the superintendent of parks to condemn or reject bad or inferior material
or workmanship shall not be construed to. imply an acceptance of any work. The work herein specified to be
done is not to be considered as finally accepted until the special tax bills are issued for the same, and the issue
of special tax bills in payment therefor shall be considered an acceptance thereof by the board of park commis-
sioners and the said city.

The contractor shall protect from damage, caused by the negligence of himself, his agents, officers, employees,
or associates, all gas and other pipes, and lamp posts, and property of public utility companies, and shall reset

THE PARK ENGINEERING DIVISION 635

and rebuild to proper line and grade and repair any sidewalks, curbing, guttering or catch basins in accordance
with the specifications for constructing such sidewalks, curbing, guttering or catch basins that may become
damaged or displaced at any time during the progress of the work, and he shall protect from damage all property
of the city.

Cleaning up and repairing damages. Upon completion of each block in length of the work herein contem-
plated, the contractor shall immediately remove all materials, earth, stones and rubbish of every kind from the
boulevard, and any damage or injury done to private or public property along the boulevard by the contractor,
and any damage to any property of the city shall be made good by him, before the acceptance of the work.

GENERAL STIPULATIONS

// is further expressly agreed between the parties hereto that this contract is made subject to the conditions
and stipulations which follow, viz.:

1. The first party shall commence work at such points as the board of park commissioners may direct, and
shall conform to its directions as to the order of time in which the different parts of the work shall be done, as
well as to all its other instructions as to the mode of doing the same.

2. Whenever the contractor is not present on the work, orders will be given to the superintendents or over-
seers in immediate charge thereof, and shall by them be received and obeyed; and if any person employed in the
work shall refuse or neglect to obey the instructions of the board of park commissioners or its duly authorized
agents, in any way relating to the work, or shall appear to the superintendent of parks to be incompetent, dis-
orderly or unfaithful, he shall, upon the requisition of the superintendent of parks, be at once discharged and
not again employed on any part of the work.

3. Any work not herein specified, which may be fairly implied as included in this contract, of which the
board of park commissioners shall be the judge, shall be done by the first party without extra charge.

4. The work embraced in this contract shall be begun within ( ) days after

this contract binds and takes effect, and shall be prosecuted regularly and uninterruptedly thereafter (unless
the said board of park commissioners directs otherwise in writing), with such force as to secure the full completion

of all the work embraced in this contract within ( ) calendar days from the date

of its confirmation, and if the contractor shall fail to complete the work embraced in this contract within the
time above specified, an amount equal to the sum of fifteen dollars ($15.00) per day for each and every day there-
after until such completion shall be deducted as liquidated damages for such breach of this contract from the
amount of the final estimate of such work.

And no extension of the time hereinbefore provided for the completion of said work, granted by said third
party at the request or upon the petition of the contractor, shall be held or taken as a waiver of the right to
deduct the sum of fifteen dollars ($15.00) per day as liquidated damages aforesaid for each and every day said
contract shall remain uncompleted after the time provided in such extension for completion of said work.

5. If, in the opinion of the board of park commissioners, the first party, at any time during the progress
of the work, is not prosecuting the work with sufficient force to insure its completion within the time specified
in this contract, it may notify the first party to employ such additional force as it deems sufficient; and on the
failure of said first party to comply with such notice within three (3) days after its delivery, the board of park
commissioners may, at its option, declare this contract annulled. But such declaration annulling the contract
must be confirmed and ratified by ordinance before having any force or effect.

And the power is reserved to the board of park commissioners by Kansas City to suspend or annul this con-
tract, or to suspend the doing of any work thereunder at any time for any failure on the part of the first part
to fulfil! the same, or for other good cause; and any action of the board of park commissioners in suspending or
annulling this contract, or suspending the doing of the work thereunder, and its decision as to the existence of
cause or reason for such annulment or suspension, shall be conclusive as to the existence of such cause or reason
in any controversy or litigation between the parties hereto, or others claiming under them. If this contract be
so suspended or annulled, the said first party shall not be entitled to anything on account of damages thereby,
nor shall such annulment or suspension in anywise affect the right of said Kansas City to damages and penalties
claimed by it on account of the failure of said first party. But said abatement or annulment, or suspension, must
be ratified by ordinance before being of any force or effect.

6. The first party will be required to observe all city ordinances in relation to obstructing the streets, main-
taining signals, keeping open passageway and protecting same where exposed, and generally to obey all laws

636 PARKS

and ordinances controlling or limiting those engaged on the work; and the said first and second parties hereby
expressly bind themselves to indemnify and save harmless Kansas City from all suits or actions of every name
and description brought against the said city for or on account of any injuries or damages received or sustained
by any party, parties or property, or from the acts or negligence of said contractor, or his servants or agents, in-
doing the work herein contracted for, or by or in consequence of any negligence in guarding the same, or any
improper material used in its construction, or by or on account of any act or omission of the said first party,
or his servants or agents.

7. The first party further agrees that he will pay for the work and labor of all laborers, subcontractors
and teamsters, teams, wagons'and trucks employed on the work and for all materials and service used therein,
or employed in connection therewith (whether or not of a character for which a mechanic's lien would apply in
case the third party were a private person).

8. It is further agreed that the passage of the ordinance hereafter referred to, and the doing of the work
embraced in this contract, without any proper petition to the common council from the real estate owners to
have said work done, shall not render the city liable to pay, directly or indirectly, for such work, or any part
thereof, otherwise than by the issue of special tax bills, and the said first party shall assume all risks as to the
validity of such special tax bills, and take the same without recourse against Kansas City in any event.

9. This contract is entered into subject to the approval or rejection of the Common Council, and shall
not bind until so approved, and is subject to the city charter and ordinances in general.

10. It is further expressly agreed that in no event shall Kansas City be liable or responsible to the con-
tractor or to any other person for or on account of any stoppage or delay of the work herein provided for, by
injunction or other legal or equitable proceedings, or from or by or on account of any delay from any other cause
whatever.

u. It is further expressly agreed and stipulated by the said party of the first part, that he will not require
laborers, employed by him on such work, to labor more than eight (8) hours per day, and the said party of the
first part further agrees that he will faithfully and in all respects comply with the provisions of the general
ordinances of Kansas City.

12. In consideration of the completion by the said first party of all work embraced in this contract in con-
formity with the specifications hereto attached and stipulations herein contained, Kansas City, party of the third
part, hereby agrees to pay to the said first party at the following rate per square foot, viz.:

For each square foot of sidewalk, the sum of

• ( )

13. And the said party of the first part further agrees that he will not be entitled to receive payment for
any portion of the aforesaid work or materials until the same shall have been fully completed in the manner set
forth in this agreement to the satisfaction and acceptance of the board of park commissioners. And that he will
then receive pay according to the above schedule of prices, in special tax bills against and upon the lands liable
to be charged with the cost thereof, as provided by law, according to the charter and ordinances of said city, and
that his receipt therefor shall be in full of all claims against Kansas City on account of said work.

Said parties of the second part hereby guarantee that the said party of the first part will well and truly
perform the covenants hereinbefore contained and will pay for the work and labor of all laborers, subcontractors
and teamsters, teams, wagons and trucks employed on the work, and for all materials and service used therein,
or employed in connection therewith (whether or not of a character for which a mechanic's lien would apply in
case the third party were a private person), and if the cost of such work and labor and materials is not paid in
full by the said party of the first part, then the said parties of the second part hereby agree to pay for said work,
labor and materials, or any part thereof which shall not be paid by said first party within ten (10) days after
the money for said work, labor and materials becomes due and payable, and this provision shall entitle any or
all laborers, subcontractors^ and teamsters, and owners of teams, wagons and trucks who may do work, and
parties who may furnish materials or service used therein or employed in connection therewith (whether or not
of a character for which a mechanic's lien would apply in case the third party were a private person), on or for
the improvements to be done under this contract, to sue and recover from said second parties, or either of them,
the amount due or unpaid to them, or either of them, by said first party; the said parties of the second part hereby
agree with Kansas City that the said party of the first part will well and faithfully perform each and all the terms
and stipulations in the foregoing contract, to be done, kept and performed on the part of the first party; but said
second parties shall not be liable on this guarantee on account of the materials used and labor done upon said
work beyond the sum of dollars ($ ), the esti-
mated cost of materials used and labor done upon said work.

And the said parties of the first and second part hereby further jointly and severally agree with Kansas City
that, if the work embraced in this contract be not begun within the period stated in this contract, they will pay

THE PARK ENGINEERING DIVISION 637

to Kansas City the sum of dollars ( ), as liquidated

damages for such breach of this contract.

It is further agreed that the liability of the parties of the second part shall not be affected by any extension
of the time for the completion of said work which may be granted by ordinance of the common council.

Guaranty. The party of the first part expressly agrees to construct the said sidewalks with such material
and in such manner that the same shall endure without the need of any repairs for a period of three (3) years
from and after the completion and acceptance thereof; and further agrees to furnish a bond satisfactory to the
city counselor and city comptroller guaranteeing this agreement.

It is expressly agreed that the superintendent of parks shall be the sole and final arbitrator to determine
at any and all times within said period of three (3) years whether or not said sidewalk conforms to the aforesaid
guaranty, and that when said superintendent of parks shall determine that any faults, defects or imperfections
exist in said sidewalk during the period aforesaid, and he shall give the party of the first part, or his agent, notice
thereof in writing, by leaving same at first party's above named address, if said party of the first part shall fail
to make good such faults, defects or imperfections, within ten (10) days after delivery of such notice at said
address, then this guaranty shall be held to have been broken, and Kansas City may make or cause to be made
good such faults, defects or imperfections, and said party of the first part shall be liable to pay to Kansas City
the cost thereof.

In witness whereof, the said parties of the first and second parts have hereunto set their hands and seals
respectively, and Kansas City executes this contract by its board of park commissioners.

[SEAL]

KANSAS CITY,
By BOARD OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

of Kansas City, Missouri.
Attest: Secretary. By President.

CITY COUNSELOR'S OFFICE

Kansas City, Missouri, 19

The foregoing contract and bond are in due form according to law, and are hereby approved.

Assistant City Counselor.
CITY COMPTROLLER'S OFFICE

Kansas City, Missouri, 19

The sureties and bond aforesaid are hereby approved as sufficient.

City Comptroller.
OFFICE OF BOARD OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

Kansas City, Missouri, 19

The foregoing contract and bond have this day been approved and confirmed by the board of park com-
missioners, and the president and secretary were ordered to execute the same on behalf of Kansas City, in the
name of said board of park commissioners.

Witness my hand and seal of the said Board of Park Commissioners of Kansas City, Missouri, this

day of 19

Secretary.
CITY CLERK'S OFFICE

Kansas City, Missouri, 19

The foregoing contract and bond have been this day ratified, approved and confirmed by the Common

Council of Kansas City, by Ordinance No , approved

Attest:

City Clerk.
By Deputy

The remainder of this contract comprises a form of a maintenance bond
whereby the contractor bound himself to make good any deficiencies which

638

PARKS

might appear in the sidewalks for a period of three years; and a set of de-
tailed specifications governing the construction of the walks.

The following are the general conditions of a contract executed by a
contractor with the South Park Commissioners, Chicago, for the construc-
tion of a number of bridges in 1925. While some of these conditions apply
specifically to situations peculiar to this series of construction work, they
embody m/DSt of the desirable general principles governing contractual work
in general.

GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE CONTRACT

/. Principles and Definitions.

(a) The contract documents consist of the agreement,
the general conditions of the contract, the specifications
and drawings for the above-named bridges, including
all modifications thereof incorporated in the documents
before their execution. These form the contract.

(b) The term commissioners refers to the South Park
Commissioners of Chicago, party to the contract,
acting through its duly authorized officers. The term
contractor refers to the contractor, party to the con-
tract. The term general superintendent refers to the
general superintendent of the South Park Commis-
sioners, the chief executive officer. The word engi-
neer is used in these specifications to designate the chief
engineer of the commissioners, or his duly authorized
assistant.

(c) The term subcontractor includes only those hav-
ing direct contracts with the contractor and includes
one who furnishes material after a special design accord-
ing to the plans or specifications of this work, but does
not include one who merely furnishes material not so
worked.

(ef) Written notice shall be termed to have been duly
served if delivered in person to the individual or to a
member of the firm or official of the corporation for
whom it is intended, or if delivered or sent by regis-
tered mail to the last business address known to him
who gives the notice.

2. Execution, Correlation and Intent of Documents.

(a) The contract documents shall be signed in dupli-
cate by the commissioners and contractor. In case of
failure to sign the general conditions, drawings, or
specifications, the engineer shall identify them.

(b) The contract documents are complementary, and
what is called for by any one shall be as binding as if
called for by all.

(c) The intention of the contract documents is to
include all labor and materials necessary for the proper
execution of the work. Any material or labor shown on
the plans and not mentioned in the specifications, or
vice versa, is to be furnished by the contractor the
same as if mentioned in the specifications and set forth

in the plans. It is the intention of these plans and
specifications to obtain materials of the best possible
grades for the use for which they are intended. Any
material or work described in words which so applied
have a well-known technical or trade meaning shall be
held to refer to such recognized standards.

5. Copies of Plans Furnished.

Unless otherwise provided in the contract documents,
the engineer will furnish to the contractor, free of charge,
six sets of plans and specifications. All sets required
over this number shall be furnished to the contractor
at cost.

4. Shop Drawings.

The contractor shall submit to the engineer, shop
drawings for approval as to correctness of sections and
strength of details, with such promptness as to cause
no delay in his work, or in that of any other contractor.
The engineer will pass on these drawings and details
with reasonable promptness, and the contractor shall
make any corrections required by the engineer and file
with him three corrected copies and furnish such addi-
tional copies as may be required in the field. No
changes shall be made on any approved shop drawings
or construction details without the consent in writing
of the engineer. The contractor shall be responsible for
the correctness of his drawings and details, as the ap-
proval of the engineer is only for general design. Any
material ordered by the contractor before approval
shall be at his own risk.

5. Drawings and Specifications on the Work.

The contractor shall keep one complete copy of all
drawings, including shop details or construction details
and specifications on the work in good order, available
to the engineer and his representatives at all times.

6. Ownership of Drawings and Models.

All design drawings and specifications prepared by
the engineer and copies thereof are the property of the
commissioners. They are to be used on no other work
without the written consent of the commissioners, and
all copies of plans used by the contractor during the

THE PARK ENGINEERING DIVISION

639

progress of the work are to be returned to the com-
missioners at the completion of work for which they
were issued. All models are to be the property of the
commissioners. The ink tracings of all detail drawings
made by the contractor and sub-contractors shall be-
come the property of the commissioners.

7. Samples.

The contractor shall furnish to the engineer samples
of all material which he proposes to use in the progress
of the work as may be requested by the engineer. After
submission and acceptance of samples by the engineer,
materials corresponding thereto shall be used through-
out the progress of the work.

8. Engineer Status.

The engineer, as the representative of the commis-
sioners, will have responsible supervision of the con-
struction of the work at all times and will make a
decision on all claims of the contractor and all matters
relating to the execution and progress of the work. All
claims of the contractor for extra compensation shall
be passed on by the engineer, but before becoming
valid, shall receive the approval of the general super-
intendent.

The complete design plans and specifications for the
structures, where the foundations for the same and the
component parts thereof comprise integral parts of the
structure, will be prepared by the engineer. The engi-
neer will check, for approval or correctness, the usual
detail shop plans for the structural steel work and con-
crete bar lists. The engineer will be the interpreter of
the plans and specifications prepared by him.

0. Foremen, Superintendents and Competent Employees.
The contractor shall keep on his work, at all times
during its progress, a competent foreman or superin-
tendent and any assistants that may be necessary. All
employees must be satisfactory to the engineer. Men
in charge of the work for the contractor shall not be
changed except with the consent of the engineer, unless
they prove to be unsatisfactory to the contractor and
cease to be in his employ. The man in charge shall
represent the contractor in his absence and all direc-
tions given to him shall be as binding as if given to the
contractor. Important directions shall be confirmed in
writing to the contractor. Other directions shall be
confirmed in writing on request of the contractor. The
contractor shall give efficient personal supervision to
the work, using his best skill and attention. He shall
carefully study and compare all drawings, specifications,
and other instructions and shall at once report to the
engineer any error, inconsistency, or omissions which
he may discover. Any employee of the contractor, who
is considered incompetent or careless in his work, shall
be, on demand of the engineer, removed and replaced
by a competent man.

10. Materials and Appliances.

Unless otherwise stipulated, the contractor shall pro-
vide and pay for all material, labor, tools, equipment,
light, water and power necessary for the prompt exe-
cution of the work. All materials shall be new. Both
workmanship and material shall be of good quality.
The contractor shall, if requested, furnish satisfactory
evidence as to the kind and quality of materials.

Only such material, machinery, tools and imple-
ments as are necessary in the prosecution of the work
shall be brought on the ground and shall be kept within
reasonable limits which shall be designated by the
engineer. All condemned material and such as is not
suitable for the work shall be promptly removed from
the premises, as the work is completed, or as it reaches
successive stages of completion and cleaning up is prac-
ticable. All rubbish, surplus material, lumber, scaffold-
ing, forms, etc., shall be removed from the premises.
Earthwork shall be properly graded and disposed of,
and the whole work and surroundings shall be left, and
at all times maintained, in as neat a condition as is in
keeping with the character of the work being done.

//. Access and Inspection of Work.

The engineer or his duly authorized assistant shall at
all times have free access to the work and shall be
entitled to receive from the contractor all necessary
information. It is not intended that the contractor
shall give out information which is more or less con-
fidential in his business and which would divulge any
process of manufacture which he is legitimately entitled
to keep secret.

If the specifications, the engineer's instructions, laws,
ordinances or any public authority requires any work
to be especially tested or approved, the contractor shall
give the engineer timely notice of its readiness for in-
spection, and, if the inspection is by an authority other
than the engineer, of the date fixed for such inspection.
Inspections by the engineer shall be promptly made.
If any such work should be covered up without approval
or consent of the engineer, it must, if so required, be
uncovered for examination at the contractor's expense.

Reexamination of questioned work may be ordered
by the engineer. If such work be found in accordance
with the contract the commissioners shall pay the cost
of reexamination and replacement. If such work be
found not in accordance with the contract, through the
fault of the contractor or his representatives, the con-
tractor shall pay such cost unless he shall show that
the defect in the work was caused by another contractor,
and in that event the other contractor shall pay the
cost.

Any work that is rejected by the engineer or his
representatives shall be torn down and replaced at the
contractor's expense. Any work so condemned shall be
replaced with reasonable promptness by this contractor.

640

PARKS

12. Correction of Work before Final Payment.

The contractor shall promptly remove from the
premises all material condemned by the engineer as
failing to conform to the contract, whether incorporated
in the work or not, and the contractor shall promptly
replace and reexecute his own work in accordance with
the contract without expense to the commissioners and
shall bear the expense of making good all work of other
contractors displaced by such removal or replacement.
If the contractor does not remove such condemned work
and materials within a reasonable time fixed by written
notice, the commissioners may remove them and store
the material at the expense of the contractor. If the
contractor does not pay the expense of such removal
within five days thereafter, the commissioners may
upon ten days' written notice, sell such material at
auction and at private sale, and shall account for the
net proceeds thereof, after deducting all costs and ex-
penses which should have been borne by the contractor.

13. Correction of Work after Final Payment.
Neither the final certificate nor any payment nor

any provision in the contract documents shall relieve
the contractor of responsibility for faulty materials or
workmanship, and he shall remedy any defects due
thereto and pay for any damage to other work resulting
therefrom, which shall appear within a period of two
years after installation. The engineer shall give notice
of observed defects with reasonable promptness. All
questions arising under this article shall be decided
under Article 8.

14. Protection of Work and Prcperty.

The contractor shall continuously maintain adequate
protection of all his work from damage and shall pro-
tect the property of the commissioners, the Illinois
Central Railroad Company, and all others fromi injury
arising in connection with this contract. He shall make
good any damage or injury to persons or property that
may be occasioned directly or indirectly by his opera-
tions in the prosecution of the contract. In the erection
or construction of those parts of the structure which
are upon, adjacent to, or over the right of way of the
Illinois Central Railroad Company, the contractor will
be required to exercise unusual care to carry on his
operations outside of the clearance lines fixed on the
construction plan prepared by the engineer and ap-
proved by the Illinois Central Railroad Company, and
shall abide by the notes of instructions shown on that
plan, which plan is made a part of the contract docu-
ments.

75. Emergencies.

In an emergency affecting safety of life or property
not considered by the contractor as within the provi-
sions of Article 14, then the contractor, without special
instructions or authorization from the engineer, is

hereby permitted to act at his discretion to prevent such
threatened loss or injury and he shall so act if so in-
structed or authorized by the engineer. Any com-
pensation claimed to be due him therefor shall be
determined under Articles 8 and 19, regardless of the
limitations in Article 20 and in the second paragraph
of Article 19.

16. Contractor's Liability Insurance.

The contractor shall maintain such insurance as shall
protect him from claims under workmen's compensation
acts and from any other claims for damages for personal
injury, including death, which may arise from opera-
tions under this contract, whether such operations be
by himself or by any subcontractor or anyone directly
or indirectly employed by either of them. Certificates
of such insurance shall be filed with the commissioners
and shall be subject to its approval for adequacy of
protection.

/7« Fire Insurance.

The commissioners shall maintain fire insurance on
all structures on which work is to be done and upon all
materials in or adjacent thereto and intended for use
thereon, to at least eighty per cent of the insurable
value thereof. All policies shall be open for inspection
by the contractor. The loss, if any, is to be made ad-
justable with and payable to the commissioners. The
commissioners shall settle and adjust any losses with
the insurers and shall distribute any money received
from insurers in accordance with the relative interests
of the commissioners and the contractors at the time
cf said loss.

18. Guarantee Bond.

The contractor will be required to execute a contract
in the form now on file in the office of the commission-
ers, and which may be seen on application within ten
days from date of mailing of notice that the contract
is ready for signature, and at the same time give a
bond in the sum of twenty-five per cent of the estimated
amount of his proposed contract in the form now on
file in the office of the commissioners, and which may
be seen on application, said bond to be executed by
the contractor and a responsible surety company au-
thorized to do business in the State of Illinois, and
satisfactory to the commissioners. In case of the con-
tractor's failure or neglect to present said contract and
bond duly executed within said ten days, the com-
missioners may at its option declare said bid and the
acceptance thereof, null and void, and forfeit the deposit
accompanying said bid as liquidated damages.

19. Changes in the Work.

The commissioners, without invalidating the con-
tract, may make changes by altering, adding to and
deducting from the work, the contract sum being ad-

THE PARK ENGINEERING DIVISION

641

justed accordingly. All such work shall be executed
under the conditions of the original contract except
that any claims for extension of time thereof shall be
adjusted at the time of ordering such change.

Except as provided in Article 15, no change shall be
made unless in pursuance of a written order from the
commissioners signed by the engineer and counter-
signed by the general superintendent or a written order
from the engineer countersigned by the general super-
intendent stating that the commissioners have author-
ized the change, and no claim for any addition to the
contract sum shall be valid unless so ordered.

The value of any such change shall be determined in
one or more of the following ways: (a) By estimate and
acceptance in a lump sum; (b) By unit prices named in
the contract or subsequently agreed upon; (c) By cost
and percentage, or by cost and a fixed fee; (d) If none
of the above methods is agreed upon, the contractor,
provided he received an order as above, shall proceed
with the work. In cases (c) and (d) the contractor
shall keep and present, in such form as the engineer
may direct, a correct account of the net cost of labor
and materials, together with vouchers. In any case the
engineer shall certify to the amount, including a reason-
able profit due to the contractor. Pending final determi-
nation of value, payments on account of changes shall
be ir.ade on the engineer's certificate.

20. Claims for Extras.

If the contractor claims that any instructions, by
drawings or otherwise, involve extra cost under this
contract, he shall give the engineer written notice
thereof before proceeding to execute the work, and in
any event within two weeks of receiving such instruc-
tions, and the procedure shall then be as provided in
Article 19. No such claim shall be valid unless so made.

21. Payments.

Payments will be made of eighty-five per cent of the
value of the work done or material delivered during
each calendar month in full compliance with the con-
tract and specifications, provided the progress made is
such as to insure completion of the contract within the
specified time. The value of the work done or the
material delivered will be determined by the estimate
of the engineer, to be made not later than the fifth day
of the following month. The remaining fifteen per cent
shall be retained until the final completion of the work,
the issuance of final certificate by the engineer and its
acceptance by the South Park Commissioners. In no
case, however, shall the contractor be entitled to pay-
ment which, in the judgment of the engineer, will leave
the balance withheld insufficient to complete the work.
The Commissioners will issue permits to enter and use
the necessary area for construction purposes, free of
charge to the contractor. The contractor shall pay for
all licenses and shall give all notices, pay all fees, and
comply with all laws, ordinances, rules and regulations

bearing on the conduct of the work as drawn and
specified. If the contractor observes that the drawings
and specifications are at variance, he shall promptly
notify the engineer in writing, and any necessary
changes shall be adjusted under Article 19. If the con-
tractor performs any work, knowing it to be contrary
to such laws, rules and regulations and without such
notice to the engineer, he shall bear all costs arising
therefrom.

23. Royalties and Patents.

The contractor shall pay all royalty and license fees.
He shall defend all suits or claims for infringement on
any patent rights and save the commissioners harmless
from loss on account thereof.

24.. Use of Premises.

The contractor shall confine his apparatus, the stor-
age of materials and the operations of his workmen to
limits indicated by law, ordinances, permits or direc-
tions of the engineer, and shall not unreasonably en-
cumber the premises with his materials. The contractor
shall not load or permit any part of any structure to be
loaded with a weight that will endanger its safety. The
contractor shall enforce the engineer's instructions
regarding signs, advertisements, fires and smoking.

25. Cutting, Patching and Digging.

The contractor shall do all cutting, fitting and patch-
ing of his work that may be required to make the
several parts come together properly or fit it to receive
or be received by work of other contractors shown on,
or reasonably implied by the drawings and specifica-
tions for the completed structure and he shall make
good after them, as the engineer may direct. He shall
also do any and all shoring of any sort that may be
necessary to protect adjacent property.

Any cost caused by defective or ill-timed work shall
be borne by the party responsible therefor.

The contractor shall not endanger any work by
cutting, digging, or otherwise and shall not cut or alter
work of any other contractor unless with the consent of
the engineer.

26. Conformity with Ordinances.

All park ordinances and police regulations regarding
the use of the park grounds, obstructions of driveways
or boulevards and safeguarding the public must be
strictly observed.

Such material, tools and machinery as are placed on
the park grounds, driveways or boulevards, within
limits assigned, shall be well guarded with all necessary
red lights, signals of danger and barricades.

27. Maintenance of Order.

Good order shall at all times be maintained on the
work and no intoxicated or disorderly persons shall be
permitted on the premises.

642

PARKS

28. Local Conditions.

Each bidder shall acquaint himself with all local
conditions that may affect work, such as character of
soil, means of access, exposure of situation, etc. In-
formation of this sort which may be in the possession
of the South Park Commissioners, will be given pro-
spective bidders by the engineer, but no statements of
this character, either verbal or written, shall be con-
sidered complete, accurate or binding upon the com-
missioners except such as are contained in the attached
specifications.

29. Suneys.

The engineer will establish on the ground the loca-
tions of the center lines of each structure and also
locations of the transverse center lines for all structures;
he will also establish at each structure at least two
permanent bench marks with grades referred to Chicago
datum from which center lines and bench marks the
contractor shall have all necessary lines, centers and
grades established for his work by competent surveyors
employed by him.

30. Black Dirt and Shrubbery.

Black dirt and other fertile surface soil within the
areas occupied by any contractor or handled by him
in making excavations or doing grading shall be piled
separately in locations selected by the engineer. It
shall be protected and shall not be mixed with other
material; storage sites will be selected with a view to
making rehandling of this soil unnecessary. When other
grading work is completed, this soil shall be respread
by grading contractor on areas reserved for planting.
It shall not be used for subsurface back filling.

All trees and shrubbery adjacent to the work shall be
boxed, fenced or otherwise protected as directed by
the engineer. Any trees or shrubbery damaged by the
contractor or his employees shall be paid for by him
at the full and proper value thereof.

jz. Contractor's Office.

The contractor for the work shall provide such offices,
tool sheds and other accessories as he may require for
his work. His subcontractors shall have the privilege
of making reasonable use of such offices and facilities.

32. Delays.

If the contractor be delayed in the completion of the
work by any act or neglect of the commissioners or of
any of its employees, or by any other contractor em-
ployed by the commissioners, or by changes ordered in
the work, or by strikes, fires, unusual delay of common
carriers, unavoidable casualties, or any cause beyond
the contractor's control, or by delay authorized by the
engineer, or by any cause which the engineer shall de-
cide to justify the delay, then the time of completion
shall be extended for such reasonable time as the engi-

neer may decide. No such extension shall be made for
delay occurring more than seven days before claims
therefor are made in writing to the engineer. In case of a
continuing cause of delay only one claim is necessary.

33. Commissioners' Right to Terminate Contracts.

The commissioners, upon certificate of the engineer,
approved by the general superintendent, that sufficient
cause exists to justify such action may, without preju-
dice to any other right or remedy and after giving the
contractor seven days written notice, terminate the
employment of the contractor and take possession of
the premises, and of all material, tools and appliances
thereon, finish the work by whatever method it may
deem expedient, for any of the following reasons:

(a) If the contractor should be adjudged a bankrupt
if he should make a general assignment for the benefit
of his creditors, or if a receiver should be appointed on
account of his insolvency.

(b) If he should, except in cases recited in Article 32,
persistently or repeatedly refuse or fail to supply enough
properly skilled workmen or proper materials.

(d) If he should persistently disregard laws, ordi-
nances or instructions of the engineer.

(e) If he should be guilty of a substantial violation
of any provision of the contract.

In any such case, the contractor shall not be entitled
to receive any further payment until the work is fin-
ished. If the unpaid balance of the contract price shall
exceed the expense of finishing the work, including the
cost of supervision, such excess shall be paid by the
contractor. If such expense shall exceed such unpaid
balance, the contractor shall pay the difference to the
commissioners. The expense incurred by the commis-
sioners, as herein provided, and the damage incurred
through the contractor's default, shall be certified by the
engineer and approved by the general superintendent.

34. Separate Contracts.

The commissioners reserve the right to let other con-
tracts in connection with this work. The contractor
shall afford other contractors reasonable opportunity
for the introduction and storage of their materials and
the execution of their work, and shall properly connect
and coordinate his work with theirs.

If any part of this contractor's work depends for
proper execution or results upon the work of any other
contractor, this contractor shall inspect and properly
report to the engineer any defects in such work as may
render it unsuitable for such execution and results. His
failure so to inspect and report shall constitute an
acceptance of the other contractor's work as fit and
proper for the reception of his work except as to defects
which may develop in the other contractor's work after
the execution of his work.

THE PARK ENGINEERING DIVISION

643

To insure proper execution of his subsequent work
the contractor shall measure work already in place and
shall at once report to the engineer any discrepancy
between the executed work and the drawings.

55. Subcontracts.

The contractor shall, as soon as practicable, after
signing the contract, notify the engineer in writing of
the names of the subcontractors proposed for any prin-
cipal parts of the work, and shall not employ any that
the engineer may within a reasonable time reject.

The engineer shall, on request, furnish to any sub-
contractor, whenever practicable, evidence of the
amount certified to on his account.

The contractor agrees hereby that he is as fully
responsible to the commissioners for the acts and omis-
sions of his subcontractors and of persons either directly
or indirectly employed by them, as he is for the acts
and omissions of persons directly employed by him.
Nothing contained in the contract documents shall
create any contractual relation between the subcon-
tractors and the commissioners.

36. Relations of Contractor and Subcontractor.

The contractor agrees to bind every subcontractor to
the terms of general conditions, drawings and specifi-
cations as far as applicable to his work, including the
following provisions of this article unless specifically
noted to the contrary in a subcontract approved in
writing as adequate by the commissioners. Such sub-
contracts shall be so drawn that the subcontractor
agrees :

(a) To be bound to the contractor by the terms of
the general conditions, drawings and specifications and
to assume toward him all obligations and responsibilities
that he, by those documents, assumes toward the com-
missioners.

(b) To make all claims for extras, for extensions of
time, and for damages for delays or otherwise, to the
contractor in the manner provided in the general con-
ditions for like claims by the contractor upon the
commissioners.

The contractor agrees:

(a) To be bound to the subcontractor by all the
obligations that the commissioners assume to the con-
tractor under the general conditions, drawings and
specifications.

(b) To pay the subcontractor upon issuance of cer-
tificates, the amount allowed to the contractor on
account of the subcontractor's work to the extent of
the subcontractor's interest therein.

(c) To pay the subcontractor on the issuance of cer-
tificates if issued otherwise than in (d) so that at all
times his total payments shall be as large in proportion
to the value of the work done by him as the total
amount certified to the contractor is to the value of the
work done bv him.

(d) To pay the subcontractor on demand for his
work or materials as far as executed and fixed in place,
less the retained percentage at the time the certificates
should issue, even though the engineer fails to issue
for any cause not the fault of the subcontractor.

(e) To pay the subcontractor a just share of any fire
insurance money received by him, the contractor, under
Article 17 of the general conditions.

(/) To make no demand for liquidated damages or
penalty for delay in any sum in excess of such amount
as may be specifically named in the subcontract.

(g) That no claim for services rendered or materials
furnished by the contractor to the subcontractor shall
be valid unless written notice is given thereof by the
contractor to the subcontractor during the first ten
days of the calendar month following that which the
claim originated.

(h) To give the subcontractor an opportunity to be
present and submit evidence in any controversy involv-
ing his rights.

Nothing in this article shall create any obligation on
the part of the commissioners to pay or to see to the
payment of any sums to any subcontractor.

37. Shelters.

The contractor shall provide temporary shelters for
the protection of any materials that may be damaged
by exposure or otherwise, and he shall be responsible
for all loss or damage to scaffolding, tools, equipment,
apparatus and all other materials used in connection
with his work.

38. Watchmen.

The contractor shall be responsible for all damage
due to intrusion, and for the proper protection of the
bridge sites, and shall provide competent watchmen
both day and night, including Saturdays, Sundays and
holidays, from the time the work is commenced at the
sites until the final completion of his work.

39. Photographs.

The contractor shall employ an experienced photog-
rapher, approved by the commissioners, who shall take
two photographs, each being a different view of the
structure, every two weeks from the time the work is
commenced until the work is completed. Three prints
of each photograph shall be furnished to the commis-
sioners. These prints shall be eight by ten inches in
size, mounted on linen for binding, and each print shall
be numbered, dated and identified as to the structure
and view. Prints shall be made on Velox or equal finish
paper.

40. Advertising.

No advertising will be permitted on, in or about the
structures or on the territory of the South Park System
occupied by the contractor.

644

PARKS

41. Cooperation.

The contractor shall cooperate with all other con-
tractors employed by the commissioners in connection
with this work in such a manner and to such an extent
as to best facilitate the completion of the entire project
in the shortest possible time, subject at all times to the
approval of the commissioners. It shall be clearly under-
stood that the commissioners reserve the right and
intents to award other contracts for work to be con-
ducted at the same time and in connection with the
work contemplated under this contract. It shall be the
duty of the contractor to work with such other con-
tractors and employees, rendering such assistance and
so arranging his work that the entire project will be
delivered complete in the best possible condition and
in the shortest possible time.

The contractor shall keep himself fully informed at
all times regarding all details of the work including not
only installation at the structure, but also the condition
of the work in the shops wherever materials are under
construction for any portion of the structure involving
in any manner the work being furnished under this
contract, and he shall be responsible for all delays that
may result in his failure to install his own work in
proper manner and in proper time.

42. Liens and Suits.

(a) Neither the contractor nor any subcontractor,
material men or any other person shall file or maintain
a lien, commonly called a mechanic's lien, for materials
delivered for use in, cr work done in the performance
of this contract, and the right to maintain such lien for
any or all of the above-named parties is hereby expressly
waived, except in the event of failure or refusal of the
commissioners to pay the amount called for by the
certificate of the engineer within five days of the date
of its tender to the commissioners for its payment.
Then, in such case only, shall any of the above-named
parties have the right to file and maintain a mechanic's
lien.

(b) Neither the final payment nor any part of the
retained percentage shall become due until the con-
tractor, if required, shall deliver to the commissioners
a complete release of all liens arising out of this contract,
or receipts in full in lieu thereof and, if required in either
case, an affidavit that so far as he has knowledge or
information the releases and receipts include all the
labor and material for which a lien could be filed; but
the contractor may, if any subcontractor refuses to
furnish a release or receipt in full, furnish a bond satis-
factory to the engineer, to indemnify the commissioners
against any lien.

(c) The contractor shall and will indemnify, save
harmless and defend the commissioners from any and
all suits, actions, legal proceedings, claims, demands,
damages, costs, expenses and attorney's fees in any
manner caused by, arising from, incident to, connected

with or growing out of the execution of the work herein
contracted for.

4J. Protection of Railroad Company.

In order to protect the Illinois Central Railroad Com-
pany from damage caused by falling objects, or in any
other way, during the progress of work contemplated
herein, the contractor shall cause to be attached to his
liability insurance policies and duly approved by an
authorized officer of the insuring company, such public
liability endorsement as shall operate to extend the said
policy to include the Illinois Central Railroad Company
as its interests may appear and such as shall be satis-
factory to said railroad company.

The contractor doing the work specified shall indem-
nify, save harmless and defend the Illinois Central
Railroad Company from any and all suits, actions, legal
proceedings, claims, demands, damages, costs, expenses
and attorney's fees in any manner caused by, arising
from, incident to, connected with, or growing out of
the execution of the work.

4.4. Failure to Complete on Time.

Time is of the essence of this contract and, should
said party of the first part fail, refuse or neglect to
complete the work covered by this contract within the
time agreed upon, said party of the second part may
waive the time limit and permit said party of the first
part to finish the said work within a reasonable period,
to be determined by said party of the second part.
Should the original time limit be thus waived, the actual
amount of damages to said party of the second part
for each day's delay beyond the time originally set for
completion shall be determined by the general super-
intendent of said party of the second part and shall be
deducted from the balance due said party of the first
part on account of this contract, or, in case such balance
is insufficient, the amount of said damages shall, on
demand of said party of the second part, be refunded
by said party of the first part to said party of the second
part.

4-5- Office for Engineer and Inspector.

The contractor shall furnish at a location to be
selected by the engineer, a suitable office for the use
of the engineer and inspector, having a floor area of
approximately three hundred square feet, equipped with
a plan desk, suitable shelves, drawers and locker. This
office shall be provided with locks and keys. The
office built by this contractor shall remain until the
final completion of the structure for which it is intended,
and shall be provided with lights and heat and tele-
phone service, which shall be maintained by the dif-
ferent contractors as follows:

(a) By this contractor until the beginning of con-
struction of concrete incasing.

(b) By the contractor for the concrete incasing until

THE PARK ENGINEERING DIVISION 645

the final completion and acceptance of all structures, at his property and he shall have them removed from the
which time the office and furniture therein shall become site.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

"Parks and Park Engineering," William T. Lyle. Parks and Recreation, Engineering Division. The

John VV. Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1916, 130 pages, various articles and illustrations which have appeared
illustrations, drawings, map. Deals briefly with the ac- regularly in this magazine since it began publication,
quisition of parks, lands and surveys, design, landscape October, 1917, will be found of very great value to park
and engineering, labor and contracts, construction. engineers.

CHAPTER XI
MAINTENANCE

Maintenance as used in this chapter includes all activities of a park
department relating to the upkeep of material properties, real and personal.
Maintenance may also include original minor construction work and the
carrying forward of unfinished construction projects such as, for example,
the continued development of plantations. There are two main reasons
why maintenance is one of the most important and fundamental of all the
activities of a park department. They are:

1. Capital investments, especially investments in improvements, are
conserved. Maintenance is the only antidote to depreciation. It cannot
prevent depreciation entirely but it can prolong the life usefulness of improve-
ments for a far longer period than would be the case if maintenance is
neglected. Herein lies one of the very great weaknesses of a majority of
the park departments in the United States. It is safe to assert that more
money is wasted through improper financial provision for, and lack of, con-
stant maintenance than through any other phase of park activity. Money
may be wasted through ill-advised purchases of real property and through
improper plans and poor construction, but the losses through these sources
are as nothing compared with the losses through rapid deterioration of
improvements because of inadequate resources for controlling depreciation.1

2. Maintenance ensures the effective functioning of all the human
service features of each area in a park system. This involves a never-ceasing,
up-to-the-day care of these features in order to keep them as nearly as
possible in the perfect condition of service they were in when they came
from the minds and hands of the designer and the engineer.2

A third reason, a psychological one, may be given. People are always
greatly influenced in their conduct by the conditions of their environment.
They are more apt in their use of the facilities in the parks to be more
careful of these facilities if they see that there is neatness, cleanliness and
order everywhere about them than if the contrary prevails.

1 In park systems having a divisional executive organization maintenance is likely to be distributed among
several different divisions rather than wholly concentrated within a division of maintenance. Hence references
to maintenance will occur in Chapters on "Recreation, Horticulture, Zoological Gardens, Botanical Gardens, Sani-
tation," etc. Special attention is called to maintenance notes in the Chapter on "Horticulture," pages 671—673.
Operation and maintenance. This expression is frequently used in connection with park work. Operation
as considered in this manual is a general term including maintenance, perhaps, but referring specifically to all
those functions of a department having to do with the organization and direction of the human uses of the
properties and facilities.

646

MAINTENANCE 647

FUNDAMENTAL REQUISITES FOR EFFECTIVE MAINTENANCE

Adequate Revenues.

First of all, the fundamental requisite for efficient maintenance is
adequate current revenues. Perhaps the most severe indictment that can
be brought against the citizens of a majority of American communities
having parks is their failure to provide their park officials with adequate
current revenues and especially revenues for maintenance. The people are
usually not backward in voting money for the acquisition and improve-
ment of properties, but they frequently fail to realize the corresponding
necessity of providing additional current revenues to maintain the improve-
ments properly. Park officials themselves have not always exercised far-
sighted judgment in this respect, often lending the weight of their influence
to movements for extensive improvements when they did not plainly see
how they were to be maintained afterwards. Some have no doubt acted
on the theory that once having the improvements the people would more
readily be moved to grant additional current revenues for maintenance. It
should be laid down as a principle in park management that no improve-
ments should be undertaken without exact assurance that current revenues
are sufficient to maintain them to the nth degree of efficiency.

No general rule can be stated as to what portion of the budget of a
park department should be allocated to maintenance. Comparisons of finan-
cial statistics of existing park departments are valueless because of differences
in accounting systems, types of properties, number of properties, extent of
improvements, degree of use by the people, efficient or inefficient manage-
ment, presence or absence of political influence in employment of workers
and in the purchase of equipment, materials and supplies. Each individual
park system presents a distinct problem in this respect.

Maintenance Personnel.

The second fundamental factor in good maintenance is efficient organ-
izing and supervising leadership and a sufficient number of workers of the
different types needed. This, of course, goes back to the question of ade-
quate current income, but there is much more involved in it than the
question of money. In any park system the ultimate responsibility for
maintenance rests on the superintendent or chief executive. The number
of maintenance employees under the superintendent, types of employees
and the methods of organizing and conducting maintenance work vary
greatly among systems of different sizes and even among systems of com-
parable size. This difference is due not only to difference in size but also
to character of development of the properties and to the intensity of use
of the properties. The number of maintenance employees will vary with
the seasons in all park systems.

648 PARKS

The most simple type of organization comprises the superintendent
and a varying number of caretakers or park keepers, one or more for each
park, depending on its size and the character of its development and inten-
sity of use. Occasionally one caretaker may be assigned to care for several
small properties. When it becomes necessary to enlarge the personnel the
increase might include a foreman of park keepers and one or more gardeners.
As the system becomes larger and larger, other types of employees may
appear, such as a horticulturist, forester, director of a zoo, mechanics,
electricians, concrete workers, masons, carpenters, wheelwrights, painters,
greenhouse gardeners, nurserymen, truck drivers, animal keepers, matrons,
janitors, foremen of divisions or districts or of single parks and foremen in
charge of the several groups of employees engaged in special activities. In
the large systems the responsibility of the superintendent may be delegated
to an assistant superintendent or a superintendent of maintenance. In the
large systems, too, the maintenance work may be organized as a department
or a division with perhaps several subdivisions, each in charge of a foreman.
In some systems the general maintenance work is organized by districts,
each district being in charge of a district superintendent or foreman having
under his immediate direction all maintenance employees regularly employed
in his district, and general supervision over employees from special sub-
divisions while performing work in his district.

In the larger systems, also, some of the maintenance work may be
performed by employees of divisions entirely separate from the maintenance
division. Thus there may be a horticultural division in charge of a horti-
culturist, with gardeners and laborers under his direct supervision. This
division may have under its jurisdiction not only original designing but also
the maintenance of all plantations, greenhouses, conservatories, nurseries,
special flower gardens or displays, and forestry. In some very large systems,
forestry, the conservatory and the zoo may be carried in the departmental
organization as separate divisions with maintenance employees directly
under the control of the heads of the divisions.

The following are a few examples of the maintenance personnel in
some park systems in the United States, showing the types and number
of each type of employees and the rate or rates of pay at the time the sta-
tistics were collected (1925):

MAINTENANCE

649

EXAMPLES

Population of city approximately 900,000. Area of
parks approximately 2,225 acres, majority of which is
improved.

Maintenance Employees
II senior park foremen receiving from $1,800 to $2,100

per year.
4 junior park foremen receiving from $1,560 to $1,620

per year.

I chief gardener, $2,400 per year.
I zoo keeper, $1,800 per year.

Shop Employees

I foreman of mechanics, $3,000 per year.
I carpenter foreman, $1.37^ per hour.
3 carpenters, $1.25 per hour.

1 painter foreman, $1.30 per hour.
8 painters, $1.25 per hour.

3 electricians, $1.50 per hour.

2 truck drivers, $5.00 per day.

Street Tree Employees

2 wardens, $5.50 per day.
7 sprayers, $5.00 per day.

4 gardeners, $4.50 per day.

17 gardener-laborers, $4.00 per day.

Comfort Station Caretakers and Watchmen

3 caretakers, women, receiving $1,080 per year.

4 caretakers, men, receiving from $1,200 to $1,320 per
year.

7 watchmen, $4.00 per day.

Bathhouse Caretakers, Watchmen and Laborers

Four Centers

23 caretakers, women, $3.00 per day.
4 watchmen, $4.00 per day.
14 laborers, $4.00 per day.

Recreation Maintenance Employees
I foreman, $135 per month.
4 laborers, $4.00 per day.
I laborer at dance hall, $4.00.

I matron at dance hall, $2.00 for each evening and
$1.50 for matinees.

General Laborers

190 laborers: 6 of these, specially high-grade laborers

and gardeners, receive $5.00 per day; 2, $4.75; 18,

$4.50; 3, $4.25; and 161, $4.00 per day respectively.

While the report did not show whether some of

these laborers were used on construction work or not,

no doubt that is the fact.

Population of city approximately 800,000. Area of
parks approximately 2,900 acres, the greater per cent
of which is improved.

Maintenance Employees

5 district superintendents, each receiving $2,400 per
year.

3 assistant district superintendents, receiving from

$1,450 to $2,080 a year.
3 head foremen, one each in the three larger districts.

Rate of pay from $1,300 to $1,456 a year.
9 gang foremen each receiving $1,092 a year.

3 head gardeners, one each in the three principal
districts, each gardener receiving $1,456 a year.

11 gardeners, each receiving $1,092 a year.

20 park keepers, one receiving $1,144; 17> $I>°4°; an^
2, $988 a year respectively.

4 field keepers, three receiving $1,092 a year each,
and one, $1,201.

3 toilet keepers, each receiving $972 a year.

12 women attendants receiving from $275 to $686,
the majority receiving $572 a year.

2 janitors receiving $915 each.
i head carpenter, $2,080.

6 carpenters, each receiving $1,716 a year,
i boss painter, $1,352.

4 painters, $1,248 each a year, one painter in each of
four districts.

I blacksmith, $1,196.
i shop man serving all parks, $1,300.
i machinist serving all parks, $1,472.
i plumber serving all parks, $1,560.

1 electrician serving all parks, $1,528.

2 assistant electricians, $1,196 each.

2 steam engineers, $1,300 each.

3 assistant engineers, $1,092 each,
i engineer and chauffeur, $1,300.

i stable boss, $1,201.20.

6 stablemen, three in one park and one each in three
other parks, $1,119.56.

5 utility men, $1,248 each.

6 machinist chauffeurs serving all parks, $1,098.24
each.

I head animal keeper, $1,456.

3 assistant animal keepers, $1,092 each.

176 laborers distributed among the various districts.
Each laborer receives pay at the rate of $1,000 a
year.

Population of city approximately 430,000. Park area
approximately 4,800, 90 per cent improved. Approxi-
mately 1,250 acres of water.

Maintenance Force

4 foremen employed year round, $5.20 to $6.00 per
day.

43 park keepers employed from six to ten months,

$5.20 to $6.00 per day.

6 janitors employed year round, $4.40 to $4.80 per
day.

650

PARKS

I matron year round, $3.85 per day.
90 laborers, two employed year round, eighty-eight
from 6 to 9 months. All paid $5.00 per day.

1 horticulturist, $3,600 per year.

2 florists employed year round, $5.50 to $6.00 per day.
I laborer employed year round, $5.00 per day.

Repair Shop Employees
I chief mechanic, $8.80 per day.
I mechanic, $8.00 per day.
I blacksmith helper, $5.50 per day.
I utility man, $5.50 per day.
All these men are employed the year round.

Population of city approximately 350,000. Area of
parks approximately 2,600 acres.

Maintenance Employees

I assistant superintendent in direct charge of main-
tenance, $3,800 a year.

23 park custodians or caretakers receiving salaries
ranging from $1,020 to $1,800 a year. Seven of
these custodians are in service only about eight
months of the year. Four are provided with
dwellings free.

I horticulturist and designer, $2,500 a year.

I chief florist, $2,000.

I assistant florist, $1,600.

5 florists, $1,500 each.

I nursery man, $2,400 a year.
I shop foreman, $1,872.

6 other shop workers employed year round, $0.60 an
hour.

i storekeeper, $1,800.

i assistant storekeeper, $1,200.

Recreation Maintenance Employees

1 foreman, $1,800.

2 custodians at community centers, one at$i,o8o and
one at $1,800 a year.

2 matrons at community centers, $720 a year each.
13 janitors at school playgrounds, one at each ground
part time, $35 a month each.

12 watchmen, ten receiving $60 a month and two,
$3.50 a day. Part time employees.

75 laborers, approximately, employed the year round.
During summer labor force increased to approxi-
mately 250. The majority of these summer labor-
ers are used, however, on construction work rather
than maintenance. Foremen receive $0.50 an hour,
and laborers $0.45 an hour, 8 hours constituting a
day. Truck drivers and motive engineers receive
$0.60 an hour. Teams with driver receive $0.80 an
hour.

13 watchmen employed during winter months receive
$3.50 a day.

Population of city approximately 212,000. Area of
parks 1,350 acres, 75 per cent improved.

Maintenance Employees
5 foremen, $6.00 a day.
14 park caretakers, $150 a month each.
50 laborers, average year round, 200 in summer, $0.50

an hour.

i chief florist, $160 a month.
4 gardener-laborers, $0.55 an hour.

Tourist Camp Employees
i foreman, $25 a week and room.
i matron, $28 a week.

Recreation Maintenance Employees
18 caretakers, $25 a week.

Zoo
I animal keeper, $100 a month and house.

Shop Employees
i foreman, $175 a month.
I electrician, $150 a month.
i painter, $44 a week.

1 painter, $42 a week.

2 carpenters, $44 a week each.
2 mechanics, $36 a week.

Population of city approximately 190,000. Area of
parks approximately 4,000 acres, of which about 870
acres are improved and 3,130 acres are partially im-
proved. There are i,8n acres in water.

Maintenance Employees

i assistant superintendent having direct charge of
maintenance, $3,600.

19 foremen, $1,140 to $1,800 a year.

20 laborers employed year round. Approximately 30
additional laborers employed during the summer
months, $3.20 a day.

i chief florist, $2,100 a year.
i gardener, $1,200 a year.

1 superintendent of forestry, $1,800 a year.

2 laborers, one at $3.20 a day and one at $4.00 a day.

Population of city approximately 110,000. Area of
parks approximately 2,200 acres, of which 1,605 acres
are improved. There are twenty-five improved parks
and nine improved playgrounds.

Superintendent has direct charge of maintenance.
2 foremen, $5.50 a day.
20 laborers, average year round, 60 in summer, $4.50

a day.

10 caretakers employed part time, $5.00 a day.
7 caretakers of playgrounds employed five months,
$4.50 a day.

1 florist, $5.00 a dav.

2 motor vehicle drivers year round, five in summer,
$5.00 a day.

Carpenters and repair men employed as needed.

MAINTENANCE 651

Population of city approximately 90,000. Area of Maintenance under direct control of superintendent,

parks approximately 182 acres, practically all im- and assistant,
proved. Climatic conditions require constant main- 2 foremen, $2,200 each a year,
tenance. 6 to 65 laborers, $0.50 to $0.65 an hour.

Superintendent has direct charge of maintenance. i gardener, $0.65 an hour.

I foreman, $1,500 a year.
22 laborers year round, $2.50 to $3.00 a day. Population approximately 67,000. Park area 224

acres, practically all improved.

Population approximately 76,000. Park area approx- Superintendent has direct charge of maintenance,

imately 580 acres. Approximately 435 acres improved. i foreman, $1,800 a year.

18 laborers, $0.50 to $0.60 an hour.
2 shop men, $120 a month each.

As a rule the maintenance organization in all cities under fifty thou-
sand comprises a foreman and a few laborers under the direct control of
the superintendent, or the superintendent may act as foreman with the
laborers directly responsible to him. Occasionally the maintenance personnel
may include a gardener and a mechanic.

Employment.

It is a principle of good business organization that the official respon-
sible for the execution of any particular project or function shall have the
authority to select and discharge his subordinates. If this principle were
strictly applied to the subordinates in the maintenance personnel, the super-
intendent or assistant superintendent or superintendent of maintenance
should have this authority, and he should be held strictly accountable by
the governing authority for results.

In actual practice few executives in charge of maintenance work
actually exercise freely this power of hiring and firing. The authority for
employing a given number of men, of course, rests always with the govern-
ing board or commissioner or director, as the case may be. Very often
these various governing authorities also exercise the right to employ the
individuals. In most of the large cities public employees of all grades are
under civil service, and when the executive is authorized to employ a given
number of maintenance workers he must make requisition on the civil
service board which supplies the request from the available candidates on
its lists. Special rules of the civil service board govern the employment
of occasional or part-time workers. On the whole, if the work of the civil
service board is efficiently conducted, this method of employment is fairly
satisfactory. The worst possible evil that can befall a maintenance execu-
tive in employment is politics. The maintenance force of park departments
is too often made the dumping ground of political appointees who may be
unqualified by reason of age, lack of experience and training, or by indif-
ference to the work. They owe no allegiance to the maintenance executive
and hence may give very little heed to his authority. Inefficient main-

652 PARKS

tenance work is the inevitable result. This system also may result in the
employment of more workers than the necessities of the work require.

Personal Relations.

The general subject of the relation of executives to subordinates has
been discussed briefly in the Chapter on the "General Executive Organiza-
tion," pages 542-547. Every maintenance employee is entitled to have from
his directing executive specific instructions as to duties to be performed.
These instructions should not only include specific directions as to the
details of the work but also the relations which the employee bears to the
executive heads of other divisions (in large systems), and to the general
public. Inasmuch as maintenance employees come more or less into con-
stant contact with operative executives and employees and the work of the
latter depends largely upon the condition of the areas and all the facilities
thereon, there must be the closest possible harmony between these two
classes of employees. Likewise park caretakers, gardeners and foremen are
more or less in constant contact with the public and the- impression that
the public will gain of the quality of the park service will likely be much
influenced by the attitude, diligence and efficiency or lack of efficiency of
these employees. It is not expected, of course, that maintenance employees
give a great deal of time to the visiting public, but whenever the occasion
arises the attitude of the employee should be courteous and helpful.

Reports Relating to Personnel.

Time reports. A careful time record of the work of each employee should
be kept. In the small systems this is usually done by the superintendent
of the department. In the larger systems time report records are kept by
foremen or other responsible persons in charge of men. These time reports
should be recorded daily, but the forwarding of them to the administrative
office may be daily, weekly, bimonthly or monthly. The better practice
is to turn them into the administrative office daily so that there will be no
delay in making up the payroll. Some systems use an ordinary post card
with the blank form or forms printed on the back, which the foreman can
fill out at the close of each day and mail to the office. The form should
show the date, name, rate of pay, hours of work, location and character of
work. They may be on a card as indicated above, on single form sheets, or
in bound book form. These time reports are the basis of the payroll com-
pilation and of cost distribution.

Payroll reports. These are compiled in the office by the superintendent,
the secretary or by a time clerk from the time reports. The compilation
may be made weekly, bimonthly or monthly. After the payroll has been
passed by the governing authority, payment of wages or salaries due

MAINTENANCE 653

employees may be made immediately. Each employee signs his name
opposite the amount due him and receives his pay either in cash or by
check. Some park systems use the wasteful method of requiring each
employee to call at the office to receive his pay. In others, payment is made
by the superintendent, or the secretary, or the paymaster, in the field where-
ever the employees happen to be. This is the better and more economical
method. From the standpoint of possible loss through robbery of the pay-
car, payment by check is the much safer method; but where persons are
employed who are ignorant of banking methods, payment in cash is a greater
convenience to them.

Efficiency rating reports. In those park systems operating under civil
service, reports of the rating of each employee is required from time to time,
usually monthly. In the maintenance and repair division of the South
Park Department, Chicago, the efficiency factors considered include: quantity
of work, quality of work, deportment, time and punctuality and subordi-
nation. For the different types of workers maximum values are given each
factor, the whole totalling 100. Perfection is rated at 100; unusual excellence,
90; excellent, 88; very good, 85; good, 83; average efficiency, 80; unsatis-
factory, 75 (pay should be reduced if below 75); incompetent, 70 (should
be removed if below 70). These reports are made by the foremen or man-
agers on monthly report forms provided for this purpose. These efficiency
ratings are important from the standpoint of wage or salary increases or
decreases, transfers, promotions or discharges and no doubt tend to tone
up the morale of the employees.

Accident reports. In those states where industrial compensation laws
are in force and where public employees are included within the provisions
of the laws, it becomes necessary for the park departments to keep careful
records of each and every injury to an employee. The Minneapolis Park
Department uses an accident report form, which includes the following items:
name of person injured, address, date and hour of injury, place of accident,
how long was injured at work on this crew, nature of injury, where taken
after the accident, how did the accident occur. The report is signed by two
or more witnesses and by the person making the report. This report is
required to be made immediately after the accident. The park department
also uses a form prepared by the Industrial Commission of Minnesota.
This form comprises twenty-eight different questions and must be returned
completely filled out within forty-eight hours in the case of a fatal or serious
accident, otherwise on the seventh day after injury or disability occurs.
Other forms prepared by the Industrial Commission and used by the
department include partial payment receipt form, and final receipt for
compensation paid under compensation agreement and award.

654

PARKS

Every park department, whether acting under an industrial compensa-
tion law or not, should keep a careful record of any injury incurred by an
employee while in service for use in case of subsequent legal proceedings
by the employee against the department. It may be noted, also, that it is
equally important to keep a careful record of injury sustained by any
visitor to the parks and for the same reason.

Maintenance Equipment.

A third important factor in efficient maintenance is proper equipment.
By equipment is meant not only machinery and tools but also live stock

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PLATE No. 243
PLAN OF THE LAYOUT OF A SERVICE AREA,. PARK DEPARTMENT, SAVANNAH, GEORGIA

MAINTENANCE

655

used for motive power; materials and supplies and structures such as barns,
machinery and tool sheds, shops and storage houses.

Service Areas.

Some park departments have adopted a policy of having a central
service area comprising storage yards, sites for structures designed for dif-
ferent purposes, driveways and general purpose spaces. On page 654 is an
example of such a service area developed within recent years by the park
department of Savannah, Georgia.

In Racine, Wisconsin, the park department has set aside a centrally
located area comprising about three acres as the headquarters for main-
tenance activities. The single structure on this area is a combined barn,
storehouse and workshop.

This service park comprises 18.064 acres. Eight acres are landscaped
and the remainder devoted to shops, barns, storehouse, yards, greenhouses,
floral display garden and certain active recreation features.

Many park departments have adopted the plan of locating the main-
tenance headquarters, including sometimes also the operating headquarters,
in some one of the large parks of their respective systems, and many
have subsidiary stations in other parks in addition. The disadvantage of

A/2

PLATE No. 244. BARN AND REPAIR SHOP, PARK DEPARTMENT, RACINE, WISCONSIN

656

PARKS

^^ * — *

WCf///Vf SHOP

.'-<

vSHOP

PLATE No. 245
FLOOR PLAN. BARN AND REPAIR SHOP, PARK DEPARTMENT, RACINE, WISCONSIN

:• ,t f^-'\ ^f \5S»*S _ ^ v ^ ^Tt. j T^k, t ^—^ViJfcs^i^W?^ J-^-ni

PLATE No. 246

PLAN OF LYNDALE FARMSTEAD, A SERVICE AREA IN THE MINNEAPOLIS PARK SYSTEM,

MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA

MAINTENANCE 657

locating the maintenance headquarters in a large park is that large parks
acquired in recent years at least are usually not centrally located with
respect to other units of the system and it is difficult to embody a service
area in the landscape design of such parks. However, the frequency with
which this plan is met in the park systems of the country indicates that it
is of practical value. Examples of maintenance headquarters located in
large parks are to be found in the Bronx Park, Bronx Park System, New
York, Franklin Park in Boston, Delaware Park in Buffalo, Forest Park in
St. Louis, Forest Park in Springfield, Massachusetts, Fairmount Park in
Philadelphia, Shawnee Park in Louisville, Branch Brook Park, Essex County
Park System, New Jersey and Warinanco Park, Union County Park Sys-
tem, New Jersey. The operating headquarters are also included.

In large park systems and especially in county park systems the neces-
sity for subsidiary service areas and structures for the housing of live
stock, storage of feed, machinery and tools is obvious. In a park system
of any size it is desirable to have some storage facilities on each area that
is intensively used. This may consist of a waterproof box for the storage
of playground supplies such as is commonly found on many playgrounds,
or it may be a room under a band stand, in a comfort station, shelter house,
or other structure in the park, where the caretaker can house tools and
machinery that are in constant use and where he can keep small quantities
of supplies.

In a few cities the development of a central municipal service station
has done away to a considerable extent with the necessity of the park
department maintaining a service center. Thus in those cities having a
centralized purchasing department with large storage yards and houses, all
materials and supplies can be gotten directly by the park department
through this center. Again, cities having municipal shops handle all the
minor construction work, repairs to machinery, sharpening of mowers and
tools and similar tasks for the park department. A few cities have large
municipal garages where all park department motor vehicles and machinery
are cared for and from which all motor supplies are secured. In the smaller
cities this is perhaps the most economical manner of handling the problems
of maintenance equipment, materials and supplies.

Maintenance Structures.

Maintenance structures include such structures as dwelling houses for
foremen or caretakers, barns, shops, machinery sheds, storehouses, prop-
agating greenhouses and propagating beds or frames.

Dwelling houses. The practice of providing dwelling houses for fore-
men or caretakers in the principal parks of a system is quite common

658 PARKS

throughout the country. These dwellings may be new structures erected
specifically for the purpose or they may be old dwellings that happened
to be on the property when purchased. This practice has the advantage
of always having some one in authority on the premises and is frequently
a means of supplementing the meager salaries of the men, as the houses
are usually given rent free and often with free fuel, light and water in addi-
tion. In not a few park systems the general superintendent is also furnished
a house, usually located in one of the principal parks. The danger in pro-
viding dwellings for foremen or caretakers is that it often becomes more
difficult to transfer them when deemed necessary, and as a general principle
of management it is quite desirable to shift general foremen and care-
takers from time to time. In county park systems, where the parks are
located in rural districts and somewhat widely separated from each other,
a resident employee is highly desirable. The same may be said with respect
to various units of metropolitan park systems of cities.

Barns. Barns are not so important a type of service structure as
they were fifteen or twenty years ago, but inasmuch as many park depart-
ments still use horses or mules for motive power to some extent barns are
met with frequently and new ones are being erected from time to time.
They may be a unit among the structures on the central service area or
combined with a shop or storehouse or in a structure including all three
facilities, or they may be separate structures located in some of the principal
parks of the system as subsidiary services stations.

On page 659 will be found an illustration of a barn erected in O'Fallon
Park, one of the parks of the St. Louis Park and Recreation System. It
shows a barn combined with shop and storage facilities.

In the construction of barns, stall space eight by ten feet should be
provided for each animal. It is quite common to arrange the stalls on
either side of a central passageway ranging from a width of a few feet
sufficient for feeding purposes only to a width sufficient to allow a wagon
to pass through for unloading feed or for removal of manure. The left
space will be determined by the height of the building. At least from ten
to twelve feet head room should be allowed for the stalls. A harness room,
feed bins, a composting pit and a corral are other desirable features connected
with the construction of barns.

Shops. Many park departments rely upon outside commercial shops
for repairs to machinery, tools, recreation equipment and supplies and for
repairs to structures. Unless the system is a very small one this method
is likely to be wasteful both of time and money. Any park department
that has grown to such a size as to have a goodly supply of machinery,

MAINTENANCE

659

tools, recreation equipment and structures of various kinds should have a
well-equipped repair and construction shop. Some of the advantages of
having a repair and construction shop are:

(a) Repairs and minor construction work can usually be done as soon
as the necessity arises without loss of valuable time and done more econom-
ically than if farmed out to outside shops.

(b) In the smaller systems it provides a means of holding the year
round some men competent to handle repair and minor construction work
who otherwise would have to be dropped when the busy outdoor season
is over. In the larger systems competent men whom it is desirable to
retain as permanent employees can likewise be given employment at off
seasons.

(c) It enables a thorough overhauling of all machinery, tools, equip-
ment in structures, the structures themselves and recreation equipment
during the off season from outdoor work, so that with the opening of the
active outdoor season the following year all service equipment will be in
first class condition for the use of the public.

(d) A great deal of original construction work can be done economi-
cally in the department shop or shops, such as the making of park benches,

PLATE Xo. 247
BARN IN O'FALLON PARK, PARK AND RECREATION DEPARTMENT, ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI

66o PARKS

signs, playground apparatus, concrete posts, light standards and other
forms of concrete work. This can be done at all times where a permanent
shop force is maintained and during the off season where certain competent
men who are on outside work during the open season are retained the year
round. A repair shop is often included as a part of a structure used for
other purposes and may be in a separate structure or different divisions
of the shop may be in different structures. This is determined, usually, by
the size of the system and by the extent to which the department enters
into its own repair and minor construction work. The example of Racine,
Wisconsin, page 655, shows a combined barn and shop. In Davenport,
Iowa, the shop is located in a structure that is partly devoted to a golf
clubhouse. (See Chapter IV, page 158). In St. Louis there is more than
one structure devoted to repair and construction work.

In large systems the repair and construction work may be divided
among several distinct shops, as, for example, a carpenter, paint, black-
smith, machine, electrical, concrete, automobile, wagon shop, respectively,
each in charge of a foreman skilled in his particular trade, the whole, how-
ever, being conducted as a unit under the general supervision of the super-
intendent, or an assistant superintendent, or a superintendent of main-
tenance. As a general rule these various divisional shops occupy space
units in a single structure, although in some instances some of the divisional
shops may be housed in separate structures.

Examples of shop equipment. The small shop at Racine, Wisconsin,
is equipped with a good machine lathe, drill press, large grinding stone,
emery wheel, a fourteen-inch circular saw, a band saw, a planer, a forge,
a good workbench and adequate hand tools. All machinery is operated by
electricity. This shop is deemed adequate to handle the necessary repair
and minor construction work for a park system such as a city from fifty
to one hundred thousand might have. It would appear, however, that park
departments in smaller cities might find this minimum equipment needful.

The following is an inventory, as of 1925-1926, of the Minneapolis Park
Department shop equipment, together with the price of each item:

SHOP EQUIPMENT

Price Amount Price Amount

2 Chisels, turning $20.00 $40.00 I Machine, punch and shear . . . $320.00 $320.00

I Crane, portable 100.00 100.00 i Machine, press, Manly 22-ton 125.00 125.00

I Compressor, air 200.00 200.00 I Motor, electric, J h.p 18.00 18.00

I Clock, wall 9.00 9.00 I Motor, electric, ^4 h.p 36.00 36.00

I Forge, blacksmith 35-OO 35-OO 4 Motors, electric, I h.p 45-OO 180.00

3 Grinders, bench 25.00 75-OO I Motor, electric, \% h.p 45.00 45.00

I Machine, drill press, Barnes . . 300.00 300.00 6 Motors, electric, 2 h.p 54-OO 324.00

I Machine, lathe with chuck. . . 400.00 400.00 I Motor, electric, 3 h.p 54.00 54-OO

I Machine, hack saw, power, I Motor, electric, 5 h.p 67.50 67.50

Racine 95-OO 95.00 3 Motors, electric, "j]4 h.p 135.00 405.00

MAINTENANCE

661

I set Reamers

I Stand, emery

1 1 Tanks, oil, Warne

1 Tank, air storage

2 Vises, bench No. 56

2 Register Turntables

Pump, gasoline, Wayne

Machine, "Kwik Way"

Machine, shaper

Anvil

Bellows, hand

Bits, auger

Tool Box

Bit Brace

Can, sprinkling, i6-quart ....

I Can, waste

3 Chisels, blacksmith

4 Chisels, cold

I set Drills, % to %-inch

1 set Drills, iH to i>£-inch. . . .

2 Drills, ratchet, lo-inch

i set Dies

1 Extinguisher, fire

2 Flatters, blacksmith

1 Grinder Machine

2 Grease Guns

i Claw Hammer

3 Hammers, blacksmith

1 Hammer, striking, 10 Ibs

2 Hammers, striking, 14 Ibs. . . .
i Hammer, striking, blacksmith,

10 Ibs

i Hammer, machinist

1 Hammer, riveting

2 Hard Dies, blacksmith

loo feet Hose, ^-inch, Water ....

Indicator, speed

Iron, branding

Jack Screw

Knife, draw

Ladder, lo-foot taper

Machine, electric portable drill
i Machine, electric valve

Price

Amount

#27.00

9.00

80.00

9.00

880.00

25.00

20.00

40.00

5.00

IO.OO

230.00
SH-SS

230.00

514.85

450.00

IO.OO

.20

.30

.60

20.00

1.50
.80

2.OO

•25

•75

•25

I.OO

I.4O

1.40

1.25

2.OO

6.00

4.00
6.00

8.00

.20

.40

40.00

I.OO

2.OO

.70

2.IO

I.IO

1.50

3.OO

I.OO

•45

•3°

.20

.12

.40

2.OO

1. 60

•75

2.OO
67.50

50.0O

I.OO

•45
•30
.40

12.00

.40

2.OO

1.60

•75

2.OO
67.50

50.OO

Machine, pipe tread

Machine, power hammer. . .

Machine, bending iron and shear

Machine, riveting

Machine, tire shrinker

Machine, welding

Mallet, wooden

Micrometer, inside

Machine Grinder, lawnmowers

Nozzle, 2^-inch

4 Oilers

3 Pails, galvanized iron

1 Plate Screw

2 Pliers, 6-inch

2 Plungers, p. f

2 Saws, hack

i Saw, carpenter

3 Screw Drivers

i Band Saw, set narrow

i Settee, 4-foot

I Shovel, stable

i Set Steel Stamps

6 Swages, top and bottom

i Tank, oil storage

6 Tongs, blacksmith

i Torch, Everhot

4 Vises, bench

I Vise, pipe

1 Wheelbarrow, dump

2 Wrenches, 1 5-inch B. & C. . . .

3 Wrenches, crescent

i Wrench, monkey, 8-inch

i Wrench, monkey, lo-inch ....
i Wrench, monkey, 1 2-inch ....
i Wrench, monkey, 1 8-inch ....

i Wrench, pipe, 8-inch

i Wrench, pipe, 14-inch

i Wrench, pipe, i8-inch

I Wrench, pipe, 24-inch

I Wrench, set snap on

Price

Amount

#90.00

30.00

I.OO

25.00
60.00

•30

•3°

4.00

175.00

•25

.25

.10

.40

•75

2.25

20.00

•25

•3°

•50
.60

•75

1.50

.20

1.50
.60

10.00

IO.OO

2.25

•75

2.0O

2.00

•25

1.50

25.00

25.0O

•5°
28.75

3-00
28.75

10.00

6.00

40.00

6.00

3-5°

3-50

I.OO

2.00

.80

2.40

.40

.50
.60

.90
.60

.90

I.OO

1.50

25.00

#5,861.50

Machinery, wagon and tool sheds. To protect all the different kinds
of machines, vehicles and tools used in park maintenance from exposure to
weather and from theft, is of very great economic importance. The deterio-
ration of machines, vehicles and tools from constant exposure to the action
of the elements is almost as great, if not greater, than from their use. Things
that can be carried away, if left unhoused when not in use, will surely
disappear, since public property is generally looked upon as anybody's
property. In all properly constructed central service areas, sheds or spaces
within larger structures are provided for housing all equipment when not

662 PARKS

in use in some part of the system. Inasmuch as the central service area
should be surrounded by an enclosure, it frequently happens that sheds
can be constructed so as to form part of the enclosure, the open front
facing the central court or yard. The necessity of having storage facilities
for supplies and tools that are in use on individual areas has already been
mentioned.

Storehouse. In its broadest sense storehouse includes not only a struc-
ture for housing the innumerable smaller articles needed in maintenance,
but also tool and bulky material sheds, and storage yards. As considered
here storehouse is a structure used primarily for handling the smaller
articles used in maintenance work, either new articles or old articles that
are being constantly returned and reissued as the need for them arises.
Any park department that has been in operation for several years learns
what type of materials, tools and supplies it needs and about the quantity
of each type that will be necessary yearly. If this kind of information has
been collected, it shows poor business judgment to purchase from hand to
mouth when known quantities can be purchased in wholesale lots and at
wholesale prices. The only serious objection to this principle is that in
times of rapid changes in prices a park department might presumably make
the mistake of paying too high a price even in wholesale lots at the begin-
ning of a year for articles which might be bought more cheaply later. As
a rule, however, it is more economical to purchase at wholesale than from
hand to mouth. If the plan of purchasing in quantity is followed, a store-
house for the proper care of the articles becomes a necessity. In any case,
for the proper handling of equipment and supplies already owned by the
department, a central storehouse is necessary.

Many park departments have made the mistake of not constructing
their storehouses large enough, thus making it exceedingly difficult to
classify and arrange the articles properly. It is always far better to have
more room than is really necessary than to have too little. The interior
equipment of a storehouse should include as many bins as there are small
articles of the same kind to be stored; shelves for the storage of cans and
other articles that do not require large space yet cannot well be kept in
bins; racks for hand tools; frames for storage of lumber, pipe and other
articles which can thus be most conveniently stored; large open space or
spaces for bulky equipment and supplies, and office for the storekeeper, etc.
Highly inflammable or explosive material or supplies should be kept in a
structure or receptacles entirely outside the storehouse proper and a safe
distance from it. The entire interior arrangement of the storehouse should
be designed with a view of ease in finding and getting at the articles desired.

At every bin or place where articles of the same kind are stored it is

MAINTENANCE 663

desirable to have a perpetual inventory card showing for any given period
of time the original number of articles, the removals, renewals and the
quantities on hand. This card should also indicate the maximum or mini-
mum number of articles of the kind it is desirable to have on hand at all
times. This perpetual inventory card does not, of course, do away with
the necessity of the storekeeper and the secretary in the administrative
office keeping the necessary book property records.

Greenhouses. In the Chapter on "Horticulture," page 670, Mr. Mulford
notes that " in park departments with a maintenance fund of less than $50,000
or less than $100 per acre or $1.00 per capita, the expense of maintaining a
greenhouse is seldom warranted. If $50,000 provides maintenance in excess
of $100 per acre and $1.00 per capita of the people to be served by the
park system, a greenhouse may sometimes be justified."

This observation suggests the point at which any given park system
may be warranted, economically, in providing a greenhouse or houses as
a part of their maintenance equipment. There are a number of examples
throughout the country of small park departments erecting and maintain-
ing greenhouses where the cost of erection and maintenance is out of pro-
portion to general maintenance resources and where it would have been
more economical to have purchased some of the plants needed, grown others
in hotbeds or cold frames, or used more types of plants that can be success-
fully grown without any preliminary propagating aid.

The following notes and illustrations on horticultural buildings are
taken from an excellent article on the subject by L. W. C. Tuthill in Parks
and Recreation, Vol. VIII, No. 6, July-August 1925.

Planning. In planning the greenhouse be sure to give it space enough
so additions can be made economically. Locate the boiler so that with sub-
sequent additions it will continue to be in a central location and the heating
pipes can have a balanced distribution. Do not skimp on the size of the
boiler or the amount of radiation.

Location. Select a spot away from trees and buildings so as to secure
all available sunlight. Run the main axis of the house as nearly east and
west as possible so that the sun will travel parallel with the ridge for most
of the year, thus giving all the benches the greatest amount of light.

Width. Do not build too narrow. Small narrow houses are not only
difficult to ventilate without chilling the plants, but cost more in propor-
tion than larger ones. Twenty-five years ago, the two-bench, one-walk
house was thought quite the thing for parks and cemeteries where large
amounts of bedding plants were grown. Then came the eighteen-foot width,
and now the tendency is toward twenty-five feet and wider. The forty-foot
house in length of one hundred feet and up makes a splendid proposition.

664 PARKS

Of course some requirements demand several compartments to ensure dif-
ferent growing temperatures, in which case the eighteen, twenty-five or
thirty-foot house is doubtless best for general park purposes. When it
comes to bench and walk widths, follow the experience and advice of green-
house experts.

Ridge and furrow versus separate houses. There is much divergence of
opinion as to the comparative merits of separate houses as against those
built together. Ridge and furrow does make possible better ventilation,
but this is offset in snowy sections by the way the snow piles up between
the houses, causing shade at just the time of year when light is so essential.
For the same amount of money more space can be covered with ridge and
furrow houses, but the fact that in most sections of the country there is
only one such layout to every ten or more of separate houses indicates that
the separate houses are to be preferred.

Construction. In these days the semi-iron or pipe frame and the full
iron frame house has taken the place of the all-wood house. The semi-iron
(Plate 248) is a thoroughly good house, costing from ten to fifteen per cent
less than the iron frame house. As far as growing conditions are concerned
there is very little or any difference. The main difference lies in the rigidity
of the frame. The semi-iron or pipe frame has no rafters. The roof depends
entirely for its support on the added size of the glazing bars and the pipe
purlins supported about every eight feet with pipe columns.

The iron frame (Plate 249) is of entirely self-sustaining construction,
rigid and strong of itself. The roof bars, serving only as glazing members,
can be much lighter and so cast less shade. The semi-iron house must have
numerous columns, while even a house seventy feet wide, of iron frame con-
struction, requires only two columns across its width. As a permanent
investment, unquestionably, the iron frame is the best type of house. Its
upkeep is lower and there is less glass breakage because of its greater rigidity.

Wood. One of the oldest and largest firms of horticultural builders
states that, after having experienced and made extensive tests with various
woods over a period of close on to three-quarters of a century, it has come
to the conclusion that no wood so well meets the demands of combined
strength and resistance to rot as tidewater tank cypress, that is sap free.
Government statistics bear out this firm's conclusions.

Design. There are three rather distinct designs, one of which is prac-
tical for the semi-iron and all for the iron frame type of house, (a) For
both types of houses the so-called eaves plate design is adaptable. This
has an angle iron eave plate at the eave line. To it are secured the roof bars
and the side sash hinged. It makes a rigid, enduring eave that casts the
minimum shade, (b) The iron frame gutter house, which has the same

MAINTENANCE

iW>V«*!(Sl PiyvV;™

PLATE No. 248. CROSS SECTION OF A TWENTY-FOUR-FOOT BENCH, SEMI-IRON HOUSE

It has two columns. The same width iron frame house would have none. (Cut and design by Lord & Burnham
Company.)

straight roof and sides as (a), only the angle iron is replaced by an orna-
mental gutter. Architects consider this the most architectural of the three.
However, for the past fifteen years its use has been steadily on the wane.
(c) This is the iron frame curved eave house which makes use of the same
type of gutter as in (b), but the curve of the roof above it not only gives a
most attractive appearance but increases the roof height over the side
benches (Plate 250). This latter is a distinct advantage for the growing of

PLATE No. 249. CROSS SECTION OF A FORTY-FOOT IRON FRAME HOUSE
It gives ample space for seven benches. (Cut and design by Lord & Burnham.)

666

PARKS

PLATE No. 250. A SPLENDID MODERATE SIZE LAYOUT OF SERVICE HOUSE,

TWO GREENHOUSES AND FRAMES
The houses are each twenty-five feet wide and are connected to the service house by a lean-to.

PLATE No. 251. EXTENSIVE LAYOUT OF RIDGE AND FURROW HOUSES

Here is an extensive layout of ridge and furrow houses, such as would be thoroughly practical as to plan
and economical as to working and heating.

MAINTENANCE

667

PLATE No. 252. SEMI-IRON CONSTRUCTION GREENHOUSE

Complete semi-iron construction greenhouse, with inexpensive work room suitable for small parks,
greenhouse portion is eighteen feet wide and fifty feet long. Work room is twelve by twenty feet.

The

high-headed, long-stemmed plants. Generally the eaves plate design is the
practical purpose house of lowest cost. The gutter type meets the inclina-
tion of many architects. The curved eave is the most attractive.

Divisions of the design. Of the designs there are two construction divi-
sions relating to the sides and foundation. The posts may be run into the

PLATE No. 253. IRON FRAME CONSTRUCTED HOUSE

Interior view of an iron frame constructed house thirty feet wide and one hundred and fifty feet long, divided
into several compartments. A glance shows the quantities of bedding stock this first compartment grows.

668 PARKS

ground two and one-half feet below grade and be bedded in concrete, and
then run up a curtain wall of concrete from six inches below grade to the
sill. This makes a thoroughly practical form of construction and because
of its low cost is used generally for the big commercial houses. The other
method is to build a regular foundation wall of concrete, brick or stone,
running it from the sill to two and one-half feet below grade. On the tip
of this wall rests a cast iron sill, to which the side posts supporting the
rafters are directly bolted.

CHAPTER XII
HORTICULTURAL DIVISION

f SECTION I

HORTICULTURAL ORGANIZATION OF A PARK DEPARTMENT

FURMAN LLOYD MULFORD

Horticulturist, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture

The functions of a horticultural division of a park department are four-
fold: (i) Design; (2) Production; (3) Installation; (4) Maintenance.

Design. Design includes the selection of plant material to fit the
various proposed plant groups on the general park plan and often to locate
the groups as well. Where the park designer has not sufficient knowledge
of plant material, its uses and requirements, this work falls upon the horti-
cultural division. With a well organized department manned with properly
trained executives and designers this phase of the work will be adequately
handled in the designing division. If this designing is to be done by the
horticultural division a head will be needed who has had adequate training
in landscape designing. A florist or gardener who may have planted many
grounds but who has not had a thorough training in the principles of design
is not competent for such work. At some point there is needed a person
trained in the principles of landscape design including a thorough knowl-
edge of plant materials. Whatever the organization there must be close
cooperation and understanding between the design division and the horti-
cultural division. Roads, tennis courts and all park features must be located
in such manner as to serve efficiently as roads and play areas, and to blend
with the landscape. Not only must buffer planting areas be provided to
accomplish this, but good lines, which may have no bearing on the efficiency
of the road or playground, must be provided in the grading if attractive
results are to be secured. The horticultural division will need to know well
in advance of planting the material that will be required. The engineering
division will need to know the location of plant groups and the soil require-
ments so that this may be provided while grading is in progress. These
mutual understandings require whole-hearted cooperation.

Production. Every park department, however small, needs to produce
plants for adding to its decoration. Sometimes it may be only annuals to
supplement permanent plantings; sometimes it includes perennials and
again it involves woody plants for permanent plantations. Annuals are
readily and economically grown and provide temporary results by giving

669

670 PARKS

density to newly made plantings of woody materials or perennials, adding
splashes of color here and there to mature plantations and making gardens
of their own. These plants are readily propagated in hotbeds and cold
frames, while some of them are secured sufficiently early when grown in
the open ground. It is probably somewhat easier to handle some of these
in a greenhouse when the expense of operating such a structure is warranted,
but in park departments with a maintenance fund of less than $50,000
or less than $100 per acre or $1.00 per capita, the expense of maintaining
a greenhouse is seldom warranted. If $50,000 provides maintenance in
excess of $100 per acre and $1.00 per capita of the people to be served by
the park system, a greenhouse may sometimes be justified.

Greenhouses make easy the propagation of bedding stock, either annual
or perennial, the planting and care of which is expensive. When the time
arrives in the development of the park system for incurring this expense
the best of equipment should be secured. Houses ten feet wide and sunk
well in the ground are probably best for propagating purposes. The equip-
ment for the propagation of herbaceous perennials consists of beds in the
open, some shaded with lath screens or with cheesecloth and lath. A few
of these will grow a large number of plants.

Small park systems find it advisable to buy their trees and shrubs;
in larger systems there are often advantages in having a stock of the more
used plants on hand and available for quickly planting areas of especial
prominence, as soon as they are ready, with plants that are in condition to
give immediate effect. This is possible by establishing a park nursery.
Plants for a nursery may either be purchased as seedlings or rooted cuttings
or as plants more nearly ready for permanent planting. These are grown
under nursery conditions until needed for permanent planting. Often plants
are propagated from seeds and cuttings in the park nursery. If the material
propagated is carefully planned for the park needs and too much is not
undertaken, such a nursery is often of distinct advantage.

Installation. The horticultural division must be organized to do the
necessary planting at the appropriate seasons. The planting of woody
plants can much of it be done when other activities are relatively slack.
Because there is less work in the fall and because in many parts of the
country fall transplanting is more successful, plant moving may often be
done at that season. This will naturally utilize the gardeners and propaga-
tors who at other seasons are busy elsewhere. Herbaceous borders add
much to the floral decoration of parks. They usually require overhauling
and replanting every third or fourth year. Many of these plants can be
moved near the close of the busiest season in the park. If annuals or bedding
plants are used, provision must be made for setting them out in the busy

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION 671

season. Because of the great expense this entails for temporary effects,
such planting should be kept at a minimum, being used only when ample
funds are available and where it adds materially to the public interest.

Conservatories for permanent collections of tender plants or for the
temporary exhibit of popular flowers are warranted only where large appro-
priations are available. Careful preparations during many months are
necessary for these special shows. The installation of conservatories in a
park system should be weighed in the same way as the development of a
playground system, the building of an athletic field, the establishment of
a zoological collection or the construction of an aquarium. The initial cost
of such undertakings may seem large but the maintenance is burdensome
until the city is really ready to finance them properly from year to year.

Maintenance. The horticultural maintenance of a park system is synony-
mous with park maintenance over the major portion of the park depart-
ment. Intensive play areas, the care of much used service buildings and
other special features are the only exceptions. The maintenance of the
park areas must usually be on a twofold basis, the local and the special.
Local maintenance has to do with a man or a group of men maintaining a
definite park area while the special maintenance involves a gang of men,
usually with special equipment or with special training, who perform a
particular kind of work throughout the park system. A spraying gang or
a pruning gang is an example of the latter.

The type of park development and the intensity and continuity of
use are important factors in determining the character of maintenance. A
park with open lawns enclosed by masses of shrubs sufficiently remote from
the centers of population to be used only in summer may be maintained at
far less expense than a park of formal design or with many flower beds, or
one near the business center that is likely to be used almost every day in
the year. A park in which natural woodlands and open meadows predomi-
nate, in which cutting the grass two or three times a season and cleaning
out dead wood constitute the principal items of maintenance, takes but
little of the appropriation.

It is probably best to have some one in charge of each unit or separate
portion of the park system. The smaller units would be handled by a good
workman while larger parks would be handled by a foreman with a gang
of men. The area that one man can handle varies with the type of park
development and the man. A park of five acres with mass plantings of
shrubbery without flower beds, but with the lawns much broken by trees,
can often be handled by one man. If most of the ground could be mowed
with a power lawn mower a larger area could be tended. A half acre of
flower beds is usually all one man can keep in good condition.

672 PARKS

A hundred-acre park with lawns not too much cut up by walks and
other features and the plantings mainly of tree and shrub masses can often
be handled by eight men and a horse or gasoline power equipment for lawn
mowing. Rural and woodland parks can sometimes be handled by one or
two men per hundred acres in summer and one man to three or four hundred
acres in spring and fall. It all depends on the character of upkeep and
intensity of use.

In a park system for a small town it is sometimes possible so to organ-
ize the work that one set of men goes from park to park doing all the grass
cutting, another set does the hoeing, and so on. In the present day of motor
transportation this may be the most efficient method. On the other hand
there is a protective influence that discourages vandalism if small groups
of men are working here and there throughout the parks, which often more
than compensates for an apparent lack of efficiency. Alert workmen are
often better protectors than police and certainly may be important aids to
the police in park protection.

Equipment. The equipment requiring closest scrutiny is the lawn
mowers. The basis should be power mowers suited to the size of the areas
to be cut, supplemented by just enough sixteen-inch hand mowers to cut
about trees, along edges and at corners so that the power machine will
not need to jockey at corners to make a clean cut or run too close to trees
or plant groups, thus saving time. Only a competent mechanic should
ever be permitted to tamper with the adjustments. There should be enough
machines at hand so that if one becomes slightly out of adjustment another
is available until the mechanic has a chance to make the repairs. The
workmen usually hurt rather than help a machine.

Another expensive item of equipment is the spray outfit. For tree
spraying, whether on city streets, in parks or in forests, a strong pump is
essential, one that can create a pressure of two hundred pounds per square
inch at the nozzle. For the spraying of low shrubbery a much lower pressure
is better. For spraying, the unit organization for the park system is prob-
ably best, even if the street trees of the city are included under the park
administration.

As nearly a central location as possible should be selected for an admin-
istration unit where housing should be provided for trucks and automobiles
as well as spray outfits, lawn mowers and small tools of all kinds. Repair
shops may often be in common with other divisions of the department.
The propagating grounds should be near at hand. When there is a show
conservatory it should also be close by, if practicable, but the work yards
need to be well screened from the other portions of the parks.

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION 673

There should be trained men to head each of the following lines:

General maintenance: Propagation:

Lawns. Temporary material:

Shrubbery plantings. Annuals.

Trees, including street plantings. Bedding plants.

Gardens. Greenhouse shows.

Show greenhouses. Permanent material:

Installation: Herbaceous perennials.

Lawns. Deciduous trees and shrubs.

Woody plants. Cone-bearing evergreens.

Gardens. Broad-leaf evergreens.

Bedding.

Greenhouse exhibits.

In a small park system two or three men will head all of these lines.
Much of the installation or new plantings may be done at seasons of the
year when maintenance or propagation work is not pressing. Competent,
although apparently high-priced help, should be given to all these leaders.
Extravagance often occurs in park systems by employing men untrained in
the particular lines of work to which they are assigned. It is frequently
assumed that because a man has been successful in more or less closely
allied work, he is able to take up any of these lines. Such an experience is
valuable, providing the rudiments upon which the necessary structure maybe
built, and often contributes towards the training necessary for efficient work.

SECTION II

NOTES ON DIFFERENT GROWING REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES,
TOGETHER WITH LISTS OF HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS AND
ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS AND TREES BEST ADAPTED
TO EACH REGION1

The United States presents a great variety of growing conditions.
Some of the perennials and ornamental trees and shrubs are adapted to
many of these conditions, others to but a few. In order to make these
variations as intelligible as possible a map (Plate 254) has been prepared
in which the areas with approximately similar growing conditions are speci-
fied by numbers with heavy border lines. In the following pages the general
characteristics of these regions are discussed. This is followed by a table
showing in which of these regions certain specified perennials may be
expected to thrive, and by a table showing in which of these regions speci-
fied ornamental shrubs and trees may be expected to thrive. The section
closes with some notes on lawn grasses.

1 The material in Section IV was prepared by the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture. That part of the section dealing with herbaceous perennials originally appeared in Farmers'
Bulletin No. 1381, "Herbaceous Perennials," by Furman Lloyd Mulford, issued May 1924. That part dealing
with ornamental shrubs and trees and grasses is a part of an Extension Handbook issued September 1927.

674

PARKS

PLATE No. 254
MAP SHOWING REGIONS WITH SIMILAR GROWING CONDITIONS

Region I includes the whole North Pacific Coast from
below Santa Cruz Bay to the Canadian line. Its char-
acteristics are cool, dry summers with frequent fogs
and heavy winter rainfall, with lowest temperature
eight to ten degrees below freezing in the north to about
freezing in the south.

Region 2 includes the Willamette Valley in Oregon
and the region of similar climate north of it in Washing-
ton, including the shores of Puget Sound. The summers
are warmer and drier than in Region I and the average
lowest temperatures are from ten to twenty degrees
Fahrenheit.

Region 3 includes the Sacramento and San Joaquin
valleys in California. This region has hot, dry summers
and winters with fifteen to twenty inches of rainfall.
The temperature drops to ten or twelve degrees below
freezing on the valley floor, with slightly higher tem-
peratures on the hillsides.

Region 4 includes the Sierra Nevada and Cascade
ranges of mountains. Conditions here vary consider-
ably according to elevation. Many native plants grow
well at the different altitudes, but at lower levels the
valley plants are suitable. At a higher elevation those
adapted to Region 28 will succeed if irrigation water is
available; if not, those suitable for Region 19 will be
best. For still higher elevations those listed for Regions
27 and 28, respectively, are the ones to use.

Region 5 comprises all that part of California from
Santa Barbara to San Diego, Redlands and Riverside,
including what is popularly known as Southern Cali-
fornia. The summers are dry, cool on the coast, and

warm inland; the winters are moderately rainy, being
nearly free from frost on the coast and in the foothills.
The same plants can be used here as in Regions i and
2, and in addition many plants recognized as less
hardy.

Region 6 is the Columbia River valley. The summers
are warm, while the winters have temperatures of ten
to fifteen degrees Fahrenheit.

Region 7 includes the plateau of the eastern part of
Washington and the valleys of the Idaho and western
Montana. The summers are warm, and the winter
temperatures range from zero to fifteen degrees below
zero Fahrenheit.

Region 8 includes the Snake River plains and the
Utah valley. It is a semi-arid country with water avail-
able for irrigation. The summers are hot and the win-
ters cold. The same plants that succeed in Region 7
may be grown here.

Region 9 is the northern part of the great arid interior
plateau included in Oregon, Nevada and Utah. Its
characteristics are hot days and frosty nights in summer,
with cold winters and less than ten inches of rainfall.

Region 10 embraces all the Southwestern Desert, in-
cluding portions of California, Arizona and a corner of
Nevada. The climate is hot to scorching, with rainfall
from three to ten inches.

Region II embraces the southern part of the great
arid interior plateau, including New Mexico and Ari-
zona. Its characteristics are the same as the plateau
farther north (Region 9), except that temperatures are
higher.

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION

675

Region 12 is that part of the Rocky Mountains in-
cluded in Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Washington and
Oregon. The temperature and rainfall vary greatly,
dependent on elevation and exposure. Many places are
suitable for a great variety of plants; others are suited
to only a few.

Region /j includes the Rocky Mountains of Utah and
Colorado. It is similar to the region farther north,
except that the temperatures for the same elevation are
about seven degrees warmer. The plants that can be
used at an elevation of four thousand feet in Region 12
can be used at six thousand feet in this region.

Region 14 includes the Rocky Mountains of Arizona
and New Mexico. It is similar to the region farther
north, except that temperatures for the same elevation
average about six degrees warmer than Region 13 and
thirteen degrees warmer than Region 12. Allowing four
degrees of temperature for each thousand feet of eleva-
tion would make possible the growing of a particular
plant in Region 14 at elevations fifteen hundred feet
higher than in Region 13 when the moisture conditions
are similar.

Region 75 is the northern Great Plains area south to
Kansas and Colorado, extending from about the five
thousand-foot contour on the west to the black soils on
the east. It is extremely cold in winter in the north-
eastern portions, usually dropping to thirty or forty
degrees below zero Fahrenheit, while close to the
mountains it is twenty degrees warmer. The summers
are moderately warm. This region is generally recog-
nized as the northern part of the dry-farming area.

Region 16 is the central portion of the Great Plains,
including the plains portion of Kansas, Oklahoma and
New Mexico; also portions of the plains in Colorado
and Texas. It extends eastward from about the five
thousand-foot contour on the west to the black soils
on the east. The rainfall varies from ten to twenty
inches. The climate is warmer and ha« greater evapora-
tion than Region 15. It is the southern portion of the
dry-farming area. The plants succeeding in Region 15
will grow here, together with many others that do not
survive so much cold but have the same ability to
withstand hot, dry winds.

Region 77 is the dry, hot portion of southwestern
Texas, with little rainfall.

Region 18 is the subhumid black-soils country lying
just east of the dry-farming area of the northern Great
Plains and is intermediate as to moisture between
Region 15 and the more humid area to the east of it.
The winters are very cold and dry. The same types of
plants succeed here as in Region 15 with a little wider
range of varieties, as there is a little more moisture.

Region 19 is the subhumid black-soils area of Kansas,
southern Nebraska, and most of Oklahoma. There is
more moisture than in the dry-farming country to the
west of it and less than in the area farther east. It is a

locality of sudden variation in winter temperatures and
of hot winds in summer.

Region 20 is the subhumid or transition region of
central Texas with black- and chocolate-colored soils.
In moisture conditions it is intermediate between the
dry-farming regions farther west and the humid climate
of eastern Texas.

Region 21 is in the northern part of the prairie coun-
try, having a short growing season with frequent
droughts of more than thirty days and cold winters
with drying winds. The rainfall is twenty to thirty
inches, occurring mostly in the summer.

Region 22 is that portion of the prairie country hav-
ing higher temperatures than Region 21, but subject
to similar cold drying winds in winter. The rainfall is
thirty to forty inches.

Region 23 is the western part of the Great Lakes
forest area. The eastern portion is slightly warmer and
more humid than the western portion, the latter much
resembling Region 21.

Region 24 is largely that part of the country influ-
enced by the Great Lakes, lying east of Lake Michigan,
extending south into Ohio and eastward to Lake On-
tario. There is considerable moisture in the atmosphere
in addition to a rainfall of thirty to forty inches rather
well distributed through the year. The winter temper-
atures are more moderate than in Region 23, and there
is usually a good snow covering giving protection to
herbaceous perennials.

Region 25 includes the Ohio and lower Tennessee
River valleys and the Ozark Mountain region. The
winter temperatures are rather moderate with much
alternate freezing and thawing, while the summer is
warm with a thirty-day drought often occurring near
its close. The rainfall is forty to fifty inches.

Region 26 includes the colder sections of the eastern
United States, comprising much of Maine, the moun-
tainous portions of New York, and a portion of northern
Michigan. It is characterized by cold winters with
heavy snowfalls and short summers of long days and
cool nights. The rainfall is abundant, and the heavy
snows afford excellent protection to herbaceous plants.

Region 2j is the Appalachian Mountain country, in-
cluding much of New England and New York, most of
Pennsylvania, and the mountainous portions of the
States southward. The rainfall is abundant, usually
thirty-five to fifty inches, and is well distributed
through the season. In the colder parts the snowfall is
sufficient to give abundant protection to herbaceous
plants.

Region 28 lies just east of Region 27 and includes the
Piedmont and some adjoining sections with similar
growing conditions. It extends from northern Alabama
northeastward across the Carolinas and Virginia to New
Jersey and the coast of Alassachusetts. It is warmer
than Region 27, with abundant rainfall except in late

676 PARKS

summer, when thirty-day droughts often occur. The Ocean and westward along the Gulf of Mexico. It has

winters are open, with much freezing and thawing, and moderate summer temperatures with hot sunshine,

there is little snow protection to be relied upon. short winters and abundance of rainfall (fifty to sixty

Region 29 includes most of the cotton country, extend- inches), and is almost subtropical.

ing from what is known as east Texas eastward and Region 31 is southern Florida, with exception of the

northward to the Atlantic Ocean in North Carolina and subtropical fringe. It is subject to annual frosts and

Virginia. It lies between the Piedmont region and the has rather warm summers and a rainfall of over fifty

swampy lower coastal plain that borders the Gulf of inches. The vegetation approaches the subtropical,

Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. The rainfall is abun- oranges, palms and the Grevillea or silk oak succeeding.

dant, being from forty-five to sixty inches except Region 32 is the tropical coast of southern Florida.

toward the last of the rather warm summer, when a It has slight range of temperature with no frosts and a

thirty-day drought frequently occurs. rainfall of fifty to sixty inches. Palms and mangroves

Region 30 is the swampy coastal plain from Wilming- are the typical vegetation,
ton, North Carolina, southward along the Atlantic

TABLE i

SOME HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS SUITABLE FOR USE IN DIFFERENT SECTIONS

OF THE UNITED STATES

Table I summarizes the principal features relating to the adaptation of different herbaceous perennials,
arranged in alphabetical order, showing their suitability in regard to season of blooming, height of growth, and
climatic requirements for use in various regions of the United States.

Column I gives the scientific name of the plant.

Columns 2 to 6 show by means of the symbol X the time of year when the flowers may be expected. The
date will vary according to latitude and altitude and to a small extent according to longitude. Thus if the symbol
appears in column 2, marked E, the blooms may be expected early in the flowering season; if in column 4, under
M, about midsummer; and if in column 6, under L, just before frost. Columns 3 and 5 denote intermediate
seasons.

Columns 7 to 12 show by means of the symbol X the approximate height of the plant under ordinary con-
ditions. There will be much variation from this in many locations, depending upon adaptability of the plants
to the particular location.

Columns Ri to R32, under "Regions," indicate the different locations, as shown on the map (Plate 254, page
674). In these regional columns the symbol I indicates that the plant requires irrigation during the dry season;
N indicates that the plant is native to the region; P indicates that special winter protection is required; X indi-
cates that in the region thus designated the plant may be expected to thrive under average care with respect
to water, shade and other cultural conditions, including special treatment that would be required for the
particular plant anywhere.

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION

677

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HORTICULTURAL DIVISION

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HORTICULTURAL DIVISION

68 1

LIST OF ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS AND TREES SUITABLE FOR PLANTING
IN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES

For permanent effects in ornamental planting woody plants, both
deciduous and evergreen should be used. Their effect is continuous from
year to year, and winter as well as summer decoration can be provided.
Plants native to any section should be given first consideration. These
may be observed in the woods and fields in summer and transplanted at
the next appropriate transplanting season. Next in value are those sug-
gested in the following lists. Many of these plants are also native. Orna-
mental plants for use in the different regions shown on the regional map
(Plate 254, page 674) are arranged in the following list according to their
approximate ultimate height. This height will vary much, according to the
region where grown, to the character, tilth, fertility, moisture content and
acidity of the soil, the exposure and the care the plants receive.

Those plants not specially designated in the lists are deciduous. The
others are followed by special marks, such as B, broad-leaf evergreens; C,
cone-bearing evergreens; H, half evergreens; that is, hold their leaves until
midwinter or after; P, palms or palmlike.

PLANTS FOR REGION i

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Andromeda polifolia
(B), Birberis repens (B), Callunavulgaris (B), Ceanothus
americanus, Chamezdaphne calyculata (B), Cotoneaster
buxifolia, Cotoneaster microphylla (B), Daphne cneorum
(B), Erica carnea (B), Erica vagans (B), Hypericum
moserianum (B), Juniperus communis depressa (C),
Juniperus prostrata (C), Rhus aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Azalea amcena (B), Callicarpa
purpurea, Cotoneaster simonsi, Daphne mezereum, Deutzia
gracilis, Evonymus radicans, Kalmia angustifolia (B),
Pieris floribunda (B), Robinia hispida, Rosa bracteata,
Spircza bumalda, Spircza bumalda Anthony Waterer,
Spircza japonica, Spircza tomentosa, Symphoricarpos occi-
dentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus, Symphoricarpos vul-
garis, Viburnum acerifolium,

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea indica (B), Azalea nudi-
flora, Berberis aquifolium (B), Berberis thunbergi, Buxus
sempervirens sufruticosa (B), Callicarpa americana,
Calycanthus floridus, Caryopteris mastacanthus, Cepha-
lanthus occidentalis, Clethra alnifolia, Cornus alba, Cor-
nus sanguinea, Cornus stolonifera flaviramea, Cydonia
japonica, Deutzia crenata, Diervilla rosea, Hydrangea
arborescens, Hydrangea arborescens sterilis, Hydrangea
quercifolia, Jasminum nudiflorum, Juniperus sabina (C),
Juniperus, squamata (C), Kerria japonica, Ligustrum
ibota regelianum, Lonicera morrowi, Nandina japonica
(B), Rhodotypos kerrioides, Ribes odoratum, Ribes ameri-
canum, Rosa rugosa, Spircza prunifolia, Spircea thun-
bergi, Spircea vanhouttei, Staphylea bumalda, Stepha-
nandra flexuosa, Tamarix odessana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Abelia grandiflora (H), Aucuba
japonica (B), Berberis ilicifolia (H), Buddleia davidi,
Cephalotaxus pedunculata (C), Eloeagnus longipes, Elce-
agnus macrophylla (B), Elceagnus pungens (B), Evony-
mus alatus, Evonymus japonicus (B), Forsythia suspensa,
Forsythia viridissima, Hydrangea hortensis, Ilex verticil-
lata, Kalmia latifolia (B), Ligustrum sinense, Lonicera

fragrantissima, Myrica carolinensis (H), Philadelphus
lezvisi, Prunus pumila, Viburnum americanum, Vibur-
num nudum, Viburnum tomentosum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. JEsculus parvtflora, Alnus
mitchelliana, Amelanchier alnifolia, Acanthopanax pen-
taphyllum, Azalea calendulacea, Ceanothus thyrsiftorus,
Cephalotaxus drupacea sinensis (C), Cercis japonica,
Cytisus scoparius, Exochorda grandiflora, Hibiscus syri-
acus, Hydrangea paniculata, Ligustrum ibota, Ligustrum
japonicum (B), Lonicera ruprechtiana, Lonicera tatarica,
Lycium chinense, Philadelphus coronariuj, Philadelphus
inodorus, Physocarpus opulifolius, Rhododendron cataw-
biense (B), Spartium junceum, Staphylea trifolia,
Syringa chineniis, Syringa persica, Tamarix gallic a,
Thuja occidentalis (dwarf varieties) (C), Thuja orien-
talis (dwarf varieties) (C), Viburnum opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Amorpha fruticosa, Chamcecy-
paris obtusa (C), Chamczcyparis pisifera (C), Chamcecy-
paris pisifera filif era (C), Chamczcyparis pisifera plumosa
(C), Chamezcyparis pisifera squarrosa (C), Chionanthus
virginica, Colutea arborescens, Cornus florida, Cornus
mas, Cornus paniculata, CraUegus oxyacantha, Hama-
melis virginiana, Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora, Ilex
vomitoria (B), Juniperus scopulorum (C), Ligustrum
amurense, Magnolia sttllala, Osmanthus aquifolium (B),
Osmanthus fragrans (B), Photinia serrulata (B), Prunus
pissardi, Punica granatum (B), Pyracantha coccinea
lalandi (H), Rhododendron maximum (B), Rhus cotinus,
Rhus glabra, Salix caprea, Sambucus canadensis, Sam-
bucus pubens, Syringa vulgaris. Viburnum prunifolium.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Camellia japonica (B), Caragana arbores-
cens, Coprosma baueri (tall form) (B), Elceagnus angusti-
folia, Evonymus atropurpureus, Ilex crenata (B), Ligus-
trum lucidum (B), Melaleuca decussata, Pieris japonica
(B), Ptelea trifoliata (B).

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier

682

PARKS

canadensis, Buxus sempervirens (B), Cercis canadensis,
Cratcegus crusgalli, Ilex aquifolium (B), Juniperus chi-
nensis (C), Juniperus communis (C), Juniperus excelsa
(C), Juniperus virginiana (C), Lagerstrxmia indica,
Ligustrum ovalifolium (H), Prunus caroliniana (B),
Styrax japonica, Syringa japonica.

LARGE TREES. London plane, English elm, Oregon
maple, madrone (B), European linden, California black
walnut, American elm, Huntingdon elm, California
sycamore, honey locust, black locust.

PLANTS FOR REGION 2

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens (B),
Calluna vulgaris (B), Ceanothus americanus, Cotoneaster
buxifolia, Cotoneaster microphylla (B), Daphne cneorum
(B), Erica carnea (B), Hypericum moserianum, Juni-
perus communis depress a (C), Juniperus prostrata (C),
Rhus aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Callicarpa purpurea, Cotoneaster
simonsi, Daphne mezereum, Deutzia gracilis, Evonymus
radicans, Pieris fioribunda (B), Rosa bracteata, Spircea
bumalda, Spircea bumalda Anthony Waterer, Spircea
japonica, Spircea tomentosa, Symphoricarpos occidentalis,
Symphoricarpos racemosus, Symphoricarpos vulgaris,
Viburnum acerifolium.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea nudiflora, Berberis aqui-
folium (B), Berberis thunbergi, Buddleia davidi, Calli-
i.arpa americana, Calycanthus floridus, Caryopteris mas-
tacanthus, Cephalanthus occidentalis, Clethra alnifolia,
Cornus alba, Cornus sanguinea, Cornus stolonifera flavi-
ramea, Cydonia japonica, Deutzia crenata, Dienilla rosea,
Hydrangea arborescens, Hydrangea arborescens sterilis,
Jasminum nudiflorum, Juniperus sabina (C), Kerria
japonica, Ligustrum regelianum, Lonicera morrowi, Nan-
dina japonica (B), Rhodotypos kerrioides, Ribes odora-
tum, Rosa rugosa, Spircea prunifolia, Spircea thunbergi,
Spircea vanhouttei, Staphylea bumalda, Stephanandra
flexuosa, Tamarix odessana, Viburnum suspensum (B).

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Abelia grandiflora (H), Aucuba
japonica (B), Berberis ilicifolia (B), Cephalotaxus pedun-
culata (C), Elceagnus longipes, Evonymus alatus, Evony-
mus japonicus (B), Forsythia suspensa, Forsythia viridis-
sima, Ilex verticillata, Kalmia latifolia (B), Ligustrum
sinense, Lonicera fragrantissima, Philadelphus lewisi,
Prunus pumila, Viburnum, americanum, Viburnum den-
tatum, Viburnum nudum, Viburnum tinus (B), Viburnum
tomentosum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. JEsculus pariiiflora, Alnus mitch~
elliana, Amelanchier alnifolia, Acanthopanax penta-
phyllum, Ceanothus thyrsiflorus, Cephalotaxus drupacea
sinensis (C), Cercis japonica, Cytisus scoparius, Exo-
chorda grandiflora, Hibiscus syriacus, Hydrangea panic-
ulata, Ligustrum ibota, Ligustrum japonicum (B),
Lonicera ruprechtiana, Lonicera tatarica, Lycium chi-
nense, Philadelphus coronarius, Philadelphus inodorus,
Physocarpus opulifolius, Spartium junceum, Syringa
chinensis, Syringa persica, Tamarix gallica, Thuja occi-
dentalis (dwarf varieties) (C), Thuja orientalis (dwarf
varieties) (C), Viburnum opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Colutea arborescens, Cornus
florida, Cornus mas, Cornus paniculata, Cratcegus oxya-
cantha, Hamamelis virginiana, Hydrangea paniculata
grandiflora, Ilex vomitoria (B), Juniperus scopulorum
(C), Ligustrum amurense, Osmanthus aquifolium (B),
Osmanthus fragrans (B), Photinia serrulata (B), Prunus
pissardi, Punica granatum (B), Pyracantha coccinea
lalandi (H), Rhododendron maximum (B), Rhuj cotinus,
Salix caprea, Sambucus canadensis, Sambucus pubens,
Staphylea trifolia, Syringa vulgaris, Viburnum pruni-
folium.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Coprosma baueri (tall
form), Elczagnus angustifolia, Evonymus atropurpureus,
Ilex crenata (B), Melaleuca decussata, Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Cercis canadensis, Cratcegus crusgalli, Ilex
aquifolium (B), Juniperus chinensis (C), Juniperus
communis (C), Juniperus excelsa (C), Juniperus vir-
giniana (C), Lager sir cemia indie a, Ligustrum ovalifolium,
Styrax japonica, Syringa japonica.

LARGE TREES. Oregon, maple, madrone (B), honey
locust, white oak, sugar maple, California black walnut,
black locust.

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens (B),
Cotoneaster buxifolia, Cotoneaster microphylla (B),
Daphne cneorum (B), Hypericum moserianum, Juniperus
communis depressa (C), Juniperus prostrata (C).

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Cotoneaster simonsi, Daphne me-
zereum, Evonymus radicans (B), Spircea bumalda, Spircea
bumalda Anthony Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea
tomentosa.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Berberis aquifolium (B), Berberis
thunbergi, Callicarpa americana, Caryopteris mastacan-
thus, Cornus sanguinea, Cydonia japonica, Dienilla
rosea, Hydrangea arborescens, Hydrangea arborescens
sterilis, Jasminum nudiflorum, Juniperus sabina (C),
Kerria japonica, Ligustrum ibota regelianum, Lonicera
morrowi, Nandina japonica (B), Rhodotypos kerrioides,
Rosa rugosa, Spircea prunifolia, Spircea thunbergi, Spircea
vanhouttei, Tamarix odessana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Abelia grandiflora (H), Aucuba
japonica (B), Berberis ilicifolia (B), Cephalotaxus pe-
dunculata (C), Datura arbor ea (H), Elceagnus longipes,
Elceagnus macrophylla (B), Elceagnus pungens (B), Es-
callonia montevidensis (B), Evonymus alatus, Evonymus
japonicus (B), Forsythia suspensa, Forsythia viridissima,
Ilex verticillata, Ligustrum sinense, Lonicera fragrantis-
sima, Philadelphus lewisi.

REGION 3

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Acanthopanax pentaphyllum,
Callistemon lanceolatus, Ceanothus thyrsiflorus, Cytisus
scoparius, Hibiscus syriacus, Hydrangea paniculata,
Ligustrum ibota, Ligustrum japonicum (B), Lonicera
ruprechtiana, Lonicera tatarica, Lycium chinense, Myrtus
communis (B), Philadelphus coronarius, Philadelphus
inodorus, Physocarpus opulifolius, Pittosporum tobira
(B), Spartium junceum, Syringa chinensis, Syringa per-
sica, Tamarix gallica, Thuja occidentalis (dwarf varie-
ties) (C).

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Colutea arborescens, Cornus
florida, Cornus mas, Cratcegus oxyacantha, Heteromeles
arbutifolia (B), Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora, Ilex
vomitoria (B), Juniperus scopulorum (C), Ligustrum
amurense, Nerium oleander (B), Osmanthus aquifolium
(B), Osmanthus fragrans (B), Prunus pissardi, Punica
granatum (B), Pyracantha coccinea lalandi (H), Salix
caprea, Sambucus canadensis, Sambucus pubens, Syringa
vulgaris.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Camellia ja-
ponica, Caragana arborescens, Coprosma baueri (tall
form) (B), Elceagnus angustifolia, Evonymus atropur-
pureus, Juniperus virginiana (C), Ligustrum lucidum
(B), Melaleuca decussata, Pittosporum phillyrceoides (B).

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Juniperus

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION

683

communis (C), Juniperus excelsa (C), Lagerstrcemia in-
dica, Lugustrum ovalifolium (H), Pittosporum undulatum
(B), Prunus ilicifolia (B), Prunus caroliniana (B),
Syringa japonica.

LARGE TREES. London plane, California black wal-
nut, American elm, English elm, valley oak (B), Arizona
ash, California sycamore, Oregon ash, Koelreuteria, and,
in the warmer parts, Washington palms (P).

PLANTS FOR REGION 4

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens (B),
Calluna vulgaris (B), Ceanothus americanus, Chamce-
daphne calyculata (B), Cotoneaster buxifolia, Cotoneaster
microphylla (B), Juniperus prostrata (C), Juniperus
•communis depressa (C).

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Azalea amcena (B), Cotoneaster
simonsi, Spiraea bumalda, Spircea bumalda Anthony
Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea tomentosa, Symphori-
carpos occidentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus, Sympho-
ricarpos vulgaris.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea nudiflora (B), Berberis
aquifolium (B), Berberis thunbergi, Calycanthus floridus,
Caryopteris mastacanthus, Cephalanthus occidentalis,
Clethra ainifolia, Cornus sanguinea, Cornus stolonifera
flaviramea, Cydonia japonica, Juniperus sabina (C),
Ligustrum ibota regelianum, Lonicera morrowi, Rhodo-
typos kerrioides, Ribes odoratum, Rosa rugosa, Spircea
prunijolia, Spircea thunbergi, Spircea vanhouttei, Staphy-
lea bumalda.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Abelia grandiflora (H), Elceagnus
longipes, Evonymus alatus, Ilex verticillata, Lonicera
fragrantissima, Philadelphus lewisi, Prunus pumila,
Fiburnum americanum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. JEsculus parviflora, Alnus mitch-
elliana, Amelanchier ainifolia, Azalea calendulacea, Cea-
nothus thyrsiflorus, Cytisus scoparius, Hydrangea panicu-
lata, Ligustrum ibota, Lonicera ruprechtiana, Lonicera
tatarica, Lycium chinense, Philadelphus coronarius, Phil-
adelphus inodorus, Physocarpus opulifolius, Staphylea
trifolia, Syringa chinensis, Thuja occidentalis (dwarf
varieties) (C).

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Chionanthus virginica, Colutea
arborescens, Cornus florida, Cornus paniculata, Cratcegus
oxyacantha, Hamamelis virginiana, Hydrangea panicu-
lata grandiflora, Juniperus scopulorum (C), Ligustrum
amurense, Prunus pissardi, Pyracantha coccinea lalandi
(H), Salix caprea, Sambucus canadensis, Sambucus
pubens, Syringa vulgaris.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Elceagnus angusti-
folia, Evonymus atropurpureus, Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Cercis canadensis, Juniperus virginiana (C).

LARGE TREES. London plane, black locust, English
elm, Oregon maple, American elm, mossycup oak.

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Daphne cneorum (B).

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Cistus ladaniferus (B), Daphne
mezereum, Spircea bumalda, Spircea bumalda Anthony
Waterer, Spircea japonica.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Berberis thunbergi, Caryopteris
-mastacanthus, Cornus sanguinea, Diervilla rosea, Jasmi-
num nudiflorum, Ligustrum ibota regelianum, Lonicera
•morrowi, Nandina japonica (B), Spircea prunifolia,
Tamarix odessana, Fiburnum suspensum.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Abelia grandiflora (H), Aucuba
japonica (B), Berberis ilicifolia (B), Datura arborea (H),
Elceagnus longipes, Elceagnus macrophylla (B), Elceagnus
pungens (B), Escallonia montevidensis (B), Evonymus
japonicus (B), Forsythia suspensa, Forsythia viridissima,
Ligustrum sinense, Lonicera fragrantissima, Philadelphus
lewisi, Fiburnum tinus (B).

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Acanthopanax pentaphyllum,
Callistemon lanceolatus, Ceanothus thyrsiflorus, Cytisus
scoparius, Hibiscus syriacus, Hydrangea paniculata, Li-
gustrum ibota, Ligustrum japonicum (B), Lonicera
ruprechtiana, Lonicera tatarica, Lycium chinense, Pitto-

REGION 5

sporum tobira (B), Spartium junceum, Syringa chinensis,
Syringa persica, Tamarix gallica.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Colutea arborescens, Cratcegus
oxyacantha, Heteromeles arbutifolia (B), Hydrangea pani-
culata grandiflora, Ligustrum amurense, Nerium oleander
(B), Photinia serrulata (B), Punica granatum (B), Pyra-
cantha coccinea lalandi (H), Sambucus canadensis, Sam-
bucus pubens, Syringa vulgaris.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Camellia japon-
ica (B), Caragana arborescens, Corosma baueri (tall
varieties) (B), Elczagnus angustifolia, Jasminum humile
(B), Ligustrum lucidum (B), Melaleuca decussata, Pit-
tosporum phillyr&oides (B), Thea nnemis (B).

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Lagerstrczmia
indica, Ligustrum ovalifolium (H), Pittosporum undu-
latum^), Prunus ilicifolia (B) , Prunus caroliniana (B),
Syringa japonica.

LARGE TREES. Valley oak (B), California pepper
tree, rubber tree (B), Arizona cypress (C), Guadalupe
cypress (C), Monterey cypress (C), red gum (Eucalyptus
longirostris) (B), manna gum (Eucalyptus viminalis] (B),
and many palms.

PLANTS FOR REGION 6

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens (B),
Calluna vulgaris (B), Ceanothus americanus, Cotoneaster
•microphylla (B), Juniperus communis depressa (C), Juni-
perus prostrata (C), Rhus aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Daphne mezereum, Deutzia gra-
cillis, Spireza bumalda, Spircea bumalda Anthony Wa-
terer, Spircea japonica, Spircea tomentosa, Symphoricarpos
occidentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus, Symphcricarpos
vulgaris, Fiburnum acerifolium.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea nudiflora (B), Berberis
aquifolium (B), Calycanthus floridus, Caryopteris masta-
canthus, Cephalanthus occidentalis, Celthra ainifolia, Cor-
nus sanguinea, Cornus stolonifera flaviramea, Cydonia
japonica, Diervilla rosea, Juniperus sabina (C), Ligus-

trum ibota regelianum, Lonicera morrowi, Rhodotypos
kerrioides, Ribes odoratum, Ribes americanum, Rosa Caro-
lina, Rosa rugosa, Rosa setigera, Spircea prunifolia, Spi-
rcea thunbergi, Spircea vanhouttei, Staphylea bumalda,
Stephanandra flexuosa, Tamarix odessana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Evonymus alatus, Forsythia sus-
pensa. Ilex verticillata, Lonicera fragrantissima, Philadel-
phus lewisi, Fiburnum americanum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Alnus mitchelliana, Amelan-
chier ainifolia, Cytisus scoparius, Exochorda grandiflora
Hibiscus syriacus, Hydrangea paniculata, Ligustrum
ibota, Lonicera ruprechtiana, Lonicera tatarica, Phila-
delphus coronarius, Philadelphus inodorus, Physocarpus
opulifolius, Staphylea trifolia, Syringa chinensis, Tamarix

684

PARKS

gallica, Thuja occidentalis (dwarf varieties) (C), Vibur-
num opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Colutea arborescens, Cornus
florida, Cornus paniculata, Cratcegus oxyacantha, Ham-
amelis virginiana, Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora,
Juniperus scopulorum (C), Ligustrum amurense, Pyra-
cantha coccinea lalandi (H), Salix caprea, Sambucus
canadensis, Sambucus pubens, Syringa vulgaris.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier

oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Elceagnus angustifolia,
Evonymus atropurpureus, Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Cercis canadensis, Cratcegus crusgalli, Juni-
perus communis (C), Juniper us virginiana (C), Styrax
japonica, Syringa japonica.

LARGE TREES. London plane, English elm, Euro-
pean linden, green ash, black locust, European ash,
white ash, Norway maple, red oak.

PLANTS FOR REGION 7

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens (B),
Calluna vulgaris (B), Ceanothus americanus, Juniperus
communis depress a (C), Juniperus prostrata (C), Rhus
aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Spircea bumalda, Spircea bumalda
Anthony Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea tomentosa,
Symphoricarpos occidentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus,
Symphoricarpos vulgaris, Viburnum acerifolium.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea nudiflora, Berberis aqui-
folium (B), Cephalanthus occidentalis, Clethra alnifolia,
Cornus sanguinea, Cornus stolonif era flaviramea, Cydonia
japonica, Juniperus sabina (C), Ligustrum ibota regeli-
anum, Lonicera morrowi, Rhodotypos kerrioides, Ribes
americanum, Ribes odoratum, Rosa Carolina, Rosa rugosa,
Spircea prunifolia, Spircea thunbergi, Spircea vanhouttei,
Staphylea bumalda, Tamarix odessana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Ilex verticillata, Philadelphus
lewisi, Viburnum, americanum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Alnus mitchelliana, Amelanchier

alnifolia, Cytisus scoparius, Hydrangea paniculata, Li-
gustrum ibota, Lonicera ruprechtiana, Lonicera tatarica,
Philadelphus coronarius, Philadelphus inodorus, Physo-
carpus opulifolius, Staphylea trifolia, Syringa chinensis,
Tamarix gallica, Fiburnum opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Cornus florida, Cornus paniculata,
Cratcegus oxyacantha, Hamamelis virginiana, Hydrangea
paniculata grandiflora, Juniperus scopulorum (C), Ligus-
trum amurense, Salix caprea, Sambucus canadensis Sam-
bucus pubens, Syringa vulgaris.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Elceagnus angustifolia,
Evonymus atropurpureus, Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Cercis canadensis, Cratcegus crusgalli, Juni-
perus communis (C), Juniperus virginiana (C).

LARGE TREES. Green ash, thornless honey locust,
black locust, American elm, Norway maple, sycamore
maple, cottonwood, Carolina poplar, silver poplar.

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens (B),
Ceanothus americanus, Juniperus communis depressa
(C), Juniperus prostrata (C).

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Spircea bumalda, Spircea bumalda
Anthony Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea tomentosa,
Symphoricarpos occidentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus,
Symphoricarpos vulgaris.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea nudiflora, Berberis aqui-
folium (B) , Cornus sanguinea, Cornus stolonif era flavi-
ramea, Cyndonia japonica, Juniperus sabina (C), Ligus-
trum ibota regelianum, Rhodotypos kerrioides, Ribes
odoratum, Spircea prunifolia, Spircea thunbergi, Spircea
vanhouttei, Staphylea bumalda, Tamarix odessana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Elceagnus longipes, Ilex verticillata,
Philadelphus lewisi, Staphylea trifolia.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Amelanchier alnifolia, Cytisus

REGION 8

scoparius, Hydrangea paniculata, Ligustrum ibota, Loni-
cera ruprechtiana, Lonicera tatarica, Philadelphus corona,
rius, Philadelphus inodorous, Physocarpus opulifolius-
Syringa chinensis, Tamarix gallica.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Cornus florida, Cornus pani-
culata, Cratcegus oxyacantha, Hamamelis virginiana,
Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora, Juniperus scopulorum
(C), Ligustrum amurense, Sambucus canadensis, Sam-
bucus pubens, Syringa vulgaris.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Elceagnus angustifolia,
Evonymus alropurpureus, Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Cratcegus crusgalli, Juniperus communis
(C), Juniperus virginiana (C).

LARGE TREES. Green ash, honey locust, black locust.

PLANTS FOR REGION 9

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens (B).

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Spircea bumalda, Spircea bu-
malda Anthony Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea
tomentosa, Symphoricarpos occidentalis.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Berberis aquifolium (B), Cepha-
lanathus occidentalis, Cornus sanguinea, Cornus stolon-
ifera flaviramea, Cydonia japonica, Ligustrum ibota
regelianum, Spircea prunifolia, Spircea thunbergi. Spircea
vanhouttei, Tamarix odessana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Elceagnus longipes, Ligustrum
ibota, Philadelphus lewisi.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Amelanchier alnifolia, Cytisus

scoparius, Philadelphus coronarius, Philadelphus ino-
dorus, Physocarpus opulifolius, Syringa chinensis, Tam-
arix gallica.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Cornus florida, Cratcegus oxya-
cantha, Ligustrum amurense, Sambucus pubens, Syringa
vulgaris.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Elceagnus angustifolia,
Evonymus atropurpureus.

LARGE TREES. Green ash, thornless honey locust,
black locust, Chinese elm, mossycup oak, white oak,
cottonwood.

PLANTS FOR REGION 10

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Spircea bumalda Anthony
Waterer, Spircea japonica.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Caryopteris mastacanthus, Tam-
arix odessana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Datura arborea (H), Elceagnus
longipes, Ligustrum sinense.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Callistemon lanceolatus, Ceano-
thus thyrsiflorus, Cytisus scoparius, Hibiscus syriacus,

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION

685

Pittosporum tobira (B), Spartium juncrum, Tamarix
gallic a.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Elceagnus an-
gustifolia, Melaleuca dtcussata, Pittosporum phillyraoides
(B).

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Ligustrum
ovalifolium (H), Pittosporum undulatum (B).

LARGE TREES. Athel (Tamarix articulata), desert
gum (Eucalyptus rudis) (B), red gum (Eucalyptus longi-
rostris) (B), red box (Eucalyptus polyanthemos) (B),
Parkinsonia, Texas palmetto (P), Washington palms (P).

PLANTS FOR REGION n

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Spirted bumalda, Spircea bu-
malda Anthony Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea
tomentosa.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Berberis aquifolium, Caryopteris
mastacanthus, Cephalanthus occidentalis, Cornus sangui-
nea, Spircea prunifolia, Spircea thunbergi, Spircea van-
houttfi, Tamarix odessana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Datura arborea (H), Ligustrum
sinense.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Ceanoihus thyrsiflorus, Cytisus
scoparius, Hibiscus syriacus, Lonicera ruprechtiana,

Lonicera tatarica, Philadelphus coronarius, Physocarpus
opulifolius, Syringa chinensis, Tamarix gallica.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Conrus florida, Sambucus pu-
bens.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Caragana
arborescens, Elceagnus angustifolia, Melaleuca decussata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Ligustrum
ovalifolium.

LARGE TREES. Thornless honey locust, green ash,
black locust, hackberry, Mississippi hackberry, Chinese
elm, cottonwood, Parkinsonia, Texas palmetto (P).

PLANTS FOR REGION 12

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens, Ceano-
thus amfricanus, Juniperus communis depressa (C),
Juniperus prostrata (C), Rhus aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Spircea bumalda, Spircea bumalda
Anthony Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea tomentosa,
Symphoricarpos occidentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus,
Symphoricarpos vulgaris.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea nudiflora, Clethra alnifolia,
Cornus alba, Cornus sanguinea, Cornus stolonifera flavi-
ramea, Juniperus sabina (C), Ligustrum ibota regelianum,
Ribes odoratum, Spircea prunifolia, Staphylea bumalda.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Ilex verticillata, Philadelphus
lewisi, Viburnum americanum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Alnus mitchelliana, Amelan-
chier alnifolia, Ligustrum ibota, Philadelphus coronarius,

Philadelphus inodorus, Physocarpus opulifolius, Pinus
montana mughus (C), Staphylea trifolia, Syringa chi-
nensis.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Cornus florida, Hamamelis vir-
giniana, Juniperus scopulorum (C), Ligustrum amu-
rense, Sambucus canadensis, Sambucus pubens, Syringa
vulgaris.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Elceagnus angusti-
folia, Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Juniperus chinensis (C), Juniperus com-
munis (C), Juniperus virginiana (C).

LARGE TREES. Green ash, hackberry, cottonwood,
silver poplar, narrow-leaf cottonwood.

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens (B),
Ceanothus americanus, Juniperus communis depressa (C),
Juniperus prostrata (C), Rhus aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Spircea bumalda, Spircea bumalda
Anthony Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea tomentosa,
Symphoricarpos occidentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus,
Symphoricarpos vulgaris.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea nudiflora, Berberis aqui-
folium (B), Calycanthus floridus, Cephalanthus occiden-
talis, Clethra alnifolia, Cornus alba, Cornus sanguinea,
Cornus stolonifera flaviramea, Juniperus sabina (C),
Ligustrum ibota regelianum, Ribes americanum, Ribes
odoratum, Spircea prunifolia, Staphylea bumalda.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Elceagnus longipes, Ilex verticillata,
Philadelphus lewisi, Viburnum americanum.

SHRUBS TO IO FEET. Alnus mitchelliana, Amelanchier

REGION 13

alnifolia, Ligustrum ibota, Philadelphus coronarius, Phil-
adelphus inodorus, Physocarpus opulifolius, Pinus mon-
tana mughus (C), Staphylea trifolia, Syringa chinensis.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Cornus florida, Hamamelis vir-
giniana, Juniperus scopulorum (C), Ligustrum amu-
rense, Sambucus canadensis, Sambucus pubens, Syringa
vulgaris.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Elceagnus angusti-
folia, Evonymus atropurpureus, Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Juniperus chinensis (C), Juniperus communis
(C), Juniperus virginiana (C).

LARGE TREES. Green ash, Koelreuteria, cottonwood
and other poplars, black locust, hackberry, thornless
honey locust, ash-leaf maple (as a last resort).

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens, Cean-
othus americanus, Juniperus communis depressa (C),
Juniperus prostrata (C), Rhus aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Spircea bumalda, Spircea bu-
malda Anthony Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea tomen-
tosa, Symphoricarpos occidentalis, Symphoricarpos race-
mosus, Symphoricarpos vulgaris.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea nudiflora, Berberis aqui-
folium, Calycanthus floridus, Cephalanthus occidentalis,
Clethra alnifolia, Cornus alba, Cornus sanguinea, Cornus
stolonifera flaviramea, Juniperus sabina (C), Ligustrum

REGION 14

ibota regelianum, Ribes americanum, Ribes odoratum,
Spircea prunifolia, Spircea thunbergi, Spircea vanhouttei,
Staphylea bumalda.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Elceagnus longipes, Ilex verticillata,
Philadelphus lewisi, Viburnum americanum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Alnus mitchelliana, Amelan-
chier alnifolia, Ligustrum ibota, Philadelphus coronarius,
Philadelphus inodorus, Physocarpus opulifolius, Pinus
montana mughus (C), Staphylea trifolia, Viburnum
opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Cornus florida, Hamamelis vir-

686

PARKS

giniana, Juniperus scopulorum (C), Ligustrum amurense,
Symbucus canadensis, Sambucus pubens, Syringa vul-
garis.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Elceagnus angusti-
folia, Evonymus atropurpureus, Ptelea trifoliata.

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens (B).

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Spircea bumalda, Spircea bumalda
Anthony Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea tomentosa,
Symphoricarpos occidentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Berberis thunbergi, Cornus alba,
Cornus sanguinea, Cornus stolonifera flaviramea, Ligus-
trum ibota regelianum, Ribes odoratum, Spircea pruni-
folia, Tamarix odessana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Viburnum americanum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Alnus mitchelliana, Amelanchier
alnifolia, Cytisus scoparius, Ligustrum ibota, Physocar-
pus opulifolius, Syringa chinensis, Tamarix gallica.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Juniperus chinensis (C), Juniperus com-
munis (C), Juniperus virginiana (C).

LARGE TREES. Green ash, black locust, hackbeny,
thornless honey locust, Koelreuteria, cottonwood and
other poplars.

REGION 15

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Cornus florida, Cornus panicu-
lata, Hamamelis virginiana, Ligustrum amurense, Sam-
bucus canadensis, Sambucus pubens.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Elceagnus angustifolia, Evonymus atropur-
pureus.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Juniperus
virginiana (C).

LARGE TREES. Green ash, hackberry, Chinese elm,
Koelreuteria, cottonwood (staminate form), Carolina
poplar, Norway poplar, and ash-leaf maple (when other
trees will not succeed).

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens (B),
Juniperus communis depressa (C), Juniperus prostrata
(C), Rhus aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Spircea bumalda, Spircea bumalda
Anthony Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea timentisa,
Symphoricarpos occidentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus,
Symphoricarpos vulgaris, Viburnum acerifolium.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Berberis aquifolium (B), Berberis
thunbergi, Caryopteris mastacanthus, Cephalanthus occi-
dentalis, Cornus alba, Cornus sanguinea, Cornus stoloni-
fera flaviramea, Cydonia japonica, Diervilla rosea,
Juniperus sabina (C), Kerria japonica, Ligustrum ibota
regelianum, Ribes americanus, Ribes odoratum, Rosa
Carolina, Rosa rugosa, Rosa setigera, Spircea prunifolia,
Spircea thunbergi, Spircea vanhouttei, Staphylea bumalda,
Stephanandra flexuosa, Tamarix odessana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Elceagnus longipes, Forsythia sus-
pensa, Forsythia viridissima, Philadelphus lewisi, Vibur-
num americanum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Alnus mitchelliana, Amelanchier
alnifolia, Cytisus scoparius, Hibiscus syriacus, Hydran-
gea paniculata, Ligustrum ibota, Lonicera ruprechtiana,

REGION 16

Lonicera tatarica, Philadelphus coronarius, Philadelphus
inodorus, Physocarpus opulifolius, Staphylea trifolia,
Syringa chinensis, Tamarix gallica, Thuja occidentalis
(dwarf varieties) (C), Viburnum opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Chionanthus virginica, Cornus
florida, Colutea arborescens, Cornus mas, Cornus panicu-
lata, Cratcegus oxyacantha, Hamamelis virginiana, Hy-
drangea paniculata grandiflora, Ligustrum amurense,
Salix caprea, Sambucus canadensis, Sambucus pubens.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Elceagnus angusti-
folia, Evonymus atropurpureus.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Cercis cana-
densis, Cratcegus crusgalli, Juniperus chinensis (C),
Juniperus communis (C), Juniperus excelsa (C), Juni-
perus virginiana (C), Syringa japonica.

LARGE TREES. Green ash, thornless honey locust,
hackberry, black locust, Chinese elm, American elm,
Mississippi hackberry, cottonwood, Austrian pine (C),
Scotch pine (C), Himalayan cedar (C), Arizona cy-
press (C).

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Caryopteris mastacanthus, Ribes
odoratum, Tamarix odessana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Datura arborea (H), Elceagnus
longipes, Ligustrum sinense.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Amelanchier alnifolia, Acan-
thopanax pentaphyllum, Ceanothus thyrsiflorus, Cytisus
scoparius, Spartium junceum, Syringa chinensis, Tam-
arix gallica.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Hamamelis virginiana, Sam-
bucus canadensis.

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens, Ceano-
thus americanus.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Berberis thunbergi, Cornus alba,
Cornus sanguinea, Cornus stolonifera flaviramea, Ligus-
trum ibota regelianum, Ribes americanum, Ribes odora-
tum, Rosa Carolina, Rosa rugosa, Spircea prunifolia,
Spircea thunbergi, Staphylea bumalda, Tamarix odessana.

REGION 17

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Elceagnus angustifolia, Melaleuca decussata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Juniperus com-
munis (C), Ligustrum ovalifolium (H).

LARGE TREES. Parkinsonia, Chinese elm, Texas
palmetto (P), Carolina palmetto (P), Canary Island
date palm (P), Washington palms (P), athel, cotton-
wood.

REGION 1 8

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Hydrangea paniculata, Philadel-
phus lewisi, Viburnum americanum, Viburnum dentatum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Alnus mitchelliana, Amelanchier
alnifolia, Cytisus scoparius, Ligustrum ibota, Physocarpus
opulifolius, Staphylea trifolia, Syringa chinensis, Tama-
rix gallica.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Cornus florida, Cornus panicu-
lata, Hamamelis virginiana, Hydrangea paniculata
grandiflora, Ligustrum amurense, Sambucus canadensis,
Sambucus pubens, Syringa vulgaris.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION

687

oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Elceagnus angustifolia,
Evonymus atropurpureus, Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Juniperus communis (C), Juniperus virgini-
ana (C).

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens (B),
Ceanothus americanus, Juniperus communis depressa
(C), Juniperus prostrata (C), Rhus aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Spircea bumalda, Spircea bumalda
Anthony Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea tomentosa,
Sympfioricarpos occidentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus,
Symphoricarpos vulgaris, Fiburnum acerifolium.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Berberis aquifolium (B), Berberis
thunbergi, Calycanthus floridus, Caryopteris mastacan-
thus, Ccphalanthus occidentalis, Clethra alnifolia, Cornus
alba, Cornus sanguinea, Cornus stolonifera flaviramea,
Cydonia japonica, Dieroilla rosea, Hydrangea arbor es-
cens, Hydrangea arborescens sterilis, Juniperus sabina,
Kerria japonica, Ligustrum ibota regelianum, Ribes
americanum, Ribes odoratum, Rosa Carolina, Rosa rugosa,
Rosa setigera, Spircea prunifolia, Spircea thunbergi, Spi-
rcea vanhouttei, Staphylea bumalda, Stephanandra flexu-
osa, Tamarix odessana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Elceagnus longipes, Philadelphus
lewisi, Fiburnum americanum, Viburnum dentatum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Alnus mitchelliana, Amelanchier
alnifolia, Cytisus scoparius, Exorchorda grandiflora, Hi-

LARGE TREES. Green ash, black locust, black ash,
mossycup oak, Chinese elm, Austrian pine (C), Scotch
pine (C), Black Hills spruce (C), red cedar (C), arbor-
vitas (C). Where the above will not grow use ash-leaf
maple and willow.

REGION 19

biscus syriacus, Hydrangea paniculata, Ligustrum ibota,
Lonicera ruprechtiana, Lonicera tatarica, Philadelphus
coronarius, Philadelphus inodorus, Physocarpus opuli-
folius, Staphylea trifolia, Syringa chinensis, Tamarix
gallica, Thuja occidentalis (dwarf varieties) (C), Fibur-
num opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Chionanthus virginica, Colutea
arborescens, Cornus florida, Cornus mas, Cornus panicu-
lata, Hamamelis virginiana, Hydrangea paniculata
grandiflora, Ligustrum amurense, Salix caprea, Sam-
bucus canadensis, Sambucus pubens, Syringa vulgaris.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Elceagnus angusti-
folia, Evonymus atropurpureus, Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Cratcegus crusgalli, Juniperus chinensis (C),
Juniperus communis (C), Juniperus excels a (C), Juni-
perus virginiana (C), Syringa japonica.

LARGE TREES. Mossycup oak, Chinese elm, Koel-
reuteria, hackberry, black locust, thornless honey locust,
green ash, red oak, pin oak, sycamore, pecan, Austrian
pine (C), Scotch pine (C), red cedar (C), arborvitae (C).

PLANTS FOR REGION 20

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens, ceano-
thus americanus, Cotoneaster buxifolia, Cotoneaster micro-
phylla (B), Hypericum moserianum (B), Juniperus com-
munis depressa (C), Juniperus prostrata (C), Rhus
aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Cotoneaster simonsi, Deutzia gra-
cilis, Spircea bumalda, Spir<za bumalda Anthony Waterer,
Spircea japonica, Spircea tomentosa, Symphoricarpos oc-
cidentalis, Symphoricarpos vulgaris, Fiburnum aceri-
folium.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Berberis aquifolium (B), Ber-
beris thunbergi, Calycanthus floridus, Caryopteris mas-
tacanthus, Cephalanthus occidentalis, Clethra alnifolia,
Cornus alba, Cornus sanguinea, Cornus stolonifera
flaviramea, Deutzia crenata (Pride of Rochester), Juni-
perus sabina (C), Kerria japonica, Ligustrum ibota rege-
lianum, Rhodotypos kerrioides, Ribes americanum, Ribes
odoratum, Rosa Carolina, Rosa rugosa, Rosa setigera, Rosa
virginiana, Spireza prunifolia, Spircea thunbergi, Spircea
vanhouttei, Staphylea bumalda, Stephanandra flexuosa,
Tamarix odessana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Abelia grandiflora (H), Buddleia
davidi, Elceagnus longipes, Escallonia montevidensis (B),
Evonymus alatus, Forsythia suspensa, Forsythia viridis-
sima, Philadelphus lewisi, Fiburnum americanum, Fi-
burnum dentatum, Fiburnum nudum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. JEsculus parviflora, Alnus mitch-

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens, Cea-
nothus americanus, Rhus aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Spireza bumalda, Spircea bumalda
Anthony Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea tomentosa,
Symphoricarpos occidentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus,
Symphoricarpos vulgaris, Fiburnum acerifolium.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Berberis thunbergi, Cornus alba,
Cornus sanguinea, Cornus stolonifera flaviramea, Cydonia
japonica, Ligustrum ibota regelianum, Ribes americanum,

elliana, Acanthopanax pentaphyllum, Cercis japonica,
Cytisus scoparius, Exochorda grandiflora, Hydrangea
paniculata, Ligustrum ibota, Lonicera ruprechliana, Loni-
cera tatarica, Philadelphus coronarius, Philadelphus ino-
dorus, Physocarpus opulifolius, Rhamnus cathartica,
Staphylea trifolia, Syringa chinensis, Tamarix gallica,
Thuja occidentalis (dwarf varieties) (C), Fiburnum
opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Amorpha fruticosa, Chionanthus
virginica, Colutea arborescens, Cornus florida, Cornus
mas, Cornus paniculata, Cratcegus oxyacantha, Hama-
melis virginiana, Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora, Li-
gustrum amurense, Rhus glabra, Salix caprea, Sambucus
canadensis, Sambucus pubens, Syringa vulgaris, Fibur-
num prunifolium.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Aralia spinosa, Caragana arborescens,
Elceagnus angustifolia, Evonymus atropurpureus, Ptelea
trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Cercis cana-
densis, Cratcegus crusgalli, Juniperus chinensis (C),
Styrax japonica.

LARGE TREES. Pecan, Mississippi hackberry, winged
elm, Chinese elm, mossycup oak, Koelreuteria, London
plane, sycamore, willow oak, Texas oak, green ash,
black walnut, live oak (B), red cedar (C), Himalayan
cedar (C), Arizona cypress (C).

REGION 21

Ribes odoratum, Rosa Carolina, Rosa rubiginosa, Rosa
rugosa, Spircea prunifolia, Spircea thunbergi, Spircea van-
houttei, Staphylea bumalda, Tamarix odessana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Ilex verticillata, Philadelphus
lewisi, Fiburnum americanum, Fiburnum dentatum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Alnus mitchelliana, Amelanchier
alnifolia, Cytisus scoparius, Hydrangea paniculata, Ligus-
trum ibota, Philadelphus coronarius, Philadelphus ino-
dorus, Physocarpus opulifolius, Staphylea trifolia,

688

PARKS

Syringa chinensis, Tamarix gallica, Viburnum opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Cornus florida, Cornus panicu-
lata, Hamamelis virginiana. Hydrangea paniculata gran-
diflora, Ligustrum amurense, Sambucus canadensis,
Sambucus pubens, Syringa vulgaris.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens (B), Cal-
luna vulgaris (B), Ceanothus americanus, Daphne cneo-
rum (B), Juniperus communis depressa (C), Juniperus
prostrata (C), Rhus aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Daphne mtzereum, Spircea bu-
malda, Spircea bumalda Anthony Waterer, Spircea ja-
ponica, Spircea tomentosa, Symphoricarpos occidentalis,
Symphoricarpos racemosus, Symphoricarpos vulgaris,
Viburnum acerifolium.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea nudiflora, Berberis aqui-
folium (B), Berberis thunbergi, Calycanthus floridus,
Caryopteris mastacanthus, Cephalanthus occidentalis,
Clethra alnifolia, Cornus alba, Cornus stolonifera flavi-
ratnea, Cydonia japonica, Diervilla rosea, Hydrangea ar-
borescens, Hydrangea arborescens sterilis, Juniperus
sabina (C), Kerria japonica, Ligustrum ibota regelianum,
Rhodotypos kerrioides, Ribes americanum, Ribes odora-
tum, Rosa Carolina, Rosa rubiginosa, Rosa rugosa, Rosa
setigera, Rosa virginiana, Spircea prunifolia, Spircea
thunbergi, Spircea vanhouttei, Staphylea bumalda, Ste-
phanandra flexuosa.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Elceagnus longipes, Evonymus
alatus, Forsythia suspensa, Forsythia viridissima, Ilex
verticillata, Myrica carolinensis (H), Philadelphus lewisi,
Prunus pumila, Fiburnum americanum, Fiburnum den-
tatum, Fiburnum nudum, Fiburnum tomentosum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Alnus mitchelliana, Amelanchier

oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Elceagnus angusti-
folia, Evonymus atropurpureus, Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Juniperus virginiana (C).

LARGE TREES. Green ash, American elm, mossycup
oak, Chinese elm, red oak, blue ash, Austrian pine (C),
Scotch pine (C), red cedar (C), arborvitse (C).

REGION 22

alnifolia, Cercis japonica, Cytisus scoparius, Exochorda
grandiflora, Hibiscus syriacus, Ligustrum ibota, Ligus-
trum japonicum (B), Lonicera ruprechtiana, Lonicera
tatarica, Lycium chinense, Philadelphus coronarius,
Philadelphus inodorus, Physocarpus opulifolius, Rham-
nus cathartica, Staphylea trifolia, Syringa chinensis,
Thuja occidentalis (dwarf varieties) (C), Thuja orien-
talis (dwarf varieties) (C), Fiburnum opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Amorpha frulicosa, Chionanthus
virginica, Colutea arborescens, Cornus florida, Cornus
paniculata, Hamamelis virginiana, Hydrangea paniculata
grandiflora, Ligustrum amurense, Prunus pissardi, Rhus
cotinus, Rhus glabra, Salix caprea, Sambucus canadensis,
Sambucus pubens, Syringa vulgaris, Fiburnum pruni-
folium.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Elceagnus angusti-
folia, Evonymus atropurpureus, Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Cercis canadensis, CraUegus crusgalli, Juni-
perus chinensis (C), Juniperus excelsa (C), Juniperus
virginiana (C), Styrax japonica, Syringa japonica.

LARGE TREES. American elm, red oak, black walnut,
sugar maple, sycamore, mossycup oak, white ash, green
ash, white oak, Austrian pine (C), Scotch pine (C),
arborvitae (C), red cedar (C).

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Andromeda polifolia
(B), Berberis repens (B), Calluna vulgaris (B), Ceano-
thus americanus, Chamcedaphne calyculata (B), Rhus
aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Spircea bumalda, Spircza bumalda
Anthony Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea tomentosa,
Symphoricarpos occidentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus,
Symphoricarpos vulgaris, Fiburnum acerifolium.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea nudiflora, Berberis aqui-
folium (B), Berberis thunbergi, Calycanthus floridus,
Cephalanthus occidentalis, Clethra alnifolia, Cornus, alba,
Cornus sanguinea, Cornus stolonifera flaviramea, Cydonia
japonica, Hydrangea arborescens, Hydrangea arborescens
sterilis, Ligustrum ibota regelianum, Rhodotypos ker-
rioides, Ribes americanum, Ribes cdoratum, Rosa Caro-
lina, Rosa rubiginosa, Rosa rugosa, Rosa setigera, Rosa
virginiana, Spircea prunifolia, Spircea thunbergi, Spircea
vanhouttei, Staphylea bumalda, Stephanandra flexuosa.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Elceagnus longipes, Forsythia sus-
pensa, Ilex verticillata, Myrica carolinensis (H), Phila-
delphus lewisi, Prunus pumila, Fiburnum americanum,
Fiburnum dentatum, Fiburnum tomentosum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Alnus mitchelliana, Amelanchier
alnifolia, Azalea calendulacea, Cercis japonica, Cytisus

REGION 23

scoparius, Hibiscus syriacus, Hydrangea paniculata, Li-
gustrum ibota, Lonicera ruprechtiana, Lonicera tatarica,
Lycium chinense, Philadelphus coronarius, Philadelphus
inodorus, Physocarpus opulifolius, Prunus maritima,
Staphylea trifolia, Syringa chinensis, Thuja occidentalis
(dwarf varieties) (C), Thuja orientalis (dwarf varieties)
(C), Fiburnum opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Cornus florida, Cornus mas,
Cornus paniculata, Hamamelis virginiana, Hydrangea
paniculata grandiflora, Ligustrum amurense, Prunus pis-
sardi, Rhus cotinus, Sambucus canadensis, Sambucus
pubens.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Elceagnus angusti-
folia, Evonymus atropurpureus, Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Cercis canadensis, Cratcegus crusgalli, Junip-
erus chinensis (C), Juniperus virginiana (C), Syringa
japonica.

LARGE TREES. American elm, red oak, mossycup
oak, red maple, green ash, basswood, sugar maple,
Chinese elm, Norway maple, honey locust, Austrian
pine C), arborvitse (C), white spruce (C), white pine (C).

PLANTS FOR REGION 24

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Andromeda polifolia
(B), Berberis repens (B), Calluna vulgaris (B), Ceano-
thus americanus, Chamcedaphne calyculata (B), Daphne
eneorum (B), Rhus aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Daphne mezereum, Kalmia angus-

tifolia (B), Spircea bumalda, Spircea bumalda Anthony
Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea tomentosa, Symphori-
carpos occidentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus, Sympho-
ricarpos vulgaris, Fiburnum acerifolium.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea nudiflora, Berberis aqui-

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION

689

folium (B), Berberis thunbergi, Calycanthus floridus, Car-
yopteris mastacanthus, Cephalanthus occidentalis, Clethra
alnifolia, Cornus alba, Cornus sanguinea, Cornus stolon-
ifera flaviramea, Cydonia japonica, Diervilla rosea, Hy-
drangea arborescens, Hydrangea arborescens sterilis,
Juniperus squamata, Kalmia latifolia (B), Kerria japon-
ica, Ligustrum ibota regelianum, Rhodotypos kerrioides,
Ribes americanum, Ribes odoratum, Rosa Carolina, Rosa
rugosa, Rosa setigera, Rosa virginiana, Spircza prunifolia,
Spireea thunbergi, Spircza vanhouttei, Staphylea bumalda,
Slephanandra flexuosa.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Cephalotaxus pedunculata (C),
Elezagnus longipes, Evonymus alatus, Forsythia suspensa,
Ilex glabra (B), Ilex verticillata, Myrica carolinensis
(H), Philadelphus lewisi, Prunus pumila, Viburnum
americanum, Viburnum dentatum, Viburnum tomentosum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Alnus mitchelliana, Amelanchier
alnifolia, Azalea calendulacea, Cephalotaxus drupacea
sinensis (C), Cercis japonica, Cytisus scoparius, Exo-
chorda grandiflora, Hibiscus syriacus, Hydrangea pani-
culata, Ligustrum ibota, Ligustrum japonicum, Lonicera
ruprechtiana, Lonicera tatarica, Lycium chinense, Phila-
delphus coronarius, Philadelphus inodorus, Physocarpus
opulifolius, Pinus montana mughus (C), Prunus mari-

tima (C), Rhamnus cathartica, Staphylea trifolia, Syringa
chinensis, Thuja occidentalis (dwarf varieties) (C),
Thuja orientalis (dwarf varieties) (C), Viburnum opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Chionanthus virginica, Colutea
arborescens, Cornus florida, Cornus mas, Cornus panicu-
lata, Hamamelis virginiana, Hydrangea paniculata gran-
diflora, Ligustrum amurense, Prunus pissardi Chamce-
cyparis pisifera fill/era (C), Chamcecyparis pisifera (C),
Chamizcyparis pisifera plumosa (C), Chamcecyparis
obtusa (C), ChamcEcyparis pisifera squarrosa (C), Rho-
dodendron maximum (B), Rhus cotinus, Rhus glabra,
Salix caprea, Sambucus canadensis, Sambucus pubens,
Syringa vulgaris, Viburnum prunifolium.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Elceagnus angusti-
folia, Evonymus atropurpureus , Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Cercis canadensis, CraUegus crusgalli, Junip-
erus virginiana (C) , Styrax japonica, Syringa japonica.

LARGE TREES. Sugar maple, American elm, red oak,
black walnut, basswood, white oak, white ash, mossy-
cup oak, white pine (C), hemlock (C), Austrian pine
(C), arborvitae (C).

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Andromeda polifolia
(B), Berberis repens (B), Calluna vulgaris (B), Ceanothus
americanus, Chamczdaphne calyculata (B), Cotoneaster
buxifolia, Cotoneaster microphylla (B), Daphne cneorum
(B), Hypericum moserianum (B), Juniperus communis
depressa (C), Juniperus prostrata (C), Rhus aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Azalea amcena (B), Callicarpa
purpurea, Cotoneaster simonsi, Daphne mezereum, Deut-
zia gracilis, Evonymus radicans (B), Kalmia angustifolia
(B), Robinia hispida, Spircza bumalda, Spireea bumalda
Anthony Waterer, Spircza japonica, Spircza tomentosa,
Symphoricarpos occidentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus,
Symphoricarpos vulgaris, Viburnum acerifolium.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea nudiflora, Berberis aqui-
folium (B), Berberis thunbergi, Buxus sempervirens suf-
fruticosa (B), Callicarpa americ ana, Calycanthus floridus,
Caryopteris mastacanthus, Cephalanthus occidentalis,
Clethra alnifolia, Cornus alba, Cornus sanguinea, Cornus
stolonifera flaviramea, Cydonia japonica, Deutzia scabra
crenata (Pride of Rochester and others), Diervilla rosea,
Hydrangea arborescens, Hydrangea arborescens sterilis,
Hydrangea quercifolia, Juniperus sabina (C), Juniperus
squamata (C), Kerria japonica, Ligustrum ibota regeli-
anum, Lonicera morrowi, Rhodotypos kerrioides, Ribes
americanum, Ribes odoratum, Rosa Carolina, Rosa rubi-
ginosa, Rosa rugosa, Rosa setigera, Rosa virginiana,
Spireea prunifolia, Spircza vanhouttei, Spireea thunbergi,
Staphylea bumalda, Stephanandra flexuosa, Tamarix
odessana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Aucuba japonica (B), Berberis
ilicifolia (B), Buddleia davidi, Cephalotaxus pedunculata,
(C), Elceagnus longipes, Evonymus alatus, Evonymus
japonicus (B), Forsythia suspensa, Forsythia viridissima,
Ilex glabra (B), Ilex verticillata, Kalmia latifolia (B),
Lonicera fragrantissima, Myrica carolinensis, Philadel-
phus lewisi, Prunus pumila, Viburnum dentatum, Vibur-
num nudum, Viburnum tomentosum.

REGION 25

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. JEsculus parviflora, Alnus mitch-
elliana, Amelanchier alnifolia, Acanthopanax pentaphyl-
lum, Azalea calendulacea, Cephalotaxus drupacea sinen-
sis (C), Cercis japonica, Cytisus scoparius, Exochorda
grandiflora, Hibiscus syriacus, Hydrangea paniculata,
Ligustrum ibota, Ligustrum japonicum, Lonicera ru-
prechtiana, Lonicera tatarica, Lycium chinensis, Phila-
delphus coronarius, Philadelphus inodorus, Physocarpus
opulifolius, Pinus montana mughus (C), Prunus maritima
(C), Rhamnus cathartica, Staphylea trifolia, Syringa
chinensis, Syringa persica, Tamarix gallica, Thuja occi-
dentalis (dwarf varieties) (C), Thuja orientalis (dwarf
varieties) (C), Viburnum opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Amorpha fruticosa, Chionanthus
virginica, Colutea arborescens, Cornus florida, Cornus
mas, Cornus paniculata, Crateegus oxyacantha, Hamame-
lis virginiana, Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora, Li-
gustrum amurense, Magnolia glauca (H), Magnolia
stellata, Prunus pissardi, Chamizcyparis obtusa (C),
Chamacyparis pisifera (C), Chamczcyparis pisifera fili-
fera (C), Chanuecyparis pisifera plumosa (C), Chamce-
cyparis pisifera squarrosa (C), Rhododendron maximum
(B), Rhus cotinus, Rhus glabra, Salix caprea, Sambucus
canadensis, Sambucus pubens, Syringa vulgaris, Vibur-
num prunifolium.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Aralia spinosa, Caragana arborescens, Elce-
agnus angustifolia, Evonymus atropurpureus, Ilex crenata,
Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Buxus sempervirens (B), Cercis canadensis,
CraUegus crusgalli, Juniperus chinensis (C), Juniperus
communis (C), Juniperus excelsa (C), Juniperus virgin-
iana (C), Styrax japonica, Syringa japonica.

LARGE TREES. Red oak, sugar maple, tulip tree,
black walnut, sycamore, American elm, mossycup oak,
pecan, sweet gum, white oak, pines (C), spruces (C).

PLANTS FOR REGION 26

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Andromeda polifolia
(B), Berberis repens (B), Calluna vulgaris (B), Ceanothus
americanus, Chamcedaphne calyculata (B), Erica carnea
(B), Erica vagans (B), Juniperus communis depressa
(C), Juniperus prostrata (C), Rhus aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Kalmia angustifolia (B), Spiraa
bumalda, Spircza bumalda Anthony Waterer, Spireea
japonica, Spireea tomentosa, Symphoricarpos racemosus,
Symphoricarpos vulgaris, Viburnum acerifolium.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea nudiflora, Berberis thun

690

PARKS

btrgi, Cephalanthus occidentalis, Clethra alnifolia, Cornus
alba, Cornus sanguined, Cornus stolonifera flaviramea,
Cydonia japonica, Hydrangea arborescens, Juniperus
squamata (C), Ligustrum ibota regelianum, Ribes ameri-
canum, Ribes odoratum, Rosa Carolina, Rosa rugosa, Rosa
setigera, Rosa virginiana, Spirtza prunifolia, Spireza van-
houttei, Staphylea bumalda.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Elezagnus longipes, Forsythia sus-
pensa, Ilex verticillata, Kalmia latifolia (B), Myrica
carolinensis (H), Philadelphus lezvisi, Prunus pumila,
Viburnum americanum, Viburnum dentatum, Viburnum
tomentosum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Alnus mitchelliana, Amelanchier
alnifolia, Azalea calendulacea, Cytisus scoparius, Hibis-
cus syriacus, Hydrangea paniculata, Ligustrum ibota,
Lonicera ruprechtiana, Lonicera tatarica, Lycium chi-
nense, Philadelphus coronarius, Physocarpus opulifolius,
Pinus montana mughus (C), Prunus maritima (C),

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Andromeda polifolia
(B), Berberis repens (B), Calluna vulgaris (B), Ceanothus
americanus, Chamtzdaphne calyculata, Juniperus com-
munis depressa (C), Juniperus prostrata (C), Rhus
aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Azalea amcena, Daphne mezereum,
Deutzia gracilis, Evonymus radicans (B), Kalmia angus-
tifolia (B), Spircea bumalda, Spiraa bumalda Anthony
Waterer, Spir&a japonica, Spireea tomentosa, Sym-
phoricarpos occidentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus,
Symphoricarpos vulgaris, Viburnum acerifolium.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea nudiflora Berberis aqui-
folium (B), Berberis thunbergi, Calycanthus floridus,
Caryopteris mastacanthus, Cephalanthus occidentalis,
Clethra alnifolia, Cornus alba, Cornus sanguinea, Cornus
stolonifera flaviramea, Cydonia japonica, Diervilla rosea,
Hydrangea arborescens, Hydrangea arborescens sterilis,
Juniperus sabina (C), Juniperus squamata (C), Kerria
japonica, Ligustrum ibota regelianum, Lonicera mor-
rowi, Rhodotypos kerrioides, Ribes americanum, Ribes
odoratum, Rosa Carolina, Rosa rubiginosa, Rosa rugosa,
Rosa setigera, Rosa virginiana, Spircza prunifolia,
Spirtza thunbergi, Spirtza vanhouttei, Staphylea bumalda,
Stephanandra flexuosa.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Cephalotaxus pedunculata (C),
Eltzagnus longipes, Evonymus alatus, Forsythia suspensa,
Forsythia viridissima, Ilex glabra (B), Ilex verticillata,
Kalmia latifolia (B), Myrica carolinensis (H), Philadel-
phus lezvisi, Prunus pumila, Viburnum americanum,
Viburnum dentatum, Viburnum tomentosum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Alnus mitchelliana, Amelanchier
alnifolia, Azalea calendulacea, Cephalotaxus drupacea
sinensis (C), Cercis japonica, Cytisus scoparius, Exo-

Rhamnus cathartica, Staphylea trifolia, Syringa chinen-
sis, Thuja occidentalis (dwarf varieties) (C), Viburnum
opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Cornus florida, Cornus mas, Cor-
nus paniculata, Hamamelis virginiana, Hydrangea pani-
culata grandiflora, Ligustrum amurense, Prunus pissardi,
Rhododendron maximum (B), Rhus glabra, Sambucus
canadensis, Sambucus pubens, Syringa vulgaris.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Eltzagnus angustifolia,
Evonymus atropurpureus, Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Crattzgus crusgalli, Juniperus chinensis (C),
Juniperus communis (C), Juniperus virginiana (C).

LARGE TREES. American elm, red maple, sugar
maple, red oak, white oak, basswood, shagbark hickory,
canoe birch, white pine (C), firs (C), spruces (C), hem-
lock (C).

REGION 27

chorda grandiflora, Hibiscus syriacus, Hydrangea pani-
culata, Ligustrum ibota, Lonicera ruprechtiana, Lonicera
tatarica, Lycium chinense, Philadelphus coronarius,
Philadelphus inodorus, Physocarpus opulifolius, Pinus
montana mughus (C), Prunus maritima, Rhamnus ca-
thartica, Rhododendron catawbiense (B), Staphylea tri-
folia, Syringa chinensis, Syringa persica, Thuja occi-
dentalis (dwarf varieties) (C), Thuja orientalis (dwarf
varieties) (C), Viburnum opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Chamtecyparis obtusa (C), Cha-
mcecyparis pisif era (C), Chamcecyparis pisiferafilifera (C),
Chamcecyparis pisifera plumosa (C), Chamcecyparis pisi-
fera squarrosa (C), Chionanthus virginica, Colutea ar-
borescens, Cornus florida, Cornus mas, Cornus paniculata,
Cratcegus oxyacantha, Hamamelis virginiana, Hydrangea
paniculata grandiflora, Ligustrum amurense, Magnolia
glauca (H), Magnolia stellata, Prunus pissardi, Pyra-
cantha coccinea lalandi (H), Rhododendron maximum
(B), Rhus cotinus, Rhus glabra, Salix caprea, Sambucus
canadensis, Sambucus pubens, Syringa vulgaris, Vibur-
num prunifolium.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Caragana arborescens, Elezagnus angustifolia,
Evonymus atropurpureus, Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Cercis canadensis, Crattzgus crusgalli, Juni-
perus chinensis (C), Juniperus communis (C), Juniperus
excelsa (C), Juniperus virginiana (C), Styrax japonica,
Syringa japonica.

LARGE TREES. Red oak, white oak, sugar maple,
American elm, tulip tree, basswood, white pine (C),
hemlock (C).

PLANTS FOR REGION 28

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Andromeda polifolia
(B), Berberis repens (B), Calluna vulgaris (B), Ceanothus
americanus, Cotoneaster buxifolia, Daphne cneorum (B),
Hypericum moserianum (B), Juniperus communis de-
pressa (C), Juniperus prostrata (C), Rhus aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Azalea amcena, Callicarpa pur-
purea, Cotoneaster simonsi, Daphne mezereum, Deutzia
gracilis, Evonymus radicans (B), Kalmia angustifolia
(B), Pieris floribunda (B), Robinia hispida, Rosa brac-
teata, Spircea bumalda, Spir&a bumalda Anthony
Waterer, Spir&a japonica, Spireza tomentosa, Sym-
phoricarpos occidentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus,
Symphoricarpos vulgaris, Viburnum acerifolium.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea indica, Azalea nudiflora,
Berberis aquifolium (B), Berberis thunbergi, Buxus sem-

pervirens suffruticosa (B), Callicarpa americana, Caly-
canthus floridus, Caryopteris mastacanthus, Cephalanthus
occidentalis, Clethra alnifolia, Cornus alba, Cornus san-
guinea, Cornus stolonifera flaviramea, Cydonia japonica,
Deutzia crenata (Pride of Rochester and others), Dier-
villa rosea, Hydrangea arborescens, Hydrangea arbores-
cens sterilis, Hydrangea quercifolia, Jasminum nudi-
florum, Juniperus sabina (C), Juniperus squamata (C),
Kerria japonica, Leucothoe catesbczi (B), Ligustrum ibota
regelianum, Lonicera morrow, Rhodotypos kerrioides,
Ribes odoratum, Rosa Carolina, Rosa rubiginosa, Rosa
rugosa, Rosa setigera, Rosa virginiana, Spir/za prunifolia,
Spireza thunbergi, Spir&a vanhouttei, Staphylea bumalda,
Stephanandra flexuosa, Tamarix odessana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Abelia grandiflora (B), Aucuba

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION

691

japonica (B), Berberis ilicifolia (B), Buddleia davidi,
Cephalotaxus pedunculata (C), Elceagnus longipes, Elcz-
agnus macrophylla (B), Elceagnus pungens (B), Escallonia
montevidensis (B), Evonymus alatus, Evonymus japonicus
(B), Forsythia suspensa, Forsythia viridissima, Hydran-
gea hortensis, Ilex glabra (B), Ilex verticillata, Kalmia
latifolia (B), Lonicera fragrantissima, Myrica carolinen-
sis (H), Philadelphus lewisi, Prunus pumila, Viburnum
americanum, Viburnum dentatum, Viburnum nudum,
f'iburnum tomentosum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. JEsculus parviflora, Alnus mitch-
elliana, Acanthopanax pentaphyllum, Azalea calendu-
lacea, Cephalotaxus drupacea sinensis (C), Cercis
japonica (C), Cytisus scoparius, Exochorda grandiflora,
Hibiscus syriacus, Hydrangea paniculata, Ligustrum
ibota, Liguslrum japonicum, Lonicera ruprechtiana,
Lonicera tatarica,. Lycium chinense, Philadelphus coro-
narius, Philadelphus inodorus, Physocarpus opulifolius,
Pinus montana mughus (C), Prunus maritima, Rhamnus
cathartica, Rhododendron catawbiense (B), Rosa Icevigata,
Staphylea trifolia, Syringa chinensis, Syringa persica,
Tamarix gallica, Thuja occidentalis (dwarf varieties)
(C), Thuja orientalis (dwarf varieties) (C), Viburnum
opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Amorpha fruticosa, Chionanthus
virginica. Colutea arborescens, Cornus florida, Cornus

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Berberis repens (B),
Calluna vulgaris (B), Ceanothus americanus, Cotoneaster
buxifolia, Cotoneaster microphylla (B), Daphne cneorum
(B), Hypericum moserianum (B), Juniperus communis
depressa (C), Juniperus pro strata (C), Rhus aromatic a.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Azalea amczna (B), Berberis thun-
bergi, Callicarpa purpurea, Cotoneaster simonsi, Daphne
mezereum, Deutzia gracilis, Evonymus radicans (B), Kal-
mia angustifolia (B), Pieris fioribunda (B), Robinia his-
pida, Rosa bracteata; Spircea bumalda, Spircea bumalda
Anthony Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircza tomentosa,
Symphoricarpos occidentalis, Symphoricarpos racemosus,
Sympkoricarpos vulgaris, Viburnum acerifolium.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea indica (B), Azalea nudi-
flora, Berberis aquifolium (B), Buxus sempervirens suf-
fruticosa (B), Callicarpa americana, Calycanthus floridus,
Caryopteris mastacanthus, Cephalanthus occidentalis,
Clethra alnifolia, Cornus alba, Cornus sanguinea, Cornus
stolonifera flaviramea, Cydonia japonica, Deutzia crenata,
Diervilla rosea, Hydrangea arborescens, Hydrangea arbor-
escens sterilis, Hydrangea quercifolia, Jasminum nudi-
florum, Juniperus sabina (C), Juniperus squamata (C),
Kerria japonica, Leucothoe catesbcei (B), Ligustrum ibota
regelianum, Lonicera mcrrcwi, Nandina japonica (B),
Rkodotypos kerrioides, Ribes odoratum, Rosa Carolina,
Rosa rubiginosa, Rosa rugosa, Rosa setigera, Rosa virgini-
ana, Spircea prunifolia, Spircea thunbergi, Spircea van-
houttei, Staphylea bumalda, Stephanandraflexuosa, Tama-
rix odes sana.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Abelia grandiflora (B), Aucuba
japonica (B), Berberis ilicifolia (B), Buddleia davidi,
Cephalotaxus pedunculata (C), Elceagnus longipes, Elce-
agnus macrophylla (B), Elceagnus pungens (B), Escal-
lonia montevidensis (B), Evonymus alatus, Evonymus
japonicus (B), Forsythia suspensa, Forsythia viridissima,
Gardenia jasminoides (B), Hydrangea hortensis, Ilex
glabra (B), Ilex verticillata, Kalmia latifolia (B), Ligus-
trum sinense, Lonicera fragrantissima, Myrica carolinen-
sis (H), Philadelphus lewisi, Viburnum americanum,
Viburnum dentatum, Viburnum nudum, Viburnum
tomentosum.

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. jEsculus parviflora, Alnus mitch-

mas, Cornus paniculata, Hamamelis virginiana, Hy-
drangea paniculata grandiflora, Ilexvomitoria (B), Ligus-
trum amurense, Magnolia glauca (B), Prunus pissardi,
Pyracantha coccinea lalandi (H), Chamcscyparis obtusa
(C), Chamczcy peris pisifera (C), Chamcscyparis pisifera
fill/era (C), Chamcscyparis pisifera plumosa (C), Cha-
meecyparis pisifera squarrosa (C), Ligustrum lucidum (B),
Magnolia stellata, Osmanthus aquifolium (B), Punica
granatum (B), Rhododendron maximum (B), Rhus co-
tinus, Rhus glabra, Salix caprea, Sambucus canadensis,
Sambucus pubens, Syringa vulgaris, Viburnum pruni-
folium.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Aralia spinosa, Caragana arborescens, Ela-
agnus angustifolia, Evonymus atropurpureus, Ilex
crenata (B), Ptelea trifoliata.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Buxus sempervirens (B), Cercis canadensis,
Crat&gus crusgalli, Ilex aquifolium (B), Juniperus chi-
nensis (C), Juniperus communis (C), Juniperus excelsa
(C), Juniperus virginiana (C), Ligustrum ovalifolium
(H), Styrax japonica.

LARGE TREES. Red oak, white oak, tulip, willow
oak, red maple, Norway maple, sweet gum, pecan, black
walnut, sycamore, basswood, sour gum, holly, magnolia
laurel oak (B), live oak (B).

REGION 29

elliana, Amelanchier alnifolia, Acanthopanax pentaphyl-
lum, Azalea calendulacea, Cephalotaxus drupacea sinensis
(C), Cercis japonica, Cytisus scoparius, Exochorda gran-
diflora, Hibiscus syriacus, Hydrangea paniculata, Ligus-
trum ibota, Ligustrum japonicum (B), Lonicera ruprech-
tiana, Lonicera tatarica, Lycium chinense, Philadelphus
coronarius, Philadelphus inodorus, Physocarpus opuli-
folius, Pittosporum tobira (B), Prunus maritima,
Rhamnus cathartica, Rosa Iczvigata, Staphylea trifolia,
Syringa chinensis, Syringa persica, Tamarix gallica,
Thuja occidentalis (dwarf varieties) (C), Thuja orientalis
(dwarf varieties) (C), Viburnum opulus.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Amorpha fruticosa, Chionanthus
virginica, Colutea arborescens, Cornus florida, Cornus
mas, Cornus paniculata, Hamamelis virginiana, Hydran-
gea paniculata grandiflora, Ilexvomitoria (B), Ligustrum
amurense, Magnolia stellata, Magnolia glauca (B), Os-
manthus fragrans (B), Prunus pissardi, Pyracantha
coccinea lalandi (H), Chameecyparis obtusa (C), Cha-
mcecyparis pisifera (C), Chamczcy paris pisifera filifera
(C), Chameecyparis pisifera plumosa (C), Chamcscyparis
pisifera squarrosa (C), Ligustrum lucidum (B), Osman-
thus aquifolium (B), Photinia serrulata (B), Punica
granatum (B), Rhododendron maximum (B), Rhus cotinus,
Rhus glabra, Salix caprea, Sambucus canadensis, Sam-
bucus pubens, Syringa vulgaris, Viburnum prunifolium.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Amelanchier
oblongifolia, Aralia spinosa, Camellia japonica (B),
Caragana arborescens, Evonymus atropurpureus, Ilex
crenata (B), Jasminum humile, Pieris japonica (B),
Ptelea trifoliata, The a sinensis (B).

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Buxus sempervirens (B), Cercis canadensis,
Crattegus crusgalli, Ilex aquifolium (B), Juniperus
chinensis (C), Juniperus excelsa (C), Juniperus virgini-
ana (C), Lagerstrcemia indica, Ligustrum ovalifolium
(H), Prunus caroliniana (B), Styrax japonica, Syringa
japonica,

LARGE TREES. Live oak (B), willow oak, pecan,
sweet gum, laurel oak (B), Spanish oak, red oak, tulip
tree, American elm, sycamore, evergreen magnolia (B),
holly (B), Himalayan cedar (C).

692

PARKS

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Cotoneaster buxifolia,
Cotontaster microphylla (B), Hypericum moserianum
(B), Juniperus communis depressa (C), Juniperus pros-
trata (C), Rhus aromatica.

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Callicarpa purpurea, Cistus la-
daniferus (B), Cotoneaster simonsi, Deutzia gracilis,
Evonymus radicans (B), Pieris floribunda (B), Robinia
hispida, Rosa braceteata, Spircea bumalda, Spircea bu-
malda Anthony Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea
tomentosa.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Azalea nudiflora, Berberis thun-
bergi, Buxus sempervirens sujffruticosa (B), Callicarpa
americana, Calycanthus floridus, Caryopteris mastacan-
thus, Clethra alnifolia, Cornus sanguinea, Deutzia crenata,
Diervilla rosea, Hydrangea arborescens, Hydrangea ar-
borescens sterilis, Hydrangea quercifolia, Jasminum
nudiflorum, Juniperus sabina (C), Kerria japonica, Li-
gustrum ibota regelianum, Lonicera morrowi, Nandina
japonica (B), Rhodotypos kerrioides, Rosa Carolina, Rosa
rubiginosa, Rosa setigera, Spircea prunifolia, Spircea
tfiunbergi, Spircea vanhouttei, Staphylea bumalda, Stephan-
andraflexuosa, Tamarix odessana, Viburnum suspensum.

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Abelia grandiflora (B), Aucuba
japonica (B), Buddleia davidi, Datura arbor ea (H), Es-
callonia montevidensis (B), Evonymus alatus, Evonymus
japonicus (B), Forsythia suspensa, Forsythia viridissima,
Gardenia jasminoides (B), Hydrangea hortensis, Ilex
glabra (B), Ilex verticillata, Kalmia latifolia (B), Ligus-
trum sinense, Lonicera fragrantissima, Myrica carolinen-
sis (H), Philadelphus lewisi, Viburnum nudum, Vibur-
num tinus (B).

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. JEsculus parviflora, Amelanchier
alnifolia, Acanthopanax pentaphyllum, Azalea calendula-

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 2 FEET OR UNDER. Cotoneaster buxifolia,
Cotoneaster microphylla (B), Hypericum moserianum (B).

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Callicarpa purpurea, Cistus
ladaniferus (B), Cotoneaster simonsi, Evonymus radicans
(B), Pieris floribunda (B), Spireza bumalda, Spircza
bumalda Anthony Waterer, Spircea japonica, Spircea
tomentosa.

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Buxus sempervirens sufruticosa
(B), Callicarpa americana, Calycanthus floridus, Clethra
alnifolia, Diervilla rosea, Hydrangea arborescens, Hy-
drangea arborescens sterilis, Jasminum nudiflorum,
Nandina japonica (B), Spircea vanhouttei, Viburnum
suspensum (B).

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Abelia grandiflora (B), Aucuba
japonica (B), Escallonia montevidensis (B), Evonymus
alatus, Evonymus japonicus, Forsythia suspensa, For-
sythia viridissima, Gardenia jasminoides (B), Ilex glabra
(B), Ilex verticillata, Ligustrum sinense, Myrica caro-
linensis (H), Viburnum tinus (B).

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. JEsculus parviflora, Acan-
thopanax pentaphyllum, Callistemon lanceolatus, Ceano-
thus thyrsiflorus, Hydrangea paniculata, Ligustrum

PLANTS FOR

SHRUBS TO 4 FEET. Callicarpa purpurea, Cistus la-
daniferus (B), Cotoneaster simonsi, Evonymus radicans
(B), Pieris floribunda (B).

SHRUBS TO 6 FEET. Callicarpa americana, Nandina
japonica (B), Viburnum suspensum (B).

SHRUBS TO 8 FEET. Aucuba japonica (B), Escallonia
montevidensis (B), Evonymus japonicus (B), Gardenia
jasminoides (B), Ilex glabra (B).

SHRUBS TO 10 FEET. Acanthopanax pentaphyllum,
Callistemon lanceolatus, Ligustrum japonicum (B),

REGION 30

cea, Ceanothus thyrsiflorus, Hibiscus syriacus, Hydrangea
paniculata, Ligustrum ibota, Ligustrum japonicum (B),
Lonicera ruprechtiana, Lonicera tatarica, Lycium chi-
nense, Myrtus communis (B), Philadelphus coronarius,
Philadelphus inodorus, Physocarpus opulifolius, Pitto-
sporum tobira (B), Rosa Icevigata, Spartium junceum,
Staphylea trifolia, Syringa chinensis, Tamarix gallica.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Amorpha fruticosa, Cornis flo-
rida, Cornus mas, Hamamelis virginiana, Hydrangea
paniculata grandiflora, Ilex vomitoria (B), Ligustrum
amurense, Ligustrum lucidum (B), Magnolia glauca (B),
Magnolia stellata, Nerium oleander (B), Osmanthus aqui-
folium (B), Osmanthus fragrans (B), Photinia serrulata
(B), Punica granatum (B), Pyracantha coccinea lalandi
(H), Salix caprea, Sambucus canadensis, Sambucus
pubens, Syringa vulgaris, Viburnum prunifolium.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Amelanchier
canadensis, Buxus sempervirens (B), Ilex aquifolium (B),
Juniperus chinensis (C), Juniperus excelsa (C), Juni-
perus virginiana (C), Lagerstrcemia indica, Ligustrum
ovalifolium, Pittosporum undulatum (B), Prunus ilici-
folia (B), Prunus caroliniana (B), Styrax japonica,
Syringa japonica.

LARGE TREES. Live oak (B), willow oak, sweet gum,
pecan, red oak, Spanish oak, sycamore, holly (B), mag-
nolia (B), laurel oak (B), palmetto (B), Washington
palms (P), Canary Island date palm (P), cypress (C).

REGION 31

japonicum (B), Myrtus communis (B), Philadelphus
coronarius, Philadelphus inodorus, Physocarpus opuli-
olius, Pittosporum tobira (B), Spartium junceum.

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Hamamelis virginiana, Hy~
drangea paniculata grandiflora, Hydrangea quercifolia,
Ilex vomitoria (B), Ligustrum lucidum (B), Magnolia
glauca (B), Magnolia stellata, Nerium oleander (B),
Osmanthus aquifolium (B), Osmanthus fragrans, Photinia
serrulata (B), Punica granatum (B), Pyracantha coccinea
lalandi (H), Syringa vulgaris.

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Camellia ja-
ponica (B), Caragana arborescens, Ilex crenata (B),
Jasminum humile, Melaleuca decussata, Pieris japonica
(B), Pittosporum phillyrceoides (B), Thea sinensis (B).

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Buxus sem-
pervirens (B), Ilex aquifolium (B), Ligustrum ovalifolium
(H), Pittosporum undulatum (B), Prunus ilicifolia (B),
Prunus caroliniana (B).

LARGE TREES. Willow oak, beefwood, live oak (B),
laurel oak (B), silk oak, magnolia (B), camphor (B),
rubber (B), palms of various kinds (P).

REGION 32

Myrtus communis (B), Photinia serrulata (B), Pitto-
sporum tobira (B), Viburnum tinus (B).

SHRUBS TO 15 FEET. Ilex vomitoria (B), Ligustrum
lucidum (B), Nerium oleander (B), Osmanthus fragrans
(B).

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 20 FEET. Ilex crenata
(B), Jasminum humile, Melaleuca decussata, Pieis ja-
ponica (B), Pittosporum phillyrceoides (B), Thea sinensis
(B).

SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES TO 25 FEET. Ilex aquifolium

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION

693

(B), Pittosporum undulatum (B), Prunus ilicifolia (B),
Prunus caroliniana (B).

LARGE TREES. Live oak_(B), silk oak, camphor (B),

rubber (B), evergreen magnolia (B), beefwood, laurel
oak (B), Jacaranda (H), holly (B), Parkinsonia, many
palms including the royal palm (P).

GRASSES FOR LAWNS

GENERAL. Soil. Lawns require a deep, well-drained,
thoroughly enriched, moisture-holding, weed-free soil
whose bottom layers are compacted after plowing, but
whose surface is finely pulverized for 2 inches.

Fertilizers. Preparatory fertilization should be done
with green-manure crops or carefully composted stable
manure. Substitutes are ground bone, fish scrap, cotton-
seed meal, or similar fertilizers at the rate of 500 to
2,000 pounds per acre.

Propagation. Kentucky blue grass, redtop and white
clover are started from seed; carpet grass, St. Augustine
grass, mesquite grass, centipede grass and Bahia are
propagated from rooted runners; and Bermuda grass
and creeping bent may be started in either way. Lawns
started in the fall have less competition with weeds
during the critical period. Sow the seed three months
before freezing weather, or set the roots just before the
moist season begins, so that they will become established
before winter and the following hot, dry weather.

Cutting. Cut the grass as soon as the lawn mower
will take hold. A good lawn will result on a good soil
liberally top-dressed, if the grass is cut frequently and
regularly and is well supplied with water. Grass clip-
pings should not be removed. Cut often enough to
allow the clippings to disappear about the roots in a
day or two.

Watering. Make frequent, heavy waterings when
necessary. Light daily waterings are bad, though copi-
ous daily waterings may be necessary on leachy soils in
dry climates.

Lawn problem. Only a few grasses form a close turf
suitable for lawns. The lawn problem, therefore, is
largely confined to making conditions congenial to lawn
grasses, rather than to selecting grasses suited to con-
ditions in different parts of the country, although some
selection is also possible. Outstanding characteristics of
the grass determine the method of handling.

KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. Requires plenty of moisture
and thrives in cool and even cold weather that is not
actually freezing. Hence a clay soil or a soil having a
clay subsoil is considered best, although a lighter soil
that has a permanent water table 2 to 4 feet below the
surface is almost equally good. Lime also is needed, if
the soil has any inclination to acidity. As Kentucky
blue grass takes two or three years to spread out enough
to make a good turf, it should be sown with a grass
that will give a quick temporary effect. It does well
in moderate shade.

REDTOP. Most successful on gravelly soils. Seems to
thrive where Kentucky blue grass fails in regions where
climatic conditions are favorable to blue grass. Makes
a lawn the first year. For these reasons it is usually
sown with Kentucky blue grass. Use either equal parts
by weight or I part redtop and 3 parts of blue grass,
and apply 100 pounds per acre of either mixture.

CREEPING BENT. Most used and best of the many
species of bent grasses. Adapted to warmer and drier
conditions than Kentucky blue grass, though thriving
throughout the blue-grass region. Especially recom-
mended for golf greens. As it spreads rapidly by stolons,
the practice of growing selected strains in nursery rows
and planting the stolons is being encouraged. These
stolons are dug two months or more before freezing
weather, chopped into I or 2 inch lengths, sown thinly
over well-prepared soil, so that pieces will be about 2
inches apart, and covered promptly with a layer of

rich, friable soil, then well watered. Seed of a mixture
of bent grasses, including creeping bent, may also be
used. This mixture is sold as German bent.

RED FESCUE. Probably the most generally satis-
factory shade grass, next to Kentucky blue grass, in
the cooler regions. Sow at the rate of 50 pounds per
acre.

WHITE CLOVER. Often useful as a nurse crop for
Kentucky blue grass, making a temporary lawn for a
year or two on well-limed or naturally sweet soils. Sow
only in spring in the North, or in October on Bermuda-
grass lawns in the South, at the rate of 10 pounds per
acre.

BERMUDA GRASS. Alost generally used lawn grass
south of the natural Kentucky blue-grass region, except
where special efforts are made to meet blue-grass re-
quirements. Essentially a warm season grass, turning
brown with the advent of cool nights even before frost,
thriving in hot weather, and standing much drought.
Spreads by stolons and becomes a somewhat persistent
weed in cultivated ground. May be started in the
spring, similarly to the way creeping bent is started,
with stolons collected from fields or plants. Set I to 2
feet apart each way and keep cultivated for a few
weeks. Seed may be sown at the rate of 20 pounds per
acre. Since Bermuda-grass lawns are brown in winter
it is a common practice to disk them in October, to
sow perennial rye grass or white clover, and roll, in
order to have a green winter lawn. The Bermuda grass
will establish itself the next season.

CARPET GRASS. More attractive than Bermuda
grass, adapted only to warmer regions, is less persistent,
and grows in shade as well as full sunlight. It is set out
in the same way as Bermuda grass.

ST. AUGUSTINE GRASS. Has a broader leaf than car-
pet grass and is useful on the light lands near the coast
south of Charleston, S. C. Planted in the same way as
Bermuda grass and carpet grass.

BAHIA. Promising new grass with broad, dark
leaves and low habit of growth that is attractive. Es-
tablished like carpet grass.

CREEPING LIPPIA (LIPPIA CANESCENS). Creeping
plant used as a substitute for grass in warm, dry regions.
Has a small, grayish foliage and in midsummer small,
purplish flowers. Will stand much trampling, grows
with little water and requires no cutting except re-
straining around the edges of the planted area. The
plants are set out I to 2 feet apart at the beginning of
the rainy season.

GRASSES FOR DIFFERENT REGIONS. Grasses suited
to the different sections of the country are given by
regions as shown by the map.

Region I. With watering, Kentucky blue grass, red-
top, creeping and other bents. For shade, Kentucky
blue grass, red fescue. With little or no watering, Ber-
muda grass and Lippia canescens.

Region 2. With occasional watering, Kentucky blue
grass, redtop, creeping bent, German bent and native
grasses. For shade, Kentucky blue grass and red fescue.

Region 3. With irrigation, Kentucky blue grass, red-
top, creeping bent and native grasses like mesquite.
For shade, Kentucky blue grass and red fescue. With
little watering, Bermuda grass and Lippia canescens.

Region 4. With irrigation, mesquite, curly mesquite,
and other native grasses, Kentucky blue grass, redtop
and creeping bent. For shade, Kentucky blue grass and

694

PARKS

red fescue. With little or no irrigation, mesquite with
Bermuda grass at the lower altitudes in the West.

Region 5. With copious watering, Kentucky blue
grass, redtop, mesquite grass, creeping and other bents.
For shade, Kentucky blue grass and red fescue. With
less watering, Bermuda grass and with little watering,
Lippia canescens.

Region 6. With watering, Kentucky blue grass, red-
top, creeping and other bents. For shade, Kentucky
blue grass and red fescue.

Region 7. With frequent watering, Kentucky blue
grass, redtop, creeping and other bents, and mesquite
grass. For shade, Kentucky blue grass and red fescue.

Region 8. With much watering, Kentucky blue grass,
redtop, creeping bent and other bents. For shade, Ken-
tucky blue grass, red fescue.

Region 9. With copious watering, Kentucky blue
grass, creeping bent, redtop, mesquite grass. For shade,
Kentucky blue grass, red fescue.

Region lo. With very heavy watering, Kentucky
blue grass, redtop, creeping bent. For shade, Ken-
tucky blue grass, red fescue. With less watering,
Bermuda grass and Lippia canescens.

Region if. With copious watering, Kentucky blue
grass, redtop, creeping bent. For shade, Kentucky
blue grass, red fescue.

Region 12. With frequent watering, Kentucky b'ue
grass, redtop, creeping bent. For shade, Kentucky
blue grass, red fescue.

Region 13. With frequent watering, Kentucky blue
grass, redtop, creeping bent. For shade, Kentucky
blue grass, red fescue.

Region 14. With frequent watering, Kentucky blue
grass, creeping bent, redtop. For shade, Kentucky
blue grass, red fescue.

Region 15. With abundant watering, Kentucky blue
grass, redtop, mesquite, creeping bent. For shade, Ken-
tucky blue grass, red fescue.

Region 16. With abundant watering, Kentucky blue
grass, redtop, creeping bent. For shade, Kentucky
blue grass and red fescue. With somewhat less water,
mesquite, Buffalo grass, Bermuda grass.

Region //. With very copious watering, Kentucky
blue grass, creeping bent, redtop. For shade, Ken-
tucky blue grass, red fescue. With somewhat less water,

Bermuda grass, centipede grass, St. Augustine grass.
For shade, carpet grass.

Region 18. With abundant watering, Kentucky blue
grass, redtop, mesquite grass, creeping bent, German
bent. For shade, Kentucky blue grass and red fescue.

Region 19. With abundant water, Kentucky blue
grass, mesquite grass, creeping bent, redtop. For shade,
Kentucky blue grass and red fescue.

Region 20. With abundant water, Kentucky blue
grass, mesquite grass, creeping bent, redtop. For shade,
Kentucky blue grass, red fescue. With somewhat less
water, Bermuda grass, carpet grass and other native
grasses. For shade, carpet grass.

Region 21. With water for frequent droughts use
Kentucky blue grass, redtop, mesquite and other native
grasses and creeping bent. For shade, Kentucky blue
grass and red fescue.

Region 22. With water for droughts use Kentucky
blue grass, mesquite, creeping bent, redtop. For shade,
Kentucky blue grass, red fescue.

Region 23. With water for occasional droughts, Ken-
tucky blue grass, redtop, creeping bent. For shade,
Kentucky blue grass, red fescue.

Region 24. Kentucky blue grass, redtop, creeping
bent. For shade, Kentucky blue grass, red fescue.

Region 25. Kentucky blue grass, creeping bent, red-
top. For shade, Kentucky blue grass, red fescue.

Region 26. Kentucky blue grass, redtop, creeping
bent. For shade, Kentucky blue grass, red fescue.

Region 27. Kentucky blue grass, redtop, creeping
bent. For shade, Kentucky blue grass, red fescue.

Region 28. Creeping bent, redtop. For shade, Ken-
tucky blue grass, red fescue.

Region 29. Bermuda grass, with perennial rye or
white clover added each fall to make a green winter
lawn, carpet grass, creeping bent. For shade, Kentucky
blue grass, carpet grass, red fescue.

Region 30. Carpet grass, St. Augustine grass, Ber-
muda grass, with perennial rye or white clover for
winter, centipede grass, Bahia, Lippia canescens in dry
situations. For shade, carpet grass.

Region 31. Carpet grass, St. Augustine grass, Ber-
muda grass, centipede grass, Bahia, Lippia canescens
for dry situations. For shade, carpet grass.

Region 32. St. Augustine grass, carpet grass, Ber-
muda grass, centipede grass, Bahia. For shade, carpet
grass.

SECTION III. DISEASES OF PARK TREES AND SHRUBS

DR. HAVEN METCALF

Senior Pathologist in Charge, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture,

Washington, D. C.

Trees in forest parks are subject to the same diseases as forest trees.
Forest trees have numerous leaf, twig, trunk, and root diseases, varying in
severity from leaf spots, which only slow up the rate of growth, to such kill-
ing diseases as chestnut blight. The control of some of these diseases, such
as white-pine blister rust, is comparatively simple, but for many others
there is no practical method of control. Root diseases, which are the cause
of a large part of the loss of trees by wind throw, are especially difficult
to control. Closely related to root diseases and often caused by the same
organisms are diseases that directly produce decay in the tree trunks. This

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION 695

type of disease plays a major role in making wood lots unprofitable, often
producing a cull or loss from decay amounting to twenty or thirty per cent
of the value of the stand at time of cutting. These decay fungi enter the
trunks in various ways -- through fire scars, lightning injuries, other wounds,
knot holes, old stumps and roots. Fungous organisms sometimes utilize
more than one means of entrance. The loss which these fungi produce can
often be lessened greatly by the observance of certain general rules of forest
sanitation and protection: (i) By preventing forest fires the park manager
can eliminate one important mode of entrance for decay fungi -- fire scars.
(2) By care in any cutting operations he can lessen the number of wounds
on the trees left standing. (3) If he cuts trees so that the stumps are low,
decay is less likely to spread from the old stumps to the growing sprouts.
(4) By removing the diseased trees in all cutting and thinning operations
the owner can largely eliminate the source of infection for healthy trees.
It is often difficult to detect decay in trees, but hollows at the base of trees
or high up in the trunks, open fire scars, fruiting bodies (conks, punks)
of decay fungi on the trunk, and hollow sound produced when the tree
is struck with an ax, are the surest indications of it. In such trees the
decay is usually progressing faster than new wood is forming. Severely
wounded, dead and wind-thrown trees should also be removed. Trees
which, because of crowding or some other unfavorable factors, are in danger
of dying, should be utilized, since decay and other factors rapidly render a
dead tree worthless and dangerous. Trees that are making very slow
growth, especially those that have many large dead limbs, are usually
more susceptible to decay than vigorously growing trees and should be cut
in thinning operations. (5) For forest plantings it is often advisable to use
a mixture of species, so that if one species is seriously affected by decay
or other diseases a full stand can still be obtained. Diseases develop less
abundantly in mixed stands than in pure stands.

Trees in planted parks or parks which have been extensively cleared
are subject to a number of diseases not shared by forest trees. The clearing
away of adjacent trees and undergrowth leaves the surviving trees in
unnatural conditions to which some species of trees will not adjust. They
usually show their lack of adjustment by becoming stag-headed and slowly
dying. Changes in the level of the water table are frequently made in
clearing park land, with the result that the surviving trees either suffer
from lack of water or the roots are drowned. Many trees are injured by
changes in the level of the soil or cutting away of the roots in the process
of road building. In parks with extensive lawns which are kept carefully
cut, the trees in time suffer from lack of humus and show signs of starva-
tion. This is probably the most frequent cause of dying trees in parks of

696

PARKS

the present time. If the lawns are much frequented, the soil about the
trees becomes trodden and packed, interfering with both aeration and
water supply of the roots. Finally, the trees of city parks, like the trees of
city streets, suffer from smoke and fumes. Conifers are usually the first to
succumb. There is no remedy for this condition except the planting of
trees that are smoke resistant, such as the holly, the ginkgo and the sycamore.
In the average park many trees are hollow as a result of early injuries.
It is customary in many places to fill these hollow trees with cement, wood,
magnesite, asphalt mixtures and various other substances. While such
filling makes a tree look neat and hence may be desirable in trees located
in very conspicuous positions, there is little scientific evidence that cavity
filling prolongs the life of a tree or materially strengthens it, and as cavity
filling is expensive the park manager must decide whether his available
funds are not better spent in other processes. A badly decayed tree should
be replaced with a new and healthy tree unless there is some very special
reason for trying to prolong its life.

SPECIFIC

ASH. Rust (Puccinia fraxinata). Found in the
Eastern and Central States. Irregular swellings on
twigs and petioles. Also attacks the leaves. Affected
areas covered with yellow pustules. Requires marsh or
cord grass as alternate host. Control: Trees should not
be grown in or near marshy land.

CATALPA. Leaf spot (Phyllosticta catalpa). Found
in Eastern, Southern and Central States. Circular
brown spots scattered over leaf surface, slightly de-
pressed, causing wrinkling of leaf. If very numerous,
the spots coalesce. Control: Spray trees with Bordeaux
(2-2-50) at intervals of about two weeks during the
summer. Use Bordeaux (4-4-50) in fall and early
spring. Keep soil cultivated about the trees.

ELM. Leaf spot (Gnomonia ulmea). Occurs in
Eastern and Central States. Gray and black spots on
upper surface of leaves. If severely infected, leaves
turn brown and fall early. Control: Rake up and burn
all fallen leaves. Spray in early spring, before growth
begins, with Bordeaux (4-4-50). A second or third
application may be necessary before midsummer.

HORSE-CHESTNUT. Leaf blotch (Guignardia ezsculi).
Occurs in the Eastern, Southern and Central States.
Reddish brown, irregular blotches on leaflets, sur-
rounded by yellowish zone merging into the green of
leaflets. Greater part of leaf surface may be discolored.
Leaves begin to fall early — by last of August. Occurs only
on buckeye. Control: Spray with Bordeaux (4-4-50).
Infected nursery stock should be dusted with mixture of
nine parts finely ground sulphur to one part arsenate of
lead. Rake up and burn all fallen leaves in autumn.

MAPLE. Wilt (Ferticillium). Found in eastern
United States. Leaves on individual limbs or parts of

DISEASES

tree wilt and die. Fungus grows in sapwood of tree,
producing characteristic dark green streaks. Control:
Not successful on individual trees. Wilted limbs should
be burned and wounds painted. Often best to remove
tree immediately to retard infection of surrounding
healthy trees.

Anthracnose (Glasosporium apocryptum). Occurs in
eastern United States. Irregular brown blotches ex-
tending from margins of leaves downward along veins.
Moist weather favors its spread. Control: Spray trees
in early spring with Bordeaux (4-4-50). Two or three
applications may be necessary. Rake up and burn all
infected leaves.

Leaf spot (Phyllosticta minima). Occurs in eastern
United States. Light brown circular spots with dark,
reddish brown margins. Common on red and white
maples. Control: Destroy by burning all fallen leaves.

Tar spot (Rhytisma acerinum). Found in Eastern and
Central States. First appears as light green or yellowish
spots, which become black, resembling tar. Leaves fall
early. Affects only white and red maples. Control: Rake
up and burn all fallen leaves. Spray with Bordeaux
(4-4-50) in early spring before growth begins.

OAK. Anthracnose (Gnomonia veneta). Occurs in
Eastern and Central States. White oaks particularly
susceptible. Brown blotches or spots of irregular shape,
particularly along veins of leaves. Moist weather favors
spread of disease. Control: Spray trees with Bordeaux
(4-4-50) before growth begins in spring at intervals of
two weeks. Spray again in fall, and also rake up and
burn fallen leaves.

Leaf blister (Taphrina coerulescens). Found through-
out the United States. Begins as yellowish spots on

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION

697

upper leaf surface, which increase in size until leaf tissue
bulges out, the convex side usually on upper surface.
Curling of leaves may result. Control: Spray with
Bordeaux (4-4-50) after leaves fall and before buds
swell. Rake up and burn fallen leaves.

POPLAR. Canker (Dothichiza populea). Occurs in
Eastern and Central States. Depressed cankers form
on bark of twigs and branches. Small gray-black pus-
tules appear on affected areas. Control: Control is
difficult. Disease often can be checked by pruning out
all diseased twigs and branches. Protect all cut sur-
faces by painting. Spray trees when dormant with
Bordeaux (4-4-50).

SYCAMORE. Anthracnose (Gnomonia veneta). Symp-
toms and control same as for oak.

CHESTNUT. Blight (Endothia parasitica). Present in
all Eastern States that have extensive chestnut growth.
Cankers on limbs and trunk which enlarge until girdle
is completed. Leaves on girdled parts turn brown.
Control: No control of this disease in native chestnut.
Ornamental Japanese and hairy Chinese chestnuts usu-
ally can be saved if affected limbs and trunk cankers
are removed as soon as noted and all wounds painted.

WHITE PINE. Blister rust (Cronartium ribicola).
Occurs in the New England States, New Jersey, Penn-
sylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Washington
and Oregon. In Canada it occurs in the Provinces of
British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec, Prince Edward
Island, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Disease was
introduced into this country from Europe and appar-
ently is of Asiatic origin. On currant and gooseberry
bushes, from Jun£ to October, the disease appears as
an orange-yellow rust on the under side of the leaves.
Spores from diseased bushes infect white pines through
their needles, and the fungus grows into the bark, pro-
ducing cankers on the branches and trunk. The can-
kers are not readily recognized until about three years
after infection. They then usually appear as spindle-
shaped swellings on the branches or the trunk. The
edges of the cankers are marked with a yellowish green
or orange discoloration. From April to June blisters
about the size of a navy bean burst through the dis-
eased bark. These blisters are full of orange-yellow
spores. The blisters break open and the spores infect
the leaves of currant and gooseberry plants. The rup-
tured bark dies after the spores are discharged. The
fungus continues to grow into the live ba»-k and each
year new blisters are produced until the branch or tree
is killed. The bark of old cankers is irregularly cracked,
rough and scaly in appearance. Sometimes rodents eat
the diseased bark, leaving barkless patches of white
wood. These patches turn dark gray in color, and the
canker becomes more or less covered with white streaks
of dry pitch. Many diseased trees under ten years of
age have a stunted, bushy growth and a yellowish color.
On older trees the first indication of damage appears
as scattered dead and dying branches. The damage

becomes more apparent with the continued develop-
ment of the disease until the tree dies. Control: Blister
rust spreads from one currant or gooseberry bush to
another, but cannot spread from one pine to another.
It can infect pines only through the medium of currants
and gooseberries. The rust can be controlled effectively
in pine stands by systematic eradication of all species
of currant and gooseberry bushes within a short radius
of the trees. The exact distance varies with local con-
ditions, but ordinarily a distance of nine hundred feet
will be sufficient to protect the pines. Cultivated black
currants (Ribes nigrum) should be eradicated within a
radius of one mile. The black currant is more suscep-
tible to the disease than other species of currants and
gooseberries and is an important factor in its spread
over long distances and its local establishment. The
Department of Agriculture is opposed to its growth in
the United States and recommends its elimination from
the Pacific, Rocky Mountain, Atlantic, Appalachian,
Ohio Valley, upper Mississippi and Lake States.

ORNAMENTAL SMALL CONIFERS. Blight (Phomopsis
juniperoi'ora) . Occurs in Eastern and Middle Western
States and extends throughout the South to the Gulf
coast. Fungus blights the tender growth of young
stock, producing a canker on the stems of junipers,
arborvitae, cypress, Retinospora, Cryptomeria and
Taxus. Control: Spray systematically with Bordeaux
(5-5-50), beginning early in season. Add one pound
resin fish oil soap to every twenty-five gallons as an
adhesive. Destroy badly blighted stock.

HYDRANGEA. Leaf spot (Phyllosticta hydrangea:).
Common. Rusty brown spots on leaves, or blighting of
entire tops. Control: Spray with Bordeaux or lime-
sulphur.

LILAC. Mildew (Microsphfera alni). Common
wherever lilac is grown. Whitish, cobwebby growth on
surface of leaves, which gives them a dusty appearance.
Control: Dust with mixture of nine parts finely ground
sulphur and one part arsenate of lead at intervals of
about two weeks during the summer. Spray with Bor-
deaux (4-4-50) when leaves fall in autumn and again
in the spring before growth commences.

ROSE. Black spot (Diplocarpon rosee). Found wher-
ever rose is grown. Purplish black spots that have irreg-
ular ringed margins appear on upper leaf surface.
Leaves turn yellow and fall early. Control: Dust with
mixture of nine parts finely ground sulphur and one
part arsenate of lead at intervals of two weeks during
the growing season. Spray with Bordeaux (4-4-50)
when plants are dormant. Rake up and burn infected
leaves. Grow more resistant varieties and keep plants
healthy by cultivation and by winter protection if nec-
essary.

Mildew (Spheerothfca pannosa). Occurs wherever
rose is grown. Whitish or grayish patches on leaves
give them a powdery appearance. Leaves curl, die and
fall. Thorns, shoots and even buds may be affected.

698 PARKS

Control: Use same method as for black spot. leaves. Spray plants with Bordeaux (4-4-40) in the

Boxwood. Leaf blight (Macrophoma candollei). Dis- fall and before growth begins in the spring. A weaker

tribution wherever boxwood is grown. Leaves turn solution (2-2-50) may be used during the growing

yellow and are covered with small black pustules. season.
Defoliation results. Control: Rake up and burn fallen

GENERAL ADVICE

Every park is to a large extent an individual problem and general
advice on the care of trees can be given to cover only relatively small sections
of the country. It is suggested that park managers facing any new problem
of disease control write to the United States Department of Agriculture for
specific and expert advice. This will always be given by correspondence,
and sometimes personal inspection by experts is provided.

SECTION IV

WILLIAM MIDDLETON

Associate Entomologist, Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture

Trees growing under all conditions are subject to insect attack, but
the more artificial the conditions of growth the greater the number of
insect enemies with serious possibilities. Several conditions closely asso-
ciated with park buildings are often directly responsible for insect injury to
trees. These are: thinning out dense stands, changing grades or earth
levels, introducing new and vigorous competitors for the available water
and food materials, and finally, planting trees in unsuitable situations or
under unfavorable conditions.

Thinning out dense stands has a very decided influence on the avail-
able water supply through the elimination of shade and is frequently fol-
lowed by dying tops and ends of branches and borer attack. The changing
of grade levels, filling in hollows, or cutting down hills, also affects the
moisture and air conditions of the earth surrounding the roots of the trees
present and is followed by much the same tree difficulties as the foregoing.
Competition is the usual forest struggle and plays an important and an
often valuable role, but it is possible, through injudicious planting, to injure
considerably very desirable trees.

With regard to planting, we believe that the tree and site should both
be selected. Never choose too many of one kind of tree and always select
locations for trees that meet the needs of the trees. Too many of one kind
of tree intensifies the park problem of the enemies of that species and gives
these insect enemies optimum conditions for multiplication (abundant food
material). Different trees vary somewhat in their requirements for soil,
depth of soil and moisture, and an oversight of these essentials is very apt

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION

699

to lead not only to a weakened tree or group of trees and to insect attack,
but not infrequently to confusion in diagnosing the cause of the trouble
and loss of money in attempts at remedying the situation.

There are several different types of insects that are injurious to park
trees, among which are bark beetles, borers, aphids, scale insects and
defoliators.

BARK BEETLES

PINE, SPRUCE AND FIR BARK BEETLES (Dendroctonus and Ips).
Throughout the United States immense numbers of coniferous trees are
killed annually by bark beetles. The insects
themselves are small, black to brown, cylin-
drical beetles, and their destructive work con-
sists of mines or galleries between the bark
and the wood that girdle the trees and kill
them. The young grubs or larvae of the bark
beetles live and grow on the inner bark. Evi-
dence of attack consists of (i) fading foliage,
(2) pitch tubes or resin tubes on the trunk of
the tree, and (3) reddish boring dust on the
bark and at the base of the tree. The newly
grown adult beetles emerge from infested trees
and fly to attack others. Evidence of their
eaving is found in great numbers of "shot
holes" in the bark of the trunk and limbs.

THE HICKORY BARK BEETLE (Scolytus
quadrispinosus}. Hickories are frequently in-
fested and killed by the hickory bark beetle.
This insect is a small dark brown to blackish beetle about the size
of a rice grain. Its work is similar in general to that of the foregoing
species.

THE TWO-LINED CHESTNUT AND OAK BORER, AND THE BRONZE BIRCH
BORER (Agrilus spp.}. Chestnut, oak, birch and other trees are often
attacked and sometimes killed by flatheaded bark borers. Flat winding
mines between the bark and the wood of the trees are the principal positive
evidence of attack.

Control. Bark beetle control is a complex problem and a number of
factors enter into it.

i. Many bark beetles prefer weakened trees, so that the maintenance
or restoration of vigor is frequently of prime importance. Proper pruning,
thinning, transplanting, care of wounds, fertilizing, maintaining water
supply and protection of ground conditions should be carefully planned for

PLATE No. 255

THE MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE

Photograph by United States Bureau of

Entomology.

7oo

PARKS

PLATE No. 256

GALLERIES OF THE WESTERN PINE BEETLE
(DENDROCTONUS BREVICOMIS)

Photograph by United States Bureau of Entomology.

in the management of the
park. Too sudden changes,
even for the ultimate better-
ment of conditions, are often
devitalizing to trees.

2. Dead, badly infested
and hopelessly weakened
trees should be removed
promptly and destroyed.
Often, and particularly in
the case of coniferous trees,
such trees serve not only as
breeding places for injurious
species, but attract and tend
to localize in damaging num-
bers primary and secondary
insect enemies. In the case

of conifers the trees to be destroyed should be removed and burned, includ-
ing the stump, with the greatest possible rapidity.

BORERS

Most of the wood-boring insects are secondary in the nature of their
attack, infesting weakened trees or those that have been injured and the
wounds of which have not been treated. The borers of elm, maple, linden,
etc., are of this group, and measures tending to promote healthy, vigorous
growth and the protection of wounds will eliminate much of this type of
injury.

Some borers are primary, however, such as the locust borer, the white
pine weevil and the shoot moths. Over these some advantage may be secured
by dense and mixed plantings during the early years of the tree's develop-
ment. Shade and dense growth are undoubtedly strong protective features
under such conditions.

Treatment consists of the removal and destruction of the infested
material, and occasionally in the killing of the borers by running flexible
wires into their burrows or by injecting a little carbon disulphid into the
gallery openings with an oil can and then tightly plugging all the holes for
several days with grafting wax, putty, or some gas-proof material. The
wounds should then be opened, cleaned and painted. Carbon disulphid is
inflammable and poisonous and should be handled with care.

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION

701

PLATE No. 257. GALLERIES OF THE HICKORY BARK BEETLE IN BARK AND WOOD

Photograph by United States Bureau of Entomology.

PLATE No. 258. MINES OF THE TWO-LINED

CHESTNUT AND OAK BORER

(AGRILUS BILINEATUS) ON OAK WOOD

Photograph by United States Bureau of

Entomology.

PLATE No. 259. GALLERIES AND GRUB OF

THE ELM BORER (SAPERDA}

Photograph by United States Bureau of

Entomology.

702

PARKS

APHIDS

Some years, and very often in the spring, aphids or plant lice are
abundant on trees. These are sucking insects, small, soft bodied, somewhat

pear-shaped and colored from pale yel-
low or green to pink or blackish. They
are usually found on the undersides of
leaves or on the tender new growth.
Maple, beech, birch, linden and tulip
poplar are among the most frequently
infested trees. The feeding of the aphids
is usually not a serious menace to the
life of the trees attacked. They may,
however, cause paling and early falling of
the foliage. Sometimes they are very
annoying because of their honeydew —
the sweet liquid they excrete — which
falls, wetting the upper surfaces of the
leaves and the ground beneath the tree
and soiling everything with which it
comes in contact. Aphids are usually nat-
urally controlled by weather conditions
and various insects that feed on them,
such as the ladybird beetles, but some-
times it is advisable to combat them
artificially. For this purpose a spray com-
posed of the following is very effective:
Nicotine sulphate, I pint; soap, 12 pounds; water, 100 gallons. This spray
should be applied at least twice, with an interval of one week or ten days
between treatments. It should be applied in such a way that the material
will come in contact with the bodies of the lice; it usually works best on
warm, bright days.

SCALE INSECTS

Under park and shade tree conditions scale insects are of great impor-
tance. These insects weaken and kill trees, limbs and branches. The pine
leaf scale found on pine and spruce needles and the juniper scale are impor-
tant scale enemies of ornamental conifers. The San Jose scale, the oyster
shell scale, the gloomy scale, the cottony maple scale, the obscure scale,
the golden or pit-making oak scale, the tulip tree soft scale and many others
are all important enemies of the various hardwood trees.

The presence of scale on hardwood or deciduous trees is best deter-

PLATE No. 260

THE WOOLLY MAPLE AND ALDER
BLIGHT APHID ON MAPLE LEAVES

Photograph by United States Bureau of
Entomology.

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION

703

PLATE No. 261
APHIDS AND HONEYDEW ON TULIP-POPLAR LEAVES

Photograph by Uuited States Bureau of Entomology.

mined by the examination of the smooth bark of branches from various

parts of the trees. The scales are usually recognizable as small to large

bodies, hard shelled or soft,

which adhere close to the

bark but which may be

readily crushed or scraped

off. The scales on conifers

are usually whitish or gray

in color and occur on the

leaves.

In combating scale in-
sects, the removal and de-
struction of dead and heavily
infested material that can be
spared is advised. Fertiliza-
tion and an adequate supply
of water are of great help,
and spraying, where practi-
cable, is very valuable. Dor-
mant spraying in the early spring, before new growth starts, with miscible
oils or oil emulsions, is usually quite effective. The oils should be used

according to the manufacturers' directions.
The spraying apparatus should be care-
fully cleaned, and in the application care
should be taken to cover the tree well but
not to allow the oil to accumulate in pud-
dles about the base of the tree.

DEFOLIATORS

The most common type of insect in-
jury to trees is that of foliage eating. In
the case of deciduous trees defoliation is
not a very serious injury unless it occurs
year after year and is complete. Further-
more, late summer or fall defoliation of
hardwoods is seldom followed by severe
effects, as can be observed in the case of
the locust, which is often to be recognized
year after year by its brown leaves in late
PLATE No. 262. THE PINE LEAF SCALE surnmer due to the work of the locust leaf

Photograph by United States Bureau of . ITT- i u J r 1*

Entomology. miner. With evergreens, however, delolia-

704

PARKS

PLATE No. 263

THE OYSTER SHELL SCALE

Photograph by United States Bureau of

Entomology.

PLATE No. 264

THE COTTONY MAPLE SCALE

Photograph by United States Bureau of

Entomology.

PLATE No. 265

THE TULIP TREE SOFT SCALE

Photograph by United States Bureau of

Entomology.

PLATE No. 266

BAGWORMS ON ARBORVIT^

Photograph bv United States Bureau of

Entomology.

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION

70S

tion occupies a more important role; single complete defoliations can kill
outright trees of this nature.

Control. Leaf eating caterpillars, sawfly larvae or beetles can be com-
bated by spraying with a lead arsenate and water mixture, using one pound
of powdered lead arsenate to fifty gallons of water.

Certain species of defoliating insects are more often met with and
are far more abundant and more injurious than others. The habits of
these species vary as to host plant, time of appearance and manner of
work, and, since these are important items in prevention of attack and
control, a few of the principal defoliators will be treated here briefly.

THE BAGWORM. The
bagworm is a caterpillar that
lives in a sack or bag of silk.
ornamented with portions of
the plant fed upon. The body
is soft except for the head
and thoracic plates, and is
dull brownish to blackish in
color. The bagworm feeds on
a wide variety of plants, both
deciduous and evergreen,
but apparently prefers arbor-
vitse and juniper.

Control may be effective
by spraying, as soon as the
bagworms are observed, with
lead arsenate, using one to
two pounds of lead arsenate
to fifty gallons of water. Pick-
ing and destroying bags dur-
ing the fall, winter and early
spring, when they contain the
eggs for the next year's gen-
eration, is also an excellent
means of preventing attack.

THE ELM LEAF BEETLE.
Elms are very subject to de-
foliation by the elm leaf

1.1 i , . PLATE No. 267. THE ELM LEAF BEETLE

beetle, and when the trees

i j i r.. a> Elm leaves showing adults, larvae, and feeding work of the

are denuded year after year beetle; b, adult beetle; c, eggs; d, young larvae; e, full-grown larva;

death follows The elm leaf £ mouoh parts °f_full"8r?wn larva; g> pupa' Drawings by United
uw&* iedl States Bureau of Entomology.

706

PARKS

beetle is a small greenish to yellowish beetle with black stripes down the
sides of the wing covers. The beetles pass the winter living in sheltered
places and begin to feed on the new elm leaves in the spring. When the
leaves are fairly well grown the female beetles begin to lay eggs. The larvae
or grubs hatching from these eggs also feed on the elm leaves, transforming
into beetles in early July. A second generation follows.

Control is best accomplished by spraying the trees with a lead arsenate
and water mixture, one pound of powdered lead arsenate to fifty gallons

PLATE No. 268. THE WHITE MARKED TUSSOCK MOTH

a, Caterpillar; b, pupa of female; c, pupa of male; d and e, male moths; / and g, female moths (note absence
of well-developed wings); h, egg mass; i, cocoon of male; k, cocoon of female, with moth and egg mass on out-
side. Drawings by United States Bureau of Entomology.

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION 707

of water. This should be done just after the buds burst and again two
weeks later. Rainfall soon after spraying may make necessary a third and
a fourth application.

THE WHITE MARKED TUSSOCK MOTH. The caterpillar of the white
marked tussock moth is one of the worst defoliators of deciduous park and
shade trees. The caterpillar, when full grown, is more than one inch long,
with a red head, two long black plumes back of the head and one long
black plume at the rear, four yellow brush-like tufts in a row on the back
behind the front pair of plumes and two red spots between the tufts and
the last black plume. The caterpillars hatch from the overwintering eggs
in April and May and immediately begin feeding on the leaves. When full
grown they seek a more or less sheltered place to spin their grayish cocoons
of silk and hair, from which the adults shortly issue. The male is a grayish
winged moth that flies, the female is short, stout and white, has very small
wings and is unable to fly. She crawls to the outside of her cocoon or nearby
and after fertilization lays her eggs in a white, froth covered mass and then
dies. Two or three generations of this species are usually produced annually.

The species may be controlled by spraying infested foliage with lead
arsenate, one pound of powdered lead arsenate to fifty gallons of water,
and by destroying egg masses and cocoons.

Spraying machinery suitable for performing the various necessary tasks
in insect control is on the market. Many types are available, each designed
to meet a special need for service and for cost of equipment. In the manage-
ment of extensive parks, motor driven spraying apparatus is desirable.
These machines should be equipped with large tanks for the insecticide
and powerful engines and pumps. Large tanks require less frequent filling
and therefore more trees can be treated in a given time. Powerful engines
and pumps assure maintenance of high pressure, thus ensuring the covering
of tallj heavy-foliaged trees. For the smaller parks, barrel or wheelbarrow
machines with long rods and hose, platforms and ladders, will often be
found very serviceable, and the initial cost of such apparatus is much less
than that of power outfits.

CHAPTER XIII
THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION

Inasmuch as all the different types of properties comprised in a park
system are intended for the recreation of the people, it follows that the
public department charged with the development, government and admin-
istration of these properties is functionally a recreation department. To
speak of a "recreation division or department" within a park department
is therefore somewhat anomalous and must be taken in a more or less
restricted, technical sense as applying to certain kinds of recreative service
in which the idea of organization and leadership predominates.

The recreation services of a park department are general and special,
unorganized and organized. To the first class of services belong the use
of parks by the people in ways that require no organization or supervision
other than compliance with certain rules and regulations obeyed willingly
by the people themselves or enforced by guards or caretakers. People may
come to the parks because of their desire to secure fresh air, bask in the
sunshine, enjoy the beauties of nature, to rest and relax, to walk, drive or
ride about, to visit with friends, and to picnic. Unless there is too much
interference from guards and caretakers parks are also the paradise of
lovers. Children may enjoy full play, and the students of nature follow
unhindered their particular hobbies. The varied use of parks and park
facilities by organized groups under their own leadership, although acting
under a permit system of the department, may perhaps be included under
this type of service.

While there are no available records of the volume of this type of recre-
ational service of park departments, it is perhaps a fact that its total volume
is far greater than the volume of service rendered under a system of defi-
nitely organized and supervised use. It is true, of course, that this form
of unorganized and unsupervised service may be greatly increased by sys-
tematic educational publicity through the organized service division of the
department. (See Chapter XIX, "Educational Publicity.")

To the second class of service belongs the use of parks and especially
facilities therein where more or less definite organization of activities and
supervision of activities and facilities are required. This type of service has
greatly increased during the past twenty-five years and is constantly
expanding. As thought of here, it is more comprehensive than the general
conception of a recreation division in a park department, including not only
children's playgrounds, athletic fields and games, courts and grounds,

708

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION

709

swimming and boating centers, winter sports places, outdoor and indoor
theatres, dance platforms or halls, gymnasiums, community centers, picnic
places, golf courses, camps, etc., and all the varied activities connected
therewith, but also the zoo, aquarium, botanical garden, conservatory,
branch library, museum, art gallery and refectory. All these varied types
of organized services require specially trained leaders and assistants and a
more or less definite organization and supervision of the activities.

In no park department are all these services requiring organization and
supervision grouped into a single division or department. The zoo and
aquarium, the botanical garden and conservatory, the art gallery, the
museum, the refectory are almost invariably in the larger systems con-
ducted as independent divisions, and most of them may be wholly inde-
pendent of the park governing authority. (See Chapters on "Zoological Gar-
dens and Aquariums" for a detailed presentation of their organization and
management.) In some instances golf, band concerts and numerous dra-
matic activities are organized and conducted as independent of the regularly
organized recreation division.

The Recreation Program.

As commonly understood, a recreation division or department of a
park department may include under its supervision and jurisdiction such
facilities as children's playgrounds, athletic fields and other games and
sports places, swimming and boating centers, winter sports centers, dance
platforms, outdoor and indoor theatres, including moving pictures, gym-
nasiums, community or recreation centers, golf courses and camps.

PLATE No. 269. PLAY DAY IN ONE OF WESTCHESTER COUNTY'S PARKS

710 PARKS

The desires of children, young people and adults for recreation do not

find expression through the same channels. Some people find their greatest
satisfaction in physical activities; others in social activities. With a large
number the appeal is along artistic lines, in the enjoyment of painting and

other forms of art and in creating something. For this reason the recreation
program must be exceedingly broad in its scope, providing for diversity of
tastes and desires as well as for varied age groups.

West Chicago Park Commissioners Playground Department
Yearly Program of Activities for Directors Revised 1927

Promoted through Central Office Promoted by Local Staff Promoted by Local Staff

Required of All Parks Required of All Parks Optional with Parks

JANUARY

Inter-park ice skating meet. Inter-park skating meet. Toboggan races.

Inter-park basket ball tournament. Inter-park ice carnival. Ski races.

Inter-park checker tournament. Inter-park checker tournament. Snow modeling.

City-wide checker tournament. Inter-park indoor baseball tournament. Sled races.

Winter sports ice carnival. Weekly social dancing. Dog and sled derby.

Motion picture entertainments. Miscellaneous assembly programs. Americanization programs.

First aid lectures and demonstrations. Community night.

Music class instruction. Dramatic entertainments.

Circulation of library books (throughout year). Grammar school athletic leagues.

Boy Scouts and Camp Fire Girls (through-
out year).

Handball tournament.
FEBRUARY

Competition in city-wide ice skating meet. Inter-park wrestling tournament. Continuation of winter sports program.

Inter-park basket ball tournament. Inter-park volley ball tournament. Grammar school athletic leagues.

City-wide basket ball tournaments. Gymnastic exhibitions. Stunt night for gymnasium classes.

Inter-park indoor baseball tournament. Lincoln Day and Washington Day program. Weekly folk dance socials.

Inter-park girls' volley ball tournament. Weekly social dance. Community nights.

Motion picture entertainments. Miscellaneous assembly programs. Business men's volley ball league.

First aid lectures and demonstrations. Concerts and operettas. Exhibit of children's handiwork.

Instructions in music to groups. Ping-pong tournament.

Preparation of groups for gymnastic demonstration. Minstrel show.

Valentine parties.
MARCH

Inter-park girls' volley ball tournament. Dramatic entertainments. Grammar school basket ball league.

Inter-park boys' volley ball tournament. Gymnastic demonstrations. Ping-pong tournament.

City-wide basket ball tournaments. Weekly social dance. Community sing fests.

Inter-park wrestling tournament. Miscellaneous assembly programs. Community socials.

City-wide wrestling tournaments. Inter-park athletic tournaments. Forum.

Dramatic week presentations by junior and Athletic carnival.

senior dramatic clubs. Business men's volley ball league.

Annual gymnastic demonstration. Hot stove quartet.

Motion picture entertainments. Domestic science demonstrations.

First aid lectures and demonstrations. Father and Son Day.

Preparation of groups for annual music festival. Organize nature study club.

APRIL

Inter-park roller skating meet. Concerts and operettas. Grammar school volley ball tournament.

Preparation of groups for annual music Weekly social dance. Kiddies' marble tournament.

festival. Revue of indoor season activities. Plays and games night.

Preparation of groups for annual play Handcraft exhibit. Harmonica recital.

festival. Inter-park roller skating meet. Hobby show.

First aid lectures and demonstrations. Preparation for boys' week exposition. Roller skating hockey.

Competition in A. A. F. volley ball. Miscellaneous assembly programs. Orchestral programs.

Competition in inter-park boys' volley ball Easter Day programs. Homemade radio exhibit.

tournament. Bird house exhibit.

Mother and Daughter Day.
MAY

Annual arts and crafts exhibit. Inter-park marble tournament. Community gardening contest.

Inter-park marble tournament. Annual clean-up week. May Day celebration.

City-wide marble tournament. Play festival rehearsal. Community hikes.

Inter-park bicycling meet. Music festival rehearsal. Tops contest.

Preparation of groups for annual music Participation in Boys' Achievement Pushmobile races.

festival. Exposition. Mock athletic meet.

Preparation of groups for annual play Miscellaneous assembly programs. Grammar school playground ball league.

festival. Junior police drill. Paper flower show.

City-wide roller skating meet. Girl cadet drill. Kiddie kar races.

Participation in Boys' Achievement Bicycling meet preliminaries. Memorial Day programs.

Exposition (Boys' Week).

JUNE

Inter-park playground baseball tournament Inter-park playground ball tournament Scooter races.

for boys. for boys. Kite flying contest.

Annual junior and senior music festival. Inter-park girls' long ball and playground Pet show and circus.

Annual play festival. ball tournaments. Baby show and parade.

Inter-park top tournament for boys. Inter-park ball players' contest. Grammar school playground ball league.

Inter-park rope jumping tournament for Inter-park top tournaments. Community gardening contest.

girls. Inter-park rope jumping tournament. Quoits tournament.

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION

711

Promoted through Central Office

Required of All Parks
Grammar school track and field meet.
City- wide ball players' contest.

Inter-park track and field meet for inter-
mediate boys.

Inter-park track and field meet for junior
boys and senior men.

Inter-park playground baseball tournament
boys.

Inter-park playground baseball tournament,
senior girls.

Inter-park long ball tournament, junior girls.

Athletic efficiency tests.

Outdoor lectures and movies, in cooperation
with Y. M. C. A.

Inter-park model boat race tournament.

Inter-park hopscotch tournament.

Inter-park bean bags and diabolo tourna-
ments.

Instruction in fancy roping, in cooperation
with Chicago Association Commerce.

City-wide playground baseball tournament.

Inter-park swimming meet.

Inter-park tennis meet.

Inter-park horseshoe pitching meet.

Inter-park track and field meet, girls.

Inter-park O'Leary tournament.

Inter-park peg tournament.

Inter-park field day and picnic.

Inter-park jackstones tournament.

Competition in fancy roping at rodeo.

Athletic efficiency tests.

Outdoor lectures and movies, in cooperation

with Y. M. C. A.
City-wide track and field meets for boys

and men.
City-wide swimming meets.

Promoted by Local Staff

Required of All Parks
Construction of sail and motor boats.
Community play festival.
Junior police drill.
Girl cadet drill.

JULY

Inter-park track and field meets (boys and

men).

Inter-park swimming meet.
Inter-park ball tournaments.
Inter-park hopscotch tournament.
Inter-park bean bag tournament.
Inter-park diabolo tournament.
Independence Day programs.
Twilight athletic leagues.
Junior police drill.
Girl cadet drill.
Sand and clay modeling, hand construction

work, plays and games, tote.
Hikes.
Weekly story hour, in cooperation with

Chicago Public Library.
Inter-park athletic efficiency tests.
Knot-Hple Club, attendance at National and
American League baseball games.

AUGUST

Inter-park water carnivals.
Inter-park ball tournaments.
Inter-park twilight leagues.
Inter-park tennis tournament.
Inter-park horseshoes tournament.
Inter-park O'Leary tournament.
Inter-park peg tournament.
Inter-park field day preliminaries.
Inter-park jackstones tournament.
Inter-park track and field meet, girls.
Junior police and girl cadet drill.
Sand and clay modeling, hand construction

work, plays and games for tots.
Hikes.
Weekly story hour in cooperation with

Chicago Public Library.
Inter-park athletic efficiency tests.
Knot-Hple Club, attendance at National and

American League baseball games.

Promoted by Local Staff

Optional with Parks
Model aeroplane races.
Flag Day celebration.
Hoop races.
Instruction in campcraft.

Lantern parade.
Quoits tournament.
Pantomime plays.
Mumble-the-peg tournaments.
Doll show.

Sand and clay modeling.
Whittling contest.
Fancy roping contest.
Wading pool carnival.
Outdoor community programs.
Juvenile band concerts.
Life saving instruction.

Doll buggy parade.
Mumble-the-peg tournament.
Sand and clay modeling.
Mardi gras.
Whittling contest.
Fancy roping contest.
Palines tournament.
Croquet tournament.
Wild West show. _
Outdoor community programs.
Juvenile band concerts.
Instruction in life saving.
Junior Olympic meet.

Annual vacations of staff members.
City-wide track and field meets for girls.
Registration for gymnasium classes.

Inter-park soccer tournament for interme-
diate boys and senior men.

Registration for and organization of gym-
nasium classes.

Preparation of groups for Hallowe'en
celebrations.

Preparation of groups for Thanksgiving and

Christmas celebrations.

Gymnasium and recreation class instruction.
Social dancing, informals and instruction in.
Organization of classes for music instruction.

SEPTEMBER

Twilight athletic leagues.
Junior police and girl cadet drills.
Inter-park ball tournaments.
Inter-park soccer tournament.
Gymnasium class registration.
Hikes.

OCTOBER

Inter-park soccer tournament.
Gymnasium class instruction.
Hallowe'en parties for gymnasium classes.

NOVEMBER
Thanksgiving Day parties for gymnasium

classes.

Armistice Day programs.
Concerts and operettas.
Weekly social dance.
Miscellaneous assembly programs.
Inter-park athletic tournaments.

Gymnasium and recreation class instruction.
Organization of athletic teams.
Preparation of groups for Christmas

celebrations.

Social dancing, informals and instruction in.
Music class instruction.

DECEMBER

Inter-park basketball tournament.
Inter-park athletic tournaments.
Weekly social dance.

Holiday celebrations and entertainments.
Miscellaneous assembly programs.
Ice skating preliminaries.

Doll dress exhibit.

Outdoor community programs.

Community hikes.

Whistling contest.

Home garden products exposition.

Community pageants and festivals.

Costume parade and dance.

Story telling contests.

Wagon or coaster races.

Stilt walking races.

Grammar school athletic tournaments.

Organize Health Club .

Columbus Day program.

Touch football.

Amateur nights.
Collections exhibit.
Ukulele and banjo recitals.
Tumbling and pyramids show.
Sewing circle socials.
Organize reading club.
Poster and photography exhibit.
Armistice Day programs.

Debates.

Toy Town exhibit.

Novejty boxing and wrestling show.

Quilting parties.

Music memory contests.

Handball tournament.

This program from the West Chicago Park Commissioners shows how
broad the recreation program may be. Into it are woven the varied inter-
ests of children and adults in their leisure time. There are the physical

712

PARKS

PLATE No. 270
SAILBOATS CONSTRUCTED BY DETROIT BOYS

activities — the athletic games and sports; the musical, dramatic and social
interests. The constructive impulse — the desire to create — is given full

scope through the handcraft pro-
gram. The environmental and
scientific interest which finds ex-
pression in a growing knowledge
of nature is given its opportu-
nity, and linguistic interests rep-
resented in story-telling, public
discussions and similar activities
are a part of the program.

CHILDREN'S PLAYGROUNDS

The program of the chil-
dren's playground represents a
composite of all the essential
elements entering into the com-
munity recreation program outlined, with adaptations to the particular
needs of children. Activities range from team games of low organization
to the more specialized forms of athletic tournaments and include small
children's activities, ring games, singing games and similar events for which
the leadership of a skilled kindergarten teacher is well qualified; story-tell-
ing, handcraft, dramatics, music and similar activities.

The minimum staff for caring for any standard size playground should
be one man and one woman,
although on a very small play-
ground one person, preferably a
well-trained woman, should be
able to cope with the situation.
A woman is better than a man
in directing the activities of little
children, and in many instances
she will be equally successful
with the activities of the boy
from ten to twelve years of age.
It is always desirable for workers
to be employed on a year-round
basis whenever this is possible.
Only in this way can fully com-
petent workers be secured, all the benefits of play centers assured and con-
tinuity of interest and growth brought about. Sometimes, in connection

PLATE No. 271
A STILT CONTEST IN EVANSTON, ILLINOIS

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION

with park recreation programs, there are field houses or community build-
ings where it is necessary to have gymnasium instructors, athletic direc-
tors, handcraft workers and similar leaders. The time of these workers
should be so distributed that their services may be used on the play-
grounds and at the field houses in a way which will meet the needs of
various groups.

General Suggestions for the Conduct of Playgrounds.

While rules for the conduct of playgrounds and play centers vary some-
what in different cities there are certain principles which are common to
all. A few of these follow:

Opening the playground. Be at the playground fifteen
minutes before the opening so that everything will be
in readiness. Open on time all gates and doors to the
toilets and dressing rooms. Check out supplies, mak-
ing sure the proper individual is charged with an article
taken out. Hoist the flag on all playgrounds where
there are flagpoles.

Call in all supplies at least fifteen minutes before
•closing time and check them up. Lower flag and put
away. Shut off hydrants and gas and electric switches,
•close windows and gates. Be the last one off the
ground.

Care of supplies. Urge the children to exert special
care in the use of all material, and allow no good ma-
terial to be used out-of-doors on rainy days. Take
proper care of balls and repair them. Repair work
which cannot be handled on the playgrounds should be
^sent to the repair shop.

Safety precautions. Proper care of playground appara-
tus is important not only from the standpoint of safety
•of the children, but of the personal liability of the work-
ers and the city. Breaks in surfacing should be repaired
and holes filled in. All apparatus should be inspected
and children instructed in its use. Swings should be
fenced, danger zones for various games marked, the
sand box left clean, pits beneath gymnasium frames
filled with shavings, and sawdust provided to cover
sides of jumping pits.

Health protection. Every possible measure from the
standpoint of health should be enforced with due regard
to laws of sanitation and accident prevention. Play-
grounds should be sprinkled to prevent dust, lavatories
kept clean, sanitary drinking fountains provided, facili-
ties for washing hands furnished and children who are
ill excluded from the ground.

Discipline. If it is necessary to punish a child, find
out the facts first. Too many warnings are not good
policy. Say what you mean and mean what you say,
but avoid gaining the ill will of the child. If a child is
suspended for a day, he should apply at the office of
the superintendent for permission to return.

No smoking, improper conduct or use of improper

language should be permitted. There must be no rough
usage of property.

Use of school buildings and small playgrounds. Per-
mission should be obtained for use of school buildings
during playground hours and application should state
hours and purpose for which use is desired. If the play-
ground is not large enough to take care of the activities
of children above elementary school age, little children
should have preference, others being excluded.

Ground rules. Every ground should have special rules
adapted to its own use. If it is a very small ground
there will probably have to be an age limit for the
children and other rules relative to their safety. There
may be certain regulations for the protection of neigh-
bors. All these should be posted and carefully enforced.

Treatment of visitors. Make it a point to act in a
courteous manner to all visitors and take pleasure in
showing them around the ground if it is at a time when
it doesn't interfere with your own work.

Entertainment plans. All plans for entertainments in
which the children participate should be taken up with
the superintendent, and all social functions given in
school buildings should have the approval of the prin-
cipal of the school. Entertainments on playgrounds
where money is collected must have the approval of
the superintendent and the proceeds spent for the bene-
fit of the playground in ways approved by the super-
intendent.

Absence from ground. Directors wishing to be absent
from the ground should put in a written request for
such leave at least twenty-four hours before the leave
is to take effect. The only exceptions are emergency
assignment from the office or sickness, in which case
the office should be notified by telephone.

In case of accident. In case of serious accident, have
the injured person removed to a quiet, cool room, notify
the parents, find out whether the family has a physician
they wish called. Notify the police ambulance. Get
the name and address of the injured person, a few names
of witnesses. Make a record of accident and report it
immediately to the office.

Cooperation. Remember the rights of members in

PARKS

regard to protection of property. Cooperate with health
agencies, police and juvenile courts.

Use of the playground on Sunday. It is usually better
not to organize on Sunday match games in which chil-
dren are involved. Have a minimum amount of organ-
ized activity for children.

Reports. Some type of attendance reports should be
sent the superintendent each month. Methods of at-
tendance taken vary greatly and no really satisfactory
method has been devised. For securing attendance at
general play activities though, it is possible to obtain
an accurate count of membership in teams and in
special activities.

There should be a monthly report of property dam-
aged, of serious disciplinary problems and of inspection
of apparatus. Regular application blanks should be

{.'lied out in case of absence from duty and approved
by the superintendent. Weekly time sheets ought also
to be required and each director should be held respon-
sible for making out requisitions. Opportunity should
be given every director to make suggestions as to how
playgrounds can be made more effective.

Program planning. Certain sports are seasonal; others
will be in season the entire year. In addition to the
general schedule activities, events should be arranged
in accordance with local conditions and the program
may vary as facilities permit. Activities should be
planned weeks in advance with substitute activities in
case of bad weather, well thought out. Programs for
special days should be planned and every one given
something to do.

Evening use of playgrounds. Important as are playgrounds for children,
their use ought not to be restricted to this group. The evening hours pro-
vide an opportunity for employed boys and girls and for young people and
adults to enjoy the facilities of the park. Twilight baseball, volley ball,

PLATE No. 272. HORSESHOE PITCHING HAS ITS APPEAL

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION

715

horseshoe pitching, tennis and similar games and sports, social activities,
music and dramatics are being offered on many playgrounds until nine in
the evening, and frequently until later at centers where a system of light-
ing of grounds makes this use possible.

Physical Activities.

Under this large group of activities come athletic games, sports,
swimming, hiking, boating and all
the varied opportunities for out-of-
door activities, facilities for which
are so abundantly provided by
park departments.

Municipal Athletics.

This term is used by a num-
ber of park departments and rec-
reation officials to designate the
program involving the organiza-
tion of teams and leagues in base-
ball, football, basket ball, volley
ball and sports of all kinds.
Schedules of games are arranged
between the various park teams,

and every effort is made to develop a city-wide plan which will reach indus-
trial groups and organizations of all kinds.

What one city is doing. As an example of a city-wide program Mil-
waukee offers a program typical of a number which are being conducted.
Here a municipal amateur athletic association has been organized which
is conducted by the Extension Department of the Milwaukee Public Schools
with the cooperation of the Board of Park Commissioners. The sports
offered include the following:

Hiking.

Horseshoes. Men's Tournament; Industrial League.

Ice Hockey. Senior and Junior League.

Ice Skating. All-City Meets; De Molay Meet; Gram-
mar School Meet; Girl Scout Carnival.

Indoor Baseball. Leagues and Tournaments.

Skiing. Daily Ski Jump; Juvenile (Store Ski Jump);
Juvenile (.Barrel Stave Ski Jump); Cross Country Ski
Run.

Soccer. Spring Season: Senior League and Juvenile
League. Fall Season: Senior League.

Tennis. Indoor: Men's Singles Tournament. Out-
door: Men's Singles, Ladies' Singles and Men's Doubles
Tournaments; Parent and Child, Grammar School and
Girl Scout Tournaments.

PLATE No. 273. BOWLING A POPULAR FORM
OF PARK RECREATION

Aquatics (Swimming and Canoeing). De Molay
Meet; Newsboys' Meet; All-City Meet and Girl Scout
Water Carnival.

Baseball. Outdoor Hard Ball; Sunday Leagues; Out-
door Soft Ball; Sunday Leagues; Insurance League;
Industrial League; Public School League.

Basket Ball (All-City Tournaments and X-Y District
Tournaments). Free Throw Tournament; Single Event
and Team Event.

Bowling on the Green. Single Events and Team
Events.

Cross Country Run.

Curling.

Dog Derby.

Football. Sunday Leagues.

7i6

PARKS

Track and Field. Indoor (All-City Meets); Outdoor
(All-City Meets and Newsboys' Meet).

Volley Ball. Men's League; Men's Tournament;
Grammar School Tournament.
Winter Sports Carnival.

It is estimated that in 1925 there were 821 teams taking part in ath-
letic programs, 11,638 entrants, and 663,364 in attendance. This program

from Milwaukee shows something
of the scope of the city-wide pro-
gram of athletics. Examples might
be quoted from many other cities.

A Municipal Athletic Association
for Girls.

The Recreation Department
of the Board of Park Commis-
sioners of Minneapolis, in addition
to its program of municipal ath-
letics for boys and men, conducts

PLATE No. 274 a highly developed program for

AN EXCITING GAME OF VOLLEY BALL girls and women through the Girls'

Municipal Athletic Association, of

which the assistant director of recreation is in charge. The program and its
organization are outlined as follows:

Diamond Ball. (May to September.) The league is
divided into city, commercial and junior divisions. The
city league is open to any team; the commercial to
employees of the firms they represent; the junior league
is made up of girls under sixteen years of age. En-
trants' fee, $5.00 a team; referee's fee, $1.00 per game.

Basket Ball. (December to May.) Any girls' basket
ball team in the city is eligible. Teams are divided into
city and commercial settlements, intermediate and
junior divisions, the age classifications being senior,
intermediate (under 18) and junior (under 16). En-
trants' fee, $5.00 a team; official's fee, $2.00 per game.

Volley Ball. (December to April.) Conducted in con-
nection with basket ball and used as a substitute for
girls who do not play basket ball, but want to enjoy
competitive floor sport. Teams are permitted to make
a charge of 15 cents to pay officials.

Tennis. (May to October.) Classes in instruction
held at 10 cents per lesson. Tennis tournaments are
conducted.

Bowling. (September to May.) The organization of
a girls' municipal bowling league has been found suc-
cessful in Minneapolis in meeting the needs of older
girls and women who do not care for more strenuous
sports. The entrants' fee of $5.00 per team purchases
trophies and pays the fees of caretakers. In addition
members pay the rental of the commercial alleys which

are used. Leagues consist of city and commercial teams,
subdivided into handicapped and straightaway.

Horseshoe Pitching. (May to September.) Park and
all city tournaments are held. Entry fee, 25 cents.

Swimming. All-round swimming instruction is given
at municipal baths in winter and at Lake Calhoun in
summer. Classes are divided into beginners and ad-
vance. A fee of #1.00 for twelve lessons is charged to
pay for instruction.

Canoeing. (June to September.) Classes held once a
week. Membership fee, 25 cents. In addition each girl
pays 25 cents per lesson to meet the expenses of instruc-
tion and of renting the canoe.

Archery. (May to October.) Membership fee 50
cents to pay for the purchase of bows and arrows.
Classes conducted weekly with a fee of 10 cents per
lesson.

Rifle Club. (September to June.) Classes are held
weekly. Membership fee, $1.00; instruction fee, 50
cents per month.

Horseback Riding. All year round. Lessons are given
three times a week, classes being divided into beginning
and advance groups. Membership fee, 50 cents per
year; instruction, $1.00 for one and a quarter hours.

Winter Sports. (December to March.) There is a
girls' municipal winter sports club which promotes fig-
ure skating, skiing and tobogganing. Lessons in skating

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION

are given twice a week. Membership fee, £1.00 a year.

Hiking. All year round. Opened to both men and
women. A hike is conducted every Saturday afternoon;
there is an evening hike each week and an all-day Sun-
day hike once a month.

Sketching. All year round. The girls' municipal ath-

letic program also includes sketching, a novel and
greatly appreciated activity. The sketching club meets
every Saturday afternoon out-of-doors during the sum-
mer; at the art institute during the winter. Member-
ship, 50 cents per year; instruction is paid for by a
charge of 20 cents per lesson.

The municipal athletics program, reaching as it does hundreds of
thousands of boys and girls, young men and women, is one of the vitally
important problems of the park recreation program. How to keep athletics
free from professionalism and make the program count most for character
development and citizenship is a problem concerning park and recreation
executives everywhere.

Tennis.

Tennis has become so popular a game that park departments have
found it necessary to issue rules for the use of courts. The Park Depart-
ment of Dallas, Texas, has issued the following rules:

Children under fifteen years of age are not allowed
on courts after 5 P.M.

Heeled shoes are not permitted on courts.

Courts may be reserved at Trinity Play Park by
telephoning between the hours of 3 to 9 P.M. each day,
except Sunday.

Courts will not be reserved for play during the hours

of 9 A.M. tO 2 P.M.

Reservations may be made one day in advance,
except for Monday, in which case reservations may be
made on Saturday.

No person will be allowed to play on any court within
a period of six hours after having played with person
in whose name a reservation has been secured.

Courts will not be reserved for longer than one hour>
except in case of doubles, when two hours reservation
is permitted. All reservations must be made on the
even hour.

Records of all reservations will be carefully kept at
Trinity Play Park for reference in case of any conflict-
ing claims.

Persons with reservation on courts, who reach them
twenty minutes late, may not claim court if same is
being played on.

In case court is not occupied, any person may play
on same at will until time of next reservation.

The reporting of any abuse or misuse of courts will
be appreciated.

M¥$^

PLATE No. 275. SWIMMING LESSONS AT WESTCHESTER COUNTY'S RECREATION CAMP

7i8

PARKS

At Tacoma, Washington, the following regulations are enforced:

Rule I. If others are waiting to play, no players shall
keep a court for more than two sets.

Rule 2. If a set gets to a six all score, one game shall
decide the set in order that it be not unduly prolonged,
this ruling being effective only when there are players
waiting their turn at the court.

Rule 3. If four parties are waiting to play, the four
should be able to play at the same time; that is, singles
may be begun while no one is waiting, and if already
begun may be finished, but singles should not be begun
while others are waiting.

Rule 4. No persons within the tennis court enclosure
are allowed to disturb players in actual possession of the
courts by playing with tennis balls back of the service
line.

Rule 5. Boys and girls, seventeen years and under,
shall be hereafter designated as juniors, and eighteen
years of age or more, as seniors.

Rule 6. No juniors will be permitted to play after
4.30 P.M. unless there are vacant courts and no seniors

waiting to play. If juniors should start to play under
these conditions, and seniors arrive and want the courts,
they must be surrendered immediately upon conclusion
of the set then in progress.

Rule 7. On Saturdays, Rule 6 will become effective
at 2 P.M. instead of 4.30 P.M., and on Sundays and holi-
days no juniors will be permitted on the courts.

Rule 8. All persons shall conduct themselves prop-
erly while upon the courts, upon penalty of ejection,
and no profane or objectionable language will be per-
mitted.

Rule 9. In case of any injury to property belonging
to the park, the same is to be reported to the policeman.

Rule 10. Players are responsible for any injury to
the park property which is noticed while they are play-
ing or immediately thereafter.

Rule II. Players must not jump over the nets.

Rule 12. Playing will not be permitted on these
courts on Sunday between the hours of 10.30 A.M. and
12.30 P.M.

Hiking.

Hiking for both children and adults is an activity which the facilities
of many park departments make them well fitted to promote. A number

PLATE No. 276. AN EXCITING HAND BALL GAME

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION

719

of park departments have organized municipal hiking clubs which are very
effective in promoting sociability as well as in taking people into the out-
doors and fostering an interest in nature lore. The constitution of the
Minneapolis Municipal Hiking Club, conducted by the Park Department,
is as follows:

Article I. Name and Object

1. The name of this organization shall be the Minne-
apolis Municipal Hiking Club.

2. The purpose of the club shall be to promote hik-
ing as a recreation, for the health and joy of all who are
interested, conducted in accordance with the highest
ideals of sportsmanship and the best interests of all
concerned, tolerating nothing that is for partisan or
commercial gain.

3. The club shall be aware of its responsibility in
carrying a municipal name. Nothing shall be promoted
in the name of the Municipal Hiking Club without the
sanction of the Recreation Department of the Minneap-
olis Park Board.

Article II. Membership Fees

1. A fee of $2.00 per year shall be charged every one
who desires membership in the club. The club year
begins September I and ends August 31.

2. Membership entitles members to such privileges
of the club as:

(a) The Minnehiker Bulletin, mailed to member's
address.

(V) The right to vote and become an officer of the
club.

(d) A copy of the annual yearbook of the club.

Article III. Officers of the Club

i. Officers of the Municipal Hiking Club shall be
elected for a term of one year, election to be held at
the annual meeting in January.

2. Officers shall be: president, vice-president, treas-
urer, assistant treasurer and executive secretary. The
executive secretary shall be appointed by the director
of recreation and shall be a member of the executive
committee.

3. The executive committee shall consist of the offi-
cers of the club.

Article IF. Meetings of Officers and Committees

1. A meeting of the club shall be held the second
Thursday of every month during the hiking season at
the recreation department, and shall be presided over
by the president, or, in his absence, by the vice-president
or other officers in order.

2. All new business, laws, rules, activities, amend-
ments, etc., shall be acted upon at the regular monthly
meetings.

3. There shall be a favorable note of a majority of
all the officers and committee members to amend the
constitution and by-laws of the Municipal Hiking Club.

4. Notice shall be given to all members of any amend-
ment to the constitution and by-laws at least one week
before such amendment be acted upon.

Article V. Finances

1. The treasurer of the club shall have a joint bank-
ing account with the executive secretary of the club,
and both shall have the authority to write checks up
to $50.00. Any check over $50.00 shall require the
signature of both the treasurer and executive secretary.

2. A financial report, signed by the treasurer and
the executive secretary, shall be presented to the club
at each regular monthly meeting of the executive board
and committees.

Winter Sports.

Winter sports have received a tremendous impetus during the past
few years due to the emphasis of park departments on year-round use of
their facilities. The following program from the Bureau of Recreation of
a municipal park department shows how broad a scope a program of winter
sports may have:

Ice circus, (c) Treasure hunts in parks on skiis
and snowshoes. (d) Winter sports week: winter
sports, contests, events in which the whole city

1. Skating, (a) Speed racing, (b) Figure, (c) Ice
hockey.

2. Snowshoeing.

3. Tobogganing and bobsledding.

4. Skiing, cross country and ski slide.

5. Curling.

6. Special events, (a) Ice carnivals in costume, (b)

participates, stimulating community spirit and
love of the out-of-doors and healthful activity
in the open.

1. Snow modeling contests.

2. Boys' city championship ski meet.

720

PARKS

3. Ten-mile ski race for championship of the North-
west.

4. Junior boys' city skating championship.

5. Horse racing on the lake.

6. Ski-joring race.

7. Play week curling Bonspiel.

8. Ice yacht races.

9. International team skating meet.

10. Boys' and girls' figure skating meet.

11. Ski jumping.

12. Moonlight hikes.

13. Tobogganing.

14. City hockey match.

15. Figure skating pageant and circus.

16. Northwest ski tournament.

17. International ski contest.

18. Contest to select the best winter sports boy and
girl (under 16 years). Following events used:
Boys. Ski jumping, speed skating, figure skating,
ski running. Girls. Ski running, speed skating,
figure skating.

To this program might be added snow modeling, ice boating for the
more adventurous, and many games on the snow and ice.

Boating.

Where there are boating facilities, as there are in many of the large
parks, the question of regulating the use of boats is an important one. The
commissioners of Lincoln Park, Chicago, in General Ordinances for 1926, have
issued the following instructions regarding the use of boats:

No person shall (a) bring any boat, yacht, float, raft
or other water craft into or upon any of the waters
under the control of the commissioners, tie to or in any
way attach the same to any of the docks, piers, buoys
or other moorings or to anchor in any of the waters
under the control of the commissioners, without having
first obtained a permit therefor and paying the fee
required for such permit under the rules governing the
use of the lagoons and harbors under the control of the
commissioners, (b) Own, operate or control any boat,
yacht, float, raft or other water craft, rent or let the
same for hire upon, or for use upon, any of the waters
under the control of the commissioners, (c) Keep in
his possession any boat belonging to the commissioners
for a longer time than he has paid for its use. (d} Rent
a boat from the commissioners, leave the same at any
place other than the landing or boathouse from which
it was obtained, nor shall any person in any boat upon
any of the waters under the control of the commissioners
rock such boat or stand therein, (i) Rent a boat, allow
more persons to enter such boat than are specified in
the rules posted at the boat landing. (/) The permits
provided for in this section may be issued by the general

superintendent and manager upon the payment of the
following fees for the season. For boats:

20 feet or under $ 7.50

20 feet to 25 feet 10.00

25 feet to 30 feet 15.00

30 feet to 35 feet 20.00

35 feet to 40 feet 25.00

40 feet to 45 feet 30.00

45 feet to 50 feet 35-OO

50 feet to 55 feet 40.00

55 feet to 60 feet 45.00

60 feet to 65 feet 50.00

All boats over 65 feet, per foot i.oo

All stalls (based on length of boats), per foot. 2.00
(g) Any permit issued under the provisions of this
section may be evoked at any time by the general
superintendent and manager for violation of any of the
rules governing the use of yacht harbors or other waters
under the control of the commissioners. (A) Any person
violating any clause of provision of this section shall be
subject to a fine of not less than five dollars ($5.00),
or more than two hundred dollars ($200.00) for each
offense.

The following rules govern the use of boats on park lakes maintained
by the Essex County Park, New Jersey:

Hours of boating, 10.00 A.M. to 10.45 P-M-

The number allowed in each boat shall not exceed

the following: Two-oared boats, three adults or one

adult and three children. Four-oared boats, five adults

or one adult and five children. Children under sixteen

years of age, unaccompanied by at least one adult, will
not be allowed in any boat except passenger boats.
Persons using the boats must not change seats while
away from the landing, and must not land except at
the regular landing places, nor rock the boat.

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION 721

No boat will be allowed within fifteen feet of the RATES OF FARE

shore, except in passing around the islands. Children

No fishing will be allowed from the shore, and will under 12 Adults

only be permitted from flat bottom fishing boats. Circuit of lake, Branch Brook Park $0.05 $0.10

No more than two boats will be permitted to sail Length of lake, Branch Brook Park .05 .05

abreast and no procession of boats will be allowed. Circuitof lake, Weequahic Reservation .10 .15

No awning or sail will be allowed on any boat, except PARTY BOATS

the motor boat. Two-oared boats (large), per half hour $0.20

All boats must carry lights after dark, but no search- Two-oared boats (small), per half hour 15

light will be allowed on any boat. Two-oared boats (large), per hour 40

No person will be allowed in any boat except in a Two-oared boats (small), per hour 25

sitting position. Two-oared boats (steel), per hour 35

Boats must not lie at rest to the obstruction of traffic. Two-oared boats (steel), per afternoon or evening i.oo

No private boat will be allowed on the lake unless Two-oared boats (large), per afternoon or evening i.oo
accompanied by the owners. The term boat covers all Two-oared boats (small), per afternoon or eve-
craft on the lake. ning 75

The feeding of water fowl on the lakes, or any inter- Four-oared boats, per half hour 20

ference with them, is strictly prohibited, and will result Four-oared boats, per hour 40

in expulsion from the lakes or arrest, in the discretion Four-oared boats, per afternoon or evening i.oo

of the officer. Boats with boatman, per half hour 25

The chief of the park police and the officers under Boats with boatman, per hour 50

his direction shall interpret these rules and see that Fishing boats, per half day I.oo

they are enforced. Complaints must be made to the Only six fish allowed to each boat.

secretary at 800 Broad Street, Newark, New Jersey. Care of canoes, per week 75

Fishing.

In some parks fishing is permitted. In New Orleans, Louisiana, city
park fishing is permitted in season on payment of fifty cents per rod for the
privilege of six hours of fishing. Only one hook is allowed on the lines used
in casting. Anyone desiring to fish must secure a ticket at the boathouse.

Camping.

Another activity with which park departments are becoming increas-
ingly concerned is camping. Starting with the provision of fireplaces and facil-
ities where people coming to the park may cook meals, the camping idea has
progressed through the overnight camp and intown camp, to the full-time
summer camp, largely for the family, in which people pay their way and are
able to secure outings at minimum cost. The following schedule from a
California city shows how inexpensively this is being done.

COST FOR THIRTEEN-DAY OUTING

Adult

Board and lodging $15.00

Transportation i i.oo

11-14.

Years

8-10
Years

6-7
Years

3-5
Years

1-2

Years

#I3-50

I I.OO

$12.00

c.co

$10.00

c.co

$8.00

$3.00

Total $26.00 $24.50 $17.50 $15.50 $8.00 $3.00

Children under 12 years half fare.

To obtain these rates the minimum number in attendance cannot be
less than one hundred and fifty. Two hundred and fifty, however, is believed
to be the maximum size such a camp should reach if it is to maintain a
feeling of friendliness and cooperation.

PARKS

A typical day in camp. The description of a day in camp will best
give the viewpoint of a camp.

7.00 A.M. Rising bell.

7.30 A.M. Breakfast. At breakfast there will be an-
nouncements of special activities for the day; hikes,
nature trips, etc. Announcement will be made of the
different people to help during that day. (This has
been previously posted, so that it will not interfere with
anyone's plans for hikes and fishing trips for that par-
ticular day.)

8.00 A.M. Campers return to tents to put their sleep-
ing quarters in order for morning inspection.

8.45 A.M. Morning inspection.

9.00 A.M. Nature adventure trip starts out for the
day, hiking parties leave for destinations, mail de-
livered, campers write letters or read, children in the
wading pool, men play horse show, older children on
the field playing baseball, father and son starting out
to fish (they should have been out much earlier), nurse
has open hour for consultation, "peelers" for the day
prepare vegetables.

10.00 A.M. Swimming hour. The swimming will
occupy the time of most of the people left in camp.

12.00 M. Lunch.

i.oo to 2.00 P.M. Loafing hour.

2.00 to 4.00 P.M. Swimming.

5.00 P.M. Dinner.

5.30 to 8.00 A.M. Twilight hikes, horse show con-
tests, evening baseball, games, horseback riding, read-
ing, chatting, loafing.

8.00 P.M. Rousing camp fire. All hiking trips and
riding trips return for the camp fire. It is the rallying
point of the day. The program will be varied with
group songs, individual musical contributions, minstrel
shows, dress-up parades, one-act plays and other things
within the grasp of the imagination of the group in
charge.

9.00 P.M. Adjournment of camp fire.

9.30 P.M. Lights out.

This program outline, of course, has only been fragmentary. It would
be supplemented with overnight camping trips, horseback rides, beach
suppers, back country trips, and many other things which would come in
the "day's work" in camp.

The staff. The following staff is arranged on the basis of a camp of
two hundred and fifty. It will be noted that some of the staff receive only
maintenance; others only part salary.

Monthly

Position Salary

Manager $175.0x3

Assistant Manager 150.00

Nurse 50.00

Store Clerk 30.00

Director of Activities 75-QO

Children's Playground Director 25.00

Life Guard (2) 25.00

Nature Guide 25.00

Sanitary Inspector 20.00

Handy Boys (2) 20.00

Pantry Helper 50.00

Dining Room Manager 75-°°

Chef 175.00

Second Cook 115.00

Baker 125.00

Dishwasher (3) 70.00

Caretaker Year Round 75-°°

Mechanics as needed 125.00
These salaries include maintenance.

Duties

General oversight, schedules, activity,
meets guests, adjusts differences.
Orders supplies, checks in deliveries,
supervises store, care of property.
As needed.

Helps assistant manager.
Conducts activity, hikes, trips,
evening campfire overseer.
Supervises playground from 2 to 4 P.M.
Guard pools and teach swimming
10 to 12 A.M. and 2 to 4 P.M.
Conducts trips 8 to II A.M.
Inspects all wash rooms and latrines —
keeps them clean.
Help as needed.

Cares for food taken from tables,
also pies, cakes, butter, bread, etc.
Assigns volunteer help to K. P. and
to preparation of fruits and vegetables.
Head of cooking staff.
As assigned by chef.
Baking of bread, cookies, etc.
Wash dishes, pots, pans and clean up
kitchen.

General care of camp.
Special assignment.

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION

723

Many other activities of the physical type might be mentioned. Among
these are swimming and golfing, which will be discussed later in the chapter.

Nature Activities.

Hiking, which has been suggested as so important an activity of the
recreation service, may be effectively used to help arouse the interest of
children and adults in nature lore. Birds, trees, flowers and other forms of
plant life may be pointed out in the course of hikes and information given
regarding them. There are, too, many nature games which add greatly
to the enjoyment of the hike.1

A zoological contest. The Park Department of Dallas, Texas, has pointed
the way to a particularly interesting activity for park playgrounds in its

zoological contest, the purpose of which

is to familiarize the children of the city
with the specimens at the Marsalis Park
Zoo and to increase the use of public parks.
A selected list of one hundred and twenty-
five specimens covering three classes com-
prises the material for this contest. The
classes are as follows: Mammalia: Highest
order of vertebrates. Aves: This class con-
tains the vertebrates characterized by
feathers and wings. Reptilia: In this class
are the animals which creep and crawl.
Each cage is numbered, the name being
removed for the period prior to and during
the contest, which lasted from November
7 to November 22. The children were per-
mitted to give either the common or the
classical name of the species and to study
the specimens for the entire week, secur-
ing their answers either by library refer-
ence or from other sources at their disposal. Cards were printed containing
two columns, one for the name of the animal under each class and the other
for its habitat.

A botanical contest. A similar contest has been promoted by the Dallas
Park Board, in cooperation with the Times Herald, in a botanical contest
designed to interest the children in shrubs and flowers propagated in the
city greenhouses. The contest is divided into two periods, study and exami-
nation. Fifty plants are selected and arranged in one of the greenhouses

1 Excellent suggestions for nature games are to be found in a pamphlet by Prof. W. G. Vinal, Nature-
Games, published by Comstock Publishing Company, 15 cents.

PLATE No. 277
AN ARTIST IN SNOW

724 PARKS

for the children to observe and study their characteristics. A placard
giving the name and stating the method of propagation is placed beside
each plant under consideration, and allowed to remain there during the
entire study period lasting approximately one month. At the end of that
time the placards are removed and the plants rearranged in number. Con-
testants are asked to identify the plants and tell the methods used in prop-
agating them on a card containing two columns. One column, headed
"Name of Plant," provides space for the names of seventeen plants; the
second column, directly opposite, is headed "State How Plant is Rooted."
The following plants are included in the contest: Acalipha, Axalis, Antirrhi-
num (Snapdragon), Aralia, Asparagus (Plumosus), Asparagus (Sprengeri
Begonia), Cactus, Carnation, Coleus, Croton, Cyclamen, Cyperus (Um-
brella Palms), Dracaena, English Ivy, Caladium (Elephant Ear), Cuphea
(Cigar Plant), Boston Ferns, Maidenhair Fern, Wild Fern, Whitmanii
Ferns, Ficus (Rubber Plant), Geranium, Hibiscus, Jerusalem Cherries, Bush
Lantana, Weeping Lantana, Palm (Kentia), Palm, Phoenix, Pandanus,
Pansy, White Moon Vine, Blue Moon Vine, Mexican Morning Glory, Salvia,
Sansevieria (Rattle Snake Cactus), Santolina, Strawberry Plants, Verbena,
Periwinkle, Impatiens or Sultani Rose, Pineapple, Devil Ivy, Althernan-
thera, Wandering Jew, Oleander, Pepper Tree, Cow Horn Lucus, Poinsettias
and Plumbago.

The contest created considerable interest among the children and hun-
dreds of them frequently visited the greenhouses at City Park to prepare
themselves for examination. Many mothers came with their children to
help in this study. Several school teachers assisted their pupils and all of
the park board recreation supervisors took groups of children to the green-
houses and instructed them in rules and requirements of the contest. Such
activities arouse the interest of the child in nature and help create in him
an appreciation of what parks have to offer.

Community Music.

A number of park departments are offering the opportunity for chil-
dren to participate in musical activities through harmonica bands, toy
bands, playground orchestras, ukulele contests and other forms of activi-
ties. The Park Department of Memphis, through its recreation division,
has organized what are known as "household bands," in which the follow-
ing instruments are featured: Combs covered with tissue paper; kazoos;
harmonicas; a fork suspended on a string and struck with another fork;
preserve crocks and basins placed on a table or wooden box and struck
with a ruler; a bunch of keys giving a sleigh bell effect when rattled; saucers
set in a wooden table and struck on their edges with a pencil, the wrist

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION

725

being held loosely; a large poker or long shovel hung from a string and
struck with a sharpened steel or cold chisel and a metal tray struck with
a gong stick.

Band concerts provided by park departments have for many years
provided enjoyment for large groups of people. With the development of
the radio, amplifying and broadcasting systems are making it possible for
people to be reached in all parts of a park. In most instances the Park
Department, from its budget or from a special city appropriation, employs
local bands. Sometimes, however, it is possible to secure volunteer bands.
In Indianapolis, of the forty concerts given in 1924, twenty-two were free
concerts by volunteer bands — police, firemen and high school bands. Such
an arrangement, while possible in some cities, could not be successfully
worked out in others because of the attitude of the musicians' union, which

PLATE No. 278
COMMUNITY MUSIC WAGON USED ON THE PLAYGROUNDS AT SALEM, MASSACHUSETTS

A special body has been constructed on a Ford chassis and a piano installed. Any community enterprise
may secure the use of this equipment by making an application at the office of the park and recreation depart-
ment and paying for the driver.

726 PARKS

under certain circumstances might oppose such action. In Louisville, Ken-
tucky, where a protest on the part of the union against concerts in the
parks by volunteer bands was taken to court, it was ruled that the park
department was free to give such concerts.

Community singing has in many cities become a popular feature of
the community music program, often in connection with band concerts.
Many thousands of people took part in the community singing program
arranged on a tremendous scale by the South Park Commissioners. A
large number of cities are providing opportunities of this kind under the
leadership of experienced song leaders, who may in some instances be
volunteers. The organization of bands and orchestras for adults is a form
of community music activity undertaken in a number of cities.

Many park departments have outdoor facilities which are being used
for musical entertainment. At the Water Theatre at Nibley Park, Salt
Lake City, the recreation department puts on a series of art programs once
a week during the summer, when programs of dancing, drama and music
are presented by local associations, who give their service free. Here the
civic opera gives its annual performance, "The Fortune Teller," by Victor
Herbert, being one of the operas presented after six weeks of rehearsing.
More than twenty thousand people witness the performance each year. In
the municipal theatre at Forest Park, St. Louis, ten weeks seasons of grand
opera and light opera are given under the auspices of the Municipal Theatre
Association. Many other events are conducted at the theatre.

Community Drama.

The facilities of parks are being increasingly used for dramatic pres-
entations of various kinds. For children there is the informal story drama-
tization in corners of the playground, the more formal play production,
puppetry and all the forms of drama so delightful to children. The popu-
larity of the informal and outdoor corner theatres is attested to by the
experience of Los Angeles, where such a theatre, known as "The Little
Lattice Playhouse," is provided at the Barnsdall Park. Each week enter-
tainments are given, with a program provided by the playground children.
One such program presented the Senior Boy Scout Band, the dramatic
group from Arroyo Seco Playground in "The Clown of Doodle Doo,"
several costumed folk dances from Pecan Playground, accompanied by two
violins and flute from Exposition Playground, and Robin Hood stories by
the gypsy story-teller. The playhouse has a well-sodded stage of ample
dimensions for large folk dancing groups, and approximately two hundred
seats have been placed upon the turf in tiers, making a shady little amphi-
theatre for summer afternoon use.

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION

727

The Memphis Park Commission holds an annual play tournament for
children. Each playground contributes a pantomime for which the chil-
dren themselves have made the drapery. Points are awarded on the basis
of excellence and dramatization, rhythm, costumes and properties.

Parks furnish unexcelled facilities for festivals and pageants and are the
scene of many beautiful productions. Closing festivals for the playgrounds,
community celebrations and city-wide pageants are frequently given. The
presentation of out-of-door plays such as Shakespeare's "Merchant of
Venice," presented at Nibley Park, Salt Lake City, by the playground
children, are helping to make parks centers for many thousands of people.

PLATE No. 279. IN THE PUPPET THEATRE IN LOS ANGELES

Another activity of park departments serving large masses of people is
the motion picture show which a number of the departments are giving.
Motion picture machines are carried from park to park, the pictures being
shown on large screens. Some park departments have found that in addi-
tion to renting the films from commercial houses it is possible to secure
educational films sometimes free of charge from the extension division of
the state universities and colleges.

Social Activities.

As has been suggested, parks, to many people, are the social centers
where they meet their friends and find social enjoyment largely in an
unorganized way under their own leadership. Very often, however, careful
organization is employed to extend the usefulness of the recreation service
in creating social opportunities, and programs of social games and activities
are offered on evening playgrounds and at other park centers.

728

PARKS

Picnicking.

The provision of picnic facilities represents one of the greatest services
of park departments along social lines. Here organizations can do much
to increase the enjoyment of large groups such as employees of an industrial
plant, Sunday schools and other groups who may wish to have a more
formal form of activities. To meet this need picnic kits may be provided,
containing necessary equipment for carrying out a program. The practice
is also being followed of providing a leader to direct the program. The kit
may be a bag of brown canvas three and one-half feet high and eighteen
inches in diameter, with a draw string at the top and containing the follow-
ing supplies: 2 sets of indoor baseball; 2 twelve-inch and 2 fourteen-inch
outside seam baseballs; 12 picnic balls; I volley ball and net; I tug-of-war
rope, one and one-half or two inches, twenty-five feet long; 2 or more sets
of horseshoes and iron pins, three-fourths inch iron; 20 burlap sacks for sack
races; 20 skate straps for three-legged races; 2 basket balls; 2 dozen ice

PLATE No. 280. MOVING PICTURE BOOTH

Type of moving picture booth used in conducting the extensive moving picture program carried on in the
parks and playgrounds by the Dallas, Texas, Park and Recreation Department. Booths cost from $87.50 to $100
erected.

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION

729

cream spoons; 2 dozen wooden eggs or round blocks a little smaller; 2 dozen
bean bags; 2 dozen small candles (Christmas tree candles); 4 bicycle rims
or hoops. There should also be 2 clotheslines to stretch for start and finish
of dashes; 4 beetles, cotton sacks stuffed with rags or made of canvas,
eighteen inches long and three inches in diameter, stuffed with sea grass;

1 pair of boxing gloves; 4 blinders, such as used by lodges in initiations;

2 dozen clothespins; 4 sets of letters for spelling races, each set a different
color; a pump and lacing needle; a box of soda crackers; and song sheets.

A suggested program for a large group is as follows: Community sing-
ing. Athletic events and races. Kiddie kar race for children six years and
under. Fifty-yard dash for boys under fourteen years. Fifty-yard dash for
girls under fourteen years. Shoe race for boys under
fourteen years. Siamese twin race for girls under
fourteen years. Peanut scramble for boys under
sixteen years. Penny scramble for girls under six-
teen years. Fifty-yard dash for men. Fifty-yard
dash for women. Tumbler race,
nose and toe, or wheelbarrow race
for men. Hoop rolling, push bal-
loon, put on and take off or shoe
race for women. Sweetheart and
beau race, office vs. factory. Tug-
of-war, blonds vs. brunettes;
married men vs. single men; chil-
dren vs. parents. Baseball game
and dancing. Feature contests:
blind boxing. Polo game or kid-
die kars by two departments. Ricksha race. Prize dance. Awarding of prizes.

It is necessary to safeguard park property and the people using picnic
facilities by enforcing certain rules and regulations regarding the use of
the grounds. In New Orleans the following provisions have been made for
the use of picnic grounds: "Picnickers are requested before retiring from
the grounds to gather all paper, bottles, cans or other refuse matter left
by them and deposit same in the waste barrels provided for the purpose.
Picnic permits are issued at $1.00 each, which must be obtained in advance.
This amount will be returned if parties comply with above requirements.
Tables are for rent at 50 and 25 cents each, with two benches, also barrels
and tubs for water, for the benefit of the park fund. The same may be had
by applying to the park keeper."

The following rules are enforced by the East St. Louis, Illinois, Park
District: "No picnics shall take place in any park without a written permit

PLATE No. 281. A PUSHMOBILE RACE HAS A THRILL
OF ITS OWN

730 PARKS

of the superintendent of parks, in which permit shall be designated the
place where it is to be held. Picnics permitted for Sunday and secular
schools must always be accompanied by their respective teachers and
masters, who will be held personally responsible for all infringements by
the scholars of these rules and regulations. No person shall intrude him
or herself upon a picnic without consent of those in charge of it, nor disturb
the peace and quiet of any picnic or person attending the same, within
any park. Parties holding picnics in the said parks must clean up the
grounds that have been occupied by them, on quitting them, and remove all
paper and litter."

Dancing.

A few park departments have felt it necessary to provide opportunity
for social dancing. Mention has been made in Chapter V of the dance
platform provided in Hartford. In other cities, field houses and community
centers are frequently used for municipal dances. These dances are care-
fully safeguarded through proper supervisory methods which include chap-
eronage, insistence on proper dancing position, the exclusion of young
people under a certain age, usually eighteen, and the enforcement of regu-
lations against smoking and drinking. The kind of music provided is par-
ticularly important, affecting more than any one element the conduct of
dancers. While it must necessarily be lively and spirited, and the rapid
syncopated rhythm in use at the present time is generally approved in its
best form for social dancing, the blatant dance music consisting of noise
without melody is denounced by all who are concerned about decent dancing.
There should be a careful selection of the type of music before the dance
begins and only approved orchestras should be engaged. The combination
of instruments recommended for dances is as follows: Three pieces --violin,
piano and clarinet; four pieces — violin, piano, clarinet or cornet and cello;
five pieces — violin, piano, clarinet (or cornet), cello and trombone or
drums; seven pieces — violin, piano, clarinet, cello, trombone and drums.

Constructive Play.

The interest of children and adults in making things useful and beau-
tiful has led to a tremendous development in the handcraft program, par-
ticularly in connection with children's playgrounds. The range of the
handcraft program is almost unlimited. A few of the articles which are
made on the playgrounds include pushmobiles and coaster wagons, lanterns,
kites, bird houses, boats, model airplanes, radios, toys of all kinds, musical
instruments, favors and similar articles. Added interest to constructive
play is given by the fact that special competitive events center about many
of these articles. Pushmobile races, kite flying contests, boat races, Ian-

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION

tern parades, model airplane con-
tests and a great variety of other
contests provide delightful hours.

For adults there are many
forms of handcraft. One of the
most interesting of these is the
quilting club for women, organ-
ized in connection with the South
Park Commissioners of Chicago.
There are many social features
connected with a club of this kind
which make it doubly interesting.

The activities which have
been mentioned by

PLATE No. 282

ARCHERY EQUIPMENT IS FOUND IN
MANY PARKS

no means

represent all the features of the recreation program. They are, however,
typical of many which are being developed.

SWIMMING POOL AND GOLF ADMINISTRATION

There are a number of facilities peculiarly the concern of park depart-
ments. Among these are swimming pools and municipal golf courses.

Swimming pool administration. Successful swimming pool operation is
dependent, in the main, on three factors : The construction of the pool, the
operation of the purification devices, sanitation and the supervision of the
bathers. Problems of construction have been discussed in Chapter V,
of sanitation in Chapter XVI. This discussion will concern itself with a

few of the problems of supervision
and administration, the handling
of clothing, the supervision of
bathers, and similar problems.

Guards. There can be no gen-
eral rule which will determine the
number of life guards necessary at
any pool, since this necessarily de-
pends on the attendance and the
design of the pool. In a circular
pool with the deep section and div-
ing platform at the center, one
guard might successfully care for
three hundred or four hundred
PLATE No. 283 bathers, while in a rectangular

WHAT is MORE FUN THAN WATER SPORTS? pool three or four men might be

732 PARKS

needed. Life guards should be excellent swimmers, who have passed such
tests as those issued by the American Red Cross, and who are capable of
rescuing struggling bathers without difficulty. They should be on duty when-
ever the pool is opened to bathers.

Shower bath supervision. A bath in warm water with the use of soap
should be required of every one entering a pool. Many pools are built in
such a way that entrance is through a shower room past an inspecting
attendant, who permits only those who have bathed and who are free from
surface signs of disease to enter the water. Some indoor pools may be
entered only by a passageway under a row of showers, graduated in tem-
perature down to a cold spray at the end just before the plunge. In men's
showers, where a common shower bathroom is used, it is relatively easy to
make sure that cleansing baths are taken. In women's bathhouses, where
the individual shower and dressing compartment is the rule, it is difficult
for a matron to secure any approach to this type of supervision.

Workers in charge of giving out suits and supplies. Bathhouse manage-
ment requires the provision of workers for the collection of fees and the
distribution and collection of bathing suits, towels and locker keys. Exits
should be arranged from locker rooms in a way which makes possible the
collection of towel, suit and key by the attendant who distributes them.
A locker room attendant for women and one for men should suffice. From
four to six workers, one swimming pool authority has suggested, will usually
be needed in connection with the swimming pool, depending on the size of
the pool and number of patrons.. The length of the working day may make
another shift necessary.

Dressing accommodations. On entering the bathhouse the bather pro-
cures a ticket, which is surrendered for a basket or locker key, or which
may be collected at the entrance of the pool. Following this there is usually
a counter provided where patrons may check their valuables. Then comes
the problem of the care of clothing. There are two general methods in use.
By the first, the patron receives a basket, retires to a dressing room, where
he puts on his bathing suit, placing his street clothes in the basket, which
is turned over to the attendant for safe keeping. The second method pro-
vides for each bather to receive a key to a locker in a dressing room, the
bather retaining the key while he is in the water. The dressing room may
be a large room for a number of people or an individual dressing room for
those wishing to pay extra for privacy.

Where patrons are regular in attendance, as at clubs, the individual
locker with key or combination locker is most useful. In public locker
rooms where each person is assigned a locker for every visit, the provision
of suitable means of safeguarding the personal belongings becomes more

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION 733

difficult. Although several charges are made for lost keys and tags, the
expense and bother involved in replacement have been so great in public
installations that the practice of having spring locks on the doors and an
attendant with a master key in charge of opening the lockers has sometimes
been adopted. The basket method of handling clothes is objectionable to
some patrons on account of the mussing of clothing in folding to fit the
basket. The advantage of this method of caring for clothes is that it allows
more patrons to be accommodated in a locker room of a given size. It should
be easy for the attendant to see every one in the locker room as he passes
down the main aisle. This is necessary to prevent the hiding of sneak
thieves and the committing of annoyances by a few objectionable persons.

Care of suits and towels. It is desirable in artificial pools that all suits
and towels be supplied and cared for by the management. If individually
owned suits are used, they should be of prescribed style and material, and
should be laundered and stored at the pool by the management. Bathing
suits for women should be of the simplest type, made of wool or cotton of
undyed material or tested for fastness of color. At the artificial pools both
sexes should be required to wear bathing caps. When an indoor pool is
used exclusively by men, nude bathing is usually required. A frequent
requirement concerning stocks of towels and bathing suits is to insist on
a sufficient supply to allow twenty-four hours' storage of clean suits. Suits
and towels should be washed in hot water and soap, rinsed thoroughly and
dried each time they are used. When they are brought back to be issued
again they should be handled carefully, not allowed to lie in baskets or
on shelves which have held dirty suits. Neither should they be issued at a
window from which dirty towels and suits have been taken out.

Admission fees and charges. Where admission fees are charged they
usually run from five and ten cents per child to fifteen, twenty and twenty-
five cents per adult. In most instances five cents is charged for towels; ten
cents for suits. In some cities, the charge for suits and towels is included in
the admission fee.

Instructions to bathers. Suitable placards, embodying personal regula-
tions and instructions, should be posted conspicuously in the pool room or
enclosure and in dressing rooms and offices. The following instructions are
usually included in such notices:

1. All bathers shall use shower baths, including soap, 4. Women shall wear caps while in plunge.

if necessary, before entering the plunge. (The plunge 5. Persons not dressed for bathing shall not be al-

is not intended as a bathtub.) lowed on walks surrounding plunge, and bathers shall

2. Bathers who have been outside the bathhouse or not be allowed in places provided for spectators,
plunge enclosure shall not re-enter without passing 6. No persons suffering from a fever, cold, cough or
through a footbath and using a shower. inflamed eyes shall be allowed the use of the plunge.

3. Bathers shall be forbidden to wear private bath- (These disorders may be transmitted to others.)

ing suits that are not properly laundered; light colored 7. No person with sores or other evidence of skin

or undyed wool is suggested. disease, or who is wearing a bandage of any kind, shall

734

PARKS

be allowed the use of the plunge. (A bandage may con-
ceal a source of infection.)

8. Spitting in, or in any other way contaminating,
the plunge, and spitting on floors, runway, aisles or
dressing rooms shall be prohibited.

9. Public combs or brushes shall not be furnished,
and such articles left by bathers shall be permanently
removed.

10. Eating within the plunge enclosure shall be pro-
hibited.

1 1. Bringing or throwing into the plunge any objects
that may in any way carry contamination, endanger
safety of bathers, or produce unsightliness, shall be
prohibited.

The majority of our patrons will observe these rules
of their own accord and will render us a great service
by reporting any infractions to the attendants. Any
person failing to comply with the foregoing rules will be
immediately expelled and denied the future privileges
of the bathhouse.

The following rules and regulations are enforced by the Dallas Park
Board for the use of the Lake Cliff Swimming Pool:

I. That all swimming pools, located in any park in
which the privilege is extended to persons to bathe and
swim therein, shall be controlled by, and such persons
using the said pools shall be governed by, the following
rules :

(a) That all persons using the swimming pools shall
check their valuables with the officer or employee desig-
nated to receive the same and shall receive from such
officer or employee a check or receipt covering the
article or articles so checked. No article or valuables
shall be checked which shall be of a value exceeding
$25.00. No officer or employee shall be responsible for
any valuables that have not been checked and no re-
sponsibility shall lie against any such officer or employee
for a greater amount than $25.00. That all persons
making any claim against any officer or employee for
loss of any article or valuables shall file such claim in
writing with the officer or employee in charge of such

pool not later than days after the time of such

loss, and such claim shall state as near as possible an
exact description of the article or articles lost, the
exact time when the same was checked and shall also
be accompanied by an exact description of the check
or receipt for any such article or articles. That all
persons using the said pools shall look to the officer or
employee in charge of the same in case of the loss of
any valuables, and under no circumstances shall the
City of Dallas be held liable on account of the loss of
any article or articles, or valuables.

(b) No persons shall be allowed to, in any manner,
bring any bottles or glassware or broken glass into or
about the pools.

(d) Persons having their own bathing suits shall not
use one-piece bathing suits; all suits must have skirts.

(e) No smoking shall be allowed in the bathhouses.
(/) All signs and rules promulgated by the park board

shall be strictly observed by users of the pools.

(g) All users of the pools, while in the pools, are for-
bidden to do or commit any of the following: I. Dive
off another person's shoulders. 2. Splash water on
others in such a manner as to interfere with others,
or use the pool in such a manner as to create disorder
or disturbance. 3. To act with indecent familiarity to-

wards each other, which shall include spooning and the
like. 4. Take floaters, inner tubes, etc., in deep end
of the pool. 5. Curse or swear or use indecent language.
6. Go down slides standing up. 7. Take non-swimmers
or beginners beyond the ropes. 8. Throw rocks or any
object into the pool. 9. Run on the platform. 10. Start
whip circles, n. Enter pool under influence of intoxi-
cating liquor. 12. While in pool no person shall indulge
in eating any food or smoking or chewing tobacco.
13. Use spring board with others. 14. Dive in shallow
water. 15. Only expert swimmers shall be allowed in
deep end of pool.

(h) All persons using the pool do so at their own risk
and responsibility.

(i) No person shall use the pool who is in a diseased
condition or who is suffering from any skin disease or
any character of contagious or communicable disease.

(/) The officer or employee in charge of the pool may
exercise the right to eject anyone who by disorderly
conduct or on account of his constant infraction of the
rules, or on account of any lewd or indecent conduct,
becomes objectionable, and may also refuse to permit
any such person to use the pool.

(k) That it shall be the duty of all persons to act in
an orderly manner so as to permit the largest use and
enjoyment of the pool by all persons, and no person
shall willfully interfere with or willfully annoy or dis-
turb others in the proper use of the pool, and whenever
any officer or employee in charge calls attention to any
such act or acts being committed or likely to be com-
mitted, any person offending shall immediately desist
from any such practice. All persons using the pool shall
seek to comply reasonably with the directions of the
officer or employee in charge of the preservation of
good order and lend such officers or employees in charge
their full assistance and cooperation.

(/) That any willful violation of the above rules shall
constitute an offense which shall subject any person so
violating the same to the fine prescribed by ordinance
which shall not exceed the sum of $50.00 upon con-
viction in the Corporation Court, provided that such
and every act committed shall constitute a separate
and distinct offense, all of which shall be prescribed by
ordinance passed by the Board of Commissioners rela-
tive thereto.

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION 735

2. The following rules and instructions shall govern (i) Guards should keep in mind the fact that they

the life guards at all swimming pools: are responsible for people in the pool.

(a) One guard must be in the boat at all times. (/) Guards must not congregate and talk to one

(A) One guard must be on each life tower when there an°th« whi'e on ^ ,

... , , i - * A;*rr~t\nn ^t 0&) Guards nearest bathhouse shall see that all bath-

are bathers in deep end of pool, or at discretion or .

ers take shower bath before allowing them to enter pool.

• r 3. Violation of any or more of the above rules will

(f) One guard must be walking up and down wharf ' ,

.,, mean suspension for offending guard or guards,

on east s.de of pool. Jt ^ be ^ duty of the superintendent of the

(d) Guards not allowed to smoke while on duty. swimming pool to have each employee read and become

(e) Guard not all owed to carry on social conversation thoroughiy informed as to these rules and regulations
while on duty. governing.

(/) Guards must direct attention to bathers in water. $ -phat this resolution become effective from and

(g) Guards must remain on duty until relieved by after its passage, provided, however, that the terms
head guard. and provisions of the rules hereinabove set out shall

(A) Guards must watch for disorder and indecent become effective and in force on the

conduct of bathers and observers. day of 192

The Administration of Golf Courses.

Park authorities probably more than any other group are concerned
with the administration of municipal golf courses. A few general suggestions
on the administration may therefore be helpful.

The staff. The success of a golf course and clubhouse will depend
largely on the quality of their management. It is therefore highly impor-
tant that the golf course shall be in charge of a competent man who under-
stands the game. Such a manager should be entirely responsible for the
course and its proper upkeep, and capable of handling all branches of the
game and of supervising the workers on his staff. These workers should
as far as possible be trained men, kept regularly employed so as to ensure
having a good summer force. The great majority of the professionals em-
ployed, who serve as managers of the courses and who in many instances
receive concessions as part of their salaries, are allowed to give lessons.
Where a salary is the entire amount received by a manager, the average
salary is approximately $150 a month, though in some cities $2,000 a year
is paid, and in a few instances a still higher salary is given. Where con-
cessions are permitted there is considerable variation. In one city the
professional receives $100 a month and concessions on a twelve and one-half
per cent basis. In another the salary is $125 a month, the professional
receiving the golf concessions and from this amount paying the clerk. In
a third city the salary is $75 a month plus one-half the receipts from lessons;
in a fourth $5.00 a day, with the privilege of giving lessons. Many park
and recreation officials feel that the professional should be paid a salary
sufficient to permit him to give all of his time to the administration of the
golf courses without being under the necessity of supplementing his salary
by taking charge of the sale of food and other articles.

Other workers employed in connection with golf courses include greens

736

PARKS

keepers, starters, janitors, locker attendants for men and women, caddie
masters, foremen, laborers, cooks, clerks and similar employees. Informa-
tion follows regarding workers and wages paid in a number of cities.

Jacksonville, Florida. A manager or superintendent
is in complete charge of all operations and employees.
His salary is $175.00 a month; he receives $35.00 per
month automobile allowance and the free use of a cot-
tage which is on the property. The professional who
serves receives no retainer fee or salary, his income
consisting of receipts from golf lessons, sale of golf
equipment, mending, repairing and cleaning of golf
clubs. Other employees consist of a starter who works
seven days a week with a salary of $125.00 a month
and two weeks vacation with pay, and a caddie master
who receives no salary, but collects from each player
80 cents for each 18 holes, 70 cents of which goes to
the caddie, 10 cents to be retained by the caddie master;
for each 9 holes he collects 40 cents, retaining 5 cents
for himself. In this way he averages about $200.00 a
month.

There are three men employed at $2.75 a day, who
are responsible for mowing the greens daily, six greens
being the daily task of each man. He begins his work
early in order to be out of the way of the players, and
is permitted to leave as soon as he completes his task.
There are two additional laborers employed at $2.75 a
day. One is the man responsible for mowing the eight-
een tees daily if necessary. The second is a tractor-
machine man who mows the fairways and does other
labor of a general nature. One man at $2.50 a day

handles hose and waters greens and helps to keep traps
hoed and cleaned. Another man, known as "bug man,"
at $2.50 a day, watches the greens for cricket moles
and insects which tend to destroy the greens, and is
responsible for exterminating them. (In this connec-
tion it is well to note that cricket moles are killed by
locating their holes and shooting gasoline into the hole.)

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The professional receives
$i 18.00 per month, the privilege of giving lessons in
the morning, and income from sale and repair of equip-
ment; greens keeper, $150.00 per month plus house rent;
locker attendant for men, $4.00 per day; for women,
$83.50 per month; caddie master, $4.00 per day plus
5 cents per person.

Minneapolis, Minnesota. The professional at one
course receives $150 per month; janitor, $4.40 per day;
cook, $3.50 to $4.00 per day.

Dallas, Texas. The professional in charge of one of
the courses receives $100 per month and all concessions
on a twelve and one-half per cent basis. Laborers are
employed at $3.20 a day, a foreman at $100.00 per
month, and a clerk at $85.00 a month.

San Francisco, California. The professional is paid
$100.00 per month, plus income from lessons; foreman,
$8.00 a day; the workers in charge of the general main-
tenance of the course and the starters average about
$5.00 a day.

Planning for a wise use of time. It is economy to plan and develop
certain improvements for the course each year and to arrange to do all
repair work on bad days in the winter. There are many things which can
best be attended to in the spring. At this time stones may be removed
from the fairways. It is also the time to learn which greens are most in
need of drainage. Since the soil is fairly dry, greens should be wormed so
that the poison will go down into worm holes. It is a good thing to know
that the most effective poison in nearly all worm killers is bichloride of
mercury.

Fees and charges. There is no general policy enforced regarding fees.
While a few cities are maintaining free courses, the great majority are
making a charge on a per game or per day basis, at varying rates: 10, 20,
25> 5°> 75 cents or $1.00. A few cities have a monthly charge of $2.00 or
$3.00, and in many cities there is a yearly fee for membership, ranging from
$5.00, $10.00, through $15.00, $18.00 and $20.00. A few cities make a
difference in the rates charged men and women. Houston, Texas, follows
the plan of charging a nominal greens fee of 25 cents per round, except on
two mornings of the week, when no charge is made. There is no charge

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION 737

for golfers who begin their round before 7.00 A.M. or after 6.00 P.M. In
many cities charges are doubled on Saturdays, Sundays and holidays.

The general experience has been that even with moderate fees it is
possible in most instances to meet the operation expenses of the course
and make needed improvements. Some cities have been able eventually to
meet much of the initial expense in this way. One park superintendent
has made this statement, that fees should be scaled up to the point at
which they will meet maintenance charges where they do not already equal
them. Such fees should, he believes, take care of a portion at least of the
carrying charges arising out of acquisition of land and construction.

In Jacksonville, Florida, the yearly profit is from eight to ten per
cent, the manager counting on an expense of $1,000 a hole per year for the
entire expense of running the course, including the clubhouse. The income
is based on the following charges: Yearly ticket, $25.00, entitling the player
to play as much as he desires every day in the year and to have locker
privileges, towel, soap, hot and cold water baths and porter service. Book
of thirty tickets, $10.00, non-transferable even to members of the family;
each ticket is limited to eighteen holes and includes locker privileges, towel,
soap and bathing facilities when playing. Ticket for each eighteen holes,
with locker and bathing privileges, 50 cents. Juveniles, boys and girls
twelve to eighteen years of age, with locker and bathing privileges, yearly
ticket, $10.00 per year.

Instruction and caddie fees. In many of the public golf courses pro-
fessional instructors may be engaged. In some instances the professional,
who may not be a city employee, will have the privilege of renting and selling
clubs and balls. On the majority of courses caddies are furnished. In some
instances there is no charge for caddie service; in others they may be
employed at the rate of 35 or 50 cents a round. When two bags are carried
a charge of 70 cents is made in some cities. The caddie master in charge
of this part of the service is usually a city employee, who may have respon-
sibility of issuing tickets and renting or selling clubs.

Maintenance budgets. Maintenance costs are an important consider-
ation in initiating a municipal golf project. These costs vary considerably,
in some cities being as high as $26,000. The maintenance budget, 1926,
of the municipal golf course of Jacksonville is as follows:

DIVISION NO. 2 MUNICIPAL GOLF COURSE
Materials, Supplies, Equipment, etc.:

Gas and oil $1,400.00

Fertilizer and distributor 1,000.00

Mowers and upkeep 1,000.00

Seed (winter grass) 500.00

Tools, hose, etc 300.00 $4,200.00

738 PARKS

Clubhouse Repairs:

Furnishings, towels, soap and laundry $500.00

Electric current 1,620.00

$2,120.00
General Expenses:

Salary superintendent $2,520.00

Salary starter 1,500.00

Tractor driver 1,200.00

Salary caddy master 1,080.00

Laborers, mowers, sprinklers, etc 4,382.00

Extra labor 1,000.00

Stationery, score cards, etc 100.00

Telephone 75-°o

12,577.00

$18,897.00

Economy in purchasing equipment. Maintenance problems should be
considered in buying equipment. A few extra dollars spent in the beginning
in purchasing the most lasting equipment will save many dollars in repairs.
It is good economy to allow men to stop work fifteen minutes earlier in
the evening in order to give them time to clean their tools and put them
in their proper places. Tools and machinery should be kept sharpened,
oiled and in good repair for the sake of efficiency in work and saving in
time and expense.

Clubhouse management. It is very important that high standards shall
be maintained in the management of the clubhouse as well as the course
itself. Every building of this nature should have a worker in charge from
five o'clock in the morning until dark. There should always be on hand
plenty of hot water and sufficient supplies for toilets and lavatories. All
facilities should be kept clean. The public will be glad to pay for this
service if for some good reason it is necessary to make a charge.

In Los Angeles, California, the clubhouse is in charge of a manager,
who has supervision over the following employees : One cashier, two starters,
one janitor and one officer on the links. The manager handles all the
money collected from every service. Permits and tickets bear consecutive
numbers and every one must bis accounted for. Dining room sales are
checked daily from a cash register. Players wear a button corresponding
to the number of their permit. For example, in the case of monthly permits
which are printed in red, red buttons are issued.

Rules and Regulations. The congested conditions which exist on most
municipal courses make imperative strict adherence to golf etiquette and to
playing rules and regulations. It is well to have these rules printed on the
back of score cards as well as to have them posted in clubhouses and shelter
buildings. The following regulations are enforced on the municipal golf
course of Stevens Park, Dallas, Texas :

Suggested Rules. 3 . A single player must always give way to a prop-

1. All players must register before starting to play. erly constituted match.

2. Each player is limited to the use of one ball at a 4. No onlooker or caddie should move or talk during
time. a stroke.

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION

739

5. No player should pay from the tee until the
players in front have played their second strokes, and
are out of range two hundred yards, nor play up to the
putting green until the players in front have holed out
and moved away.

6. Players looking for a lost ball must allow other
matches to pass them.

7. On request a match consisting of three or four
players must allow a two-ball match to pass them. Any
match playing a whole round may claim the right to
pass a match playing a shorter round.

8. If a match fails to keep its place on the green
and loses more than one hole in distance on those in
front it may be passed on request being made.

9. Turf cut or displaced by stroke should be care-
fully put back.

10. Players and caddies who take the flag out must
not stick it in the green. Golf bags must be left off the
green.

n. Ladies must not go on the greens with high-
heeled shoes.

12. Membership cards and starting tickets are not
transferable under any condition and must be shown
on request.

13. Players are requested not to purchase balls from
men or boys who loiter on the course. Fewer balls will
be "lost" if the players will observe this rule.

14. No children under twelve years of age will be
allowed to play on the course.

15. Players who have played nine holes must give
way to players on the tee ready to play.

16. All rules and notices must be strictly adhered to.

17. Players must either show membership cards or
pay greens fee.

1 8. Membership cards subject to cancellation for vio-
lation of rules.

Ground Rules.

1. A ball driven into any bush or the dirt surround-
ing a bush shall be lifted and dropped no nearer the
hole; penalty, one stroke.

2. A ball driven off of property is out of bounds and
costs the player the distance and counts one stroke.

3. If a ball is driven into creek, players shall drop
ball behind hazard; penalty, one stroke.

4. The regular teeing grounds must be used.

5. Player playing ball into water hazards who can-
not immediately play another ball, must allow follow-
ing match to pass.

6. No children under twelve years of age will be
allowed on the course except when accompanied by
adults.

7. Players must not touch ground with club in
addressing the ball in a hazard; penalty, loss of hole
in match play and one stroke in medal play.

8. Non-players will not be allowed on the course
except when following a match as a gallery.

9. Four ball matches only will be allowed on Satur-
day afternoon, Sunday and holidays.

Advance reservations. In the municipal golf course at Houston, Texas,
golfers are permitted to reserve starting time for days ahead. For each
reservation of this kind an additional fee of ten cents is charged. Through
such an arrangement players may plan twosomes or foursomes a week
ahead. Their reservation then is listed in a book kept for the purpose and
when the time arrives the starter calls the names. Only half the starting
periods may be reserved in this way, the other being left open to serve the
remainder of the public. Under the plan of operation, matches are started
away at intervals of five minutes or twelve matches to the hour. Six of
these twelve periods may be reserved. Players without reservation must
await their turn in leaving the first tee and the rule '* first come, first served"
is in force.

At Jackson Park, Chicago, Illinois, the following rules are in effect:

On a "first-come, first-served" basis, persons desir-
ing to play are accommodated by means of tickets
entitling bearer to privilege to play. These tickets,
which must be purchased before starting out on the
course, are carried as credentials by the players after
leaving the first tee and are checked from time to time
while out on the course by game attendants assigned
to that duty. The ticket sale opens not less than fifteen

minutes before play can start, at dawn every morning.
Applicants for tickets stand in one of two lines, accord-
ing to the type of tickets they wish to secure. The
person first in line has first choice under the conditions
which follow:

/. Advance reservation tickets. Foursomes will be run
off every five minutes. Those starting on the even hour
and every ten minutes thereafter are subject to reserva-

740

PARKS

tion not more than a week in advance. A ticket is
issued entitling the holder to play at the time stated;
he signs one reservation blank at the time of drawing
the ticket, signing again when he starts to play on the
day specified so that the signatures may be compared
to insure against the transfer of the tickets.

2. Daily reservation ticket. Daily reservation tickets,
which have similar provision as to signatures, are issued
on the day of play in the order in which applicants pre-
sent themselves. Foursomes play off five minutes past
the hour and every ten minutes thereafter, alternating
with foursomes of the class described above. The earli-
est applicant on the morning of any day has his choice
as to the precise time at which he will play and secures
a ticket stamped with the hour selected.

j. Fill-in tickets. If a holder of a daily reservation
ticket or advance reservation ticket fails to appear, his
place is taken just before the foursome starts out by
a third class of applicants who either come too late to
get an advance hour or who elected to take their chance
that someone will fail to appear and who draw in con-
sequent order what is called a "fill-in ticket." These
fill-in tickets are subject to two conditions:

Holders must play when the number of the ticket is
called and they are called in rotation. The first va-
cancy is taken by the man who first drew a ticket, the
second vacancy by the second man, and so on. If
holders of fill-in tickets fail to appear when their num-
bers are called and are passed, they have no further
rights to play.

The second condition is that the holding of a ticket
does not guarantee that a man will have the privilege
of play. The ticket is sold subject to the condition that
only such vacancies as may arise will entitle holder to
play, and does not guarantee that any vacancies will
occur. Play is conditioned, therefore, upon vacancies
occurring.

4. Issuing of tickets. None of the tickets are trans-

ferable and all are issued through a cash register, which
stamps the hour of play, the type of person to whom
issued — whether man, woman, boy or girl — his place
in the foursome and the person by whom the ticket is
sold.

5. Price and refunds. For daily and weekly reserva-
tion tickets a charge of twenty cents is made; the daily
fill-in ticket, fifteen cents. No refund is allowed, and
unless tickets are presented before play starts they
become void.

6. Lockers. No season tickets for play are provided
for under this system, but season reservation of lockers
is provided for, lockers being subject to reservation on
and after March i of each year, until available locker
space is exhausted. Lockers are of sufficient capacity
to accommodate four occupants. Six dollars is the
charge for a full locker for the season. In the order of
application, those wishing to rent lockers may take a
full locker, one-half, one-third or one-fourth of a locker,
as desired, and the six dollars charge may be paid by
a single occupant or proportioned among the number
assigned to each locker.

7. Tournament play. By arrangement not less than
two weeks in advance, so that notice advising the
public of the projected tournament may be made on
the bulletin boards, tournament committees may secure
the privilege of running tournaments on the course, by
reserving, in the name of the tournament to be held,
the required number of tickets, making advance pay-
ment for same, and agreeing to use tickets so secured
solely for tournament play. The committee is required
to keep in public view the schedule of tournament
drawings, so that anyone may see for himself that only
legitimate tournament players are given the privilege
of play under the tickets which the committee has
secured in advance, and that such play is part of the
scheduled tournament drawings. This does not permit
any consolation play or extra rounds arising out of dis-
pute or rivalries developed in the tournament.

ADMINISTERING THE RECREATION PROGRAM

All these activities of the park recreation program with their various
adaptations to the needs of children and adults call for leadership of the
highest type; hence the workers, their relationship to one another, their
responsibilities and the contributions they make are of primary importance.

Staff organization. On the recreation staff of a bureau or department
of recreation under the Park Department there is first of all the executive
who, in some cities, may be the park superintendent himself. In others the
duties may be performed by a special assistant to the superintendent or
by a worker known as superintendent or supervisor of recreation in charge
of a special bureau or division. This is true of Minneapolis, St. Paul,
Memphis, Indianapolis and many other cities which might be mentioned.

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION 741

The recreation executive must be well versed in all technical phases
of recreation with a personality which will win the loyalty of the staff.
He must have skill in dealing with individuals and community groups and
the statesmanship which will enable him to organize and keep in operation
a constantly growing program. The duties of an executive in the organiza-
tion and administration of park recreation include the selection, training
and direction of workers; the purchasing and installing of apparatus and
layout of playgrounds and athletic fields; the planning of buildings for
recreation purposes; the celebration of holidays; the development of ath-
letic sports, games, music, drama and all the varied activities entering into
the program. The recreation executive also has the task of interpreting to
the public through addresses, conferences and play demonstrations the work
which is being done.

The staff of the superintendent sometimes includes in some of the larger
cities an assistant. There are in addition playground directors in charge
of individual playgrounds, directors of recreation centers, where such facil-
ities are a part of the system, play leaders and assistants on individual
grounds, and in some cities supervisors of such activities such as athletics,
music, drama, handcraft, folk dancing, story-telling, boys' work, girls' work
and similar activities.

Other workers on the staff who are in some instances responsible to the
superintendent of recreation, in others directly to the park superintendent,
are swimming instructors, guards and others associated with swimming
pools, golf professionals and attendants, and workers involved in the
administration of other recreation facilities.

Civil Service.

In many states existing laws require that recreation workers shall be
employed and hold their positions under civil service. While this plan has
many advantages, it has its difficulties as well, and it should be possible
to safeguard and strengthen it by closer cooperation to civil service authori-
ties and recreation officials. It has been urged that a higher type of leader-
ship might be brought about through the abolition of local resident require-
ments, giving the opportunity to secure workers from outside the city;
through the placing of greater emphasis upon personality, character and
educational requirements; through insistence on a probationary period of
from three to six months, and the automatic cancelling of the waiting
eligibility list for the new year; through adequate salary standards and
through impartial selection of members making up the civil service com-
mission.

742

PARKS

Salaries.

There is a considerable variation in the salaries paid recreation workers.
A compilation of salaries made by the P. R. A. A. in a limited number of
cities shows the following facts:

Salaries of recreation executives.1 In 76 cities with population of over
50,000, ten women receive salaries ranging from $2,700 to $4,400, three
receiving $2,700, three $3,600; sixty-six men receive salaries ranging from
$2,500 to $6,500, eleven receiving $3,000, twelve, $3,600, and ten, $4,200
to $5,000. In 58 cities with population of 5,000 to 50,000, sixteen women
receive salaries ranging from $1,800 to $3,600, nine receiving from $2,400
to $3,000; forty-two men receive salaries ranging from $2,200 to $4,500,
eighteen receiving $2,200 to $3,000, twenty, $3,000 to $4,000. These figures
show that 97 cities of the 134 mentioned are paying salaries above $3,000.
The salaries of greatest frequency are between $3,000 and $4,000. For
other staff positions the salary range in the city study is as follows: Recre-
ation supervisor, from $1,200 to $3,500; recreation director, from $100 a
month to $2,500 a year. Play leader or recreation assistant, from $60 a
month to $1,800 a year.

The following table shows the salaries paid in a few of the cities in
which community recreation is under the administration of the Park
Department:

SALARIES OF RECREATION WORKERS

Population

Superin-
tendent
Recreation

Assistant
Supervisor

Directors
Centers

Play Leaders

Swimming
Instructors

Life Guards

Bathhouse
Attendants

Golf
Instructors

Music
Leaders

Cities
150,000-
200,000

(I) $150*

(2) £2,400
1,800
(i) ISO*
(I) 3St

(2) $ .sot
(4) 85.00*

(16) $So-$7S*
(29) 40- 75*
(45) 3-50§

(i)$i3S*

(6) $8o-$i25*
(2) 3S.oof
(22) 4.oo§

(24) $6o-$2do*
(15) 20-25 t

(i) $160*

(I)$I75*

Cities
200,000-
400,000

(0$3,744
(i) 3,000

(l) 3,600

(4) $2,200
(i) 2,500

(4) 200*

(4) $130.00*
(7) .S5-.75*

(18) $91.20*
(2) .55-75*
(113) -34--401
(65) 3-5°-5-25§

(8) $.43-55*

(6) $105*
(7) -SSt

(10) 3-2S§

(8) $75*
$.40-.4st

(29) 3.oo-3.50§
(12) 2.8c-s.oo2

(2)150-166.60*

(i) $133*

Cities
700,000-
800, oco

(i) $2,700
(i) 5,000

(i) $2,2CO

(20)$I,320-I,500

(13) $1,900.
(40) 65*
(80) 50*

(7) $1,800
(38) 95*

* Per month, t Per week. + Per hour. § Per day.

1 Athletic Directors.

2 Boat Attendants.

Training of Workers.

Even when workers of experience are secured, it is important that a
continuous process of education be kept up. In some instances it is not
possible to secure thoroughly trained workers, and intensive training methods
must be used. Frequently before the opening of the summer playground
season, institutes a few days in duration are held. Very often such institutes
are opened to volunteers to carry back to their own groups — churches,

1 These figures include cities in which park departments are conducting recreation, but in many of them the
workers are under the administration of other bodies.

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION

743

schools and clubs — the games and activities which they have learned
through the courses.

The following program for a general institute from a California city
is typical of many which are being held:

First Day 10.00 A

9.00 A.M. Growth of play movement.
10.00 A.M. Play in the program of the modern school.
n.oo A.M. Simple singing and tag games.
1.30 P.M. Recreation in its relation to the municipal-
ity.
2.30 P.M. Ball tag games: center spry, call ball,

teacher ball, ball stand, dodge ball, etc.
3.30 P.M. Cooperation with neighborhood agencies.
7.30 P.M. Social evening: dramatics, indoor games,

general good time.
Second Day

9.00 A.M. Delinquency and spare time.
10.00 A.M. Bat ball, Philadelphia bat ball, long ball.
11.00 A.M. The playground and character education.
12.15 P-M- Luncheon: What the school principal ex-
pects of the playground and the playground
director.
Athletics for all.
Net ball, volley ball.
Demonstration of track and pentathlon.

1.30 P.M.

2.30 P.M.

3.30 P.M.

Third Day

9.OO A.M.

10.00 A.M. Hit pin baseball, kick ball, Indian club

basket ball.

n.oo A.M. Playground first aid.
Accident prevention.
1.30 P.M. Organization of schedules and tournaments :

round robin, perpetual, elimination.
2.30 P.M. Stunts and relays.

3 .30 P.M. Supplies, equipment, marking of courts, etc.
7.30 P.M. Social evening: ice-breakers, dancing, gen-
eral good time.
Fourth Day

9.00 A.M. Play day organization.
10.00 A.M. Speed ball, soccer for men, baseball for

women.

n.oo A.M. The playground program.
12.15 P-M- Luncheon: What the superintendent of
recreation expects of the playground and
the director.

1.30 P.M. Playground ideals.
2.30 P.M. Punt back and pass ball for men, basket

ball for women.

3.30 P.M. Utilization of boy and girl leaders; demon-
stration of pupil leadership.

Health contribution of the playground.

Staff meetings. To the creation of the esprit de corps which is the
backbone of the recreation department, staff meetings are vital. At these
meetings, usually held once a week, problems, plans and programs are
talked over, new ideas suggested, differences in departments ironed out and
responsibility fixed. Even where there is a very limited staff of workers
such conferences are available.

Reports. A carefully worked out detailed report should be submitted
each month by every department head. This should be made up by various
members of the staff and gone over at staff meetings. The reports should
cover a full statement of the activities of the month. The report of the play-
ground division, for example, would cover such activities as: Attendance
on grounds; special types of activities; number participating; accidents; dis-
cipline; principal meetings attended; principal committees attended; prin-
cipal interviews attended. Other notes or comments that would be of
interest to the board of directors. After each league meet, track meet or
play day, a summary of the results should be made, with suggestions
attached for the better handling of the event another year.

Business Management.

General policies. Clerical work relative to the activities of the recrea-
tion division is usually handled through the general office of the Park Depart-

744 PARKS

merit. Correspondence is generally taken care of in the same way, though
a special stenographer may be assigned to the recreation division. Ques-
tions of budget needs of various kinds are also handled through the general
office as is the routine of making purchases, securing supplies, making up
the pay roll and matters relative to sick leaves and vacations.

Dues and charges for recreation facilities. While many of the facilities
and activities of park departments are free, the great majority make a
charge for certain recreation facilities for which a charge may justifiably
be made to provide funds to maintain facilities properly. Among these
revenue-producing activities and facilities are golf, bathhouses and swim-
ming pools, dancing, boating, in some instances dramatic activities, and
registration fees charged athletic teams and leagues. (A discussion of this
question with tables showing dues and charges in a number of cities will
be found in the Chapter on "Financing.")

Permits. Permits for the use of gymnasiums, baseball grounds, tennis
courts, picnic grounds and other facilities are often handled in the office
of the Park Department, though this is not always the case. The granting
of permits is an important consideration. Policies in regard to their use
should be unbreakable even by the superintendent himself. Special instruc-
tions telling how, when and where these permits are issued should be pub-
lished and strictly adhered to. Applications should be taken in the order
in which they are made at the office; only in this way can a department
be fair to the people of the community.

The Department of Parks and Playgrounds in St. Paul uses the follow-
ing form in granting permits for the use of certain of the facilities:

DEPARTMENT OF PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS
CITY OF ST. PAUL

Official Permit for the use of:

Baseball
Kitten Ball

Field No for Football

Hockey Rink
Soccer Ball

For ...

Date 192 Time ,

Managers are held responsible for smoking or profane ERNEST W. JOHNSON,

language by players or immediate spectators. Superintendent of Playgrounds.

THE RECREATION SERVICE DIVISION 745

The Department of Parks, Rochester, New York, issues the following
permit for those wishing to use picnic grounds:

DEPARTMENT OF PARKS

Rochester, N. Y '. 1925

Permission is given to

to have the use of grounds

at on

192 , from M.

Commissioner of Parks.

Papers, or other rubbish, must be deposited in the boxes or baskets provided for the purpose
and not thrown on the ground. Failure to comply with this rule will deprive you of the grounds again
during the season.

Problems of maintenance. Repairs for apparatus, care of grounds and
physical facilities are matters generally handled through the maintenance
division of the Park Department. It is desirable, however, for the care-
takers who mark the grounds for games and activities and who have charge
of the layout and equipment of games and the inspection of apparatus to
be directly responsible to the executive in charge of the recreation division.

Relation to the public. The recreation division, which is concerned
with the human uses of parks, which ministers to the needs of the commu-
nity in its free time, has a very definite responsibility in all its relations
with the public. The way in which people are received at the office, the
way their requests over the telephone are answered, in no small way reflects
the general attitude of the department. The recreation division is an infor-
mation and service bureau; it should be prepared to answer any requests
regarding facilities and programs, ready to serve all community groups, to
provide them with play space, to arrange programs, train leaders and help
them in their activities. The recreation division, however broad its pro-
gram and effective its staff, cannot conduct a community-wide recreation
program by working alone. There are other municipal groups, such as a
school board with its facilities and programs. There are private groups
controlling properties and equipment. In many cities there is a recreation
commission which can very often provide leadership which will vitalize
public park property. It is only by the pooling of the resources of all these

746

PARKS

groups and by cooperation which makes the service of the many the goal
of effort that a maximum of benefit will result to the community from the
activities of the Park Department.

A BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY ON RECREATION1

THEORIES AND VALUES OF PLAY
"Normal Course in Play." P. JR. A. A., New York

City.

"Play in Education," by Joseph Lee. Macmillan

Company, New York City.
"Theory of Organized Play," by Bowen andMitchell.

A. S. Barnes & Company, New York City.

ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF RECREATION
"Normal Course in Play." P. R. A. A., New York

City.

"Organization and Administration of Playgrounds
and Recreation," by J. B. Nash. A. S. Barnes & Com-
pany, New York City.

"Practical Conduct of Play," by Henry S. Curtis.
Macmillan Company, New York City.

GAMES AND SPORTS

"Education Through Physical Education," by Agnes
R. Wayman. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa.

"Games for the Playground, Home, School and Gym-
nasium," by Jesse H. Bancroft. Macmillan Company,
New York City.

"Games and Play for School Morale." P. R. A. A.,
New York City.

"Games and Recreation Methods for Clubs, Camps
and Scouts," by Charles F. Smith. Dodd, Mead &
Company, New York City.

"Individual and Mass Athletics," by S. C. Staley.
A. S. Barnes & Company, New York City.

"Practice of Organized Play," by Bowen andMitchell.
A. S. Barnes & Company, New York City.

"Preparation of School Grounds for Playfields and
Athletic Events." Government Printing Office, Wash-
ington, D. C.

"Recreative Athletics." P. R. A. A., New York City.

"Snow and Ice Sports," by Elon Jessup. E. P.
Dutton Company, New York City.

(Series of booklets, Spalding's Athletic Library,
American Sports Publishing Company, New York City.)

"Picnic Programs." P. R. A. A., New York City.
SOCIAL RECREATION

"Fun Book," by Edna Geister. Doran Company,
New York City.

"Fun for Everyone." P. R. A. A., New York City.

"Handy Loose-leaf Library on Social Recreation."
Social Recreation Union, Chicago, 111.

"Recreational Games and Programs," by John Mar-
tin. Community Service, Boston, Mass.

"What Can We Do?" P. R. A. A., New York City.

CAMPING, HIKING AND NATURE GUIDING

"Camping Out," a manual on organizing camping.
P. R. A. A.

"Going Afoot," by Bayard H. Christy. Association
Press, New York City.

Manuals published by Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts,
Camp Fire Girls, Woodcraft League and similar groups.

"Nature Games," by William G. Vinal. Comstock
Publishing Company, Ithaca, New York.

"Nature Guiding," by William G. Vinal. Comstock
Publishing Company, Ithaca, New York.
COMMUNITY DRAMA

"Art of Producing Pageants, The," by Esther W.
Bates. Walter Baker & Company, New York City.

"Community Drama." P. R. A. A., New York City.

"Shakespeare for Community Players," by Mitchell.
E. P. Dutton Company, New York City.
COMMUNITY Music

"Community Music." P. R. A. A.

"Common Sense of Music,The," by Sigmund Spaeth.
Boni & Liveright, New York City.

"Music for Everybody," by Bartholomew & Lau-
rence. Abingdon Press, New York City.

"Twice Fifty-Five Games with Music." C. C. Birch-
ard Company, Boston, Mass.

HANDCRAFT

"Handcraft." P. R. A. A.

Instruction books (various forms of handcraft). Den-
nison Company, New York City.

Series of books on handcraft by A. Neely Hall, pub-
lished by Lothrop Lee & Shepard, Boston, Mass.
DANCING

"Dances of the People," by Elizabeth Burchenal.
G. Schirmer, Inc., Boston, Mass.

"Folk Dance Book," by C. W. Crampton. A. S.
Barnes & Company, New York City.

"Good Morning," Mr. and Mrs. Henry Ford. Dear-
born Publishing Company, Dearborn, Mich.

"Dramatic Games and Dances," by Crawford. A. S.
Barnes & Company.

"Social Games and Group Dances," by Elsom and
Trilling. J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, Pa.
MISCELLANEOUS

"For the Story Teller," by C. S. Bailey. Milton
Bradley Company, New York City.

"Eighty-Eight Successful Play Activities." P.R.A.A.,
New York City.

Note. A complete list of the publications of the
P. R. A. A. may be secured on request.

bibliography suggested is by no means complete. Many more books might be listed. A complete bib-
liography on Recreation Movements is available in "Sources of Information on Play and Recreation," published
by the Department of Recreation, Russell Sage Foundation, 130 East 22d Street, New York City.

CHAPTER XIV

PARK POLICING

In marked contrast to the evident interest of the majority of the
people of the United States in securing, developing and using parks and
other recreation areas, is the manifold abuse of these areas when once
thrown open to use. Whether the majority of the users of recreation areas
and equipment are guilty or whether the destruction of parks is due to an
active minority, the facts are that unbelievable damage is done to parks
-plantings, equipment — yearly, to say nothing of the constant watch-
fulness that must be maintained to prevent their use for offenses against
persons and public morality. Consequently, at the very outset of the devel-
opment of a park system, or even of an individual park, plans must be
made for the guidance of the people in the use of the property to protect
the people's property against themselves.

PARK RULES AND REGULATIONS

Simultaneously, therefore, with the development of any park property
or properties for public use, it is necessary to lay down certain rules and
regulations governing their use. Of course not all of the necessary rules
and regulations can be foreseen at once. The great body of these rules
that are in force today in various park systems throughout the country
have arisen out of the experience that has come from the use of the prop-
erties by the people. In order to avoid an excessive amount of restrictions
it is better to begin with a few general rules, adding from time to time
such rules as experience shows to be necessary.

The promulgation of rules and regulations for the governing of park
properties is a function of the park governing authority. Practically all the
state enabling acts and charter provisions for setting up park governing
authorities specifically give to these authorities the power to make rules
and regulations for the governing of the properties under their jurisdiction.
In most instances the rules and regulations, after they have been drawn
up and adopted by the park governing authority, must be enacted into
ordinances by the general governing authority of the municipality. In inde-
pendent park districts or in metropolitan park districts the park governing
authorities are specifically empowered to enact their rules and regulations
into the form of ordinances without the action of a superior governing
authority.

All rules and regulations adopted by any park governing authority

747

748 PARKS

must not be inconsistent with the Constitution and the laws of the United
States, or the constitution and laws of the state, or the charter and ordi-
nances of the local political subdivision in which the park governing authority
operates. In addition to such rules and regulations as may be adopted by
any park governing authority, the laws of the nation, of the state and local
political subdivision operate within the properties under the jurisdiction
of each park governing authority. For examples of park rules and regu-
lations, see section at close of this chapter, entitled "Some Examples of
Park Rules and Regulations."

METHODS USED IN POLICING PARKS

There are three general methods used in policing parks in the various
park systems in municipalities and counties of the United States.

Using Park Employees.

The first method is that of clothing park employees with the authority
of constables, policemen or sheriffs, requiring them, in addition to the per-
formance of their regular duties, to enforce park rules and regulations.
This is the method that is usually followed in villages, towns and small
cities, and is not infrequently found in large cities, even though the parks
are patroled by the regular municipal police. The employees so sworn in
as officers wear no uniforms but are usually provided with a badge as the
visible sign of their authority. In all communities having only a few park
properties and not organized into a genuine system, this method of policing
parks, together with such aid as the constable, policemen or sheriff may
render from time to time, may be entirely satisfactory and adequate. With
due care in the selection of the employees who are to exercise police authority,
this method may be of great value even in well developed park systems
having regularly uniformed police or guards. It is more or less wise to
limit the police power of deputized park employees merely to enforcement
of park rules and regulations.

Policing by Regular City Police.

The second method of policing parks is to place the policing under the
regular city police. This method has widespread use at the present time.
This no doubt came about partly as an economy measure, partly as a
general tendency to consolidate like functions in the community, and partly
because in so many instances the seasonal character of park policing made
it impossible to keep a majority of park policemen on the force the year
round. This method is almost universally practiced in all commission-
governed cities, city manager-governed cities and is found even in such
large cities as New York and Boston. It is the universal practice in villages,

PARK POLICING 749

towns and small cities to require the local police officer or officers to enforce
state laws and city ordinances in park areas as in other territory under
their jurisdiction. In large park systems this method is almost universally
condemned by park executives. Some of the reasons for this are:

1. The assignment of officers is inadequate.

2. It is not an uncommon practice to assign old, worn-out or sick
officers, or else new and untrained officers to this duty, with the inevitable
result that park policing is inadequately and inefficiently done.

3. The training and experience of the ordinary policeman does not,
as a general rule, fit him for the proper performance of park policing, a duty
which is almost as much instructional in nature as is enforcing law.

4. Park executives, as a rule, do not feel that they have the executive
controlling authority over city police as they would have if the police force
were organized as an integral part of the park administrative organization.
In some few cases this has been overcome by the city council or the police
chief placing the patrolmen assigned to park duty directly under the control
of the park executive so long as they are assigned to this duty.

5. Too often the constant shifting of the personnel of patrolmen
assigned to park duty makes for inefficiency and renders impossible the
gradual building up of a trained force.

On the whole this method of policing parks in large park systems is
undesirable and should not be encouraged.

The Park Police Force.

The third method is that of having a regularly organized police force
as a part of the administrative organization of the Park Department under
the direct control of the park executive. With but very few exceptions
park executives throughout the whole of the United States believe that this
is the only way by which policing of parks can properly be done. Some of
the reasons for their belief are:

1. There can be better administrative control over men selected and
trained by the executive head of the department.

2. It is likely that a more adequate force in numbers can be secured,
and certainly a more careful selection for this duty can be made.

3. Men selected and controlled by the department head can be trained
specifically for the duty of policing parks, and the men themselves will not
be confused by the control of two different authorities.

4. There is not likely to be such constant shifting of the personnel as
is nearly always the case when regular city patrolmen are used.

Some of the difficulties encountered in any park department selecting,
training and controlling its own police or guard force may be enumerated
as follows:

750 PARKS

1. Inadequate general finances for maintenance.

2. Necessity of sometimes having to pay lower salaries than the city
police are paid, causing ultimate dissatisfaction among the men. Oftentimes
there is no plan of benefits in case of injury or death or no plan of pen-
sioning on retirement. This may make the service so unattractive as to
fail to draw good men. In some of the best organized park police systems
in this country both a system of benefits and of pensioning have been adopted.

3. The seasonal character of park activities renders it very difficult,
if not almost impossible, to carry a full force the year round.

In spite of these, and possibly other difficulties not mentioned, it is
highly desirable that every park department which can possibly arrange to
do so have its own park police or guards. This suggestion is made not so
much from the standpoint of the mere enforcement of rules and regulations
or laws and ordinances as from the standpoint of the social leadership
values involved in having a carefully selected and trained guard service.
Next to the trained recreation activities staff a carefully selected and trained
force of park guards might, without doubt, become the most important
group in the entire department in the guidance and leadership of the people
in the use of the properties and facilities. To realize this desirable possi-
bility is hardly possible under any other method.

SELECTION OF PARK GUARDS

There are two general methods by which park guards are selected.
The first method is direct appointment by the chief executive of the depart-
ment subject to the authority of the park governing authority or a standing
committee on park guards, in the case of a park board or commission.
The second method is selection of guards from a certified civil service list.
In the case of those few departments where the guards are provided by
the regular police department but under the direct supervision of the chief
executive of the department, after the detail is made up, the selection is
made by the chief of police of the regular city department.

Some park executives and park governing authorities prefer the first
of these two methods for the reasons that they feel better selections can
be made by direct examinations and personal contacts with applicants, and
that if a poor selection has been made the undesirable guard or guards can
be readily discharged. Moreover, the guards must always look to the
governing authority and the chief executive of the department for their
tenure of service rather than rely upon the protection of some outside
department of the municipal or county government, thus making for more
unity in the Park Department as a whole. However, practically every one
of these objections is in a measure met by the civil service regulations.

PARK POLICING 751

Civil service commissions and executives, as a rule, welcome the help of
the chief executive, if he himself is qualified, in formulating the examination
questions, and may actually ask his help in conducting the examinations
or at least parts of them. Under an organized system of this kind the
examination is likely to be more thorough than if the chief executive or a
committee of the board made the selections directly. There is usually lee-
way provided in filling any particular position from the certified civil
service list. Thus the first in the list can be passed for the second and the
second for the third before an appointment is obligatory. The various
plans for a probationary period of three to six months or a year, before
appointment is made permanently, give opportunity for observation of
whether the appointee has the necessary personal qualities to make a good
guard or not. The personality factor cannot always be determined by first
contacts, and herein is one of the chief weaknesses of the civil service system
of appointments, but this is largely overcome by the institution of a pro-
bationary period.

On the whole, therefore, the selection of guards through civil service,
providing there is close cooperation between the chief executive of the
Park Department and the officers of the civil service commission, is a very
good plan through which to select park guards. There seems to be no
doubt of the preference that the guards themselves have for this system
because it gives them a measure of security, when their appointment is
made permanent, that they otherwise would not have. This security is
more theoretical than based on fact, however, for the governing authority
of a park and recreation department may easily abolish the guard service
or parts of it at any time.

EXAMPLES OF CIVIL SERVICE EXAMINATIONS FOR PARK GUARDS

The Milwaukee City Service Commission announces who have filed registration cards in the City Service

an original examination for Park Policeman, Class S, office must also file a formal application before the date

Grade I. of examination.

Examination on the seventh floor, City Hall, Mil- Duties. To patrol the parks and boulevards in a given

waukee, Wis. Persons reporting after examination has district; to enforce laws, ordinances, rules and regula-

been started will not be admitted to the examination. tions; to guard park property, and to perform other

Applications may be filed up to May i, 1924. Physical police duties as directed,
and mental examination will be held later.

Salary. First year, £1,680; second, £1,740; third, Qualifications and Requirements

£1,800; fourth and thereafter, #1,860. A deduction of Citizenship. Applicants must be United States citi-

4% per cent of the salary is reserved for a pension, the zens. Naturalized citizens must show their papers when

same rate as other city police. Salary not subject to filing application,

federal income tax. Residence. Legal residence in the City of Milwaukee

Application. Application blanks may be obtained in for a period of at least six months immediately preceding

the office of the commission, seventh floor, City Hall, date of examination is required. Persons living in ter-

and must be returned, properly filled out and executed, ritory for which annexation petition has been filed may

prior to date of examination. The notary's oath may take the examination, but cannot be certified for ap-

be executed in the City Service office free of chargy. pointment until such annexation to the city has been

The registration card is not an application and persons completed.

752

PARKS

Special Qualifications. Minimum height, five feet,
eight and one-half inches in bare feet; weight propor-
tionate to height, minimum to be approximately the
medium height-weight tables.

Age. Minimum age at time of appointment, twenty-
eight years. Persons over twenty-seven years of age
may take the examination, but may not be certified
for appointment until they have reached the age of
twenty-eight years. Persons who have reached or
passed their fortieth birthday will not be eligible.

Medical. All applicants must have a medical exam-
ination, given by the commission's physician, prior to
date of examination.

Special Credit. Persons desiring credit for war serv-
ice (not to exceed five points) must present their dis-
charge papers when filing application.

Subjects of Examination and Relative Weights of
Subjects

Special Subject. Will consist of question and tests
covering the duties, qualifications and requirements as
described above. Weight, 30 per cent.

Inspection and Personal Fitness (oral). Weight, 25
per cent.

Physical. Will consist of tests of strength of legs,
arms, back and abdominal muscles, and tests in run-
ning and jumping. Weight, 25 per cent.

Educational. Will consist of arithmetic, spelling,
penmanship, English, etc. Weight, 10 per cent.

Training and Experience. Will be marked on appli-
cant's statements as to education and training received
and practical experience acquired by employment in
the same or similar line of occupation. An average of
at least 70 per cent in all subjects combined is required
in order to pass. Weight, 10 per cent.

Special Subject (written portion). Weight, 30 per cent.

1. City Information. Answer the following as
clearly and completely as possible: (a) Which park in
Milwaukee has sunken gardens? (b) In which park is
the zoo situated? (c) Where are the city golf links?
(d) In which park is the flower conservatory? (e)
Which street car line comes closest to the conservatory?
(/) In which park is the tourist camp site? (g) Suppose
you were on duty near the boathouse in Washington
Park, not far from the Sherman Boulevard entrance.
A visitor came to you and told you that he was a
stranger in the city, and wanted to have a swim in
Lake Michigan at one of the city bathing beaches. He
had been directed to the wrong park, and he asks you
what cars to take to reach a bathing beach on the lake.
What directions would you give him? (Select any
bathing beach on the lake that you wish. Give direc-
tions for going all the way.)

2. Interpretation Test. Will be given .-eparately, and
will consist of interpreting the terms of a law or ordi-

nance, and answering certain questions thereon. (Copy
of which will be furnished.)

3. Observation Test. Personal description. Will
consist of observing a small child, assumed to be lost
in the park, and after the child has left the room,
writing an identifying description.

4. Memory Test. Auto license numbers. Will con-
sist of exhibiting auto license plates to the candidates,
the license numbers to be written down afterwards from
memory.

5. Memory Test. Oral description of an accident.

Special Subject (Inspection and Personal Fitness, oral).

Weight, 25 per cent.

Will consist of oral questions and inspection of per-
sonal fitness.
Educational. Weight, 10 per cent.

Arithmetic. Will be given on a separate sheet.

Verbal Orders. Will consist of orders and directions
to be given orally, and to be subsequently written down
by the candidates. Spelling, penmanship and accuracy
of reproduction will be considered in rating.
Physical. Weight, 25 per cent.

Will consist of tests of physical strength and condi-
tion. To be given at the Young Men's Christian Asso-
ciation gymnasium.

1. Registration.

2. Locker assignment.

3. Tests: I. Right grip; 2. Left grip; 3. Chest; 4. Back
lift; 5. Leg lift; 6. High jump; 7. Chinning or weights;
8. Five-minute run; 9. Rising test; 10. Seventy-five-
yard sprint.

Training and Experience. Weight, 10 per cent.

1. Give date of birth and age at last birthday.

2. How many years did you go to school ? What was
the highest class reached?

3. What has been your principal occupation? Are
you working at it now? If so, for whom and where?
If not, where were you so employed last; for how long
and where?

4. Describe any experience you may have had in
any of the following occupations: soldier, sailor, marine;
policeman, deputy sheriff, constable, marshal, watch-
man, game warden, guard, custodian, usher, street-car
conductor, ticket taker, or any other position where
you had to handle, direct or restrain the public.

5. State whether you have ever supervised the work
of others, or have acted as a scoutmaster or leader or
teacher, either of young people or of adults.

6. State any other training or experience you have
had which you think would qualify you for the position
of policeman in parks.

Special Subject (Interpretation Test). Weight, 30 per
cent. •

PARK POLICING

753

EXAMINATION BASED ON MOTOR VEHICLE LAW

The following is an extract taken from the Motor
Vehicle Law of Maryland. The competitors will read
the extract carefully and then answer the questions
by writing the answer to each question in the blank
space provided, inserting the number of the paragraph
where each answer is found. The competitors may
refer to the extract as much as they desire in answering
the questions.

Paragraph i. No person shall operate a motor vehi-
cle upon any highway of this state until he first shall
have obtained a license for the purpose. The commis-
sioner shall require an actual demonstration of the
qualifications of the person applying for such license,
and, in addition, may refuse to issue the same if, in
his judgment, the esafty of the public would be jeop-
ardized thereby, but said applicant shall have the right
of appeal if license is refused, as provided elsewhere in
this subtitle.

Paragraph 2. Any person desiring to receive a
chauffeur's or motor vehicle operator's license shall
first obtain an examination permit or an instruction
license upon paying the sum of one dollar to the Com-
missioner of Motor Vehicles, which such instruction
license shall entitle the person to whom it is issued to
operate a motor vehicle only when accompanied by a
regularly licensed operator, for a period of thirty days
from the date of its issue, at which time it shall expire
and become void. At or before the expiration of the
thirty-day period, persons licensed to receive instruc-
tions and desiring to obtain an operator's or chauffeur's
license must apply in person to the Commissioner of
Motor Vehicles, or one of his deputies, at the Baltimore
office of the said commissioner, or any of the places
throughout the state which the commissioner may
designate for the convenience of applicants. Upon
surrendering the instruction license and undergoing a
satisfactory examination as to his qualifications, such
person shall be entitled to receive the license applied
for upon the payment of the fees provided by Section
144 of this subtitle.

Paragraph 3. Applications for licenses shall be made
upon blanks furnished by said commissioner, and said
application blanks and said licenses shall be in such
form and contain such provisions, not inconsistent with
the subtitle, as said commissioner may determine. A
number shall be assigned to each license and a proper
record of all applications for licenses and of all licenses
issued shall be kept by said commissioner at his office
and shall be open to public inspection.

Paragraph 4. Each license shall state the name, age,
postoffice address of the licensee and the number
assigned to him, and shall entitle the licensee to oper-
ate any car of any make, unless otherwise specified
thereon. Said license certificate shall at all times be
carried by the licensee when he is operating a motor
vehicle upon the highways of this State, and shall be

subject to examination upon demand by any officer
of the law; and said license shall have endorsed thereon
in the proper handwriting of the licensee the name of
said licensee, and when requested by proper officer, in
the discharge of his duties under the law, said licensee
shall write his name in the presence of the said officer,
to the end that the identity of said licensee may be
determined; provided that no operator of a motor
vehicle shall be stopped by any officer of the law for
the sole purpose of exhibiting his operator's license.
No license badge shall be worn.

Paragraph 5. No person, whether resident or non-
resident of the State, under sixteen years, shall operate
a motor vehicle upon any road, highway, street, lane
or other public way within the State of Maryland. No
person under the age of sixteen years, whether resident
or non-resident, shall operate, drive or direct any motor-
cycles, as aforesaid; provided that persons between the
age of fourteen and sixteen years, in the discretion of
the Commissioner of Motor Vehicles, may obtain
licenses to operate bicycles with motor attachments.

Paragraph 6. It shall be unlawful to obtain or
attempt to obtain license by misrepresentation, or to
use or permit the use of a license by any person other
than the one to whom it was issued, or to change the
name of the licenses or the date or age or any other
information appearing upon any license issued by the
Commissioner of Motor Vehicles.

Paragraph 7. Any person violating any provision of
this section, or any owner-operator, or person in charge
of a motor vehicle who shall cause or permit the opera-
tion of such motor vehicle in violation of any provision
of this section, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor,
and upon conviction, be subject to a fine of not less
than ten dollars nor more than one hundred dollars
for the first offense; provided that the minimum fine
in the case of a person to whom an operator's license
has been duly issued, but who through inadvertence
has not the same with him at the time of his arrest,
shall be one dollar instead of ten dollars as above
provided.

Special Subject (Interpretation Test). Continued

Write answers directly on this sheet. Consult the
copy of the law given you as much as necessary. Time
will be considered in rating.

1. Is a demonstration required before an operator's

license may be issued? Answer: Answer

found in Paragraph No

2. How old must a person be before he may secure

a license to operate an automobile? Answer:

Paragraph No

3. What is the minimum fine for operating a motor

vehicle without proper license? Answer:

Paragraph No

4. Is it lawful for an operator to let another person

754

PARKS

use his operator's license? Answer: Para-
graph No

5. May a driver be stopped by a peace officer for
the sole purpose of examining the operator's license?
Answer: Paragraph No

6. Does an operator's license entitle its possessor to

operate any make of car? Answer: Paragraph

7. What is the first license that an unlicensed person
must secure to become an operator of a motor vehicle?
Answer: Paragraph No

8. May a person secure a chauffeur's license before

first possessing an operator's license? Answer:

Paragraph No

9. May a person to whom a license has been refused
appeal his case? Answer: Paragraph No

10. Who carries the operator's license? Answer:
Paragraph No

n. May a person under sixteen years of age operate
an automobile in Maryland if he comes from another

state and is properly licensed there? Answer:

Paragraph No

12. What is the nature of the crime of which a per-
son is guilty who operates a motor vehicle without a
license? Answer: Paragraph No

13. Under what conditions may a license to operate
a motor vehicle be refused an applicant? Answer:
Paragraph No

14. By whom must a learner be accompanied when
driving a motor vehicle? Answer: Para-
graph No

15. If a person not connected with the commission-
er's office asked to be shown the number of an operator's

license, would he be allowed to do so? Answer:

Paragraph No

1 6. Is it permissible for a person applying for a

license to use an assumed name? Answer:

Paragraph No

17. Is an operator permitted to write anything on

his operator's license? Answer: Paragraph

1 8. Who licenses persons to operate motor vehicles

on the highways of Maryland? Answer:

Paragraph No

19. What is the life of an instruction license?
Answer: Paragraph No

20. If a person possesses an operator's license but
leaves it at home and is arrested while out driving,
what is the minimum fine? Answer: Para-
graph No

Special Subject (Memory Test Answer Sheet) . Weight,

30 per cent

The candidates will listen to a description of an
automobile collision which will be given orally. The
following questions will then be answered. (This sheet
furnished after description has been read.)

1. Did the accident happen at night or in the day
time?

2. Where did the accident occur? Give locality as
exactly as possible.

3. On what date did the accident occur?

4. What makes of cars were in the accident?

5. How many persons were injured, and how?

6. Who was found guilty of causing the accident?

7. What punishment was inflicted on the guilty
party?

8. How many people were in the car which was
wrecked ?

9. How fast was the driver who caused the accident
going?

10. How much damage was done to the injured car?

RAPID ARITHMETIC TEST

Perform the following arithmetical operations, doing all work directly on the sheet. Proceed from left to
right, completing the eight problems in the top row before beginning the second row; complete the second row
before beginning the eight problems in the third row, etc. Start and stop exactly when signals are given. Both
time and accuracy will be considered in rating, but accuracy will be given a heavier weight than speed.

Add
346
157
269

Subtract
901
443

Multiply
376
9

Divide
7) 3262

119

773

Subtract

755
385

Multiply

Divide

779 5)4985

265 814 477 8)5512

349 787 7

397

246

811

878
3

7) 7021

589
778
966

223
189

126 9) 8739

119

127
195

401
137

787

8)8064

PARK POLICING

755

Add

632

239

128

896
949
778

479
379
856

715
439
923

Subtract

455
216

745
689

859

462

567

278

Multiply
709
6

505

768
7

Divide
7) 5103

8) 7736

6) 3996

777
7

Add

788

133

123
46
29

543
264
20 1

627
126
239

Subtract Multiply Divide

319 257 9) 9036

209 9

861
373

555
156

108

888

999
9

405
6

7) 9107

6) 4194

Supplemental Sheet. Not

Special subject, Question 5. The following was read
to candidates twice. They were then directed to answer
the questions furnished on separate sheet. Questions
were not disclosed to candidates until reading was fin-
ished. "On Saturday, May 17, 1924, at about 10 P.M.,
a Buick touring car and a Ford sedan collided on the
driveway in Lake Park, near the northwestern corner
entrance to the park. This is near the corner of Lake
Drive and Kenwood Boulevard. The Buick was upset
and damaged to the extent of $400. Two men were in
it. One escaped injury. The other had his left arm
broken. The driver of the Ford was arrested and was
found guilty of causing the accident and was fined $100.
It was testified by several witnesses that he was going
more than thirty miles an hour."

Educational. Verbal orders test. The following

Shown to Candidates

was read twice, the candidates being required to repro-
duce the substance of it: "The Boy Scouts have been
given permission to put up six tents in Washington
Park and camp overnight, near Highland Boulevard
entrance. You go there and make sure they are not
doing any damage and see that there are not any other
boys staying with them. Make sure that they are not
putting up any more tents than six, and tell them that
they must not dig any holes in the ground or break
any branches of trees. After that, go over to the lake
and see if the benches by the boathouse are in good
condition. It has been reported that one or two of
them have been found broken and need repairs. Keep
on the lookout for a big Newfoundland dog without
any collar or license tag. It has been reported that he
has been seen wandering around the park."

EXAMPLES OF QUESTIONS USED IN AN EXAMINATION FOR PROMOTION OF SERGEANT OF

POLICE, CLASS F, GRADE II, CIVIL SERVICE BOARD OF THE WEST CHICAGO

PARK COMMISSIONERS, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

Special Subject

1. Give a full and complete statement of what you
understand to be the duties of a sergeant of police in
the West Park System.

2. What do you consider to be the principal duties
of a patrolman in the Police Department of the West
Chicago Park Commissioners?

3. (a) Give the boundaries of the West Chicago Park
District, starting at Diversey Boulevard and the north
branch of the Chicago River, going south, then west,
then north and back to the starting point, (b) Name
and describe all the written records which you think
each sergeant in the West Park Police Department
should keep.

4. Give a full and complete description of the pro-
cedure that a park patrolman should follow upon the
arrest of a person for the violation of an ordinance,
from the time that he observes the violation until the
case is disposed of by the court.

5. Upon what things would you base your judgment
of the efficiency of a patrolman who was assigned to
your division?

6. (a) If you were assigning patrolmen to various
posts in the park system, what qualifications would you
desire in a man to fit him for duty in a playground?
(b) At a busy street-car crossing of a boulevard? (c)
In a large park? (d) On a motorcycle?

7. (a) What are the "rules of the road" laid down
in the ordinances of the West Park Commissioners?
(b) Define the following: I. Larceny; 2. Arson; 3.
Burglary; 4. Bribery.

8. What is the number of the section of the West
Park ordinances under which a prisoner should be
"booked" for the following offenses: (a) Traffic team-
ing on a boulevard? (b) Disorderly conduct? (c) Ex-
ceeding the speed limit in an automobile? (d) Intoxi-
cation ?

9. As a sergeant in charge of a division, how would

756

PARKS

you handle the following cases: (a) A patrolman who is
occasionally late for roll call? (b) A patrolman whose
post is at Washington Boulevard and Halsted Street
on "dog watch," who telephones to you at 2.00 P.M.
to say that he is ill and cannot report for duty on that
day? (c) A patrolman who reports for duty in an
intoxicated condition? (d) A patrolman who complains
to you that his post is too difficult for him and who
asks you for an easier assignment?

10. What changes can you suggest in the methods,
equipment or organization of the Police Department of
the West Park System that would tend to improve the
service?

Educational

Spelling. I, 2 and 3. The examiner will read twenty
words, repeating each twice in succession. Enough time
will be allowed between each word to write it. When
the list has been completed the entire twenty words
will be repeated once.

English. (To be graded on form, composition, gram-
mar and information contained.) 4, 5 and 6. Assume
that an automobile carrying four passengers struck an
island safety red light at Jackson and Ashland Boule-
vards last night, damaging the machine and lamp post
and injuring certain of the occupants of the car. Assume
further that you were on duty at the time and wit-
nessed the accident. Write a report of about one hun-
dred words to the captain of police, assuming all other
particulars and stating in full what action you took
in the matter. Sign the name John Doe to this report.

Arithmetic. Show all your calculations in full. Full
credit will not be given for a correct answer unless all
figures are shown.

7. (a) Subtract 347,892 from 4,782,321. (b) Copy
and add the following amounts of money: $21.39,
£242.59, £132.46, £1,762.00, £93647, £i-39, $127-63,
£92.86.

8. Multiply 2,037 by 846 and divide the product by
291.

9. If one and one-half per cent of the pay due each
member of the Police Department is deducted for pen-
sion, what amount should be deducted in each of the
following cases: (a) One patrolman, pay due £43? (b)
One patrolman, pay due £45? (c) One sergeant, pay
due £55? (d) One sergeant, pay due £67.50?

General Information

10. (a) What body has power to enact laws or ordi-
nances governing the West Park System? (b) What
body has power to enact laws or ordinances governing
the City of Chicago? (c) What body has power to
enact laws or ordinances governing the State of Illi-
nois? (d) What body has power to enact laws or ordi-
nances governing the United States of America?

Duties

I. Give a full and complete statement of what you
understand to be the duties of a sergeant of police in
.the West Park System.

2. As a sergeant of police for the West Chicago Park
Commissioners what are all the instructions you would
give to a newly appointed patrolman when assigned to
your division?

3. A citizen reports to you that his automobile dis-
appeared from in front of the Garfield Park conserva-
tory, where he had left it while going through the
building. Explain fully what would be your course of
action and state the steps you would take in order to
recover the machine and apprehend the thief.

4. Write a complete statement of all the means
which can be used by a patrol sergeant in order to de-
termine whether or not the men under his supervision
are performing their duties completely and efficiently.

5. Name all the circumstances under which it is not
unlawful for a police officer to use force or violence on
the person of another.

6. Name all the activities or occurrences in the parks
or on the boulevards for which a permit must be ob-
tained from the West Chicago Park Commissioners.

7- What action should be taken by a patrolman who
finds an automobile in a park at night without any occu-
pants and with no owner in sight?

8. (a) Locate the following: I. Sheridan Park. 2.
Dvorak Park. 3. Harrison Park. 4. Shedds Park. 5.
Franklin Park.

(b) What boulevard route would you recommend to
an automobile party that wished to go from Logan
Square to the corner of Western Avenue Boulevard
and 49th Street in the shortest possible time?

9. Assume that you are sergeant of the second divi-
sion of the police department and that there is to be a
public open air band concert in Garfield Park tonight.
State fully all the police arrangements that should be
made, all the special assignments necessary, and what
instructions you would give the patrolman on duty at
that time and place.

10. What is the number of the section of the West
Park ordinances under which a prisoner should be
"booked" for each of the following offenses: (a) Beg-
ging? (b) Intoxication? (c) Indecent exposure? (d)
Injury to park property?

Duties
(Another Example of Questions on this Subject)

1. Define the duties of a sergeant of police of the
West Park System.

2. What are the duties of a sergeant when a patrol-
man turns in an accident report?

3. How would you place your men and what instruc-
tions would you give them if you were assigned to take
charge of a band concert in a large park on a summer
evening with a detail of sixteen patrolmen?

4. What general instructions and advice would you
give a newly appointed patrolman assigned to you for
duty?

5. State all the circumstances under which you would

PARK POLICING

757

arrest the driver of an automobile who has been in-
volved in a collision.

6. Describe the proper method of making an arrest.

7. (a) Describe in detail what action you would take
if a patrolman brought a lost child to headquarters.
(b) What would you do if a person suddenly taken ill
in one of the parks was brought to headquarters?

8. What instructions and advice would you give a
patrolman newly assigned to motorcycle duty?

9. Under what circumstances would you make an
arrest for speeding and what method would you follow
to make sure that the person had violated the speed
laws ?

10. (a) Name ten boulevards under the jurisdiction
of the West Chicago Park Commissioners, (b) Name
the small parks and playgrounds in the West Park
system.

Medical and Physical Requirements for Examination
for Sergeant of Police

Vision. Applicant must be able to read 20:40 with
each eye and 20:30 combined (Snellen's test). Must
pass a satisfactory color test with yarns.

Heart and Lungs. Heart must be normal. Any indi-
cation of disease of this organ or of blood vessels shall
be cause for rejection. Lungs and all organs of respira-
tion must be normal.

Hearing. Must be normal.

Brain and Nervous System. Must be normal beyond
question. Evidence of disease of the brain or of spinal
cord shall be sufficient at least to hold the case under
advisement.

Serious Injury or Illness. Complete recovery must be
shown and without appreciable effect on physical ca-
pacity or functions.

Physical Defects. Use of legs, arms, hands and feet
must be complete, excepting that one joint missing
from left hand shall not be cause for rejection, nor shall
left hand ankylosis, that affects not more than one
finger or thumb joint, be cause. Any physical character-
istic that might interfere with good service or affect
appearance, shall be cause for rejection.

Skin, Scalp. Any infectious or contagious disease,
or pronounced evidence on any part of the body of any
disease, shall be cause for rejection.

Physical Examination for Sergeant of Police

Result
Description of Test: Mark Weight Product

1. Volume of lungs 3

Maximum 320 cubic inches, 100%. /3 point off for each cubic inch less

2. Strength of back 6

Maximum 300 kilos, 100%. % point off for each kilo less.

3. Strength of legs 6

Maximum 400 kilos, 100%. ^ point off for each kilo less.

4. Strength of forearm (R plus L) R ) 6

Maximum 150 kilos, 100%. ]^ point off for each kilo less L )

5. Strength of upper arm (flexors) 6

Maximum, chin 10 times, 100%. 5 points off for each time less.

6. Strength of upper arm (extensors) 6

Maximum push-up, 10 times, 100%. 5 points off for each push-up less.

7. High jump (agility) feet, inches 6

Maximum, 4 feet, 100%. 2 points off for each inch less.

8. Abdominal muscles, pick-up 6

Maximum, 10 times, 100%. 10 points off for each pick-up less.

9. Fence vault, agility 6

Maximum, 5 feet, 100%. 2 points off for each inch less.

Total 50

General Average. . . •

Signature of Examiners

758

PARKS

Vaccination. Evidence must be shown of recent ?uc-
cessful vaccination.

Teeth. There must be a proper number of natural
teeth in good condition or repair, and these teeth must
be in good apposition for bridge or crown work, pro-
vided, however, that applicants with defective teeth
may be permitted to compete in the examination, and
if they succeed in passing the competitive tests with
an average standing of seventy per cent or over, their
names withheld from the eligible register until after
these defects have been corrected to the satisfaction of
the superintendent of employment or of a medical
examiner appointed by him.

Urine Analysis. Any finding indicating advanced
disease will be cause for rejection.

Venereal. Evidence of having or having had syphilis,
or of the presence of any other venereal disease, shall
be cause for rejection.

Other Cause for Rejection. Hernia, piles, goitre,
provided, however, that applicants with hernia or piles
may be permitted to compete in examination, and if
they succeed in passing the competitive tests with an
average standing of seventy per cent or over, their
names withheld from the eligible register until after
these defects have been corrected to the satisfaction of
the superintendent of employment or of a medical
examiner appointed by him.

EXAMPLES OF QUESTIONS USED IN EXAMINATIONS FOR PATROLMAN, F-I-Z, CIVIL SERVICE
BOARD OF THE WEST CHICAGO PARK COMMISSIONERS, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

Special Subject. (Example No. i)
1-3. Why do you wish to become a West Park pa-
trolman and what qualifications do you possess which,
in your opinion, fit you for the position?

4. Locate the following: (a) Insurance Exchange
Building; (b) First National Bank Building; (c) Balti-
more & Ohio Railway passenger station; (d) Chicago,
Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway passenger station; (i)
Chicago & Northwestern Railway passenger station;
(/) La Salle Hotel; (g) Criminal Court Building; (K)
Chicago Art Institute; (i) Auditorium Hotel; (/) City
Hall.

5. Locate the following: (a) Garfield Park; (b) Doug-
las Park; (c) Humboldt Park; (d) Vernon Park; (e)
Wicker Park.

6. Name and give the location of five city precinct
police stations on the West Side.

7. Name and give the location of five hospitals on
the West Side.

8. Name ten boulevards on the West Side.

9. Define the following terms: (a) felony; (b) mis-
demeanor; (c) alias.

10. Suppose you were on duty and a citizen came
to you with a diamond pin which he said he had found.
What information would you collect and what action
would you take?

11. The police bulletin for a certain day contained
a notice that an automobile, with state license No.
124,612, had been stolen. Suppose that while on duty
you noticed an automobile with that license number
and answering the description given, standing empty
in front of a store on a boulevard. What would you do?

12. (a) What lights must be carried by an auto-
mobile after dark, according to the state law? (b) If
you saw a collision between two motor cars on a boule-
vard at your post of duty, in which several persons
were injured, what action would you take and what
information would you gather to include in your report
to your superior officer?

13. What action would you take and what informa-

tion would you gather if, while on duty, you found the
body of an apparently drowned woman lying on the
edge of the pond in Humboldt Park?

14-15. Memory Test. A brief police report will be
slowly read by the examiner twice in succession. The
candidate will then be required to reproduce in writing
the information it contains. No one will be allowed to
take notes while it is being read.

Special Subject (Example No. 2)

1. What is a policeman?

2. Name four hospitals on the West Side and give
locations of same.

3. What are the general duties of a policeman?

4. What are a policeman's duties when patrolling?

5. What is a policeman's duty in regard to lost chil-
dren?

6. What action would you take and what informa-
tion would you gather if, while on duty, you found the
body of an apparently drowned woman lying on the
edge of the pond in Garfield Park?

7. Name four of the largest parks on the West Side.

8. Give location of each of the four largest parks on
the West Side.

9. What would you do in each of the following cases:
(a) Street or electric lamps are not lighted on your
beat? (b) A dangerous and sunken pavement in the
street? (c) What action would you take in reference to
an automobile accident?

10. When a policeman brings a prisoner to the sta-
tion, what is his duty?

Special Subject (Example No. 3)

1. What are the names of the streets that are the
dividing lines east and west and north and south in the
City of Chicago?

2. What should be the conduct of an officer when
making an arrest?

3. What facts would you obtain for an accident
report?

PARK POLICING 759

4. What should a police officer's conduct be at all of your name from the register for appointment or for
times to all persons? your discharge after appointment.

5. What is the mo«t important duty of a policeman? j. Write the date, month and year of your birth.

6. What is the first thing a policeman should ob- ^ Name aU the schools yQu haye attended> jndud.
serve when ass.gned to a new post? bg grammar schools> high schools> evening schools>

7. What is the duty of an officer when he finds lost correspondence schools or business collegeS) or other
children on boulevards or in parks? educational institutions.

8. If party or parties are about to start work or

,. LI j j ^i • • j- ^ Give the length of time you attended each school, the

construct anything on boulevards under the jurisdiction °

e i 1-n /-.!_• T> i /~. • • u * «.L courses of study you took and whether or not you

of the West Chicago Park Commissioners, what are the « -»»

, . ,. , ,. a- , graduated. Jf you only went to grammar school and

duties of the police officer? *

TT j L • i. t did not graduate, mention the highest grade you com-

9. Under what circumstances may a policeman retuse

to issue a summons for traffic violations and take the

offender to station instead? 3- Are 7°u n°w employed? If so, give the name and

10. When is an officer justified in using his baton? address of your employer, the date you started with

him, the salary you receive and the kind of work you do.

Experience 4. Give a list of your employers for the last ten

Do not write your name on this paper. All your years; how long you worked for each, the kind of work
statements will be verified by the Civil Service Board. done and tell why you left each place. Do not include
Proof of any misstatements will be cause for the removal in this list your present employer.

/. •

Physical Examination for Patrolman

Result
Description of Test: Mark Weight Product

1. Volume of lungs 4

Maximum, 320 cubic inches, 100%. M point off for each cubic inch less.

2. Strength of back 6

Maximum, 300 kilos, 100%. H point off for each kilo less.

3. Strength of legs 6

Maximum, 500 kilos, 100%. A point off for each kilo less.

4. Strength of forearm (R plus L) R ) 6

Maximum, 175 kilos, 100%. }4 point off for each kilo less L )

5. Strength of pectorals Push ) 4

Maximum, 100 kilos, 100%. I point off for each kilo less. Pull )

6. Strength of upper arm 6

Maximum, chin, 10 times, 100%. to points off for each time less.

7. High jump, feet, inches 6

Maximum, 4 feet, 100%. 4 points off for each inch less.

8. Abdominal muscles 6

Lifting 35-lb. dumb-bell fromlying position, 100%. apointsoffforeachpoundless.

9. Lifting dumb-bell from floor to full arm length over head with each arm R )

Maximum, 75 Ibs., 100%. 2 points off for each pound less. L ) 6

Total 50

General Average . . .
Signatures of Examiners

/6o

PARKS

Training and Experience (Patrolman Grade 3)

1. What is your age? Are you married or single?

2. What schools have you attended? State length
of time spent in each and how far advanced you were
when leaving.

3. State in detail the experience you have had as a
policeman, guard, watchman, or any similar position
where your duties consisted of guarding lives and prop-
erty, and keeping order. Specify your employer, length
of employment, and nature of work done by you.

4. State in detail all other positions held by you.

5. Have you served in any branch of the army or
navy during the Spanish-American or World wars? If
so, give date of your enlistment and honorable dis-
charge, and state whether you have presented your
discharge, at the office of this commission. If not, do
so within the next two days to receive the additional
credit of five per cent on this subject.

Example of Oral Examination of Park Policemen

Grade 5

i. What do you think are your duties when assigned
to police a park?

2. How would you direct traffic in a park if it became
necessary to do so?

3. How would you handle a gang of young toughs
who habitually congregated at a certain park to the
annoyance of other people?

4. What would you do if (a) You found a stray
horse in your park? (b A wrecked automobile? (c)
Child picking flowers? (d) A parade?

Example of Written Examination of Park Policemen
Grade j

You, as a park policeman, have found a man who
has apparently committed suicide: You are to assume
all other details and write a report of this to the captain
of the park policemen, giving him in detail all the cir-
cumstances in the case, together with your action.
Do not sign your name. Use your identification number
instead. This report will be graded as follows: Context,
70 per cent; form, 10 per cent; penmanship, 10 per cent;
spelling, 10 per cent.

EXAMPLE OF CIVIL SERVICE EXAMINATION FOR PLAYGROUND POLICEMAN,
PLAYGROUND RECREATION DEPARTMENT, OAKLAND, CALIFORNIA

Department. Playground, Recreation Department.

Duties of position. General watchman's duties at the
city playgrounds.

Qualifications required. Knowledge of rules and regu-
lations of the police and recreation departments, and
ordinances affecting the city playgrounds.

Classification. Class H, Grade 2. Trained labor serv-
ice, salary $1,020.

Examination weights. Special subject, 5; report, i;
experience, 3; penmanship, %; arithmetic, %.

1. Outline generally the duties of a playground
policeman.

2. As park policeman, if you were in charge of a
large playground, what system would you adopt that
would enable you to keep a close watch on all parts
of the grounds?

3. If a bad fire should occur in the field house of the
playground, what would you do?

4. If you discovered that the supply house had been

broken open, and that some of the supplies had been
stolen, what would you do?

5. In policing the playground, what system of report-
ing would you adopt, so that the proper authorities
would know that you were patrolling the same?

6. If you discovered a man committing a crime in
the playground, how would you place him under arrest?

7. What police equipment should a park policeman
carry with him at all times while on duty?

8. In what way could you cooperate with the police
department in properly policing a large playground?

9. (a) What crime would you charge a person with
who had stolen supplies from the playground, the value
of which was $150? (b) If you caught a man in the act
of breaking into the field house at night, with the intent
to steal supplies, what crime would you charge him
with ?

10. (d) If you should arrest a man for begging money
of the children at the playground, what charge would
you place against him? (b) What is a felony?

TRAINING OF PARK GUARDS

It is obvious that there should be a difference in the intensity and
content of the training for the different ranks of officers in park guard
service, but, in general, every park guard regardless of rank should be
thoroughly trained in the following:

I. The essential difference between the work of a park guard and that
of an ordinary city policeman and the attitude that a guard must have

PARK POLICING 761

toward his service and the general public that use the parks and other
recreation areas in the system.

2. In a thorough knowledge of all park rules and regulations.

3. A general knowledge of all city ordinances and state laws which
he is expected to enforce in the territory under his jurisdiction.

4. In what his duties are under any and all the varied circumstances
that may arise in the course of his service.

5. In a knowledge of first aid.

6. In the making of reports and keeping of records.

7. In the preparation of evidence for presentation to a court.

8. In how to properly use and care for all equipment used in the guard
service, and especially of the equipment which he personally uses.

Just as institutes or regular courses of instruction are organized and
conducted for recreation workers so there should be organized and con-
ducted a course of training for park guards. Both types of workers, in their
different ways, are designed to aid and guide the public in the use of public
recreation areas and facilities. Both in their different spheres of activity
are equally important. But the training of park guards in most park sys-
tems has not been given the attention that its importance warrants. A
few systems have conducted regularly organized instructional classes,
including to a greater or less degree most of the subjects outlined above.
One of the most interesting of these schools for park guards is that con-
ducted by the police division of the West Chicago Park Department. The
course covers a period of ten weeks, one series of lessons being given each
week. These series of lessons are here presented verbatim as an example
of what may be done in any city or county system where a regularly organized
force of park guards is maintained.

SERIES OF LESSONS USED IN THE TRAINING OF THE WEST CHICAGO PARK POLICE

First Serifs of Questions and Answers 3. Q. What are the rules regarding courtesy between

1. Q. What facts would you obtain for an accident members of the department? A. Subordinates to salute
report? A. Name and address, married or single, age, superiors; superiors to return salute. Subordinates to
nationality, occupation, exact time and place, nature uncover when entering office of captain, or president,
and extent of injury, where taken and by whom, name and stand at attention when captain enters squad room,
and address of witnesses, cause of accident, state if 4. Q. Define the following: Arrest, crime, complaint
you witnessed accident and if arrest was made. and jury waiver. A. (a) Arrest, restraint of a person's

2. Q. (a) What is the most important duty of a police- liberty so that he or she may be produced in court, (b)
man? (b) What are the general orders? A. (a)The pre- Crime, an act in violation of a public law. (c) Com-
vention of crime, (b) Military manners, keeping con- plaint, affidavit charging person with crime, (d) Jury
stantly on the alert, observing everything that takes waiver, signing away right to be tried by jury.
place within sight and hearing, and to arrest violators 5. Q. (a) What is the purpose of an inquest? (b) How
of state laws, investigate all cases of suspicious char- many constitute a coroner's jury? A. (a] To find the
acters on my post, in case of fire if discovered by me cause of a sudden or violent death, (b) Six persons,
to turn in alarm with all possible speed, to receive, 6. Q. What is the difference between petty and
transmit and obey all orders from my commanding grand larceny? A. Amount taken: $15 and under, petty;
officers, and to quit my post only in the performance over $15, grand; or when by picking pocket, regardless
of my duty, or when properly relieved. of amount stolen.

762

PARKS

7. Q. What is required of an officer when a defendant
in a branch court takes a jury trial? A. Take all papers
to jury trial court; the defendant to jury trial court,
if not out on bail, ascertain date on which case has
been set for hearing; notify witnesses of the time, and
be there at that time.

8. Q. \a) Define misdemeanor, (b) mittimus. A. (a)
Misdemeanor, any crime less than a felony, (b) A
written order from court committing a person to a
place of imprisonment.

9. Q. Define crime against children. A. Taking or
attempting to take indecent liberties with any child
under the age of fifteen years, with an intent to arouse
or gratify the lust or passions or sexual desire on such
person or child.

10. Q. (a) What is the proper method of making out
an arrest notification? (b) When would you give an
arrest slip to an out-of-town automobilist? A. (a} Date,
full name (printed), address, where to appear, date and
time committed, state license and vehicle license, year
of license, name of arresting officer, star number and
division, sex, age, nativity, married or single, occupa-
tion, place of occurrence, and if for Section 91, if enter-
ing or crossing the boulevard, (b) Only when his busi-
ness is in the city, and he can properly identify himself.

Second Series of Questions and Answers

1. Q. What should be the conduct of an officer when
making an arrest? A. He shall do so in such a manner
that the person arrested cannot accuse him of using
coarse, profane or insolent language, or any improper
conduct.

2. Q. What should his conduct be at all times to all
persons? A. His conduct shall at all times be gentle-
manly, courteous and obliging to all persons; whether
on duty or not his conduct shall be above reproach, as
becoming an officer and a gentleman.

3. Q. When a violator of an ordinance uses profane
or insolent language to an officer making an arrest, is
the officer justified in abusing or mistreating his pris-
oner? A. No, an officer in any such case should not
abuse or mistreat his prisoner, but he should act with
sufficient firmness to properly perform his duties, and
make a written report to the captain of the conduct of
the prisoner. The captain will pay particular attention
to see that the prisoner when taken to court will be
punished for his conduct.

4. Q. Define: (a) Nolle prosequi (nol. pros.}, (b)
Appeal, (c) Felony. A. (a) An entry made of record
by which the prosecutor or plaintiff declares that he
will prosecute no further, (b) Removal of a cause from
a court of inferior to one of superior jurisdiction, for
the purpose of obtaining a renewal or retrial, (c) An
offense punishable with death or imprisonment in the
penitentiary.

5. Q. If obliged to make an arrest on a city street
for an offense committed on a city street, could you

book him on a West Park ordinance? A. No, West
Park ordinances only apply to the territory under the
jurisdiction of the West Park Commissioners.

6. Q. What are your duties when your attention is
called to an insane person? A. Good judgment should
be used, especially in a public place. Take or send
person to detention hospital, file or have filed an affi-
davit in County Court, secure or have secured com-
mitment papers at trial with witnesses.

7. Q. What are your duties when you find a dead
body? A. Whenever an officer finds a dead body under
suspicious circumstances he should prevent its removal
unless exposed or other important reasons, examine
surroundings and conditions, note position of body
relative to objects nearby, note presence or absence of
weapons or other things which may cause death; (in
poison case), preserve contents of jars, pots, kettles as
well as all edibles found. Notify captain's office at once
if possible, get names and addresses of all witnesses,
arrest those suspected of or having knowledge of crime.
Make careful and complete memorandum of all facts
for report. If accident, take body to nearest under-
taker or where friends or relatives may direct.

8. Q. What are your duties regarding property of
prisoners? A. Have all property taken from prisoner
and see that he gets receipt for same, except stolen
property or concealed weapons.

9. Q. When violations frequently occur, what will
the policeman patrolling such post be charged with, and
what is this evidence of? A. He shall be charged with
negligence, inefficiency or inability, of which this is
evidence.

10. Q. What should patrolmen know regarding their
posts and the location and condition of park and boule-
vard property? A. They shall be thoroughly informed
relative to the condition of their posts, the location and
condition of park and boulevard property.

Third Series of Questions and Answers

1. Q. What is meant by duress? A. Duress is the
act of compelling or forcing persons to commit an act
against their will.

2. Q. What is the first thing for you to observe when
assigned to a new post? A. The location of the nearest
fire and patrol box, and public telephone.

3. Q. Define mayhem. A. Maliciously maiming or
disfiguring the tongue, eye, ear, nose or lip of another
or depriving him of the use of a limb or other member.
Penalty, one to twenty years or fine not exceeding
$l,ooo and confinement in county jail one year.

4. Q. Define incest. A. The sexual intercourse of a
man and woman related to each other in any of the
degrees of relationship in which marriage is prohibited
by law. Penalty: if father with daughter, not exceeding
twenty years; others not exceeding ten years.

5. 0. What is a dying declaration? A. A dying
declaration is a statement made by a dying person who

PARK POLICING

763

is under the fixed belief that he is about to die, and is
without a hope of recovery concerning an injury in-
flicted upon him, of which injury he afterwards dies,
indicating the person or persons guilty thereof.

6. Q. Should a dying declaration be in writing? A.
Whenever possible it should be reduced to writing,
signed by the person making it and duly witnessed.
When there is neither time nor opportunity to reduce
the statement to writing the words used are admissible
if made while there is no hope of recovery, and if the
person receiving it cannot remember the exact language
used he should state the substance, but it must be
sufficiently clear and definite to indicate precisely the
meaning of the person making the statement, as long
as the meaning of the person making it is clear, and he
is without hope of recovery it is admissible.

7. Q. (a) Should a person making a dying declara-
tion be sworn? (b) In what form should it be made?
A. (a) No. A person making a dying statement should
not be sworn, (b) I, John Doe, believing that I am
about to die and having absolutely no hope of recovery,
do hereby solemnly declare that William Smith did
on or about the first day of February, 1922, in the City
of Chicago, Cook County, State of Illinois (here give
details of injuries inflicted or if person state as fully as
possible). I hereby declare that the above statement is
the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, and that
it is made by me under the fixed belief that I am about
to die, and look to death as inevitable, and at hand.

JOHN DOE.
Witnesses: Frank Green

Thomas Smith
Chicago, February i, 1922

8. Q. What is the principal thing an officer should
bear in mind when taking a dying declaration? A.
The principal thing to be considered in taking a dying
declaration in order to be admissible in evidence is,
that the person must have no hope of recovery.

9. Q. What is the duty of an officer when he finds
lost children on boulevards or in parks? A. He shall
make inquiry in the immediate neighborhood and en-
deavor to ascertain the residence of the parent or
guardian of said child; failing to do so he shall have the
child brought to the nearest police station, and make
out a full and complete report.

10. Q. If you should find a person who was taken
suddenly ill, or a person who has met with an accident,
what would be your duty? A. To ascertain all facts in
the case, call an ambulance if necessary, obtain the
names and addresses of witnesses, and while waiting for
the ambulance to arrive take person to nearest drug
store, or other convenient place, and call a doctor if
necessary. If injuries were caused by some person with
felonious intent, or through gross negligence, make
every effort to arrest the offender, and secure the names
and addresses of witnesses.

Fourth Series of Questions and Answers

1. Q. What is your duty when making an arrest of
a mail driver, carrying United States mail, or a motor-
man for a violation for which a summons cannot be
issued? A. Accompany such driver or person in charge
to the post office or destination of the mail wagon
within the city limits, and thence to police station. In
case of a motorman, accompany him to the depot or
barn before taking him to the police station.

2. Q. What is the proper manner of killing animals
when officer finds it necessary to do so? A. In shooting
an animal (if a dog), first securely tie the animal, place
the muzzle of the pistol near the head, aiming a little
to one side of the center of the top of the skull, and
shoot downward, so that the bullet will go through the
brain or toward the neck. Do not shoot too low or
directly in the middle, because of the thickness of the
skull at these points.

3. Q. What is your duty when making an arrest,
when you take prisoner to city station (regarding in-
formation on arrest slip) ? A. State what court defend-
ant goes to. State whether station will make out papers
or captain's office, what day and time case is set for,
also district number of station and what section vio-
lated.

4. Q. When is an officer justified in making an arrest
without a warrant? A. For a violation committed in
the officer's presence, when the offender is found by a
reputable citizen committing the offense, and such
citizen will proceed with the officer to police station to
sign complaint in regular form. Even though the police
officer sees the offender committing the offense, the
right to arrest without warrant does not exist except
in case when the offense has been freshly committed
or the offender is in flight.

5. Q. What are the principal faults of policemen in
court, or when testifying before a jury and other courts?
A. They do not sit erect in the chair; they do not speak
in a tone of voice clear enough to be heard by jury or
court; using slang (such as gat for gun, guy for man,
etc.). All this tends to make a bad impression on court
and jury. Leaning against benches, chewing gum or
tobacco, or acting in sullen manner toward defendant
also make a bad impression.

6. Q. What is the proper manner of stating your case
in court, for example, violation of Section 91, E. P. O. ?
A. First address the court: Judge, your Honor, on
January 9 at 8.10 P.M., the defendant, while operating
an automobile south on Oakley Boulevard, failed to
stop before crossing or entering on Jackson Boulevard,
going about fifteen miles per hour (or whatever speed
you judged he was going). In this manner you state
your case clearly, and you have given all details. This
routing should be followed in all cases.

7. Q. (a) Define Alias. (V) Alibi. A. (a) Otherwise
known. An additional name to the real name of a
person, (b) Elsewhere. A defense showing that ac-

764

PARKS

cused was in another place when the crime was com-
mitted.

8. Q. Under what circumstances may a policeman
refuse to issue a summons for traffic violation, and take
offender to station instead? A. When the offender is
guilty of disorderly conduct or cannot properly identify
himself, or when he is guilty of a serious crime, such
as seriously injuring some person through reckless
driving or when intoxicated while driving or in charge
of a vehicle.

9. Q. If party or parties are about to start work or
construct anything on boulevards under the jurisdiction
of the West Chicago Park Commissioners, what are
the duties of the police officer? A. To see that they
have the proper permit issued, and signed by secretary.

10. Q. If any person attempted to erect any build-
ing without such permit, what should the officer do?
A. He should immediately prevent such persons from
erecting any building without such permit or from con-
tinuing with such work.

Fifth Series of Questions and Answers

1. Q. In making an arrest of a licensed chauffeur,
what information should you procure from him before
giving him a summons? A. Name and address, state
license, vehicle tax, married or single, age, nationality
and chauffeur's license number.

2. Q. Why is it necessary to procure chauffeur's
license number? A. Because in many cases two and
three parties own and operate same vehicle, and when
party to whom arrest-slip is given fails to appear
in court warrant officer is handicapped in not hav-
ing chauffeur's license number for which warrant is
issued. This has happened several times. Warrant
officer would be talking to the party wanted, and said
party would say, "It is not I, it is my partner you
want, and he is working nights," and arrests cannot
be made on a warrant unless you are sure you have
the party named on warrant. If the warrant officer
had chauffeur's license number he could see by said
number on party's badge if he was talking to right
party.

3. Q. When is an officer justified in using force? A.
When the occasion requires it he must act with energy
and firmness, avoiding the use of revolver and baton
except in extreme cases. Section 299, Chapter 45,
Criminal Code: If an officer or private person attempt
to take a person charged with treason, murder, rape,
burglary, robbery, arson, perjury, forgery, counter-
feiting or other felony, and he is resisted in the endeavor
to take the person accused, and to prevent the escape
of the accused by reason of such resistance he be killed,
the officer or private person so killing shall be justified
provided that such officer or private person, previous
to such killing, shall have used all reasonable efforts to
take the accused without success, and that from all
probability there was no prospect of being able to pre-

vent injury from such resistance, and the consequent
escape of such accused person.

4. Q. If the occasion arises whereby an officer is
compelled to shoot at a fleeing person who has com-
mitted a felony, in what position should he take aim?
A. Never shoot while running, halt and take aim; be
sure no other person is between you and the fleeing
felon, or in case you miss the felon that your shot does
not strike some innocent person, always firing a couple
of shots for warning before aiming at felon.

5. Q. An officer witnesses a misdemeanor on a cer-
tain date, but does not make an arrest. Several hours
afterwards, however, he does arrest the guilty person
without having a warrant. Is such an arrest permis-
sible? A. If the officer deliberately neglected to make
the arrest at the time he witnessed the misdemeanor
he would not be justified in making the arrest. Arrest
for misdemeanor must be made on view, or with a
warrant, or on the immediate pursuit of a person, who
has committed a misdemeanor in the officer's presence.

6. Q. Define evidence. A. All means by which any
alleged matter of fact, the truth of which is submitted
to investigation, is established or disapproved.

7. Q. (a) Give an illustration of direct evidence, (b)
Give an illustration of circumstantial evidence. A. If
John Smith is accused of killing a man, and you testify
you saw him leave the house with blood on his hands
and the body of the deceased is found in the house
shortly afterwards, that is circumstantial evidence.

8. Q. Define rape. A. Rape is the carnal knowledge
of a female forcibly and against her will. Every male
person of the age of seventeen years and upward who
shall have carnal knowledge of any female person under
the age of sixteen years, and not his wife, either with
or without her consent, shall be adjudged to be guilty
of the crime of rape, provided that in case said parties
shall be legally married to each other before conviction,
any legal proceedings shall abate, and provided that
every male person of the age of sixteen years and up-
ward who shall have carnal knowledge of a female
forcibly and against her will shall be guilty of the crime
of rape.

9. Q. Is an officer permitted to ride upon vehicle
upon the driveways of the parks or boulevards while
on duty? A. No, he is not, except when so ordered or
when it is absolutely necessary to properly perform his
duties.

10. Q. Should an officer observe anything in parks
or boulevards liable to be dangerous or a public incon-
venience, should he have same removed? A. If it is
impossible for him to remove same, he should report
the matter promptly to the captain's office.

Sixth Series of Questions and Answers
i. Q. Name some useful rules for an officer to follow
when making an arrest. A. Do not punish for crime;
that is the function of the judiciary. If a prisoner calls

PARK POLICING

765

you vile names, make report to captain, also explain
to the court. Do not abuse or strike prisoner. It is
unlawful and cowardly to strike a prisoner unneces-
sarily. It is natural for a person arrested to be angry
and excited. There is no reason for you to do same.
Do not argue with a prisoner or his friend; be firm.

2. Q. What is a prostitute? A. A woman who per-
mits her body to be used indiscriminately by men for
hire.

3. Q. When would you make an arrest of a prostitute
for soliciting in the parks or boulevards? A. If you
knew her to be ever convicted of prostitution, and she
solicits more than one man, or if you saw her stop more
than one man, or overheard her solicit any male
person.

4. Q. Define homicide. A. The killing of one human
being by an act of procurement or omission of another.

5. Q. What is the meaning of (a) The act? (b) Pro-
curement? (c) Omission? A. (a) The act, to shoot, stab,
etc., another and cause death, (b) Procurement, to
have another kill a person, (c) Omission, to fail to pro-
vide ordinary preventatives, such as a contractor fail-
ing to provide ordinary proper planking of a building
in course of construction, and as a result a workman
falls and is killed.

6. Q. In how many classes is homicide divided? A.
Four: murder, manslaughter, justifiable and excusable
homicide.

7. Q. Define the following: (a) Murder, (b) Man-
slaughter, (c) Justifiable homicide, (d) Excusable homi-
cide. A. (a) The unlawful killing of human beings in
the peace of the people with malice aforethought, either
expressed or implied, (b) Unlawfully killing a human
being without malice expressed or implied, and without
any deliberation whatever — it must be voluntary upon
a sudden heat of passion or involuntary in the com-
mission of circumspection, (c) The killing of a human
being in necessary self-defense or in defense of his
habitation or property from one evidently intending to
commit a felony. The killing of a human being by an
officer resisted and assaulted while in the execution of
his office in a criminal case. The killing in unavoidable
necessity without any will or desire and without inad-
vertence or negligence. The execution of a criminal by
an officer of the law under order of court, (d) When a
person doing lawful act without any intentions of kill-
ing, yet unfortunately kills another.

8. Q. What are the principal things to bear in mind
when your attention is called to a murder case? A. To
arrest the perpetrator, to get evidence, and to get wit-
nesses. Do not talk unnecessarily; listen to what by-
standers have to say. If you are suspicious of any
person, do not let him know it by your actions unless
you are going to make an arrest. Do not let the person
or his friends under suspicion or arrest know what you
know. Try to find out what they know. Do not get
excited; be composed. Use your brain; be imaginative.

Ask yourself how was this crime committed? Was there
a motive, and what was the motive?

9. Q. What is the rule in regard to wearing or pur-
chasing secondhand uniforms? A. No member of the
force will be permitted to purchase or wear any police
garments of another member or ex-member of the force
without the special permission of the president.

10. Q. What is required when you change your resi-
dence? A. Report the change in writing to your ser-
geant, who will in turn report same to captain's office.

Seventh Series of Questions and Answers

1. Q. When an officer is obliged to make an arrest of
an out-of-town driver for a traffic violation, said viola-
tion occurring before Speeders Court is in session on
that date, what is the proper method of handling such
cases when the violator is not out on bail, and he is
willing to go to trial as soon as possible? A. All persons
arrested and held in confinement must be taken to trial
as soon as possible in the above-mentioned case; if vio-
lation occurred before 8 A.M., prisoner and papers should
be taken to Speeders Court at 9.30 A.M. On date of
arrest, if violation occurred too late for morning session,
it would be proper to have prisoners and papers at
afternoon session at 1.30 P.M. For traffic violations, if
violator requested a later date, it would be all right to
grant request.

2. Q. When an officer finds an automobile on his
post that looks to him to be an abandoned (stolen) car,
what information should be received before having same
removed? A. Call the captain's office, get the name and
address of owner, notify owner or have captain's office
notify him where his car is, and that same must be
removed within two hours. If car is not removed within
specified time, have it removed to garage, and make a
full and complete report to the captain.

3. Q. When an officer issues an arrest summons to a
driver of a horse-drawn vehicle, what should he pay
particular attention to regarding arrest slip? A. He
should pay particular attention to mark on arrest noti-
fication the vehicle license number, and state plainly
if it is horse or two horse license, because the same
number is issued to different parties (such as 1246-22
one horse, 1246-22 two horse), and therefore when the
defendant fails to appear in court, and wrong name is
given, warrant officers find it difficult to locate right
party.

4. Q. Define larceny. A. Larceny is the felonious
stealing, taking and carrying, leading and riding or
driving away the personal goods of another. Larceny
shall embrace every theft which deprives another of
his money or other personal property, or those means
or muniments by which the right and title to property,
real or personal, may be ascertained. Private stealing
from the person of another, and from a house in the
daytime shall be deemed larceny. Larceny may also be
committed by feloniously taking and carrying away

766

PARKS

any bond bill, note, receipt or other instrument of
writing of value to the owner.

5. Q. Define robbery. A. Robbery is the felonious
and violent taking of money, goods or other valuable
things from the person of another by force or intimi-
dation. Every person guilty of robbery shall be im-
prisoned in the penitentiary not less than one year, nor
more than fourteen years, or if he is armed with a
dangerous weapon with intent if resisted to kill or
maim such person, or being so armed he wounds or
strikes him or if he has any confederate present so
armed to aid or abet him, he may be imprisoned for
any term of years or for life.

6. Q. What is the difference between robbery and
larceny? A. The difference is in robbery, force or fear
must be used to obtain or rebail possession. Larceny
must be by fraud, cheat, misrepresentation, trick or
device.

7. Q. What is perjury? A. Every person having
taken a lawful oath or made affirmation in any judicial
proceeding or in any other matter whereby law and
oath or affirmation is required, who shall swear or
affirm willfully, corruptly and falsely in a matter ma-
terial to the issue or point in question.

8. Q. State when it is possible to commit perjury
and still swear to the truth. A. A person may be guilty
of perjury, and still swear to a truth when he swears
to something some other person has told him.

9. Q. What is required of officers regarding the con-
ditions and cleanliness of police uniforms and apparel?
A. All officers shall properly and cleanly dress while on
duty.

10. Q. Are patrolmen allowed to walk together or
talk to each other when patrolling their post? A. They
are not, unless it be pertaining to police matters.

Eighth Series of Questions and Answers

1. Q. If you knew that a warrant was issued for
John Smith for violation of Section 91, and while pa-
trolling your post you met John Smith, would you be
justified in placing him under arrest without having the
warrant in your possession? A. No, as the offense was
a misdemeanor the officer should have the warrant in
his possession, but if the warrant was for a felony he
would be justified in making the arrest.

2. Q. What are the principal duties of a police officer?
A. The preservation of peace, enforcement of laws, the
protection of life and property, and the prevention and
detection of crime.

3. Q. When is an arrest necessary, when a driver of
a vehicle runs into and seriously injures a pedestrian?
A. If accident was caused by carelessness of the driver,
such as running against an officer's signal, backing up
without looking to see if way was clear, intoxication,
speeding, reckless driving, no lights. If accident was
caused through carelessness of pedestrian an arrest is
not necessary, but it is proper to bring driver to station

to properly identify himself, and guarantee his appear
ance at the coroner's inquest if injured party dies.

4. Q. What is an unlawful assembly? A. If two or
more persons assemble for the purpose of disturbing
the public peace, or committing any unlawful act, and
do not disperse on being desired or commanded so to
do by a judge, sheriff, coroner, constable or other
public officer, the persons so offending shall be guilty of
unlawful assembly.

5. Q. (a) What is a riot? (b) What is a rout? A.

(a) If two or more persons do an unlawful act with force
or violence against the person or property of another,
with or without a common cause of quarrel, or even do
a lawful act in a violent and tumultuous manner, the
person so offending shall be deemed guilty of a riot.

(b) If two or more persons shall meet to do an unlawful
act upon a common cause of quarrel and make advances
toward it, they shall be deemed guilty of a rout.

6. Q. What is a suppression? A. When twelve or
more persons, any of them armed with clubs or danger-
ous weapons, or thirty or more armed or unarmed or
unlawfully, riotously or tumultuously assembled in any
city, village or town, it shall be the duty of each of the
municipal officers, police officers, and sheriff of the
county and his deputies to go among the persons so
assembled or as near to them as they can safely go,
and in the name of the State command them immedi-
ately and peacefully to disperse, and if they do not obey,
such officer shall command the assistance of all persons
present in arresting and securing the persons so unlaw-
fully assembled, and every person refusing to disperse
or to assist as aforesaid, shall be deemed one of such
unlawful assembly.

7. 0. What is the limitation of time for commencing
prosecution in felony charges? A. For murder and man-
slaughter, arson and forgery, any time after the com-
mission of the crime; for other felonies, within three
years after the commission of the crime.

8. Q. What is the limitation of time for commencing
prosecution for misdemeanor? A. All prosecutions by
indictment or otherwise for misdemeanor, or for any
fine or forfeiture, under any penal statute, shall be com-
menced within one year and six months from the time
of committing the offense, or incurring the fine or for-
feiture.

9. Q. What is required of members of the police de-
partment in uniform while riding in street cars or
elevated railway? A. No member of the department in
uniform while riding in street cars or elevated trains
shall occupy a seat in such car or train while any other
person is obliged to stand because of lack of seats.

10. 0. Are members of the department allowed to
engage in any other business or employment? A. No;
each and every member of the department shall devote
his whole time and attention to the business of the
department, and shall not engage in any other business.

PARK POLICING

767

Ninth Series of Questions and Answers

1. Q. John Doe was driving an automobile truck
west on Jackson Boulevard, and in the truck he had
his wife and two children. Officer Jones gave John Doe
an arrest notification for violating Section 2, West Park
ordinance. Was the officer justified? A. No. The
boulevards are for the use of pleasure vehicles. John
Doe had a right to drive on the boulevard, inasmuch
as he was using his truck for a pleasure vehicle.

2. Q. What constitutes an offense? A. A criminal
offense consists in a violation of a public law in the
commission of which there shall be a union or joint
operation of act and intention or criminal negligence.

3. 0. What do you mean by intention? ^.Intention
is shown by the circumstances connected with the per-
petration of the offense, and the sound mind and dis-
cretion of the person accused.

4. Q. Is drunkenness an excuse for committing crime?
A. Drunkenness shall not be an excuse for any crime
or misdemeanor unless such drunkenness be occasioned
by the fraud, contrivance or force of some other person
for the purpose of causing said drunkenness for such
malignant purpose. Such other person shall be consid-
ered principal and suffer the same punishment as would
have been inflicted on the person committing the offense
if he had been possessed of sound reason.

5. Q. What is a delinquent child? A. A delinquent
child is any male who, while under the age of seventeen
years, or any female who, while under the age of eight-
een years, violates any law of this state, or is incorrigi-
ble or knowingly associates with thieves, vicious or
immoral persons or without just cause, and without the
consent of its parents, guardian or custodian, absents
itself from its home or place of abode, or is growing up
in idleness or crime or knowingly frequents a house of
ill repute, or knowingly frequents any policy shop or
place where any gambling device is operated, or fre-
quents any saloon or dram shop where intoxicating
liquors are sold, or patronizes or visits any public pool
room or bucket shop, or wanders about the streets in
the night time without being on any lawful business or
occupation, or habitually uses vile, obscene, vulgar,
profane or indecent language in any public place.

6. Q. What constitutes contributing to delinquency
of children? A. Any person who shall knowingly or
willfully cause, aid or encourage any male under the age
of seventeen years or any female under the age of eight-
een years to be or to become a delinquent child as
defined in answer to Question 5, or who shall knowingly
or willfully do acts which directly tend to render any
such child so delinquent, and who, when able to do so,
shall willfully neglect to do that which will directly
tend to prevent such state of delinquency, shall be
deemed guilty of contributing to the delinquency of
children.

7. Q. Define crime against children. A. That any
person of the age of seventeen years, and upwards, who

shall take or attempt to take any immoral, improper
or indecent liberties with any child of either sex under
the age of fifteen years with the intent of arousing,
appealing to or gratifying the lust or passion or sexual
desires, either of such person or such child or of both,
or who shall commit or attempt to commit any part
or member thereof of such child, with the intent of
arousing, appealing to or gratifying the lust or passions
of sexual desires, either of such person or of such child
or of both, or any such person who shall take any such
child and entice, allure, or persuade any such child to
any place whatever, for the purpose either of taking
any such immoral, improper or indecent liberties with
such child, with said intent or of committing any such
lewd or lascivious act upon or with the body, or any
part or member thereof of such child with said intent.

8. Q. Define seduction. A. That any person who
shall seduce and obtain carnal knowledge of any un-
married female under the age of eighteen years of previ-
ous chaste character, but no conviction shall be had
of said crime upon the testimony of the female, unsup-
ported by other evidence, and provided the subsequent
intermarriage of the parties shall be a bar to the prose-
cution of said offense.

9. Q. What is required of officers regarding punctu-
ality and obedience to orders ? A. Officers shall be punc-
tual in attendance, prompt in obedience to orders, quiet
and civil in the performance of their duties and they
shall agreeably give their names and the number of
their stars to any person who may request same.

10. Q. When is an officer justified in using his baton?
A. He shall not use his baton except when necessary to
subdue a resisting prisoner, or in the most urgent cases
of self-defense.

Tenth Series of Questions and Answers
I. Q. What should an officer traveling in a park pay
particular attention to? A. Particular attention should
be paid to arrest every person who makes an indecent
exposure of his person. A person waiting to make an
indecent exposure of his person picks out a place where
there are no men in sight; he generally sits on a bench
near a girls' playground, or where women are likely to
pass by. They act in a very nervous manner, they can-
not sit still for any length of time, and are continually
looking around them. They generally carry a news-
paper, and pretend to be reading it, but in many cases
use it to cover up their person in case some man or
person they are afraid of passes by. When such persons
are arrested on complaint, the officer should always
have the person making the complaint sign the com-
plaint, and when committed in the officer's view, he
should endeavor to have the person for whom the inde-
cent exposure was intended appear in court to help
prosecute. A very good practice for an officer traveling
in a park is to try, if possible, to memorize the descrip-
tion of every person he sees act in a suspicious man-

768

PARKS

ner; afterwards if a complaint is made, and the descrip-
tion answers to someone he has seen on his post, it will
make it easy to pick up such person.

2. Q. Define extortion. A. If any judge, justice of
the peace, sheriff, coroner, constable, police officer,
clerk or other officer, state, county, town or municipal
executive, or ministerial, or judicial, shall willfully or
corruptly receive or take any fee or reward to execute
or do his duty as such officer, except such as is or shall
be allowed by law, or if any such officer shall willfully
or corruptly ask or demand as precedent to the per-
formance of his duty as such officer any fee or reward
except such as shall be allowed by law.

3. Q. When a serious accident has happened, such
as a collision between two automobiles or other vehicles,
causing some person or persons serious injuries, or a
driver of an automobile seriously injuring some pedes-
trian, what would be the officer's duty regarding the
testing of brakes of such automobiles? A. He should
have the brakes on such automobile tested in the follow-
ing manner: Have one person sit at the steering wheel,
have three or four persons push automobile in motion,
person in driver's seat apply foot brakes when car is
in motion. If foot brake does not hold, apply emergency
brake in same manner. Have two or more persons
making such test appear at coroner's inquest, if in-
jured person or persons die. If automobile is in such
condition that test cannot be made in this manner,
have mechanic in garage examine brakes. In such
cases have mechanic appear at inquest.

4. Q. Define burglary. A. Whoever willfully, ma-
liciously and forcibly breaks and enters, or willfully
and maliciously without force (the doors and windows
being open) enters into any dwelling house, kitchen,
office, shop, storehouse, warehouse, malthouse, stilling
house, or other building with intent to commit murder,
robbery, rape, mayhem or other felony or larceny shall
be deemed guilty of burglary, and be imprisoned in
the penitentiary for a term not less than one year, nor
more than twenty years, provided, however, that who-
ever willfully and maliciously and forcibly breaks and
enters, or willfully and maliciously without force (the
doors and windows being open) enters into any dwelling
house in the night time with intent to commit murder,
robbery, rape, mayhem or other felony or larceny, shall
on conviction be imprisoned in the penitentiary for a
term of not less than five years, nor more than twenty
years, provided further, that if at the time of com-
mitting the offense mentioned in the proviso, such
person shall be found with any deadly weapon, deadly
drug or anaesthetic upon his person or in his possession,
he shall on conviction be punished by imprisonment in
the penitentiary for any term of years, not less than
five years.

5. Q. Define abduction. A. Whoever entices or takes
away any unmarried female of a chaste life and con-
versation from the parent's house, or wherever she may

be found, for the purpose of prostitution or concu-
binage, and whoever aids and assists in such abduction
for such purpose, shall be deemed guilty of abduction.

6. Q. Define abduction of child. A. Whoever will-
fully takes or decoys away any child under the age of
twelve years with intent to detain or conceal such child
from its parents, guardian or other person having the
lawful charge of such child, provided this shall not
apply to anyone who in good faith interferes to pro-
tect the child from abuse or cruel treatment.

7. Q. Define the following: (a) Assault, (b) Assault
and battery, (c) Assault with an intent, (d) Assault
with a deadly weapon. A. (a) An assault is an unlawful
attempt coupled with a present ability to commit a
violent injury on the person of another, (b) Assault
and battery is the unlawful beating of another, (c)
Assault with an intent to commit murder, rape, may-
hem, robbery, larceny or other felony, (d) An assault
with a deadly weapon, instrument or other thing, with
an intent upon the person of another, a bodily injury,
where no considerable provocation appears or where the
circumstances of the assault show an abandoned and
malignant part.

8. Q. Definitions of some words used in the ten series
of questions and answers. A. Carnal knowledge: sexual
connection. Chaste: pure. Concubinage: The act or
practice of cohabiting in sexual commerce, without the
authority of law or a legal marriage. Malignant: Evil
in nature or tending to do great harm. Malice afore-
thought: Wicked purpose. Tumultuously: Violent com-
motion; disturbance. Incorrigible: Beyond reform.
Inadvertence: Done without consideration. Intimida-
tion: The use of violence or threats to influence the
conduct of another. Muniments: That which supports
or defends, as a deed or a record.

9. Penalties for crimes defined in the ten series of
questions and answers. Petty larceny: Not exceeding
one year in the House of Correction, and fine not ex-
ceeding $100. Grand larceny: Not less than one year
or more than ten years in the penitentiary. Crime
against children: Not less than one year, nor more than
twenty years. Contributing to the delinquency of chil-
dren: A fine of not more than $200 or one year in the
county jail, or both. Mayhem: Not less than one year,
nor more than twenty years or fined not exceeding $100
and confined in the county jail not exceeding one year.
Incest: Father with daughter, not exceeding twenty
years in penitentiary; of relatives, not exceeding ten
years. Rape: In penitentiary for a term not less than
one year and may extend to life. Murder: Shall suffer
the punishment of death or imprisonment in the peni-
tentiary for his natural life or for a term not less than
fourteen years. Manslaughter: For natural life or for
any number of years in penitentiary. Robbery: Not
less than one year, nor more than fourteen years, or
if he is armed with a dangerous weapon with intent if
resisted to kill or maim such person, or being so armed

PARK POLICING 769

he wounds or strikes him, or if he has any confederate county jail not exceeding six months. Seduction: Not

present so armed, to aid or abet him, he may be im- less than $100 nor more than $5,000 or imprisonment

prisoned for any term of years or for life. Perjury: Not in county jail, not exceeding one year or both. Assault

less than one year nor more than fourteen years in the and battery: Not less than $3.00 nor more than #100.

penitentiary. Every person who by willful and corrupt Assault with intent: Not less than one year nor more

perjury or subordination of perjury shall procure the than fourteen years in the penitentiary. Assault with

conviction and execution of any innocent person, shall deadly weapon: Not exceeding £1,000 nor less than $25

be deemed and adjudged guilty of murder, and punished or imprisonment in county jail, not exceeding one year,

accordingly. Unlawful assembly: Not exceeding $200. or both.

Suppression: Not exceeding $500 and confined in 10. Q. What is a search warrant? A. A process

county jail, not exceeding one year. Rout: Not exceed- authorizing the search of a designated place for a cer-

ing $100 and confined in county jail not exceeding four tain property described in said writ,
months. Riot: Not exceeding $200 and confined in

In addition to courses of lessons similar to the foregoing it is desirable
that certain other courses of training be added. Among these are:

1. First aid. It is of fundamental importance that every officer or
guard be thoroughly trained in the theory and practice of first aid under
the direction of a competent physician or other person specially qualified
to give such instruction. This knowledge may not only enable the officer
or guard to contribute to the comfort of ill or injured patrons of the parks,
but also be the means of saving life, for it is not always possible to get a
physician just when wanted.

2. Record keeping. Detailed instruction should be given as to how to
handle properly all the different forms used in the field and in the office.
Instruction in office forms is not so important for the rank and file except
in so far as the data on those forms are made up from data from the forms
used by the rank and file.

3. Pistol practice. While it is not the intent to make use of firearms
in park police or guard service except in very extreme cases, such occasions
do not infrequently arise, especially in large parks, parkways and outlying
reservations. A school in the care and handling of the pistol should be
conducted until every officer or guard is reasonably proficient. Such a
school, while training for emergencies, has the added advantage of providing
an agreeable recreation.

4. Physical exercises. While park guards or police get a considerable
degree of exercise, especially if performing their duty on foot, it is desirable
that regular courses in certain types of physical activity be given, partly
for use in the performance in their duty, partly for keeping in fine physical
condition and partly for recreation.

A few words of advice to park police by Theodore Wirth, Superintendent
Minneapolis Park Department, in thirty-ninth annual report of Board of
Park Commissioners, pages 66, 67. "I cannot better express my idea of
an efficient park police force than by quoting a few paragraphs from the
park police regulations of another city, viz.: 'The work of a park policeman

770 PARKS

is essentially different from that of a city patrolman. Violation of the
park regulations is rarely of a criminal nature, or due to malicious conduct,
but is usually owing to the heedlessness or thoughtlessness of people of
good intentions. The chief work of the park policeman is, therefore, to
warn, check, guide, inform and instruct park visitors, and not to arrest
and punish, except for some willful and flagrant misdemeanor. He should
never exhibit ill-temper, vexation or resentment by tone or voice, sharp
words or overbearing manner. All necessary orders, directions or advice
should be given with becoming courtesy. On all proper occasions care
should be taken to point out the reasonableness of the rules violated. When
information is asked about any park matter of interest to a visitor, he
should be willing to instruct and guide, but should avoid engaging in pro-
longed conversation on general subjects. Neatness of dress, propriety in
speech and demeanor, perfect sobriety, and obliging manners and courtesy
towards every visitor to the parks are essential requisites for a satisfactory
discharge of the duties of the park police. The park police are expected
to render all possible aid and assistance in case of accidents, and particu-
larly to protect ladies and children against every kind of annoyance, rude-
ness or insult from evilly disposed or disorderly persons. Arrests should
be made only when either the officer himself or some respectable person
at hand can testify to a malicious violation of the rules and regulations.
No arrests should be made for more trifling violations when a quiet reminder
or reprimand would suffice to prevent a repetition of the offense. Great
indulgence is recommended toward children, but discreet, dignified, firm
and decisive action should be the rule toward gangs of unruly boys. A
police officer doing duty on parks must therefore be a man of good judg-
ment, even temper, tact and more than average education and good manners.
Possessing these qualities, he can, by exercising them, become a most
efficient official, for he will act with leniency where unnecessary firmness
is uncalled for, but will be firm in the enforcement of rules, where leniency
would be misplaced and unjustified. In order to make the park police force
of Minneapolis efficient, yet not oppressive, and useful in every sense of
the word, I want to recommend to the members of the force that you dis-
charge your duties along the lines herein mentioned. It is my earnest desire
to make the parks of Minneapolis useful and safe for the people, and towarcf
that end and for that purpose I ask your combined and individual support.' :

ORGANIZATION OF THE PARK POLICE OR GUARD FORCE

The organization of the park guard or police force in the larger munic-
ipal and county park systems follows fairly closely the manner of organiza-
tion of a municipal police force, that is, there is a captain or chief at the

PARK POLICING

771

head, one or more lieutenants (more often none of this grade), one or more
sergeants and a rank and file of patrolmen or guards. In some instances
the chief executive of the park and recreation system acts as chief with an
assistant chief actively in charge of the force. In one instance it is noted
that there is a different head of the park guards appointed each week by
the chief executive of the department. In another instance the secretary
of the board of park commissioners has direct charge of the park police,
and in still another system a standing committee on police has general
supervision of the police system.

The following examples of rules and regulations for the government of
park police, or guards, in different cities and counties will serve to show
the manner of organization and the duties and responsibilities of the dif-
ferent ranks and grades of officers in these systems :

RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR GOVERNMENT OF PARK POLICE,
BOARD OF PARK COMMISSIONERS, MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN

I. Organization. The park police force shall consist
of one captain of police, and as many regular patrol-
men as, in the opinion of the Board of Park Commis-
sioners, may be deemed necessary to maintain a proper
police service in the parks throughout the year, and
also as many special officers as, in the opinion of the
Park Commissioners, may be deemed necessary to
assist the regular police force.

1. Appointments. All of the patrolmen now con-
stituting the present force shall continue to serve under
the provisions of their original appointment.

2. All new appointments shall be made subject to
the rules of the city service commission.

1. Duties. Captain of Park Police. The captain of
park police shall have full command and supervision
of the park police force, including specials and watch-
men, under the direction of the Board of Park Com-
missioners, and he will be held strictly accountable for
the maintenance of a proper police service.

2. He shall make frequent visits to each of the parks
and parkways at such hours of the day and night as
may be necessary to determine that all officers are
satisfactorily and fully performing the duties assigned
to them.

3. He shall have full power and authority to assign
officers to duty and to transfer them therefrom, and
also to suspend them from duty on account of any
failure to properly perform their duties, or on account
of any offensive or ungentlemanly conduct on their part;
and in case of such suspension of any such officers, the
fact of such suspension and the reasons therefor shall
be reported to the board.

4. He shall have authority to grant leave of absence
to any patrolman; and no patrolman shall be absent
from duty without his knowledge and consent.

5. He shall enter in a book kept for that purpose the

names of all the patrolmen, and opposite to their names
any dereliction of duty and the date and hour of the
occurrence; which book shall at all times be accessible
to the Park Commissioners or the secretary.

6. He shall also enter in a book kept for that pur-
pose a full, correct and complete account of any acci-
dent, misdemeanor, crime or other happening in any
of the parks; also a complete account of all arrests made,
stating offense and disposition of case by the court.

7. An abstract from these two books shall be pre-
pared by him on the first of every month and delivered
to the secretary.

1. Patrolmen. Patrolmen are under direct control
of the captain of police; all orders from the Board of
Park Commissioners will be transmitted through said
captain of police.

2. Each and every member of the park police force
shall devote his whole time and attention to the pres-
ervation of order in the parks. He must do the utmost
in his power to prevent the commission of any crimes
about to be committed. Good order will be considered
the best proof of the efficiency of the officer.

3. Punctual attendance, prompt obedience to orders
and conformity to these rules will be required.

4. Each member must be civil and orderly in deport-
ment, and must exercise patience and discretion in the
discharge of his duty, acting with firmness and energy
and using no violent, coarse or profane language.

5. Each member shall at all times and on all occa-
sions when on duty display his star so that it can be
distinctly seen.

6. Each member shall on all occasions when on duty
wear such uniform as may be prescribed by the Park
Commissioners, and appear neat in his person.

7. He shall give his name to all who may request it.

772

PARKS

and give especial attention to the rules governing the
parks.

8. Each member will be furnished with a copy of
these rules in order to become familiar with his duty,
and at the expiration of his term of service will at once
surrender his star, buttons and other property belong-
ing to the Park Commissioners, and return the same
to the secretary.

9. Members of the police force will be liable to sus-
pension and discharge from the force for either of the
following reasons: (a) Smoking while on duty, (b) En-
tering any place where intoxicating drinks are sold
while on duty (except in the discharge of duty), (c)

Receiving or accepting rewards or gifts of any kind
without the written permission of the Park Commis-
sioners, (d) Neglect to wear his star and other emblems
of office in a conspicuous position while on duty, (e)
Leaving the park or being absent from duty without
permission of the captain of police. (/) Neglect to treat
all officers and other persons civilly and respectfully on
all occasions, (g) Neglect to wear uniform while on
duty according to regulations, or neglect to appear clean
and tidy at all times. (A) Intoxication, disobedience,
laziness or inattention to duty, lounging or sleeping
while on duty, or any conduct unbecoming a police
officer.

RULES AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE PARK GUARDS
OF THE CITY OF WILMINGTON

1. The force shall consist of a captain, acting under
the superintendent, and of such regular and special
guards as shall be appointed.

2. Duties of Captain. The captain shall be respon-
sible for the preservation of order in and the protection
of all parts of the parks. He shall, with the approval
of the superintendent, have power to assign officers to
duty and to suspend any officer on account of failure
to properly perform his duties. He shall make visits
to the districts of all officers at such times of day or
night as shall be practicable in order to see that they
are satisfactorily performing the duties assigned to
them. He shall make such investigations and attend
to such other duties as the superintendent shall assign
to him. He may in especially stormy or inclement
weather modify the duties of any officer, provided it
shall not be to the detriment of the service. He shall
keep a book in which shall be entered all matters
worthy of note therein, including: Rules and regula-
tions of the Board of Park Commissioners and special
orders of the superintendent. Accurate statements of
all damages, accidents, offenses, arrests, or other oc-
currence of note, with full particulars of the time of
occurrence, the name of officer making the arrest, the
names and ages of offenders, witnesses, and other per-
sons concerned, and the subsequent disposition of the
case. A record of lost property or articles found or
taken away from offenders, or which may otherwise
come into the possession of any member of the force,
and of its ultimate disposal. A record of all absences,
whether with or without leave, and the reasons therefor.
A record of cases of misconduct on the part of any
guard or employee of the Park Commission and of their
final disposal. He shall make report daily (except Sun-
days and holidays) to the superintendent of occurrences
during the preceding day.

3. Duties of Guards. The principal duty of a park
guard is by vigilance, careful attention and frequent
patrol, to preserve order and prevent damage. Fre-
quent occurrence of damage to property or disorder in
any district will be regarded as evidence of neglect or

lack of ability in the officer in charge unless satisfac-
tory evidence to the contrary shall be shown. He shall
do such other work in relation to the parks as the super-
intendent or the captain shall direct.

Each officer shall make himself acquainted with his
district so that he can detect evidences of trespass or
misdemeanor. He shall, as far as shall be consistent
with his other duties, patrol his district, giving special
attention to places where trespass or disorder is likely
to occur. He must on all occasions be civil and respect-
ful to other officers and to his superiors. When officers
meet they must not stand long together, nor walk in
company. In his bearing he must avoid all appearance
of loitering or lounging, and must not seek shelter or
ease by remaining in his guard box or other place except
in severe or inclement weather, and in no case while
there are many visitors in the park.

No officer while on duty shall smoke, or have pos-
session of or drink any intoxicating liquor, nor have
any sign of liquor about his person, nor while in uni-
form enter any place where liquor is sold except in the
line of duty. Proof of intoxication in any degree will
be deemed sufficient cause for suspension or dismissal
from the force.

Except when his duties shall make it undesirable he
shall wear the prescribed uniform, and shall keep it
in a neat and clean condition. He shall wear his shield
conspicuously displayed on his left breast. He shall
carry on his person a club, but shall not use it except
in self-defense or when necessary to make an arrest
for a serious crime.

In making an arrest the officer should use only such
force as is necessary to overcome resistance and to con-
vey the offender to the police station. He must not
make an arrest for a trivial offense when it is probable
that a reprimand would be likely to prevent a repeti-
tion of the offense. He shall see that the park rules are
observed.

When an officer has evidence of crime or misde-
meanor or of a violation of a city ordinance being com-
mitted in his district he has the same responsibility

PARK POLICING

773

and authority as an officer of the city police. He must
be polite and courteous to visitors and ready to answer
questions and give directions and information, but
should not engage in protracted conversation on general
subjects. He must be kind toward children, but firm
and decisive in dealing with unruly persons. He must
be especially watchful to protect women and children
from annoyance, insult or rudeness. He must be care-
ful not to be overofficious or meddlesome, and should
avoid exhibiting ill temper or vexation by tone of voice
or overbearing manner. He should when necessary ex-
plain the park rules and regulations. In cases of acci-
dent or emergency he shall suspend all other duty and
promptly render all possible assistance.

He shall give persons of suspicious or bad character
such attention as will make it apparent to them that
they are under observation. In case any person acts
in a suspicious or offensive manner he shall be told to
move on or to leave the park. He shall remove any-
thing likely to be offensive or dangerous, and shall keep
all inlets free from litter, leaves or other obstruction.
He shall remove snow or ice from paths and steps, and
see that all public comfort houses are kept in order,
and do other work as directed by the superintendent.
He shall promptly report damage to any part of the
park, whether by trespass or by storm, and shall, if
possible, make such temporary repairs as are necessary
and shall place lights and guards in dangerous places.

He shall keep a book in which he shall enter par-
ticulars concerning arrests, damages, trespass, property
lost and found, and other occurrences worthy of note,
together with the names of the parties connected there-
with and particulars and shall report the same to his
superior officer at the earliest opportunity. No mem-
ber of the force shall accept from any person, while
such person is in his custody, or after such person shall
have been discharged, or from any friend of such person,
or from anyone under suspicion, any gratuity, reward,
or gift, either directly or indirectly. No officer shall
be a delegate or representative to or a member of any

political convention, the purpose of which shall be the
nomination of a candidate for a political office, nor
shall any member of the force solicit or make a con-
tribution for political purposes. No officer shall com-
municate any information which may enable persons
to escape from arrest or punishment, nor communicate
any information respecting any special orders that he
may have received except with the permission of his
superior officers, nor discuss the conduct of other mem-
bers of the force with persons not connected with the
park administration.

4. Special Guards. Special guards may be employed
for special occasions by the superintendent, or in his
absence by the captain.

5. Hours of Duty. The hours of daily or nightly duty
may be regulated from time to time by the captain,
according to the varying needs of the service through-
out the year and the demands of special occasions.
Sufficient time for meals will be allowed at such times
as will best meet the needs of the service. No guard
shall, during his hours of service, absent himself from
his district, except in line of duty. While certain hours
may be specified, it is understood that any officer may
be called upon for additional service when necessary.

6. Each guard shall be entitled to leave of absence
with pay, on a schedule to be arranged by the captain,1
for one day in each of the months of July, August and
September, two days in each month from October to
April, inclusive, and to an annual vacation of seven
days. The captain may grant leave of absence for a
short time in an emergency, but if any guard desires
to be away for a half day or more such time shall be
deducted from his next month's leave of absence. Leave
of absence may be allowed for a period of one month
or for such period as the executive committee shall
decide on account of sickness or injury due to unusual
exposure or exertion in the line of duty.

In case of sickness of any officer the captain must be
notified immediately.

RULES AND REGULATIONS CONCERNING THE ORGANIZATION AND GOVERNMENT OF THE

PARK POLICE, BOARD OF PARK COMMISSIONERS OF THE EAST ST. LOUIS

PARK DISTRICT, EAST ST. LOUIS, ILLINOIS

(Ordinance No. 53, East St. Louis Park District, pages 30-39)

Section I. Park Police Appointed by the Board.
There are hereby created the offices of the park police,
which offices shall be filled as the needs of the service
required by the president, with the advice and consent
of the Park Commissioners, and shall hold their offices
and positions during the pleasure of the president and
Park Commissioners of the East St. Louis Park Dis-
trict of St. Clair County, Illinois, and not to exceed
the term of one year without reappointment.

Section 2. Police Officers to Take Oath. Police officers
before entering upon the performance of their duties

shall take and subscribe an oath or affirmation to sup-
port the Constitution of the United States of America,
and of the State of Illinois, and to well and truly per-
form all the duties of the office, and to obey and enforce
the ordinances, rules and regulations of the East St.
Louis Park District of St. Clair County, Illinois, to
the best of their ability, and shall, before entering upon
the performance of their duty, execute a bond with at
least two good and sufficient sureties, to be approved
by the president and commissioners payable to the
East St. Louis Park District of St. Clair County, Illi-

'Changed to for four days in every month and to an annual vacation of seven days on December n, 1917.

774

PARKS

nois, in the penal sum of five hundred dollars, con-
ditioned for the faithful performance of the duties of
the office and to save said East St. Louis Park District
harmless on account of any injury or damage to person
or property through the negligence or wrongful act of
said officer.

Section 3. Secretary to Make Out Commission. When
any person appointed to the position of park policeman
shall have qualified as aforesaid, the secretary of the
East St. Louis Park District shall make out and de-
liver to said person a commission under the corporate
seal, signed by the president and secretary of said East
St. Louis Park District. The commission may be sub-
stantially in the following form: "To all whom these

presents may come, greeting: Know ye that

having been duly appointed to the position of park
policeman of the East St. Louis Park District of St.
Clair County, Illinois, he is hereby commissioned as
such with authority to execute all the duties thereof
according to law, during the pleasure of the president
and Park Commissioners of the East St. Louis Park
District and not to exceed one year from this date."

Section 4. Power of Police. All members of the police
department shall have power and it shall be their duty
to arrest any person found in the act of violating any
law of the state or ordinance of the East St. Louis
Park District or aiding or abetting in such violation
and shall take all persons so arrested before some court
of competent jurisdiction in the East St. Louis Park
District. In case no such court is in session the person
so arrested may be detained in any police station in the
said park district/ or any safe place until such person
so arrested can be brought before such court. In addi-
tion to this they shall be governed by the following:

RULES AND REGULATIONS
Rule I. Duties of Superintendent of Parks.

The superintendent of parks of the East St. Louis
Park District, in addition to his other duties, shall have
full and complete charge and control of the depart-
ment of police, subject to such order as may from time
to time be issued or enacted by the president and Park
Commissioners of such East St. Louis Park District.

Rule II. Duties of Park Policemen.

Section I. Officers Always on Duty. Every member
of the park police shall devote his whole time and
attention to his position, and is expressly prohibited
from following any other business or calling.

Section 2. Conduct of 'Park Policemen. Every mem-
ber of the park police shall be considered to be always
on duty for the purpose of discipline, and his conduct
at all times must be officer-like and above reproach.

Section 3. Punctuality and Obedience. Policemen
must be punctual in attendance, prompt in obedience
of orders, and quiet and civil in the performance of
their duties, and must give their names and numbers
to any one who may request the same.

Section 4. General Behavior. Every member of the
police force is expected to use good judgment and dis-
cretion; yet, when necessity arises, must act with firm-
ness and sufficient energy to properly perform his duty.
He must at all times control his temper and refrain
from the use of harsh, violent, coarse, profane or inso-
lent language.

Section 5. Duties of Officers. Every member of the
police force must have for his main object the preven-
tion of crime and the enforcement of park ordinances
within his jurisdiction, and he will exert himself to
that end. He must examine and become familiar with
every part of his post and always be alert to prevent
the destruction or injury to trees, shrubs, plants, grass,
turf or other property of the parks and boulevards.

Section 6. Information. Policemen will familiarize
themselves with the laws and ordinances governing
parks and boulevards, and be able at all times to furnish
particular information relative to the condition of their
posts and the location of park property.

Section 7. Watchfulness. Policemen must by their
watchfulness render it difficult for any person to com-
mit a crime on their posts. Where offenses frequently
occur it is evidence of negligence or inability upon the
part of the policeman having charge of such post.
Absence of crime is the best proof of the efficiency of
the officer.

Section 8. Patrolling Beat. Policemen shall carefully
inspect every part of their posts regularly, but shall
police matters demand their attention and presence at
any particular place the regularity of inspection can
be dispensed with, providing the policeman can satisfy
the superintendent that there was sufficient cause for
such action.

Section 9. Failure to Patrol Beat. Policemen must
constantly patrol their posts unless otherwise ordered
by the superintendent. Failure to do so will be con-
sidered sufficient cause for their discharge.

Section 10. Leaving Beat. Policemen must not leave
their posts until regularly relieved, unless it be for
the purpose of taking a prisoner to the station house or
patrol box, or to answer a call for assistance by an
officer or a citizen, or to make an arrest on view, or to
follow an offender for the purpose of making an arrest.

Section II. Walking or Talking Together. Policemen
must not walk together or talk with each other or any
other person while patrolling their posts, unless it is
pertaining to police matters.

Section 12. Using Batons. Policemen must not use
their batons or canes except in the most urgent cases
of self-defense.

Section 13. Reporting Lights Out of Order. Policemen
shall report promptly to the superintendent all electric,
gas, or gasoline lamps that are not properly cleaned,
or in any way out of order.

Section 14. General Observation. Should policemen
observe in any driveway, lane, or other place anything

PARK POLICING

775

liable to be dangerous or a public inconvenience, or
anything that appears to them irregular or offensive,
they shall immediately remove same or cause same to
be removed, and if impossible to accomplish this, report
the matter promptly to the superintendent of parks.

Section 15. Policemen shall not while on duty read
newspapers, books, or periodicals, and shall not ride in
any vehicle upon the driveways of the parks and boule-
vards, except it be absolutely necessary in the dis-
charge of their duty.

Section 16. Policemen in case of an accident shall
render every assistance possible, being careful to take
the names and addresses of all parties connected with
the accident, and make a written report immediately
of the same to the superintendent, and see that injured
persons are properly cared for.

Section 17. Policemen shall keep their uniforms in
as cleanly and tidy condition as possible. They shall be
worn by the officers only while on duty. Officers shall
not, because of their being police officers, seek to gain
admission into places where they should otherwise have
to pay an admission fee.

Section 1 8. Policemen who, by sickness, are rendered
unable to report for duty, shall see that the superin-
tendent is informed before reporting time.

GENERAL RULES

Section I. Familiarity with Rules. Every member of
the police force will be furnished with a copy of the
general ordinances of the park district, which he shall
keep in his possession and consult frequently, that he
may become perfectly familiar with his duties.

Section 2. Reports. Every member of the police
force is obliged to report to his superior officer all vio-
lations of the rules and regulations by other members
of the force, and failure to do so will be deemed neglect
of duty.

Section 3. Complaint. When complaints are made
against members of the force by parties outside the
force, they must be in writing, verified under oath, and
be concise and specific as to time, place and circum-
stances.

Section 4. Officers' Complaints. When complaint
is made by a member, or members of the force against
one or more other members of the force, the complain-
ing officer must reduce such complaint to writing, stat-
ing minutely the act or acts done or neglected to be
done by the officer or officers accused, being particularly
accurate as to time, place and circumstances.

Section 5. Trial Board. Complaints of any kind
against members of the police force must be filed with
the superintendent, and the park commissioners shall
constitute a trial board to hear and pass judgment
upon the accused.

Section 6. Powers of Trial Board. Such trial board,
by a majority vote, shall be empowered to reprimand,
suspend, fine or discharge any member of the police

force who may be brought before them for any vio-
lation of the rules and regulations governing the police
or for neglect to enforce any of the laws and ordinances
of the East St. Louis Park District of St. Clair County,
Illinois.

Section 7. Notify the Accused. The superintendent
shall notify the accused officer or officers of the time
and place of such hearing, and shall also notify the
person or persons making complaint, and endeavor to
have them present when such charge or charges are
being heard.

Section 8. Suspension. Pending any investigation
for infraction of the rules and regulations, any officer
may be temporarily suspended by the superintendent.

Section 9. Not Entitled to Salary. No member of
the police force shall be entitled to his salary during
the period of such suspension unless it shall be clearly
proven before the trial board that he is innocent of the
charge preferred against him.

Section 10. Property to be Returned to Board. When
a member of the police force resigns, or is discharged,
or dies, it shall be the duty of the superintendent to
see that his star and other property belonging to the
East St. Louis Park District are promptly returned.

Section II. Breach of Rules and Regulations. For any
breach of the existing rules and regulations, or for any
of the following named offenses, any member of the
police force may be reprimanded, fined, suspended or
discharged.

1. Neglect of duty.

2. Inattention to duty.

3. Sleeping while on duty.

4. Lounging on post.

5. Disobedience of orders.

6. Entering any place where intoxicating beverages
are sold while on duty except in the performance of his
duty.

7. Intoxication.

8. Drinking any kind of intoxicating liquors while
on duty.

9. Smoking while on duty.

10. Willful maltreatment of a citizen.

11. Using coarse or insolent language to a superior
officer, a fellow officer or any citizen.

12. Immoral conduct, or conduct unbecoming a
police officer.

13. Disorderly conduct.

14. Any illegal offense.

15. Any act of insubordination or disrespect toward
a fellow or superior officer.

16. Neglecting to treat all officers of the parks and
members of the police force of said parks, and all other
persons, civilly and courteously at all times.

17. Neglecting towearuniformswhile'on dutyaccord-
ing to regulation, or neglecting to wear star or other
emblem of office in proper position and neglecting to
appear clean and tidy at all times.

PARKS

18. Neglecting to report any officer guilty of a vio-
lation of any rule, or regulation, or order issued, or in
force for the government of the force.

19. Neglecting to take proper charge of all stray
animals and other lost property found in or about the
parks and driveways.

20. Receiving bribes in money or other valuable
articles.

21. Neglecting to pay a just indebtedness within a
reasonable time.

22. Communicating any information or orders re-
ceived from a superior officer to any person without
permission.

23. Interfering or meddling in civil matters, except
to preserve the peace.

24. Leaving post while on duty without being re-
lieved or being absent from duty without permission.

25. Inefficiency.

26. Interfering or talking with the laborers or work-
men around the parks in any manner.

RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PARK PATROL FORCE,
WESTCHESTER COUNTY PARK COMMISSION, WESTCHESTER COUNTY, NEW YORK

/. Organization and Command

1. The territory covered by the operation of the
Westchester County Park Patrol may, for police pur-
poses, be divided into precincts.

2. The entire force shall be under the command of
an officer who, for the purpose of exercising such com-
mand, shall be hereinafter designated as superintendent
of the Westchester County Park Patrol.

3. The official location of the superintendent shall
be as designated by the Westchester County Park Com-
mission.

4. The assignment to precinct and command shall
be made by the superintendent, subject to the approval
of the commission.

5. In the absence or incapability of a precinct com-
mander, a member of the force connected with the
same precinct, who, with the approval of the superin-
tendent, has previously been designated by the precinct
commander, shall be in command. Any member of the
force so placed in command shall assume all the respon-
sibilities of the precinct commander, and shall perform
all his duties, and shall be obeyed and respected
accordingly.

2. Associations: Voluntary; Political

1. No benefit, voluntary or other organization of the
Westchester County Park Patrol shall be permitted
until the constitution and by-laws setting forth the
object, purposes and scope of such organization have
been submitted to and approved by the Westchester
County Park Commission.

2. No member of the Westchester County Park
Patrol, or any other person connected therewith, shall
directly or indirectly solicit or be associated with any
movement to solicit funds through subscriptions or
contributions, public or otherwise, or pay assessments
for political or any similar purposes.

3. Members of the force are expressly prohibited
from empowering or making arrangements with any
person not connected with the force to solicit public
subscriptions or contributions for or on account of the
Westchester County Park Patrol.

5. Superintendent

1. The superintendent shall have the following
duties: He shall have cognizance and control of the
entire operation of the force, and shall have such
further powers as may be requisite to the performance
of the duties imposed upon him as such commander.

2. He shall report fully and promptly to the West-
chester County Park Commission as to all police
matters.

3. He shall be accountable for all property and
money belonging to the commission, issued to, or
appropriated for the use of the force.

4. He shall make an accounting to the Westchester
County Park Commission in writing for all such prop-
erty and money in such a manner and at such times as
may be directed by the commission.

5. He shall make recommendations to the commis-
sion regarding changes in salary.

6. He shall bring to the attention of the commission
all cases affecting the discipline of the force, which, in
his opinion, if substantiated, warrant action by the
commission.

7. He shall approve all requisitions, bills, etc., before
they can be forwarded to the commission.

8. All official reports, papers or documents of any
kind or nature shall be forwarded to the commission
as approved and signed by the superintendent.

9. All charges preferred against members of the force,
before trial, shall be made by the captain, or approved
by him and forwarded to the superintendent.

4.. Captain

1. The captain shall report directly to the superin-
tendent.

2. Whenever required to perform the duties of the
superintendent, in his absence or disability, the captain
will be particularly careful to carry out the orders of
the designated superintendent previously given; and he
shall not, except in cases of extreme emergency, counter-
mand nor set aside any order of the superintendent;
and when so countermanded or set aside, he shall re-
port to the superintendent his reason for such action
in each instance.

PARK POLICING

777

5. Patrol Sergeant

I. A sergeant on patrol is charged with exacting the
proper performance of patrol and other police duty by
the members of the force assigned to patrol duty within
the territory subject to his supervision. He will assist
and instruct the patrolmen in the discharge of their
duties, and remain within said territory, unless required
to leave it for a police or personal necessity.

6. Patrolmen

1. It is the duty of a patrolman both day and night,
and at all times, to preserve the peace, prevent crimes,
•detect and arrest offenders and to enforce the law.

2. When on patrol duty, he must constantly patrol
his post, must not stand, walk or converse with other
patrolmen or citizens except on police business; must
not lounge, sit or loiter when on patrol duty.

3. A patrolman shall not render any assistance in
civil cases except to preserve the peace.

4. He is prohibited from recommending or suggest-
ing to prisoners, or to the victims of accidents, the em-
ployment of any person or attorney, or any person
representing an attorney.

5. A patrolman shall be civil, respectful to his offi-
cers, associates and citizens at all times.

6. It is a patrolman's duty to know all persons liv-
ing or doing business on his post either by name or by
sight; to note the time that all persons of known bad
character frequent his post; to investigate all suspicious
circumstances that suggest themselves to him, such as
persons loitering about, carrying bundles or acting in
an unusual manner.

7. A patrolman while on duty shall not enter any
building, nor leave his post except in the discharge of
police duty. If required by any person to leave his post
in the discharge of such duty, he shall, except in great
emergencies, first enter in his memorandum book the
time and at whose request he leaves his post; he shall
also enter the time of his returning to his post.

8. Upon his return to the patrol headquarters he
shall report the fact that he has been off his post to
the precinct commander, together with all details relat-
ing to the circumstances.

9. If a patrolman on post requires the aid of another
patrolman he will give three blasts on his whistle. The
patrolman signaled will answer with three blasts. The
first patrolman will then give one blast to let his com-
rade know that he has heard the answering blasts. In
case of extreme and immediate danger, when a whistle
is not available, three revolver shots fired in the air in
rapid succession should constitute a signal. The an-
swering patrolman need not fire but one shot in the
air and hurry to the point of danger.

10. It shall be considered neglect of duty for any
patrolman to carelessly lose his shield, baton, revolver
or any other part of his equipment.

11. When a patrolman observes anything of a dan-

gerous character or likely to occasion public inconven-
ience or anything irregular or offensive, he shall report
the same immediately.

12. He shall report the disposition of all cases
wherein arrests have been made, upon his return from
court.

13. Under no circumstances shall a patrolman turn
a prisoner over to a brother officer. In all such cases
he shall arraign the prisoner in court himself and give
his evidence in person.

14. A patrolman shall promptly report to his pre-
cinct commander all accidents that may come under
his observation, giving name, age, nationality, sex,
residence, occupation, place of accident, filling out
necessary forms, etc.

15. A patrolman shall report to his precinct com-
mander all matters of importance relative to his duties,
such as homicides, attempted suicides, burglaries, as-
saults, fires, disorderly acts and other violations of the
law occurring on county property within his observa-
tion.

16. In order that the ends of justice may not be
defeated through insufficient evidence, a patrolman
must be particularly careful to note the declarations of
all those who have been the witnesses of murderous
assault.

17. In all cases of murder, all unauthorized persons
shall be prevented from entering upon the scene of the
crime.

18. Unless otherwise ordered, a patrolman during
the last five minutes of his tour of duty, shall remain
on post near the relieving point.

7. Precinct Commander

A precinct commander shall have the following
duties:

1. He shall at all times have cognizance and control
of police matters within the jurisdiction of this force
which may occur within his precinct.

2. He shall be responsible for the efficiency and dis-
cipline of his command, and shall bring to the attention
of the superintendent all matters pertaining thereto
which may occur within his precinct.

3. He shall be accountable for all property and
money belonging to the commission, issued to, or
appropriated for, the use of his command coming into
his custody.

4. He shall make frequent inspections at various
hours, both day and night, of the territory allotted to
his command, ascertaining the presence of each man
at his proper place, and aiding in the enforcement of
every duty.

5. He shall be responsible for the conformity to
standard, the neatness and serviceableness and proper
use and care of uniform and equipment worn by or
issued to members of his command, and shall be re-
quired to make inspection thereof at least once a week.

778

PARKS

6. He shall be responsible for the cleanliness, order
and proper sanitation of the quarters occupied by his
command.

7. He shall make such reports and keep such records
as may be directed by the superintendent.

8. Headquarters

1. The following records shall be kept, viz.: Alpha-
betical force record; numerical shield and gun record;
change force record; appointment record; expenditure
record; complaint record; requisition record; dismissal
record; grade record; filing bureau, etc. Also any addi-
tional record that may be deemed necessary.

2. All records and official papers kept in the office
shall be secured by the clerk having charge of them so
that they may not be tampered with or handled by
unauthorized persons, or lost. Any information from
the records to the public shall be given only on per-
mission of superintendent or the captain.

p. Correspondence

1. All communications shall be addressed to the
superintendent and in all official communications care
shall be taken to use the proper title.

2. In all official reports, requests, etc., words appro-
priate to the subject shall be used, but similar in effect
to the following: "I assume responsibility for the ac-
curacy of the above report," or "I certify to the cor-
rectness of the above facts (or may be verification of
facts) and assume responsibility for the accuracy of
this report," or "I certify that the necessities of police
work require the above," or "I certify that the records
and characters of the men asked for are good."

10. Requisitions and Supplies

I. No supplies of any kind shall be purchased or
repairs made, without the proper authority.

//. Patrol Property

I. Members of the patrol force and employees shall
at all times exercise proper care in the use of county
property, whether fixed or movable. Carelessness or
roughness in the treatment of property will not be
tolerated.

12. Property Lost, Stolen, Seized, etc.

1. A record shall be kept giving a description, with
marks, numbers, etc., of all money, and property lost
stolen, abandoned, or taken from prisoners or dead
bodies, together with the name and number of the
officer delivering the property.

2. No property shall be returned to a claimant with-
out proper authority. In every case the receiver of the
property so returned shall sign the property books in
which the record is kept. This shall be construed as a
receipt.

13. Automobiles

1. The automobiles or motorcycles of the patrol
force must be handled with care. Under ordinary cir-
cumstances, the legal speed limit within the confines
of the municipalities must not be exceeded.

2. Under no circumstances, except in case of arrest,
shall women be permitted to ride in a police automobile;
nor shall the machine be used for what is commonly
called "joy riding"; nor shall it be loaned to a person
or persons not connected with the Westchester County
Park Patrol.

3. All vehicles found abandoned or seized for any
reason by members of the force shall be taken to head-
quarters and properly cared for until delivered to owner
or otherwise disposed of in compliance with law.

14. Telephones

1. Patrol telephones shall be used only for the trans-
mission of official messages. Precinct commander will
be held strictly responsible for the enforcement of the
order. All reports or orders sent from or to precinct
by wire shall be entered in a blotter kept for that pur-
pose. Patrolmen are required to be concise, and respect-
ful in answering all messages and inquiries, and give
name, office and rank.

2. Patrolmen operating telephones are required to
use extra caution in receiving or transmitting messages,
so as to make no errors.

3. All messages not intended for the public shall be
treated as confidential and no official messages shall
be made a topic of conversation.

15. Appointments and Dismissals

1. Appointments to and dismissals from the force
are made only by the superintendent, subject to ap-
proval by the commission.

2. Each officer upon being appointed shall receive
from the commission a certificate, or notice of such
appointment.

3. The permanent address given by each member of
the force upon appointment will be construed to be
correct unless each change thereof be promptly for-
warded through official channels to the superintendent.

4. As soon as a newly appointed member of the
force reports to his station of first assignment the pre-
cinct commander thereof shall immediately advise the
superintendent in writing, of the date and time of such
persons reporting for duty.

5. As affecting pay and allowances, appointments
are effective upon the date of appointment.

16. Resignations

1. Resignations in writing shall be submitted,
through official channels, to the superintendent. The
date upon which it is intended they shall become effec-
tive must be specified in body of the communication.

2. Before a member of the force resigns he shall be

PARK POLICING

779

required to turn in all property issued or assigned to
him by the commission. His precinct commander shall
make endorsement on the resignation showing com-
pliance with this rule, and until this is accomplished,
all pay or compensation due such member shall be
withheld.

17. Transfers

1. As the necessity of the service may require, the
superintendent shall be empowered to transfer from one
point to another all persons connected with the force.

2. Unless otherwise directed, an order to transfer
becomes effective upon its receipt by the precinct com-
mander under whose immediate command the number
of the force that is to be transferred is serving; but when
the member of the force affected is absent at the time
of the receipt of the transfer order, it becomes effective
upon his return to duty.

3. A member of the force who is transferred shall
proceed without delay and in a direct route to his new
station. Failure to comply with this rule will constitute
absence without leave.

18. Leave of Absence

1. Leave of absence, in excess of three days, shall
be granted only upon authority of the superintendent.
No leave of absence in excess of civil service regulation
will be granted except in exceptional circumstances.

2. Leave of absence on account of sickness, where
the disability is unquestionably shown to have been
incurred on account of the performance of official busi-
ness, may be granted, with pay, but only upon the
certificate of a physician stating the necessity for ab-
sence and nature of sickness. At the option of the
Westchester County Park Commission the services of a
physician may be employed to inquire into the nature
of the disability of any member of the force applying
for leave of absence on account of sickness, and the
approval of leave may be made contingent upon the
nature of the written report of such physician.

3. If on account of disability incurred in the line of
duty, it is necessary for any member of the force to
enter a hospital for treatment, no claim for expense
will be allowed unless the hospital at which such treat-
ment is to be received is designated by the superin-
tendent or higher authority, prior to the admission of
patient.

4. Extension of leave of absence can be granted only
by the Westchester County Park Commission, for such
period as may be designated.

5. Leave of absence will be granted in terms of days,
each day of leave being taken to mean twenty-four
hours of actual absence.

6. Leave of absence and off duty period are granted
with the express understanding that they are termi-
nable by precinct commander, or higher authority,
should urgent necessity therefor arise.

7. Save in exceptional circumstances, which shall be

fully explained, applications for leave of absence shall
be submitted sufficiently in advance of the desired
period of leave to allow complete action being had
thereon.

8. The granting of vacations will be conditioned upon
the best interests of the service, and will be in accord"
ance with the terms of general orders pertaining thereto.

19. Tours of Duty

1. The personnel of each precinct available for
patrol duty will be divided, as far as practicable, into
reliefs. Assignments to reliefs shall be made by the
precinct commander.

2. The mutual exchange of tours of patrol by mem-
bers of the force is hereby prohibited, except by author-
ity of the precinct commander.

3. No member of the force shall be required to per-
form additional tours of duty as a punishment.

20. Suspensions

1. A superintendent or captain shall suspend from
duty any member of the force serving under him when,
in his opinion, such action may be necessary for the
preservation of good order and discipline in the com-
mand. In all such cases, report shall be promptly made
to the force headquarters of park commission.

2. Unless otherwise directed by the park commis-
sion, a member of the department under suspension
will report daily, in person, to his commanding officer
at the office of his command, or, by permission of the
superintendent or captain, to the commanding officer
of his residence precinct.

3. Under suspension a member of the department
will promptly surrender all department property, also
his pistol or revolver, which property will be retained
by his commanding officer and returned to him when
relieved from suspension or restored to duty.

4. During the period of suspension a member of the
force will not wear his uniform.

21. Discipline and Charges

1. Except as hereinafter noted, charges in writing
shall be preferred against members of the force alleged
to be guilty of infractions of these rules and regulations,
or alleged to be guilty of conduct prejudicial to the
good order and discipline of the force, or for absence
without leave.

2. In each instance the charges will be prepared and
submitted to the superintendent by the precinct com-
mander in whose territory the alleged breach of dis-
cipline was committed.

3. A copy of the charges upon which a member of
the force is to be given a hearing will be furnished to
him by the superintendent or captain, at least twenty-
four hours before such hearing. The services of charges
must in each case be acknowledged in presence of a
witness who will witness same.

780

PARKS

4. In forwarding charges to the superintendent, a
precinct commander shall inclose a statement to the
effect that he has investigated the charges and believes
they can or cannot be sustained. He shall also enclose
any statements in the form of affidavits which may be
obtainable covering material facts involved in the
charges. If none are obtainable he shall so state. He
shall also enclose a statement as to the general fitness
of the members of the force against whom charges are
preferred, which statement shall be based upon the
record of such person as shown in the precinct blotter.

5. The captain is not required to bring every minor
dereliction of duty to the attention of higher authority,
but will endeavor to prevent their recurrence by admo-
nitions, by withholding privileges, and by such other
means as may be necessary to enforce their lawful
orders.

6. All employees are expected to keep out of debt-
Unexplained failure to pay bills for rent, clothes or
other living expenses will be regarded as conduct preju-
dicial to the good order and discipline and will subject
the offender to charges and trial.

22. Instructions

I. Precinct commanders shall frequently give such
instructions as may be necessary to keep the members
of their command thoroughly familiar with the follow-
ing: The duty of a peace officer, the use of the revolver,
and in the grips and methods of subduing prisoners with
the employment of the least amount of force.

23. Uniform and Equipment

1. All members of the permanent force are required
to supply themselves, at their own expense, with such
uniform and equipment as may from time to time be
prescribed by the commission.

2. All such uniform and equipment must conform
in every respect to the standards adopted by the com-
mission.

3. Members of the force shall be required to renew
such articles of uniform and equipment as are unserv-
iceable in the opinion of the superintendent or captain .

4. Members of the force shall wear their uniform at
all times while on duty, unless specially directed by
their captain in each instance to the contrary.

5. The shield will be worn by all members of the
force while in uniform. It shall be worn above the left
breast pocket or blouse or in a corresponding position
on their overcoat or other outer garment.

6. No member of the force shall be permitted to
alter or adjust equipment issued to him by the com-
mission in such manner as to destroy its uniformity
with the adopted standards.

7. Uniforms must be kept neat and clean, and equip-
ment ready for immediate use.

24. General Provisions

1. Courtesy among members of the force and to the
public is indispensable to discipline. Respect to supe-
riors will not be confined to obedience on duty, but will
be extended at all times.

2. Members of the force when in uniform shall salute
their superior officers as hereinafter provided. It is the
duty of a superior officer to return the salute.

3. The salute is made by raising the right hand
smartly until the forefinger touches the lower part of
head dress above the right eye, thumb and fingers ex-
tended and joined; palm to the left, forearm inclined
at about forty-five degrees; hand and wrist straight.
After the officer saluted has acknowledged it, or has
passed, drop the arm quietly by the side. If uncovered,
the forefinger touches the forehead above the eye. The
right hand is used except when it is otherwise neces-
sarily engaged. Men in ranks do not salute unless
directed to do so.

4. Upon entering the office of the commission or
superintendent, members of the force will salute by
removing the hat.

5. Members of the force on patrol shall not engage
in conversation in such manner as to defeat the pur-
pose for which they are posted. They shall not smoke.
They shall patrol their post in alert manner, observing,
as far as possible, everything which takes place within
sight or hearing.

6. Members of the force shall devote their whole
time and attention to police work and are prohibited
from following any other calling or being engaged in
any other business.

7. Members of the force attending courts as wit-
nesses will always appear in proper uniform, unless
specially excused by the superintendent or captain.

8. The use of coarse, vulgar or profane language is
prohibited.

9. Members of the force shall not loan money to
or borrow money from, or otherwise become indebted
to one another.

10. Members of the force shall not use any unneces-
sary violence or willfully maltreat any prisoner or other
person. The baton or revolver must never be used
except when absolutely necessary. The baton is usually
sufficient to subdue the most belligerent person. The
revolver should be drawn only in times of riot or when
the officer is attacked by superior numbers, or by some
person armed with a deadly weapon, or where he is
trying to capture a fleeing prisoner who refused to stop
when commanded to halt.

11. No member of the force shall wear, use, display
or have in his possession any badge other than the one
to which he is entitled.

12. Members of the force shall not apply for war-
rants for assault upon themselves without the permis-
sion of the superintendent or captain.

13. The playing of cards or any game of chance for

PARK POLICING

781

stakes or wagers is strictly prohibited in all department
buildings.

14. When marching in a body, members of the force
will do so in military order and refrain from talking in
ranks.

15. Members of the force are prohibited from influ-
encing or attempting to do so, by threat or otherwise,
the business of any citizens.

16. No member of the force shall communicate to
any person information that may enable persons to
escape arrest or punishment or that may enable them
to secrete stolen goods or otherwise conceal a crime.
Nor shall he communicate any information respecting
special orders that may be issued for the capture of a
criminal.

17. No member of the force shall accept an award,
reward or other emolument without the consent of the
superintendent or captain.

1 8. No member of the force shall divulge information
from the force records without the consent of the super-
intendent or captain. Should an officer be quoted in
the public press as having done so, it shall be regarded
as prima facie evidence that he has violated this rule.

19. Members of the force shall do no talking for
publication nor be interviewed, nor shall they make
any public speeches on police matters without the per-
mission of the superintendent.

20. In all cases of homicide, violent, mysterious or
unnatural death, the superintendent or captain, in
whose precinct the body is found, shall immediately
notify the medical examiner of the county and -place

an officer in charge of the body until medical examiner
arrives. Under no circumstances must any unauthor-
ized person or persons touch or disturb the body, de-
stroy finger-print evidence, or remove any evidence of
a crime. Should the medical examiner decide to per-
form an autopsy, the officer in the case shall remain
as a witness and to identify the body. By officer in
case is meant the officer who first discovered or saw
the body. He simply has to identify the body cut
open as the one he discovered, or first saw. Should the
officer know the name of the deceased, so much the
better. The force is responsible for any property found
on the body of a deceased person; such property shall
be properly marked or labeled for identification and
delivered to headquarters, where it will be held until
called for by person or persons authorized to receive it.
A body must always be searched in the presence of
witnesses. In case of murder, all weapons, clothing
worn by the deceased, etc., shall be carefully marked
and preserved for the medical examiner's inquest, and
later for the prosecuting attorney,

21. No men of the uniformed force shall incur ex-
pense to the Westchester County Park Commission
Patrol without permission.

22. It shall be the duty of each person connected
with the force to subject himself to the lawful orders
of his superior officers; to be familiar with the contents
of these rules and regulations, as well as all general
orders by the force, and to conform to the provisions
therein contained.

ORDINANCES, RULES AND REGULATIONS CONCERNING THE ORGANIZATION AND
GOVERNMENT OF THE POLICE FORCE, SOUTH PARK DISTRICT, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

Police Force Organization. There are hereby created
the offices of one lieutenant of police and such number
of sergeants and patrolmen as may from time to time
be deemed necessary by the South Park Commission-
ers, which offices shall be filled as the needs of the
service require, and at the direction of the commis-
sioners. Said officers and patrolmen with the captain
of police shall constitute the police force. Under the
direction of the general superintendent, the captain of
police shall have immediate charge of the police de-
partment and all officers and employees thereof. The
general superintendent shall make such rules and regu-
lations for the government of the police force as he
may consider necessary or proper and which are not
inconsistent with any ordinance of the commissioners.
All members of the police department shall have power
and it shall be their duty to arrest any person found in
the act of violating any law of the state or ordinance
of the South Park Commissioners or aiding or abetting
in such violation, and shall take all persons so arrested
before some court of competent jurisdiction in the South
Park District. In case no such court is in session, the
person so arrested may be detained in any police station

in the City of Chicago, within the South Park District,
or any safe place until such person so arrested can be
brought before such court.

The members of the police force shall devote their
entire time and attention, when on duty, to the enforce-
ment of the laws of the State and the ordinances of the
commissioners, according to the regulations of the gen-
eral superintendent and under the direction of their
superior officers, and shall always be subject to dis-
cipline when in uniform, whether on duty or not, and
while on duty whether in uniform or not.
Rules for the Government of South Park Police Officers

I. All officers are expected to be on their beats dur-
ing the following hours, except as different directions
may be given to individual officers by the captain.

Day Men not on Duty in Small Parks. Early men,
7.30 A.M. to 6.00 P.M.; late men, 9.30 A.M. to 7.00 P.M.
Two hours is allowed for dinner between n.oo A.M.
and 3.00 P.M., one of the exchanging officers to be on
duty at all times.

Day Men in Small Parks. From 8.30 A.M. to 7.00
P.M.; two and one-half hours is allowed for dinner be-
tween 1.30 P.M. and 4.00 P.M.

782

PARKS

Half Day and Half Night Men in Small Parks.
1.30 P.M. to 11.15 P-M-5 one hour and three-quarters is
allowed for supper, the time to be designated by the
captain. Half day and half night men other than those
in small parks, from 2.30 P.M. to 11.30 P.M.; one hour
is allowed for supper between 6.30 P.M. and 7.30 P.M.

Night Men. Early men, 7.00 P.M. to i.oo A.M.; no
time allowed for supper; late men, 7.30 P.M. to 7.30 A.M.
Two hours is allowed for supper between n.oo P.M.
and i.oo A.M., one of the exchanging officers to be on
duty at all times. Should there be police business re-
quiring attention, officers will remain as much later as
necessary.

2. All officers shall make themselves thoroughly
familiar with the ordinances adopted by the South
Park Commissioners for the regulation of the parks
and boulevards, which are printed in the fore part of
this book, and any neglect to see these ordinances ob-
served will be a failure on their part to properly dis-
charge their duties.

3. Should an officer be compelled to make an arrest
of anyone who persists in violating the ordinances, he
shall do so in such a manner that the person arrested
cannot rightfully accuse him of improper conduct.
Arrests should not be made upon slight provocation,
and offenders must be warned, politely, that they are
trespassing the ordinances, and be requested to desist.
When an arrest is made it must be quietly and deco-
rously, and the officer shall avoid unnecessary violence
or harshness; the punishment of offenders is not a part
of a police officer's duty.

4. Insolence or profane language shall not, under
any circumstance, be used. Officers shall not smoke
while on duty.

5. Officers shall avoid any unnecessary show of
authority, and when enforcing an ordinance shall do
so with as few words, only, as may be required to
express their meaning.

6. Officers shall not discuss the laws or ordinances.
Refrain from giving their opinion as to what ordinance
should or should not be enforced.

7. Officers shall be neat in their person and attire,
and in their movements shall be careful to avoid any
appearance of sauntering or listlessness; they shall be
prompt and polite in answering the questions of per-
sons in the park for information concerning it, but not
officious or forward; they shall render every assistance
possible in case of accident, being careful to take the
names and addresses and vehicle license numbers of all
parties connected with the accident, and make a
written report immediately of the same to the captain,
and see that injured persons are properly cared for;
and they shall be especially solicitous for the safety
and comfort of women and children.

8. Officers shall not, while on duty, read news-
papers, books or periodicals, and shall not ride in any
vehicle upon the driveways of the parks and boule-

vards except it be absolutely necessary in the discharge
of their duty. Umbrellas or canes are not to be carried
by officers while on duty.

9. Officers shall be orderly in the performance of
their duties, and have full control of their temper, and
shall be unmindful of criticism from individuals.

10. Any officer who shall visit a place where intoxi-
cating liquors are sold or dispersed at any time, unless
in discharge of his duty, or shall be found intoxicated,
will be suspended and charges preferred before the
Civil Service Board.

n. Officers shall be mindful of the general interest
of the park, being careful to see that anything which
may be in the driveway that is likely to frighten horses
is removed at once, and to report anything which they
may see which is dangerous or unsightly.

12. Officers shall keep within the limits of their
assigned beats, unless it be to go to the assistance of
another officer or perform a necessary service which
requires their leaving their beats. Officers shall not be
together unless it is necessary in the discharge of their
duties, and shall separate as soon as possible when so
together.

13. The uniform shall be kept in as cleanly and tidy
condition as possible. It shall be worn by the officers
only while on duty. Officers shall not, because of their
being police officers, seek to gain admission into places
where they would otherwise have to pay an admission fee.

14. Any officer who by sickness is rendered unable
to report for duty shall see that the desk sergeant is
at once informed of the fact, and upon his recovery
notify the desk sergeant when he can return to duty.

15. Officers are not allowed to smoke in public while
in the uniform of the park commissioners, whether on
or off duty.

16. Officers shall give their name and number of
star to all who may have occasion to inquire. No mem-
ber of the police department in uniform, while riding
on street cars, elevated or passenger trains, shall occupy
a seat in such car or train while any other person is
obliged to stand because of lack of seats.

17. Officers shall remain on their posts until the
termination of their hours of duty, and shall await and
communicate to the officer who relieves them, all in-
formation of importance necessary to a proper per-
formance of their duties.

18. Officers will, in serious accident cases, at once
telephone the facts to the desk sergeant and later make
written report to the captain. Officers having made an
arrest will, as soon as prisoner is booked, telephone the
facts to the desk sergeant.

19. All officers will, before they go off watch, call
in the names, addresses and all other pertinent informa-
tion concerning persons to whom summons slips have
been issued during the day or night.

20. The failure of officers to properly discharge their
financial obligations will not be tolerated.

PARK POLICING 783

EXAMPLES OF LEGAL PROVISIONS GIVING POLICE AUTHORITY
TO PARK AND RECREATION EMPLOYEES

"The keepers of the several parks shall be sworn in as special police
and be intrusted with the enforcement of the provisions of this article,
and shall at all times have the assistance of the regular police force in carry-
ing out the same." (Revised Code or General Ordinances, St. Louis, Mis-
souri, Article LXVIII, Section 1884.)

" Police powers. The superintendent of recreation and playground
directors, while on duty and for the purpose of preserving order and the
observance of the rules, regulations, and by-laws of the commission, shall
have all the powers and authority of police officers, and it shall be incum-
bent upon them to preserve order on the playgrounds and in recreation
centers at all times. Any person or persons who shall violate any of the
rules of the commission shall be deemed and adjudged guilty of disorderly
conduct." (Extract from Code of City of Savannah, Chapter X, Section
2io, page 56.)

"Police powers. The directors of playgrounds shall have full police
powers, and for that purpose shall be sworn in as special policemen by the
superintendent of police, and furnished with suitable badges of authority,
and shall have full power to eject from any public playground any person
who acts in a disorderly manner or in a manner calculated to interfere with
the full enjoyment of the same by the public. Special officers must report
every three months to the assistant superintendent of police to renew their
commissions." (Rules and Regulations, Municipal Playgrounds, City of
Chicago, Illinois, 1924, page n.)

PARK POLICE PENSION FUND

One of the serious drawbacks to service in most of the park police
forces in this country is the lack of a pension system. Pension systems for
municipal police are now almost universally adopted in the larger cities,
and in some states there are general state laws covering this subject with
respect to municipal police. There are only a few park systems that have
a scheme for pensioning their park police. Among these few are the following:

i. Illinois. In Illinois there is a general law covering the subject.
(See Illinois Revised Statutes, Cahill, 1925, Chapter CV, Sections 418-428
inclusive, pages 1774-1778.) This law provides that wherever any persons
have been constituted a board of park commissioners in any one or more
towns and such board of park commissioners shall have established a police
force under the employ of such board, there shall be created, maintained
and disbursed in the manner prescribed in this Act a pension fund for such
policemen. The fund is constituted by deducting two and one-half per

784 PARKS

cent from the monthly salary of each policeman plus a special tax levied
by the board of park commissioners. The maximum of the tax for this
purpose that can be levied by the South Park Commissioners is two seventy-
fifths of a mill on the dollar upon all taxable property in the district; that
by the West Chicago Park Commissioners cannot exceed one-fifteenth of
a mill; and by the Lincoln Park Commissioners not above two fifty-firsts
of a mill. This tax is over and above all other taxes levied for the purposes
of the districts.

Any policeman who has served twenty years and attained the age of
fifty years may retire on a pension equal to one-half of the salary he was
receiving for one year prior to his retirement; or if through disability incurred
in discharge of duty he is forced to retire he will receive a pension of like
amount; but in no case shall the pension received be over the sum of eleven
hundred dollars or less than six hundred dollars per annum. Upon the
death of any pensioned patrolman or upon the death of a patrolman in
discharge of duty, his widow, providing the marriage took place one year
prior to time pension was granted, shall receive a pension of fifty dollars
per month and an additional ten dollars per month for every child under
eighteen years of age. If any child ceases to attend school between the
ages of fourteen years and eighteen years the allowance for that child will
be reduced to five dollars per month. Should a pensioned patrolman leave
no widow surviving him or should his widow die before his children arrive
at the age of eighteen years, each child shall receive, while regularly attend-
ing school, the sum of fifteen dollars per month. Pensions for children cease
upon arrival at the age of eighteen years. This act became a law May 19,
1917 and in force July I, 1917.

The act referred to was followed in 1921 by an act to provide for the
creation, setting apart, maintenance and administration of a park police-
men's annuity and benefit fund, applicable in the South Park, West Chicago
and Lincoln Park districts. This act is too long and detailed to present
even a synopsis of it here, but the entire act can be found in Illinois Revised
Statutes, Cahill, 1925, Chapter CV, Sections 429-484 inclusive, pages 1778-
1799. This act became a law June 29, 1921 and in force July I, 1921.

2. Essex County, New Jersey. A police pension fund was established
in the Essex County Park System (New Jersey) in 1910. A pension of one-
half of pensioner's wages or salary after twenty years service and reaching
the age of sixty years is allowed. A pension for the same amount is allowed
for disability incurred in discharge of duty; and in case of death in dis-
charge of duty a similar pension is allowed widow and minor children.
The pension fund is constituted by funding an amount equal to eight per
cent of wages of each member of the police force, three per cent of which
is paid by the men and five per cent by the Board of Park Commissioners.

PARK POLICING

785

EXAMPLES OF RULES AND REGULATIONS ADOPTED BY SOME PARK AND

RECREATION GOVERNING AUTHORITIES FOR THE GOVERNANCE

OF THE USE OF PROPERTIES

RULES AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING

THE USE OF PARKS UNDER THE CONTROL

OF THE FAIRMOUNT PARK COMMISSION,

PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA*

Riding and Driving

1. No person shall drive or ride a horse in the parks
at a rate exceeding seven miles an hour.

2. No person shall ride or drive therein upon any
other part of the parks than the avenues and roads.

3. No vehicle of burden or traffic or one displaying
a commercial advertisement shall pass through the
parks, except as hereinafter designated.

4. No dangerous horse or animal shall be allowed to
enter or be within the limits of the parks.

5. No person shall lead a horse within the limits of
the parks that is not harnessed and attached to a
vehicle or mounted by an equestrian, unless bridled
and saddled and in charge of a mounted groom.

6. No person shall ride or drive an animal not well
broken and under proper control of the rider or driver,
and, if such animal shall enter the parks it shall be
removed promptly by the guard.

7. No person shall drive, ride, lead or bring into the
parks any horse without a bridle or remove the same
from the animal's head whilst in the parks.

8. No person shall bring into the parks a horse or
other animal with a card or sign on which are the
words "For Sale" attached to the harness or elsewhere.

9. No person shall graze a horse or any other animal
within the limits of the parks.

10. All horse-drawn vehicles in the parks shall carry,
between sunset and sunrise, a light on each side in a
conspicuous position, so as to be readily seen, showing
white in front, and red in the rear, at a distance of at
least two hundred feet.

11. No vehicle shall stand in any part of the parks
for the purpose of hire.

12. No driver or operator of any vehicle shall solicit
passengers in the parks.

13. No wagon or vehicle of an undertaker having his
name or business thereon shall pass through parks.

14. No vehicle shall stand upon a drive or any part
thereof, if by so doing it congests traffic or obstructs
the road.

15. No vehicle shall remain on a drive without a
driver or attendant in charge of it.

16. No horse or other animal, or a second horse and
vehicle, shall be led on the roadways.

17. No vehicle shall stand on a drive at or near
Belmont or Strawberry Mansions during the progress
of the concerts.

18. No vehicle within the parks shall display any
flag, banner or other device, that in any way may
frighten horses.

19. No person shall turn cattle, goats, swine, dogs,
horses or other animals loose in the parks.

20. No person shall tie or hitch a horse or other
animal in the parks, except at places designated and
set apart for such purpose.

21. Belmont Avenue within the park limits may be
used by vehicles of burden and funerals, as well as for
general park riding and driving.

22. Until three o'clock P.M. funerals may pass over
Thirty-fourth Street, drive northwardly to Girard
Avenue and thence eastwardly, but not westwardly.

23. Every rider, driver or operator of a vehicle shall
come to a full stop at the signal of a guard.

Motor Vehicles

1. Motor busses and motor omnibuses for the con~
veyance of passengers over regular routes for hire may
use only such roads and drives or parts thereof as may
be designated from time to time by resolution of the
commissioners.

2. Other motor vehicles for the conveyance of pas-
sengers may use all the drives in the parks, except
Wissahickon Drive north of its intersection with Lin-
coln Drive.

3. Operators in charge of motor vehicles must be
skilled in the management of such vehicles, and learners
will not be permitted to operate on the park drives.

4. Operators of motor vehicles must conform to the
rules governing other vehicles in the parks, as well as
all laws relating to motor vehicles.

Bicycles

Riders of bicycles shall comply with all the rules of
the road and in addition thereto shall be subject to
the following regulations:

1. Every machine must be provided with a bell, so
arranged that it shall be under the complete control
of the person riding the wheel, and shall be distinctly
heard at a distance of thirty yards, sleigh bells, large
gong bells and continuously ringing bells being pro-
hibited.

2. Every machine, while in motion after dark, must
have a lighted lamp attached to the axle of the front

Consisting of Fairmount Park, Hunting Park, Burholme Park, Clifford Park, Cobb's Creek Park, Fisher Park,
Penny-pack Park, Wister's Woods, Morris Park, Fernhill Park, Cleverly, Pastorius Park, Wakefield Park, Kemble
Park, Logan Square, Rittenhouse Square, Washington Square, Franklin Square, The Parkway, Palmer Park,
Tacony Creek Park, Roosevelt Boulevard, Oregon Plaza, Southern Boulevard, League Island Park and Woodward
Pines.

786

PARKS

wheel. The lamp must show a white light in front and a
red light in the rear. Chinese lanterns are not permitted.

3. Not more than two machines shall be ridden
abreast.

4. Riding crosswise and curving to and fro are
strictly prohibited.

5. Children riding small machines may use the foot-
walks.

6. Coasting within the limits of any park is pro-
hibited, and the rider must not take his hands off the
handles.

7. When a wheelman is unable to ride a hill or road-
way in any park, he must dismount and push his ma-
chine up the adjoining footpath, if one is available,
until a suitable level is reached, where he may remount
and proceed.

8. In case of an accident, which cannot be repaired
at the time, the rider must leave the park by the nearest
exit.

9. Blowing of horns, playing of musical instruments
of any kind or having musical instruments, shades or
awnings attached in any way to a bicycle or tricycle,
is forbidden.

10. Infants or children shall not be carried on bi-
cycles in any manner whatever.

11. A bicycle shall not be towed by rope or otherwise.

Athletic Sports

The portions of the parks set apart for ball, croquet
or other games are under the following regulations:

1. No person shall engage in any play at baseball,
cricket, shinney, football, tennis, croquet or any other
game with ball and bat, nor shall any foot race or horse
race be permitted within the limits of the parks, except
on grounds specially designated for such purpose, and
the playing of games within twenty feet of any drive is
prohibited.

2. No person shall join in any game without the
consent of the persons of whom the game is composed,
or in any manner disturb or interfere with the same.

3. No person shall erect tennis nets or occupy any
ground set apart for tennis, baseball, croquet or other
games for the purpose of holding the ground.

4. No person shall play tennis unless wearing rubber-
soled shoes without heels.

5. No person shall erect a net or play on a court until
the flag .is displayed from the flagstaff. The flag will
not be displayed when the courts are not in proper
condition for play.

6. All games must start within thirty minutes after
the tennis net has been erected or the players shall
forfeit the court.

7. No person shall bat balls on any court. Only the
regular game of tennis will be permitted.

8. All persons using any athletic or boating facilities
furnished by the commission shall comply with the
regulations established from time to time for their use.

£ oating

1. No person shall use the shores of the River
Schuylkill within the boundaries of Fairmount Park as
a landing place for boats or keep thereat boats or
floating boathouses for private use or hire, except by
license or lease granted by the commission, and only
at places designated and under restrictions determined
by said commission.

2. All steamers, launches, rowboats, canoes or barges
going up the river shall keep to the east shore
and those coming down the river to the west shore,
except in the portion of the river immediately adjoin-
ing the tow-path along the west shore and between
that and Belmont Island, where the Schuylkill Navi-
gation Company law prevails.

3. No regatta or boat race shall take place within
the boundaries of Fairmount Park without permission
granted by the commission.

4. No person shall remove any of his clothing while
on the Schuylkill River that may cause improper ex-
posure.

5. The carrying capacity of boats and canoes within
park limits shall be as follows: Boats: 12 feet long,
4-foot beam, two persons; 14 feet long, 4-foot beam,
three persons; 14 feet long, 4-foot, 6-inch beam, six
persons (family boat); 18 feet long, 3-foot beam, two
persons (gig). Canoes: 15 feet long, 3<>inch beam, two
persons; 16 feet long, 3O-inch beam, three persons; 17
feet long, 31-inch beam, four persons; 18 feet long, 31^-
inch beam, five persons.

6. All launches, barges, rowboats, sailboats, motor
boats and canoes shall display a light from the bow
after sunset, while in the stream with passengers on
board, and shall in all other respects comply with the
laws relating to such vessels.

7. No boat or canoe shall be kept or used in Fair-
mount Park without a license from the commission,
except boats of clubs belonging to the Schuylkill Navy
or other recognized boat clubs holding leases or licenses
from the commission. All such boats shall when under
way between sunrise and sunset display the flags of
their clubs.

8. All boats and canoes for which individual licenses
are required shall for identification purposes display the
number inserted in the license on each side of the bow
in figures at least two and one-half inches high. All
persons violating this rule shall, in addition to the usual
fine, forfeit permission to keep a boat or canoe within
park limits.

9. No person shall operate a motor boat within the
park limits at a rate of speed exceeding eight miles an
hour.

Zoological Garden

I. No person shall injure, molest or disturb any
animal under the care and control of the Zoological
Society of Philadelphia within the park limits.

PARK POLICING

787

2. No person shall give or offer or attempt to give
to any animal under the care of the Zoological Society
of Philadelphia within the park limits any tobacco or
other noxious article or anything prohibited to be given
to animals by printed notices conspicuously posted
within the Zoological Garden.

Personal Regulations

1. No person shall enter or leave the parks except
by the entrances provided for the purpose.

2. No person shall stand or lie down on a bench or
seat in the parks.

3. No person shall enter a retiring house set apart
for the use of the opposite sex.

4. No person shall climb any tree or break, cut down,
trample upon or remove or in any manner injure or
deface any statue, ornament, tree, plant, shrub, fern,
flower, flower bed, turf or any of the buildings, fences,
bridges or other constructions within the parks; nor
shall any person write on any building, structure, fence,
rock or stone within the parks, or pick or carry away
any fern or flower, except violets, buttercups, daisies
or dandelions.

5. No person shall remove, disturb, interfere with
or take any of the blossoms or fruit growing upon any
tree, shrub or bush in the parks.

6. No person shall in any wise injure or foul any
fountain or spring within the parks.

7. No person shall carry firearms or shoot birds in
the parks, or within fifty yards thereof, or throw
stones or other missiles therein.

8. No person shall annoy, strike, injure, maim or
kill any animal, either running at large or confined in
a close, in the parks.

9. No person shall disturb the fish or water fowl in
the streams, pools or ponds, or birds, nests or eggs in
any part of the parks.

10. No person shall go in to bathe within the parks,
except at such places as may be designated by the
commissioners.

11. When ice on the river or lakes becomes unsafe,
the park guards will warn all persons thereon to leave
by sounding their whistles, or otherwise, and all persons
shall promptly leave the ice.

12. No person shall sell or expose for sale any tickets
of any kind in the parks.

13. No person shall solicit alms or subscriptions in
the parks.

14. No person shall solicit permission to photograph
visitors or take the photograph of any person or persons
without their consent.

15. No gathering or meeting of any kind, assembled
through advertisement, shall be permitted in the parks
without the previous permission of the commission; nor
shall any gathering or meeting for political purposes be
permitted in any circumstances.

16. No person shall have any musical, theatrical or

other entertainment therein without the license of the
commission.

17. No person shall sell or expose any article for
sale within the parks without the previous license of
the commission.

1 8. No person shall take the ice from any stream or
lake within any park without the previous license of
the commission.

19. No carrousel, swing or like amusement device
shall be operated in the parks on Sunday.

20. No threatening, abusive, insulting or indecent
language or any conduct that may annoy others shall
be allowed in the parks.

21. No gaming or any obscene or indecent act shall
be allowed in the parks.

22. No intoxicating liquors shall be sold within the
parks.

23. No person shall discharge any fireworks in the
parks without the previous license of the commission.

24. No person shall throw any dead animal or offen-
sive matter or substance of any kind into the River
Schuylkill or other waters within the boundaries of any
park.

25. No person shall scatter, drop or leave in any
portion of the parks, except in the receptacles provided
for the purpose, any piece of paper, rag, garbage, dead
flower or other rubbish.

26. No person shall injure, deface or destroy any
notices, rules or regulations for the government of the
parks posted or in any other manner permanently fixed
within the limits of the same.

27. No placard, advertisement, public notice or per-
sonal card, except park notices, rules and regulations,
shall be distributed, posted or affixed in any manner
in the parks.

28. No military or other parade or procession or
funeral shall take place in or pass through the limits
of the parks without the license of the commission.

29. No street railway car shall come within the
limits of the parks without the license of the commis-
sion.

30. No person, without the authority of the com-
missioners, shall light or permit a fire to burn in any
of the parks, and any one who discovers a fire in any
park shall at once notify the nearest guard.

Arrests

The park guards shall without warrant forthwith
arrest any offender, whom they may detect in the vio-
lation of any of the preceding rules and regulations,
and take the person so arrested forthwith before a
magistrate having competent jurisdiction, and they
shall have at all times the right to enter the premises
of the boathouses or other buildings in the parks for
the purpose of arresting violators of park rules and
may use all necessary means to attain that end.

788

PARKS

Punishment

Any person who shall violate any of the foregoing
rules or regulations shall be guilty of a misdemeanor
and for each and every such offense shall pay a fine of
five dollars, to be recovered before any magistrate of
the City of Philadelphia as debts of that amount are
recoverable, which fine shall be paid into the city
treasury for park purposes.

Permits

All permits issued by the secretary or chief engineer
shall be subject to park rules and regulations, and the

persons to whom such permits may be granted shall
be bound by said rules and regulations as fully as
though the same were inserted in said permits, and any
person or persons to whom such permits may be granted
shall be liable for any loss, damage or injury sustained
by any person by reason of the negligence of the person
or persons to whom such permits may be granted, their
servants or agents.

By order of the Commissioners of Fairmount Park.
E. T. Stotesbury, President.
Attest: Thomas S. Martin, Secretary.

RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF PUBLIC PARKS,
PASADENA, CALIFORNIA

General Departmental Rules

Any accident or property damage should be reported
to this office immediately. For information and guid-
ance Ordinance No. 539, covering the rules and regu-
lations for the government of public parks, and extracts
from Ordinance No. 2249, are inserted here verbatim:
Section I. It is hereby declared to be unlawful for
any person or persons to do any of the acts hereinafter
specified within the limits of any of said public parks.

1. To lead or let loose any cattle, horse, mule, goat,
sheep, swine, dog or fowl of any kind, provided that
this shall not apply to dogs when led by a cord or chain
not more than six feet long.

2. To carry or discharge any firearms, firecrackers,
rockets, torpedoes or any other fireworks.

3. To cut, break, injure, deface or disturb any tree,
shrub, plant, rock, building, cage, pen, monument,
fence, bench or other structure, apparatus or property;
or to pluck, pull up, cut, take or remove any shrub,
bush, plant or flower; or to mark or write upon any
building, monument, fence, bench or other structure.

4. To cut or remove any wood, turf, grass, soil, rock,
sand or gravel.

5. To distribute any handbills or circulars, or to
post, place, erect any bills, notice, paper or adver-
tising device or matter of any kind.

6. To swim, bathe, wade in, or pollute the waters
of any fountain, pond, lake or stream.

7. To make or kindle a fire for any purpose (except
in places provided therefor).

8. To camp or lodge therein.

9. To ride or drive any horse, or other animal, or
to propel any vehicle, cycle, or automobile elsewhere
than on the roads or drives provided for such purpose,
and never on the footpaths.

10. To indulge in riotous, boisterous, threatening
or indecent conduct, or abusive, threatening, profane
or indecent language.

1 1 . To sell, or offer for sale, any merchandise, article
or thing, whatsoever, without the written consent of
the city manager.

12. To hitch, or fasten any horse, or other animal,

except at a place specially designated and provided for
such purpose.

13. To ride or drive at a rate of speed exceeding
fifteen miles per hour.

14. To ride or drive any horse or animal not well
broken and under perfect control of the driver.

15. To play or bet at or against any game which is
played, conducted, dealt or carried on with cards, dice
or other device, for money, chips, shells, credit or any
other representative of value, or to maintain or exhibit
any gambling table or other instrument of gambling or
gaming.

16. To practice, carry on, conduct or solicit for any
trade, occupation, business or profession, without the
written permission of the city manager.

17. To play or engage in any game, excepting at
such place as shall be specially set apart for that
purpose.

18. To drive or have any dray, truck, wagon, cart,
perambulator or other traffic vehicle, carrying or regu-
larly used or employed in carrying goods, merchandise,
lumber, machinery, oil, manure, dirt, sand or soil, or
any article of trade or commerce, or any offensive
article or material whatsoever upon any road or drive,
except such as may be especially provided or desig-
nated for such use.

19. To drink any spirituous, vinous, malt or mixed
liquors.

20. To throw or deposit any bottles, tin cans, broken
glass, paper, clothes, sheet iron or any rubbish.

21. To sell or offer for sale any real or personal prop-
erty, or share of stock or other interest in any mining,
oil developing or other project, or to solicit for the
carrying of passengers free or otherwise for the purpose
of viewing, advertising, selling or buying real or personal
property, or shares of stock, or other interest in any
mining, oil developing or other project.

22. To drive or operate any motor vehicle in excess
of fifteen miles per hour.

23. To pick, dig up or remove any wild flowers,
yucca, shrubbery, young trees or plants of any descrip-
tion.

PARK POLICING

789

Section 2. No company, society or organization shall
hold or conduct any picnic, celebration, parade, service
or exercise in any public park without first obtaining
permission from the city manager of said city, and it
shall be unlawful for any person to take part in any
picnic, celebration, service or exercise held or conducted
contrary to the provisions hereof.

Section 3. It shall be unlawful for any person hav-
ing the control or care of any dog to suffer or permit
such dog to enter or remain in a public park unless it
be led by a leash of suitable strength not more than
six feet in length.

Section 4. It shall be unlawful for any male person

over eight years of age to enter or use any water-closet
for women in a public park.

Section 5. Any person violating any of the pro-
visions of this ordinance shall be deemed guilty of a
misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be
punished by a fine in a sum not exceeding two hundred
dollars or by imprisonment in the city jail for a term
not exceeding three months, or by both such fine and
imprisonment at the discretion of the court.

Section 6. All foremen and employees in public
parks are hereby given the power and authority of
special policemen for the purpose of making arrests
for any violation of the provisions of this ordinance.

ORDINANCES RELATING TO THE GOVERNMENT OF PARKS, BUFFALO, NEW YORK

Chapter LXVIII. Section I. Definitions. The
terms park and parks wherever used in this chapter,
unless otherwise stated, shall include the grounds
known as the Park, the Parade, the Front, and all
other parks, public grounds and public waters (not
being an approach or part of an approach) which are
now or may hereafter be under the control of the
Department of Parks and Public Buildings. The term
approach wherever used in this chapter shall include
the avenues and parkways leading to or connecting
said parks which are now or may hereafter be under
the control of the Department of Parks and Public
Buildings, and the Circle, and the Bank, Soldiers'
Place, Gates Circle (formerly Chapin Place), and
Colonial Circle (formerly Bidwell Place), and all other
lands forming and designated as a part of an approach.
The term person as used in this chapter shall include
an individual, firm, partnership, corporation and asso-
ciation of persons and the singular number shall include
the plural number.

Section 2. All ordinances shall apply to every part
of the city, except that if any ordinance provision,
other than those contained in this chapter, is in con-
flict with the provisions of this chapter, the provisions
of this chapter shall control in the parks and park
approaches.

Section 3. All public meetings, assemblies, military
and other parades and funeral processions are pro-
hibited in the parks and on park approaches, without
written permission from the commissioner of parks and
public buildings, except that the funeral of any person
held from a property abutting on any park approach
may proceed along such approach. No person shall
make any oration, harangue or public speech in any
park or park approach, without the written permission
of said commissioner.

Section 4. No person shall play any music or keep
or offer anything for sale, except as otherwise provided
by law, or solicit passengers for hire, or post or display
any sign or placard, flag, banner, target, transparency,
or advertisement of any kind, within any park or park
approach, building or place under the jurisdiction of

the Department of Parks and Public Buildings, with-
out the written permission of the said commissioner,
and then only subject to such rules and regulations as
shall be prescribed by said department.

Section 5. No person shall make any ascent in any
balloon or aeroplane from any park or parkway, nor
land therein from any such balloon, aeroplane or para-
chute.

Section 6. No person shall fire or discharge any
gun, pistol, firearm or any rocket, torpedo or other
fireworks of any description, throw stones or missiles,
build any fire, or carry any firearm in any park or
parkway, without legal authority to do so.

Section 7. No person shall engage in any sport,
game or amusement in any park or park approach,
except upon such portions thereof as may be designated
for the purpose by the Department of Parks and Public
Buildings, and then only under such rules and regu-
lations as may be prescribed by said department. Per-
mits for the exclusive use of any picnic or playground
for any specified date or time, not longer than one day,
may be granted at the discretion of said commissioner,
and no person shall in any manner disturb or interfere
with any person or party occupying the ground under
such permit.

Section 8. No person shall climb any tree, or pluck
any flowers, or fruit, wild or cultivated, or break, cut
down, trample upon, remove, or in any manner injure
or deface, write upon, defile or ill-use any tree, shrub,
flower, flower bed, turf, ornament, statue, building,
fence, bridge, structure or other property within any
park or park approach.

Section 9. No person shall bathe in any of the parks,
park approaches or the waters connected therewith,
except such places as may be designated therefor by
the Department of Parks and Public Buildings, or
attempt to take any fish, or send or throw any animal
or thing into or upon any of the waters of the parks,
or kill, injure or attempt to injure, or unnecessarily
disturb the fish in said waters or any waterfowl or
other birds or animals, wild or domestic, within any
of the parks or park approaches. Nor shall any person

790

PARKS

rob the nest of any bird therein, or in any manner tor-
ment, annoy or cruelly treat any bird or animal therein.

Section 10. No person shall open a trench for any
purpose, or dig into, or take up any part of any park
or park approach, without the written permission of
the Commissioner of Parks and Public Buildings. The
person to whom such permit is granted shall complete
the work within the time specified in said permit, and
shall do said work and refill and replace or remove in
a substantial and workmanlike manner all material
disturbed by him, and leave the place where said work
was done in as good condition as before said work was
begun.

Every person who shall receive a permit to open a
trench as above stated shall at all times after such
work has been commenced, and until the same has
been completed and until all accumulations of materials
resulting from such work have been removed, so guard
and protect the same that perse is driving or passing
along the roadway or sidewalk or in the vicinity of the
place where the work is being done, shall not be liable
to meet with any accident therefrom; and shall also
during the time, from sunset to sunrise of each night,
while said work is in progress, cause the same to be
securely fenced and guarded by a red light placed in a
conspicuous position and so secured that the same shall
not be extinguished.

Section n. The location, width, grade and con-
struction of all paths, driveways and roadways across
any sidewalk border along any park approach shall be
subject to the approval of, and constructed only after
written permission therefor is obtained from the Com-
missioner of Parks and Public Buildings.

Section 12. The location of all sewers and receivers,
gas pipes, water pipes, stopcock boxes, hydrants, lamp
posts, telegraph, telephone and electric power posts and
lines, manholes, conduits and pumps shall be subject
to the jurisdiction and control of the Commissioner of
Parks and Public Buildings, and their construction,
erection, repair or relocation shall be undertaken only
after written permission is received from said c.om-
missioner.

Section 13. The owner or occupant of any premises
abutting on a park approach shall cause the sidewalk
in front of or adjacent thereto to be kept clear and all
snow, ice and dirt to be removed therefrom before
9.00 A.M. each day.

Section 14. No person shall deposit, dump, throw
or place any earth, rubbish, dust, manure, paper, gar-
bage, slops or other refuse matter, or any sand, stone,
lumber or building material, or any substance of any
kind, in or upon any part of the waters or grounds of
any park or park approach, except ashes and garbage
in suitable boxes or barrels on such days as are desig-
nated by the street department for collection, and
subject to its regulations, without a permit from the
Commissioner of Parks and Public Buildings, and all

such permits, if given for building purposes, shall be
granted only to the owners or occupants of the property
to be built on or to their authorized agents.

Such permits shall be conditioned that said material
be properly guarded and a red light conspicuously dis-
played thereon between sunset and sunrise. No perma-
nent damage shall be done to any improvement on said
park approach, and all temporary damage or obstruc-
tions of any kind shall be made good or removed before
the expiration of the time stated in said permit.

Section 15. No sign, awning, frame, steps, raised
platform, door, porch, bay window, cornice, roof, vault,
cellar wall, cellar way, area way, fence or any part of
any structure erected on property adjacent to a park
or park approach shall be permitted to project over or
under the boundary lines of said park or park approach.

Section 16. No person shall sleep in any park, or
park approach. No person shall swing, occupy or use
any hammock therein, except such portions thereof as
may be designated by the rules of the department for
such purposes.

Section 17. No quadruped or other animals, except
those placed in the parks by the authority of the De-
partment of Parks and Public Buildings, excepting
horses and other animals used for riding and driving,
shall be conducted into or driven in the parks or park-
ways, or be allowed to remain therein. Dogs found
running at large within any park may be shot by a
policeman or other officer on duty connected with the
parks.

Section 18. No animal used for riding or driving,
nor vehicle of any description will be allowed upon
any part of the parks, except upon the rides, drives,
concourses and other places set apart for horses and
vehicles. Nor will any vehicle be allowed upon any
footwalk, ride or bridle path.

Section 19. No person, except those in the employ
of the Department of Parks and Public Buildings, shall,
without written permission from the Commissioner of
Parks and Public Buildings, place upon the lake or any
of the waters of the parks any float, boat or other
watercraft, or land or go upon either of the islands of
the lakes, or land or touch with a boat upon any part
of the shores of the lakes not designated as a landing
place. Nor shall any person walk upon or in any
manner use or occupy the slopes between the water
line of the lakes and footpaths.

All trees on park approaches in front of any property
upon which building operations are under way shall
be properly boxed to protect the same during the prog-
ress of such work. No trench for any purpose shall be
dug within five feet of any such tree, and sidewalks
and driveways shall be kept three feet distant from
any such tree, except as otherwise permitted by said
commissioner in writing.

Section 20. No person shall, without the written
permit of the Commissioner of Parks and Public Build-

PARK POLICING

791

ings, cut, remove, plant, break or injure any tree or
plant in any of the streets or public places in the City
of Buffalo; nor shall any person injure or remove any
device placed and intended to protect any tree or shrub
in any part of the streets or public places of the said
city. No person shall fasten a horse or other animal
to any tree or shrub or to any device for the protection
of the same, or place a hitching post within five feet
of any tree or shrub in any of the streets or public
places of said city.

Section 21. No person shall interfere with or in any
manner hinder any employee of the city while engaged
in constructing, repairing or caring for any portion of
the parks or park approaches, or while in the discharge
of the duties conferred by this chapter of the ordinances.

Section 22. No person shall operate or cause to be
operated any street car across any park, which car has
not been brought to a full stop at the near side of said
park approach or entrance and before reaching the
same. No such street car shall be operated across any
park approach at a greater rate of speed than eight
miles per hour. No person shall cause or permit any
engine, street car or train to stop or stand on or across
any park approach, nor shall any track or tracks laid
across any such park approach at grade be used at
any time for switching purposes.

Section 23. It shall be the duty of every person
operating a vehicle within the parks or park approaches,
to comply with all lawful orders, directions and regula-

tions displayed upon any post, standard, sign, sema-
phore or device installed for the regulation of traffic.

Section 24. The parks shall be closed each night
between the hours of 10.00 P.M., Standard Time, and
sunrise the following morning, and no person shall
lounge about or remain in any of said parks during said
hours.

Section 25. Until otherwise directed by the Council,
the Commissioner of Parks and Public Buildings is
hereby authorized to adopt rules and regulations for
the proper conduct and administration of the parks
and park system in the City of Buffalo, to grant per-
mits in conformity with the provisions of this chapter,
and to perform such other acts with reference to the
management of the said parks and park system in said
city as he may deem expedient to promote the beauty
and usefulness of said parks and to increase the com-
fort, safety and convenience of the citizens of Buffalo,
and other visitors to said parks, in their use of the
same.

Section 26. All rules, by-laws and ordinances here-
tofore enacted by the former Board of Park Com-
missioners are hereby repealed; and all ordinances or
parts of ordinances of the City of Buffalo inconsistent
with the provisions of this chapter shall have no appli-
cation to the parks or park approaches.

Section 27. Any person violating any of the pro-
visions of this chapter shall be liable to a fine or penalty
not exceeding $250 for each offense.

REFERENCES

"General Statistics of Cities," 1916, Bureau of the
Census, United States Department of Commerce, pages
25-27 and pages 59-60. Contains on pages 25-27 a
general discussion of the methods of policing parks
throughout the United States in cities of 30,000 popu-
lation and over, the number of park police, sources of
revenue for paying for policing and the salaries paid
park police; and on pages 59-60 presents a table show-
ing number of park police in different cities and appro-
priations from which salaries are paid.

Policing, Bulletin No. 6, August, 1910. Published

by the American Association of Park Superintendents.
Symposium by various park executives upon the general
subject of park policing.

Note: Playground and Recreation Association of
America, 315 Fourth Avenue, New York City. A great
deal of material is on file at the office of the association
on the cost of park policing, salaries of officers, organ-
ization of park police forces in different cities, Civil
Service requirements, and rules and regulations for the
government of the use of parks. A copy of any of this
material can be had on application.

CHAPTER XV
PARK LIGHTING*

SECTION I
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Park lighting, including the three main classes of general park lighting,
floodlighting for decoration, and night lighting for sports, is a necessary
element in park planning. One of the primary reasons for adequate general
park lighting is the consequent lessened possibility of night crime and
accidents. "A street lamp is as good as a policeman,"- - a statement attrib-
uted to a former Chicago mayor — is one which may well be applied to
park lighting. Undoubtedly, good lighting multiplies the effectiveness of
the park police force.

The question of night traffic accidents occurring on park boulevards is
closely related to studies made of thoroughfares in some of our larger cities.
These surveys, covering thirty-two cities over a period of a year, have
shown that 17.6 per cent of night automobile accidents are directly attrib-

PLATE No. 284. LIGHTING STANDARDS MAY BE SO CHOSEN THAT THEY FORM A VERY
INCONSPICUOUS PART OF THE BACKGROUND

1 Courtesy of Engineering Department, National Lamp Works of General Electric Company.

792

PARK LIGHTING

793

utable to insufficient light. It is not intended to imply that park roadways
in general present severe lighting requirements, but merely to call attention
to the fact that a certain minimum amount of light is definitely necessary
for safety. The walks and roadways need not be so brilliantly lighted as a
street proper, except in the case of heavily traveled thoroughfares through
the park (Plate 284).

Exceptional possibilities for park beautification are offered by the
floodlighting of imposing buildings and monuments (Plate 285). Bathed
in light against the darkness of the night, they may be made to compel
attention and to inspire admiration. Aside from its application to build-

PLATE No. 285. FLOODLIGHTING MAKES THIS STATUE AS ATTRACTIVE BY NIGHT

AS IT IS BY DAY

794 PARKS

ings and monuments, floodlighting may be used to advantage in connection
with waterfalls and fountains, especially in colors.

The recreational facilities of parks and playgrounds mean health and
enjoyment for those of leisure hours, but many, in all walks of life, are
forced to forego these pleasures because of lack of daytime leisure. But
with the restraint our modern mode of life has placed on our daylight hours
has come the modern incandescent lamp (Plate 286). It is probably true
that the instances of night lighting for sports out of doors in the past decade
were undertaken largely because of the lure of things spectacular — the
desire to do something novel. But the few scattered instances have served
as laboratory experiments to prove the idea, as well as modern lighting
equipment, practicable. It is now possible to release from the bonds of
time, millions of people who cannot participate in sports in daylight hours.
Midsummer evenings offer but a few hours of daylight after the working
day, and at these times the facilities are taxed to the limit. These hours
can be doubled or tripled by night lighting, and the playing days extended
until late autumn. In southern states where the days are uncomfortably
warm, the time for outdoor sports is in the cool of the evening. Night
lighting makes such outdoor recreation possible.

GENERAL PARK LIGHTING

Two types of distribution systems are available for park lighting,
either series or multiple circuits. The choice depends entirely upon local
conditions. In the large majority of cases it will probably be found that
the series circuit is the most practical, as this system is well adapted to
feeding small loads, widely scattered (Plate 287). When small lamps (less
than 4,000 lumens each)1 are used, it is the usual practice to employ low-
voltage group transformers, each of which supplies the energy for from
fifteen to twenty lamps. With larger lamps (over 400 candle power) a
separate transformer is usually furnished for each lamp. It is then located
in the base of the lighting standard, or buried in the ground close by. While
the multiple circuit is not generally used for park lighting, because of the
fact that the loads are widely scattered, it is sometimes perfectly satisfac-
tory for very small parks close to the source of energy supply. For flood-
lighting and decorative effects, the multiple system of distribution is the
most satisfactory, because of the low voltage and the lessened liability of
open circuits.

Two general types of cable are suitable for park lighting use — lead-
covered cable carried in duct, and armored parkway cable. The first of
these, considering the duct and the labor involved in placing it, is rather

1 The nominal candle power of street-lighting lamps is one-tenth of their lumen rating.

PARK LIGHTING

795

expensive, while the armored parkway cable can be laid in the turf with
very little labor, is easily repaired and will give excellent service. Since
special equipment,
construction and
maintenance costs
are practically con-
stant for all sizes of
lamps, and sincec
electrical energy and f ^
lamp renewals (the
outstanding varia-
bles) constitute but
a. minor proportion
of the total annual
operating cost,
lamps smaller than
twenty-five hundred
lumens (250 candle
power) should not
be considered.

The placing of
the lighting stand-
ards should be deter-
mined with regard
to an even distribu-
tion of light and with
reference to the lines
of the park design. It
is obvious that light-
ing standards should
not be so placed as to
interfere during the
day with view or
vista and thus be- PLATE No- 286- PLAY HOURS MAY BE DOUBLED OR TRIPLED

,. BY NIGHT LIGHTING

come a distracting

element. In formal parks, in fact, they may be made to serve as a very
helpful accent to the design and should be used for this purpose by the
park designers in much the same way as ornamental fixtures are used by
architects in the composition of the buildings. Ornamental standards may
be obtained in various designs to fit in with the different classes of land-
scape architecture. Cast iron, pressed steel and hollow concrete are all

796

. PARKS

suitable materials for park lighting standards. Many municipalities are
giving increased thought and study to city planning, and are developing
comprehensive lighting plans for the entire city (Plate 288). The family
idea of lighting equipment, in which globes and posts are of the same design
but of different sizes, is growing in popularity. If a plan of this sort has
been laid out, it is strongly recommended that the park lighting standards
be selected to conform to those used in other parts of the city (Plate 289).
On pages 798 and 799 are shown (Plates 290 and 291) a group of lighting
standards, representative of those which are especially suited to park light-

PLATE No. 287. AN EXAMPLE OF SMALL LOADS WIDELY SCATTERED,
LAKE CLIFF PARK, DALLAS, TEXAS

PARK LIGHTING

797

PLATE No. 288. A DRIVE IX A CLEVELAND PARK. THESE LIGHTING UNITS CONFORM
TO THOSE USED IN OTHER PARTS OF THE CITY

ing use. The upright standard should be of such a height as to support the
lamp at least thirteen and one-half feet above the ground, and preferably
higher than this. The bracket arm type of standard, especially useful where
foliage would otherwise obstruct the light (Plate 292), should support the

lamp from sixteen to
twenty feet above the
ground. Units should be
placed from one hundred
and twenty-five to two
hundred feet apart, the
distance depending on the
amount of curve in the
walks or drives. From
the accompanying sketch
(Plate 293) it may be seen
how confusing it is to
have standards on both
sides of the road, and how
clearly defined the drive is
when the units are

Xo. 289. THE "FAMILY" IDEA. THREE HARMOXIZ- mOU"ted On the OUtside
ING SIZES AND TYPES OF STANDARDS OI the CUTVC only.

798

PARKS

Specifications.1

Park lighting specifications should be simple and clear, and should
cover the following points: Territory to be lighted; period of contract; con-
tractor's duty; hours of burning; number of lamps; description of illumi-
nants; description of fixtures; maintenance of equipment; improvement in
art of lighting; additional lamps; outages; current supply; description of
present status and arbitration of disputes.

SAMPLE SET OF

The following shall be the specifications covering
park lighting by electricity:

I. Definition of terms. In these specifications and

contract the term city shall be held to mean the ,

or its properly authorized officers. When it is provided
that anything is to be done to the satisfaction or sub-
ject to the approval of the city and no officer is named
to act for the city, it is understood that the director
of public service shall so act. The term contractor

SPECIFICATIONS

shall be held to mean the party or parties, partnership
or corporation to whom the contract for street lighting
is awarded.

2. Territory to be lighted. The territory to be
lighted by the contractor under these specifications

shall be the as its limits now are or as

they may be hereafter extended during the life of the
contract.

3. Period of contract. The period of time for which

Paragon Senior Top with opales-
cent rectilinear glass globe, canopy
and cast iron post, Design Arca-
dian A, made by the George Cutter
Works of the Westinghouse Elec-
tric and Manufacturing Company,
15,000 lumen (1500 c.p.) mazda C
lamp. Height to light source, 16
feet.

Form 246 Novalux Lantern Unit
with Colonial alabaster glass pan-
els and dome refractor, made by
the General Electric Company.
Union Metal Manufacturing Com-
pany pressed steel standard with
bracket, Design No. 1 106, 10,000
lumen (1000 c.p.) mazda C lamp.
Height to light source, 18 feet.
Length of bracket arm, 2}-^ feet.

PLATE No. 290. STANDARDS ESPECIALLY SUITABLE FOR LIGHTING OF PARK DRIVES

1 These specifications have been adapted from those given in a paper presented by Mr. D. L. Gaskill before
the Ohio Electric Light Association, July 1921.

Form 23 B Novalux Lantern Unit
with Colonial alabaster glass panels
and dome refractor, made by the
General Electric Company. Union
Metal Manufacturing Company
pressed steel standard, Design
No. 842, 15,000 lumen (1500
c.p.) mazda C lamp. Height to
light source, 15 feet.

PARK LIGHTING

799

the contract shall be awarded for electric lighting under
these specifications shall be ten years from and after

4. Work at contractor 's expense. All labor, apparatus,
poles, brackets, wires, incandescent lamps or other type
of lamp which may be adopted, fixtures, reflectors, fit-
tings, connections, globes and appurtenances of every
kind and every description necessary for the lighting
of the park by electricity under these specifications
shall be furnished by and at the expense of the con-
tractor and shall remain his property after the expira-
tion of the contract. He shall supply all electric current
and labor of every description for supplying said lamp
with electricity and for maintenance and repair of every
kind, the intent and meaning of these specifications
being that the city shall be at no expense at any time
beyond the sum provided to be paid in the contract as
drawn in conformity with these specifications, namely,
a fixed price per lamp per year for the various types of
lamps and hours of service.

5. Hours of burning. The lamps provided for in
these specifications shall burn from dusk until day-
light on every night in the year during the entire
period provided in these specifications.

•

6. Number of lamps. The number of lamps con-
tracted for is as follows: series incan-
descent mazda C electric lamps of 400 candle power,

present trade rating, series incandescent

mazda C electric lamps of candle power,

etc.

7. Description of illuminants. The series incan-
descent lamps herein specified shall be mazda C series
lamps of 400 candle power, present trade rating, hav-
ing a total light output of 4,000 lumens. They shall
be well made and reasonably free from defects and im-
perfections so as to meet the conditions of the street
lighting service satisfactorily.

8. Maintenance. Lamps, reflectors, refractors and
apparatus used in the lighting of the streets and other
public places shall be properly cleaned at least three
times a year, and maintained in such condition as to in-
sure satisfactory lighting. All lamps, glassware or re-
flectors broken, or lamps burned out, shall be promptly
replaced or renewed.

9. Improvement in the art cf electric lighting. In view
of the possible improvements in the art of electric
illumination, the city or the contractor may desire the
substitution of improved illuminants or accessories, and

Octagonal Reflecto-Lux Junior
Lantern with stippled glass panels,
parabolic reflectors and cast iron
standard, Design Arcadian C,
made by the George Cutter Works
of the Westinghouse Electric and
Manufacturing Company, 4,000
lumen (400 c.p.) mazda C lamp.
Height to light source, 13 feet.

Form 12 Novalux Unit with No.
123 light alabaster rippled glass
globe, canopy and dome refractor,
made by the General Electric
Company. Union Metal Manu-
facturing Company pressed steel
standard, Design No. 1537, 4,000
lumen (400 c.p.) mazda C lamp.
Height to light source, 13}^ feet.

Form 25A Basket Type Nova-
lux Unit with light alabaster rip-
pled glass globe and dome refrac-
tor, made by the General Electric
Company. Union Metal Manu-
facturing Company tubular steel
standard, Design No. 1360, 4,000
lumen (400 c.p.) mazda C lamp.
Height to light source, 16 feet.
Length of bracket arm, 4^ feet.

PLATE No. 291. SMALLER UNITS USED ELSEWHERE IN THE PARK

8oo

PARKS

in making such a substitution it is the intent that the
city and the contractor shall share equally in the bene-
fits of such improvement. If the city and the con-
tractor cannot readily come to an agreement on the
terms of such substitution which shall afford an equal
share of the change to the city and the contractor, the
subject shall be submitted to arbitration as hereinafter
provided.

10. Additional lamps. The contractor will under-
stand that the number of lamps hereinbefore referred

to is the minimum to be supplied during the life of the
contract and that the city reserves the right to increase
this number as needs require. The city shall give notice
in writing of any additional lamps required and the
contractor shall be allowed a reasonable time in which
to place such lamps in service. All additional lamps
shall be of the same type and character as those herein
referred to and shall be erected, operated and main-
tained in the same manner as those already installed.
ii. Outages. The city, through its police, shall make

PLATE No. 292. BRACKET ARM TYPE
The bracket arm type of standard is useful where foliage would otherwise obstruct the light.

PARK LIGHTING

80 1

a report to the contractor on the morning following the
outage of any outage noted and in the case of said
mazda C series lamps becoming extinguished when the
same should be burning, then and in such case such
contractor shall permit and the city shall deduct for

each 400 candle power mazda C lamp per hour

for the time that such lamp is not burning when it
should be burning. No deductions for outages shall be
made when the same is due to causes beyond the con-
trol of the contractor. In case said contractor shall
cause to be lighted any incandescent lamp within one
hour after notification of the outage by the police de-

partment, then and in such case no record of such
outage shall be kept nor any deduction made therefor.

12. Current supply. The current in each circuit
shall be held at such a volume as to supply the right
current to the lamps.

13. Present status of system. It is understood that
the present park lighting system, including the loca-
tion of lamps, shall be a basis upon which the contract
is to be based, and any change in said location shall
be restored by said contractor after the completion of
his work to its original condition in so far as the same
is practicable.

PLATE No. 293. STANDARDS

Standards should be placed on the outside of the curve, to eliminate confusion, and to clearly define the
drive.

802 PARKS

14. Provision of arbitration. In case of a disagree- mony with regard to the subject under disagreement

ment between the city and the contractor as to any shall be submitted to the board of arbitrators, and,

of the provisions of the specifications or contract, this after a full hearing, at which all parties have a right to

argument shall be settled by a board of arbitrators be heard, the majority decision shall be binding upon

appointed in the following manner: one member shall the said city and the contractor. The board of arbi-

be named by the city, one by the contractor and these trators shall have the authority to assign the costs of

two jointly to name the third, and the three members the arbitration in accordance with the verdict,
shall constitute the board of arbitrators. All the testi-

FLOODLIGHTING

Floodlighting is such a special form of illumination that it is impossible
to cover the subject except in a very brief way, listing its possibilities and
mentioning some very general rules. Some of its more outstanding uses are
in connection with the lighting of monuments, waterfalls, fountains, public
buildings, statues, pageants, domes, arches, memorials, shrubbery, trees
and flower beds. It also finds wide use in the night lighting of outdoor
sports, to be discussed in the following section.

The illumination of statues and monuments must be such that the play
of light and shadow will be in harmony with the effect desired by the
designer, while wherever floodlighting is to serve a strictly utilitarian pur-
pose, such as in outdoor sports, parking spaces and the like, uniform illu-
mination and freedom from deep shadows are essential.

It is well to remember the fact that the brightness of a lighted object
depends upon the amount of light it reflects. That is, the amount of light
that makes a very white building appear brightly lighted at night, would
be much too small for, say, a red brick building of the same size. In other
words, the darker the object, the greater amount of light that will be
required. There are a number of good floodlighting units on the market
which, if used in accordance with the recommendations of the manufacturer,
will produce very satisfactory results.

LIGHTING FOR SPORTS

Outdoor sports lighting, though still a novelty in some respects, has
passed the experimental stage and has an established position among real
practical applications of the art of illumination. Outdoor lighting for
activities of a recreational nature may be divided into two classes: (i)
the lighting of standard courts and (2) the lighting of large fields (each class
of which presents a different aspect of the lighting problem).

On standard courts, while the illumination requirements in many cases
may be severe, the activities are confined within definite limits, so that
the engineer can at once choose the proper lighting equipment and desig-
nate the locations for this equipment which will give a satisfactory dis-
tribution of light, and not interfere with the playing. Tennis, volley ball,

PARK LIGHTING

803

roque and horseshoe-pitching courts are examples
of definitely bounded playing areas.

In the lighting of large fields, or areas on which
activities are not confined within definite bounds,
the problem becomes more difficult and oftentimes is
peculiar to each individual project. The lighting of
fields for football and track meets, and the lighting
of playgrounds and bathing beaches fall in this cate-
gory.

The problem of lighting for outdoor sports clearly
resolves itself into one of so choosing and locating
the lighting units that ample illumination is obtained
at the place or places where it is needed, with the
minimum of shadows and spottiness on the playing
area. At the same time the supporting standards
must be located well out of the way of the players
and so arranged that glaring light sources do not
defeat the purpose of the installation.

THE LIGHTING EQUIPMENT

The choice of suitable equipment for outdoor
lighting depends upon the characteristics of the light-
ing fixture and how well it meets the requirements of
any particular application. There are four types of
lighting equipment generally used for outdoor light-
ing. These are discussed briefly here:

RLM standard dome reflectors. The reflector
shown in Plate 294 is widely used for industrial
lighting, and is recommended for many outdoor
applications because of its high efficiency and design
which give a favorable distribution of light downward
at useful angles. It is made of enameled steel, is
durable and rugged. This type of reflector is recom-
mended in most cases for overhead lighting of areas,
where the reflectors can be mounted on poles or sus-
pended from cables at frequent intervals. RLM
reflectors give a high degree of illumination on hori-
zontal surfaces. White bowl lamps should be used
with the RLM reflectors so as to prevent excessive
glare from the bright lamp filaments.

Deep bowl reflectors. Deep bowl reflectors, such

PLATE Xo. 294

THE RLM STANDARD

DOME REFLECTOR

PLATE No. 295

DEEP BOWL SPUN

ALUMINUM REFLECTOR

PLATE No. 296

TYPICAL ANGLE

REFLECTOR

PLATE No. 297
WIDE BEAM FLOOD-
LIGHT PROJECTOR

804 PARKS

as shown in Plate 295, are particularly recommended for lighting tennis
courts. The large shielding angle effectively conceals the brilliant lamp
filament from the direct view of the players who, by necessity, must fre-
quently look upward toward the units. The distribution of light is such
that these units do not have the general applications of the standard RLM
reflectors.

Angle reflectors. Angle reflectors of the type shown in Plate 296
naturally suggest themselves when the problem is one of lighting a small
playing area with units along the sides. These units direct the light effi-
ciently to such an area, but where the nature of play requires vision at
upper angles it is impossible to avoid the blinding rays of the units. Con-
sequently their application is limited. For certain sports, such as hockey,
where the play is carried on close to the ground, angle reflectors are appli-
cable when mounted well above the angle of vision.

Floodlights. All large areas, such as football fields, bathing beaches,
trap shooting ranges, and the like, require floodlights to meet the severe
and variable conditions. For such application, obviously, other types of
equipment cannot be used because of the wide angles through which the
light must be directed. The fact that these areas, in general, must be free
from obstructions necessitates the projection of the light from a distance.
Floodlights are made in various sizes and have different characteristics as
regards beam spread. Usually, a wide beam projector, such as is shown in
Plate 297, is best adapted to meet these requirements.

Location of lighting equipment. The success of any lighting system
involves many factors, such as adequate illumination, efficiency, general
appearance, and lack of glare, shadows and spottiness. But, in the final
analysis, all of these are regulated largely by just two things, namely, the
lighting equipment (reflector and lamp) and the location of this equipment.

Having determined the type of reflector to be used, the proper location
and number of fixtures become of signal importance. It should be remem-
bered that each type of lighting equipment gives a certain characteristic
distribution of light, and for this reason can be depended upon to light only
a definite portion of the territory. When the fixtures are too far apart the
lighting will be uneven, and shadows pronounced. The higher the fixtures are
mounted, the fewer will be required, although larger lamps must then be used.

In floodlighting, the location of the lighting groups is chosen to give
uniformity of distribution and to avoid glare and long, sweeping shadows.
The recommendations given in Table A for lighting the different outdoor
recreational grounds will provide sufficient light for the full enjoyment of
the sport. Any modifications which suggest themselves should be made only
with the knowledge and understanding of the influence of all the various
factors upon the success of the lighting system.

PARK LIGHTING

805

TABLE A. LIGHTING NOTES ON OUTDOOR SPORTS

Sport

Number of Units

Lamp Size

Spacing

.Vaunting
Height

Type of Unit

Location of Units and Special Remarks

Tennis

At least ten units

ijoo-watt

20 feet

30 feet

Deep bowl

If courts are to be used for

per court

championship matches, 25OO-watt

lamps should be used.

Bowling

Ten units for

75O-watt

40-45 feet

20 feet

Elliptical

Units placed five feet from the

on the

six rinks

angle

edge of the green.

Green

reflector

Hockey

Six to twelve,

i5OO-watt

40-60 feet

30 feet

Angle

Evenly spaced along two sides of

depending upon

reflectc.

a large sized rink. (100 x 200 feet.)

rink size.

If rink is of medium dimensions

(112 x 58 feet), three looc-watt

units on each side will be adequate.

Units should be mounted far enough

outside rink so melting snow or ice

does not fall on rink.

Volley

Six

looo-watt

7 feet from

20 feet

RLM Dome

Use 4>^-foot bracket arms on poles.

Ball

White Bowl

sides, 30 feet

apart

Roque
and

Four

5OO-watt
White Bowl

36 feet

1 6 feet

RLM Dome

End units placed 12 feet from end
boundaries. Use 4>4-foot bracket

Croquet

arms.

Horseshoe

Two units for

2OO-watt

10 feet

RLM Dome

Supporting pole is placed behind

Pitching

each four pits

White Bowl

and midway between two adjacent

pits Use 6-foot bracket arm.

Race

Depends upon

looo-watt

100 feet, on

30 feet

RLM Dome

Placed on inside of track. Use

Tracks

size of track.

inside of

12-foot bracket arms.

track.

Bathing

Depends upon

looo-watt

400 feet be-

Flood-

Recommended method employs 25

Beaches

area to be

tween groups

lighting

watts per linear foot of beach.

lighted.

of units.

Football
Fields

About 15 flood-
lights per tower.

iSoo-watt

At least
70 feet

Large flood-
lighting

Distance from a group of flood-
lights to playing field should

Four towers.

not exceed 100 feet. Towers

arranged systematically.

Indoor

Two field towers

looo-watt

See

35 feet

Flood-

Two poles, each carrying two flood-

Baseball

carrying six units

Remark

lighting

lights, are mounted on the continuation

each, and two

line between first and second base, and

infield towers,

between second and third base,

two units each

respectively, 20 feet back from the foul

line; 150 feet from home plate two

other poles, carrying six units each, are

mounted two feet from the foul line.

Trap

Four

icoo-watt

See

20 feet

Flood-

Units located 18 yards behind the

Shooting

projectors

Remark

lighting

shooter's stand. Reflectors to be

projectors

so directed that course of clay

pigeons is clearly illuminated.

Average

Depends upon

750 to

30-40 feet

zofest

RLM Domes

Symmetrically spaced over pool area

Swimming

size of pool

looo-watt

Pools

Tennis Court Lighting.

Since tennis is so universally played, the advantages of night playing
are perhaps greater and the benefits are more far-reaching for this than for
any other single sport. For this reason and because of the large number of
details involved, complete specifications for lighting are given.

The plan for the lighting of single tennis courts is shown in Plate 298.
Five i,5OO-watt clear mazda lamps mounted thirty feet above the ground
should be used on each side of the court, each lamp equipped with a deep
bowl aluminum reflector and skirt, as shown in Plate 299. Where two or
more adjacent courts are to be lighted, the units should be located as shown
in Plate 300. Five i,5oo-watt clear mazda lamps mounted thirty feet above

8o6

PARKS

the court, each lamp equipped with a deep bowl reflector and skirt, are to
be used along the outside edges of the end courts. The row of units between

IZ4'

PLATE No. 298. PLAN VIEW OF LIGHTING SYSTEM FOR A SINGLE COURT

courts should consist of six i,5OO-watt clear mazda lamps spaced as shown,
and mounted thirty feet above the court, each lamp equipped with a deep

bowl reflector, without skirt. These systems will provide

a level of illumination entirely sufficient to enable a high

class type of tennis to be played.

In choosing a method of supporting the lighting units,

a minimum first cost combined with easy maintenance are,
rt of course, the principal factors to be considered. A system

such as is shown in Plate 301 will adequately meet these

requirements. The rigid bracket arms allow the use of dis-

connecting hangers, thus simplifying cleaning operations,

lamp replacements and

removal of equipment

for storage during the
The rigid support for
the reflectors also prevents the units
from swinging and rotating in the wind
and thus eliminates the glare and un-
even illumination which might other-
wise obtain. A list of the material
necessary for the construction of this
system is given in Table B.

The current supply for the lamps
may be either by underground or over-
head wiring, depending upon local
conditions. Where more than one

PLATE No. 299

Skirts fastened on
the outside rows of
reflectors increase the
amount of light on
the court.

winter months.

PLATE Xo 3QQ
pLAX yi£W QF LIGHTING SYSTEM FOR

TWO OR MORE ADJACENT COURTS

PARK LIGHTING

807

adjacent court is to be lighted, each row of lighting units should be con-
trolled separately by means of a switch placed conveniently on one of the
poles so that units not needed may be turned off. In some instances the
units have been supported by means of a steel cable stretched between

PLATE Xo. 301

VIEW OF TENNIS LIGHTING SYSTEM SHOWING AN OUTSIDE AND
MIDDLE ROW OF LIGHTING UMTS

poles, two or three poles per string of units being used. To prevent the
reflectors from swaying in the wind, it is necessary to stretch a small wire
between the poles and attach it to the rim of each reflector. Obviously, a
disconnecting hanger cannot be used, so that the maintenance of such a
system is not as easy as in the case of the one recommended above.

TABLE B. MATERIAL NECESSARY FOR ONE ROW OF UNITS

Poles. Three 45-foot wooden poles set six feet in the
ground.

Bracket arms. Two i6-foot bracket arms; two 20-
foot bracket arms; one 2-foot bracket arm. This is
to be omitted when ordering for a row between adja-
cent courts. (On the row of units between courts the
two center reflectors are attached to the 2O-foot
bracket.)

Lighting units. Five i,5OO-watt or 2,5OO-watt
mazda C lamps (six required for a row of units between
courts); five deep bowl spun aluminum reflectors, such

as the Ivanhoe No. 865 (six required for a row between
courts); five aluminum reflecting skirts, such as the
Ivanhoe No. 867. (Omit this item when ordering for a
row between courts.)

Accessories. Five disconnecting hangers, such as the
Thompson No. 94A (six required for a row between
courts); five pulleys (six required for a row between
courts); 215-foot steel chain and fittings. Add 60 feet
when ordering for a row between courts; one loo-ampere
switch.

SECTION II
THE ILLUMINATION OF PARKS, PARKWAYS AND PLAYGROUNDS1

Desirability. The desirability of adequately illuminating all public
grounds which are open to use during the period of darkness is unques-
tioned. The intensity to which such grounds should be illuminated is
dependent upon the service which such areas are intended to give. Unfor-

1 The data herewith presented is the result of a year of painstaking study, preparation of plans and estimates,
and testing out of different lighting units by the engineers of the Department of Parks, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
The data was originally published in Parks and Recreation, Vol. IX, No. 2, May-June 1926, pages 542-551.

8o8 PARKS

tunately and too frequently the actual intensity and uniformity of the
illumination of public grounds is based upon the ability of the adminis-
trative department to provide funds for installation and maintenance.

In the case of the Minneapolis park system, it is assumed that suffi-
cient funds will in due time be made available for a proper and adequate
installation, and careful consideration as to the benefits to be derived has
formed the basis of the intensity of illumination to be desired and the
consequent cost of maintenance.

Benefits. The benefits of adequate illumination are assumed as follows:

1. Light is a most efficient policeman. If the large recreational areas
under the administration of the board are to be open for public use at
night, they must be properly policed. The cost of the prevention of crime
and disorderly conduct will be much reduced and the efficiency of the
police service much increased if these recreation areas are properly
illuminated.

2. Light provides safety to vehicles and pedestrians alike. The park-
way system is a part of the major highway system of the city, providing
in many instances the shortest and least congested route between all the
outlying parts of the city and from the Lake District to the business district.

The paving of the parkways has greatly increased their use for all
light and passenger traffic, the roadways often being used to capacity dur-
ing summer evenings. Safety to this growing traffic and to the pedestrians
traversing or crossing the boulevards can only be assured with adequate
illumination. At the present time the boulevards are more poorly lighted
than our residential streets.

3. Light will increase the periods of service and the intensity of use
of all the parkways and recreational areas. These areas developed at large
expense can now be used only during the hours of daylight. Adequate
illumination will extend this period of service and accommodate the people
during their leisure hours, thus giving a greater return on the investment.

4. Light will add to the attractiveness of the park system. Not the
least of the reasons for the development of the park system has been the
desire to beautify the city, and the appearance of the park areas under
illumination will add to this asset.

Specifically adequate illumination will discourage disorderly conduct,
will give safety from stumbling, collision, attack and burglary; will permit
recognition of people and objects; will add to the sense of security and
enhance the appearance of the public grounds.

Current and distribution. Contemplating a modern electric lighting
system for the park areas, we find that electric current can be furnished to
the city at reasonable rates by the local utility company, and that it can

PARK LIGHTING 809

be delivered readily through its existing transmission system, as required
in any park area. The problem under consideration then becomes the
generation and source of light and its utilization so as to produce efficient
illumination.

Considerations in Design of the Lighting System

1. Intensity of Light (foot candles).

Efficiency of lamp.
Efficiency of glassware.

1. Inaccessibility of dirt and dust.

2. Ease of cleaning and replacing.

3. Unbreakableness.

4. Cost of glassware and its replacement.
(c} Appearance by night and also by day.

2. Standards.

(a) Appearance.

(b) Strength.

(d) Safety to public in case of collision.

(e) Cost of standard and its replacement.

3. Brightness of Area Illuminated.

(a) Spacing and height of standards.

(b) Reflection or absorption of road and other surfaces lighted.

(d) Eye discomfort and glare.

(e) Uniformity of illumination along street.

(/") Contrasts produced on street surface and on objects on the street,
(g) General effect and appearance.

4. Reliability of Manufacturer.

5. Experiences of Other Systems.

6. Cost of Current and Maintenance.

Fixed installation factors. Many of these factors are fixed by the con-
ditions which exist in the park system and are not subject to change.

I. Spacing of light units. In most instances on the parkways, this
spacing is influenced and predetermined by the street intersections. These
intersections occur almost without exception at distances of either 330
feet or 660 feet, and as it is necessary for purposes of economy to place
lighting units at the intersecting streets, so as to avail ourselves of the
opportunity to light the intersecting thoroughfare as well as the parkway,
the spacing of the lights becomes an economical division of these units.
For reasons herein explained, the average spacing adopted is 150 to 200

8io PARKS

feet. In the lighting of the parks and playgrounds, the location of stand-
ards is dependent upon physical features such as trees, walks, water areas,
playground equipment, etc., and no fixed spacing can be adopted.

2. Arrangement of lights. Because of the spacing selected as above
and fixed by the distance between street intersections, a staggered arrange-
ment of lights is in most instances necessary to avoid interference of the
shade trees planted along the roadways.

3. Heights of mounting. It has been determined by careful study and
tests that the height of mountings should be about one-eighth of the dis-
tance of spacing, making the heights and spacings as follows:

Heights of Standards Distance between Standards
10 feet 80 to 90 feet

15 feet 120 to 130 feet

1 8 feet 140 to 150 feet

20 feet 1 60 to 170 feet

23 feet 185 to 200 feet

These mounting heights are, however, subject to regulation on account
of trees, which may interfere with such uniform height of mountings and
consequently their spacing. The mounting heights in playgrounds depend
entirely upon existing physical features.

4. In general, all park roadways are 32 feet in width and the parkway
designs are such that a future width of 40 feet is the maximum obtainable.
This factor determined the location of the lamp standards relative to the
curb line.

5. A standard type of pavement has been adopted by the board.
This pavement, known as bituminous macadam and so constructed as to
have at all times an appearance similar to a gravel road, without percep-
tible reflection of light or creation of reflected glare, does not assist in adding
to the brightness of the street and influences the selection of types of
glassware.

6. Parkways in residential sections as a rule have front lawns and
gardens with buildings set back quite a distance so that they will not reflect
light and assist in intensity of illumination.

Determining factors. These factors and the general effectiveness of the
illumination will be determined.

1. Location of light relative to roadway.

2. Width of roadway.

3. Nature of pavement or reflecting areas.

4. Proximity of buildings.

5. Spacing of lights (distance between standards).

PARK LIGHTING 811

6. Arrangement of lights (staggered or parallel).

7. Height of mounting.

8. Intensity of illumination.

9. Distribution of light:
Horizontal plane.

(a) Reflectors.

(b) Symmetric refractors.
(<:) Asymmetric refractors.

Vertical plane.
(a] Free light.
(&) Reflector.
(c} Refractors.

10. Type of standards and glassware.

The intensity required for playground illumination is entirely depend-
ent upon the demands of the activities to be carried on, whereas the inten-
sity required for park lighting will be the minimum which will permit
discrimination of objects.

The uniformity of light desired is a disputed question, some preferring
an illumination sufficiently uniform to almost dispense with shadows,
whereas others claim that good lighting is dependent upon shadows and
silhouettes.

Intensity, uniformity and absence of glare are matters that can be
measured, but the final decision is dependent upon the human equation
and the resultant effect on the public in general.

The following conclusions were reached after a number of these
investigations:

1. Large lighting units of sufficient mounting height to avoid exces-
sive glare and spaced as far apart as is consistent with the intensity and
uniformity desired are more efficient, more economical and more desirable
than many small, low-mounted units placed close together.

2. That i,ooo-candle power lamps approximately 23 feet high and
spaced 200 feet apart produced the most satisfactory illumination for a
parkway of straight alignment, provided interference of shade trees could
be avoided.

3. That asymmetric refraction was desirable.

4. That for the conditions of a test to be made on our own park sys-
tem, where the fixed factors which will govern this ultimate selection pre-
vail, the lights should be mounted approximately 21 feet high, at spacing
of approximately 165 feet, so as to conform to intersection requirements;
the lights should hang over the edge of the roadway so as to clearly define
the curbs; and that various types of light and refracting glassware should

812 PARKS

be tested and demonstrated so as to ascertain the most pleasing effect with
intensities of from 0.05 to 0.2 foot candles and uniformities of approxi-
mately 8 to I.

Testing and demonstrations. In the illumination of the park and park-
way system and the selection of a proper installation, the following parties
were interested:

1. The board of park commissioners, responsible to the public for the
service to be given and its cost.

2. The City of Minneapolis, which through its city council is con-
fronted with a similar problem on residential streets.

3. The Minneapolis General Electric Company, which will furnish
electric current and maintenance service.

4. The manufacturers of lighting equipment.

In consideration of all parties interested and in order to make tests
of the qualities of the different lighting fixtures and equipment now on the
market, also to experiment with the efficiency of the different heights of
mountings and for the purpose of demonstration to the board and all
others interested in the subject, test lights were erected on a section of
St. Anthony Boulevard and experiments conducted for several months.

Installation. All units were installed in the positions which they
would likely occupy in actual performance on the parkways.

Twelve temporary lighting poles were installed on the parkway at
equal spacings of 156 feet, every other pole being on the same side of the
roadway. On each pole was placed a pendant unit and an upright unit.

Poles were placed two feet back of the curb line and pendants were
hung on five-foot bracket arms with arrangements for varying heights.

A long arm was used, as this was necessary in case of actual installa-
tion on most parkways, due to the interference of tree foliage.

Upright units were mounted at a height of 15 feet, the highest practi-
cal mounting height considered to be good practice for such units.

Pendant units were tested at 18^ and 21 feet, 18^ feet being the
lowest that gave desired uniformity and elimination of excessive glare,
and 21 feet the maximum height that could be used on the parkways on
account of the shade trees.

All pendant units were on one circuit and all upright units on another.
A 6.6 ampere constant current series circuit was taken out of a tub trans-
former which was across a 2,3OO-volt line leading to the St. Anthony Golf
Building.

Each circuit was operated by a double-throw switch across the sec-
ondary from the transformer.

All readings were taken with a Macbeth Illuminator along the center

PARK LIGHTING 813

line of the roadway at points opposite lamps and at quarter points between
lamps. Horizontal illumination and a test plate on the surface of the road-
way was the basis of all readings.

Conclusions from demonstrations. A study of the records and summary
of the readings made will show that having certain fixed and unchangeable
factors relating to mounting heights, spacing, reflecting powers of pave-
ment and lack of reflection from adjacent buildings, we selected for demon-
stration those luminaires which would give a fair average of intensity con-
sistent with our requirements, but which at the same time presented a
considerable range in uniformity. Varying in uniformity from 4.3 to I to
32 to I, the lighting fixtures demonstrated were selected from commercial
products of reasonable cost, any of which are and will be available for use.

As previously stated, intensity and uniformity can be and were meas-
ured, but "effective illumination" is a matter of human reaction deter-
minable by observation not of one, but of many.

We appreciated that the illuminant to be chosen for boulevard light-
ing must give a satisfactory distribution of light on the road, an acceptable
uniformity or ration of maximum to minimum foot candles on the road
surface so as to eliminate eyestrain, and a high minimum between stand-
ards so as to provide adequate illumination at this point. What is effective
illumination, however, must be decided by observation and the demonstra-
tion permitted us to receive from those concerned definite opinions as to:

1. Lack of glare, or interference of source of light with illumination
on roadway.

2. Visibility of curb lines.

3. The visibility of objects on the sidewalks.

4. The visibility of objects on the road.

5. The ease of discrimination by direct illumination.

6. The ease of discrimination by silhouette.

7. The general appeal of the various units and the illumination pro-
duced on a part of the boulevard where all of the fixed factors prevailed.

The general consensus of opinion, after repeated viewing under differ-
ent conditions of weather, and both with and without traffic on the thor-
oughfare, was:

That the mounting height of 21 feet was the most acceptable, because
of freedom from glare and ease of discrimination on sidewalks and roadways.

That because of ease of discrimination both by direct illumination and
by silhouette and because of general appearance and pleasing reaction, the
General Electric Company No. 25A with asymmetric refractors and the
Westinghouse Company Multilux with Holophane Superlux refractors were
the most satisfactory.

814 PARKS

A comparison of the readings taken on these two installations will show
a similarity which explains the dual selection of satisfactory illumination.

The general tendency of both of these units mounted on 2i-foot stand-
ards is toward a uniformity which will relieve eyestrain, but with sufficient
variation between maximum and minimum intensity at a spacing of 156
feet to create a silhouette effect desired by some observers.

The tendency of the General Electric unit is to a higher maximum and
higher average intensity with a greater amount of illumination from the
same source, whereas the Westinghouse unit produces a slightly higher
minimum intensity and a more uniform distribution of light.

In the opinion of the observers, both installations satisfied in this loca-
tion the conditions previously mentioned as requisites of a well-designed
lighting system and produced effective and pleasing illumination.

The glare due to the high intensity of lamps used in the low mounting
heights could be diminished by using lower candle power lamps. This,
however, would require a closer spacing of standards in order to get the
required average and minimum intensity, and because of the cost involved,
it was not considered practicable for boulevard lighting.

Park and playground lighting. Experience in the lighting of our own
parks has demonstrated that high intensity of illumination in the parks is
not necessary or desirable and subsequent recommendations are based on
providing only sufficient light for discrimination of object. Because of the
winding walks and irregular features of the parks and the low-hanging
foliage, it is necessary to use small sized lamps of low mounting height and
comparatively close spacing.

The design of the playground lighting contemplates providing suffi-
cient illumination for ordinary activities such as lawn games, gymnastics,
football practice, skating and such uses as do not require high intensity of
illumination. No attempt has been made to light the tennis courts because
of the large expense, involved and the unsatisfactory results obtained by
other cities. Special floodlighting equipment is desirable for bathing beaches
and hockey rinks.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Lighting equipment. All conduits, transformers, standards, luminaires,
and other equipment on park land to be the property of the board of park
commissioners and to be purchased and installed by them, under contract
or otherwise.

Electric service. All electric service to be furnished by the Minneapolis
General Electric Company from present lines and necessary extensions in
conformity with plans attached.

PARK LIGHTING 815

Maintenance. Cleaning and lighting and replacement of lamps to be
done by the Minneapolis General Electric Company under yearly contract.
Replacement of glassware, poles, transformers, and repairs to conduits to
be done by the General Electric Company at cost plus a fixed percentage.
Current to be paid for at metered or at flat rates as per pending agreement.
The responsibility of maintaining the lighting system in efficient operation
should be left with the utility company.

INSTALLATION

Electrical service. The distribution of energy for the lighting system
of both parks and parkways shall be as recommended by the local utility
company.

This consists of making use of the existing multiple system of distribu-
tion. Energy is fed into the system from the secondaries of transformers
on existing pole lines in proximity to the proposed installations. All light-
ing circuits are three-wire with a grounded neutral. The two outside wires
are standard N. E. C. lead-covered cable with a covering of asphalted jute
for mechanical protection. The neutral is a weatherproof wire grounded
and bonded to the lead sheaths of the two cables of each standard. Four
hundred and sixty volts are impressed across the two outside cables with
230 volts from each side to the neutral or to ground.

In general, 6,000 lumen lamps requiring a current of 20 amperes and
a voltage of 15.5 are to be used, and change in energy is to be effected by
a transformer located in the base of each standard.

As in some cases, winter lighting will require service from alternate
lamps only; a fuse in the base of each standard is to be provided for mid-
winter cutout. The three-wire arrangement is also flexible in the control
of lamps, permitting if desired midnight lighting only.

Standards for parkway illumination. Design. The standards shall be
designed for a mounting height of from 1 8 to 23 feet, with bracket of suffi-
cient length to extend three feet over the curb line.

Standards: Spacing, location, and mounting height. The standard shall
be spaced from 160 to 200 feet apart, as conditions demand and as indicated
on the accompanying plans. The mounting height of lamps shall be from
18 to 23 feet, depending upon varying conditions on different parkways.
The standard shall be set two feet back of curb lines which with a five-foot
bracket will permit a three-foot overhang of lamps.

Standards for playgrounds and parks. Standards for park lighting shall
in general be placed along park walks at spacing of approximately 100 feet,
these standards to be 12 feet in height. Playground standards shall be
placed as indicated on the plans and in relation to playground equipment,

816 PARKS

the mounting height varying from 15 to 30 feet. The 3O-foot height is
required for the lighting of skating rinks and playfields, in order to obtain
uniformity with lights placed around the edge of the field.

Lamps and glassware. Park lamps shall be i5O-watt multiple lamps
encased in small Washington-type alabaster globes without refractors.
This unit, designed for park lighting in Washington, D. C., has been very
satisfactory.

Playground lamps shall be of the height and intensity as indicated on
the various plans and shall be of the same type as designated for similar
heights on parkways.

The 3<D-foot standards shall be equipped with 5OO-watt multiple lamp
encased with General Electric Company No. 108 clear rippled globe. This
type is now being used satisfactorily in the lighting of our playfields.

Parkway lighting shall be 4,000 or 6,000 lumen, 20 ampere series lamps
for tip down burning, as indicated on the various plans.

Bowl refractors with a characteristic candle power curve similar to
Holophane No. 4435 S. F., or No. 4238 S. F. are recommended.

The design of the dustproof hood shall be such that the refractor and
hood will form a complete and symmetrical unit and harmonize with the
design of the standard. The hood and refractor should be suitable for
4,000, 6,000 or 10,000 lumen lamps.

Upkeep. Items in upkeep charge (yearly) :

(a) Maintenance and current.

(b) Depreciation reserve.
(c} Interest on investment.

Maintenance. The Minneapolis General Electric Company tenta-
tively agrees to furnish current and maintain the lighting system for the
board. Maintenance includes the following:

(a) Furnish all lamp transformers and control equipment.

(b) Turn lamps on and off.

1. Daily.

2. Yearly.

1. Replace burned out lamps.

2. Replace broken lamps.

3. Replace blackened and inefficient lamps.

4. Furnish all lamps for replacement.

(d) Maintain globes.

1. Clean globes.

2. Replace broken globes.

PARK LIGHTING

817

(V) Maintain standards and hoods.

1. Paint standards.

2. Paint hoods.
(/) Maintain system.

i. Shoot trouble.
Current includes the following:

(a) Furnish current for all lights.

(b) Regulate voltage for all lights.

Note. The General Electric Company excepts repairing any equip-
ment injured under unforeseen conditions, from automobile accidents, from
storms, and the like.

The charge for such maintenance and current will be made per lamp
per year according to the following schedule:

A. STANDARDS AND GLOBES ON ST. ANTHONY BOULEVARD
MINNEHAHA PARKWAY AND GODFREY ROAD

Burning Schedule

Charge per Lamp per Year

standard

Yearly

Nightly

For 4.00 c.p.

For 600 c.p.

For 1000 c.p.

18.0', 21.0'

23.0'

All year

All night

$45.00

$50.00

$67.50

18.0', 21. o'

23.0'

All year

Midnight

38.75

42.50

55.00

18.0', 21. o'

April i to

23.0'

October I

All night

36.50

40.00

52.50

18.0', 21. o'

April i to

23.0'

October I

Midnight

32-50

35.00

47-50

B. STANDARDS AND GLOBES FOR PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS

Burning Schedule

Charge per Lamp per Year

Yearly

Nightly

500 W.

750 W.

30.0' Playground

All year

Midnight

$55.00

30.0' Playground

May i to November i

Midnight

45.00

30.0' Playground

September i to March I

Midnight

50.00

30.0' Playground

September i to December I

Midnight

45.00

1 2.0' Park

All year

Midnight

$27.50

1 2.0' Park

May i to November i

Midnight

22.50

1 2.0' Park

September I to March I

Midnight

25.00

1 2.0' Park

September I to December i

Midnight

22.50

8i8

PARKS

TABLE OF UNIT COSTS AS WELL AS TOTAL INSTALLATION COSTS
FOR ALL LIGHTING PROJECTS

Location

sjo-Foot
Standards
with Bowl
Refractors

2i.o-Foot
Standards
with Bowl
Refractors

i8.o-Foot

Standards
With Bowl
Refractors

jo.o-Foot
Standards
with General
Electric
Globes and
Dome
Refractors

12.0-Foot

Standards
with Wash-
ington
Globes and
No
Refractors

Total
Cost

St. Anthony Boulevard

$24.8.4.0

$jr 06-2 06

Minnehaha Parkway

$241.20

$236.00

62 6c7 IQ

Godfrey Road

24.0. 30

c C28 QC

Chicago Avenue Field

$2Q7 ^6

$220 oo

6 416 21

Folwell Park

2C7.2O

185 oo

10 204 85

George A. Brackett Field

23Q.IQ

I7C OO

1. 067 T.T,

Linden Hills Field

2^O. ^O

170.00

2 862 38

Mt. Curve Triangle. .

ic6 ic

I 2J.Q T7

Nicollet Field

200.22

23Q.2O

8,614.96

Powderhorn Lake Park

280 30

186 50

2O 525 12

Bryant Square

221; ^o

165 oo

26ll 96

Sibley Field

227.80

170 oo

2 84.2 4.1

Average Cost

$24.8.4.0

$241.20

$238.20

$2C6.4.7

$185.20

$172 C4.-J CO

COST PER LINEAL FOOT OF STREET FOR PARKWAY LIGHTING

Parkway

Total Cost

Length of Parkway

Cost per Lineal Foot

St. Anthony Boulevard

$4.?. 06"? 06

30 950 o feet

I 48

Minnehaha Parkway . .

62.6c7.io

4.0 3 co o feet

I 27

Godfrey Road

C.C28 QC

3 480 o feet

I CO

SECTION III
SAMPLE SPECIFICATIONS FOR SUPPLYING ELECTRIC CURRENT

SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE PARK
DEPARTMENT, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND

Information for bidders. Sealed proposals in duplicate
for supplying electric current to the Board of Park
Commissioners, marked "Proposals for Supplying Elec-
tric Current to the Park Department," addressed to
the Board of Awards, will be received at the office of
the City Register, City Hall, in accordance with the
specifications of the Board of Park Commissioners,
which can be obtained at the office of the Park Board,
Baltimore, Maryland.

General specifications. All bids are subject to the
terms of the specifications of the Board of Park Com-
missioners, which are read into and considered a part
of each bid. The Board of Awards reserves the right
to reject any and all bids.

The successful bidder will be required to give bond
in the usual form, in the amount of the contract, for
the faithful performance of his agreement, and shall
indemnify and save harmless the Mayor and City
Council of Baltimore against any suit or suits, loss,
damage or expense to which said Mayor and City
Council of Baltimore may or might be subjected by
reason of any default or negligence, want of skill or
care on the part of the contractor, his agent or em-
ployees, in or about the furnishing and delivering of
the primary electric current over the primary lines to
and including the meter at all points of distribution
included in this contract, and shall indemnify and save
harmless the said Mayor and City Council of Balti-
more against any claim or claims due to the using any

PARK LIGHTING

819

form of material or method of manufacture, process,
composition or thing which is patented or claimed to
be patented, except any claim because of the use of
any equipment which the Board of Park Commission-
ers is to furnish under these specifications.

All proposals shall be accompanied by a certified
check of the bidder for five hundred dollars, on a
clearing house bank, drawn to the order of the Mayor
and the City Council of Baltimore.

The successful bidder will be required to execute the
contract and furnish bond within ten days of the date
of award of contract. All checks, except that of the
successful bidder, will be returned after the contract is
awarded. The check of the successful bidder will be
returned when satisfactory bond and contract is filed
with the City Comptroller.

Whenever the surety or sureties on the bond so
furnished shall be deemed by the mayor to be unsatis-
factory, the contractor, within ten days after notice to
that effect, shall furnish and deliver a new bond to
the Mayor and City Council of Baltimore in the same
penalty and on the same conditions with surety satis-
factory to the mayor and this duty shall continue on
the part of the contractor whenever and so often as
the mayor shall require a new bond with satisfactory
surety or sureties. If the contractor shall fail to furnish
such bond within ten days after said notice is mailed
to his address, the Mayor and City Council of Balti-
more, through its proper agent or agents, may refuse
to accept current under said contract and relet the
contract at the expense of the contractor.

Specifications in detail. Under these specifications,
the company shall furnish and deliver overhead pri-
mary electric current, except where the park is located
in the underground district, to the following parks and
squares: namely, Druid Hill, Wyman, Clifton, Patter-
son, Carroll, Fort McHenry, Latrobe, Broening, Hanlon
and Easterwood parks and to Union, Franklin, Harlem,
Lafayette and Perkins squares, and also to all other
parks and squares or properties under the jurisdiction
and control of the park board, as the latter may require
from time to time, during the term of this contract;
the said current to be the standard supplied in the
territory in which the park is located. It may be alter-
nating, twenty-five or sixty cycle, single or three phase,
or direct current. In rating the voltage of each phase,
twenty-four hundred volts will be understood as the
basis agreed upon. The voltage variation shall be
within the limit prescribed by the standard of the
Public Service Commission of Maryland, set for elec-
trical corporations in the state. Bids are desired for
a period of three years, the Board of Awards reserving
the right to accept such bids as it may deem to be to
the best interest of the city.

In determining the number of phase to be installed
at the above mentioned stations or future stations, it
is to be understood that for all loads not exceeding

twenty-five kilowatts, such current supplying the said
load shall be single phase and for all loads exceeding
twenty-five kilowatts, the said current may be three
phase, with the consent and approval of the park
board.

Demand. All demands shall be determined by actual
measurement of the maximum loads, using suitable
instruments which shall be furnished by the bidder and
subject to the approval of the park board. The demand
may be increased or decreased from time to time by
the city, which shall so notify the bidder at least ten
days in advance of making such changes. In deter-
mining the maximum load upon which the demand shall
be based, momentary or abnormal peaks will not be
considered. The interval over which the demand shall
be averaged shall not be less than one-quarter of an
hour, except for rapidly fluctuating loads.

The demand of the said parks and squares shall not
aggregate less than two hundred and seventy-five kilo-
watts in any month.

Payments. The city will pay in monthly installments
for the service and current delivered to the premises
heretofore mentioned, also to all other premises as may,
in the future, need supply. Such payments shall be
based upon the monthly readings taken on or about
the first of each month by the representative of the
city and the bidder and no payment will be made
until both parties agree upon the amount of service
rendered.

Fixed charges. Under these specifications the bidder
shall name a price per year, payable in equal monthly
installments, which shall be charged per kilowatt of
demand up to and including fifteen kilowatts and a
price per kilowatt exceeding fifteen. In figuring the
reduction in fixed charges, the kilowatt of demand will
be taken at each station and fixed charges shall be
determined at each station according to the load at
the particular station.

Running costs. Bids are desired per kilowatt hour on
the consumption set forth below and the successful
bidder shall be paid the schedule rate, which rate shall
be determined by the actual consumption at each sta-
tion. On or about the first day of each month the con-
sumption for the preceding month shall be ascertained
by reading the instruments especially installed for the
purpose. According to this consumption the bidder
shall be paid for the amount of the current consumed
at the rate fixed in the respective schedule by him
within which the consumption for the month shall fall,
and prices are desired and current will be paid for by
the park department to the successful bidder according
to the amount bid under the following schedules:

A. A price per kilowatt hour for all electricity fur-
nished up to and including five hundred kilowatt hours
per month.

B. First. A price per kilowatt hour for all electricity
furnished exceeding five hundred kilowatt hours and

820

PARKS

up to and including five thousand kilowatt hours per
month.

C. Second reduction. A price per kilowatt hour for
all electricity furnished exceeding five thousand kilo-
watt hours and up to and including one hundred thou-
sand kilowatt hours per month.

D. Third reduction. A price per kilowatt hour for
all electricity furnished exceeding one hundred thou-
sand kilowatt hours per month.

Fuel rate adjustment. The net price for each kilo-
watt hour of electric energy supplied under this schedule
shall be subject each month to adjustment by increase
or decrease according to the average cost of coal as
delivered to the coal bunkers at the company's gener-
ating plants. This adjustment is based upon changes
in the cost of generating electricity by steam, due to
changes in the cost of coal from a base price of five
dollars per short ton, five dollars and sixty cents per
long ton, and shall be taken at the rate of one one-
hundredth cent per kilowatt hour for each nine cents
per short ton, ten cents per long ton, change in the
cost of coal. This adjustment shall be made to the
nearest one-hundredth of a cent per kilowatt hour.

Note. The price of coal is filed monthly with the
Public Service Commission of Maryland.

All meters, instruments, etc., used for the purpose
of measuring the current supplied to the city shall be
tested by the Public Service Commission, if in the
opinion of the city, such meters, instruments, etc., are
not correct and such tests shall be at the expense of
the bidder. Demand and consumption shall be read
by the representatives of the city and the contractor
and agreed upon before any payment will be made.
Payments under the head of running costs are in
addition to payment under the head of fixed costs or
charges.

It is understood that in determining the monthly
payments due the bidder that the consumption in all
the parks, squares and other areas under this con-
tract, shall be added together, and on the basis of the
aggregate consumption for all stations, the price to be
paid for the current for the month shall be determined
according to the schedule prices offered by the suc-
cessful bidder.

On behalf of the Board of Park Commissioners.

Park Engineer.

Approved: Assistant City Solicitor.
Approved: President Board of Awards.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR LIGHTING BY

ELECTRICITY THE PARKS, PARKWAYS,

PLAYGROUNDS AND OTHER PUBLIC LANDS

UNDER THE MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL

OF THE BOARD OF PARK COMMISSIONERS

OF THE CITY OF CINCINNATI

1. Proposals. Sealed proposals will be received at
the office of the Board of Park Commissioners, 2005
Gilbert Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio, until twelve o'clock
noon of Thursday, the fourteenth day of May, 1925, at
which hour bids will be publicly opened and read, for
lighting by electricity the parks, parkways, playgrounds
and other public lands under control of the Board of
Park Commissioners of the City of Cincinnati for a
period of ten years dating from and after June I, 1925,
and expiring June I, 1935, the work to be done in
strict accordance with this specification, and the plats
on file at the office of the Board of Park Commissioners.

2. Price per lamp. Each proposal shall state the price
per lamp per year in writing and in figures. Proposals
shall be in strict conformity to this specification.

3. Deposits. Each proposal shall be accompanied by
a certified check on any solvent bank in the City of
Cincinnati, payable to the order of said city, in the
sum of five thousand dollars, which shall be deposited
with the Board of Park Commissioners, and the deposit
of such check shall be a condition precedent to the
opening of any such proposal, and no bid shall be given
consideration which is not accompanied by such check.

4. Forfeiture of deposit. In case the bidder to whom
the contract is awarded shall for a period of ten days
refuse or neglect to enter into the contract on the basis
of this specification, then in such case the money repre-
sented by the check shall pass to and become the
property of the City of Cincinnati, not by way of
penalty but as a compensation for the loss of time and
expense incurred by the city as a consequence of such
failure to consummate and execute the contract thus
awarded; and the city treasurer of the City of Cin-
cinnati shall thereupon endorse such certified check,
collect the money represented thereby, and pay the
same into the city treasury.

5. Return of deposits. The certified checks deposited
by the unsuccessful bidders shall be returned imme-
diately upon the award of the contract, and in case all
bids are rejected, all such certified checks shall be
returned forthwith. The certified check deposited by
the unsuccessful bidder shall be returned immediately
after he shall have entered into and executed the con-
tract hereto attached, and given bond as required by
this specification.

6. Sur ty bond. The bidder to whom the contract
is awarded, and within ten days thereafter, will be
required to enter into a contract in the form hereunto
attached, and give bond in the sum of five thousand

PARK LIGHTING

821

dollars with an authorized surety, guarantee, or trust
company, or companies, or by two or more resident
freeholders of Hamilton County, Ohio, to the satis-
faction of the Board of Park Commissioners, and in
the form hereunto attached and marked Bond B.

7. Assignment of contract. Any award made, or con-
tract executed hereunder, shall be absolutely unassign-
able, either by sale, transfer, or partnership agreement,
except by and with the consent of the Board of Park
Commissioners of the City of Cincinnati, but must be
carried out and continuously operated by and for the
benefit of the party to whom the award is made; and
if at any time it can be shown that there has, either
directly or indirectly, been any transfer, or that the
party to whom such contract was awarded is not di-
rectly carrying out the same in good faith, and giving
all the benefits and bearing all the responsibility of
such operation, consent of the Board of Park Com-
missioners not having been given, then the contract
shall cease and terminate and become null and void;
and if so voided, the Board of Park Commissioners may
proceed at once to advertise for proposals for a new
contract, and shall order suit to be commenced for
damages and for breach of said contract.

8. Arbitration. If in the opinion of the Board of
Park Commissioners the contractor is violating any of
the conditions of the contract made under this speci-
fication, or attempting to execute the same in bad
faith, the board shall notify the contractor, and direct
him to immediately remedy the defects or violations
complained of; and if said contractor shall not within
five days thereafter comply with all reasonable require-
ments of said Board of Park Commissioners, and take
such measures as shall, in the judgment of said Board
of Park Commissioners, insure a satisfactory perform-
ance of contract obligations, then said Board of Park
Commissioners shall have the right to at once provide
for lighting temporarily by means of any other illumi-
nant any part or all of the territory embraced in said
contract until a new contract shall be made by the
proper parties; and any excess of cost or any damage
to the Board of Park Commissioners caused by reason
of such failure of the contractor to comply with the
terms of the contract shall be paid to the Board of
Park Commissioners by said contractor. Provided, how-
ever, that if the contractor under this specification
shall claim he is carrying out his contract in good faith,
and that there has been no delay on his part, said claim
shall be duly investigated by a board of arbitration
appointed in the following manner: One party to be
named by the Board of Park Commissioners; one party
to be named by the contractor; and these two jointly
to name a third; and the board of arbitration so con-
stituted shall have submitted to it all the testimony
with regard to such claim of default, and after a full
hearing at which all parties shall have the right to be
present, the majority decision shall be final upon the

Board of Park Commissioners and the contractor. The
expense of such arbitration shall be equally divided
between the Board of Park Commissioners and the
contractor.

9. Payments. All payments made under the con-
tract based on this specification shall be made upon the
certification of the Board of Park Commissioners, or
its designated agent, within the first five days of each
and every month during the continuance of the con-
tract. In case of any disagreement, or of any services
rendered, or work done not provided for in this speci-
fication, no payments shall be made until all agreements
regarding such work done or services rendered shall
have been complied with, and the Board of Park Com-
missioners, through its agent, shall have given its cer-
tificate to this effect. Provided, however, said certifi-
cate shall in no wise estop or preclude the Board of
Park Commissioners or any of its officers from showing
a mistake therein as to the true amount of the lighting
service.

10. Indemnifying the city. The contractor for this
work shall indemnify and hold harmless the City of
Cincinnati, the Mayor, the Council and the Board of
Park Commissioners of the City of Cincinnati, against
any and all claims which may be made by reason of
any infringement of any patent right in the use of
lamps, machinery or any other article, apparatus, or
process which may be used in operating or maintaining
the lamps under this specification; and shall also in-
demnify and hold harmless the City, the Mayor, the
Council and the Board of Park Commissioners of the
City of Cincinnati, its officers, agents or servants and
each and every one of them, against and from all suits
and actions of every name and description brought
against the City of Cincinnati, the Mayor, the Council,
the Board of Park Commissioners or any of its agents
or servants; and also from damage and cost to which
it, they or any of them may be put by reason of injury
to the person or property of any other, resulting from
negligence or carelessness or otherwise, in the per-
formance of the contract, or from any improper or
defective material, wire, cable, lamp standard, lamp,
implements, or other appliances used in the performance
of the same, or from any act or omission of said con-
tractor for lighting, or of its agents or employees.

11. Authority. Whenever in this specification it is
provided anything is to be determined, done or ordered,
or any option is to be exercised by the board, or that
anything is to be done to the satisfaction of, or subject
to the approval of the board, it is understood that the
Board of Park Commissioners shall so act.

12. Tenure of contract. The period of time for which
the contract with the Board of Park Commissioners for
electric lighting shall be awarded shall be for a period
of ten years from and after the expiration of the
existing contract, June I, 1925.

13. Scope of contract. The territory to be lighted

822

PARKS

by the contractor under this specification shall be the
public parks, parkways, playgrounds, athletic fields, or
any other public property under the management and
control of the Board of Park Commissioners or which
may come under its control during the life of this con-
tract which the Board of Park Commissioners may see
fit to light by electricity, excepting such playgrounds
as are lighted during the summer months or playground
season only.

14. Zoning of city. The territory in which all parks,
parkways and other public lands to be lighted under
this contract are located shall be divided into two
districts, to be known as the Underground District and
Overhead District respectively.

15. Underground District. The Underground Dis-
trict shall be the territory included within the following
boundaries: Freeman Avenue, Liberty Street, Broad-
way, Eggleston Avenue, Third Street, Smith Street,
Fourth Street, Baymiller Street and Seventh Street.
Within this Underground District all lighting under this
contract shall be supplied by, and all lamps receive
their supply of electrical energy from underground
wires, which shall be placed beneath the surface of the
street in a system of tubes, ducts or conduits, built in
accordance with the most modern and best accepted
practice, in order that constant and uninterrupted
service may be assured.

16. Overhead District. The Overhead District shall
be the entire City of Cincinnati as it is now, or as it
may hereafter be enlarged or extended, remaining out-
side of the Underground District, as above described.
In the Overhead District all lamps, under this contract,
shall be supplied with current by means of overhead
wires. Such wires shall be equal in every respect to
those used in furnishing current for the street lights of
the City of Cincinnati.

17. Arc lamps. When arc lamps are specified under
this contract, they shall be of the same type and equal
in every respect to those used for lighting the streets
of the City of Cincinnati. Whether iron or wooden
poles are used for the support of wires or lamps their
appearance shall meet with the approval of the Board
of Park Commissioners and they shall be kept painted,
maintained and replaced by the contractor. The loca-
tion of all poles on park property shall be as directed
by the Board of Park Commissioners.

18. Unit prices for arc lamps. Bidders shall submit
a price per lamp per year for arc lamps in the Under-
ground District and also a price per lamp per year for
arc lamps in the Overhead District. The prices sub-
mitted shall include all renewals and replacement of
materials, the cleaning of glassware, the painting of
both iron and wooden poles, the furnishing of the nec-
essary electric power and maintaining the equipment
constantly in first-class operating condition.

19. Tungsten lamps. Tungsten lamps shall be of
eighty-watt rating, equipped with radial wave reflec-

tors and supported by iron brackets secured to the
poles. The price bid for tungsten lamps per year shall
include the furnishing and maintaining of all equip-
ment and the necessary current for operating the lights.

20. Parkway lights on city-owned equipment. The
parkways and park roads in the Overhead District are
now lighted by means of incandescent lamps on cast
iron standards. Such equipment is the property of the
Board of Park Commissioners, but the bidders shall
submit a price per lamp per year for each of three sizes
of lamps to be used on such city-owned equipment,
which price per lamp per year shall include the main-
tenance and replacement of all equipment and appara-
tus used in connection with such lights, including over-
head and underground conductors, cast iron lamp
standards, globes and lamps, and the Board of Park
Commissioners shall be at no expense whatsoever for
lighting on such city-owned equipment beyond the
price bid per lamp per year. All such lamps shall be
connected in series by an underground cable and the
current for such circuit shall be supplied from the near-
est overhead wires or the nearest manhole of the con-
tractor. Replacements of lamp standards shall be of
the same design now in use for such lights or of a design
approved by the Board of Park Commissioners. The
standards shall be set plumb upon a suitable foundation,
the bottom of which shall be below the frost line.

21. Danger signs. The contractor shall, at such
places as may be directed, provide lamps with genuine
ruby globes or globes having a genuine ruby band of
such dimensions as may be determined by the Board of
Park Commissioners.

22. Lamps. All incandescent lamps shall be Edison
Mazda C Class of candle powers specified. They shall
be fitted with Mogul screw bases.

23. Cleaning globes. All globes shall be cleaned at
stated periods at least every two weeks.

24. Lamp renewals. Lamps shall be renewed imme-
diately when broken or burned out or when in the
opinion of the Board of Park Commissioners any lamp
has outlived its usefulness.

25. Defective equipment. Should any standard,
transformer, wire, fixture, support or other appliance
become broken, or at any time found to be in a defec-
tive condition, such break or defect shall be promptly
repaired and remedied by the contractor; but no de-
fault on the part of the Board of Park Commissioners
to require such repairs or remedy shall relieve the con-
tractor of any responsibility in case of accident to per-
sons or property by reason of such defective standard
or other appliance.

26. Current. The current supplied for lights under
this contract shall at all times be equal in amount and
pressure to that furnished for the same type of lamp
used by the City of Cincinnati for street lighting.

27. Present installation. The present installation
consists of the following number of units:

PARK LIGHTING

823

Underground arc lamps 8

Overhead arc lamps 105

Eighty-watt tungsten on equipment not owned by

the city 5

Eighty-watt tungsten on equipment owned by the

city 57

One hundred candle power incandescent lamps on

equipment owned by the city 91

Total 266

It is distinctly understood that the above number of
lamps shall in no wise be considered a guarantee by
the Board of Park Commissioners that it will use the
exact number of lamps herein above set forth, nor shall
the number so fixed be the limit to the number of
lamps the Board of Park Commissioners may require.
The above number is approximate and is given solely
as a basis for computing the bids.

28. Displacement of present lamps. Should the bidder
to whom the contract is awarded be at the time of
making such contract already under contract with the
Board of Park Commissioners for park lighting, then
such new contract and this specification shall be con-
strued as an agreement upon the compensation for the
change of lamps and number thereof and the Board of
Park Commissioners shall have the right to discon-
tinue the lamps theretofore in use in the territory
covered by such new contract and specification; the
number of lamps discontinued to be thereupon de-
ducted from any guaranteed number of lamps in any
such existing contract.

29. Exle< sijns. With the approval of the Board of
Park Commissioners, at any time during the existence
of this contract, the successful bidder shall be obliged
to extend any part of this system of lighting, to be paid
for at the same rate of compensation as may be here-
after agreed upon.

30. Additional lamps. The contractor shall install
additional lamps when ordered to do so within ten
days after receipt of the order. He must notify the
board when such lamps are first lighted and include
the price for such additional lamps in his monthly
account to the board, billing for the fraction of a month
such lamps as have been placed in service.

31. Discontinuance of lamps. The Board of Park
Commissioners may during the term of the contract
discontinue lamps, and the contractor, when ordered to
do so, shall so discontinue lighting and remove his
lamps within ten days after the receipt of the order.
The contractor shall notify the board when lamps are
discontinued and shall bill the board only for the frac-
tion of a month such lamps were lighted during the
month.

32. Unit prices. Bidders shall submit a unit price
per lamp per year for each type of lamp as set forth on
the proposal blank hereto attached. The prices sub-
mitted shall include the furnishing by and at the ex-

pense of the contractor, all labor and materials of every
description for lighting the parks, parkways, play-
grounds and athletic fields, etc., by electricity in accord-
ance with this specification.

33. Plan. The successful bidder shall file with the
Board of Park Commissioners a plat or diagram of each
circuit, and shall from time to time as may be required
by said board file an additional or amended plat
diagram showing any changes that may have been
made in the circuits, and the location and number of
lamps on any or all circuits. Circuits thus shown shall
be designated by numerals.

34. Outages. All lamps under this contract shall be
lighted every night in the year during the entire period
provided for in this specification, in accordance with
the requirements of the street lighting schedule ap-
proved by the Council of the City of Cincinnati, July
23, 1906, which schedule provides for a total lighting
per year for each lamp of 3,914 hours; provided, how-
ever, that no lamp shall be placed on any park prop-
erty until the exact location thereof has been approved
by the Board of Park Commissioners. All outages shall
be immediately reported by the park police or care-
takers by telephone to the contractor's central lighting
station. The park employee noticing same shall keep
account as nearly as possible of the number of hours
any lamp is allowed to remain out, which outage shall
be reported to the Board of Park Commissioners. The
contractor shall be allowed one hour within which to
relight any lamp or lamps so reported out, and if not
relighted within said time a deduction from the current
monthly bill rendered for electric lighting proportional
to the time of outage exceeding one hour shall be made
by the Board of Park Commissioners.

35. Time of completion of installation. The success-
ful bidder shall, within thirty days after the award of
the contract, begin work on this installation and have
same completed and in operation within one year after
the date of such award.

36. Penalty for failure to complete installation. Should
the successful bidder to whom the contract has been
awarded fail to complete and have the installation in
operation within one year from the date of such award
in accordance with this specification and the contract,
strikes and unavoidable delays excepted, then in such
case the contractor shall pay to the Board of Park
Commissioners a sum computed on the basis of the
contract rate per lamp per year for each lamp ordered
installed under the terms of this contract and not in
service and in operation on and after said date, such
payment to the board for each lamp to be made for
the full period of time and until such lamp shall be
placed in service.

37. Failure to designate location of lamps. That the
contractor may not be delayed by the Board of Park
Commissioners in the construction of the work, pre-
venting the furnishing of full and complete service by

824 PARKS

and or the date above noted, the Board of Park Com- the list of their proposed incorporators, and the amount
missioners shall designate the exact location of all of their capital stock, or private parties who may ex-
lamps within five days after being requested to do so press an intention to carry out the contract if awarded
by the contractor. If the Board of Park Commissioners to them under their own names and as such private
fails to designate the exact location of any or all lamps parties, but no transfer or assignment shall be allowed
within five days after being requested to do so, then or permitted to any parties or corporation not specified
the contractor may assume the locations indicated on as the one for whom the bid may be made,
the plats as being correct, and shall erect same in 39. Name of company. Each bid shall contain the
accordance therewith, and maintain in service all such full names of every person or company interested in it,
lamps in accordance with the requirements of this and must be accompanied by an affidavit that no other
specification. person or corporation is so interested.

38. Incorporated companies. Bids under this specifi- 40. Bid blanks. All bids must be made on the pro-
cation will be received from companies incorporated posal blank attached to and made a part of this speci-
under the laws of Ohio, from foreign corporations duly fication and contract.

registered to transact business in the State of Ohio, or 41. Right to reject. The award, if made, shall be to

parties who shall state their intention to become in- the lowest and best bidder and the Board of Park

corporated under the laws of this state if awarded a Commissioners reserves the right to reject any and

contract, and who shall furnish in their bids the incor- all bids,
porated title under which they shall be known, with

PROPOSAL

FOR LIGHTING BY ELECTRICITY THE PARKS, PARKWAYS, PLAYGROUNDS, ATHLETIC

FIELDS AND OTHER PUBLIC LANDS UNDER THE MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL OF

THE BOARD OF PARK COMMISSIONERS OF THE CITY OF CINCINNATI, FOR A

PERIOD OF TEN YEARS, DATING FROM AND AFTER JUNE i, 1925

Cincinnati, Ohio, 19^5-

To the Board of Park Commissioners of the City of Cincinnati:

Gentlemen: The undersigned propose to light by electricity the parks, parkways, playgrounds, athletic fields
and other public lands under the management and control of the Board of Park Commissioners, in strict accord-
ance with the specification hereto attached and made a part hereof, at the following rates, to wit:

Price per lamp per year for 4 ampere magnetite arc lamps in the underground district:

($ — — ) Dollars

Price per lamp per year for 4 ampere magnetite arc lamps in the overhead district:
($ ) Dollars

Price per lamp per year for So-watt incandescent lamps in the overhead district mounted on equipment not
owned by the Board of Park Commissioners:

($ ) Dollars

Price per lamp per year for 8o-watt incandescent lamps in the overhead district mounted on equipment owned
by the Board of Park Commissioners:

($ ) Dollars

Price per lamp per year for 100 candle power mazda lamps in the overhead district, mounted on equipment
owned by the Board of Park Commissioners:

($ ) Dollars

Price per lamp per year for 250 candle power mazda lamps in the overhead district, equipped with monax
outer globes and mounted on equipment owned by the Board of Park Commissioners:

($ ) Dollars

PARK LIGHTING

825

REFERENCES

"General Statistics of Cities, 1916." Bureau of the
Census, United States Department of Commerce. Con-
tains statistics on parks, playgrounds, museums, art
galleries, music, entertainments, swimming pools, bath-
ing beaches and other features of recreational service,
including park lighting.

"Illumination and Traffic Accidents," Earl A. Ander-
son and O. F. Haas, Engineering Department, National
Lamp Works, General Electric Company, Nela Park,
Cleveland, Ohio. Paper presented before the Illumi-
nating Engineering Society, 1921.

"Lighting for Recreations," J. H. Kurlander, Engi-
neering Department, Edison Lamp Works, General
Electric Company, Harrison, New Jersey. A very val-
uable presentation of the subject. Excellent bibliog-
raphy. Illustrated.

"Night Lighting for Outdoor Sports," O. F. Haas
and H. M. Sharp, Engineering Department, National
Lamp Works, General Electric Company, Nela Park,
Cleveland, Ohio (1925). An invaluable study of this
subject. Profusely illustrated.

"Park and Boulevard Lighting." Bulletin No. 5,
January, 1909, American Association of Park Super-
intendents. Symposium on park and boulevard light-
ing by various park executives and engineers.

"Parks in the Larger Cities of the United States,"
a compilation of statistics on parks in the larger cities
of the United States by Caroline L. B. Segrist, Munic-
ipal Reference Librarian, Portland, Oregon; republished
by Municipal Reference Library, New York City Public
Library. Pamphlet contains some information con-
cerning the cost of lighting in parks and rate per
K. W. H. (Statistics are of 1924.)

"Report of Street and Highway Lighting Commit-
tee." National Electric Light Association, New York
City, 1924-25.

"Some Notes on Modern Street Lighting," H. M.
Sharp, National Lamp Works of the General Elec-
tric Company, Nela Park, Cleveland, Ohio. (1926.)

"Street Lighting," D. L. Gaskill. Paper presented
before the Ohio Electric Light Association, 1921.

"Street Lighting Designs," O. F. Haas, National
Lamp Works of General Electric Company, Nela Park,
Cleveland, Ohio. Bulletin 46-A.

" Street Lighting with Mazda Lamps," R. E. Greiner,
Lighting Service Department, Edison Lamp Works of
General Electric Company, Harrison, New Jersey.
Contains information that may be helpful in lighting
boulevards and parkways. Also a comprehensive bibli-
ography.

CHAPTER XVI
PARK SANITATION1

In general community sanitation park and recreation areas are in
themselves very important factors. They let in sunlight and fresh air.
They freshen the air by growing things. Moreover some of the most beau-
tiful and useful park and recreation areas have been created from miasmatic,
mosquito breeding areas or areas made unwholesome by cheap, unsanitary
housing, garbage dumps, factory wastes or sewer-laden streams.

The universal achievements of park and recreation departments in
making it possible for millions of the people to rest or to engage in enjoy-
able activities in the open air — in shade or sunlight or at night time; and
in the redemption of unwholesome, unsanitary areas within cities and their
environs warrant their being ranked as sanitary agents of first importance
in community life. In fact they are so regarded by all health and sanitary
authorities. However, wherever people congregate sanitary problems inevi-
tably arise, and recreation areas, in spite of their own intrinsic worth as
sanitary factors in community life, are no exceptions.

SANITARY PROBLEMS WITH WHICH PARK AND RECREATION AUTHORITIES

HAVE TO DEAL

Among the sanitary problems with which park and recreation author-
ities have to deal may be enumerated the following: (i) Water supply;
(2) Disposal of waste, sewage and refuse; (3) Pest control, mosquitoes,
flies, etc.; (4) Dust control; (5) Weed control; (6) Sanitary care of various
kinds of recreation facilities such as: (a) Sand courts; (b) Wading pools;
(c) Swimming pools; (d) Refreshment stands and restaurants; (e) Camps,
family camps, organized camps, tourist camps, etc.; (/) Buildings used for
recreation purposes.

WATER SUPPLY

Wherever park and recreation areas are so located that access can be
had to the community water system the problem of water supply for human
consumption and for recreative purposes is of comparatively easy solution.
Many park and recreation areas throughout the United States are so located
that access to a community water system is not available. Thus park and
recreation areas located in rural districts (tourist camps, organized camps,
family camps, forest park reservations, rural picnic parks, forests used for

1 Much of the material in this chapter was prepared by George C. Dunham, M.D., Dr. P.H., D.T.M. &H.,
Fellow, A.P.H.A., Major, Medical Corps, United States Army, and originally appeared in "Camping Out —
A Manual on Organized Camping," published by Macmillan Company, New York.

826

PARK SANITATION

827

recreative purposes, etc.); areas in villages, towns and small cities lacking
water systems; in parts of cities to which the water mains have not yet
been extended, etc., must depend upon some other source of water supply.
In such situations the source of water supply may come from springs,
wells, flowing streams or from a natural lake or an artificial reservoir formed
by impounding water.

Amount of Water Required.

It is exceedingly difficult to estimate the amount of water required
for general park purposes. In outlying parks it is presumed that very little
or no water would be used for irrigation purposes. For drinking purposes
the supply should be adequate enough to provide at least from one quart
to three quarts per attendant at the park. For family, tourist and organ-
ized camps where water is used for drinking, cooking, laundrying, the supply
needed would range from ten to thirty gallons per person per day. If in
addition to all the foregoing mentioned purposes flush toilets are used the
supply needed would be approximately fifty gallons per day per person.

PLATE No. 302

PUMP SHELTER IN ONE OF THE RURAL PARKS, ERIE COUNTY PARK SYSTEM,

ERIE COUNTY, NEW YORK

Note the wide concrete platform around the well.

828

PARKS

The amount of water for swimming pools would depend upon the size of
the pool and the frequency with which the water is changed.

Where a river, a large creek or a lake is used as a source of water
supply, the available quantity w7ill likely far exceed the demand. If a very
small stream is used it may be necessary to impound the water by dam-
ming the stream in order to secure a sufficient quantity at some selected

point. Under such circumstances
it is often desirable to ascer-
tain the volume of the flow of
the stream. This is done by
choosing a part of the stream
which is of suitable length and
fairly uniform in depth and
breadth. The width and depth
are measured in feet. A small
piece of wood or cork is allowed
to float on the surface of the
water for a measured distance

Paise concrete apound
casino" to under side of
screw flange

. iron strep

Flange to be tapped for
stud bolts to fit drilling
•,-fr^^rr— _9" pump base

Uey concrete pavement
at te8st€>feeton6ll
sides of we U> sloping
away from pump.

SECTION

Concrete pavement

and the time noted. This will
give the surface velocity, which
is calculated in feet per hour.
Four-fifths of the surface veloc-
ity equals the mean velocity of
the flow. The formula then is:
D X B X V X 6.23 = number of
gallons of water per hour in
which D= depth in feet; B =
width in feet; V = mean veloc-
ity in feet per hour; 6.23 = num-
ber of gallons in one cubic foot.
If a well or spring water is
used, it should be determined
that the supply is sufficient to
meet all demands. The yield of a well may be roughly measured by pumping
out all or a part of the water and noting the level to which the water has
fallen and allowing the well to refill to the original level or to a selected
point. The distance between the level to which the water was reduced
by pumping and the point to which it rose after pumping is calculated in
feet. The time in hours required for the well to refill is then noted. The
capacity of the well is computed as follows:

= gallons per hour.

PLAN

PLATE No. 303

DRIVEN WELL WITH CONCRETE PLATFORM TO

SHUT OUT SURFACE WATER
(Pennsylvania Department of Health.)

PARK SANITATION

fcmfcra top slab with */t square twisted
rods spaced 6" apart in both directions.*
Bottom rods placed 1" from bottom
of concrete.

Put 1 extra rod in concrele along each
edge cf manhole.

It rj dej<rsbe to have a
manhole >n top to give
access to the well shaft

ruined and padlocked trapdoor.

Raise concrete 1' around pump base ana
^repdoor.

Bolt frame to slab ewer well

Cement mortar bed

Lay masonry water tight
in cement mortar from
top to a point at least
8ft. below the ground
surface.

Water Trough should
not discharge
across trapdoor.

SECTION

Cement plaster to a
point 8ft below surface

D = diameter of the well in feet.
d = distance in feet between the level to which the water was reduced by

pumping and the level to which it rose after pumping.
T = time in hours required for the water to rise the number of feet repre-
sented by d.

The following figures may be found useful in estimating the capacity
of a dug well: In a well 2 feet in
diameter, each foot in depth, 20
gallons; 3 feet in diameter, 44
gallons; 4 feet in diameter, 78
gallons; 5 feet in diameter, 122
gallons; 6 feet in diameter, 176
gallons.

Protection of Water Supply from
Contamination.

Unless taken directly from
an uninhabited and fully pro-
tected watershed all surface
water must be considered as po-
tentially contaminated with dis-
ease-producing germs. A clear,
attractive water is not necessa-
rily a pure water. Surface water
is polluted by human excre-
ment, which is washed into it
by the rains and melting snows
or deposited directly into it by
sewers. Streams, lakes or ponds
are frequently contaminated by
bathers, fishermen or wayside
campers. Therefore, any water
supply used for any park and
recreation purposes not drawn

directly from a community water system should be regarded as a probable
source of disease until rendered safe for human use by some method of
purification or protected against contamination.

Protection of Wells and Springs.

Wells are of two kinds, deep and shallow. A deep well passes into or
through an impervious rock stratum, which as a rule effectively excludes
surface water. A shallow well is one which does not reach down into the

PLATE No. 304
A DUG WELL

Showing method of excluding surface water from the
opening and the upper eight feet of the shaft
(Pennsylvania State Department of Health.)

830

PARKS

sis

COHCfltTF

CONCRETE

6RICK

CtMCHf

first impervious layer of rock. The water
in a shallow well should be considered to
be, and treated as, surface water. It is a
contaminated supply. A deep well is usually
driven, while a shallow well may be dug or
driven. Both deep and shallow wells are
frequently polluted by material entering at
the top of the well, and this is particularly
prone to occur in a dug well, because of the
wide shaft. The entrance of contamination
into the mouth of a well can be prevented
by sealing up the top of the shaft with a
cement platform and protecting the imme-
diate vicinity by fences and by intercept-
ing ditches to carry off the surface wrater
(Plate 303). If a dug well is used the upper
part of the shaft should have a concrete lin-
ing to shut out the surface water coming
from the immediate vicinity of the well
(Plates 304 and 305). All well water should
be pumped either by hand or by power. A
bucket should never be used.

Spring water may be derived either
from the water flowing above or that lying

below the first impermeable stratum. In the former instance, the rate of
flow varies markedly with the volume of rainfall and, being surface water,
is to be regarded as contaminated. The spring water which rises from be-
low an impermea-
ble stratum has a Tight wooden or concrete
more constant flow cover- removab/e ^

and is usually po- £x tenet box

. . above gsour>cl:

table unless it is

polluted after
reaching the sur-
face. All springs
which supply
drinking water
should be inclosed
in a water-tight

chamber (Plates

Sprtnys

306 and 307) to PLATE XQ ^6 CROSS SFCTION OF COLLECTION BOX FOR SPRINGS

prevent the en- (Commission of Immigration and Housing of California.)

PLATE No. 305. A DUG WELL

Showing method of excluding surface
water by use of a concrete platform and by
making the upper part of the walls of the
shaft water tight with concrete masonry.

(Iowa State College Bulletin No. 56, 1923.)

PARK SANITATION"

831

Put- I extra rod In concrete
atonj each ed}«of manhole.

Above and at upper corners of
spring box dig a trench at least
1 foot deep that will lead
all surface water.

trance of polluted surface water. Water can be drawn from the inclosed
spring by means of a pump (Plate 308). A trench should be dug around
the spring, or at least on the upper side, to carry away the surface run-off of
storm water. The area surrounding the spring should be fenced.

Purification of Water Supply.

Water is purified in order to kill the disease-producing germs. This
can be accomplished in various ways in parks and other recreation areas
dependent upon their own water
supplies. Among these various
ways the following may be con-
sidered:

Boiling water. When water
is actually boiled from fifteen
to twenty minutes all germs are
killed. This method is feasible
where only a few people are to
be supplied, but is impracticable
where any great amount of water
is required. Instances where it
might be used are in the case of
small picnic parties going into
a forest reservation or undevel-
oped large park and desiring to
use water from a stream or a
spring or well the purity of which
is not known; or small camping
parties remaining for a few days
under similar conditions, etc.; PLAN

Reinforce top slab with /4*
square twisted rods spaced
6 on centers in both directions.
Bottom rods placed 1" from
bottom of concrete.

Hinged and pad locked trap door

jg Roll frame to lop of spring box.

• *•' 'f'-* Vc*; « '-'a1

*•*•= — -^-*<= ' V. fonrtiirlnr Din*

Concrete walls or stone
laid in cement mortar,
to a depth of at least
3 feet below ground
swfea.

5ECTION

PLATE No. 307. PROTECTED SPRING FROM WHICH

WATER IS OBTAINED THROUGH AN

OVERFLOW PIPE

(Pennsylvania State Department of Health.)

but even in such instances, where
boiling water for human use
might be considered practicable,
it is an unsafe procedure because
of the uncertainty of the human

element. Where water for drinking purposes must be boiled by the indi-
vidual in order to render it harmless, the boiling is almost sure to be either
carelessly performed or not done at all. If water is turbid or contains organic
matter, it should be strained through a closely woven cloth before boiling.
Boiled water is flat and has an insipid taste, but is rendered palatable by
aeration. Boiled water can be effectively aerated by pouring it through the
air from one vessel into another.

832

PARKS

Water Trough should
not discharge across
trapdoor.

Put i extra rod in concrete
along each edge <f manhole.

•Raise concrete 1" around
«d pump

Chlorination of water. Chlorine is a gas at ordinary temperature and
atmospheric pressure. Chlorine will combine with the organic matter in
the water and as germs are organic in nature they are also attacked and
killed. In the purification of water chlorine is used either in the pure form
(known as liquid chlorine) or as calcium hypochlorite (chlorinated lime,
bleaching powder, bleach and chloride of lime).

In the application of chlorine or calcium hypochlorite to the water

the amount to be added is cal-
culated as so many parts of free
chlorine to one million parts of
water. Eight and one-third
pounds of liquid chlorine when
added to one million gallons of
water will give one part chlorine
to one million parts of water.
Calcium hypochlorite normally
contains approximately thirty-
three and one-third per cent of
free chlorine, and twenty-five
pounds of this compound in one
million gallons, or four-tenths of
an ounce in one thousand gal-
lons of water, will give one part
of free chlorine per million parts
of water. These figures consti-
tute the basis for computing the
amount of chlorine or calcium
hypochlorite to be added to the

SECTION

— 1

—

j Trapdoor

RMfl

-__ -

.AN

PLATE No. 308. INCLOSED SPRING WITH CONCRETE

PLATFORM AND TRENCH TO PREVENT SURFACE

WATER FROM ENTERING THE SPRING

(Pennsylvania State Department of Health.)

water supply.

Wherever possible, all water
to be used in parks and recrea-
tion areas that comes from a
source other than a community water system should be purified before
being delivered to the user. In the case of picnic parties, small camps,
hiking parties, where the supply of water to be used comes from streams,
lakes, springs or wells of unknown purity, the drinking water can be
chlorinated either by the individual hiker, picnicker or camper or by the
leader of any group or by the person in charge of the park or forest

area.

One of the safest and most practical means of chlorinating water for
small groups is through the use of the so-called Lyster Bag method. The

PARK SANITATION

833

Lyster Bag is a water bag made of waterproof canvas, having a capacity
of thirty-six gallons (Plate 309). This bag is suspended by ropes from a
support and is equipped with one or more faucets at the bottom. Calcium
hypochlorite for use in a Lyster Bag can be purchased in one gram (15
grains) glass ampules from firms dealing in camping supplies or from chemical
companies. The bag is filled with water to the thirty-six gallon mark. If
the water is turbid (muddy), it should be strained into the bag through a
closely woven cloth stretched across the top. One gram of the calcium
hypochlorite is dissolved in a cup of water and the solution added to the
thirty-six gallons of water in the bag. The water is then stirred a few
times with a clean stick and allowed to stand thirty minutes before using,
in order to give the chlorine time to act. Water chlorinated in a Lyster
Bag will frequently have a taste which is disliked by some people. This
taste is due to compounds formed by the union of the chlorine with organic
matter, but the amount of chlorine in the water is so small that it is abso-
lutely harmless and cannot possibly injure the health of the consumer.

If the Lyster Bag is not available, water may be chlorinated in gal-
vanized iron containers, or other convenient receptacles, by the addition of
one gram (i ampule) of calcium hypochlorite to each thirty-six gallons of
water. If only small containers are at hand, water may be purified for
drinking purposes by first breaking a one-gram ampule of hypochlorite into
one quart of clear water and after thoroughly
mixing adding two teaspoonfuls of this strong
solution to one quart of drinking water, which
must be allowed to stand for thirty minutes
before using.

The Lyster Bag method of treating water
or one of its modifications is superior to boil-
ing water where the disinfection must be car-
ried out by the individual hiker, picnicker or
camper, because the chance of neglect or error
is less in the former than the latter process.
The Lyster Bag method has the disadvantage
that the water disinfected by this method is
not ordinarily used for cooking. Theoret-
ically, cooking should in itself serve to sterilize the water, but quite fre-
quently the water is not heated sufficiently to kill all the germs.

The chlorinating of water used for bathing and swimming is discussed
in that section relating to the sanitation of swimming pools (pages 891-898).

PLATE No. 309
LYSTER BAG

PARKS

PURIFICATION OF THE ENTIRE PARK WATER SUPPLY
In large outlying reservations where a community water system is not
available it may be found desirable to develop a centralized water system,
similar to a community water system, which will supply all the water used
in the park by campers, picnickers, hikers or other users of the area. This
involves the collection of water into a central reservoir or several reservoirs
and the purification of the water by the addition of chlorine while in the
reservoirs before being delivered to the user.

Where water is obtained from a stream or possibly from an artesian
well, it may be carried to the reservoir by gravity. Where the reservoir or
tanks are higher than the primary source of the water, a booster pump must

PLATE No. 310
RESERVOIR SHOWING POSITION OF INLET AND OUTLET

The reservoir should be screened or roofed to prevent the entrance of insects and small animals.

be used to elevate the water from the intake into the reservoir. The intake
usually consists of pipe with lateral openings which are screened to pre-
vent the entrance of debris. In a large stream the intake pipe should extend
some distance from the shore, and in any event should be well below the
low-water mark.

Two reservoirs should be provided, each of sufficient size to furnish
water for the maximum population of the area for a period of at least twelve
hours. From the reservoirs the water is distributed to various parts of the
park (picnic places, camp grounds, refreshment stands, restaurants, toilet
stations, etc.) through underground iron pipes, and it is therefore essential
that the reservoirs be so located that the water can be distributed by
gravity. The reservoirs should be at least twenty feet above the faucets
of the distributing system so as to provide sufficient pressure. Where high
ground, such as a hill, is available, the reservoirs may consist of concrete
basins placed upon or preferably in the ground. If this method is not
possible or feasible, then wooden or iron tanks are elevated to a suitable
height by framework or piers. The reservoirs or tanks should be covered
or screened to prevent the access of birds or rodents.

PARK SANITATION

835

It is difficult to fix any principle as to the capacity of such reservoirs
because this would depend upon the volume of use and the character of
that use. For permanent organized camps the reservoirs should have such
a capacity as to supply from fifty to seventy-five gallons per capita per day.

Chlorine Check VaKe
Teed Water Gauge
Gnuoe Cotk
Feed Water

Solution Jar
RM|

Solution Jar
Solution Outlet
Tube

Chlorine
Line
Gloss

OrHice
Gloss
Orifice
Cop
Tank
Pressure!

Gouge

Btow-ofl Valve
Manometer

Filling Screw
Bock Pressure
Gauge

- Manometer

- Scale
Chlorine

Control VcKe
Pressure

Compensator
Compensator

— Cap
Hexiblohnk

Connections

TowkYdves
Auxiliary
... Tank Valves
Chlorine Tank* ...

Solution Line

Solution Valve
Suction Main

PLATE No. 311
ONE TYPE OF APPARATUS FOR THE APPLICATION OF LIQUID CHLORINE

Tourists' camps would probably use almost the same; picnickers consider-
ably less. Allowance should also be made for fire protection.

Each reservoir is equipped with an inlet pipe and valve near the top
and an outlet pipe and valve near the bottom on the side or opposite the
inlet. The latter should be so placed that the material deposited on the
bottom will not be drawn out into the pipes. To purify the water the
reservoir is filled by closing the outlet valve and allowing the water to run
in through the inlet pipe until the desired depth is reached, when the inlet

836 PARKS

valve is closed. Calcium hypochlorite is added at the rate of five-tenths
to one part per million of free chlorine, or from one to two ounces of the
calcium hypochlorite per five thousand gallons ofwater. The amount to
be used depends upon the turbidity of the water and can be determined by
testing for free chlorine in the treated water. If the water is clear, a solu-
tion of calcium hypochlorite (2 ounces dissolved in 3 or 4 gallons of water)
is added to the water while it is flowing into the reservoir. If turbid, the
water should be allowed to stand for some time, six hours or more, before
the calcium hypochlorite solution is added, so that some of the solids will
settle out. In any event, the chlorine should remain in contact with the
water for at least thirty minutes before it is delivered to the consumer.

Liquid chlorine may be used where there is regularity of flow and
large quantities of water are used. The chlorine gas is liquefied by pressure
in steel cylinders, and assumes the gaseous form when released. A solution
of the gas is made and applied to the water by means of an apparatus
known as a chlorinator (Plate 311). This system should be installed under
the direct supervision of an engineer.

All chlorinated water should be tested daily to determine the amount
of free chlorine in the supply as delivered to the consumer, regardless of
whether the Lyster Bag method is used or the water purified in reservoirs.
Two methods of practical value are available — the starch-iodine and the
orthotolidin tests. Either of these can be made by an intelligent employee,
and it should be the specific duty of some one individual to make tests
daily. The water as delivered should contain between o.i to 0.5 part per
million of free chlorine.

The starch-iodine test. Thirty minutes or more after the chlorine has
been added to the water a cupful is tested for free chlorine by adding from
a medicine dropper ten drops of a solution containing 10 per cent of potas-
sium iodide, I per cent of soluble starch, and 0.5 per cent of zinc sulphate.
If a blue color appears free chlorine is present and the water is potable.
If no blue color is seen the water is still polluted and requires further
chlorination.

The orthotolidin test. As in the starch-iodine test, the water is tested
thirty minutes or more after chlorination. A four-ounce bottle is filled to
the shoulder with the water to be tested and to this water is then added
fifteen drops of an orthotolidin solution consisting of o.i gram of orthotolidin
crystals dissolved in 100 c.c. of a 10 per cent hydrochloric acid solution.
If a yellow color develops free chlorine is present and the water is potable.
If no yellow color is seen more calcium hypochlorite is needed. The amount
of chlorine used should be just enough to produce the blue color with the
starch-iodine test, or a yellow color with the orthotolidin test.

PARK SANITATION

837

BUBBLELR

PI PEL

At weekly or bi-weekly intervals samples of the water should be sent
to the nearest branch of the state health department for bacteriological
analysis with the request that the tests be interpreted in terms of safety
for drinking purposes. Local municipal or county health authorities may
also make such analyses. Con-
tainers and directions for col-
lecting and mailing the samples
can be obtained from any state
board of health or from local
health authorities. The disa-
greeable taste which is some-
times present in chlorinated
water may give rise to some
complaints. This taste can par-
tially be removed or wholly
eradicated by the use of a so-
lution of sodium thiosulfate in
quantities equal to one-half the
amount of calcium hypochlorite
applied. The sodium thiosul-
fate stops the action of the chlo-
rine and must not be added
until at least thirty minutes after
the introduction of the chlorine.

Park officials must not for-
get that the effective purifica-

r - i • i Bubbler should have protector to prevent insertion of tube

tion ot the water supply is de- in mouth.

pendent upon the skilful and

continuous supervision of whatever system is used, and that there can be

no justification for neglecting this very important factor in the successful

management of the park areas and the facilities therein.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE WATER SUPPLY

It is essential that the water after it is purified be so distributed that
the individual using the park either at a picnic ground or in a camp or at
any other facility provided will find it more convenient to use the pure
water than to satisfy his wants from a contaminated supply. Drinking
fountains, if a centralized water system is used, should be located at all
places where people are accustomed to congregate. These should be of the
automatic shut-off type to avoid wastage of water. Wherever an outside
faucet, or drinking fountain is installed steps should be taken to prevent

PI PEL

PLATE No. 312
DRINKING FOUNTAIN WITH CATCH BASIN

PARKS

the water from reaching the ground in its immediate vicinity or the area
will soon become muddy and water soaked. The drippings, overflow and

discarded water may be caught
in a receptacle, as shown in
Plate 312, on page 837, which is
in turn connected with an un-
derground drain.

The common drinking cup
should never be tolerated. Where
drinking fountains are not used
individual drinking cups should
be provided. Ice should never
be placed in direct contact with
water to be used for drinking
purposes. Cold does not kill the
disease-producing germs, and the
water from which the ice is made
or harvested is frequently con-
taminated, or the ice itself may
be infected by the dirty hands of
those who handle it. Drinking
water can be cooled by passing
it through coils of pipe sur-
rounded by ice contained with-
in a suitable box or other
receptacle. The ice box and coils
are frequently placed under-
ground and the pipe connected
with a drinking fountain or
faucet.

PLATE No. 313

ILLUSTRATING A TYPE OF DRINKING FOUNTAIN
THAT IS THOROUGHLY SANITARY

Better provision, however, should have been made for its
use bv little children.

DISPOSAL OF WASTES

Waste material is divided into two classes: sewage and refuse. It
waste matter is allowed to accumulate, it not only soon creates a nuisance,
but also constitutes a potential, and in many instances an actual, danger
to the health of the people using the park and other recreation areas. Every
park and recreation system must have some means of disposing of wastes
which will effect their satisfactory removal from direct or indirect contact
with man.

PARK SANITATION

839

Sewage Disposal.

Ordinary park sewage consists of human excreta (feces and urine), bath
water about camps and swimming centers and liquid kitchen wastes about
camps, refreshment stands and restaurants. Where water under pressure
is available a water carriage system, consisting of sewers through which
the sewage is carried by water, can be installed and all the sewage carried
away through the sewers and disposed of in a suitable manner.

Disposal of Feces and Urine.

The only proper method of disposal of sewage of this type, wherever
park and recreation areas are so located as to make use of a community

water system and a community

sewer system, is the installation of
modern sanitary flush toilets. The
installation of this equipment
should be placed well toward the
front of the development of any
given area that is designed to be
used actively and intensively.
Notwithstanding the importance
of such equipment from the
standpoint of both comfort and
sanitation there are many chil-
dren's playgrounds, playfield
areas and large parks in this
country entirely without toilet
facilities of any kind and many
other park areas, the location of
which would make possible the
installation of the most modern
sanitary equipment, are equipped
with ordinary privies and these
often of not the best and most
approved type. Indeed there are
a few comparatively large and
fairly highly developed park and
recreation systems that were
found to be, in 1925, without any
modern sanitary toilet equipment.
This is an omission in development and equipment for which there is no
possible excuse, especially where park and recreation areas used largely by

PLATE No. 314
PRIVY BOX FOR A ONE-SEATED SANITARY PRIVY

(Public Health Bulletin No. 89, Lumsden.)

840

PARKS

the people are so located as to make the community water and sewer sys-
tems accessible. It should be the duty of the local and state health
authorities to exert their great powers to encourage, and if necessary com-
pel park and recreation authorities to provide the most adequate and modern
toilet facilities possible in all areas under their jurisdiction as they are
developed and thrown open to the use of the people.

Because of the carelessness of people in general the design of modern
sanitary equipment for the disposal of human excreta should be such as

to reduce to the lowest possible
minimum the ill effects of care-
lessness or abuse of equipment.
For example, the various types
of urinals elevated above the
floor frequently found in park
and recreation toilet buildings
and in toilet rooms of other
structures are never as sanitary
as the type of urinal sunk into
the floor with the floor sloping
toward it. This latter type of
urinal is easy to install, is adapt-
able to all ages and can more
easily and readily be cleaned by
flushing and scrubbing than the
elevated types. Toilets with
spring seats and automatic flush
equipment are desirable in park
toilets because of the careless-
ness of many people in failing to
flush toilets of the ordinary type
after using them.

The floors of toilet rooms should be of concrete or other equally imper-
vious and easily cleaned material so as to permit flushing with a hose. The
floor should be carried up as a part of the wall for at least a distance of
six inches with rounded corners, leaving no place where dirt can accumu-
late. All floors should be trapped so that water used in flushing and scrub-
bing the floors can readily run off. The use of so-called disinfecting chemicals
is not generally recommended for the reason that they often cover up
undesirable, unpleasant odors with another odor not so distasteful without
affecting the essential unsanitary condition of the toilet room. The only
real proper sanitary control is, in the first place, to have the rooms properly

PLATE No. 315

TWO-SEAT PRIVY BOX FOR SANITARY PRIVY
SHOWING VENT FLUE

(Public Health Bulletin No. 89, Lumsden.)

PARK SANITATION

841

constructed and the best equipment available installed, and secondly,
eternal and consistent vigilance by the caretakers in daily 'cleaning, or
more often if necessary. Most of the unpleasant, unsanitary conditions in
public park toilets of the modern sanitary type is due to the failure of
caretakers to perform their duties regularly and painstakingly.

In parks and other recreation areas located in rural districts, villages,
towns and small cities, metropolitan districts of cities, or other places
having no community water or sewer systems, types of toilets other than
modern sanitary flush toilets
must be used unless in a given
park area there is developed a
water and sewer system similar
to a community system. Under
such conditions there are several
ways of disposing of human ex-
creta of which the following are
some of the different types.

The sanitary privy. The san-
itary privy provides a method
of temporarily storing human ex-
creta in such a manner that it
does not become a menace to
the health of man. Essentially
such a privy consists of a re-
movable receptacle, or privy
pail, for receiving the excreta, a
privy box and a fly-proof, ven-
tilated building. The privy box
containing the receptacle is con-
structed as shown in Plates 314
and 315. The box is about
twenty inches from front to
back and seventeen inches high. PLATE No 3l6

The length depends on the num- A ONE-SEATED SANITARY PRIVY

ber of Seats, a One-Seat privy (Public Health Bulletin No. 89, Lumsden.)

being about twenty-two inches

long. Each seat is equipped with a well-fitting, self-closing lid (Plate 315).
Usually an opening is made at the back of the box just large enough
to permit the ready removal of the receptacle and equipped with a well-
fitted and substantial door. Experience has shown, however, that when
the doors are at the back of the box the hinges are frequently broken or

842

PARKS

bent so that flies can gain access to contents of the pail. The best type of
privy box is that depicted in Plate 314, which permits the removal of the
receptacle through the top of the box.

It is essential that the privy box be fly-proof and that the interior be
well ventilated. Ventilation is accomplished, as shown in Plate 316, by
boring a number of two-inch vent holes on one side of the box and placing
a vent flue on the other side. Where two or more seats are built in one
privy the vent holes can be placed in the front of the box. All vent holes
and the openings of the vent flue are screened with sixteen-inch metal
screening. The best receptacle for receiving the excreta is a galvanized

iron pail or can made of heavy
material which will stand fairly
hard usage without developing
leaks (Plate 317).

It is very difficult to esti-
mate the number of privy seats
that should be provided for or-
dinary park and recreation area
usage. For camps the standards
range from the very low min-
imum of one seat to every five
persons to one seat for every
twenty persons. A desirable
standard would be one seat to
every ten or fifteen persons.
Tourists' camps should have
practically the same toilet pro-

The cover should be placed on the can immediately after
removal from the privy.

(Public Health Bulletin No. 89, Lumsden.)

PLATE No. 317
RECEPTACLE FOR USE IN A SANITARY PRIVY

visions. At picnic places the
only way to discover how many
seats are desirable would be to
study for a period of time the numbers of people making use of the vari-
ous picnic centers and make provision accordingly. In the construction
of toilets it is desirable that each seat be separated from the adjoining seats
by a partition. Plates 318 and 319 show one method of constructing a six-
seat privy. The building itself should be made fly-proof by screening doors
and windows.

The disposal of the contents of the sanitary privy may be accomplished
in one of several different ways. The pails should be removed and emptied
at weekly or semi-weekly intervals, or oftener if necessary. When taken
from the privy, the pail should be covered and immediately removed with
its contents to the place of ultimate disposal, a clean pail having in the

PARK SANITATION

843

meantime been placed in the privy. If the park is situated near a sewered
community, arrangements can usually be made to empty the contents of
the pails directly into a sewer manhole to be disposed of with the sewage

PLATE No. 318
FRAMEWORK OF SIX-SEATED SANITARY PRIVT

(Public Health Bulletin No. 37, Stiles.)

in sewer. Where this can be done, it offers the safest and most practicable
method of disposing of the excreta from a sanitary privy.

The excreta may be buried at a point sufficiently far removed from
human habitation and where there is no danger of contaminating water
supplies. Either a pit or shallow furrows may be used for this purpose,
but in any event, the excreta should be immediately covered with a few

PLATE No. 319
FRONT VIEW OF A SIX-SEATED SANITARY PRIVT

(Public Health Bulletin No. 37, Stiles.)

844

PARKS

inches to a foot of tamped earth to prevent fly breeding. If the land is
available, shallow furrows are the best, as the excreta decomposes more
rapidly when placed in a thin layer in contact with the top soil than it
does when buried in a deep pit. The furrows should be from eight to twelve
inches in depth. The ground so used may be cultivated after the lapse of
a year.

The excreta may be burned in an incinerator constructed for that

3 s«c/?o/t.s of t's>tf>e or
— '<>r/></*rrats

fyOyOO/"/ /»CUS

Corer

u/^-.^-
-^nr ^:#^^

PLATE No. 320
DETAILS OF THE FORT RILEY-McMUNN INCINERATOR

purpose, but incineration is the least desirable means of disposing of excreta.
A feces incinerator is difficult and expensive to operate, and a disagreeable
odor is frequently produced. If it is found desirable to install a feces incin-
erator two general types are available which, if properly operated under
favorable conditions, will destroy the excreta. For a small camp of from
twenty-five to one hundred persons the Fort Riley-McMunn incinerator is
probably the most efficient. The details of construction are shown in Plate
320. In the operation of this incinerator the feces and urine are separated
in so far as is practicable. The feces are poured down the feces chute (A)
on to the perforated feces plate (C). The feces plate is made of one-half-

PARK SANITATION

845

inch boiler plate and the feces chute of one-eighth-inch sheet iron. The urine
is placed in the evaporating pan (B). The flame from the fire box passes
under and around the end of the feces plate and between the feces plate

''5 placed on cA/mney

L 'j^'itf A an d/e <tn.c/ cAs^f/nf «/o or>
To open e/oo/~

SECTS Off AL

Fter

THE

PLATE No. 321
"HORSFALL" DESTRUCTOR

and the urine evaporating pan, burning the feces and evaporating the urine.
The evaporating of the urine requires a great deal of heat and, if prac-
ticable, a large proportion of the urine should be disposed of in soakage pit
rather than by evaporation.

The HOT sf all destructor (or incinerator) as shown in Plate 321 is suit-

PARKS

able for use in handling much larger quantities of excreta than the type
previously described. This incinerator should be constructed under expert
supervision. Where incinerators of any kind are installed for constant use
over a considerable period of time a battery of two or more should be built
in order that one may be placed out of service for repairs.

The septic tank installation can be used for the disposal of the excreta
from a sanitary privy, provided that a corresponding amount of water,
fifteen to twenty gallons per person per day, is introduced into the tank
with the excreta. The excreta must be placed in the tank at such intervals
as will not cause overloading. This plan is particularly feasible where some
of the camp sites or picnic places are equipped with flush toilet and septic
tank disposal systems and the remainder with sanitary privies.

Whatever method is used to dispose of the contents of the sanitary
privy, the privy pails must be handled with care and precautions taken to
prevent the spilling of the contents in the privy boxes or on the ground.
Hand-propelled carts or a small motor truck may be used to transport the
pails to the place of ultimate disposal. The pails should be removed at
night, or at such other times as will produce the least offense. When emp-
tied, the can is thoroughly cleansed with water, either from a hose under
pressure or by swabbing and rinsing. The bottom of the cleaned pail should
be covered with about one-half to one inch of a five per cent solution of
cresol which will serve as a deodorant as well as a disinfectant.

The L. R. S. privy. The septic tank principle of sewage treatment is
utilized in the operation of a L. R. S. privy. For parks and reservations

where flush toilets cannot be
used the L. R. S. privy, or one
of its modifications, provides the
best means of disposing of human
excreta. The essential feature
of a L. R. S. privy is a small
septic tank having two compart-
ments, the liquefying tank and
the effluent tank (Plate 322).
The liquefying tank is directly
under the privy box. The ex-
creta is retained for a time in
the liquefying tank where it un-
dergoes decomposition and lique-
faction with some reduction in
volume. From the liquefying tank the liquid passes through a screened pipe
into the second compartment known as the effluent tank. From the latter

PLATE No. 322
L.R.S. PRIVY WITH CONCRETE TANKS

(Public Health Bulletin No. 68, Lumsden, Stiles & Freeman.)

PARK SANITATION

847

tank the effluent is gradually discharged through an overflow pipe into a
subsurface irrigation system, onto a filter, or into a stream.

The liquefying tank should have a capacity of at least forty gallons
(6 to 7 cubic feet) of water when the water just reaches the level where it
begins to trickle into the effluent pipe. Such a privy is large enough for
three persons and the capacity of the tank must be increased by ten to
twelve gallons for each additional person. The effluent tank may be some-
what smaller, but should be of sufficient size to receive and store a fair
amount of the fluid from the liquefying tank. The modification of the
L.R.S. privy, known as the Kentucky Sanitary Privy, is shown in Plate 323.
This type has one tank divided into three compartments by baffles. While
concrete liquefying and effluent tanks are desirable, a very satisfactory
L. R. S. privy can be built with the tanks made of iron barrels or drums
as shown in Plates 324 and 325. In this type of privy the effluent tank when
full can be hauled away and emptied. If necessary, the effluent can be dis-
infected prior to disposal by the addition of one to two ounces of calcium
hypochlorite in solution to each
fifty gallons of effluent.

As the septic action causes
a reduction in the volume of the
excreta additional water must be
placed in the liquefying tank at
weekly intervals. The amount
added will vary according to the
rate of evaporation, but usually
about five per cent of the capac-
ity of the tank will be sufficient.
Thus, about two and one-half
gallons should be added to a
fifty-gallon tank once each week.
The liquid in both tanks should
be kept covered with a film of
crude oil or kerosene. The privy
box for a L. R. S. privy is the
same as that described for a sani-
tary privy except that the
excreta is received into the lique-
fying tank instead of a removable
pail. The box should be provided PLATE No- 323- L. R. s. SANITARY PRIVY

. . . (The Kentucky sanitary privy, Kentucky State Board of

With Screened Vent holes and Health, 1913.) One type of urinal is shown. The front com-

n j ^-11 partment is the effluent tank and liquefaction takes place in

Vent Hue, and automatically the middle and rear compartments.

848

PARKS

closing lids. The seats should be separated by partitions. An anti-splash
board may be installed, as shown in Plates 324 and 325. The anti-splash

Screen.
<g^!!!fe=fe<L jCover

FLOG*

PLATE No. 324

L. R. S. PRIVY IN WHICH THE LIQUID TANK AND THE EFFLUENT TANK
CONSIST OF STEEL DRUMS

board is raised when the privy is used and lowered into the liquid imme-

diately after.

The building for a L. R. S. privy differs in no essential respect from that

described for the sanitary privy.
It should be fly-proof and well
ventilated.

The effluent from a L. R. S.
privy is potentially dangerous
and must be disposed of where
it will not endanger the health
of man. If disposal by subsur-
face irrigation is not practicable,
the effluent tank can be emptied
at intervals and the contents
buried or poured into a sewer.
The effluent from a number of
L. R. S. privies such as those
shown in Plates 322 and 323 can
be conducted through water-
tight pipes to a central siphon

chamber and hence tO a Subsur-

face irrigation field or a small in-
termittent filter in the same man-

. m

ner as the effluent from a septic

, AT7. , i • 1 • i r
tank. With this Kind OI an in-

PLATE No. 325. L. R. S. PRIVY IN WHICH A BARREL

OR IRON DRUM IS USED FOR A LIQUEFYING

TANK, AND AN IRON POT FOR

AN EFFLUENT TANK

The latter is carried away and emptied when full. (Pub-
lie Health Bulletin No. 68, Lumsden, Stiles and Freeman.)

PARK SANITATION

849

BLOCK TO
( STOP uo.

LID

CLCXT TO SUPPORT

&RRKC.L

U£ST TO SUPPORT
BRRREL.

stallation a number of L. R. S. privies will function as efficiently, as far as
the sanitary disposal of the excreta is concerned, as a flush toilet and water
carriage system of disposal.

The barrel-sawdust privy (Plate 326). To construct a barrel-sawdust
privy the head is removed from a water-tight hogshead such as a molasses
hogshead. The head and the bottom are then removed from a water-tight
barrel of such size as to easily fit within the hogshead. Four cleats are
nailed on the outside of the
barrel seventeen inches from the
top and the barrel set inside the
hogshead so that it is supported
by the cleats resting upon the
upper edge of the hogshead. The
latter is then filled with sawdust
to a little above the lower end
of the barrel. The sawdust is
also packed around the barrel
between it and the hogshead to
the level of the cleats. The bar-
rel constitutes the privy box and
the vault, and is equipped with
a fly-proof seat and automati-
cally closing lid. The urine and
thefluidsinthefeces are absorbed
by the sawdust, while the feces
and paper remain within the
barrel.

The barrel-sawdust privy, if
properly constructed, is fly-proof
and sanitary. One such privy
will care for the excreta from five
persons for about three months

without emptying. When full it can be hauled to some suitable place and
dumped, the sawdust being used to cover the contents. While sawdust is
the best material for the separation of the feces and urine, satisfactory results
can be obtained by the use of such substances as shavings, excelsior, leaves,
chopped straw or sand. The barrel-sawdust privy is housed in an ordinary
fly-proof privy building. Two or more barrels can be placed in one building
if required.

The pit privy (latrine}. The pit privy is the least desirable method of
disposing of human excrement, but it is one that is quite often found in

PLATE No. 326

SAWDUST BARREL PRIVY
(Public Health Bulletin No. in, 1921, Stiles.)

§5°

PARKS

use in public parks and reservations. As the name signifies, this privy con-
sists of a pit in the ground over which is erected a building containing a
privy box and seats. The pit or vault is of varying width and from four to
ten feet in depth, depending on the nature of the subsoil and the level of
the ground water table. The length depends upon the number of seats,
about twenty to twenty-four inches being allowed for each seat, exclusive

of partitions. In suitable earth
the pit may be made without re-
taining walls, but if placed in
ground that tends to cave in-
ward, walls of masonry, con-
crete or wood must be provided
(Plates 327, 329 and 330).
Where retaining walls are used
the bottom of the pit may be
left open to the soil or a water-
tight vault may be made.

The privy building and box
is essentially the same as that
described for the sanitary privy
(Plates 318, 3 19 and 328), except
that the privy box has no bottom
but opens directly into the pit.
The building is ventilated and
fly-proofed and the seats are sep-
arated by partitions.

When the pit is filled to
within eighteen inches of the sur-
face, the building may be re-
moved and the pit filled to above
the level of the ground with sol-
idly tamped earth. If practica-
ble the contents of the pit should
be removed, carted away and

buried, or otherwise disposed of and the building replaced. If a pit privy is
to be used over a considerable period of time it should be built so that the
contents can be removed without moving the building. In this type, the
rear wall of the pit slopes backward so that access can be had to the pit from
behind the rear wall of the privy building (Plates 328 and 330). The pit can
then be cleaned by dipping or scooping out the contents. All pit privies
should be at least one hundred feet distant from any stream or body of

PLATE No. 327
PIT PRIVY WITH RETAINING WALLS OF WOOD

(Wisconsin State Board of Health.)

PARK SANITATION

851

water used as a source of water supply or for bathing purposes. Calcium
hypochlorite should be added to contents of the privy pit at the rate of
one pound per week for each person using the privy.

Chemical closets.^ Chemical closets are patented devices designed to
take the place of privies. Generally they consist of the following parts:
(i) White vitreous china bowls similar to the untrapped bowls used on
railway coaches, and with hinged seats and covers like flush toilets. (2)
An iron tank coated on the in-
side with enamel that resists the
action of the chemicals used.
(3) An agitator inside the tank
that is operated by a lever
located near the toilet seat. (4)
A ventilation pipe extending up
from the opening in the rear of
the bowl. (5) A chemical of high
caustic content for liquefying
the solid contents of the tank
and for sterilizing the fecal mat-
ter and urine. (6) A urinal of
practically the same design as
that used in a water flushing
system. The advantages of the
chemical closet when supplied
with proper amounts of chemi-
cals and kept clean are as fol-
lows: (i) They can be located in
buildings without producing
odors. (2) They liquefy fecal
matter and toilet paper. (3) The

bacteria and intestinal parasites discharged into the tank are destroyed. (4)
The contents of the tanks are in a liquid state, and can therefore be easily
disposed of under almost all conditions. The disadvantages are:

(1) The devices are patented, thereby increasing the cost and pre-
venting construction with local material.

(2) Serious nuisances result from odors if the bowls and urinals are
neglected, or chemicals are not used properly.

(3) A supply of chemicals must be kept on hand at all times. The
cost of the chemicals is not excessive, but someone must be responsible for
keeping enough chemicals for the closets on hand at all times.

1 "Camp Sanitation," Draper and Hommon, United States Public Health Service.

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PLATE No. 328
PIT PRIVY WITH URINAL

(Commission of Immigration and Housing of California.)

8S2

PARKS

(4) The direct open passages from the bowls to the tanks permit
bottles, cans, etc., to be thrown into the tanks, and these cause trouble
in cleaning.

(5) Chemical closets are more expensive to operate than privies, but
they are less troublesome in cleaning, where the liquefied effluents from

tanks are disposed of by subsur-
face drainage.

Chemical closets have been
found serviceable where con-
tamination of ground, or ground
water, cannot be permitted, and
for camps, schools, churches,
etc., but before this type of
privy is adopted, it is abso-
lutely necessary to determine
whether funds will be available
at all times for purchase of
chemicals, and whether the toi-
lets will receive intelligent super-
vision and attention. Many
state and local boards of health

L;;;>^v

have regulations governing the
installation and operation of
chemical toilets. These should
be consulted before chemical
closets are adopted.

The water carriage system.
The water carriage system, con-
sisting of flush toilets, under-
ground sewers and some
provision for treating or dispos-
ing of the raw sewage, is far
superior to any other method

of sewage disposal, not only as a means of protecting the health of the
people using park and recreation areas but also from an aesthetic view-
point. Well built, clean comfort stations or toilets equipped with flush
toilets add greatly to the attractiveness of the areas and also to the content-
ment of the visitors. Where this type of sewage disposal can be constructed
as a part of a community water system the construction will of necessity
conform to the standards of the local system and will likely be installed
under the direction of the local sanitary and construction engineers.

PLATE No. 329
PIT PRIVY WITH A CONCRETE VAULT

Concrete slab at the rear can be removed and the con-
tents of the vault taken out through the opening.
(Wisconsin State Board of Health.)

PARK SANITATION

853

The suggestions presented in the following pages apply particularly
to areas where it is not possible to connect with a community water and
sewer system such as in outlying parks and reservations, and camps, picnic
places, restaurants, inns, clubhouses, etc., therein. In any case the instal-
lation should be done by a competent engineer. The size of the sewer
pipe or pipes, the number and
location of the manholes, the
grade of the sewer lines will de-
pend upon and be modified by
the volume of sewage to be trans-
ported, the topography of the
terrain, and to some extent by
the method of ultimate disposal.
Where only a few buildings are
to be connected with sewers the
installation of a water carriage
system ordinarily presents no
great difficulty. In organized
camps, tourists' camps, inns,
etc., the sewage will consist of
waste from the toilets, kitchens,
baths, lavatories. The plumb-
ing fixtures should connect with
a soil pipe, which is a two or
four-inch cast-iron pipe extend-
ing from the house-connection
up through the roof and receiv-
ing the wastes from the toilets
and other fixtures. The soil pipe
also provides ventilation for the
house-connection sewer and
fixtures.

The house-connection is the
sewer which receives the sewage
from the soil pipe. It should be
six inches in diameter and may consist of vitrified salt-glazed clay or cast-
iron pipe. The house-connection should be water-tight to prevent the entrance
of storm water, and if vitrified clay pipe is used the joints should be cemented.
If only one building is connected with the sewerage system or if each build-
ing is provided with a septic tank, the six-inch house-connection is carried
to the point of disposal or treatment. If more than one building is to be

rtto'ininq Soil.Juch al cloy or rack fo

PLATE No. 330
PIT PRIVY WITH RETAINING WALLS OF WOOD

The contents of the privy are removed from opening at
the rear. (Wisconsin State Board of Health.)

§54

PARKS

STOP

HINGED LIDS TO
O.OSE AUTOMATICALLV

connected, then the house-connections lead to a common sewer which in
most cases will drain directly to the place of disposal or to the treatment
plant. Vitrified clay pipe is usually used for the common sewer, which should
be not less than eight inches in diameter. The house-connection pipe is
joined to the common sewer by a Y branch. All joints should be cemented
and made water-tight. All house-connections should be laid on a minimum

grade of 1 140 in order that de-
posits may be prevented. The
velocity of the flow in a common
sewer when running one-half full
should be not less than two and
one-half nor more than eight feet
per second. Manholes, or inspec-
tion holes, should be placed at
turns in the sewer line, or every
three hundred feet if the sewer
is straight, in order to facilitate
inspection and cleaning.

In order to be efficient and
economical in operation, flush
toilets must be of good construc-
tion and correctly installed. The
construction of the toilet build-
ings will vary according to local
circumstances, but whatever the
design may be they should be
fly-proof, well ventilated, easily
cleaned, and conform to the local
health laws and regulations. One
seat should be provided for every
five to ten people, but where the
question of expense is of impor-
tance this may be reduced to one seat for every ten to twenty persons. Sep-
arate buildings must be provided for men and for women, and the individual
seats should be separated by partitions.

Sewage treatment. The excreta collected by toilets should be promptly
disposed of in such a manner that it will not endanger the health of man or
create a nuisance. It is highly putrescible and must be regarded as con-
taining disease-producing germs. The object of sewage treatment is to
convert the unstable and readily putrescible organic material into stable
and non-putrescible substances, and to prevent the transmission to man of
any disease-producing germs which it may contain.

PLATE No. 331
ARMY TRENCH LATRINE

Built without partitions between the seats. Suitable for
boys' camps.

PARK SANITATION

S55

The raw sewage may be disposed of, if it is not possible to discharge
it into a community sewer system, by dilution or by treatment in a septic
tank. The effluent from the septic tank may be disposed of by dilution,
subsurface irrigation, or by filtration with subsequent disposal by dilution
or broad irrigation.

Disposal by dilution. In disposal by dilution the raw sewage is dis-
charged directly into a body of water sufficiently large so to dilute the
sewage that no harmful results are produced. If a body of water such as
a lake, bay or stream is available, disposal by dilution is often feasible,
provided it can be accomplished without polluting any source of drinking
water or infringing upon riparian rights of adjacent landowners. Care
must also be taken to avoid contaminating bathing beaches, and if the
sewage is discharged into tidewater, possible injury to shellfish must like-
wise be considered. The winds, currents and tide will often carry sewage
for comparatively long distances from the point of disposal.

Where a small stream is to be utilized for diluting the sewage, it must
be determined that the minimum flow of water in the stream is sufficient
to produce a satisfactory dilution. The stream should have a minimum
flow of 0.75 to one cubic foot per second for each one hundred persons, and
the flow must be constant and even, or malodorous deposits will occur along
the banks and the bottom of the stream. The sewer should extend out from
the shore to a point where the depth of the water and the distance from the
shore is sufficient to permit of ample dispersion of the sewage. Whenever

//*</
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• Z-9" — *

PLATE No. 332

PLAN AND SECTION OF A SiMALL SEPTIC TANK
SHOWING DOSING TANK AND AUTOMATIC SIPHON

The effluent is disposed of by trench filtration. (United States Public Health Service, Crohurst.)

856

PARKS

disposal by dilution is contemplated the local or state health authorities
should be consulted in regard to the location of the outlets.

Many service areas in parks and reservations are so located that it is
impracticable to dispose of the raw sewage by dilution, and some other
form of treatment must be employed. In such instances the most feasible
method of treating sewage involves the use of some form of a septic tank.
In a septic tank the solid portions of the sewage are liquefied, certain of
the unstable substances are reduced to stable compounds, and many of
the disease-producing germs are killed. These changes are produced by the
action of bacteria which live in the depths of the tank.

The ordinary septic tank consists of a closed concrete basin, through
which the sewage flows at a rate which will permit a certain amount of

TOP VIEW

9'n

STEEI. MIR PLATE BOLTED TO CONCRETE,
WITH TOP SET PEPFECTLY LEVEL X

"OVERFLOW

6" OUTLET

WHERE DlMCAISIOrt C IS OPEAT.

LOOSE OC WET SOILS, OR WHEPE
EXTRA PPECAUT4C/N IS DESIBED,
ErtDA SIDES OF MAI/S
WITH FE/SCC WIPET.

PLATE No. 333

SECTION THROUGH SEPTIC TANK SHOWING THE POSITION OF THE BAFFLE BOARDS
WHICH ARE USED INSTEAD OF AN INVERTED TEE

(Pennsylvania State Department of Health.)

Septic tank for 25 persons: length, 9 feet; width, 4 feet 6 inches; depth below flow line, 4 feet 6 inches.
Siphon chamber of such size as to discharge the effluent from the tank from one to three times each 24 hours,
according to local conditions.

PARK SANITATION 857

decomposition and liquefaction. It should be placed as close as practicable
to the source of the sewage, but in a locality where the odors generated in
the tank will not become obnoxious. Small installations are best placed
below the surface of the ground, although this is not necessary for the satis-
factory operation of the tank. For the construction details of a septic tank
see Plates 332, 333 and 334. The size and shape of the septic tank may
vary according to the circumstances, and expert advice regarding their
construction can usually be obtained from local or state health authorities.
The tank proper should have a capacity of five cubic feet per person, but
it is not advisable to use a tank containing less than seventy-five available
cubic feet. Such a tank will handle the sewage for fifteen persons or from
seven hundred and fifty to one thousand gallons of sewage per day. The
siphon chamber may be an integral part of the tank or it may be built as
a separate unit so that it will receive the effluent from several tanks. The
latter arrangement is feasible when a large subsurface irrigation field or
intermittent filter is used for the disposal of the effluent. All septic tanks
must be properly ventilated and have a manhole opening into the tank.

A certain proportion of the solids in the sewage settle out and remain
in the tank as sludge. Ordinarily, the sludge must be removed when it
fills one-third of the tank, which usually occurs at intervals of from six
months to two or three years. To clean the tank the overlying liquid is
pumped out, after which the sludge is removed with a scoop or by pump-
ing and carted away and buried at some convenient place where it will not
contaminate a water supply. During hot-dry weather the sludge can be
spread in a thin layer on the ground and dried until it can be handled with
a spade. A scum will form upon the surface of liquid in the septic tank and
this should be occasionally broken up with a stick or pole and allowed to
settle to the bottom. Scum should not be permitted to accumulate to a
depth of more than six inches. As septic action is dependent upon the
growth of bacteria in the sludge, it may be delayed for a time when a new
tank, or one that has been idle for some time, is placed in service. During
this time the tank acts only as a settling basin, but, even so, a considerable
percentage of the solids is removed and subsequent treatment of the
sewage rendered much simpler.

The effluent from a septic tank is putrescible and contains many bac-
teria, and must be disposed of in such a manner that it will not create a
nuisance or constitute a danger to the health of man. This may be accom-
plished in one of several ways, either by subsurface irrigation, filtration, or
dilution in a nearby body of water.

Subsurface irrigation (absorption fields, distribution fields). Where a
loose porous soil is available, subsurface irrigation in the form of an absorp-

858

PARKS

tion field offers the best means of disposing of the effluent from small septic
tanks. An absorption field consists of underground lines of field tile laid
with open joints, through which the effluent from the septic tank seeps into
the adjacent soil (Plates 335, 336 and 337). The liquid thus brought into
contact with the soil is absorbed and, under the proper circumstances, an
ultimate disposal is satisfactorily effected.

A water-tight pipe of cast-iron or vitrified clay four or six inches in
diameter is laid from the septic tank or siphon chamber to the absorption
field. This pipe should have a fall of two per cent and terminate in a diver-
sion chamber (Plate 336). The tile lines of the absorption field are laid at
varying distances apart, usually four to fifteen feet, according to the nature
of the soil, and about one foot below the surface of the ground (Plate 337).
The tile lines should have a fall of about two inches in one hundred feet.
As a rule four-inch tile is used, the number of rows of tile and the length of
the tile lines depending upon the number of people to be served. The joints
of the tile drains are separated from one-fourth to one-half inch and the
tiles are laid in a bed of broken stone, gravel or other coarse material,
which will aid in absorption and prevent earth from entering at the joint.
Approximately fifty lineal feet of four-inch tile will be required for each
person contributing to the system, but this may vary from thirty to one
hundred feet depending upon the absorbing qualities of the soil.

The proper amount of sewage is released into the tiles at regular inter-
vals by means of an automatic siphon or dosing chamber (Plate 334).

'Steel reinforcement

'Cast iron frame
tight cover

PLATE No. 334
SEPTIC TANK AND SIPHON CHAMBER FOR TWENTY TO TWENTY-FIVE PERSONS

(Farmers' Bulletin No. 1227, United States Department of Agriculture.)
Septic tank: length, 6 feet; width, 3 feet 6 inches; depth below flow line, 5 feet 6 inches; W, 8 inches; X,

2 feet 9 inches; Y, 5 inches; Z, 8 inches.

Siphon chamber: length, 10 feet; depth, 2 feet 10 inches; width, 3 feet 6 inches; A, 4 inches; B, 4 inches;

C, 17 inches; D, 2Ol/£ inches.

PARK SANITATION

859

The automatic siphon consists essentially of a small tank equipped with a
U trap with the short leg of the U connected with the drain and the long
leg covered with a bell. The trap is filled with water, and as the effluent
from the septic tank flows into the siphon chamber the weight on the column
of water in the trap gradually increases until a portion is forced out into the
drain pipe. This starts the siphon and the liquid continues to flow out
until the pressure is equalized by the entrance of air under the bell. The
siphon chamber should have an overflow pipe connected with a drain to
carry away the effluent in case the siphon fails to function. It should also
have a manhole and a fresh air vent (Plate 335).

The capacity of the siphon chamber should be such that the amount
of liquid discharged by siphonage at any one time will fill all the tiles of
the absorption field connected therewith. The capacity of the different
sizes of drainage tile per lineal foot is as follows:

Diameter of tile Volume in gallons per

in inches one lineal foot

3 inches .367

4 inches .652

5 inches 1.02

6 inches 1.46

Thus an absorption field designed to dispose of the sewage produced by
twenty-five individuals, allowing fifty lineal feet of four-inch tile per person,
would have a capacity of eight hundred and fifteen gallons, or about one
hundred and thirty cubic feet of effluent. The siphon chamber supplying this
field should be so built that it will discharge this amount of effluent at one
time. For other than the smallest installations, two or more absorption
fields should be available, so that they may be dosed alternately and
overloading prevented.

Where more than one absorption field is used the effluent passes from
the siphon chamber through a water-tight pipe to a diversion chamber

PLATE No. 335
SEPTIC TANK WITH DOSING (SIPHON) CHAMBER AND ABSORPTION FIELD

Shows method of ventilation. (Wisconsin State Board of Health.)

86o

PARKS

(Plates 337 and 339), in which by the use of stop boards the sewage can be
diverted into either of the fields. An absorption field should be dosed not
more than three times in each twenty-four hours.

In the subsurface irrigation method of disposal, care must be exercised
to prevent the contamination of water supplies through pollution of the
ground water. Overloading, with the subsequent clogging of the soil,
must be avoided, and a suitable soil must be available. A loam or sandy
soil or loam mixed with sand or gravel will be found to be the best type for
this purpose. A clay soil is useless and any attempt to utilize such soil
for an absorption field is sure to result in needless expense and trouble.
Not infrequently the nature of the soil, the proximity of water supplies, or
lack of space, will prohibit the use of this means of disposing of the effluent
from septic tanks. Under such circumstances other methods of disposal
must be adopted, and as a rule underground filtration trenches or an inter-
mittent sand filter will give satisfactory service.

Underground filtration trenches. Where only clay or other non-absorbent
soil is available filtration trenches can often be used in lieu of an absorption
field (Plates 332 and 340). Filtration trenches are dug about three feet in
depth and at the bottom of each trench is placed a collecting drain of open
joint tile surrounded with broken rock ranging from one-half to one and
one-half inches in diameter. The trenches are filled with sand, gravel or
earth to within a foot of the surface, where another line of open joint tile
is placed, likewise surrounded by broken rock, which receives the effluent
from the siphon chamber. The upper tile lines are installed and function
in the same manner as the tile lines of an absorption field, except that the
effluent instead of being absorbed by the adjacent soil filters down through
the material in the trench into the collecting underdrains, through which
it may empty into ditches or may be connected with a main drain through
which the effluent is carried to a stream or other body of water to be dis-
posed of by dilution. Four-inch field tile is usually used for both the upper

v- XPTIC TANK
WITH SIPHON

PLATE No. 336

SEWER DISPOSAL SYSTEM WITH SEPTIC TANK, SIPHON CHAMBER,
DIVERSION CHAMBER AND ABSORPTION FIELD

(Pennsylvania Department of Health.)

PARK SANITATION

86 1

tile line and the collecting drains. If a main drain is required this should
be a six or eight-inch water-tight sewer.

Intermittent filtration. An intermittent filter consists of a bed of sand
from twenty-six to thirty-six inches in depth, resting upon a layer of graded

VlTBinEDSEWfPPIPE-

-LENGTH OF TILE FIELDS
rtOT TO BE GREAT£P THAft!
7O TILE -EACH l2"LO/1O i

J DIVFR5IOA CMAWBE& %^_ VITRIF.E_D 5EWEB_PlPE_^_^ -u

DIVEP5IOAI
CMAMBEB

3" OR 4" DEAIrt TILE - 12" LOAJG^*
LAID WITH 'A" OPErtJOl/NTS

PLATE No. 337
TILE FIELDS FOR SUBSURFACE IRRIGATION

(Pennsylvania Department of Health.)

broken stone or gravel, in which are placed underdrains to carry away the
filtered sewage (Plate 341). About one acre of filter surface will be required
for seven hundred and fifty persons.

The walls of the filter are usually made of earth, either as an embank-
ment or as the walls of a pit. The underdrains consist of four or six-inch
open joint tile placed from twenty to thirty feet apart on the floor of the

-Cover

"Vitrified Sewer
from

PLATE No. 338
SECTIONAL VIEW OF A DIVERSION CHAMBER SHOWING GUIDES FOR STOP PLANKS

(Commission of Immigration and Housing of California.)

filter. The underdrains have a slight fall towards one end of the bed, and
lead into a main drain of tile or pipe, eight inches in diameter, through
which the effluent is carried away. On the floor of the filter is placed a six-
inch layer of broken rock or gravel, ranging from one to two inches in

862

PARKS

diameter. Above this layer is another layer of gravel from four to six inches
in depth and composed of stones one-fourth to three-fourths inch in diam-
eter, with the finer ones on top. Above the gravel is placed a bed of sand

4 Vitrified Sewer
from TanK.

'•Space for 4
Jtop Boards'

PLATE No. 339
PLAN OF DIVERSION CHAMBER SHOWN IN PLATE NO. 337

(Commission of Immigration and Housing of California.)

from thirty to thirty-six inches in depth. The sand grains should have an
effective size of from 0.25 to 0.35 millimeter and a coefficient of uniformity
of from two to four.

If a sandy soil is available, filters can be constructed by stripping away
the upper layer of debris, evacuating any rock, clay or loam pockets, and
placing the underdrains at a depth of from six to eight feet. Such a filter
should be divided into beds by earthen embankments, which can be made
of the strippings removed from the surface.

Shallow, flat-bottomed wooden troughs are laid on the surface of the

r f>ope,r
<nl orcrushia
to ,

Cross Section of-

Fi It* v ~T*t *»r h f J

Filter Trench

liii&l^^^

w:-;-* •yy>;;.ti>vf;y.-;;>v>A.- u

ttW^"KKfX4^£3^ 45l

W* 'i«*WraWP( 1f - :£srad« ? In «J'

PLATE No. 340

SMALL SEPTIC TANK SHOWING METHOD OF USING
FILTER TRENCH AND VENTILATION SYSTEM

(Wisconsin State Board of Health.)

PARK SANITATION 863

filter to receive the effluent from the septic tank. These troughs are arranged
in a "crow foot" pattern (Plate 342). The width of the troughs and the
number of lateral troughs vary according to the amount of sewage to be
applied, and the size of the filter. The width of the main trough is greater
at the effluent end and decreases beyond each pair of side troughs. The
sides of the troughs are from three to five inches in height. Holes are bored
in the sides to permit the ready egress of the sewage which flows through
the holes as well as over the top of the sides.

Septic tank effluent is applied to an intermittent filter by means of a
siphon chamber in the same manner as described for subsurface irrigation.
A number of small septic tanks may empty into one siphon chamber located
near the filter bed. If more than one filter bed is used a diversion chamber
should be installed (Plates 337 and 339). A filter bed is dosed from one
to three times each twenty-four hours, and the siphon chamber must be
adjusted accordingly. The sewage overflows onto the surface of the filter
bed, through holes in the sides and over the walls of the troughs, to a depth

; . s A N D : . • •::..••.'•

UNDER DRAIN
PLATE No. 341
CROSS SECTION OF INTERMITTENT FILTER

of about three inches or less, and passes down through the filter where it
undergoes nitrification and is rendered more stable.

Occasionally, a filter will clog and filtration will be interfered with by
the matting of the surface of the sand. When this happens the surface of
the filter should be thoroughly raked or even spaded. If the service area is
operated during the winter in climates where freezing is apt to occur, the
surface of the filter should be ploughed into furrows. On a furrowed filter
the sewage is applied underneath the ice which forms over the furrows.

It is better to have several small filters than one large one, so that
there will be a longer resting period. Thus, approximately three thousand
square feet of filter surface would be required for the effluent from septic
tanks in which the sewage for fifty persons is treated. A rectangular filter
bed forty by seventy-five feet would provide the necessary surface, but more
efficient service will be obtained from two beds thirty by fifty feet each or
three beds twenty by fifty each. The small rectangular bed also has the
advantage that the underdrains can be placed one on each side, and it
is also much easier to secure an even distribution of the sewage on the

864

PARKS

surface of a small bed. Intermittent filter beds will give rise to a certain
amount of odor, particularly in rainy weather. For this reason the filter
should be located five hundred feet or more away from the nearest camp or
house and on the side opposite to the prevailing winds.

The effluent from an inter-
mittent filter may be discharged
into a stream, an open ditch, or
a number of such ditches (broad
irrigation). If several filter beds
are installed, the underdrains-
from each may discharge into a
main drain which in turn carries
the effluent to the stream or
other point of ultimate disposal.
If the septic tank and filter are
properly operated, the effluent is
not apt to produce a nuisance.
Disposal by dilution. The
effluent from a septic tank can
be disposed of by dilution in the
same manner as raw sewage (see
page 856).

Cesspools. The disposal of
raw or treated sewage in a cess-
pool is, in general, a very un-
desirable method to use in parks
and reservations. In practice
the cesspool usually functions in
an unsatisfactory manner and is
decidedly unsanitary. If a po-
rous soil is available which will
readily absorb the liquid, a mod-
ified form of leeching cesspool, as shown in Plate 343, will give satisfactory
service. This type is known as a subsurface, sewage filter and consists of a
circular pit containing broken stone over which is a layer of sand. Lines of
open joint tile carry the filtered sewage into adjacent soil, where it is absorbed.
The pit has dry masonry walls and an earthen floor.

Disposal of urine. Urinals should be placed in all toilets or privies
used by men and boys and will be found to be of great assistance in pre-
venting the soiling of the seats and in keeping the toilet in a sanitary con-
dition. The urinal may consist of a simple trough, as shown in Plate 344,

PLATE No. 342

SCHEMATIC DRAWING OF CROW FOOT
DISTRIBUTOR FOR INTERMITTENT FILTER

PARK SANITATION

865

or one of the more elaborate wall types may be installed. If the sanitary
privy is used it will be found more satisfactory to separate as much of the
urine as possible from the feces by means of a urinal connected with a soak-
age pit. If for any reason a soakage pit cannot be used in connection with a
sanitary privy, and the feces are to be burned or buried, the urine should
be collected in one or more receptacles (pails) separate from the feces, as
urine interferes markedly with the incineration of feces and also increases
the difficulty incident to burial in trenches or pits.

The urinal in a L. R. S. privy should drain into the liquefying tank
(Plate 323). In the pit privy the urinal, as a rule, empties directly into the
pit (Plate 328), or it may, in the case of water-tight vaults, be connected
with a soakage pit. Where flush toilets are used the urinals are connected
with the sewer.

Soakage pits. A very efficient soakage pit consists of a pit from four
to eight feet square by four to ten feet deep, filled with broken rock to within
six to twelve inches of the top (Plate 345). Above the rock is placed a layer
of straw, matting or burlap, and the pit is then filled to the top with sand.

PLATE No. 343
SUBSURFACE SEWAGE FILTER

866

PARKS

The urine is carried in a pipe from the urinal or from a number of urinals
into the pit a few inches below the sand layer. The urine passes out of the
pit into the adjacent ground. The soil surrounding the pit must be capable

of absorbing the urine, as a soak-
age pit will not function properly
in impermeable soil such as clay.
In suitable soil a soakage pit, if
not overloaded, will care for the
urine for an indefinite period
without creating a nuisance.

Sanitation of toilet and privy
buildings. All toilet or privy
buildings should be kept scru-
pulously clean. Toilet paper
should be provided and the use
of newspapers or other materials
in lieu of toilet paper should be
strictly forbidden. The floors

should be swept daily and the walls cleaned at frequent intervals. Privy
seats, the exterior of the privy boxes, and toilet bowls should be scrubbed

V/HITENED

->*^ ,

ROUU D

PLATE No. 344

URINAL FOR USE IN CONNECTION WITH
THE SOAKAGE PIT OR PRIVY

TROM URINAL

£f ' J%r/ // Jr/fJ *

PARK SANITATION

867

with hot water and soap several times each week. Urinals should likewise be
thoroughly scrubbed at frequent intervals. If wooden urinal troughs are used
they can be deodorized by painting with a solution of cresol.

Privy and toilet buildings should be adequately lighted by means of
windows, and artificial lights should be provided for use at night. Good
sanitary conditions are much easier to maintain if both the interior and the
exterior of the buildings are painted.

Toilets or privies intended for each sex should be plainly labeled with
painted signs.

Disposal of bath water. In connection with organized camps, tourists'
camps, inns, clubhouses, etc., the disposal of bath water becomes a matter
of considerable importance. Where a water carriage sewer system is in use,
the bath water is carried away by the sewers and disposed of with other
sewage, either by dilution or by a septic tank. If this method cannot be
used then the bath water can be removed by drains leading to a subsurface
irrigation field, or a soakage pit. If conditions permit, the bath water may
be discharged directly to a stream or allowed to flow in open ditches until
absorbed by the soil. While bath water is not very putrescible, it will create
a nuisance if not promptly removed. Wash water from lavatories or ablu-
tion stands is similar to bath water, but as a rule contains more soap, and
consequently should be passed through a grease trap. A disposal system for
wash water is shown in Plate 346.

Disposal of liquid kitchen wastes. The cooking water, dishwater and
other liquids resulting from culinary activities about camps, inns, club-

Mefal strainer

tile covir

Oil Drum containing s,
Bajjle piare

\hamber for cooli
— Wood box rendered *ftttrt\j)tt with pitch — -

Soop trap for Ablution Bench

PLATE No. 346

ABLUTION BENCH AND METHOD OF DISPOSING OF WASH WATER
Water from the baffle tank is allowed to run into a soakage pit, absorption field or ditch. Design for camp use.

868

PARKS

houses, etc., always contain a considerable amount of organic matter which
is putrescible and will constitute a nuisance if allowed to accumulate.
The difficulties of disposal are increased by the large grease and soap con-
tent, but if the greater proportion of these substances is removed, kitchen
wastes can then be disposed of in much the same manner as bath water,
either by draining into a sewer, or by subsurface irrigation, or by means
of a soakage pit. It is not advisable to dispose of kitchen wastes in open
ditches unless these are well removed from the vicinity of the building or
buildings.

A simple grease trap consists of a container filled with straw or a similar
material through which the greasy liquid is filtered into a small cooling
tank where the water is retained for a short time (Plate 347). The cooling
tank has an inlet near the top and the outlet well below the surface of the
liquid. As the water passes through the cooling tank the grease solidifies,
rises to the surface and can be skimmed off and burned or buried. A portion
of the grease is retained by the filtering material which is removed at inter-
vals and burned. Grease tends to clog the soil surrounding a soakage pit
or underground tiles, and thus interferes with absorption. It will also
decrease the efficiency of a septic tank. All kitchen fixtures which drain
into a septic tank, soakage pit, or subsurface irrigation field should be
equipped with grease traps. If the kitchen wastes are poured directly into
a soakage pit a grease pit can be placed on top of the pit (Plate 348).

Disposal of garbage, rubbish and manure. Decomposing garbage is mal-
odorous and unsightly, and accessible garbage serves to attract flies to the

Doorsj

*£

—vj — c -

• > c>(

^ /ST"/I>/f #"Sct//7»

111

Bent

) *WA>""

Peking funnel
>oli o^ Kay

"Hn rece/ofac/e
First chamber
Second ck&ntber

__ _

— —

—

^ctr^""

PLATE No. 347

SKETCH OF GREASE TRAP AND SOAKAGE PITS FOR KITCHEN WASTES
The debris removed by A. The grease cools and solidifies in the first and second chambers.

PARK SANITATION

869

TI&BIH (MOPPED j;

vicinity of refreshment stands, picnic grounds, kitchens and dining rooms
of camps, inns and clubhouses. Garbage should be collected in galvanized
iron cans or buckets having well-fitting covers. Ordinarily, it is advisable
to separate the edible from the non-edible garbage, placing the former in
one can while such material as papers, coffee grounds, egg shells, etc., are
deposited in another can.

Each garbage can should have a painted label stating the kind of
garbage to be deposited therein. Garbage cans may be painted white,
but should not be whitewashed.
The cans should be placed on
stands (Plate 349), and where a
large number of cans are used,
or where flies are prevalent, these
stands should be within a screened
inclosure. Garbage cans should
be emptied daily, or at least
three times a week. The con-
tents should not be removed
from the cans at the stand, but
the full cans should be hauled to
the place of disposal and there
emptied so as to avoid spilling
the garbage near the places
where it was produced. If gar-
bage wagons are used they
should be water-tight to obviate
leakage, and any garbage spilled
on the ground while the cans

are being" emDtied should be The debris and part of the grease is retained by the straw,

gravel and sand in the upper compartments. The soil, straw,

immediately removed . Wlien gravel and sand can be removed at intervals and replaced with
, . 1111 clean material.

emptied the cans should be

thoroughly washed and either scalded or scrubbed with water containing lye.

Incineration. Incineration offers the most practical method by which
garbage can be destroyed. A large number of garbage incinerators have
been devised, the principal object being that of obtaining as much heat as
possible with a small amount of fuel.

The Williamson Multiple Shelf Incinerator. The Williamson Multiple
Shelf Incinerator renders satisfactory service with a minimum amount of
fuel (Plate 350). It is made of sixteen-inch gauge black sheet iron and is
about five feet high by two or two and a half feet square. Inside is a grate
over an ash pit, and above the grate are six shelves arranged as shown in

PLATE No. 348. SOAKAGE PIT FOR THE DISPOSAL
OF KITCHEN WASTES

8;o

PARKS

Plate 350. The grate is made of three-eighths-inch pipe or iron bars laid
one-quarter inch apart, so that the dried garbage will not fall between

PLATE No. 349
STAND FOR GARBAGE CANS SO CONSTRUCTED THAT IT CAN BE EASILY CLEANED

If flies are prevalent this stand should be within a screened inclosure.

them. The shelves are supported by iron bars, which together with the
grate serve to hold the walls of the incinerator in position. Just above the

attached end of each shelf is a
stoke hole.

To start a Williamson In-
cinerator the garbage is emptied
through the top of the apparatus
onto the upper shelf and pushed
down onto the lower shelves by
means of a bar or stick inserted
through the stoke holes above
each shelf. When loaded, about
one and one-half or two inches
of garbage should be on each
shelf. A fire is then started on
the grate, and the heat passes up
under and around the ends of
shelves drying out the garbage.
Eventually the garbage on the
lower shelf begins to burn and
should then be pushed off into
the fire on the grate. The gar-
bage on the upper shelves is
then moved down one shelf and
more garbage emptied through

PLATE No. 350 the tOP °nt° the UPPCr shelf"

MULTIPLE SHELF GARBAGE INCINERATOR This process is repeated as long

PARK SANITATION

871

Jfc7!,«

as garbage is at hand to be burned, the garbage itself constituting the greater
part of the fuel required for the operation of the incinerator.

The fire should be no hotter than necessary, in order to avoid buckling
of the shelves. Only dry garbage is to be pushed down into the fire, as wet
material will extinguish it. After it has been started, a small quantity of

wood every hour or so will suffice to

keep the fire going. A smaller and
cheaper multiple shelf incinerator can
be made from an empty steel oil
drum (Plate 351). If properly oper-
ated it will care for the garbage pro-
duced by one hundred persons.

"The incinerator illustrated by
Plate 352 is strong and durable and
will burn about one thousand pounds
of garbage per twelve hours, or the
garbage collected in ten cans one and
one-half by two feet deep. On the
basis of one pound of garbage and
refuse per person per day in a camp,
an incinerator burning one thousand
pounds per day would easily take
care of the garbage from about six
hundred and fifty campers. For larg-
er numbers, either more units could
be installed or one unit operated up to its capacity for twenty-four hours."
— United States Public Health Service.

Burial of garbage. Garbage may be disposed of by burying in a pit
at some point well removed from the areas where it was produced. No
other wastes should be buried with the garbage. From time to time the
contents of the pit should be sprinkled with calcium hypochlorite. When
garbage accumulates to within eighteen inches of the top, the pit is filled
with well-tamped earth.

Disposal of rubbish. The rubbish that accumulates in park and reserva-
tion areas usually consists of paper, sticks, fruit skins and small debris of
many kinds. Receptacles for rubbish should be placed about all areas used
intensively. The closed type made of metal or wood and with a swinging
lid are far more satisfactory than those made of wire. The latter soon
become battered and when partly filled with papers, fruit skins, etc., are
very unsightly. If a garbage incinerator is available, the rubbish which can
be burned may be destroyed along with the garbage. Otherwise a small

PLATE No. 351

MULTIPLE SHELF INCINERATOR,
BARREL TYPE

(War Department Document No. 897.)

872

PARKS

Bill of Material:

II pcs. R.R iron 6'Z'lon6C$rate).
I C I. door and frame Off'20'insidfj

1 C.I. door and frameOZ'*ZO'inside)
& Expansion both g'*5*.

2 pcs. Wrought Iron i'*4*64'
trods J/4-"K 64-'.

1300 common brick.
550 fire brick.
Lime, cement, sand, e/t for
morhrand to.

inclosed incinerator can be built for this purpose. If burned in an open
fire, the papers tend to blow about the grounds. Under suitable conditions
rubbish and garbage can be satisfactorily disposed of by dumping in selected
locations. An isolated ravine or hillside may be used for a dumping ground
and the material allowed to rot. If feasible, the garbage and rubbish on
the dump should be covered with earth.

Disposal of manure. While the horse and mule are rapidly being driven
out of service in park systems, there are still some systems that make use

of the older method of motive
power. Horses may be kept
at camps in outlying reserva-
tions also. Wherever horses or
other live stock are kept in
park areas the manure must
be disposed of in a manner
which will prevent fly breed-
ing. The manure may be used
for fertilizer about the park
areas, or given or sold to near-
by farmers. Small quantities
of manure may be burned in a
garbage or feces incinerator,
or placed in windrows and
burned. Crude oil may be
used to assist in burning the
manure. In warm, dry
weather manure may be
spread in a thin layer on the
bare earth where it will be

quickly dried by the sun. Flies will not breed in dry manure. Manure
when well mixed with straw may be composted by dumping in a pile about
three feet high and five feet wide at the base. The manure is firmly packed
and covered with six inches of tamped earth. The edges of the pile and
the ground around the edges to the width of one foot should be sprayed by
a solution of borax (4 ounces to one gallon), using about a quart for every
square foot. If borax is not available the ground upon which the manure
is to be piled, and the margin of one foot beyond the edges of the pile,
should be soaked with crude oil. The composted manure ferments and pro-
duces enough heat to kill all the fly larvae, while the covering of earth pre-
vents the deposit of eggs by flies. The borax or the oil will kill the few larvae
that escape from the edges of the stack.

Solid Cast Iron Doors
not shorn in illustration

PLATE No. 352
VIEW OF INCINERATOR FOR RESORT USE

(California State Board of Health. Used by courtesy of United
States Public Health Service.)

PARK SANITATION

873

PROTECTION OF REFRESHMENTS AND FOOD
SERVED IN PARK REFRESHMENT STANDS, RESTAURANTS AND CAMPS

Refreshments not served in unbroken packages or containers, and food
served in restaurants or refreshment stands may become a principal means
of transmission of disease, and every effort should be made to handle such
refreshments and food in a manner that will, as nearly as possible, obviate
contamination. Filth provides the breeding place for, and is the natural
habitat of, the common house fly. It is an established fact that the bodies
and feet of flies which have been in contact with human excreta frequently
are coated with material containing disease-producing germs. When these

PLATE No. 353
WIRE BASKETS FOR IMMERSING DISHES IN BOILING WATER

insects walk or feed upon the food of man the germs are transferred to the
food and may cause disease. All refreshments served in refreshment stands
with which flies may come into direct contact should either be kept in cov-
ered containers or covered with a fly-proof covering. All windows and doors
of dining rooms and kitchens should be tightly screened. Despite the use
of screens a few flies will gain entrance, and these can be eradicated by the
use of traps, fly swatters and fly paper.

Dishes and eating utensils are easily contaminated and the germs of
respiratory disease can be transmitted by apparently clean but unsterilized
dishes. In so far as it is possible the use of paper cups, saucers, plates,
spoons, etc., should be made obligatory at refreshment stands. In restau-
rants and in camps all tableware when used in common should be sterilized

874

PARKS

after each meal. Sterilization is accomplished by thorough washing fol-
lowed by boiling for at least ten minutes and air drying. Dishes can be
conveniently boiled by placing them in baskets similar to those shown in
Plate 353 and immersing in boiling water in a suitable covered container.
After boiling for ten to fifteen minutes the baskets are removed from the
water by means of hooks or cords and the dishes allowed to drain and dry
without further handling (Plate 354). If baskets are not available, as may
happen in camps, dishes can be boiled in any large container, drained and
dried without wiping. Dishcloths should never be employed in drying dishes
when their use can be avoided.

Ice boxes used for the storage of food should be thoroughly cleaned

PLATE No. 354

WIRE BASKETS FILLED WITH DISHES
After boiling the dishes are allowed to remain in the baskets until dry.

at least twice each week. Vegetable bins, fruit boxes, flour bins, bread boxes
or cabinets, and meat safes should be fly and rodent proof and kept clean
at all times. All tables, sinks and meat-cutting blocks should be kept scru-
pulously clean. Where uncovered dining tables are used the cracks between
the boards soon become filled with food particles which are difficult to
remove without taking the table apart. Provision should be made for this
contingency by so constructing the tables that alternate boards can be
easily removed. The meat-cutting block should be of the knockdown type
that can be taken apart and cleaned.

All persons who are to handle refreshments or food in park refresh-
ment stands or restaurants or in camps should be examined for evidence
of contagious or infectious disease, particularly respiratory and intestinal

PARK SANITATION 875

disease, before being allowed to begin work. Specimens of the feces and
urine should be sent to the nearest board of health laboratory to be bac-
teriologically examined for the presence of the germs of typhoid fever or
dysentery. Occasionally otherwise healthy people discharge the germs of
typhoid fever in their feces and urine, and such individuals are known as
typhoid carriers. One food handler who is a typhoid carrier can create
havoc among a group of persons susceptible to typhoid.

A high standard of personal cleanliness should be demanded of all
persons who work in refreshment stands, kitchens or dining rooms of res-
taurants, inns and camps. White, clean clothing should be worn by all
food handlers. The finger nails should be trimmed short and kept clean.
The hands must be thoroughly washed with hot water and soap after
visiting the toilet.

Food materials should be protected from dust, dirty hands and flies
while in transit from the point of purchase to the refreshments stands,
restaurants and camps. Unbroken packages should be utilized wherever
practicable. Meat purchased in quarters or fairly large quantities should
be wrapped in cloth or heavy paper. Bread should be delivered in covered
baskets or clean sacks. Only government inspected meat should be used,
or if killed locally it must be known that the animals were healthy and that
the meat has been handled subsequently in a sanitary manner. Vegetables
or fruits are not infrequently subjected to unsanitary conditions and con-
sequent contamination prior to delivery to the consumer, and any which
are to be eaten raw must be thoroughly washed in clean water before
serving.

Where milk is served it should be obtained only from dairies which
produce and deliver it in accordance with recognized sanitary precautions.
If, in the case of camps or inns located in reservations, the dairy or dairies
from which the milk is gotten is not under the control of and regularly
inspected by a local health department, samples of the milk as delivered
should be sent at bi-weekly intervals to the nearest board of health labora-
tory for chemical and bacteriological analysis. If possible only dairies with
herds certified to be free from tuberculosis should be patronized. Milk
obtained from questionable sources should be pasteurized by heating it to
a temperature of 65 degrees Centigrade (149 degrees Fahrenheit) for thirty
minutes, followed by rapid cooling.

EXAMPLE OF CONDITIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS GOVERNING RENTAL OF
REFRESHMENT STANDS IN ONE PARK SYSTEM

The following are the conditions and specifications governing the rental
of refreshment stand privileges in the parks under the control of the Board

876

PARKS

of Park Commissioners of Milwaukee. These conditions and specifications
are presented here chiefly because of the sanitary regulations involved.

1. The form of lease shall be the same as is hereto
attached.

2. Time of Payments. Payments to be made as
follows :

If lease terminates March I, 1924, one-half at time
of signing and the balance on or before July 15, 1923;
if lease terminates March i, 1925, one-quarter at time
of signing, one-quarter on or before July 15, 1923, one-
quarter on or before March I, 1924 and one-quarter on
or before July 15, 1924; if lease terminates March i,
1926, one-sixth at time of signing, one-sixth on or before
July 15, 1923, one-sixth on or before March I, 1924,
one-sixth on or before July 15, 1924, one-sixth on or
before March I, 1925, and one-sixth on or before July

I5» I92S-

3. No alcoholic, spirituous, vinous, malt or semi-
alcoholic liquors shall be sold in the parks, and no
watermelons, unshelled peanuts or bananas shall be
sold therein. Cigars and tobacco may be sold subject,
however, to such regulations as the Board of Park
Commissioners may adopt. All food, drinks or other
refreshments offered for sale must be of good quality,
wholesome, clean and pure, and must conform to the
provisions of the pure food laws of Wisconsin and the
United States Government.

4. There shall be kept on sale by the lessee at all
proper times a sufficient quantity to supply all demands
of such food, refreshments, candies, etc., and other
articles, as may be desired by the public, and no food,
refreshments, candies, and other articles of whatever
nature, shall be sold without the consent and approval
of the Board of Park Commissioners.

The Board of Park Commissioners shall have the
right to fix the maximum price for all food, refresh-
ments, candies, etc., and any other article offered for
sale and shall have and hereby reserves the right to
at its discretion, revise the maximum price at any time,
and any such revision as may be ordered must be com-
plied with by the lessee.

The Board of Park Commissioners shall also have
the right to make a revision of the kinds of foods, re-
freshments, candies, etc., and any other article offered
for sale, by either eliminating certain articles already
offered or adding such others as it may deem advisable,
and such revision must be complied with by the lessee;
provided the lessee shall not be compelled to add any
articles if he can show and satisfy the Board of Park
Commissioners that the handling of such article is not
in great demand and would cause a financial loss.

5. In all of the parks, excepting in such buildings or
areas which are excluded, in addition to operating the
refreshment stand privileges, the lessees shall also have
the right to operate a wardrobe for checking wearing
apparel and other articles, and the price for such check-

ing, from time to time, shall be fixed by the Board of
Park Commissioners.

6. In whatever park ordered by the Board of Park
Commissioners, a neat and attractive bill of fare shall
be provided by the lessee. In all other parks the bill of
fare shall be conspicuously displayed on a neat and
attractive sign in some part of the building in which
these refreshments are sold.

7. The Board reserves the right on its own initiative
to inspect or cause to be inspected all food, drinks or
other refreshments offered for sale, as well as all con-
tainers of such food, drinks or other refreshments, as
also the ice boxes and other furniture and fixtures,
dishes and utensils used, as also the methods employed
in serving, and any orders issued by the Board of Park
Commissioners after such inspection must be complied
with by the lessee and no appeal can be taken therefrom.

8. The Board also reserves the right, upon com-
plaint by any person, that the food, drinks or other
refreshments offered for sale are not wholesome and of
good quality, or that the prices charged are in excess
of the price given in the bill of fare, or otherwise fixed
by the Board of Park Commissioners, or that the arti-
cles mentioned on the bill of fare are frequently not
obtainable, or that the service is not adequate, cour-
teous, prompt or efficient, to investigate such com-
plaints and if substantiated, to issue such orders as it
may deem necessary to remedy the matter complained
of, and such orders must be complied with by the lessee
and no appeal can be taken therefrom.

9. All buildings under the charge of the lessee shall
be thoroughly and frequently cleaned by the lessee by
dusting, washing, or scrubbing so that no dust or dirt
shall ever be anywhere noticeable, failing to do which,
the Board of Park Commissioners shall have the right
to cause said buildings to be cleaned and charge the
cost thereof to the lessee.

10. No refuse or other matter from the buildings
shall be thrown or deposited on any portion of the
park grounds, and no solid substance shall be emptied
into any sewer or sink. All empty bottles, ashes, and
refuse matter of whatever kind, shall be put into suit-
able boxes provided for that purpose. The lessee shall
not permit bottled beverages to be taken away from
his stand or stands unless he can assure the return of
all empty bottles to his stand.

11. No change shall be made in the construction of
any building or buildings occupied by the lessee, nor
shall any stand or counter be erected in any part of
the park, without the written consent of the Board of
Park Commissioners.

12. The lessee shall be required to take reasonable
care to protect the premises assigned to him.

13. The waiters shall give prompt service, shall be

PARK SANITATION

877

courteous and obliging to all, and shall wear a dis-
tinctive badge.

14. The lessee shall be at all times amenable to the
general rules and regulations now in force or hereafter
made by the Board of Park Commissioners and the
said Board of Park Commissioners may at any time
at its discretion, cancel this lease upon one week's
notice to be given in writing by the secretary of the
Board, acting by authority of the said Board of Park
Commissioners; provided that if such lease is cancelled,
pro rata refund of consideration already paid by lessee
shall be made.

15. The lessee shall not assign his lease or any inter-
est therein, or sublet any portion of the premises in-
cluded in said lease, without first obtaining the written
consent of the Board of Park Commissioners.

1 6. The lessee shall, at his own expense, and subject
to the approval of the Board of Park Commissioners,
provide all necessary furniture, fixtures, show cases,
dishes, etc., necessary and required for the conducting
of his business; and the same shall be and remain the
property of the lessee.

17. Light and heat will be furnished by the Board
of Park Commissioners in such building or buildings
where lighting and heating facilities are installed and
operated for public use; in such building or buildings
where there are no heating and lighting facilities the
lessee must install and operate same at his own expense.

Fuel for cooking must be furnished by the lessee at
his own expense.

1 8. The leases grant the exclusive privilege of selling
refreshments in the respective parks for which they are
issued, excepting, however, such specific reservations
and conditions that may be made by the Board when
such leases are granted, and the use of such quarters
as may be erected and assigned by the Board of Park
Commissioners for that purpose. In Gordon Park the
bath house is included in the privilege; in South Shore
Park the bath house is excluded; in Washington Park
the field building, and the entire area in and around
the race track and the stand and the entire area in the
zoo are excluded. The refreshment stand and the ward-
robe checking in the field building, as also the refresh-
ment stands in the race track and zoo area, will be
operated by the Board of Park Commissioners.

19. The lessee must confine the sale of goods to the
quarters assigned and will not be permitted to peddle
goods or solicit business in the park.

20. The Board of Park Commissioners reserves the
right to lease the concessions only to such persons who,
in its judgment, shall have the necessary qualifications
to conduct the concessions in a proper and satisfactory
manner, and who, in its judgment, are reliable and
possess a good character; and the Board in leasing

such concessions reserves the right to lease the respec-
tive privileges to such parties who, in its opinion, are
best fitted for conducting the same whether or not
such parties are the highest bidders.

For and in consideration of the sum of]

- dollars ($ ) payable

the Board of Park Commissioners of the City of Mil-
waukee does hereby grant unto

the sole privilege and permission to sell refreshments in
Park, excluding

from,
to

the sale of such refreshments to be confined, however,
to such quarters in said park and such parts in any
building or buildings in said park which the Board of
Park Commissioners may, from time to time, designate
for such purpose; this lease shall be subject to the
terms and conditions set forth in the specifications
regulating the operating of refreshment stands in the
parks, copy of which specifications is hereto attached
and made a part of this lease, with the same force and
effect as if the same were incorporated herein.

It is hereby made a part of this agreement that the
said

shall at all times be subject and amenable to the rules
and regulations of the Board of Park Commissioners
now in force or hereafter adopted and that said Board
of Park Commissioners may at any time at its dis-
cretion cancel this lease upon one week's notice to
lessee to be given in writing by mail, by the Secretary
of the Board of Park Commissioners, acting by author-
ity of said Board of Park Commissioners; provided
that if such lease is cancelled pro rata refund of con-
sideration already paid hereunder by lessee shall be
made.

In Witness Whereof the said Board of Park Com-
missioners has caused these presents to be signed by
its president and secretary and the said lessee has
hereunto set his hand and seal this

day of

President
Secretary

878 PARKS

SANITATION OF SLEEPING QUARTERS IN CAMPS

Regardless of whether tents or buildings are used for sleeping quarters,
sufficient air space and adequate ventilation should be provided. The
relationship between the ventilation of sleeping quarters and the air space
and floor space provided for each occupant is such that one cannot be
considered to the exclusion of the other two.

The human body is constantly giving ofF moisture which in a confined
space and in the absence of sufficient ventilation serves to increase the
relative humidity of the air and thereby produces conditions which are
injurious to health. Ventilation produces an exchange between the inside
and outside air which tends to reduce the relative humidity of the former
towards that of the latter. Many different types of ventilators and methods
of ventilation have been devised, such as ridgepole ventilators and air
shafts of various kinds, all being designed to produce inward and outward
currents of air. Good ventilation can be produced in buildings by the
intelligent use of doors and windows, and in tents by means of windows
in the sides, flaps at the end, and possibly ridgepole or center pole venti-
lators. Whatever method is used it must be remembered that the object
of ventilation is to maintain the same relative humidity of the inside air
as obtains in the outside atmosphere. Each individual must be furnished
sufficient air space so that the available ventilation will serve to prevent
an undue rise in the relative humidity of the air. The smaller the air space
the better the ventilation must be if the relative humidity is to be main-
tained at the proper level. In the presence of poor ventilation, sluggish
air movement, or high relative humidity of the outside air, a larger air
space will be required for each individual than when the opposite con-
ditions prevail. A great many observations have shown that each occupant
of a building or tent under the average conditions should have not less than
five hundred cubic feet of air space. Where ceilings are more than ten feet
high the space above the ten-foot level is not included in calculating the
air space. With a ceiling ten feet or more in height fifty square feet of floor
space would be required for each individual, and with the ceilings lower
than ten feet the amount of floor space should be increased accordingly.

While it is very desirable that sleeping quarters be so arranged that
each occupant will have fifty square feet of floor space, nevertheless it is
at times impracticable to meet this requirement. The ordinary cot requires
about fifteen square feet of floor space so that, considering only the space
required for the beds and the movements of the occupant in going to and
from his bed, the floor space per person will range from twenty square
feet upward. Good ventilation should be provided under any circumstances,
but when the floor space per person is reduced to below forty square feet

PARK SANITATION 879

it is essential that the movements of the air throughout the room or tent
are such that the inside air is practically the same as that on the outside.
If extraordinary care is devoted to the ventilation it is possible to main-
tain healthful conditions in crowded sleeping quarters even where only
twenty to twenty-five square feet is allotted to each occupant.

The use of double deck bunks should be avoided, if possible, and
wherever used, the tiers (standees) should be placed away from the walls
of the building or tent in order that there may be free circulation of air on
all sides. Where beds are placed side by side the head and foot arrange-
ment should be practiced whenever there is less than one hundred square
feet of floor space per person. That is, the head of each bed is opposite the
foot of the bed on either side. The greater the distance separating the
heads of the sleepers the less danger there is of direct transmission of mas-
sive doses of air-borne germs of respiratory diseases. Weather permitting,
the walls of tents should be rolled every day so that the interior is thoroughly
aired or sunned. If buildings are used as sleeping quarters, the bedding
should be taken out of doors and sunned twice each week.

INSECT CONTROL

There are several kinds of insects that cause a great deal of annoyance
to people using parks and reservations, especially at certain seasons of the
year. Among these are mosquitoes, common house flies, "chiggers," ticks
and vermin of various kinds. Of these the mosquito and the fly cause the
most annoyance and discomfort and are also a direct menace to health.
Because so many park properties are in the vicinity of lakes, ocean, rivers,
small streams and because bodies of still water are commonly made a part
of the landscape feature of large parks, and often small ones as well, mosquito
control becomes a problem of great importance at certain times of the year.
In the vicinity of camps and picnic grounds, refreshment stands and res-
taurants, flies are also likely to be very numerous during the warm parts
of the year in the northern and middle sections of the country and in the
extreme south the year around. Chiggers and wood ticks are found through-
out the entire country. Vermin such as lice, bedbugs and roaches are most
likely to be found in camps and resort hotels in parks.

Mosquitoes.1

Water is necessary to the development of all varieties of mosquitoes.
The female mosquito lays her eggs, approximately two hundred at one time,
on the surface of the water. These eggs hatch into larvae or wiggletails in

1 This section on Mosquito Control is taken almost verbatim from "Applied Municipal Sanitation," by V. M.
Ehlers, Chief Sanitary Engineer; E. G. Eggert, Sanitary Engineer; and Ella G. White, Secretary; all of Division
of Sanitary Engineers, State Health Department of Texas, published by the Texas Association of Sanitarians,
Austin, Tecas, 1925, Chapter III, pages 107-119.

880 PARKS

about two days. The wiggletails move vigorously about in the water feed-
ing, and gradually increase in size from six to ten days, depending upon
the species of the mosquitoes and the temperature of the water. The
warmer the weather and the higher the temperature of the water, the more
rapid is the development. During all this time the wiggletail is an air-
breather. It frequently comes to the surface of the water to breathe, accom-
plishing this by holding its breathing tubes, which are at one end of the
body, to the surface of the water.

When the larva has attained its full growth it changes into what is called
the pupa. The pupa is also an air-breather, breaking through two small
tubes, which project like horns from the top of its head. During the pupal
stage no food is taken and it spends its time floating quietly at the surface
of the water. At the end of one or two days the skin of the pupa splits and
the full-grown mosquito comes forth. The new mosquito floats on the sur-
face of the water for a short time until its wings harden and then flies off
on its bloodsucking career. About a week is required for the cycle of egg
to adult. In another week the female mosquito is ready to start laying
eggs, and she will lay two hundred each week after that.

Only the female mosquito preys upon man. The male is seldom found
far from the breeding places. His food consists of plant and vegetable
juices, for his boring apparatus is not strong enough to penetrate the human
or animal skin. It is only in default of a source of blood supply that the
female will live on the thin nourishment that sustains the male. Male
and female mosquitoes can easily be distinguished by examining the head.
If the antennae and palpi which project from it are very feathery, the
mosquito is a male; if they are rather bare, it is a female.

Mosquitoes must have water in which to spend the wiggletail state of
their lives. They do not breed in weeds, grass, trees or vines. They will
go into such places for shelter from the sun, wind or rain, but they cannot
multiply there. There are many varieties of mosquitoes, but the two that
most concern the sanitarian are that species of the Aedes formerly known as
the Stegomyia, which is the carrier of yellow fever and dengue fever, and the
Anopheles, which is the carrier of malarial fever. The former is domestic
and is found chiefly around buildings and breeds only in clear water in
artificial containers, such as rain barrels, watering troughs, tubs, wells, etc.
The latter is semi-domestic. They breed in natural pools of clear water,
particularly those with grassy edges which form a harbor. The Anopheles
travels a little farther than the Aedes but very rarely gets more than a
half mile from its breeding place.

In the control of the mosquito menace there are two main lines of
attack, namely, eliminating or controlling the breeding places, and screen-

PARK SANITATION 88 1

ing out the mosquito. There are several major activities that have to be
considered in the elimination of breeding places. Except in the interior of
very large park areas, it is obvious that park officials alone cannot be held
responsible for the control of the mosquito pest. It is in reality a community
affair. A park official might take every step known to be effective and still
have swarms of mosquitoes in his parks because of the presence of breeding
places just outside of the park boundaries. However, as a part of a com-
munity campaign against this pest, it is the duty of park and recreation
officials to take every necessary step for control on properties under their
jurisdiction.

Drainage. Wherever possible, water should be eliminated by drainage.
This applies to swamps, seepage areas, ponds, ditches, etc. It should be
remembered that a good drainage ditch will be as straight as possible,
have clean-cut sloping sides and narrow bottom, and should be frequently
cleaned and cleared of vegetation. Roadway drainage curbs or ditches are
a frequent source of trouble and should be cleaned and graded often. Cul-
verts are often silted up at the lower end and provide a shaded pool of
water for mosquito production.

Stream improvement. Mosquitoes have no objection to breeding in
running streams, provided .they can get some protection from the current
and from fish. Where the stream is overgrown with vegetation or choked
with brush, this protection is afforded. It is therefore necessary to keep
streams in park areas running freely by frequent cleaning. At times it may
be found advantageous to straighten the course of a stream, and where the
stream spreads out, construct a channel with boards or stone, and fill behind,
eliminating the dangerous grassy edges. However, this method of dealing
with streams will often interfere with certain desired landscape effects.
Holes that are likely to hold water during dry weather should be filled or
drained.

Artificial containers. A very large percentage of mosquitoes which
infest tourist camps, organized camps, picnic grounds, restaurants and other
buildings in parks, are raised in artificial water containers which are usually
present about the premises. Old wells and cisterns not in use should be
filled. Eaves-troughs and rain spouts, if out of repair and choked up, may
also furnish suitable breeding places and should be inspected frequently.
Septic tank effluents or any accumulation of sewage are favorite breeding
places for the variety of mosquito known as the Culex. The tank should
be kept well covered to prevent entrance of the female mosquito seeking
a nesting place, and the effluent channel must be kept clean and unobstructed
and of such grade as to have a good current. If rain barrels are necessary,
they should be kept covered with sacking held in place by a hoop. Arti-

882 PARKS

ficially constructed storage reservoirs such as metal, wooden or concrete
tanks should be covered with a sixteen-mesh or eighteen-mesh screen. All
old cans, buckets or other utensils that may hold water should be buried
or burned. Since there will always be water that it is impossible to drain,
and since water areas are desirable for many purposes in park development,
methods of preventing mosquito breeding in such places must be applied.
These consist of killing the mosquito in the wiggletail stage by employing
minnows, oiling the surface of the water, or by the use of larvicides.

Stocking with minnows. For economy and efficiency in mosquito control
the possibilities of the minnow cannot be overlooked. One of the varieties
of minnows that feeds upon wiggletails is the pot-bellied top minnow,
scientifically known as Gambusia Affinis. They multiply very rapidly, giving
birth to their young alive in successive broods during warm weather. Their
value in mosquito control lies in the fact that they feed voraciously on
mosquito wiggletails. The minnows are top feeders and are, therefore,
especially efficient in destroying the Anopheles mosquito. However, mos-
quitoes of any species have little chance to develop to maturity where this
fish is abundant. Vegetation, debris, or other accumulation likely to
harbor mosquito larvae along edges of the pool should be cleared so that
the fish will find and devour the wiggletails. It is also desirable that the
edges of ponds be shallow enough to give the minnows protection against
bass and other predacious fish.

Their usefulness is not confined to streams, ponds and tanks. Two or
three fish introduced into a shallow well, underground cistern, watering
trough, or rain barrel will live indefinitely, do no harm to the water, and
keep it free from mosquito larvae. They will not live in metal overground
cisterns. Other fish have also been used in mosquito control, namely, head
minnow, small catfish and red horse. The latter two are valuable only in
water barrels, wells and cisterns.

Oiling. Oiling is particularly adapted to the control of small tem-
porary pools that cannot be stocked with minnows. The larva is unable
to break through the oil film and obtain air when it comes to the surface
to breathe. In addition the oil enters the breathing tubes and seems to
have a poisonous effect. It is necessary, of course, that a continuous film
of oil be kept on the surface of the water, and the frequency of application
will vary with the conditions of the weather, the current and so forth.
The most economical and effective method of application of oil is by the
use of a spray knapsack can, holding about five gallons and carried strapped
on the back. A pump is operated with one hand and the nozzle is directed
with the other, allowing a thin film of oil to be sprayed to a distance of
ten feet. To control running streams drip cans are also used. These con-

PARK SANITATION 883

sist of a box or can with a spigot or opening so arranged that the oil will
run out continuously, drop by drop. They need frequent attention, and the
stream must be kept free from obstructions to allow an uninterrupted spread
of oil. Continuous application of oil can also be obtained by soaking a
sack of sawdust in oil and anchoring it below the surface of the water.
Kerosene, fuel oil and crude oil have been used for mosquito control. Kero-
sene is open to the objection that it is expensive, evaporates quickly and
lacks color to indicate whether the film is complete. Crude oil, mixed with
kerosene, combines the advantage of high toxic power, good spreading
ability, gives a lasting film and is easy to spray. Some fuel oils have all
these qualities without the addition of kerosene. Waste crank-case oil
obtained gratis from garages has been used extensively.

In California, Mr. H. J. Quayle has used a combination of heavy oil
of eighteen degrees gravity, and a light of thirty-four degrees gravity, in
the proportion of four to one, respectively. This mixture made an oil just
thin enough to spray well from an ordinary spray nozzle and yet thick
enough to withstand rapid evaporation. It was applied by a barrel pump
where this could be used and by an ordinary knapsack pump in other
regions. A single application was found to be effective sometimes up to
four weeks. The army of occupation in Cuba used oil every two weeks, and
this is found to be about the general practice.

Larvicides. Paris green mixed with ordinary roadside dust and sprinkled
on the surface of the water has been found effective in destroying the Anoph-
eles larvae. Two level teaspoonfuls of Paris green mixed with a quart of
road dust will be sufficient to treat one thousand square feet of water.
Handfuls of the mixture are thrown over the water, preferably with the
wind at the distributor's back, and an even distribution will result. Anoph-
eles control by weekly application of Paris green is one of the most econom-
ical methods that has been discovered, but it must be borne in mind that
it is effective against Anopheles larvae only. Other species are not harmed,
nor are Anopheles pupae.

Creosote and various compounds of creosote can be sprayed on water
with good effect. It is of particular value where there is enough current to
prevent an effective film of oil. Observation will be necessary to make sure
that a sufficient amount of the larvicide is being applied.

Niter cake, a waste product of fertilizer factories, may also be used,
particularly in barrels for fire protection. Two pounds of the dry cake to
the barrel will prevent breeding for the season. Where it can be obtained
in large quantities without cost, it has been dumped into the catch basins
of storm sewers with the effect of preventing breeding throughout the storm
sewer system. It must be used with care, however, as it varies in strength,

884 PARKS

and water that is alkaline will deprive it of a great part of its toxic power.

Destruction of harboring places. Destroying high grass, weeds and
shrubbery close to picnic grounds, camps and other places where people
congregate in parks, especially wild parks, will sometimes reduce the nui-
sance of mosquitoes, since they use these places for protection against the
sun, rain and wind. Unscreened buildings are especially desirable places for
harboring mosquitoes, as they spend their daylight hours in dark corners,
on ceilings or under floors, and come forth in search of blood at dusk. Such
places may be sprayed with a mixture of creosote, using about two gallons
to a room.

Screening. The malaria mosquito bites only at night; therefore, if
everyone in a camp slept in a cabin or tent so well screened that no mos-
quito could enter there would be little danger of getting malaria. No place
is well protected that has twelve-mesh screens, as some mosquitoes are sure
to get through. Only sixteen-mesh should be used if complete protection
is expected. Screens should be kept in repair, frames should fit well, and
cracks under doors and windows closed by some effective method. To
prevent the entrance of mosquitoes through chimneys the top should be
screened or the fireplace openings sealed.

Flies.

Flies are likely to become a special source of annoyance and a menace
to health at picnic grounds, refreshment stands, restaurants and in all
kinds of camps, although they may be troublesome in other places in parks,
especially if in the vicinity of places where food is being served or where
breeding places are found.

"There are in general four species of flies that infest human habita-
tions. These are: (i) The blue-bottle fly or 'blowfly'; (2) the green-bottle
fly; (3) the common house fly; and (4) a fly similar in appearance to the
house fly, but smaller. Flies like mosquitoes pass through different stages
of development from the egg to maturity. The female lays her eggs in
warm, moist manure or in garbage piles, or in privy contents, where they
hatch into small maggots in eight to forty-eight hours. During the next
four or five days the maggots eat voraciously and develop a growth of
about half an inch. At the end of this period they emerge as full-grown
flies."1

Measures for the eradication or control of flies consist of the elimina-
tion of breeding places, destruction of the adult fly and preventing the
access of the fly to the habitations or to the food of man. The house fly
breeds habitually in feces, preferably horse manure. Flies can, therefore,

Sanitation," W. F. Draper and H. B. Hommon, Surgeon General's Office, United States Public
Health Service, Washington, D. C.

PARK SANITATION

885

PLATE No. 355
THE OBER FLYTRAP

be greatly reduced in numbers by the disposal of excreta in such a manner
as either to prevent the female fly from reaching it or so as to destroy the
eggs or the larvae. The methods of disposing of human excreta and manure
have been described under disposal of waste.

Three methods of destroying the adult fly are in common use: by
traps, by fly paper or by poison. Of these methods, trapping has been
found to be the most effective for camp use, although
usually more than one measure is employed.

Flytraps are of various forms and sizes. The
Ober flytrap, as shown in Plates 355 and 356, is a
very good model, as in addition to being a very
effective trap, it has the advantage that it is inex-
pensive and can be very quickly and easily con-
structed. Two triangles are made from a twelve-inch
board, and a small triangle is cut from the base of Wit^ one small triangle fas.
each of the larger triangles. The larger triangles tened with wooden buttons. (War

0 ° ° 1-1 Department: Document No.897.)

are connected by three light sticks of any desired

length, usually about eighteen inches. The screening is tacked to the small
triangle at the junction of one of the sides and the base. It is then fastened

over the apex of the small
triangle and down the other
side to the corner of base
and side, whence it is car-
ried around the large tri-
angle back to the starting
point. Both ends of the trap
are constructed in this man-
ner and one of the small
triangles is then nailed back
into place, the other being
fastened to the larger tri-
angle with wooden buttons
to facilitate the removal of
the flies. In some models
both small triangles are

DETAILS OF THE OBER FLYTRAP nailed fagt and & sm^ doQr

A door is shown at B through which the flies can be removed '„ rr\AC\f* in nnp nf trip laro-pr
after the trap has been immersed in water or flamed. letlger

triangles through which the

flies can be removed from the trap. Small holes, each the size of a pencil,
and about one inch apart, are punched through the fold of the screening
which extends from the apex of one small triangle to the apex of the other.

A . £WD'S OFTKAP
B . DOOH FOR RtMCYINf ft-fi
C . E.HO'3 TOR INSIDE SCREEN
0 . TOP C0WV£C7//VS flMt.
C . IHDS OF TRAP

r . sorrow coN/vfCTtM RUL

. SUPPORTING- KAIL
M. SMfiLL HOLIS.PUHCHCO

THUOUSH IHS/0£ 6C/tl!ff

PARKS

The trap is set on a level surface either on the ground or floor or on a
stand two or three feet in height. The bait is placed in a flat, shallow con-
tainer under the trap, and when the fly has finished feeding it will crawl up
through the small holes in the screen into the main part of the trap. The
trap can be emptied by first immersing in water or flaming, to kill the flies,
and then loosening the wooden buttons and slightly depressing the small
triangle, or opening the small door. The flies will slide out when the other
end is raised.

The most effective fly baits consist of either putrefactive or fermenta-
tive substances. Putrefactive baits soon become so malodorous as to con-
stitute a nuisance, but while fer-
mentative baits have a distinct
odor, it is not unpleasant. Of the
latter the following have been found
to be efficient: (a) Bran, n ounces;
corn meal, 5 ounces; syrup, 4
ounces; water, I pint. (£) Over-ripe
bananas and sour milk, (c) Corn
meal, I part; molasses (syrup), 2
parts; water, 5 parts; yeast
(bakers'), as needed to produce the
necessary fermentation. Of the
putrefactive baits, fish heads, fish
scraps, or canned salmon are the
best. Traps should be placed in
kitchens, around garbage cans,
toilets or wherever flies are

TRANSVE.RSE,
SE.CTION

PLATE No. 357
THE HODGE WINDOW SASH FLYTRAP

numerous.

The Hodge window sash flytrap, as shown in Plate 357, is quite efficient
and has the advantage that no bait is required. Flies are attracted by
light and this tendency is utilized in the operation of the Hodge trap. A
frame is made to fit the window opening and held in place by the sash
coming down onto it or by fastening to the side of the window opening.
The frame is four to five inches in depth, covered on the outside by screen-
ing, while on the inside the screening is arranged in small triangles or pyra-
mids, one above the other, with the apices pointing upward and outward.
At the apex of each triangle a small hole the size of a lead pencil is punched
through the screening. The fly, in endeavoring to reach the light, enters
the broad base of the triangle and crawls upward through the hole in the
screen. The flies are killed by flaming and removed through an opening
with a sliding metal door in the lower part of the trap. Certain modifica-

PARK SANITATION 887

tions of the Hodge trap have no outside screen and the flies pass through
the holes into the outer air. The Hodge trap is most efficient when all the
other windows and the doors of the room are darkened.

Fly wire and fly paper. The sticky fly mixture or fly glue consists of
ten parts of castor oil or linseed oil, eight parts of powdered resin, and one
part of powdered acacia, by weight. The oil and the resin are brought to
boil separately and then mixed and allowed to boil for fifteen minutes. The
acacia is then slowly added, care being taken to prevent the mixture from
boiling over. The proportion of the oil and resin should be varied accord-
ing to the temperature and the consistency desired. When cool, this mix-
ture is applied to wires with a brush. The glue adheres better to rusty than
to smooth wire. Pieces of wire about eighteen inches long which have been
treated in this manner are hung from the ceiling or other convenient places.
Flies habitually tend to alight on hanging wire or strings, and wires coated
with fly glue are, as a rule, more effective than fly paper. The flies are
wiped off with a cloth and the wire recoated with the glue. Fly paper can
be made by coating paper with the fly glue, but it will probably be much
simpler to buy the ordinary fly paper. Fly paper is more efficient if placed
in the form of an arch rather than flat.

Fly poison. A safe poison can be made as follows: Milk, ^4 pint; 40
per cent formaldehyde, i]/2 teaspoonfuls ; sugar, 10 ounces; lime water,
sufficient to make I pint. Or, sodium salicylate, 3 teaspoonfuls; brown sugar,
i or 2 teaspoonfuls; water, I pint. The fly poison is placed in a shallow dish,
or an ordinary drinking glass is partly filled with the solution and inverted
over a saucer or other flat dish lined with white blotting paper. A small
match stick is placed under the edge of glass and as the solution evaporates
from the paper more flows out of the glass. Other fluids should be protected
from flies so that they will be compelled to drink the poisoned solution.

Screening. The doors, windows and other openings through which
flies can gain entrance into a building should be screened.

Bedbugs.

It has never been definitely proven that bedbugs transmit disease, but
nevertheless every effort should be made to eradicate them as soon as a
room in an inn or camp is discovered to be infected. As a rule the bedbug
deposits its eggs in cracks and crevices of walls, floors and furniture. Wooden
bedsteads should never be used in inns or camps, as these provide many places
in which the bedbugs will thrive. As the eggs as well as the adult bug must
be destroyed, the walls, floors, beds and crevices in the furniture should be
thoroughly scrubbed with hot water and soap, followed by a liberal applica-
tion of gasoline or kerosene, which will penetrate and kill the egg, and
should be forced into every crack that can be found. Where possible the
bedding should be washed in hot water or carefully ironed with a hot iron

888 PARKS

in order to destroy the eggs. It may be necessary to devise some means of
sterilizing the mattresses with steam or hot air. Fumigation with sulphur
will kill the adult bedbug but will not affect the eggs.

Roaches.

Roaches frequently pass from toilets, sewers and drain pipes to refresh-
ment stands, kitchens and dining rooms in restaurants and camps, and may
therefore constitute a menace to health. The prevention of roaches can be
accomplished by the elimination of cracks, crevices and dark corners in
kitchens and dining rooms and by keeping all the supplies in roach-proof
containers. Fumigation by sulphur will kill the roaches reached by the
gas, but the best way to eradicate them is by the use of roach powder,
consisting of sodium fluoride mixed with meal or flour. This powder is
dusted in corners, closets, drawers and dark crevices.

SANITARY CARE OF AREAS AND FACILITIES OF VARIOUS KINDS
Camp Grounds.

Cleanliness is so intimately related to sanitation that a clean camp
will, as a general rule, be sanitary. Every camp director wishes to have
his camp present an attractive and pleasing appearance, and this cannot be
done unless the grounds are clean and sanitary. To this end all rubbish
should be removed at once. Such places as the rear of kitchens and dining
rooms should be carefully watched. As a rule "out of sight out of mind"
applies only too often to dirt and rubbish. All low spots, walks, roads and
paths should be drained by suitable and well-kept ditches or by under-
ground tile. In tent camps every tent should have a trench on all sides
to carry off storm water, and prevent the formation of mud holes. Rank
vegetation and long grass should be kept down.

Picnic Grounds.

Picnic grounds, unless kept under very close supervision, will likely very
soon become covered with papers, fruit skins, pieces of food and other
debris carried in by the picnickers. Every picnic ground should have several
commodious receptacles into which the remains of eating can be thrown.
It would be well if one of these receptacles were water-tight, into which
could be thrown stale coffee, dishwater and other liquids resulting from
the picnic dinner or supper. Attractive signs, posted at conspicuous places
about the grounds, giving instructions to picnickers where to deposit refuse,
may help some in keeping the ground better policed. Some park executives
who handle their picnic ground under a permit system require a deposit
of from one dollar to five dollars from the group as a guarantee that the
grounds will be left in as good condition as they were found. If the pic-
nickers police the ground well the deposit is returned. If not, the deposit

PARK SANITATION

889

is retained to pay for the labor necessary to put the grounds into good
condition. Many park departments have general ordinances relating to all
park areas but especially to picnic places respecting littering the grounds.

Children's Playground Areas.

The sanitary care of children's playground areas consists chiefly of
careful daily policing of the grounds by caretakers, and taking such meas-
ures as will effectively keep down the dust. The flushing of hard-surfaced
areas daily, the application of calcium chloride to other types of surfacing,
or frequent sprinkling of the areas with water sufficiently to keep them
moist are effective measures in keeping down dust. Every playground
should be equipped with one or more receptacles for refuse and the chil-
dren carefully instructed in the use of them. Children afflicted with skin
diseases should be excluded from the playground or if not excluded should
be prevented from using any play supplies or apparatus used by the other
children. Instruction of the children as to the danger of expectorating on
the playground is desirable. A basic sanitary measure for all playground
areas is adequate drainage and proper surfacing.

Sanitary Care of Park Areas in General.

One of the most difficult of all tasks of the park executive is to keep
the areas under his control free of the immense amount of litter brought in
by those who use the areas. Nearly every park department has some kind
of an ordinance relating to this matter of which the following are a few
examples:

"It shall be unlawful for any person to deposit or
leave, or permit to be deposited or left in any public
park, any trash, paper, box, can, bottle, food fragments,
•or other unsightly substance, except in receptacles pro-
vided especially for that purpose, or to dump or throw
any trash, stones, bottles, food fragments, or refuse of
any kind in any lake, streams, swimming pools or
fountains in any such public parks." (Ordinances of
the City of Spartanburg, August 20, 1924, Section 4,
page 104.)

"No person shall throw any dead animal or offen-
sive matter or substance of any kind into the River
Schuylkill or other waters within the boundaries of
any park. No person shall scatter, drop or leave in
any portion of the parks except in the receptacles pro-
vided for the purpose, any piece of paper, rags, garbage,
dead flower or other rubbish." (Sections 23 and 24 of
Rules and Regulations for the Government of the
Parks under the Control of the Fairmount Park Com-
mission, Philadelphia, Pa.)

"No bottles, broken glass, ashes, waste paper, or
other rubbish shall be left in any of said parks, except
.at such place or places as shall be especially designated

by the commission." (Section 13 of Rules and Regula-
tions for the Use of Parks, Burlington, Vermont.)

"No person shall deposit, dump, throw or place any
earth, rubbish, dust, manure, paper, garbage, slops, or
other refuse matter or any sand, stone, lumber or build-
ing material, or any substance of any kind in or upon
any part of the waters or grounds of any park or park
approach except ashes and garbage in suitable boxes or
barrels on such days as are designated by the street
department for collection, and subject to its regulations,
without a permit from the Commissioner of Parks and
Public Buildings, and all such permits, if given for
building purposes, shall be granted only to the owners
or occupants of the property to be built upon or to
their authorized agents." (Parks Ordinances, City of
Buffalo, New York, Chapter LXVIII, Section 14.)

"No person shall place or suffer to remain in or on
any park or parkway, any goods, merchandise or other
article in the nature of an obstruction to the use and
enjoyment of said park or parkway; nor shall any per-
son place any straw, dirt, chips, paper, shavings, shells,
ashes, swill or garbage, or other rubbish, even though
not offensive to health, in or upon the same. Nor shall

890 PARKS

any person distribute any circulars, cards, or other deposit any bottles, tin cans, broken glass, paper,

written or printed matter, in any park or parkway." clothes, sheet iron or any rubbish within the limits of

(Ordinance No. 32, 703, Section 6, Columbus, Ohio.) said public parks." (City of Pasadena, California,

"It is hereby declared to be unlawful: To throw or Ordinance No. 539, Section 20.)

Sand boxes or courts. Good drainage of sand courts is the basic sanitary
measure. For courts constructed of boards, a pit underneath from two to
three feet deep, filled with coarse cinders, provides excellent drainage. The
same plan may be followed in the construction of sand courts with con-
crete walls but without concrete floors. If a concrete floor is used it should
rest upon a foundation of cinders with one or more drainage vents through
the floor. The sand should be washed frequently in order to remove impuri-
ties and raked frequently to remove bits of paper, pieces of food and other
debris that inevitably collect in sand courts. It is advisable to change the
sand completely once or twice a season. The old sand can be used in jump-
ing pits or under different pieces of apparatus. While it is desirable to have
shade for the comfort of the children the sand court should be located so
that at some time during the day the sand will be exposed to the direct
rays of the sun. Under certain circumstances a removable canopy may be
used to secure this desirable condition. In some sections of the country
fleas become a pest in sand courts. An application of a weak solution of
bichloride of mercury will prevent them from frequenting the sand.

Wading pools. Wading pools that are used intensively each day should
be emptied completely at least once during every twenty-four hours, scrubbed
and refilled with pure, clean water. It is advisable also, from time to time,
to allow the empty pool to bake in the sun. As in the case of swimming
pools chemical treatment of the water may be resorted to. The chemicals
ordinarily used for this purpose are chlorine and copper sulphate. However,
because the children inevitably carry large quantities of sand and dirt
into the pool during the course of the day it is almost a necessity to empty
the pool each day and clean it of the dirt and sand, making it seldom neces-
sary to use chemicals. The playground instructors should take special note
of any children on the playground having any infectious or contagious
disease and prevent them from making use of the pool. The growth of
algae in the pool may be prevented by use of copper sulphate or bluestone.
This may be applied in the following manner: Pulverize the bluestone to
a powder, sprinkle on bottom of pool and use sprinkler or garden hose to
dampen it; then sweep until entire floor and sides are covered with a thin,
pale blue color. Algae are not detrimental to health but cause a slippery
condition which might lead to accidents.

PARK SANITATION

891

Swimming Pool Sanitation.

The public swimming pool has no equal as a form of recreation, and
in season enjoys a heavy patronage. It is likewise true that the swimming
pool can boast no equal as a medium for the spread of certain communi-
cable diseases amongst its patrons unless it be operated under definite
sanitary rules and regulations. The following sanitary regulations covering
swimming pools are based upon general recommendations proposed by the
Committee on Bathing Places during the 1925 Conference of State Sanitary
Engineers, the American Public Health Association and the American
Association for Promoting Hygiene and Public Baths.

The factors to be considered in dealing with the swimming pool situ-
ation from a sanitary standpoint are: Bathing load limits, swimming pool
construction, maintenance, sanitary quality of swimming pool waters and
standard rules to be observed bv bathers.

Bathing Load Limits.

1. There should not be any basic difference in the
design of artificial indoor and outdoor pools, so far as
the design relates to the sanitation of the pool and
water.

2. Bathing load limits will depend upon the following
conditions:

A. Frequency of changing the water. (Fill and draw
pools.) The total number of bathers allowed to use the
pool during any period of time should not exceed twenty
persons per one thousand gallons of clean water. "Clean
water" is understood to mean new clean water used to
refill the pool, new clean water used to replace loss by
splashing or during cleaning, water taken from the pool
and returned after filtration, or any combination of such
waters.

(i) Method of determining bathing load limit indi-
cated above. Assume a pool of 50,000 gallons. Also
assume water being withdrawn from the pool and re-
placed with new water or properly filtered water at the
rate of 2,000 gallons per hour. Under paragraph A the
volume of new, clean water being added would be suffi-
cient for 2 x 20 (40) persons per hour, or 400 persons
during a ten-hour bathing day. If the flowing through
or recirculating were continued throughout the 24 hours
with bathing limited to ten hours, there would be an
accumulation of 28,000 gallons of clean water during
the non-bathing period which would permit the use of
the pool by 28 x 20 (560) additional persons, or a total
of 400 plus 560 (960) persons during the ten-hour day.

B. Frequency of disinfection. (Flowing through or
recirculation pools.) The total number of bathers
allowed to use the pool during any period of time
should not exceed seven persons per 1,000 gallons of
water in the pool, unless the pool shall have been
completely disinfected once during the period. "Com-
pletely disinfected" means that the method of disin-

fection shall be such as to insure a bacterial quality of
water as prescribed under " Bacterial Quality of Water"
given below.

(i) Methods of determining bathing load limit indi-
cated above. Assume a pool of 50,000 gallons. Fifty
by seven persons (350) may use pool after refilling be-
fore disinfection is required. After complete disinfec-
tion, 350 additional persons may use the pool, at which
time 350 plus 350 plus 300 persons (1,000 persons) will
have used the pool and the water must be replaced.

3. An average of 35 square feet of space per adult
should be allowed at all times to prevent accidents
from overcrowding.

4. The length of the bathing period may be regu-
lated by local conditions and preferences, there being
no apparent hygienic reason for placing a limit.

5. The depth of water for diving may be safely
established as follows: (a) diving from water level, safe
depth is five feet, (b) Diving from an elevation of three
feet, safe depth is six feet, (c) Diving from an elevation
of six feet, safe depth is eight feet, (d) Diving from an
elevation of ten feet, safe depth is nine to ten feet.

6. A ten-foot area surrounding the diving plank
should be sufficient protection for the diver.

7. The number of persons allowed within the ten-
foot area at one time should not exceed three or four
at the time a diver is about to enter the water.
Standards for Swimming Pool Construction.

1. The pool should be well lighted.

2. The interior surface of the pool should present a
perfectly smooth surface, without cracks, crevices,
sharp corners, or pockets to shelter dirt and disease
germs.

3. The pool should be surrounded by an overflow
trough, and the floor surrounding the pool should be
drained so that no water can flow from the floor into
the pool.

892

PARKS

4. The pool and the surrounding floor should be free
from obstructions.

Standards for Swimming Pool Maintenance.

1. Unless there is a constantly inflowing stream of
absolutely clean, clear, colorless, fresh water this con-
dition should be approximated by filtration, refiltration
and disinfection.

2. Where treatment is needed, filtration alone should
not be relied upon to maintain the purity of the pool.
There should also be disinfection by hypochlorite of
lime, chlorin gas, ultraviolet rays, ozone, or other
suitable methods.

3. Visible dirt on the bottom of the pool shall not be
permitted to remain more than twenty-four hours. Any
visible scum or floating matter on the surface of the
water shall be removed within twenty-four hours by
flushing or other effective means.

4. There should be an attendant proficient in swim-
ming and life-saving always on duty while the pool is
in use, and at other times ingress to the pool room
should be prevented.

5. Every pool operator should be supplied with a
proper notebook or with blank forms on which should
be recorded every day the number of persons using the
pool, the volume of new water added, the temperature
of the water, and the temperature of the air. Wherever
a pool is used by both males and females the number of
each and whether adults or children, should also be
recorded. At all pools where artificial circulation, filtra-
tion, or any chemical treatment is used, a full daily
record should be kept of the actual time pumps and
filters are in operation, of the time each filter is washed
and cleaned, of the time and amount of each chemical
used or added, of the time the bottom and sides of the
pool are cleaned, the results of all acidity, alkalinity,
and excess chlorin tests.

Standards for the Sanitary Quality of Swimming Pool
Waters.

1. Excess Chlorin. Whenever liquid chlorin or cal-
cium hypochlorite is used for swimming pool disin-
fection, the amount of available or excess chlorin in
the water at all times when the pool is in use shall not
be less than o.i p.p.m. nor more than 0.5 p.p.m.

2. Acidity-Alkalinity. Whenever alum or sulphate
of alumina is used during purification or repurification
of swimming pool waters, the water at all times when

the pool is in use shall show an alkaline reaction to
methyl orange.

3. Clearness. At all times when the pool is in use the
water shall be sufficiently clear to permit a black disk
six inches in diameter on a white field when placed on
the bottom of the pool at the deepest point, to be clearly
visible from the sidewalk of the pool at all distances
up to ten yards measured from a line drawn across the
pool through the disk.

4. Temperatures. The water in any swimming pool
should not be artificially heated to a temperature above
72 degrees F. The temperature of the air at any arti-
ficially heated swimming pool must not be permitted to
become more than eight degrees F. warmer nor more
than two degrees F. colder than the water in the pool
at any time when the pool is in use. For best results,
it is desirable that air temperatures should be abou t
five degrees F. warmer than pool temperature.

5. Bacteria count agar, two days, 20 degrees C.
(This count optional.) Not more than ten per cent of
samples covering any considerable period shall exceed
1,000 bacteria per c.c. No single sample shall contain
more than 5,000 bacteria per c.c.

6. Bacteria count on agar or litmus lactose agar —
24 hours — 37 degrees C. Not more than ten per cent of
samples covering any considerable period shall contain
more than 100 bacteria per c.c. No single sample shall
contain more than 200 bacteria per c.c.

7. B. Coli, presumptive test. Not more than two
out of five samples collected on the same day, nor more
than three out of any ten consecutive samples collected
on different dates to show a positive presumptive test.

8. Tests for Excess Chlorin. At any pool where
liquid chlorin or hypochlorite of lime is used for disin-
fection, the operator should be supplied with a proper
outfit for making the orthotolidin test for excess chlorin
and with permanent standards showing maximum and
minimum permissible chlorin in the water. Tests for
excess chlorin in the water must be made every day
that the pool is in use.

9. Tests for Acidity. At any pool where alum or sul-
phate of alumina is used or where artificial alkalinity is
added to the water, the operator should be supplied
with a proper outfit for testing acidity and alkalinity,
and must make such tests on the water every day that
the pool is in use.

Note: For sanitary standards for bathers, see Chapte r
XIII.

STREAM POLLUTION IN PARKS AND RESERVATIONS

The control of the pollution of streams in parks, especially in outlying
parks and reservations, is a matter of grave concern wherever such prop-
erties exist. In the metropolitan park district of Cleveland the efforts of
the park commission to restore and maintain the purity of the streams

PARK SANITATION 893

flowing through the reservations to the end that they might be used for
recreational purposes led to difficulties with the authorities of villages,
towns and small cities situated within the district or in the near vicinity
of the district. These municipalities naturally needed these streams for
the discharge of the effluent from sewage disposal plants or for the discharge
of the raw sewage directly.

The park commission early in 1926 requested the committee on public
health of the Cleveland Chamber of Commerce to investigate the matter
of stream pollution in the district for the purpose of finding out what degree
of pollution would be permissible and still retain the recreational use of
the streams. On June 16, 1926 the committee submitted a preliminary
report embodying the following principles:

1. That streams flowing through the metropolitan park district should
be so guarded as in no way to constitute a menace to the health of those
using the parks.

2. That a comprehensive plan of caring for the sewage from each
watershed as a whole should be formulated.

3. That the County Commissioners of Cuyahoga County should imme-
diately take the lead in the formation of such comprehensive plans.

4. The committee emphatically opposes the installation of small tem-
porary sewage disposal plants which are not in conformity with the general
plans for the watershed.

On June 25, 1926, the general superintendent of the metropolitan
park board addressed a letter to the chamber of commerce suggesting "the
hope that the work of the committee would continue to the end that shortly
there may be coming from the committee a report setting forth in terms
capable of exact interpretation by a bacteriologist or chemist, the degree
of pollution which in the opinion of the committee might be allowed."
On July 23, 1926 the committee submitted the following report:

In determining the degree of bacterial contamination States Public Health Service are the only safe standard <-

which can be allowed in streams which are to be used to be used in bathing pools.

for swimming purposes, your committee has considered We are in accord with the following statement in the

the matter only from the standpoint of the public "Report of the Committee on Bathing Places," of the

health. Whether or not it is possible from an economic Annual Conference of State Sanitary Engineers held in

standpoint to attain the degree of purity which we April, 1925. The quotation is taken from page 7 of

recommend, is a question we should not be asked to Public Health Bulletin No. 160 of the United States

answer. Public Health Service:

We believe that the Metropolitan Park Board or "In the opinion of the committee it is desirable that

other governmental bodies should not encourage bath- the same standards of hygienic purity of the water

ing (by posting signs, etc.) in streams or other waters should apply to all public bathing waters. There may

which fall below the standards of purity suggested be some question whether it will be practicable to apply

herein. As it is a well-recognized fact that all swimmers the tentative standard of turbidity to the waters of all

swallow a certain amount of water, we believe that the natural outdoor bathing places. Your committee feels,

standards for potable water as set up by the United however, that it is highly desirable that public health

894

PARKS

officials should use every effort to have public outdoor
bathing places located only at points where the clean-
ness and hygienic quality of the bathing waters will
conform to these standards."

The following specifications have been set up by
various authorities to govern the purity of water:

I. Standard adopted by the United States Treasury
Department for drinking and culinary water. This
standard was approved by the Fourth Annual Confer-
ence of State Sanitary Engineers in 1923, and is used as
a basis of the regulations governing swimming pool
sanitation in several states. (Reprint No. 1029 from the
Public Health Reports, page 4.)

"(i) Of all the standard (10 c.c.) portions examined
in accordance with the procedure specified below (*),
not more than 10 per cent shall show the presence of
organisms of the B. coli group.

(2) Occasionally three or .more of the five equal
(10 c.c.) portions constituting a single standard sample
may show the presence of B. coli. This shall not be
allowable if it occurs in more than —

(a) Five per cent of the standard samples when
twenty or more samples have been examined.

(b) One standard sample when less than twenty
samples have been examined."

* The procedure referred to is the standard method
adopted by the American Public Health Association.
(See "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Sewage," Sixth Edition, A.P.H.A. Laboratory
Section.)

2. Section 519 of the Municipal Code of Cleveland
requires the following degree of purity in the bathing
pools in the city:

"(l) Every bathing pool shall be emptied and thor-
oughly cleaned at least once in every seven days, and
in addition thereto shall be completely emptied and

thoroughly cleaned whenever the number of intestinal
bacteria in a cubic centimeter of the water shall exceed
ten as determined by standard tests of the division of
health."

(The Division of Health interprets this section to
mean that a total bacterial count of not to exceed one
thousand bacterial groups per cubic centimeter, with
an absence of colon group pollution, indicates satis-
factory operation of bathing pools.)

With the above standards as a basis, we recommend
that the following standard be considered the degree of
purity which should be maintained in streams in the
county which are to be used for bathing purposes: The
total bacterial count should not be allowed to exceed
one thousand bacterial groups per cubic centimeter.
Not more than two out of ten samples containing ten
cubic centimeters of water each should be allowed to
show organisms of the B. coli group, when tested accord-
ing to the standard method of the American Public
Health Association.

It will be noted that this standard is a little lower
than that set up by the City of Cleveland for its out-
door pools. In our opinion, if streams are to be used
for bathing, coherent sewage disposal plans for the
whole county must be formulated, to the end that the
water in the streams will conform to the above standard.
In some cases it will be found feasible to deposit the
effluent from a disposal plant, sufficiently purified to
avoid a nuisance, below the swimming pools. In other
streams, plants which will make the effluent completely
innocuous will be necessary. In any event, if the water
in a pool falls below the suggested standard, arrange-
ments should be made to so disinfect the inflow to the
pool that it is brought up to the standard.

We believe that the establishment of any standard
less than the above would be injurious to the health of
the community.

During the course of their study of the Cleveland Metropolitan Park
situation the committee on public health of the chamber of commerce col-
lected information concerning the subject of the control of stream pollution
in parks and reservations from other cities throughout the United States.
The following are extracts from some of the replies received from other
cities:

i. Chicago and Cook County, Illinois. Communica-
tion from the Sanitary District Commission:

"The sanitary district of Chicago is a municipal
corporation organized under the laws of Illinois by act
of the Legislature and the amendments thereto, for the
purpose of disposing of the sewage from Chicago and
the surrounding cities. The district at present covers
some 443 square miles and includes 50 cities and vil-
lages. The population of this area is over 3,300,000.
The act gives us the power to build sewage treatment

works and intercepting sewers for the purpose of treat-
ing the sewage and thereby keeping the streams clean.
In accordance with these powers, we have built and are
operating five sewage treatment works at the present
time, and have under construction what will be the
largest sewage treatment works of its type in the world
known as the North Side Sewage Treatment Works,
to handle 800,000 people.

Our territory overlaps a large proportion of the hold-
ings of the forest preserves of Cook County. In con-

PARK SANITATION

895

nection with our endeavors to keep the streams clean
it has been necessary to build what is known as the
Des Plaines River Sewage Treatment Works, handling
some 55,000 population draining into the Des Plaines
River. We further have in process of plan, other works
and intercepting sewers to remove the sewage from the
Des Plaines River and Salt Creek, which will be built
as our finances permit. I will check up the answers to
your questions in numerical order:

1. Persons or municipalities are allowed to empty
sewers into the streams of the sanitary district subject
to the regulations of the sanitary district and the state.
In general, there has been no objection to storm water
sewers. Most of the sewers entering, however, are
combined.

2. On the Des Plaines River, the present degree of
treatment in the Des Plaines River Works is an acti-
vated sludge plant which gives a highly nitrified, clear,
stable effluent. On the north branch of the Chicago
River there are three small Imhoff and trickling filter
plants which give a high grade effluent of like char-
acter. In both these streams, the low flow is very
small, so that it is necessary not only to retain the
settling suspended matter, but also to treat the liquid
as well.

3. Up to date, the Board of Trustees have operated
under the policy that treatment of municipal sewage
at least was the duty of the sanitary district within its
borders. The only cooperation that we have received
is from the villages asking assistance. In some cases
they have furnished a free site, and in all cases they
furnish water. In most cases they bring the sewage to
the plant, although where two or more villages are
handled together the sanitary district builds the neces-
sary intercepting sewer. The cooperation thus result-
ing has been largely voluntary, but has come about
through the desire of the villages to have intercepting
sewers and treatment works.

4. In general, we have not assisted the other munic-
ipalities in financing sewage treatment works, because
the sanitary district is the authority empowered to
build them. In some cases we have, however, cooper-
ated in the construction of a joint sewer which serves
as an intercepter, as well as an outlet sewer where two
or more municipalities are interested. The proportion
of cost under such arrangement is set by a contract
based upon the particular case. We have not been
interested in any way in building local sewers, and do
not contribute toward their cost.

5. I regret that we are all out of the copies of the
statutes under which we operate. We are a municipal
corporation with bonding and taxing powers for the
purpose of building and operating works to dispose of
the sewage of our district, and are empowered to build
the necessary intercepting sewers, pumping stations and
treatment works for that purpose."

2. Boston Metropolitan District. Communication
from the Boston Chamber of Commerce:

The metropolitan park system is surrounded by ter-
ritory which varies from urban to farm land. Most of
the bathing facilities are in ocean reservations, such as
Revere Beach and Nantasket Beach. The problem of
stream pollution in the metropolitan district is probably
not a difficult one because of the extensive metropolitan
sewage system. This system is one division in the
Metropolitan District Commission, the others being
parks and water. Sewage from the district which in-
cludes all the townships north and east of Woburn,
Lexington, Newton and south to Milton and Quincy is
emptied into a trunk sewer and taken far out to sea.
Most of the difficulty in stream pollution is probably in
the Charles River. A special statute, a copy of which
is appended hereto, governs this stream. The provisidns
giving the commission general control over stream rtol-
lution are also given below:

Extracts from Chapter 92, General Laws of Mas,sa-
chusetts Metropolitan Sewerage, Water and Parks.
Section 39 (Prohibiting pollution of Charles River). The
commission may make rules and regulations prohibiting
the pollution of the Charles River within the metro-
politan parks district. Any person violating any rule
or regulation made hereunder shall be punished by fine
not exceeding one thousand dollars.

Section 42 (Granting towns locations for sewers). The
commission may grant to towns locations for common
sewers and drains in and across reservations or boule-
vards under its care and control. Whenever a drain or
sewer is laid in locations so granted, the board of town
officers respectively authorized to levy and collect
assessments for the laying of drains and sewers in such
town shall have the same power to levy and collect
assessments for drains and sewers laid in said reserva-
tions or boulevards as is given to them by law in the
case of drains and sewers laid in the public ways of
such town; provided, that no such assessment shall be
levied upon any lands belonging to the commonwealth.

Section 76 (Prevention of pollution of Charles River
basin). The commission may order the removal of all
sewage and other polluting matter or factory waste as
a common nuisance from the Charles River and its
tributaries below Waltham and from the Charles River
basin; and no sewer, drain or overflow or other outlet
for factory or house drainage or for any other drainage
shall hereafter be connected with said basin or the river
below Waltham without the approval of the commission.

3. Bronx River Parkway, New York City and West-
chester County, New York.

In 1907 the legislature of New York State authorized
the appointment of the Bronx Parkway Commissionfor
the purpose of preserving the waters of the Bronx River
from pollution, creating a reservation, of the lands on

896

PARKS

either side of the river, etc. It was authorized to
acquire lands both in the City of New York and in the
County of Westchester just north of New York. There
was considerable delay in getting the approval of New
York City, so that the Commission did not begin to
function until 1913. In 1914 the Commission adopted
two sanitary regulations, as follows:

1. No sewage, factory wastes, oils, oily substances
or pollution of any kind or character shall be discharged
into the Bronx River or upon lands in the reservation,
or into any tributary stream, storm sewer or drain
flowing into the Bronx River.

2. No ashes, garbage, fecal matter, waste paper,
excavated materials, old metal or refuse matter of any
character shall be deposited in or near the Bronx River
or upon the lands of the Commission, or in brooks,
drains or storm sewers tributary to the river, in such
a manner as shall result in polluting the water of the
river.

Under these regulations, the Commission succeeded
in clearing up the waters of the Bronx River to such an
extent that the Westchester County Park Commission,
which is an outgrowth of the Bronx River Parkway
Commission, speaks, in its 1924 report, of the Bronx
River Commission as having strongly influenced senti-
ment in favor of additional parkways to "forestall the
recurrence elsewhere of nuisances and unsanitary con-
ditions such as formerly existed in the Bronx River
Valley."

In answer to specific questions asked by the secre-
tary, the Westchester County Park Commission states
as follows:

1. The territory surrounding our Westchester
County Parks ranges from urban to farm lands.

2. The fresh water streams and lakes in Westchester
County are not used to any extent for bathing or recrea-
tional purposes. The upper waters of two streams are

still used for water supply purposes, but it is only a
question of ten or fifteen years until the density of
population surrounding them will make the water un-
safe for use. The Bronx River is used a little for bath-
ing, but this probably will be discontinued. The parks
along the Hudson River and on the Long Island Sound
shore are used for bathing, but the problem of bathing
facilities in the interior is being met by the construction
of concrete swimming pools in the parks.

3. Storm water drains are allowed to discharge into
the streams not being used for water supply, but sani-
tary sewers are not allowed.

4. The statute creating the Bronx River Parkway
Commission gave the Commission authority to pre-
serve the waters in the river from pollution by creating
a reservation of lands on either side of it.

5. To provide sewage facilities for the cities, towns
and villages along the Bronx River Valley, a special
enactment authorized the construction of the Bronx
River Valley trunk sewer about eleven miles in length,
from North White Plains to the southerly boundary of
Westchester County. Municipal and individual sewers
formerly discharging into the Bronx River are now
connected with this trunk sewer. The construction of
the trunk sewer was financed by the county, but is
being entirely refunded by assessments against property
within the drainage area, paid in yearly installments
distributed over thirty years. The Westchester County
Park Commission was recently constituted to also act
as the Westchester County Sanitary Sewer Commission
to prepare and report preliminary plans, including
estimates and proposed assessment areas for sanitary
trunk sewers and sanitary outlet sewers in the entire
County of Westchester. In rapidly developing com-
munities there is a demand for outlet sewers, and the
intention is to assess the cost against the property ben-
efited in long-term installments.

It is interesting to note the remarks of the chief engineer of the state
health department at a conference held in Cleveland March 18, 1926, to
consider stream pollution in Cuyahoga County, Ohio. He stated that the
state health department now has final jurisdiction over stream pollution.
It recognizes that streams are sources of water supply, are means of drain-
age, and are means of removing sewage and remains of industrial wastes.
In the latter use the state department of health presumes that sewage is
rendered "fairly decent" before it is emptied into them. The last use of
the streams is very important in the belief of the department. The depart-
ment also recognizes that streams are increasingly being used for recrea-
tion purposes, but that this use is not necessary, although highly desirable.
The position of the state department of health is as follows: It sets up a
minimum of treatment which sewage must receive before it is emptied into
any stream in the state. The minimum would keep the stream good from

PARK SANITATION

897

an aesthetic standpoint, but would not necessarily keep it fit for bathing
and other recreational purposes. If certain localities wish to go beyond
this specific minimum and keep their streams fit for recreational purposes,
the state department is perfectly willing, but it cannot compel this further
treatment. It will also determine whether or not specific methods of treat-
ment will bring about the result desired by many communities.

This statement is no doubt fairly representative of the interpretation
of the powers of state health departments all over the country. A large
number of states have laws regarding the control of the pollution of streams,
the enforcement of which in most instances comes under the several depart-
ments of health. If the above statement is fairly representative of the
general attitude of state health departments respecting the recreational use
of streams, it is not likely that much help can be expected from this direc-
tion until a growing public sentiment maximizes the importance of streams
for recreational purposes.

STATE LAWS RELATING TO SANITATION OF SWIMMING PLACES

California. Assembly Bill No. 141, Chapter 63. An
act providing for the sanitation, healthfulness and
cleanliness and safety of swimming pools, public bath-
houses, swimming and bathing places; regulating the
granting and revocations of permits therefor from the
state board of health; providing for the inspection of
such places; declaring places and things in violation of
this act to be nuisances dangerous to health and pro-
viding for the abatement of the same; making violations
of this act misdemeanors; and providing for the punish-
ment of the same. (Approved April 6, 1917.) The
people of the State of California do enact as follows:

Section I. The state board of health shall have super-
vision over the sanitation, healthfulness and cleanliness
and safety of swimming pools, bathhouses, public
swimming and bathing places and all related appurte-
nances and is hereby empowered to make and enforce
such rules and regulations pertaining thereto as it shall
deem proper.

Section 2. It shall be unlawful for any person, per-
sons, firm, corporation, institution or municipality in
any district, town, city, county, or city and county, to
construct or to add to or modify, or to operate or to
continue to operate any swimming pool, public bath-
house, bathing or swimming place, or any structure
intended to be used for swimming or bathing purposes
without an unrevoked permit so to do from the state
board of health. This permit shall be obtained in the
following manner: any person, persons, firm, corpora-
tion, institution or municipality desiring to construct,
add to or modify, or to operate and maintain any
swimming pool, public bathhouse, bathing or swimming
places or structures intended to be used for swimming
or bathing purposes within the State of California shall

file application for permission so to do with the state
board of health, which application shall be accompanied
by detailed maps, drawings, specifications and descrip-
tion of the structure, its appurtenances and operation,
description of the source or sources of water supply,
amount and quality of water available and intended to
be used, method and manner of water purification,
treatment, disinfection, heating, regulating and clean-
ing; life-saving apparatus, and measures to insure
safety of bathers; measures to insure personal cleanli-
ness of bathers; method and manner of washing, disin-
fecting, drying and storing bathing apparel and towels,
and all other information and statistics that may be
required by the state board of health; whereupon, the
state board of health shall cause an investigation to be
made of the proposed or existing pool or public bathing
places and if it shall determine as a fact that the same
is or may reasonably be expected to become unclean or
unsanitary or may constitute a menace to public health,
it shall deny the application for permit; if it shall de-
termine as a fact that the same is or may reasonably
be expected to be conducted continuously in a clean
and sanitary manner and will not constitute a menace
to public health, it shall grant the application for per-
mit under such restrictions as it shall deem proper.

Section 3. For the purpose of this act the state board
of health or its inspectors shall at any and all reasonable
times have full power and authority to, and shall be
permitted to enter upon any and all parts of the prem-
ises of such bathing and swimming places to make ex-
amination and investigation to determine the sanitary
condition of such places and whether the provisions of
this act or the rules and regulations of the state board
of health pertaining thereto are being violated. The

PARKS

state board of health may from time to time at its dis-
cretion publish the reports of such inspections in its
monthly bulletin.

Section 4. Any permit granted by the state board of
health as provided in this act shall be revocable or sub-
ject to suspension at any time by formal action of the
state board of health if it shall determine as a fact that
the swimming or bathing place or places are being con-
ducted in a manner insanitary, unclean or dangerous
to public health.

Section 5. Any swimming pool, public swimming or
bathing place or places, constructed, operated or main-
tained contrary to the provisions of this act, are hereby
declared to be public nuisances, dangerous to health.
Such nuisances may be abated or enjoined in an action
brought by the local or state board of health or they
may be summarily abated in the manner provided by
law for the summary abatement of public nuisances
dangerous to health.

Section 6. Any person, firm or corporation, whether
as principal or agent, employer or employee, who vio-
lates any of the provisions of this act shall be guilty of
a misdemeanor, and each day that conditions or actions,
in violation of this act, shall continue, shall be deemed
to be a separate and distinct offense, and for each
offense, upon conviction, he shall be punishable by a
fine of not less than twenty-five dollars nor more than
five hundred dollars, or shall be imprisoned in the
county jail for a term not exceeding six months, or by
both such fine and imprisonment.

Rules governing sanitation, safety and cleanliness of
swimming pools. (California State Board of Health,
Special Bulletin No. 38, 1923.)

Rule i. Bacterial Quality of Pool Water. The bac-
terial contamination of the water in the pool shall be
maintained at a practical minimum. The evidence is
convincing that it is feasible and practicable to main-
tain the water in the pool in such condition that the
total colonies on standard agar media, incubated for
twenty-four hours at 37.5 degrees Centigrade, will not
exceed one thousand per cubic centimeter and B. Coli
will not be confirmed in more than one-half of one cubic
centimeter portion of the water.

Rule 2. Clearness of Pool Water. Water in the pool
shall at all times of use be sufficiently transparent,
under existing lighting conditions, when the water sur-
face is not excessively agitated by bathers, to enable a
person standing at the side of the pool to see distinctly
the bottom of the pool where the depth of water is six
feet or less.

Rule 3. Sanitation of Premises. Dressing rooms,
hallways, toilet rooms, shower rooms or other places
to which patrons of a bath have access, shall be kept
clean and well ventilated at all times.

Rule 4. Sputum Contamination. Facilities for ade-
quately protecting the pool water against unnecessary

sputum contamination by bathers shall be provided.
The device used in practically all up-to-date pools to
meet this requirement is the combined overflow and
expectoration gutter, extending completely around the
pool, coupled with maintaining a high water level.

Rule 5. Diseased Persons. All persons known to be
or suspected of being afflicted with infectious diseases
shall be excluded from the pool.

Rule 6. Personal Cleanliness. Contamination of the
pool resulting from a lack of personal cleanliness of
bathers shall be maintained at a minimum. This rule
necessitates providing ample and convenient bathing
and toilet facilities. The swimming pool, it must be
remembered, is not a bathtub, but a place for recrea-
tion, which it is the intention of these regulations shall
be a healthy one. The pool is not to be considered as
a proper place to cleanse the body and every practi-
cable means should be provided to prevent its use as
such. The number of new arrivals at a bathhouse per
hour of each sex that one fixture for each sex will
accommodate is about as follows:

Men Women

Shower 20 40

Toilet 40 80

Urinal 60

Rule 7. Safety of Bathers. Construction and appli-
ances shall be such as to reduce to a practical minimum
danger of drowning and of injury to bathers and from
falls or collisions.

Rule 8. Laundering. Bathing suits and towels when
distributed by the pool management to bathers shall
be clean and free from excessive bacterial contamina-
tion. Clean, safe suits require more than disinfection.
They require thorough washing in warm water, using
soap, followed by at least three rinses and by some
form of disinfection, and finally completely dried.

Rule 9. Notices. The management of the pool shall
have printed and posted in conspicuous places about
the establishment, notices containing these regulations
with or without the attached discussion, and also
notices informing the public briefly of the requirements
to which they are subject in the maintenance of a safe
and sanitary pool.

Rule 10. Operating Records. A written record of all
operations influencing sanitation of the pool shall be
maintained by the management and kept at all times
available to the State Board of Health.

Rule II. Report with Application for Permit. Appli-
cation for permit in accordance with the swimming pool
act shall be accompanied by a detailed report showing
in just what manner it is proposed to comply with each
and all of the rules herein and more particularly with
Rules I, 2 and 3. In the case of new pools, or as re-
quired, application for permit shall be accompanied by
detailed plans of the swimming pool and appurtenances.

PARK SANITATION

899

STATE LAWS RELATING TO SANITATION OF ORGANIZED CAMPS

Maine. Regulations adopted by the State Depart-
ment of Health. Summer camps in the State of Maine
will be rated under the following classifications, A, B,
C and D.

CLASS A

Site. The sites of camps should be favorably located
on high ground with sandy and gravelly soil. Swampy
areas should be avoided if possible. Good, natural
drainage and high, dry lands are very desirable.

General appearance and general condition. Camps
should be so situated that they may get plenty of sun-
shine, all underbrush should be kept cut down and
everything done to make the camp as sanitary as pos-
sible. Too many shade trees prevent proper drying
and sunning of tents, clothing, etc.

Water supply. The source of water supply for domes-
tic, culinary and drinking purposes must be absolutely
beyond the reasonable limit of suspicion as demon-
strated by careful survey of watershed, and by stand-
ard methods of water analyses.

Toilets. Adequate numbers of flush toilets in clean
and well ventilated and lighted rooms must exist with
adequate water supply to efficiently flush the toilets, or
approved chemical toilets.

Sewerage disposal. This must cause no nuisance
whatsoever and in no way endanger the public health.
Satisfactory disposal may be accomplished by the follow-
ing methods: (i) Connection to the city sewerage system.
(2) Septic tank and subsurface irrigation of proper de-
sign. (3) Tank treatment with the disposal of effluent
into a large body of water, so that (a) no water supply
is polluted; (b) no nuisjnce caused; (c) no bathing
beaches are contaminated; (d) nor public health en-
dangered in any other manner. (4) Cesspool that in no
way endangers the water supply or is a nuisance, al-
though this is to be merely tolerated at best, but seldom
recommended. (5) The discharge of raw sewerage into
lakes and streams cannot be approved except under the
most unusual conditions.

Garbage collection and disposal. Unless garbage can
be disposed of immediately, it should be stored in
G. I. cans with covers. Cans should be kept thoroughly
clean and thoroughly cleansed after each emptying.
Places where cans are located must be kept neat and
clean so as not to attract flies and should be preferably
kept within a screened area. The following methods of
disposal are satisfactory, (i) Removal from the prem-
ises and buried to be covered by at least one foot of
earth immediately upon dumping. (2) Disposal by
throwing into lakes or streams is not lawful. (3) Feed-
ing to hogs or chickens. The amount fed should only be
that which may be consumed at each feeding, and the
feeding place should be maintained in a neat and clean
condition. All feeding places should be raked and
cleaned at least once each day, then the refuse disposed

of by burial or incineration. (4) By burning in well
constructed incinerators. (5) Refuse must not be
thrown into the woods or ground, unless it is covered
by earth. Kitchen and dining room must be screened
to protect from flies and mosquitoes, and food handling
facilities must be scrupulously clean.

Ice box. The ice box must contain two compart-
ments; keep the dairy products separated from the
meat products.

Milk supply. Milk supply should be preferably from
tuberculin tested cattle and should be handled in a
satisfactory manner.

Buildings. All buildings should be clean, well venti-
lated and lighted, and pleasing in appearance. Interior
walls should be such as to be easily kept clean and
neat.

Flies. Flies are a menace to health and will not be
tolerated.

Mosquitoes. Every means should be taken to destroy
the breeding places of mosquitoes, as they are very
annoying and may cause much discomfort. Sleeping
quarters should be provided with suitable mosquito
netting so that the sleepers will be protected from the
mosquitoes at night.

Bathing beach. The water must be absolutely free
from sewage disposal, and must not be used to such an
extent that the bathing load is exceeded. The bottom
should be preferably of sand or gravel. The water
should be free from floating material. No litter or
unsightly material should be tolerated on the shore or
in the water.

Infirmary. For Class A camp infirmary must be a
separate building some distance away from other
buildings.

Drinking cups. Common drinking cups and common
towels prohibited by law.

Food Handlers. Must be free from infectious diseases.

CLASS B

When the resort falls short of Class A requirements,
it should be rated as Class B.

CLASS C

This is what is termed as the privy resort and the
other sanitary conditions in a similar crude state. Unless
all other features are in excellent condition a camp
with privy toilets should not be given more than the
Class C rating. Toilets of the pail or earth privy type
must be screened to protect from flies, and cleaned
twice a week or oftener if necessary.

CLASS D

In this type of camp nearly all of the sanitary stand-
ards are violated.

California. Regulations Governing Camp-Ground
Sanitation. Adopted December 24, 1920; amended

900

PARKS

February 3, 1923. The following regulations shall
apply to any city, county, city and county, village,
community, institution, person, firm or corporation,
maintaining or offering for public use within the State
of California any tract of land on which persons may
camp or picnic either free of charge or by payment of
a fee.

Supervision.

Section I. The management of every public camp or
picnic ground shall assume responsibility for maintain-
ing in good repair all sanitary appliances on said
ground, and shall promptly bring such action as may
be necessary to prosecute or eject from such ground
any person who willfully or maliciously damages such
appliances or any person who in any way fails to com-
ply with these regulations.

Section 2. At least one caretaker shall be employed
by the management to visit said camp or picnic ground
every day that campers or picnickers occupy said
ground. Such caretaker shall do whatever may be
necessary to keep said ground and its equipment in a
clean and sanitary condition.

Section 3. Each and every owner and lessee of any
public camp or picnic ground shall be held responsible
for full compliance with these regulations.

Section 4. Supervision and equipment sufficient to
prevent littering of the ground with rubbish, garbage,
or other refuse shall be provided and maintained. Fly-
tight depositories for such materials shall be provided
and conspicuously located. Each and every camp or
picnic spot on said ground shall be within a distance of
not over two hundred feet from such a depository.
These depositories shall not be permitted to become
foul-smelling or unsightly or breeding places for flies.

Camping Space.

Section 5. Each camping party shall be allotted
usable space of not less than three hundred and fifty
square feet.

Water Supply.

Section 6. A water supply of sanitary quality shall
be provided in ample quantity to meet all requirements
of the maximum number of persons using such ground
at any time. Said water supply shall be easily obtain-
able from its source or on a pipe distribution system,
faucets from which shall be located not more than
three hundred feet from any camp or picnic spot within
such ground. If water supply is obtained direct from
above-ground source, said source must be covered
properly and water withdrawn by means of open pipe
or faucet. In no case can dipping from open springs or
wells be permitted.

Section 7. Any water considered unsafe for human
consumption in the vicinity of such ground, to which
campers or picnickers may have access, shall be either
eliminated or purified, or shall be kept posted with
placards definitely warning persons against its use.

Protection Against Fires.

Section 8. No fires shall at any time be so located
as to endanger automobiles or other property in the
camp ground. No fires shall be left unattended at any
time, and all fires shall be completely extinguished
before leaving.
Sewage and Refuse Disposal.

Section 9. The method of final sewage or refuse dis-
posal utilized in connection with the operation of any
camp or picnic ground shall be such as to create no
nuisance.

Section 10. Fly-tight privies or water-flushed toi-
lets shall be provided and shall be maintained in a
clean and sanitary condition. Separate toilets for men
and women shall be provided, one for each twenty-five
men, and one for each twenty-five women, or fraction
thereof of the maximum number of persons occupying
such ground at any time. No camp or picnic spot
within such ground shall be at a greater distance than
four hundred feet from both a men's and a women's
toilet. The location of all toilets shall be plainly indi-
cated by signs.

Section n. A sufficient number of iron hoppers or
basins shall be provided, and each shall be connected
with a sewerage system or covered cesspool; these are
to be used for the disposal of domestic waste waters.
Construction and Maintenance of Building.

Section 12. If cottages, cabins, dwelling houses or
other buildings to be used for human habitation are
erected in any public camping ground, the following
minimum requirements in their construction shall be
observed:

Note. In addition to observing these requirements,
all local building ordinances must be complied with.

1. All floors shall be raised at least eighteen inches
above the ground and space underneath shall be kept
free from obstruction.

2. All floors shall be constructed of tongue and
groove material.

3. Interior walls shall be surfaced lumber or other
material that may easily be kept clean and shall be
constructed so that they may always be kept in a
thoroughly clean condition.

4. No room used for sleeping purposes shall have
less than five hundred cubic feet of air space for each
occupant.

5. The area of window space in each sleeping room
shall be equal to at least one-eighth of the floor area of
the room.

6. Windows of sleeping rooms shall be so constructed
that at least half of each window can be opened.

7. Cooking shall not be permitted in any sleeping
room.

8. If kitchen is provided, it must be equipped with
running water and sink connected with a sewerage sys-
tem, septic tank or a covered cesspool. Kitchen must
be screened against flies and mosquitoes.

PARK SANITATION

901

9. If private toilet is provided it must be water-
flushed and connected with a sewerage system or septic
tank. Room containing such toilet must have window
opening to the outside air and its floor must be con-
structed of impervious material.

10. If bathroom is provided it must have an imper-
vious floor and must have window opening to outside
air. Bath and lavatory must be connected with sewer-
age system, septic tank or cesspool.

n. Covered metal garbage containers must be pro-
vided; at least one for every two buildings.

12. Building shall be cleaned daily and after each
occupancy shall be thoroughly cleaned. If bedding is
provided it must be kept in a clean condition.

Penalties.

Section 13. Failure to comply with the foregoing
regulations shall be deemed sufficient cause for declar-
ing the premises a public nuisance under the provisions
of section 370 of the Penal Code of California.

Section 14. These regulations shall be printed and
kept posted in several conspicuous places in every camp
or picnic ground.

Florida. Florida State Board of Health, Rule No. 91,
1923.

Section I. Camps shall be located on well drained
sites, susceptible to quick drying following rains. Camp
sites must not be located on or near marshes or bottom
lands; they must be reasonably well shaded but not
covered with heavy, dense growths and underbrush.
Preferably the soil texture shall be porous sand or sand
clay.

Section 2. Camp sites shall be of ample size to pre-
vent overcrowding and prevent conditions not condu-
cive to good health or morals. Sites shall be subdivided
in such a manner that every car or camping outfit shall
have at least one thousand square feet of ground sur-
face. The site shall be subdivided and marked off into
rectangular lots, each lot not less than twenty-five by
thirty-five feet in plan. Lots should be grouped in
blocks with streets at least eighteen feet wide between
each block. There shall not be more than thirty cars
parked per acre of ground.

Section 3. Camps shall be in charge of an attendant
at all times, who shall superintend the camp and be
responsible for the enforcement of these sanitary
regulations.

Section 4. Camps must be provided with an ade-
quate supply of water of a good sanitary quality from
a source approved by the State Board of Health. Where
municipal supplies or deep flowing wells of known
quality are available, same shall be used. Waters from
shallow sources must be examined and sites approved
by the State Board of Health. When necessary to use
shallow ground sources the method of construction, in-
stallation and operation shall be approved by the State
Board of Health. Shallow driven point wells shall be

installed and protected in accordance with instructions
from the State Board of Health. Wherever a water
hydrant is located a drip box about eighteen inches in
diameter and twelve inches deep filled with cinders or
brick bats shall be provided.

Section 5. Water hydrants shall be located so no
hydrant will be more than one hundred feet from any
individual camp unit. Hydrants shall also be located
near the stoves, laundry and showers.

Section 6. Camps shall be provided with safe, sani-
tary means of sewerage and waste disposal. Where city
sewerage is available water-flush toilets shall be in-
stalled and maintained; however, in the absence of
sewerage (a) septic tanks with water-flush fixtures, (b)
septic privies, or (c) an adequate number of approved
sanitary privies recommended by the State Board of
Health shall be installed. Sanitary privies shall be con-
structed in such manner and in such number as to pre-
vent nuisance.

Section 7. All garbage and other refuse shall be de-
posited in large, tightly-covered metal cans placed at
frequent intervals around the grounds. There shall be
at least one can for every ten cars. Cans must be kept
tightly covered at all times. Once daily the contents of
every can must be collected and disposed of. Where
city scavenger service is available it shall be used, but
in its absence the camp shall be provided with a small
incinerator as specified by the State Board of Health.

Section 8. Camps shall be provided with conven-
iently located shower-bath compartments for both
sexes, also with a designated space where laundrying
and car washing can be carried on. No laundry, animal
washing, car washing or other slop creating practices
shall be carried on at the individual car sites.

Section 9. Each camp shall be provided with a small
custodian's building located at the entrance; each tour-
ist entering the camp must register with the custodian
and from him receive a registration card, a site allot-
ment and a coov of the camp rules.

Section 10. Registration cards prepared as recom-
mended by the State Board of Health shall be filled out
in duplicate and once monthly a record shall be sub-
mitted to the State Board of Health for file.

Section n. Throughout each camp the rules and
regulations of the State Board of Health must be con-
spicuously posted, also the rules governing each camp.
The campers must abide by every rule; those who do
not comply with all the regulations will be treated as
public nuisances and handled accordingly.

Section 12. Full detailed plans of each camp shall
be submitted to the State Board of Health in duplicate
for examination and subsequent approval. Plans shall
show (a) dimensions of sites; (b) indicate direction of
ground slope and location of trees; (c) show locations
with dimensions of water supply hydrants, relative lo-
cation of water source, toilets, laundry space, custo-
dian's house, etc.; (d) plan of site subdivision and any

902

PARKS

other physical data of value in making examination.
In addition to the plan, a sworn statement shall be
submitted, giving details of camp operation, rules of
the camp, and other explanatory data. Plans should
be prepared on sheets not to exceed twelve by eighteen
inches. Following approval a certificate will be issued
by the State Board of Health and later a full list of
approved camps will be published throughout the
state. Camps which do not comply with the provisions
of the above sections and which are not duly approved
shall be classed as public nuisances*.

Iowa. Resolutions of State Board of Health, 1922.
Whereas, every municipal and private automobile camp
in the State of Iowa will be used during the season by
thousands of tourists, and whereas, for the protection
of the public health such camps should have sanitary
provisions, therefore be it resolved, that local boards of
health under the provisions of Section 2568 of the Code
of Iowa, require that:

1. Water of approved quality shall be piped to con-
venient places throughout the camp grounds and fau-
cets located at convenient places, where water supply
systems are available. In grounds having an unpiped
water supply, a sign of warning shall be placed directing
attention to safe water. Under no circumstances shall
water be dipped from a spring, barrel or any other
receptacle.

2. A sample of all drinking water in the camping
grounds shall be sent in a receptacle which can be ob-
tained from the Director, State Board of Health Lab-
oratories, Iowa City, Iowa, for certification as to its
potability.

3. A fly-proof building shall be provided to house the
water-flush toilets, and care shall be taken to keep it
clean at all times.

4. In camp grounds not provided with water-flush
toilets a good cement pit with a fly-proof house shall
be erected over it. Each day it shall be the caretaker's
duty to sprinkle unslacked lime into the pit, and great
care shall be taken to keep the premises clean at all
times. Septic tanks may be used in lieu of the pits, and
must be erected according to the specifications of the
State Board of Health.

5. Garbage must be kept in covered metal containers
distributed through the grounds at convenient loca-
tions, and the contents shall be collected daily and
removed from the premises and taken care of in the
same manner as city garbage.

6. Garbage cans shall be kept clean on the inside,
and it is recommended that they shall be burned out
weekly or that unslacked lime be sprinkled over the
sides and bottoms.

7. The grounds shall be in charge of a competent
caretaker whose duty it shall be to see that the grounds
are kept in the most sanitary condition, free from rub-

bish, etc., and he shall be held strictly responsible for
any infraction of these rules.

Kansas. State Board of Health. Powers and duties
to regulate tourists' camps. (Section 10122, General
Statutes of Kansas, 1915.)

They shall advise officers of government, or other
state boards, in regard to location, drainage, water sup-
ply, disposal of excreta, heating and ventilation of pub-
lic buildings. They shall make sanitary inspections and
survey of such places and localities as they deem ad-
visable; and when they believe there is a probability
that any infectious or contagious disease will invade
this state from any other state or country, it shall be
their duty to take such action and adopt and enforce
such rules and regulations as they may, in the exercise
of their discretion, deem sufficient in preventing the
introduction or spread of such infectious or contagious
disease or diseases within this state. The better to
accomplish such objects, they are empowered and di-
rected to establish and strictly maintain quarantine at
such places as they may deem proper, and are further
empowered to make and enforce any regulations to
obstruct and prevent the introduction or spread of in-
fectious or contagious diseases to or within the state.
They may establish quarantine ground in some suitable
place and establish the quarantine to be observed in
such locality, and may there cause to be erected tem-
porary buildings or hospitals, necessary for the medical
treatment of any persons who may be kept in quaran-
tine and affected with contagious or infectious disease,
for the inspection or disinfection of travelers' baggage,
merchandise, and articles at such stations or grounds,
as well as the purification of persons, baggage and arti-
cles, and require the transportation of passengers from
said quarantine station.

New Tourist Camp Order.

At a regular meeting of the Kansas State Board of
Health, held in the office of the Secretary, Topeka, on
February 15, 1923, and under the authority of Section
10122 of the General Statutes of 1915, the following
regulations relating to tourist camps were unanimously
adopted and ordered printed in the official state paper.

1. All camps shall be in charge of an attendant whose
duty it will be to keep the camp in a sanitary condition
at all times.

2. All camp sites shall be well drained.

3. An adequate supply of potable drinking water
shall be provided on all camp grounds. Water from
wells other than a public supply shall not be used until
it has been approved by the State Board of Health.

4. Modern flush toilets shall be provided where sewer
connections are possible.

5. Where sewer connections are not possible, sani-
tary, fly-proof privies, approved by the State Board of
Health, shall be provided.

PARK SANITATION 903

6. All garbage and refuse shall be stored in metal the direction of the State Board of Health as often as
cans with tight covers and shall be removed from the practicable and a report of findings made to those in
premises and disposed of daily. charge. If the recommendations are not carried out

7. Garbage and refuse shall be disposed of by incin- and the camp is found in an insanitary condition upon
eration or burial. a second investigation the camp will be declared a

8. Those in charge of camps shall make and placard nuisance to public health and ordered closed, and shall
such rules and regulations as are necessary to govern not be re-opened until such time as the recommenda-
the use of the camp and keep it in a sanitary condition. tions have been carried out.

9. Inspections of tourist camps shall be made under

CHAPTER XVII

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS
SECTION I. ZOOLOGICAL PARKS

There are in the United States at the present time (1925) over one
hundred and twenty-five collections of wild animals. As to size these col-
lections are of varying degrees of importance. With but very few excep-
tions all the collections are maintained as features of public park service.
The following table shows the date of establishment, number of acres
devoted to zoo purposes and the number of specimens in some of the zoo-
logical parks or gardens in the United States. Statistics are, for the most
part, as of 1925.

City
New York City1 (Bronx Park)

Chicago2

Philadelphia

Detroit3

Cleveland

St. Louis

Boston

Baltimore .

Pittsburgh . . .

Los Angeles . .
Buffalo ....
San Francisco
Milwaukee4 . .
Washington . .
Cincinnati . . .
New Orleans5 . .
Kansas City, Mo.
Seattle ....
Rochester, N. Y.

Year

Established
1898
1923
1876

1925
1882
1915
1911

1886

1900

Portland
Denver

1904
1890
1875
1919
1909
1903
1900
1912
1914

1905

189-

Acres

Site

264

196

IOO

72
80

17-6

170

200

40
50

Number

Mammals

553

315

235

39
130
700
367
503
434
139
127
200

150

112

Number
Birds

2,355

804
1,700

500

No data

123
4,000

599

982

1,029

358

200
576

118

200
658

Number
Reptiles

135

19
60

10
i

Total
Specimens

3,300

1,178
1,935

589

339
4,700

989
1,620

I.6026

525"

346

836

212

360
771

Note: Acknowledgment is gratefully made by the editor for the valuable assistance of Dr.C. Emerson Brown,
Director of the Philadelphia Zoological Garden, in the preparation of the material in this chapter.

1 There are two other collections of wild animals in New York City, one in Central Park, Manhattan, estab-
lished in 1866; and the other in Prospect Park, Brooklyn, established in 1878.

2 The Chicago Zoological Park is now in process of development. The estimated ultimate cost of buildings
and landscape work is approximately $4,000,000. The plan contemplates an ultimate collection of five thousand
specimens. The Lincoln Park Commissioners maintain an excellent zoo and aquarium in Lincoln Park.

3 The new zoological park in Detroit is now in process of development. The plans contemplate one of the
largest zoos in the United States. A small zoo is maintained in Belle Isle Park by the department of parks and
boulevards, also an excellent aquarium.

4 A report late in 1925 gives over eleven hundred specimens. The zoo occupies a portion of Washington Park.

5 There is also a small zoo maintained in City Park, New Orleans. The listed zoo is located in Audubon Park.
An excellent aquarium is also maintained in Audubon Park.

6 1924.

904

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS

Year Acres Number Number Number

City Established Site Mammals Birds Reptiles

Toledo 1900 31.4 500 .... 25

Providence, R. 1 1891 .... 35 200 28

St. Paul, Minn 1895 30 29 No data ....

Atlanta 1892 .... 101 41 15

Oakland 1922 I 33 152 ....

Omaha 1912 10 300 30 ....

Birmingham 1909 5 81 52 10

Syracuse 1886 25 67 195 13

Memphis 1905 .... .... .... ....

San Antonio 1910 6 .... .... ....

Dallas 1912 36 261 750 42

Houston 1914 30 .... ....

Springfield, Mass 1885 50 210 289 ....

Salt Lake City, Utah .... 1911 6 118 300 5

Norfolk, Va 1901 10 123 65 33

Fort Worth, Texas 1910 20 200 190 15

Spokane, Wash 1905 10 .... .... ....

Tacoma, Wash 1903 30 75 50 ....

Waterbury, Conn 1910 .... 44 21 I

Oklahoma City, Okla 1923 50 50 100 6

Canton, Ohio 16 29 57 6

El Paso, Texas 1919 7 80 150 ....

San Diego, Calif 1922 115 .... .... ....

W7ichita, Kan 1905 10 35 60 5

Sioux City, Iowa 1915 .... 94 43 I

Sacramento, Calif 1915 3 50

Racine, Wis 1925 27 39

Davenport, Iowa 1904 .... 29

Cedar Rapids, Iowa 1898 30 .... ....

Fresno, Calif 1913 9 32 .... ....

Pueblo, Col. (three small zoos) 1907 32 46 22 ....

Kenosha, Wis .... 5 9 50 ....

Stockton, Calif .... 5 25 50 ....

Springfield, Mo. .... I

(two small zoos) .... 4 40 60 ....

Council Bluffs, Iowa .... 20 14 24 3

Joplin, Mo 1920 10 22 I ....

Lafayette, Ind .... .... 103 217 6

90S

Total
Specimens

525
263

IS7
185
330
H3
275

140
1,053

499

423

221

4°5
25O

125

66
156

223
1,200

IOO

138
?o

139
4i

114

68
59
75

23
326

THE PLANNING OF A ZOOLOGICAL PARK

Selection of a Site.

The great majority of the zoological gardens in the United States are
located in medium-sized or large parks. A few are situated in areas devoted
specifically to zoological garden purposes as in New York, Cincinnati,
Dallas and the new zoos in Chicago and Detroit. There appears to be a
tendency among park officials and directors of zoos to favor the use of a
separate and independent unit of the park system for the zoological garden
rather than to locate it in a large park devoted to many other uses. From
the viewpoint of the design of a large park the exclusion of such a feature
as a zoo is no doubt desirable for the reason that the design of an area

9o6 PARKS

devoted to a zoo must necessarily be more or less formal, hence introducing
an element foreign to the general design of the park, notwithstanding the
modern attempts to develop zoos along naturalistic lines. Moreover, the
educational-recreational value of a zoo will more likely be realized to a
higher degree if the minds and interests of the people are not divided by
other interesting features, as is the case in most large parks having zoos
located in them. However, in the case of small collections of animals the
viewing and studying of which would not consume the entire time that
visitors have to spend in a large park at any one time, and where the arrange-
ment would not require any special designing of the area, the introduction
of the zoo feature might not be undesirable. In very large parks of several
hundreds of acres no great injury to the general character of the whole
park can be done by setting aside sufficient space even for a large collection
of animals.

Whether the zoo is located in a separate unit or in an area of a large
park the site selected should present as varied a topography as possible,
should be far enough removed from the center of population and from
industrial and commercial activities to ensure plenty of fresh air and sun-
shine and yet be easily accessible to the people by good motor roads and
electric railway lines.

She of the Site.

From the table on pages 904-905 it may be seen that the sizes of areas
devoted to zoological gardens ranges from a very few acres to over two
hundred and fifty acres. The necessary size of the area will, of course, vary
with the types and number of specimens and with the conception of the
design. If the design be projected on the plan of a menagerie a great many
specimens can be exhibited on a comparatively small area. If the design
is to be naturalistic, if a number of varieties of grazing animals are kept
and it is desired to develop as nearly as possible the natural habitat of
specimens of all kinds, much more extensive space will be necessary. Areas
which permit of naturalistic treatment are decidedly favored by practically
all park and zoo officials in this country.

It would appear, therefore, that very large zoos planned on naturalistic
lines should have from one hundred to two hundred and fifty acres, medium-
sized zoos from fifty to one hundred acres and smaller zoos from twenty to
fifty acres. Very small zoos may be developed on from five to twenty acres.
It is interesting to note, however, that the Philadelphia zoo, one of the
largest zoos in this country, occupies only forty acres. This manner of con-
centration of specimens is chiefly of advantage to the visitor who is thus
enabled to view the specimens without long walks.

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS

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ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS 909

The Design or Plan.

In making the design or plan the topography of the proposed location
should be carefully studied, and the enclosures, buildings, etc., arranged
in a manner that will best harmonize with the surroundings and preserve
the natural advantages, such as shade, protection from the elements, and
the natural hills and rocks best fitted for specimens whose natural habitat
is the mountainous sections of the country. Natural ponds and streams
should all be utilized and kept in their wild state as far as practicable. The
ideal location for any captive animal is one that represents as nearly as
possible the conditions with which it was surrounded in nature. The
enclosures should be large enough so that the aspect of close confinement
is to a certain extent lost, yet small enough for the visitor to view the speci-
mens at close range. Much of the educational value and pleasure to the
visitor is lost if the enclosures are so large as to permit the animals to keep
at a distance which makes close inspection impossible. Such an arrange-
ment may be artistic, but the visitors come to the zoo to see the animals, and
the closer they can get to them, the more interesting the specimens become.

A definite plan should be decided upon and a permanent drawing made
showing the natural features, walks, driveways, plantations, locations of
buildings and enclosures, and this plan should not only be projected on
the basis of present needs but for future growth as well (Plates 358, 359 and
360). Because of the tendency toward naturalistic designs for zoological
gardens in this country these designs have been and are being made by
landscape architects. It cannot be too strongly emphasized, however, that
the plans of a landscape architect should be carefully scrutinized by one
or more persons thoroughly conversant with the needs of animals in cap-
tivity and with the practical management of zoos. In any city where an
old zoo is being reconstructed the director in charge may be able to pro-
vide this expert knowledge. In any community contemplating the estab-
lishment of a zoo for the first time it is highly desirable that the most
capable director available be employed before the final plans have been
adopted. In either case the director should be permitted to visit and study
the most outstanding zoos in this country and abroad before passing judg-
ment upon the final plan, for many costly mistakes may be avoided through
a first-hand knowledge of the practical experiences of successful zoos.

The general plan of a zoo necessarily involves several distinct features.
Among these are:

I. The landscape plan. The landscape plan comprises paths, walks,
service driveways, parking spaces, preservation and development of natural
topographical features or the creation of special topographical features,

910

PARKS

PLAN TOR ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN ;- <*

PLATE 360

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS

911

planting plans and the location of structures and enclosures. The manner
of approach to this important and fundamental phase of the general plan
has been touched on in the first paragraph of this section.

2. Design and construction of structures and enclosures for the confine-
ment, care and exhibiting of specimens. At this stage of development of the
general plan no single step should be taken by a landscape architect, park
official and building architect without the constant advice of an experi-
enced zoo director who is thoroughly familiar with the life needs of the
various types of specimens to be kept and exhibited and who knows how
to combine healthful living conditions for the specimens with good exhibit
arrangements. The mistakes made by park officials in attempting to start
and maintain a collection of wild animals in poorly designed and unhygienic
buildings, cages and enclosures, are legion. Such attempts always result
in a high mortality among the specimens, waste of funds and much criticism
from the public. Under no con-
ditions should a park depart-
ment undertake the develop-
ment of a zoo until there are
ample funds in hand to ensure
the construction of equipment
designed in every particular to
provide the best possible sani-
tary living quarters for the spec-
imens. Of equal importance,
also, is the absolute necessity
of having sufficient financial re-
sources for properly caring for
the specimens after they have
been adequately housed.

Although it is desirable to
have the general plan formulat-
ed, it is wiser in most instances
for park departments to proceed
slowly with the development
of a zoo in so far as structures
are concerned. A beginning
might be made with structures
for specimens native to the
region or that come from coun-
tries presenting somewhat sim-
ilar climatic conditions to the

•v

PLATE No. 361. THE OLD BEAR PITS,

PHILADELPHIA ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN,

FAIRMOUNT PARK, PHILADELPHIA.

Constructed in 1875.

912

PARKS

region in which the particular community is located. One of the first exhibits
of wild animals installed in many zoological parks, particularly where funds
are limited, is the bears. These animals are, as a rule, easily secured, live
well in captivity and are always interesting to the public. Cages or dens
can be constructed at a nominal cost and no houses are needed. Plate 361
shows the old bear pits in the Philadelphia Zoo which were constructed as
long ago as 1875 at a cost of $1,500 and which are still in use. The bears
live wonderfully well in them and are readily seen by the public at close
range. While there have been other bear cages of a more modern type
erected in this zoo, these old pits with their climbing trees seem to be as
much of an attraction as when they were first installed. Plate 362 shows
the modern, up-to-date bear exhibits in the St. Louis Zoo. These artistic
and efficient enclosures, containing five units, were erected at the great
cost of $235,000 and were constructed at a time when the cost of labor
was about thirty-five per cent less than at the present time.

Most of the modern zoological gardens are being built on the plan of
the "barless zoo," that is, the enclosures that are to contain the large
mammals are, so far as possible, built with wide moats or ditches surround-
ing them. This enables the visitor to view the animals without the inter-
vening fences. This type of enclosure is rather more expensive and requires
more space. It is doubtful whether this barless method adds anything to
the life of the animal or to the visitor's enjoyment, and they are certainly
much more difficult to keep clean. From the artistic standpoint, however,
there is no comparison. The moated cliffs are beautiful, and to stand off
at a distance and watch the animals moving about in this seeming replica

PLATE No. 362. BEAR EXHIBIT IN ST. LOUIS ZOO

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS

of their natural haunts gives a very pleasing and picturesque effect. Unless,
however, there are plenty of funds for the construction and maintenance
of these expensive structures, the old type of cage is preferable, for it is safe
for animals and visitor, gives a good view of the specimens and may easily
be kept clean.

Almost all wild animals and birds can remain out of doors at all seasons
in the warmer parts of the United States. There are many species, however,
that can remain out of doors in the colder parts of the country through-
out the entire year. For example, in a climate like that of the Middle
Atlantic States, the bears, several kinds of deer, some monkeys, camels,
wild horses, llamas, buffalo, yak, many of the sheep and goat family, por-
cupines, raccoon, wolves, foxes and others, remain out through the coldest
weather without injury. It is therefore possible to start and maintain a
zoological park on a smaller and less expensive scale by beginning with
such animals as these, and with birds that will live out during the colder

PLATE No. 363
SHOWING PLAN OF SEPARATING CAGES

PARKS

months, such as many species of ducks, geese, swans, pheasants, hawks,
vultures and owls. Specimens of this kind, properly caged in efficient but
less expensive enclosures, and with some warm shelters, well cared for and
carefully fed, would form an excellent and instructive exhibit which would
go far toward creating an interest in wild animals, bringing gratifying
results. Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the fact that this should
not be done in a haphazard way. Cages must be arranged according to
the original plan and not set up promiscuously or temporarily. They need
not be expensive or elaborate, the main feature being the comfort and
safety of the animals and the protection of the visitors. A zoo of this kind
has no expense for heating or maintenance of large buildings, which is a
very large item. As the community grows, or if ample funds become avail-
able for zoo purposes, such buildings as a bird house, small mammal, ante-
lope, elephant and lion houses can be added from time to time.

The inside of the buildings and cages should be so planned that they
are practical and can easily be kept clean and sanitary. This is of para-

PLATE No. 364. FENCE CONSTRUCTION

Showing a type of fence constructed of No. 6 gauge wire, two-inch mesh, with four-inch O. D. galvanized
corner posts, and two and one-half-inch O. D. galvanized pipe for side posts.

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS

mount importance. There should be no corners, mouldings or places of any
kind where dirt may collect, or that cannot be easily cleaned. It is advisable
to have each cage, where possible, especially in the case of monkeys, small
mammals and similar specimens, entirely separated from the next, so that
any disease that might develop in one will not be transferred to the other.
Solid partitions between the cages of this type are recommended, or cages
arranged to set at least two feet apart, as shown in Plate 363. The outside
of the building should really be of secondary consideration, and should be
of plain and dignified construction.

Outside cages and runways must be built in such a way that animals
cannot reach through to injure their neighbors or to catch themselves. It
is, therefore, advisable to use some good wire fencing, preferably such as
is made by the standard fence manufacturing companies. Great care must
be taken in the purchasing and erection of these fences, to see that both top
and bottom wires are knuckled, leaving no sharp or pointed wires anywhere
inside the cages. Plate 364 illustrates a very good type of fence. This
fencing of No. 6 gauge wire, two-inch mesh, with four-inch O. D. galvanized
pipe for corner posts, and two and one-half-inch O. D. of the same pipe
for sides will hold almost any animal. Plate 365 shows the same kind of
fence but of a smaller gauge wire, used in this case to form enclosures for

PLATE No. 365. FENCE CONSTRUCTION

Illustrating same type of fence as shown in Plate 364, but constructed of smaller gauge wire.

916

PARKS

wolves. The cement work between the cages is twelve inches high and the
partitions are of one-half-inch mesh to prevent the animals from catching
each other. The small shelters in the rear open at the back and top, allow-
ing the keeper to scrub them thoroughly daily and also to allow the sun
to shine into them. Each cage contains a pool of running water and a
movable platform about three inches above the cement floor, and large
enough for the animal to lie on. A guard fence or wire and proper warning
signs are always desirable around all animal enclosures, for in building a
zoo the visitors must be assured of every precaution for their protection.
Everything must be as near fool proof as possible, because there are ma'ny
irresponsible persons who will attempt the most absurd things.

It is impossible, of course, to go into detail as to each type of building
or enclosure in this short chapter. It is difficult to state which type of build-
ing is the most desirable to erect first, but it is perhaps true that the build-
ing most popular with the general public is the monkey house. People will
stand for hours in front of the monkey cages watching their very human
manners and funny antics. This is especially true of the chimpanzees and
orang-utans. All monkeys, but especially the anthropoid apes, are very sus-

PLATE No. 366. MONKEY HOUSE, PHILADELPHIA ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN

Illustrating the manner of construction of the interior of the monkey house, Philadelphia Zoological Garden.

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS

917

ceptible to the illnesses of humans, especially the diseases of the respiratory
tract. It is therefore desirable that these animals be kept behind glass, if
possible, to avoid contact with visitors suffering from colds or like con-
ditions, and also to prevent feeding by the public. A view of the interior
of the monkey house at the Philadelphia Zoo as shown in Plate 366 illus-
trates this method of protection. Another feature of the greatest impor-
tance in the construction of monkey houses, so far as the welfare of the
animals is concerned, is the outside enclosures as shown in Plate 367. These
outside cages are available to the animals at all times and are controlled
by swinging doors which are operated by the animals themselves, so that
they may go in or out at will.

3. Service structures. Service structures are of two types, (i) those
structures used by the management in the conduct of the zoo; (2) those
structures provided for the comfort and convenience of the visiting public.
The first group comprises such structures as gate house or houses at those
zoos surrounded by a fence and to which an admission fee is charged,
administration building, kitchen for the preparation of food for those ani-

PLATE No. 367
OUTSIDE ENCLOSURES FOR MONKEYS, PHILADELPHIA ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN

9i8 PARKS

mals needing specially prepared food, storage places, shop, stable, etc. The
water and sewer system may be included in this group of facilities. In
most zoos, the administrative office, kitchens and storage facilities may
be located in structures primarily used for the confinement and exhibit
of specimens. The second group of structures comprises comfort stations,
waiting stations at the termini of railway or bus lines, shelter houses, refresh-
ment stands and refectory. In a very few zoos various facilities are pro-
vided for the recreation of the people, such as a dance hall, outdoor theatre,
indoor theatre, carrousel and pony paddock and track. A very important
feature of the plan of modern zoos is adequate parking space.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF ZOOLOGICAL PARKS

Public zoological parks in the United States are administered by three
different types of agencies — by private societies, by special municipal admin-
istrative bodies and by park departments.

The private zoological societies are as a rule incorporated under the
laws of the state in which they operate and are thus given the standing of
quasi-public agencies, thereby enabling municipalities legally to turn over
to them the administration of publicly owned areas and facilities, and to
control the expenditure of public appropriations for zoo purposes. Where
this method of administration prevails the park departments or municipal
governments exercise no authority over the actual administration, although
there may be a representative of the park or municipal governing authority
on the board of directors. There are a few examples, as in Milwaukee and
St. Louis, of zoological societies which act only in a cooperating capacity
with municipal authorities and without any direct administrative authority.

Zoos in a Number of Cities.

The New York Zoological Park (Bronx Park) is under the adminis-
trative control of the New York Zoological Society, a scientific body incor-
porated in 1895 under a special charter granted by the State of New York.
The objects of the society are: "to establish a public zoological park; to
preserve our native wild animals; and to promote the science of zoology."
The membership of the society, which numbered in 1925, two thousand,
two hundred members, is divided into the following classes: annual, $10;
life, $200; patron, $1,000; associate founder, $2,500; founder, $5,000;
founder in perpetuity, $10,000; benefactor, $25,000.

A board of managers comprising thirty-six persons elected by the
membership has charge of the affairs of the society. This board meets
three times a year. An executive committee of eight members, chosen by
the board of managers, has active charge of the planning and general devel-
opment of the work of the society. The general executive officers of the

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS 919

society consist of the director of the zoological park, the assistant director,
director of the aquarium, prosector and bursar. (For a list of the principal
executive officers of the zoological park, see section on Personnel, page 923.)

The Philadelphia Zoological Society, which administers the Philadel-
phia Zoological Garden located in Fairmount Park, was incorporated in
1859, being, perhaps, the oldest of such societies in this country. It estab-
lished the zoological garden in 1876. The general affairs of the society are
controlled by a board of directors consisting of eighteen prominent citizens.
An executive committee has immediate charge of the management of the
garden.

The Cincinnati Zoological Garden, the oldest of the most notable
zoological gardens in the United States, was administered, when first
opened in 1875, by a board of directors of a stock company which had been
formed for the purpose of establishing and maintaining the garden. After
a number of years of successful development and operation of the garden
the financial affairs of the company became so involved that it passed into
a receiver's hands. As a result of the efforts of the receivers "to save the
zoo" a large amount of money was privately subscribed with which the
debts of the garden were liquidated and a new organization formed in 1899
known as the Cincinnati Zoological Company. The garden continued under
the management of the new company until 1902 when the Cincinnati
Traction Company purchased all the stock of the Zoological Company.
The management of the garden continued under the Traction Company
officials until 1916, when it was purchased through private subscription
and came under the management of a new private organization known
as the Cincinnati Zoological Park Association, which continues to operate
it to this date (1925).

In San Diego a zoological society was organized in 1916 to take over
the group of animals which had been on exhibit at the Panama-California
Exposition. The society assumed entire support of this collection until
1922, when the new zoological garden was constructed with the aid of public
unds. The administration of the garden, located in Balboa Park, con-
tinued under the society, although the major financial support for operation
and maintenance comes from public appropriations. The aims and purposes
of the San Diego Zoological Society are as follows: (a) The exhibition of
wild animals, birds and reptiles for educational purposes, (b) The instruc-
tion of the public, especially children, in regard to the habits, habitats
and usefulness of wild animals, birds and reptiles, distinguishing between
those that are harmful and those that are beneficial to mankind, (c) The
conservation of American wild life, in order that such animals as the bison,
the antelope, the mountain sheep, the elk, and the great American eagle

920 PARKS

may not become entirely extinct, as has been the case with so many species
that have been completely destroyed, (d) The study of disease in wild
animals and birds, with special reference to the relation existing between
these and the diseases to which domestic animals and even mankind are
subject. (<?) The entertainment of our home people and of the thousands
of visitors from other cities and other states, who seek in San Diego pleasant
ways in which to pass their leisure hours.

By an act of Congress in 1890 the National Zoological Park at Wash-
ington, D. C., was placed under the administrative control of the Smith-
sonian Institution, a private corporation, although very closely allied to
the Federal Government. This act authorized the institution to administer
the park "for the advancement of science and the instruction and recreation
of the people."

The foregoing examples, together with the new zoological park at
Chicago and the new park at Detroit, are the principal illustrations of the
management of public zoological gardens or parks by private agencies.
Some of the advantages of the private administration of zoological parks
may be summarized as follows: (a) It ensures the continuous interest and
support of an organized group of citizens definitely interested in the aims
and purposes of a zoological park, (b) Usually the membership selects
prominent and able citizens as officers and members of the board of direc-
tors, which ensures capable leadership in the general administration of the
zoo. (c) The officers, members of the board of directors, and the members
of the society in general are keenly alive to the fundamental value of trained
workers, especially in the major executive positions, (d) Both the selection
and retention of employees will likely be based entirely upon merit. These
societies are notably free from political practices, (e) Funds, whether from
private or public sources, will likely be administered without the wasteful
practices sometimes present in political management. Moreover, an organ-
ized group of citizens, such as compose these societies, are more likely to
secure adequate funds from both private and public sources than would be
the case where the zoo is only a division of a park department. (/) The
private organization will generally give a great deal of attention to develop-
ment of the educational and recreational possibilities of the zoo, because
its interest is not divided as is the case where the zoo is under the direct
management of commissioner of parks or of a park board. The fact that
so many of the outstanding zoos of the United States are under the manage-
ment of incorporated private societies is the best possible testimony of the
effectiveness of this type of management.

The Zoological Society of St. Louis was formed in 1910 and incor-
porated in 1914. Its objects are stated as follows: (a) To establish, maintain

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS 921

and control, and to cooperate with the City of St. Louis in establishing,
maintaining and controlling suitable zoological parks, gardens, collections
and exhibits for the promotion of zoology and kindred subjects, and for the
instruction and recreation of the people, and particularly of the children of
St. Louis, (b] To exhibit wild animals under favorable conditions, (c) To
encourage and publish the results of zoological research, (d) To increase
public interest in wild animals, (e) To secure better protection of wild
animal life by educational methods.

While the administration of the St. Louis Zoological Park is not under
the control of the society, it was the active agent in the original promotional
work which made the park possible. In 1915 at the instance of the society
the State Legislature of Missouri passed a law enabling the people of St.
Louis to vote upon the levying of a one-fifth-of-a-mill tax for building and
maintaining the Zoological Park of St. Louis. This law was favorably voted
upon by the people in 1916. Previous to this date (1913) the city govern-
ment by appropriate legislation set aside approximately seventy-two acres
in Forest Park and created a board of control for the administration of
the zoo. This board of control, originally appointed by the mayor, consists
of five city officials and four selected citizens. The city officials comprise
the commissioner of parks and recreation, city comptroller, mayor of the
city, president of the board of public service, and the vice-president of the
board of aldermen. Aside from the ex officio members the board now
elects its own members. Up to the present time the citizen membership
has always been chosen from the membership of the zoological society.
The superintendent of the zoological park, who also acts as secretary of
the board of control, and the architect and superintendent of construction
are ex officio members of the board. St. Louis presents the only example
in the United States of a special municipal or public managing authority
of a zoo. A very distinguishing feature of the plan of management is the
close cooperative relationship existing between the Board of Control and
the Zoological Society of St. Louis.

Another example of close cooperative relationship between a public
managing authority and a strong zoological society is to be found in Mil-
waukee. The Washington Park Zoo, one of the notable zoos in the United
States, is almost wholly financed by the park department and is under its
direct management. The Washington Park Zoological Society is an organ-
ization of citizens (586 in 1924) with the following objectives: (a) To enlarge
the Milwaukee Zoo. (b) To exhibit animals under favorable conditions.
(c) To foster and encourage zoological research, (d) To increase public
interest and public knowledge in wild animals, (e) To secure better pro-
tection of animal life by educational methods. (/) To attract people from
out of town to visit Milwaukee.

922 PARKS

This society was charted by the state in 1910. The membership is
divided into three classes: Annual, $5; honorary, $100; life, $250. The
affairs of the society are handled by a board of directors composed of
twenty members which include the six officers. The secretary-manager of
the park department is the secretary of the society and a member of the
board of directors. The director of the zoo is also a member of the board
of directors. The membership of the board of directors is divided into the
following standing committees : Finance, membership, entertainment, emer-
gency, purchase and conference, publicity, printing and auditing. Regular
monthly meetings are held by the board of directors.

By far the larger majority of the collections of wild animals on exhibit
in the public parks in the United States are under the direct administrative
control of the park authorities. Up to the present time it cannot be said,
in general, that the administration of zoological parks directly by public
park authorities has been eminently successful. There are a few exceptions
and these exceptions are largely due to the fact that the park authorities
have had the wisdom to secure capable directors, give them fairly ample
funds and then leave them free to handle the administrative details. In the
majority of instances the duties and responsibilities of park authorities have
been so varied and their financial resources so inadequate with all kinds of
public demands calling for the expenditure of the finances that a single
feature like the zoo often is neglected, both financially and administratively.
Moreover many park authorities fail to understand the absolute necessity
of utilizing expert knowledge both in the planning and construction and in
the management of zoos. Wherever politics enters into the administration
of a zoo the result is sure to be disastrous.

Any public agency attempting to develop and manage a zoo is likely
to find a local zoological society very helpful in dealing with the problem, and
where no such society exists might well take the initiative in forming one.

The Director and Staff.

While adequate finances, proper equipment and a sympathetic, work-
ing general administrative authority are fundamentally important factors
in the successful conduct of a zoo, the key to the continuous successful
operation is to be found in the executive head or the director. Too much
care cannot be exercised by the general administrative authority in selecting
this official. The director should be, as far as possible, a man who has a
natural love for animals and who has had more or less experience in the
field and in the care of wild animals. He must also have executive ability,
a general knowledge of natural history and a lot of common sense, as prob-
lems are arising daily, each different from the rest, and many requiring
quick and true judgment.

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS

923

There should be a head keeper, a man who is in no way afraid of ani-
mals, but who is gentle and firm in his method of handling them. Many
animals are killed or injured by improper handling. An inefficient head
keeper is expensive at any price. In a small zoo the director may be able
to act also as head keeper. It is difficult to state just how many keepers are
required to care properly for a collection of wild animals, but enough men
must be available to feed and care for them and keep them in a clean and
sanitary condition. Examples of the personnel list of several different zoos
Avill be given at the close of this section.

There are, of course, many instances where medical treatment of
animals is necessary. In cases of hoofed animals, cats, wolves, etc., a prac-
tical veterinarian should be employed, while for the Primates a medical
doctor will be required, since animals of this order are more closely allied
to human beings and the treatment of their diseases almost identical.

It cannot be too strongly emphasized that a competent director should
be given the authority to employ and discharge his assistants, and that in
the details of the management he should be interfered with as little as
possible by the general administrative authority.

Executive and Maintenance Personnel.

The following are a few examples of the number and type of employees
in various zoos in the United States. In some instances the rate of pay is
given. By reference to the table, pages 904-905, the size of the zoo can be
ascertained, which is more or less necessary to an interpretation of the
personnel lists.

I . New York Zoological Park.
Director.

Assistant director.
Chief clerk and disbursing officer.

Curator of reptiles, assistant curator of mam-
mals.

Curator of birds.
Chief forester and constructor.
Cashier.

Photographer and editor.
St. Louis, Missouri. Rate of

Pay
I Secretary and superintendent . $4,500.00

i Chief clerk

i Stenographer clerk 1,020.00

I Foreman animal keeper 2,040.00

i Assistant foreman animal keeper .
13 Animal keepers .... 1,440.00-

3 Janitors 960.00-

3 Firemen

i Police sergeant

3 Park police

i Manager refreshment stands . .

,740.00
,680.00
,200.00
,200.00
,500.00
,380.00
,920.00

Rate of Pay

i Foreman $1,800.00

i Draughtsman 3,600.00

I Construction foreman 1,980.00

i Foreman 1,780.00

4 Construction laborers, per hour . •67//£
i Driver 1,440.00

39 Laborers, per day 3.50-4.40

6 Teams, per day 8.00

This personnel was compiled at a time when there
was a considerable amount of construction work being
done.

3. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

i Head keeper, per month $169.50

6 Animal keepers, per day 4.25

I Engineer, per day 8.00

i Engine room laborer, per day . . . 4.50

5 Laborers, per day 4.00

i Watchman, per day 4.00

4. Buffalo, New York.

1 Director.

5 Animal keepers.

2 Night watchmen.
4 Laborers.

924 PARKS

5. Kansas City, Missouri. R;t? of 9. Cincinnati, Ohio.

I Superintendent. Pay i General manager.

I Assistant superintendent. I Assistant manager.

8 Attendants. i Business manager and secretary.

6. Dallas, Texas. II Animal keepers.

i Head zoo keeper, per month . . . $150.00 Gardener.

i Assistant, per month 100.00 Pony track man.

3 Assistants, per day 3.20 Driver.

7. San Diego, California. Carpenter.

i Director. Electrician, part time.

Clerk. 2 Night watchmen.

Cashier. 14 Laborers.

Storekeeper. 5 to 6 men to look after parking of auto-
Foreman, mobiles in summer.
Carpenter. no Employees in club and refreshment

i Laborer. service.

i Truckman. 10. Seattle, Washington.

6 Animal keepers. i Superintendent.

8. New Orleans, Louisiana (Audubon Park). 4 Keepers.

i Superintendent $1,200.00 2 Assistants.

i Bird curator 1,500.00 n. Denver, Colorado.

i Aquarist 1,500.00 I Superintendent.

i Attendant, per month 75 .00 3 Keepers.

i Keeper, per month (with house) . 90.00

FINANCING ZOOLOGICAL PARKS

Three different methods have been and are now being used to finance
the construction and operation and maintenance of zoos in the United
States. They are as follows:

i. Wholly by Public Funds.

These funds may come from annual appropriations or by a special
millage tax. The majority of the zoos are financed by annual appropria-
tions, such appropriations usually being part of the budgets of park depart-
ments. The National Zoological Park in Washington is financed through
congressional appropriations, administered by the Smithsonian Institution.
It is true, of course, that zoos financed entirely by public appropriations
frequently receive gifts of animals. There are a few examples where zoos
have a special millage tax for construction, operation and maintenance.
In St. Louis this tax is two cents on every one hundred dollars valuation
on all taxable property. The income under this plan amounted the first
year to approximately $170,000 and has increased to approximately $245,000
annually. The special tax for the new zoo in Detroit is one-tenth of one
mill on each dollar of valuation. Under this tax the budget allowance for
1925-1926 was $270,532.77. The requested budget allowance for 1926-
1927 was $296,766.40. In 1923 the State Legislature of Illinois enacted a
law providing for the establishment of zoos in country preserve districts
having a population of two hundred thousand or more. This law provides:
"For the purpose of constructing and maintaining and caring for any such

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS 925

zoological park and the buildings and grounds thereof and of securing and
displaying zoological collections therein the corporate authorities of any
forest preserve district containing a population of two hundred thousand
or more are hereby authorized to levy annually a tax on all taxable property
in such district as assessed for the purpose of country taxation, of not to
exceed three-tenths of one mill on the dollar for a period ending December 31,
1928, and of not to exceed one-tenth of one mill on the dollar thereafter."
— Illinois Revised Statutes, -Cahill, 1925, Chapter 57a, Section 19. In
Milwaukee one-tenth of a mill on each dollar of valuation is devoted to
the maintenance and development of the zoo, but practically all specimens
have been secured through donations, chiefly through the efforts of the
Washington Park Zoological Society.

2. Public and Private Funds Combined.

New York, Philadelphia and San Diego are examples of zoos financed
by both public and private funds, but there is a great difference among
these cities as to the relative importance of the two sources of income.
In Philadelphia the yearly operation and maintenance cost is approxi-
mately $200,000. Of this amount only $50,000 comes from public appro-
priation, and it is stipulated by the city that inmates of all charitable insti-
tutions must be admitted free, and that two hundred thousand tickets be
given to the board of education for the free admission of school children.
The remainder of the annual cost comes from admission fees ($100,000 to
$125,000, yearly), membership dues in the zoological society and receipts
from concessions.

The New York Zoological Park has the following sources of income:

Private. Subscriptions from citizens, annual dues and fees from mem-
bers. In addition, the City of New York permits the society to retain and
expend all income from revenue-producing privileges and admission fees.
This income is used for the purchase of animals for the park. Up to 1924
the zoological society has expended of its own funds for plans, construction
and live animals, over $641,000. The society has an endowment fund of
approximately $2,400,000.

Public. Appropriations from the City of New York for the construc-
tion of walks, roads, sewers and drainage, water supply, public comfort
stations, entrances, grading, excavating of large ponds and lakes, annual
maintenance and also for animal buildings. For a period of five years
(1921-1925) the average annual appropriation by the city for the zoological
park has been approximately $249,475. This is budgeted through the Bronx
Park Department.

In San Diego the zoological society provides guides and $5,000 yearly

926

PARKS

toward the operation and maintenance of the zoo. The total expenditure
as reported in 1925 was $55,500, of which $20,500 was for permanent improve-
ments. Milwaukee, Sacramento and Dallas report receiving some aid from
private funds.

j. Entirely from Private Sources.

The Cincinnati Zoological Garden is the only example of a great public
zoo in this country that is financed entirely from private subscription,
admission fees and income from revenue-producing facilities. At no time
in its long history has it had the benefit of public funds.

Some idea of the finances of zoos in a few other cities is given in the
following table (Statistics as of 1925).

City Expense

Washington, D. C $148,537.00

Pittsburgh, Pa. . . .
San Francisco, Calif.
Milwaukee, Wis. . .
Kansas City, Mo. . .
Seattle, Wash. . . .
Portland, Ore. . . .
Denver, Colo. . . .
Toledo, Ohio . . . .
Oakland, Calif. . . .

Omaha, Neb

Birmingham, Ala. . .
Syracuse, N. Y.
New Haven, Conn. .
Dallas, Texas . . .
Fort Worth, Texas .
Spokane, Wash. . .
Duluth, Minn. . . .
Tacoma, Wash. . . .
Oklahoma City, Okla.
San Diego, Calif. . .
Sioux City, Iowa . .
Sacramento, Calif.

Racine, Wis

Fresno, Calif. . . .
Stockton, Calif. . . .
Springfield, Mo. . .
Council Bluffs, Iowa

1 Average.

2 Estimated.

50,569.00

13,592.52

54,131.20

30,000.00

6,128.77

7,500.00

1 8,000.00

15,000.00

5,725.79

5,000.00

6,375-49

5,259-oo

21,962.37

i3,5Oo.oo1

7,910.68

3,802.50

6,000.00

7,000.00

3,401.79
35,000.00
4,795-20
3,000.00
4,000.00
2,500.00
1,500.00
4,000.00
2,000.00

Outlay
$3,250.00

19,721.84
963.79

2,000.00

500.00

20,500.00

1,000,00

800.00

Total

Value of
Buildings

Value of
Collections

$50,569.00
13,592.52
73,853-04
30,000.00

$100,000.00
5,000.00
262,821.21

$75,000.00
15,000.00
54,936.00

7,092.56

50,000.00

7,500.00
20,000.00
15,000.00

50,000.00
150,000.00

25,000.00
11,568.00

c 72C.7O

5,OOO.OO

6,375-49
5,259.00
21,962.37

8,800.00

4,379-00
3,379-oo

13,500.00
7.9IO.68

42,085.47
6,000.00

27,000. oo2

/?.8O2.CO

2,000.00

6,000.00

3 ,000.00

7,500.00

3,401-79
5s, 5OO.OO

7,000.00
25,000.00

8,000.00
10,000.00
70,000.00

4,795.20
4,000.00
4,000.00
2,500.00
2,300.00

1,000.00
10,000.00
1,800.00
5,000.00

4,030.50
2,000.00
1,000.00
10,000.00

4,000.00
2,000.00

4,000.00
10,000.00

4,500.00
4,500.00

Of the above twenty-seven cities only four reported receiving funds
from private sources: Milwaukee, $7,096.39; San Diego, $5,000; Sacramento,
$1,000. Dallas, Texas, reported receiving $17,000 in five years.

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS 927

SECTION II. AQUARIUMS
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A PUBLIC AQUARIUM*

During the writer's long connection with the New York Aquarium,
many cities in the United States have made inquiry respecting the cost of
maintaining a public aquarium and the proper procedure in establishing
one. Similar letters have also been received from countries as far away as
India and New Zealand. Only a few of these cities have as yet carried such
a project to completion. The communications, coming from local chambers
of commerce or commissioners of parks, were at first answered at consider-
able length, but the information desired was not such as could be satis-
factorily imparted by letters however lengthy, and involved frequently the
making of drawings and measurements. It became necessary to advise
applicants seeking such information to send an engineer to New York to
study aquarium methods and equipment. Some of the cities that estab-
lished them sent architects, having in mind chiefly an attractive building,
without considering in the least what the region in question afforded in
the way of exhibits, how extensive such exhibits were to be, or realizing
that an aquarium having fresh-water and marine collections requires a
complicated mechanical equipment. Some of the aquariums that were
eventually founded still depend for their marine exhibits on annual exchanges
with the New York Aquarium. The large size of this institution, created
many years ago and constructed within the walls of an old fort, did not
make it a very practicable model for an aquarium of smaller size, while
much of its equipment had not until recently been modernized.

The considerations which follow are presented for the benefit of city
officials and organizations still making inquiry respecting aquariums. The
first points to be determined are those connected with the living exhibits,
whether they are to consist of fresh-water or marine life or both and how
many kinds are available within reasonable collecting and shipping limits.
The transportation of fishes includes that of heavy tanks of water. All
existing aquariums are still dependent upon their own efforts in collecting
and transporting the aquatic forms which they display, as there are no sources
from which such may be purchased. Many inland localities afford but
limited variety in fresh-water exhibits, while the gathering and transport-
ing of marine life by rail involves considerable expense and some losses in
transit. Moreover the keeping of marine life is dependent upon the storage
of sea water, its constant circulation and filtration, as well as heating in
winter if derived from tropical waters. The keeping of fresh-water forms

1 Information Circular No. n, New York Zoological Society, by Charles H. Townsend, Director New York
Aquarium.

928 PARKS

is comparatively simple and inexpensive as compared with those requiring
sea water.

Let us consider briefly the list of the more conspicuous fresh-water
fishes available for a large aquarium situated, for instance, on the Great
Lakes. Among those for which large tanks would be desirable are muskel-
lunge, pike, pickerel, pike-perch, lake, rainbow, brook and other trouts,
Atlantic salmon, lake sturgeon, fresh-water drum, long- and short-nosed
gars, burbot, bowfin and two species of black basses. Certain large fishes
of the Mississippi are also obtainable, such as shovelnosed sturgeon, giant
gar and catfish.

These are about all that can be considered large, numbering perhaps
little more than twenty all told. All others, such as the various species of
whitefishes, basses, sunfishes, chubs, suckers and so on down the list, are
of course available, but are less striking in the opinion of visitors and
must constitute the exhibits of the smaller tanks. The Pacific Coast region
lies too far away for practicable collecting purposes, and the larger fresh-
water fishes available there would be limited chiefly to the trouts.

Unless the inland aquarium is to display a great variety of small things,
it would be unwise to construct more fresh-water tanks than could be filled.
It would also be unwise to construct as many sea-water tanks as would be
required for the numerous kinds of sea fishes by an aquarium located on the
Atlantic Coast. While small aquatic forms of life are attractive to persons
interested in natural history, experience indicates that the average aquarium
visitor likes to see the big and striking things, paying little attention to the
labels describing those of small size.

An exhibit of fresh-water fishes, however varied, is one of rather monot-
onous coloration. The brilliantly colored fishes from Florida and Bermuda
undoubtedly lead in attractiveness with visitors to the New York Aquarium,
while northern sea fishes constitute a close second. An inland aquarium would
necessarily find its marine and tropical exhibits more difficult to maintain
than one located on the Atlantic Coast, where transportation by steamer,
in tanks constantly supplied with flowing sea water, makes shipment safe
and inexpensive as compared with shipment by rail.

Fishes still constitute the bulk of the exhibits in all aquariums, the
number of aquatic reptiles, batrachians, mammals and invertebrates being
usually rather limited, although they are entitled to the same consideration.
Water plants and insects have hitherto been disregarded. The name aqua-
rium permits of a very broad interpretation, and the ideal aquarium has
not yet appeared in any country. The inland aquarium builder should
therefore consider very fully the character and availability of the exhibits

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS 929

proposed, before constructing tanks and pools of such number and size as
would be difficult and expensive to stock and maintain.

The next points for consideration are those connected with the equip-
ment necessary for the safe keeping of the aquatic forms brought together
with so much difficulty and so quickly lost when the conditions of captivity
are unfavorable. The possession of a large and beautiful building designed
by an ambitious architect does not imply by any means that the conditions
necessary to successful operation have been considered and provided. Judg-
ing from some of the sketches submitted, the proposed aquarium building
would serve equally well for a library or a hospital. It is therefore highly
desirable that the equipment of the aquarium be studied by an engineer or
an experienced aquarist, after which the architect may be called upon to
provide suitable housing, and this is possible with a very simple but well-
lighted building. The character of the exhibits and the number of tanks
and pools required having been determined, the problem of water supply
and its circulation should be undertaken by a competent person. This can
best be done by a careful study of methods employed in other aquariums,
lest important matters be overlooked and expensive alterations later be
made necessary. Fresh water may be taken from city supplies except in
cases where such are treated with chlorine or otherwise made unfavorable
to fish life.

Sea water must be stored in reservoirs in sufficient quantity to fill
both reservoirs and exhibition tanks. Its purity must be safeguarded at
all times by proper filtration and aeration. The mechanical equipment
necessary to the operation of a public aquarium includes pumps for the
circulation of sea water, filters capable of cleansing the entire overflow of
the exhibition tanks on its way back to the reservoir, elevated distributing
tanks above the level of the exhibition tank, heaters for winter use in the
water system carrying all tropical collections and a refrigerating plant for
the cooling of fresh water carrying northern fish in summer. Sea water
pumps and piping must be of non-rust material, lest the water supply become
impregnated by iron rust.

If marine collections are not to be included, the matter of equipment
becomes at once a simple one, as pumps, salt-water filters, distributing
tanks, heaters and reservoirs are all omitted and the number of employees
thus reduced by more than half.

It is not necessary here to consider such auxiliary equipment as medium-
sized metal shipping tanks for use by rail or by motor truck, or the extra
large wooden tanks necessary for shipment by steamer.

The lighting of the building by skylights over the exhibition tanks is a
matter of decided importance. Water is not easily lighted and such sky-

930 PARKS

lights are seldom made large enough for satisfactory views of the living
occupants of the tanks. Too much light on bright days can be restricted
by shades, while on dark days light cannot be too abundant. Artificial
light is a most unsatisfactory substitute. The line of skylights above the
exhibition tanks should be almost continuous and should be twice as wide
as the tanks to light them properly.

While all of the points considered above are of prime importance,
there are other matters of secondary importance that should not be over-
looked. The mere setting of the heavy plate glass fronts of exhibition tanks
by inexperienced persons has resulted in much unnecessary breakage in
all aquariums known to us. Water pressure will promptly crack heavy
glass that is not evenly supported on every part of its margin. Persons
contemplating the construction of an aquarium are therefore urged to under-
take the initial expense of a careful study of some public aquarium known
to be in successful operation and thus avoid mistakes that will result in
greater expenses for necessary alterations. The New York Aquarium, which
maintains perhaps larger collections than any institution of its kind, has
had its full share of expensive alterations during the past twenty-three
years, an experience which a new aquarium should be spared. During this
period we have been called upon to write scores of letters on this subject.
It is scarcely necessary to add that representatives sent to the New York
Aquarium will be afforded every facility for studying the aquarium methods
employed here.

The public aquarium, with its exhibits of living aquatic animals, which
has come into existence in many of the larger cities of the world during
recent years, may well be classed as a museum of natural history, since it
exists for the education and recreation of the people. In some cities the
aquarium is maintained as a feature of the zoological garden, while in others
it is a separate institution. An aquarium is sometimes established in con-
nection with the work of a biological laboratory. The aquarium in New
York is maintained by the city, its entire management being in the hands
of the New York Zoological Society, which provides all exhibits from its
private funds. The aquariums in Boston and Detroit are city institutions,
controlled in each case by a department of parks. There are small aqua-
riums in American and European cities which are conducted entirely as
private business enterprises. There are probably not less than thirty aqua-

1 New York Zoological Society, Information Circular No. 6, by Charles H. Townsend, Director New York
Aquarium.

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS 931

riums in various parts of the world to which the public is admitted, exclusive
of several very small ones connected with biological laboratories.

It has long been the custom of the National Bureau of Fisheries to
operate large temporary aquariums at American industrial expositions, and
these splendid governmental exhibits have been successful in the highest
degree. It is a remarkable fact that at the world fairs of Chicago, St. Louis,
Buffalo, Omaha, Charleston, Nashville and Portland, the government aqua-
rium attracted in each case more visitors than any other single exhibit
of the exposition. The larger permanent aquariums of the world attract
the attention and patronage of the people to a greater extent than that
usually directed toward the zoological garden or the museum of natural
history or art.

The living collections of the larger public aquariums consist usually
of both marine and fresh-water animals. It is the character of the exhibits,
whether of marine or fresh-water forms, which determines the cost of
maintenance in an institution of this kind. An aquarium with exhibition
tanks requiring nothing more complicated than mere connections with a
city water system, can obviously be operated at less expense than one
requiring pumps for the circulation of sea water. It would be possible for
any inland city not too remote from lakes or rivers to maintain excellent
collections of fresh-water fishes and amphibians at small cost as compared
with marine exhibits requiring stored sea water. The flow of fresh water
being practically automatic, the equipment for operation can be reduced
to very simple terms. With the introduction of marine exhibits, the equip-
ment, management and cost of maintenance would be altogether different.
The piping, if for permanent use with salt water, would be specially con-
structed of vulcanized rubber or other non-rusting material, with fittings
to match. An underground reservoir for the storage of sea water would
be necessary, together with rust-proof pumps of bronze for its circulation.
Filters would be required for the clearing of the water constantly flowing
back to the reservoir. With the use of steam pumps which must run night
and day, there would follow an increase in the number of employees, some
of them being mechanicians requiring special compensation. If tropical
forms of life were added, water-heating equipment would be required to
ensure their safety in winter. In connection with the matter of warm water
for tropical exhibits in winter, it should be noted that cold water is equally
necessary for northern forms of life in summer. A large aquarium in the
latitude of New York, for instance, requires a decidedly complicated equip-
ment if its aquatic exhibits include both northern and tropical, fresh-
water and marine forms.

The construction of a reservoir for pure sea water is imperative even

932 PARKS

if the aquarium be located on the seashore. Experience has shown that the
water supply must be maintained in uniformly good condition, unaffected
by storms, changes in salinity, winter and summer temperatures, and the
impurities of harbors. Unfavorable variations in the water supply cannot
be avoided where water is pumped directly from the sea.

The prime requisite for the keeping of aquatic animals in captivity is
a plentiful supply of their natural element, to which everything else is
subordinated. No completeness of mechanical equipment can make up for
deficiencies in this respect. The water supply must be pure and abundant,
whether for marine or fresh-water exhibits. The fresh-water supply of most
cities is good enough for aquarium purposes as it comes from the pipes,
but during long continued rains or necessary alterations of the system by
the city from time to time, the water may become murky and remain so
for weeks. Suitable filters are therefore necessary to ensure the clearness
of water desirable for exhibition purposes. Filters for fresh water are
installed to receive the water before it is delivered to exhibition tanks. In
the case of permanently stored sea water, filters are also necessary, but
they are so installed as to receive the drainage of the exhibition tanks and
return the water to the reservoir clear and free from the impurities created
by the feeding of animals. Fecal matter from fish tanks is less injurious
to the water supply than bits of unconsumed food. All visible wastes should
be siphoned from the tanks before any disintegration takes place. Stored
sea water, like the freely flowing fresh water, must be kept in motion; this
renders necessary the continuous operation of pumps.

The distribution of water throughout the building must be so arranged
that it can be supplied to exhibition tanks in considerable volume if neces-
sary. Some species of fishes require a stronger flow than others, and all
crowded tanks will need it. The supply to each tank can easily be reduced
by means of valves to suit the demand, and might not be sufficient if the
distributing line of pipe were too small.

The reservoir for the supply of salt water should be located under-
neath or adjacent to the aquarium building. It should be of sufficient
capacity to hold at least four times the quantity contained in the entire
series of exhibition tanks which it serves. The larger it is made, the better,
the supply as a whole being circulated at a slower rate and the body of
water in the reservoir given more opportunity for precipitating its finer
sediment, which will seldom be apparent until the annual cleaning of the
reservoir. Stored sea water is kept in the dark to prevent the growth of
marine algae. The reservoir of the New York Aquarium was filled eight
years ago with one hundred thousand gallons of pure sea water brought in
from the open sea, and has been in use ever since.

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS 933

The reservoir may be constructed with two or more compartments to
facilitate periodical cleaning and to give the body of water not in use a
period of rest, such treatment having a clarifying effect. All equipment
tending to facilitate the distribution of stored water and to preserve its
purity is desirable, as its vitiation, even in small degree, may result in
serious losses of animal life. The living occupants of the aquarium have
no choice but to remain in the tanks where they are placed. Lack of food
can be long endured, but the impairment of their natural element is imme-
diately fatal, whether from actual fouling or mere lack of oxygen. They
may long survive cramped quarters and overcrowding if the supply of water
is abundant. Pure water is the life blood of the aquarium, and the loss of
all living exhibits may prove less expensive to an aquarium than the restora-
tion of a damaged water supply.

There need be no deterioration of stored water if it is properly managed;
circulation, filtration and periods of rest for the precipitation of sediment
will keep it in good condition indefinitely. Additions to the supply will be
necessary occasionally to replace losses from leakage and evaporation. Even
after years of use, the increase in salinity from evaporation is negligible,
and this could be corrected by the addition of fresh water. Aeration is
automatic, as the surface of the water is exposed to air both in the reservoir
and exhibition tanks, and the water is further aerated in falling from the
different levels to which it is pumped. Stored sea water must be protected
against discoloration from iron rust, but this is not difficult if the pumps
and piping are made of non-rusting materials. Its action on iron pumps
and piping is very destructive, and galvanizing affords only temporary
protection.

The care of the water supply of any large aquarium is an ever-present
responsibility that must be kept in mind by each employee of the institu-
tion during his hours of duty. While many of the operations relative to it
are accomplished by mechanical means, the feeling of personal responsi-
bility cannot be relaxed. The life-sustaining water of the aquarium must
flow in purity and abundance at all hours of the day and night. All other
features of aquarium management are of secondary importance. Pure water
being the life blood of the aquarium organism, the mechanical means for
securing its circulation and preservation are next in importance. The cir-
culating pump, piping and filters might be compared to heart, arteries and
lungs. The mechanical department of the institution is responsible for the
continuous flow of water, its temperature, aeration and filtration. A con-
siderable amount of machinery is necessary in a large aquarium, the prin-
cipal features of which are pump, air compressor, filter and refrigerating
machine.

934 PARKS

Pumps should be made of bronze, as salt water is not only destructive
to iron pumps, but the stored supply of water eventually becomes dis-
colored by iron rust. In most large aquariums the pumping machinery is
installed in duplicate as a safeguard against accidents, but the practice
of driving air to the exhibition tanks having proved effective when for any
reason it was necessary to stop the flow of water, the reserve pump is seldom
used. A large air compressor has been used for several days at a time with
satisfactory results.

The public aquarium is an institution which exists under the necessity
of procuring its living exhibits directly from nature's sources of supply, the
animal dealer having but a limited list of aquatic forms of life to offer. The
collector for the aquarium must be prepared to go afield whenever specimens
are needed for exhibition, and in northern latitudes enough collecting must
be done in summer to provide against accidents that may occur in winter.
Fresh-water forms cannot be had when lakes and streams are frozen, and
the winter season is unfavorable for the transportation of collections from
the tropics.

Exchanges of specimens with other aquariums are helpful only in
varying the exhibits, since each must do its own collecting, and aquariums
in the United States are few in number and so located as to be under similar
geographic limitations. The collecting of aquatic animals involves their
transportation in weighty tanks of their natural element, which moreover
must be kept pure in transit. This compulsory procedure is always expen-
sive. Experience has shown that the handling of fishes and other strictly
aquatic creatures intended for exhibition alive can seldom be entrusted to
fishermen. The untrained collector fails to appreciate the importance of
taking those precautions in capture and shipment which are necessary for
success. Aquatic animals must reach their destination not merely alive,
but able to endure the conditions of captivity, always more or less unfa-
vorable to wild creatures.

In addition to the necessity of guarding the water supply of an aqua-
rium every hour of the twenty-four, and the daily care of the living exhibits,
the staff of a large aquarium has the added duties of a public museum.
There are crowds of visitors to be looked after, supplies to be purchased,
machinery to be renewed, and a heavy correspondence with the public, the
press and with zoologists working in many lines. There are also labels,
circulars and pamphlets to be prepared. The duties of clerk, bookkeeper,
stenographer, etc., are, of course, similar to the duties of such employees
in other museums. In the matter of assistance to teachers of biology alone,
the New York Aquarium has stocked small marine aquaria in more than
three hundred schoolhouses in Greater New York. The seashore collect-

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS 935

ing for this work goes on summer and winter. Much of the work in an
aquarium is not different from that of the average curator in a large museum
of natural history, but we believe the duties of an aquarium curator to be
more difficult, as all the exhibits in his department are living, moving
creatures, to be catered for according to their special needs.

The feeding of as large a collection of fishes as that maintained at the
New York Aquarium is a matter involving no small amount of labor and
expense. The food consists of meat, fish, clams, sliced, chopped or minced
as may be necessary to suit the size of the specimens. The whole collection
is fed carefully in order that there may not be an unnecessary amount of
food left unconsumed, which would have to be removed to prevent its
affecting the water. Much of the food used in an aquarium is obtainable
in the markets and consists largely of food fishes, such as cod and herring.
Preference is naturally given to the cheaper kinds of fish when the supply
of such is abundant and when they are of such a character that they can
be cut and prepared to advantage. Very little meat is required, but clams
are used in great quantities. In addition to such foods as are procured in
the markets, a considerable supply of natural live food is brought in from
the adjacent bays and shores by the aquarium collector, consisting of
minnows, shrimps, mussels, crabs, marine worms, small soft clams and
beach fleas or amphipoda. More or less live food is always kept on hand
in reserve tanks. In summer when live food is easily obtained, a great deal
of it is used, being better for the collection in general, while in winter a
large amount of market food is necessarily consumed.

The interesting little sea horses usually to be found at the aquarium
can be kept to good advantage only when they are well supplied with
Gammarus, a very minute crustacean secured by gathering along the
beaches bunches of fine sea moss, which they inhabit. The sea horses in
the tanks are usually seen on the bottom picking this minute life from the
algae. Even under the best conditions it is difficult to supply the sea horses
with a sufficient variety of the live food required, and specimens have
seldom lived longer than a year. It has been found that the longer a sea
horse tank can be left without cleaning, the better are the chances for
maintaining colonies of Gammarus for its food. Young trout and salmon
in the fish hatchery are fed successfully on minced liver, and they are also
very fond of herring roe. At the New York Aquarium herring roe has
proved to be an excellent food for young whitefish.

All the fish food from the markets is headed and eviscerated before
being cut up, as market fish are frequently kept too long for any part of
the viscera to be wholesome. The cost of the market food used at the
aquarium averages about $150 a month. The various kinds of live food

936

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brought in by the collector in connection with his regular work of capturing
specimens for exhibition is valued at about half that amount.

The natural food of most fishes consists chiefly of other fishes, which
may at times be their own young. Fishes in general are feeders on animal
life, and their food supply includes practically the whole aquatic fauna.
Fishes may be described as not only piscivorous and insectivorous, but as
feeders on crustaceans, mollusks and worms. Plants do not constitute much
of their food, although a few kinds feed freely on them, such as buffalo
fishes, carps and minnows. The young of many fishes nibble at tender
plant shoots.

THE EDUCATIONAL-RECREATIONAL VALUE AND USES OF AQUARIUMS

Aquariums wherever established in the United States have proven to
be of tremendous interest to the people, as evidenced by the very large
attendance. The daily average attendance at aquariums reported upon in
the United States ranges from approximately eight hundred to five thou-
sand daily, the greater number having an average daily attendance of over
four thousand. The per capita cost of maintenance based upon records
of 1924 ranged from approximately fifteen cents (Boston) to one and one-
tenth cents (Detroit). New Orleans reports a daily attendance and an
annual maintenance cost which would give the per capita cost as four-
hundredths of a cent, but inasmuch as this aquarium was opened for the
first time in February, 1924, time had not yet elapsed for a true record
of the capita cost.

It would appear that from the standpoint of the amount of space
occupied by aquariums, the capital investment involved and the annual
maintenance costs, this type of educational-recreational institution yields a
fair return in general service. But in addition to the service rendered through
general attendance the service of aquariums may be and often is extended
far beyond the walls of the institutions themselves. These services include
the following:

i. Service to schools. This may take several forms, viz.: (a) Providing
specimens for small aquaria in classrooms. In 1925 the New York Aqua-
rium provided specimens for small aquaria in the classrooms of thirty-eight
schools in New York City, (b) Providing specimens for scientific work in
high school laboratories and institutions of higher learning, (c) Talks and
illustrated lectures before classes and school assemblies, (d) Talks and
lectures in courses of evening lectures offered by boards of education for
the general public, (e) Arranging for guide service to teachers bringing
classes to the aquarium. (/) Promotion of the organization of nature study
or hiking clubs among the pupils whereby the children under the leader-

938 PARKS

ship of qualified teachers or other persons whose interest can be enlisted,
may, by excursions to parks, seashore, or to streams, ponds, lakes in the
open country, become acquainted with specimens of aquatic life in their
natural habitat.

2. Lecture service for the general public. This may take the form of
lectures before many different kinds of clubs and organizations, radio talks,
etc. Both for school work and for this general service it would be desirable,
if funds would permit, to have on the staff of the aquarium one or more
qualified persons whose entire time would be taken up with this kind of
service, for obviously the regular staff will hardly have the time and energy
to conduct such a service to its maximum possibilities.

3 . Publication of pamphlets and booklets of general informational interest.
The guide books usually published by aquariums are of very great value
from a general education standpoint. Such publications as to the con-
struction of small aquaria; aquaria in homes; how to care for specimens in
small aquaria, etc., are of value.

4. Scientific contributions of aquariums. Some of the aquariums have
laboratories where instructors and advanced students from higher insti-
tutions of learning are allowed to pursue original investigations. The
aquarium is in itself a laboratory of very great value, and it is not surpris-
ing, therefore, that from aquariums in charge of scientifically trained staffs
many valuable contributions of a scientific nature relating to aquatic life
forms are constantly coming. The publications of this nature from the
New York Aquarium are voluminous and of a very high order of scientific
merit.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

"Animals in Public Parks," Herman W. Merkel. A "Earless Enclosures — Progress of the Idea in the

series of articles in Parks and Recreation beginning in Zoos of the World," Robert A. Bean. Parks and Recrea-

July, 1920, Vol. 3, No. 4 and continued more or less tion, March-April, 1925, Vol. VIII, No. 4, pages 347-

regularly until July- August, 1925, Vol. VIII, No. 6. 351, illustrated.
Illustrated. "Cincinnati Zoo Guide," Sol A. Stephan. Published

"Annual Reports of the Washington Park Zoological by the Cincinnati Zoological Park Association, Cin-

Society," Milwaukee, Wis. Series from 1910 to present cinnati, Ohio, 1924. 132 pages, illustrated,
date. Published by the society. "Commercial Value of a Zoological Garden," George

"The Association of Zoological Parks and Aqua- P. Vierheller. Parks and Recreation, November-Decem-

riums." Reprint from Parks and Recreation, November- ber, 1925, Vol. IX, No. 2, pages 176-178.
December, 1924, illustrated. This reprint contains the "Disease in Captive Wild Animals," Herbert Fox,

following articles of value to those interested in zoos: M.D. Lippincott & Company, Philadelphia, 1923. 665

(a) "Observations on Zoological Park Foundations," pages, 87 illustrations, $12. The standard work on this

Dr. William T. Hornaday, formerly director of the New subject.

York Zoological Garden, (b) "Showmanship and the "Establishing and Caring for an Exhibit of Reptiles,"
Zoo Business," Richard A. Addison, Naturalist, San Richard A. Addison. Parks and Recreation, January-
Diego, Calif, (c) "Problems of a Small City Zoo," H. February, 1926, Vol. IX, No. 3, pages 352-360, illus-
Lee Bancroft, Superintendent of Parks and City For- trated.

ester, Lansing, Mich, (d) "The St. Louis Program for a "Feed and Feeding," Robert Bean. Parks and Recrea-

Barless Zoo," Frank Schwarz, member of Board of tion, January-February, 1924, Vol. VII, No. 3, pages

Control, Zoological Garden, St. Louis, Mo. 288-289.

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND AQUARIUMS

939

"Floors for Cages," George P. Vierheller. Parks and
Recreation, January-February, 1926, Vol. IX, No. 3,
pages 360—361.

"General Statistics of Cities: 1916." Bureau of the
Census, Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C.,
page 34, material descriptive of Table 14, which appears
on pages 80, 81. Table presents a list of eighty-three
cities having zoological collections in 1916, giving date
of establishment, number of specimens, revenue re-
ceipts, governmental cost payments, and value of build-
ings and zoological collections.

"Official Illustrations of the St. Louis Zoological
Park," issued under the auspices of the Zoological So-
ciety of St. Louis, 1926, 60 pages, illustrated, map.

Parks and Recreation, the official organ of the Ameri-
can Institute of Park Executives, published bi-monthly
by the Institute at Rockford, 111. Among the several
departments of the magazine is a zoological depart-
ment. Since the beginning of the publication in 1917
to the present time the material which has appeared on
zoological subjects including zoological parks constitutes
a fairly comprehensive reference library.

"Popular Official Guide to the New York Zoological
Park," Dr. William T. Hornaday. Published by the

New York Zoological Society, March, 1925, 192 pages,
illustrated, maps, plans.

"Protecting Zoo Animals from the Public." Parks
and Recreation, January-February, 1926, Vol. IX, No. 3,
pages 371-372-

"Reports of the Superintendent of the National
Zoological Park." These appear in the annual reports
of the Smithsonian Institution but are also published
as separate pamphlets by the Government Printing
Office, Washington, D. C.

"San Diego Zoo's New Research Hospital," Harry
M. Wegeforth, M.D. Parks and Recreation, May-June,
1926, Vol. IX, No. 5, pages 565-567, illustrated, plan.

"Some Diseases Encountered in Captive Animals,"
Dr. R. A. Kammerer. Parks and Recreation, January-
February, 1927, Vol. X, No. 3, pages 279-282.

"Yearbooks of the Zoological Society of Philadel-
phia." For copies of the different years apply to C.
Emerson Brown, Director of the Philadelphia Zoological
Garden.

"Zoological Gardens," E. H. Bean. Parks and Recrea-
tion, September-October, 1922, Vol. VI, No. i, pages
59-66.

CHAPTER XVIII
BOTANICAL GARDENS

Many park and recreation systems in the United States have examples
of special types of gardens such as rose gardens, water plant gardens, rock
gardens, wild flower gardens and Shakespearean gardens, but only a very
few have examples of genuine botanical gardens. The history of botanical
gardens in the United States is almost as notable for the number of failures
as for the successes of the most outstanding ones. The following is a brief
historical outline of some of the attempts that have been made to establish
gardens and of some of the existing gardens:

1. The Bartram Garden, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The earliest botan-
ical garden in the United States was privately established in 1728 by John
Bartram. After many vicissitudes the old homestead and the grounds in
which the garden was situated have been acquired by the Fairmount Park
Commission. The commission has restored the old homestead and has done
much toward the rehabilitation of the garden. At the present time, however,
this garden is chiefly of historical interest.

2. The Elgin Botanic Garden, New York City. The Elgin Botanic
Garden was established in New York City in 1801 by Dr. David Hosack,
professor of botany and materia medica in Columbia College. The garden
covered a tract of twenty acres. It was by act of Legislature transferred
in 1810 to the State of New York, which subsequently transferred it to
Columbia College. Because of lack of funds it was ultimately abandoned.
Dr. Hosack, in a catalogue of plants which he issued in 1806, mentions
movements for the establishment of gardens at Boston in connection with
the "University of Cambridge," at Charleston, South Carolina, and at
Princeton, New Jersey, in connection with the "College of Princeton."

3. The Botanic Garden of Harvard University. This garden was estab-
lished in 1807 and has been in continuous existence to this day (1927).
Like most botanical gardens established by universities and colleges its
primary use has been for scientific purposes. However, its general public
service has not been small, and the new plans for the garden involve an
extensive program of general educational service. (See page 954 for notes
on new plan.)

4. The Botanic Garden of Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky.
In the first quarter of the nineteenth century a botanical garden was estab-
lished in connection with Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky,

940

BOTANICAL GARDENS 941

by C. S. Rafinesque, secretary of the board of managers of the institution.
He, in conjunction with Dr. W. H. Richardson, president of the board of
managers, published the "First Catalogue and Circulars of the Botanical
Garden of Transylvania University at Lexington, Kentucky, for the year
1924." This garden was apparently abandoned shortly after that date.

5. The Hunt Botanical Garden, Brooklyn, New York. In 1855 the Hunt
Botanical Garden was established in Brooklyn, New York. Notwith-
standing the fact that this garden was inaugurated under splendid con-
ditions, the land having been donated and a rather large endowment (for
the time) established, it ceased to exist within one year from the date of
its inauguration.

6. The Arnold Arboretum. Through a bequest of one hundred thou-
sand dollars made by Mr. James Arnold (1868), a merchant of New Bed-
ford, for the improvement of agriculture or horticulture, the Arnold Arbore-
tum of Harvard University had its origin. The trustees of the estate of
Mr. Arnold decided to turn over the legacy to the president and fellows
of Harvard University, providing it should be devoted to the establishment
and maintenance of an arboretum on a part of a farm in West Roxbury
which had been given to the university by Mr. Benjamin Bussey. On
March, 1872, this plan was carried out and one hundred and twenty acres
of this farm were set aside for the proposed arboretum. In December,
1882, a contract was made between the university and the City of Boston
whereby the city agreed to add certain adjoining lands, construct and main-
tain under the direction of the park commission a system of drives and
walks, to police the grounds and to assume all taxes which might be levied
on the property. This contract was drawn to cover a period of nine hundred
and ninety-nine years. The university agreed to open the arboretum to
the public from sunrise to sunset during every day of the year, reserving,
however, entire control of all collections and of the grounds with the excep-
tion of the drives and walks. The principal collection of trees and shrubs
was not planted until 1886. In 1894 additional land was added to the
arboretum by the president and fellows of Harvard University. The
arboretum now occupies two hundred and forty acres, the topography of
which comprises areas of meadow, hill and valley. (Excerpts from "A Guide
to the Arnold Arboretum," Charles S. Sargent, Director. Printed by the
Riverside Press, Cambridge, 1925.)

7. Botanical Garden of Michigan Agricultural College. The Michigan
Agricultural College (now the Michigan State College of Agriculture and
Applied Science) established a botanical garden in 1873. It covers at the
present time (1927) about two and one-half acres, but plans are under way
to increase the area in the near future. It has been in continuous existence

942 PARKS

since its establishment by Dr. W. J. Beal, and is used chiefly for research
in connection with the botanical work in the college.

8. The Missouri Botanical Garden. The Missouri Botanical Garden
was established in 1889 through a bequest by Mr. Henry Shaw of St. Louis.
For about thirty years previous to this date Mr. Shaw had been privately
bringing together material for the garden on the lands about his residence.
During this time the garden was known as Shaw's Gardens. Because of
the increasing difficulty of growing successfully trees, shrubs and herbaceous
plants under the conditions of a city environment which has gradually
enveloped the area occupied by the Missouri Botanical Garden, a new site
of approximately thirteen hundred acres was purchased (1924-1925) some
thirty-seven miles to the west of the city limits at Gray Summit. Certain
areas of this tract are now in course of development (1926). At the present
time the new site is considered merely an extension of the Missouri Botanical
Garden, but no doubt in course of time it will become the garden proper.

9. The Buffalo Botanical Garden. In the annual report of the Board
of Park Commissioners of Buffalo, New York, for the year 1894, ^s recorded
the following statement: "The matter of establishing a botanic garden on
South Park has been under advisement for over two years. Finally on
April 3 (1894) it was determined to devote the park to this purpose. The
firm of Olmsted, Olmsted & Eliot was engaged to furnish plans for such a
garden, eliminating from the park plan heretofore submitted and adopted,
all features inconsistent with this special purpose. In further pursuance of
the scheme Prof. John F. Cowell, a well-known botanist of this city of
high standing, was on May I engaged as director of the garden, and entered
on his duties July i. In due time a general plan, together with a detailed
list of suitable plants, was received from the landscape architects, and
accepted by us as the basis of the work."

During this first year about three thousand plants of various kinds
were acquired by collection and donations, and a boiler house, stable, tool
house and three propagating houses were erected. During the years imme-
diately following other propagating houses, office building, residence for the
director and a conservatory were erected. The latter was completed in
1900. During this period there was marked progress in carrying forward
grading plans, installation of drainage and water systems, building of road-
ways, setting out extensive plantations of trees, shrubs and herbaceous
plants, collecting and organizing an herbarium, establishing a library, insti-
tution of educational service for students and similar enterprises. During
the past quarter of a century the garden has slowly but surely made progress
in further developments and services. It is practically the only extensive
botanical garden in the United States that is wholly under the control and

BOTANICAL GARDENS 943

wholly supported by a municipal park department. South Park comprises
an area of one hundred and fifty-five acres of land and water. Certain
minor portions of the park are used for active recreations.

10. The New York Botanical Garden. The enabling act providing for
the establishment of the New York Botanical Garden was passed by the
Legislature of the State of New York in 1891, which act was amended in
1894, 1896 and 1914. The movement for the establishment of the garden
was inaugurated and the legislation procured by a committee of the Torrey
Botanical Club appointed in 1889. The garden is a cooperative enterprise
between the City of New York and the New York Botanical Garden Cor-
poration. Originally about two hundred and fifty acres of land in the
northern part of Bronx Park were set aside for the garden. This area has
been added to from time to time until the total area of the garden is now
(1927) approximately four hundred acres. This with the exception of the
new site of the Missouri Botanical Garden is the largest area devoted to
botanical garden purposes in the United States. (For a map and general
plan of the garden see pages 963-966. For the plan of its administration see
pages 967-970; and for the method of financing it see pages 976—977.)

11. Brooklyn Botanical Garden, New York. The attempt to establish
the Hunt Botanical Garden in Brooklyn has already been noted. In the
original plan of Prospect Park a plan for a botanical garden was included
but apparently no attempt was ever made to carry out the plan. The

•third attempt to establish a botanical garden in Brooklyn was consum-
mated in 1910 by the establishment of the present Brooklyn Botanic Garden.
The garden now occupies a site of approximately fifty acres. It is operated
as a department of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. The garden
is a cooperative enterprise between the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and
Sciences and the City of New York. The city owns the land upon which
the garden is located; it builds, lights, heats and repairs the buildings and
annually makes an appropriation for general maintenance. Its relation with
the city is through the department of parks. With assured financial sup-
port from the city and with a gradually increasing endowment coupled
with growing membership lists, the Brooklyn Botanical Garden gives every
promise of being able to carry on indefinitely with increasing effectiveness
the highly useful educational, recreational and scientific work which it has
already so admirably done during the past years of its history.

12. Other Botanical Gardens. During the latter part of the nineteenth
century botanical gardens were established at the University of California,
University of Pennsylvania and Smith College.

13. The National Botanic Garden, Washington, D. C. This garden was
established in 1820 by the Columbian Institute, a private organization

944 PARKS

incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia. By resolution of
Congress a small tract of land forming a part of the eastern extremity of
the Mall was turned over to the institute for the botanic garden, an area
forming part of the garden today (area, 1926, n.8 acres). The institute,
owing to financial difficulties and other causes, ceased to exist in 1837. The
garden was more or less neglected for about thirteen years (1850) when it
was finally taken over by the government. It is under the direct control
of the Library Committee of Congress. During the past decade several
attempts have been made to reestablish the garden in a more favorable
and more commodious location, a movement which will no doubt finally
prove successful.

14. Botanical Garden of the University of California, Berkeley, California.
The garden was established in 1891 by the State of California through the
university. It occupied 2.5 acres in 1920.

15. Botanic Garden of Smith College, established 1903. Garden occupies
an area of five acres.

1 6. Johns Hopkins University Botanic Garden, established 1908. Area
occupied, three acres.

17. Botanic Garden of the University of Pennsylvania, established 1894.
Area of garden, 4.5 acres.

1 8. The Cornell University Arboretum, established 1908. Area of site,
twenty-five acres.

THE HUMAN SERVICE VALUES OF BOTANICAL GARDENS

Dr. Nathaniel Lord Britton, director of the New York Botanical
Garden, in an address at the Buffalo meeting of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, 1896, said, with reference to the origin and
human use values of botanical gardens:

"The cultivation of plants within small areas for their healing qualities
by the monks of the Middle Ages appears to have been the beginning of
the modern botanical garden, although these mediaeval gardens doubtless
took their origin from others of greater antiquity. Botanical gardens were
thus primarily formed for purely utilitarian purposes, although the aesthetic
study of planting and of flowers must doubtless have appealed to their
owners and visitors. Their function as aids in scientific teaching and
research, the one which at present furnishes the dominating reason for
their existence, did not develop much, if at all, before the sixteenth century,
and prior to the middle of the seventeenth century a considerable number
existed in Europe in which this function was recognized to a greater or less
degree, of which those at Bologna, Montpellier, Leyden, Paris and Upsala
were perhaps the most noteworthy. The ornamental and decorative taste
for planting had meanwhile been slowly gaining ground, and during the
eighteenth century attained a high degree of development. Many persons

BOTANICAL GARDENS 945

of wealth and influence fostered this taste and became, through the employ-
ment of men skilled in botany and horticulture, generous patrons of science.
The world was searched for new and rare plants, which were brought home
to Europe for cultivation, and many sumptuous volumes, describing and
delineating them, were published, mainly through the same patronage.
The older gardens were essentially private institutions, but as the rights
of the people became more and more recognized, many existing establish-
ments and an increasingly number of newly founded ones became, to a
greater or less extent, open to the public, either through an admittance fee
or without charge. The four main elements of the modern botanical garden
have thus been brought into it successively: (i) the utilitarian or economic;
(2) the aesthetic; (3) the scientific or biologic; (4) the philanthropic.

These four elements have been given different degrees of prominence,
depending mainly upon local conditions, some gardens being essentially
aesthetic, some mainly scientific, while in our public parks we find the
philanthropic function as the underlying feature, usually accompanied by
more or less of the aesthetic and scientific. "

Dr. John Merle Coulter, in an address delivered at the dedication of
the laboratory building and plant houses of the Brooklyn Botanical Garden,
1917, discussed the human service values of botanical gardens under the
heads of their social contribution, educational contribution and scientific
contribution to human welfare. With respect to the botanic garden as a
social service institution, he says in part:

"A botanic garden is a social contribution because it is one answer to
the problem of congestion. It is not sufficient to have open spaces, even
when those spaces are beautified as parks. There cannot be too many of
these, but something more is needed. I wonder if you all appreciate what
the touch of nature means. It is something more than open space for breath-
ing. It is a kind of elixir that helps men to be men. The garden is a museum
of nature, not merely an area left to nature. In it there are assembled the
representatives of many regions, so that it gives a world contact. It is a
great service to give any community the opportunity of such a contact.

The contact with nature presently develops the contact of interest, and
interest outside the routine of living, when these interests are worth while,
are both curative and stimulating. Then when interest is awakened, and
plants are examined as individuals, and not merely as a general population,
the wonders of plant life begin to appear. I wonder how many know why
leaves are green and flowers colored; why some plants are trees and others
herbs; why some trail and climb, and others stand erect. All this vegeta-
tion is the natural covering of the earth, which cities have eliminated. It
is the covering which makes your life and all life possible. I should say,
therefore, that the mere presence of a botanic garden in a city is like having
the spirit of nature as a guest, and all who become acquainted with this
spirit are the better for it.

There is nothing more artificial than city life, and therefore, nothing
more abnormal. Some are able now and then to renew their contact with

946 PARKS

the natural and normal, but most are not. A botanic garden brings to the
many a touch of what only the few can secure for themselves. You have
doubtless developed some very definite and effective ways of expressing the
social contribution of this garden to the life and welfare of this community.
But to me, speaking in general terms, the conspicuous social contribution
is to provide the opportunity, and to see to it that all the people take
advantage of it. "

Of the educational service contribution of a botanic garden, Dr. Coulter
said in part:

"It is this contribution to the community that you have developed
with remarkable success. Nature is a great teacher when she really comes
in contact with the pupil. The notion is too prevalent that knowledge comes
from books; that one can read about nature and acquire knowledge of
nature. One might just as well try to acquire knowledge of business by
reading about business. Knowledge comes from experience, from contact.
We must distinguish between knowledge and information. Knowledge is
first-hand, obtained from actual contact with the material. Information is
second-hand, hearsay, coming from no actual experience. Reading about
nature, therefore, brings information; contact with nature brings knowledge.
To serve a community by bringing its children into contact with nature is
a great educational service.

Perhaps the most significant contact with nature is the handling of
plants. To learn to grow plants and to grow them everywhere, especially
near our great centers of population, is a crying need. The development
of home gardens is not merely a service for social betterment that all recog-
nize, but it is becoming more and more a public necessity. (Spoken at a
time of urgent need of food production during the World War. — Editor.)
Any institution that gives you and your children this training is not merely
an educational institution, but also a public benefactor. A botanic garden
doing such work is like a power house, radiating energy throughout the
community. Such training is an equipment which not only enriches life,
but is also an equipment for service. In providing such an opportunity, a
city can do nothing better for its young people and its homes, and through
them for itself. "

Concerning the scientific contribution to human welfare that a botanic
garden might make, Dr. Coulter says in part:

'The scientific contribution I regard as your great opportunity, and I
wish to help you realize it. We are a very practical people, and unless we
can see immediate returns from an investment, we decline to undertake it.
Very few people appreciate what it has taken to make things practical.
We speak of fundamental science and practical science; sometimes we call
these two phases pure science and applied science. The general impression
is that pure science holds no relation to public welfare, and that applied
science serves our needs. You should know that all applied science depends
upon pure science; that there would be nothing to apply unless pure science

BOTANICAL GARDENS 947

had discovered it. If we had only applied science, it would soon become
sterile. It is pure or fundamental science that keeps applied science alive,
that makes progress possible. For example if Faraday had not worked in
pure science, Edison would have had no basis for his wonderful inventions.
And so it is throughout the whole range of the practical things we are using
today. To neglect pure science and support only applied science would be
like wanting children and eliminating parents. When I hear those who are
regarded as practical men lauding our practical achievements, which cer-
tainly deserve praise, I think of them as those who would praise the practi-
cal electric light and forget the impractical, because unseen, power house.
Scientific research is the power house that generates all the energy we
apply in developing what may be called the machinery of our civilization."

Dr. Coulter at this point in his address gave a number of examples
illustrating the value of scientific research in relation to the production of
food through the discovery of the laws of heredity which placed agriculture
upon a scientific basis, through the development of drought-resisting plants,
control of the diseases of plants, etc., concluding with the following para-
graph:

"Years ago an Austrian monk, working in his monastery garden, dis-
covered some interesting behavior in the plants he was breeding. He
recorded his facts and his conclusions in an obscure journal, and no one
paid any attention to it. What could be expected from a monk pottering
in his garden? Years afterward, the contribution was discovered, and
today it is the basis of most of our work in the study of heredity, and this
in turn has made our agriculture scientific. No one knows what may turn
up in a garden like this one of yours. It is a gold mine of opportunity. See
to it that it is cultivated. "

Dr. C. Stuart Gager, director of the Brooklyn Botanical Garden, in a
very interesting and informing article entitled "The Educational Work
of Botanical Gardens" (Contribution No. I, Brooklyn Botanical Garden,
reprinted from Journal of the New York Botanical Garden, 12 173-85, Ap. 191 1),
summarizes the educational work of botanical gardens as follows:

"The educational work of botanical gardens falls naturally under six
heads: (i) Information by means of well-labeled specimens; (2) Popular
lectures; (3) Research work; (4) Periodicals and publications; (5) Courses
of lectures and instruction to organized classes; (6) Docentry. These various
phases of botanical education developed in connection with gardens approx-
imately in the order named.

I. Information by means of well-labeled specimens. A museum has
recently been described as a collection of attractive labels illustrated by
specimens. The earliest educational work of botanic gardens was confined
almost entirely to what might be accomplished by such means. In other
words, the garden was a place where anyone sufficiently interested could go
and 'educate' himself, i.e., secure without the aid of a teacher a certain

948 PARKS

limited amount of information about plants. From the nature of the case,
this must always remain a prominent and valuable phase of botanical
instruction by gardens. In the early gardens the labels gave only the scien-
tific name of the plant, but subsequently there was added the common
name, the geographical distribution, and the place of the specimen in the
system of classification — the family to which it belongs.

So far, no attempt was made to illustrate any phase of botany but
classification such labels indicated the limits of information one might
obtain, but, as a rather modern development. Appearing first in this
country in the Missouri, Harvard and New York gardens, plantations were
organized on other bases, such as geographical distribution, relation to
environment (ecology), modification of parts (morphology), economic use,
both for food and medicine, plant breeding, and the history of botany. Thus
the range of information to be obtained from labels was greatly extended. But
after all, and at best, the result was for the most part only information
about plants, more or less detached and uncorrelated; not botanical edu-
cation. The general public visit a botanic garden for recreation rather than
information, and while these well-labeled plantings do a real service, and
meet with genuine and widespread appreciation, they leave much to be
desired. They would be justified, however, from the standpoint of educa-
tion, if they did no more than extend the interest of the public in things
botanical, or serve to give an added interest in life.

2. Popular lectures. As an educational force in botanic gardens,
popular lectures are only second, in time of development, to the labeling
of the specimens. They were introduced as early as 1545 at the Padua
garden. At first they were no doubt largely confined to the medicinal
properties of plants, illustrated by living specimens from the garden and
greenhouses and by dried specimens from the herbarium. Later they have
been extended to all phases of scientific botany, from the early spring
flowers to botanical exploration and theories of heredity. The introduction
of the stereopticon has here, as elsewhere, done much to increase the interest
in such lectures.

3. Research. Botanic gardens, in the true sense of the word, have
always been centers of investigation; otherwise they tend to become merely
pleasure parks. The educational work of the early physic gardens was very
largely research, while practically no attention was given to popularizing.
Thus, when John Gerarde, in the latter part of the seventeenth century,
acting for Lord Burleigh, prepared the letter to Cambridge University
recommending that a physic garden be established there, the purpose stated
was to encourage 'the facultie of simpling, ' and the gardens of Bologna,
Montpellier, Leyden, Paris and Upsala (the seat of Linne's labors) flour-
ished in the middle of the seventeenth century for the primary purpose of
aiding teaching and research. Well-equipped garden laboratories for
research are becoming more and more common, especially in gardens
organically connected with, or affiliated with colleges and universities.

4. Publications. At first these were mainly confined to catalogues of
the living plants; then were introduced guides to the grounds, seed lists,

BOTANICAL GARDENS 949

lists of plants offered in exchange, guides to the museum and conserva-
tories, and finally monthly and other periodicals, embodying the results of
research, and other matters pertaining to the advancement of botany or
the organization of the institution.

5 . Courses of lectures and instruction to organized classes. This is one
of the latest and most important educational developments of botanic
gardens. Regular courses were offered to medical students as early as
1829, in the Chelsea Physic Garden (England), and this has now become
an important phase of activity, especially of all gardens connected in any
way with educational institutions. In fact didactic instruction by botanic
gardens has developed parallel with the growing tendency to establish
them in connection with universities or other educational institutions. In
earliest and later private gardens, practically no attention was given to
teaching. In the physical gardens of apothecaries' societies and schools of
medicine, the teaching was confined to the nature and properties of medic-
inal plants, but with the organization of university gardens and gardens
closely articulating with institutions of learning, was introduced formal
instruction of classes in various phases of pure and applied botany.

6. Docentry. Docentry is a comparatively new idea in education and
is confined to institutions devoting a considerable portion of time to the
popularizing of knowledge. So far as the writer knows, the New York
Botanical Garden was the first botanical garden employing docentry. The
former system, here as in most other gardens, was that of personal guides
for visitors who apply, and aids and gardeners were detailed for this pur-
pose. Under the new system there is a regularly appointed 'docent,' who
leaves the front door of the museum building every week-day afternoon at
three o'clock, with a definite route for each day. Parties may start with
the docent, or he may in turn meet with two or three interested visitors,
volunteer interesting information concerning the trees and other plants of
the collections, and thus assemble an extempore class. "

ELEMENTS OF THE DESIGN OF A BOTANIC GARDEN

Selection of Site.

In selecting a site for a botanical garden the following factors may be
considered :

1. The site should be far enough removed from the environment of a
city to escape the deleterious effects of dust, smoke and poisonous gases
upon the plants. By taking account of prevailing winds and the location
of the principal centers of transportation and manufacturing it might be
quite possible to locate and successfully conduct a botanical garden fairly
close to the center of population; but on the whole a site, which from the
standpoint of atmospheric conditions more nearly approximates the open
country, is to be desired.

2. Topographically it is desirable, especially for large gardens, to secure
a site possessing a diversity of elevations and natural forms such as hills,

950 PARKS

rolling uplands, valleys, lowlands, stream or streams, springs, lake, or one
which presents the possibility of creating one or more bodies of water. It
is, of course, next to impossible to secure topographical diversity in a small
area except in very exceptional circumstances.

3. A diversity of soils as to quality, texture and degrees of moisture
is highly desirable. In larger areas of diversified topography it is likely
that a diversity of soils will be had naturally. In the smaller area this may
be accomplished by additions, subtractions and by fertilization. Good
drainage is of the highest importance. Where this is not had naturally
artificial drainage becomes a fundamental necessity. This is an important
point to keep in mind in selecting a site, for the installation of an elaborate
artificial drainage system is very expensive and may be avoided by proper
care in selecting the area. On the whole, a sandy loam is best both from the
standpoint of drainage and from ease in cultivation.

4. Special attention should be given to adequacy of water supply and
the possible cost of developing the supply. It would be fatal to the success
of any garden if there were not at all times a never-failing source of water
in excess of even emergency demands.

5. In the selection of the site for a large garden an effort should be
made to secure a site presenting as diversified as possible natural or native
plant growth -- trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants. Very few people, espe-
cially city dwelling people, are familiar with plants indigenous to their
locality. A site that presents a rich variety of plant forms native to the
region can be readily made available to study while the remainder of the
garden is under development. The expense of transplanting and special
care while growing will likewise be saved.

6. Accessibility to the people is a factor of prime consideration. It
may sometimes be difficult to harmonize accessibility with other factors of
prime importance, but in this day of growing private ownership of motor
vehicles, operation of rapid transit and motor bus routes and increased
construction of good roads, it is easier to locate a site that will harmonize
all the essential factors involved in selecting a site than was true a quarter
of a century ago.

7. The utmost care should be taken in choosing a site to determine the
probable direction of the growth of the population and especially the future
development of manufacturing. This is particularly true where gardens
are located in the vicinity of rapidly growing cities. Foresight in this respect
may mean the possible avoidance of ultimate abandonment or costly removal
of the garden. Nearly all the older botanical gardens in this country are
now completely enveloped by the expansion of population or are gradually
being so enveloped. Where located in exceedingly large park areas the

BOTANICAL GARDENS 951

growth of population around the areas may not be an immediate serious
handicap to the successful conduct of gardens therein, but sooner or later
the unnatural conditions of urban environment will deleteriously affect the
well-being of many species of plants. The Missouri Botanical Garden has
partially met this condition and made adequate provision for the future by
securing a very large tract of land approximately forty miles outside the
city. The zoning of modern cities will make decisions as to location more
secure and reliable than was possible in past years.

Size of Site.

No rule can be laid down that will be a reliable guide with respect to
the size of an area that should be secured for a botanical garden. Most
of the gardens in connection with colleges and universities, where gardens
are maintained primarily for scientific purposes, cover only a comparatively
few acres. The Harvard University Botanical Garden has an area of seven
acres. However, if the Arnold Arboretum of the university is considered
in connection with this, the total area equals approximately two hundred
and forty-seven acres. The Brooklyn Botanic Garden covers fifty acres and
the Missouri Botanical Garden approximately seventy-five acres in the
City of St. Louis, while outside the city a tract of about thirteen hundred
acres has been purchased for an extension garden. The New York Botanical
Garden comprises almost four hundred acres. If a garden is limited to
growing of herbaceous plants and at the most to only a few trees and shrubs,
and site or sites for the necessary structures, it is possible that a compara-
tively small acreage will suffice. If an extensive arboretum is included in
the plan the acreage should be very much larger. With respect to the
number of collections and the elaborateness of structural equipment, both
of which will in a more or less degree determine the size of the area needed,
the final determination, in the last analysis, is the amount of money which
any community is willing to invest in capital outlays and operation and
maintenance of a botanical garden.

Factors in Design.

Like all other areas comprehended within a modern park system a
botanical garden must in its design be so arranged as to most readily facili-
tate the human use purposes for which it is intended. In general, this
involves a system of paths and service driveways which will facilitate the
movement of the people about the garden, with the exception of pure
pleasure driveways which should be excluded; a systematic arrangement of
plants both outdoors and indoors to facilitate their study both from a
popular and scientific viewpoint; the location and erection of certain struc-
ures necessary for the propagation and care of young plants; the care of

952 PARKS

plants which cannot be grown successfully outdoors; the housing of herbaria,
museum specimens, laboratory equipment, library material, office equip-
ment and such structures as residences, shop, power plant and storehouse,
the whole design to be so arranged and constructed as to present a "tasteful
and decorative landscape effect."

Quoting again from Dr. Britton:

"In placing the structures intended for the visiting public, considera-
tions of convenient access, satisfactory water supply and the distribution
of crowds must be borne in mind in connection with the landscape design.
The planting should follow, as nearly as possible, a natural treatment,
except immediately around the larger buildings, and at the entrances,
where a considerable formality is desirable for architectural reasons. It is
especially desirable that as much natural treatment as possible should be
given to the areas devoted to systematic planting — herbaceous grounds,
fruticetum, arboretum. The rectilinear arrangement of plant beds found
in most of the older gardens has become abhorrent to landscape lovers,
and the sequence of families desired can usually be quite as well obtained
by means of curved-margined groups.

Much of the value and the success of a botanical garden arises from its
influence in gratifying and developing the innate sense of beauty possessed
to a greater or less degree by everyone, and in fostering among the people
a taste for decorative plants and a desire to cultivate them. While the
beauty of the decorative plants themselves satisfies this hunger for beauty
to a large degree, the value and influence of the garden is all the greater if
the ensemble effect of the whole and of parts of the garden is the result of
the best work of the skilled landscape artist. A fundamental element in
the design of a botanical garden is space (or spaces) set aside both outdoors
and indoors for the growing and exhibit of plants of economic value. The
display of economic plants may be effected by growing such of them as will
exist without protection in the locality in a plot more or less individualized,
while those too tender for cultivation in the open are grown in the
greenhouse, either in a separate house or section, or scattered through the
several houses or sections in the temperature best adapted to their growth.

The display of plant products, best accompanied by mounted speci-
mens of the species yielding them, by photographs and plates, is accom-
plished by the economic museum where these are arranged in glass or glass-
fronted cases suitably classified and labeled. It is believed that the most
useful results are obtained by arranging this museum by the products them-
selves and thus not in biologic sequence, but by bringing together all drugs,
all fibres, all woods, all resins; where the same product is used in more than
one industry the exhibit may be duplicated, more or less modified, without
disadvantage.

Whether plants are grown for a demonstration or illustration or a
study of their economic value, or whether they are grown for an illustra-
tion of their decorative value, the success in either case depends very largely

BOTANICAL GARDENS 953

upon the character and completeness of the scientific equipment and the
quality and work of the scientific staff. 'Few valuable results can be
reached in the investigation of economic plants and their products unless
the scientific equipment is well developed. The two departments must
wrork conjointly, both on account of the necessity of knowing just what
species is under investigation, its structure, distribution and literature,
and in order that the most approved and exact methods may be used in
the research.' Likewise, 'the cultivation of decorative plants and espe-
cially the fostering of a taste for them, and the bringing of unusual or new
species to attention and effecting their general introduction' is related
fundamentally to the scientific department, for it is this department that
must be relied upon 'for the accurate determination of these plants, infor-
mation concerning their habits and structure, and suggestions regarding
the conditions of their growth. '

The library, herbarium, museums, laboratories and experimental
greenhouse or houses are the source whence exact information regarding
the name, structure, habits, life processes, and products of plants are
derived, and they are the more useful as they are the more complete and
fully equipped. It is practically impossible for any one library to have all
the literature of botany and related sciences, any one herbarium to possess
authentic and complete representation of all species of plants, or any one
museum to be thoroughly illustrative; absolute perfection along these lines
cannot be obtained, but the more closely it is approximated the better the
results. The research work of the scientific department should be organ-
ized along all lines of botanical inquiry, including taxonomy, morphology,
anatomy, physiology and paleontology, and the laboratories should afford
ample opportunities and equipment for their successful prosecution. The
arrangement of areas devoted to systematic planting, and the proper label-
ing of the species grown, are important duties of the scientific department.
The sequence of classes, orders and families is usually made to follow some
'botanical system.' It is highly desirable that this should be a system which
indicates the natural relations of the families, as understood at the time
the garden is laid out; and to be elastic enough to admit of subsequent
modification as more exact information relative to their relationships is
obtained. The weight of the present opinion is overwhelmingly in favor of
an arrangement from the more simple to the more complex, and this will
apply not only to the systematic plantations, but to the systematic museum
and the herbarium."

The design of botanical gardens can best be illustrated by the plans
of a few existing gardens in the United States. The following plans include
the new plan of the Harvard Botanical Garden, the plan of the Arnold
Arboretum, the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis and the proposed
developmental plan of the new site at Gray Summit, Missouri, and the
New York Botanical Garden.

954

PARKS

NEW PLAN FOR.

SYSUMMIC
AWClUt"!
Ol >LOS IN 1HL

BOTANIC
GAKDEN

HARVARD
UNIVtKSITY

\ x %/-•"- -'t--$-A >3 TFr "•-""•
:.s? sfijT COL.,, i ^ ?| ft^'j^HHr

PLATE No. 369
NEW PLAN FOR THE BOTANIC GARDEN OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY

(Landscape Architecture, Vol. XIV, No. 3, April 1924, pages 180-185 inclusive.)

"In this reconstruction, the old plan of the grounds will be little modi-
fied. The existing fine old trees and shrub groups will serve as a background
for the herb plantings, or offer shade to those species requiring it. The
first labors have been directed to the central beds (see numbered beds on
plan) for a thorough preparation of the naturally heavy clay soil, and a
resetting of the herbs in the order of Engler & Prantl. While this scientific
order is of the first importance, the planting in each bed will be staged for
artistic effect. The numbers in the key show the sequence of families in
the beds. The annuals will be in the two central beds about the water lily
pool, following the same order, but reducing upkeep by putting annuals
and perennials separate. Hardy orchids and ferns are in the shade of the
group of large trees, the lily family in wild garden arrangement under tall
trees, and the iris in a long border for convenience of study. In all groups
the staging is more pleasing than the plan would indicate. In all cases the
plants most similar are planted close together, so far as soil conditions will
allow. The greenhouses, as indicated, are in ten sections, giving conditions
from tropical to cool and unheated. There is ample supply of frames to
carry seedlings and half hardy plants over winter.

Besides this general plan, there is made a detailed plan of each bed
showing the position of every plant, making the plant identification not
wholly dependent on the labels. Each plant species, as existing on the

BOTANICAL GARDENS 955

grounds or when received, is given a card of data, like a library accession
card, filed in boxes with tab-cards of the genera. The annuals, perennials
and greenhouse plants have separate boxes. For each also there has been
made a checking list, like the Kew hand list, of all these plants in cultiva-
tion in America and those possible to introduce from other countries, the
species being checked on these lists when the accession card is filled out.
Thus at any time the presence of the plant in the collection can be verified,
its history here reviewed, and its location indoors or in the beds discovered.
For the convenience of the public a painted metal label is to be placed with
each plant indoors and a green painted wooden label in the beds for each
species outdoors. All these labels are costly and easily destroyed or mis-
placed; in case of doubt the gardener should be asked to refer to the office
records, which already are complete to date, while the labels will never be
quite completed.

The Harvard Botanic Garden was established in 1807 and has been
in continuous existence since the date of its establishment. It covers an
area of approximately seven acres. 'The methods of caring for the plant
collection will follow largely those of the Arnold Arboretum, and the plants
thus will supplement that great collection, giving this university a com-
plete laboratory of plants grown in northern gardens, for use in botany,
landscape architecture, horticulture and related studies. The present col-
lection (1924) of some two thousand species will be increased rapidly to at
least six thousand, while one thousand annuals will be grown. Of the
possible ten thousand species of greenhouse plants there is room for per-
haps one-third. It is planned to have all the materials of our American
nursery catalogues, exclusive of hardy woody plants, in cultivation by a
year hence, with as many of the rare plants as can be obtained.' " (Stephen
F. Hamblin, Director of the Harvard Botanic Garden, Landscape Archi-
tecture, April 1924.)

Natural Features.

'The Arnold Arboretum occupies two hundred and forty acres of
meadow, hill and valley. The ground rises gradually from the meadow at
its northeastern end to the summit of Bussey Hill. From the top of Bussey
Hill the ground drops abruptly to South Street on the south and on the
southwest to the valley which crosses the arboretum from Centre Street
to South Street and which, at the northern base of the second of the hills
of the arboretum, Hemlock Hill, is joined nearly at a right angle by the
valley through which the Bussey Brook flows from the northwest. Through
the low land west of Hemlock Hill and separating it from the third and
the highest of the arboretum hills, Peter's Hill, Bussey Street, a highway
open to traffic, extends from Walter Street near its junction with Centre
Street to South Street.

The collections of trees in the arboretum are arranged by groups of
species which are called genera, and the genera, so far as it has been found
practicable to do so, have been planted according to their botanical rela-
tionships into larger groups called families. In the case of important North
American trees, that they may show their habit under different conditions,

956

PARKS

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BOTANICAL GARDENS 957

a number of individuals are planted close together in a group, while at a
distance from this species group sufficient to ensure it a full and free develop-
ment of branches an individual of the species is planted. A representative
of each genus of the trees in the arboretum stands near a drive, so that
visitors passing along the arboretum roads may obtain a general idea of
the groups of trees hardy in Massachusetts and of their relation to each
other. Access to the groups is further secured by a system of grass-covered
paths, which reach all parts of the arboretum and make easy the examina-
tion of the collections. An attempt has been made to place the groups of
trees in positions where each tree may find favorable surroundings without
interfering with the beauty of the hills and valleys of the arboretum and
of the natural woods, which have been carefully preserved. The shrubs
have been arranged primarily in a series of formal beds, and partly in large
irregular groups of species planted along the drives as near as possible to
the groups of trees of the same families.

Records and Labels.

A record of the origin and history of every species and variety of the
trees and shrubs planted in the arboretum is kept in a card catalogue, and
to each is given a number. When a species or variety is represented in the
collection by more than one individual or lot of individuals, a different
number is given to each additional individual or lot of individuals. The
exact position of every tree planted in the arboretum is plotted on the
sheets of a large scale map, and with these is kept the detailed history of
each tree, so that it would be possible for a stranger to locate every tree
in the collection, even if the labels were lost.

Labels giving their Latin and English names and the region which
they inhabit are placed at the height of the eye on the trunks of prominent
native trees standing near drives and walks, and these labels will be found
on the trunks of many of the planted trees in the different groups. Labels
with raised or painted letters are used for the plants in the shrub collection
and for shrubs and small trees near some of the walks. Wooden stakes
giving their names are placed before many shrubs and small trees; and on
every plant, whether otherwise labeled or not, a small zinc label will be
found giving name and number, unless, as too often happens, it has been
willfully removed by visitors.

The Administration Building.

This building contains the library and herbarium of the arboretum,
the administrative offices and laboratories and a collection of the woods
of North American trees. The library, which contains about thirty- two
thousand bound volumes and eight thousand pamphlets, more or less
devoted to trees and their cultivation, and the herbarium representing the
woody plants of the world, may be consulted by students.

The Nursery and Propagating Department.

The propagating department and principal nursery of the arboretum
are on Prince Street near the corner of Centre Street, not far from the
Jamaica Plain entrance to the arboretum. Here is a greenhouse with a

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BOTANICAL GARDENS

959

cold pit and frames especially designed for the propagation of trees and
shrubs. Here, too, is the collection of alpine and other small shrubs which
cannot be successfully grown in the open ground of the arboretum. In this
nursery seedlings of new and rare plants can always be seen."

EXPLANATION OF MAP, MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN

1. Entrance Gate.

2. Private Growing Houses. These houses are used
for growing the plants for the floral display house and
the outdoor gardens. Not open to the public.

3 and 4. Service Sheds. Not open to the public.

5. Power House.

6. Coal Storage Pit.

7. Engineer's Residence.

8. Cleveland Avenue Gate House. Not open to th
public.

9. Museum. An exhibit of economic fungi, princi-
pally those causing tree diseases and timber rots, is
maintained on the first floor of this building. Open
only on special occasions.

11. Mausoleum. The burial place of Mr. Henry
Shaw, the founder of the garden.

12. Mr. Shaw's Country Residence. This building
was erected by Mr. Shaw in 1849, and was used by
him as a country residence. From the death of Mr.
Shaw, in 1889, until 1913, this building was used as the
residence of the Director. At present it is occupied by
the School for Gardening (1926). Not open to the
public.

14. Experimental Greenhouses. Houses used exclu-
sively for experimental work by students in the research
laboratory. Not open to the public.

15. Herbarium, Laboratory, Library and Office. Not
open to the public.

16. Director's Residence.

OUTDOOR COLLECTIONS

Water gardens. A formal garden composed of three
pools filled with hybrid water lilies forms the feature
display of the garden during the summer months. Night
and day bloomers are represented as well as the giant
water platters (Victoria).

Rose garden. A very attractive garden separated from
the water garden by a shrubbery plantation. The en-
tire garden except for the north side is outlined by a
border of hawthorn. Several hundred varieties of roses.

Iris garden. Adjoining the rose garden on the north
side is the iris peony collection. The central feature of
the garden is the Linnean House in front of which are
located pools filled with native and Japanese types of
nelumbiums.

Formal garden. This garden is situated in a quad-
rangle formed by the palm house, the cycad house, the
succulent house and the pergola. During the spring the
grounds are devoted to a tulip or a pansy display, which
is later replaced by pattern bedding of tropical foliage
plants. The geometrical design of beds is outlined by a
low privet hedge, and flower boxes and vases are placed
at termination of walks.

The knolls. This is a large tract informally arranged
and planted with a variety of trees, shrubs, herbaceous
perennials and annuals. A series of pools abound with
numerous water-loving plants, among which are the
cat-tails, water hyacinth, water lettuce, water poppy

Economic garden. As the name implies, this garden is
devoted to a display of economic plants. Upon the
southernmost terrace are grown farm crops, savory
herbs, bee plants, and lawn and ornamental grasses.
Another terrace is occupied by four model backyard
gardens. Various hedges and fruits are included in the
third terrace. Along the main walks are trained fruit
trees, with numerous vines and flower beds at the sides.

Medicinal garden. Including some seventy-two fami-
lies and over two hundred species of plants to be found
mentioned in the pharmacopoeia. As nearly as possible
the garden is a replica of the Chelsea Physic Garden,
the plan followed having been prepared by John Hays

in 1753-

North American tract. This large tract is devoted to
trees and shrubs indigenous to North America and
hardy in St. Louis. The plants are grouped in families,
thus rendering the collection of particular service to
those teaching elementary botany.

Wild garden. A collection chiefly of Missouri wild
flowers, comprising some four species.

Test garden. In order to afford the public an oppor-
tunity of seeing the various novelties as they appear in
the trade lists of seedsmen a test plot has been estab-
lished near the south end of the garden which contains
each year a number of novelties offered by growers both
in this country and abroad.

and hardy water lilies.

INDOOR COLLECTIONS

THE CONSERVATORY panama hat and rattan palms. Other exotic tropical

The palm house. Contains a collection of palms em- plants of interest are bamboo, traveler's tree, screw
bracing one hundred and fifty species, including such pine, oil palm, thatch palm, etc.
commercially important forms as date, cocoanut, sugar, Economic house. A varied collection of tropical and

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PARKS

subtropical plants of special economic importance is
housed in this conservatory. In the assortment are
plants which produce rubber, oils, perfumes, fiber,
spices, drugs, woods, dyes, coffee, tea, pepper, guava,
loquat, jasmine, ginger and patchouli. The vestibule
of this house contains a group of the so-called "sensi-
tive" and "telegraph" plants.

Cycad house. Arranged in Japanese style, this con-
servatory serves admirably as a display house for the
representatives of all known genera of cycads, includ-
ing forty species. The well-known Kafir bread and a
very interesting genus, Bowenia, with fern-like foliage
and lack of aerial stem are a part of the collection.
Araucaria, Hakea, Eucalyptus, Taxodium, and other
tropical evergreens add the desired touch to the house.

Succulent house. The arrangement in this house rep-
resents desert conditions under which the agaves (cen-
tury plants), aloes, euphorbias, yuccas, cacti, and other
closely related plants grow to perfection. Among the
commoner plants are the night-blooming cereus, the
giant cereus, the fish poison tree, Adam's needle, the
hedgehog cactus, ice plant, sisal hemp and pulque
plant.

Fern house. Upon the banks of a stream which flows
through this house are grown numerous species of ferns
and their allies. From the bridge which arches the
ravine a good view of the entire collection may be ob-
tained, and passing underneath this bridge through a
grotto is a path which enables one to see at close range
the plants viewed from above. The Boston ferns,
bird's-nest fern, maidenhair fern, and climbing fern are
some of the widely known representatives of the fern
group in this house.

MAIN GREENHOUSE RANGE

Floral display house. One end of this large conserva-
tory is occupied by a banana dome, while the rest of
the house is devoted to a series of floral displays. The
most popular of these is the chrysanthemum show in
the fall, which is followed by exhibits of orchids, poin-
settias, bulbous plants, primroses, cyclamens, azaleas,
rhododendrons, roses, calceolarias, hydrangeas, glox-
inias, tuberous begonias, fancy-leaved caladiums, etc.,
the design changing with the exhibit.

Aroid house. Leading down a flight of stairs from the
floral display house is an artistically arranged conserva-
tory, accommodating a collection of epiphytes and ter-
restrial aroid plants. Indian ginger (Alpinia nutans),
Monstera, rattlesnake plant (Calathea Crotalifera),
dumb-cane and others are grouped around a waterfall
and its connecting series of pools, and hanging over the
pools are numerous pitcher plants. Upon the north
side of the house four alcoves are devoted to a display
of aquatic plants, shown in aquaria containing tropical
and native fish. Here also are to be found blooming

orchids when the annual orchid show is not staged ir»
the floral display house.

Tropical fruit house. This house contains citrus fruits
(orange, lemon, pomelo, kumquat in variety), papaw,.
mango, mangosteen, alligator pear, Japanese persim-
mon, sapodillo plum.

Bromeliad house. The pineapple and its relatives
compose the chief display in this house, and Spanish
moss, epiphytic upon trees in Florida, is grown abun-
dantly. Interesting features to be seen here are the
vanilla plant, trained upon a trellis at one end, and the
goose plant, which when in bloom during the summer
attracts numerous carrion flies by its peculiar odor.

Forced fruit house. The central panel of the house is
devoted to peaches, nectarines, cherries and other fruit,,
trained upon espaliers. Along the sides are planted
various types of forcing grapes, covering the sides and
the roof of the house.

Orchid growing houses (not open to the public). Owing
to the peculiar culture requirements of orchids, the con-
struction of these special houses was necessitated to-
accommodate the thousand representative species from
all parts of the world. The collection is particularly
rich in Vanda, Cypripedium, Epidendrum (which fur-
nish the main orchid displays), and of common interest
are Cattleya orchids, lady slipper, star of Bethlehem,,
bucket, dove, moth, nun, butterfly, spider, braided and
monkshood. The collection has been made the peer of
any in this country through the donation by the late
D. S. Brown of Kirkwood, Mo., of many rare types,,
and the result of the recent expedition to South
America for orchids.

LINN^EAN HOUSE

The only greenhouse remaining which was built dur-
ing Mr. Shaw's lifetime, and so named because of the
bust of Linnaeus placed over the main doorway, has.
been converted now into an ericaceous and coniferous
house. Along the banks of the dell are planted azaleas,
camellias, ericas, kalmias and rhododendrons, as well
as numerous cone-bearing trees. The central feature is
rocky ledge from which a spring issues, the structure
being surmounted by an overhanging rock and stump
of a tree.

The Missouri Botanical Garden comprises about
seventy-five acres. It was opened to the public by Mr.
Henry Shaw about 1860. From that date until the
death of Mr. Shaw in 1889, the garden was maintained
under the personal direction of its founder, and while
virtually a private garden, it was, except at certain
stated times, always open to the public. By a provision
of Mr. Shaw's will, the garden passed at his death into
the hands of a board of trustees and has continued to
this day (1927) under this form of government.

BOTANICAL GARDENS

961

In an article in the July-August (1926) edition of Parks and Recreation,
Mr. Noyes says:

"A little over a year ago the Missouri Botanical Garden purchased a
tract of land of some thirteen hundred acres, located at Gray Summit,
Missouri, which is approximately thirty-seven miles west of the city limits
of St. Louis. As is well known, it is getting to be more and more difficult

PRFLIM1NARY PLAN -<g* EXTENSION <y ARBORETUM

MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN

PLATE No. 372

PRELIMINARY PLAN OF THE NEW SITE OF THE MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN,

GRAY SUMMIT, MISSOURI

(Design by John Noyes, Landscape Architect for the Missouri Botanical Garden.
Plate furnished by Parks and Recreation.)

962

PARKS

to grow even the more common deciduous trees and shrubs at the main
site of the Missouri Botanical Garden, which is almost in the heart of the
City of St. Louis. Practically no evergreens will stand the smoke and gases
of this locality, and many of the greenhouse plants are seriously affected.

The new tract at Gray Summit is typical of eastern Missouri, and is
one of great natural beauty and of many diverse conditions. Along the
Meramec River at the south is a wide belt of table-land which is occasionally
overflowed by the river. To the north of this is a large tract of several
hundred acres of rugged topography mostly in steep bluffs and ravines,
heavily wooded, and with a great variety of plant life, the notable character-
istic being the numerous cedar growths among the deciduous types. North
of the bluff and ravine lands are some eight hundred acres of gently rolling
land containing several large timber tracts, the greater part of this area,
however, being devoted at the present time to agricultural uses. In pre-
paring a general plan of development for this tract, the probabilities that
it would some day be the main establishment of the Missouri Botanical
Garden have been kept in mind. The main horticultural and botanical
divisions into which the property will be portioned are as follows:

1. The service and experimental garden areas.

2. The pinetum for a conifer collection.

3. The collections of exotic trees and shrubs.

4. The areas devoted to North American trees and shrubs.

5. The main display grounds, which will include the more formal
flower gardens and the naturalistic areas devoted especially to floral effects.

6. The bluff and ravine lands which, it is expected, will be devoted
entirely to native plants.

7. The lower river lands which will be devoted partly to native plants
and partly to nut orchards.

In addition to these main divisions in area some four hundred acres
on the borders of the property are reserved for uses other than for botanical
garden purposes."

EXPLANATION OF MAP

1. Public conservatory range i.

2. Water lily tanks.
Elevated railway station.
Power House No. I.
Bedford Park entrance.
Botanical Garden station.

7. Mosholu Parkway entrance.

8. Museum building.

9. Pinetum.

10. Flower gardens.

11. Southern Boulevard entrance.

12. Herbaceous Garden.

13. Pergola.

14. Morphological Garden.

15. Economic Garden.
16.. Viticetum.

17. Deciduous woodlands.

18. Hemlock forest.

19. Gorge of the Bronx River.

20.
21.

22.

23-
24.

25-
26.
27.
28.
29.

32.

33-
34-
35-
36.
37-
38.

Gorge Bridge.

Waterfall.

Boulder Bridge.

Long Bridge.

Lower lake.

Water garden.

Lake Bridge.

Upper lake.

Lakeside shelter.

Fruticetum.

Woodlawn Road entrance.

Salicetum.

North Bridge.

Bronx River.

River woodlands.

North meadows.

Bronx River Parkway entrance.

Deciduous arboretum.

Power House No. 2.

BOTANICAL GARDENS

963

39. Public conservatory range 2.

40. Allerton Avenue entrance.

41. Stable.

42. Propagating houses.

43. Nursery and experimental gardens.

44. Arboretum entrance.

45. Long Lake.

46. Rose garden.

47. Mansion.

48. Park department barn.

49. Park department band stand.

50. Park department shop.

51. Park department greenhouses.

52. Picnic grounds.

53. Mansion entrance.

54. Linnaean Bridge.

55. Linnaean Bridge entrance.

56. Iris Garden entrance.

57. Iris Garden.

58. White pine plantation.

Location of Garden.

The New York Botanical Garden is situated in the northern part of

Bronx Park, north of Pelham Avenue, the reservation including nearly

four hundred acres of land of a very diversified character, furnishing natural

landscapes of great beauty and variety.

A. Buildings. The principal buildings open to the public are:

i. The largest botanical museum building in the world, located near

PLATE No. 373. GENERAL PLAN OF THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN, 1920

(Plan from "Descriptive Guide to the Grounds, Buildings, and Collections,"
published by the New York Botanical Garden, edition of 1920 )

964 PARKS

the Botanical Garden station of the New York Central Railroad and the
Mosholu Parkway entrance. This building includes, in addition to the
museum exhibits on the main floors, a large lecture hall for public lectures
in the basement; and the library, laboratories for instruction and research
and the herbarium on the upper floor.

2. Conservatory Range I, a large and handsome glass house located
near the elevated railway station and containing plants from tropical
regions.

3. Conservatory Range 2, a similar building situated on the eastern
side of the garden near the Allerton Avenue entrance.

4. The mansion, a stone house built by the Lorillard family in 1856,
stands on the east side of the Bronx River, above the waterfall. It contains
meeting rooms, board rooms, horticultural laboratories, a lecture room, the
collections of the Bronx Society of Arts and Sciences, the office of the Sec-
retary of the Horticultural Society of New York, and the shops of the
garden, which are in the basement.

B. Systematic plantations. Containing plants arranged in botanical
sequence for comparative study.

5. The pinetum, or collection of cone-bearing trees, mostly ever-
greens, brought together on the hills and slopes on all sides of the con-
servatory range I, and in the space between that structure and the museum
building. The young white pine, red pine and white fir plantations are
located south of the herbaceous garden, near the Victory Grove of Douglas
spruce trees.

6. The deciduous arboretum, or collection of trees which lose their
leaves in the autumn, located along nearly the entire eastern side of the
grounds from Pelham Avenue to Williamsbridge. The salicetum, or col-
lection of willows, occupies several acres on both sides of the river at the
north end of the grounds.

7. The fruticetum, or collection of hardy shrubs, located on the plain
northeast of the museum building at the Woodlawn Road entrance and
extending northward into the north meadows; this collection is also arranged
by botanical relationship. The viticetum, or collection of shrubby vines,
is in the edge of the forest east of the economic garden, not far from the
museum building.

8. The herbaceous garden, situated in the valley east of conservatory
Range I, near the southern boulevard entrance, containing collections of
hardy herbaceous plants arranged by botanical relationship.

9. The morphological garden, just north of the herbaceous garden,
designed to illustrate forms of plants and plant structures studied in ele-
mentary botany.

BOTANICAL GARDENS 965

10. The economic garden, adjoining the morphological garden on the
north, containing groups of hardy plants whose products are directly useful
to man.

C. Horticultural plantations. Containing plants that may be used for
decorative purposes. The systematic plantations also contain a number of
such plants.

11. Decorative woody plants in groups along the roads and paths
and in various parts of the grounds, consisting of conifers, rhododendrons,
flowering shrubs, magnolias, etc.

12. The Japanese cherry collection, in the valley between the river
and conservatory range 2, containing over a hundred trees that flower
every spring.

13. The rose garden, an area of over an acre located in the valley west
of Long Lake and not far from the Pelham Parkway Station of the subway.
Several hundred varieties of the finest roses are in bloom there from early
summer to autumn.

14. The lilac garden, situated south of the rose garden on Pelham
Parkway and containing a good representation of single- and double-flowered
varieties.

15. Flower gardens containing a great variety of plants in bloom from
early spring to late autumn. These are chiefly located in the vicinity of
conservatory range I and the elevated railway station.

1 6. Horticultural collections, situated south of the herbaceous garden
and containing collections of cannas, phloxes, gladioli, rose mallows and
plants having variegated or colored foliage.

17. The dahlia collection, in the west border north of the Harlem rail-
way station, containing several hundred of the best varieties to be obtained.

1 8. The iris collection, or iris garden, situated in the extreme south-
western corner of the grounds where Pelham Parkway and the southern
boulevard meet.

19. The water garden, northeast of the museum building, containing
water lilies and other aquatic plants.

D. Natural features. In addition to these artificial features, the fol-
lowing natural features are noteworthy:

20. The hemlock forest, a grove of the Canadian hemlock spruce,
clothing the hills between the museum building and the Bronx River and
covering about forty acres, considerable portions of it being primeval.

21. The gorge of the Bronx River, extending south from the waterfall
at the Mansion, along the edge of the hemlock grove. The river plunges
through its gorge in a series of rapids passing into quiet waters before it
leaves the garden under the Linnaean Bridge.

966 PARKS

22. The north meadows and river woods along the Bronx River from
the northern end of the hemlock grove to the northern end of the garden.

23. Deciduous woodlands on rocky ridges in the southern and central
parts of the reservation.

E. Park features.

24. Entrances.

25. Roads and paths.

26. Bridges.

27. Water supply and drainage.

28. Shade trees and border screens.

29. Shelters and pergolas.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF BOTANICAL GARDENS IN THE UNITED STATES

For the most part the principal botanical gardens in the United States
are under the administrative control of private corporations, Buffalo being
the only exception. Here the botanical garden was founded directly by a
park department and maintained as an integral part of the park system to
the present day. Park departments have, on the whole, contented them-
selves with the development and maintenance of general landscape gardening,
or with special types of gardens, or with the operation and maintenance of
a conservatory, although there are comparatively few of the latter publicly
owned in the United States.

The Harvard Botanical Garden and the Arnold Arboretum are under the
administrative control of the president and fellows of Harvard University,
although in the case of the arboretum the City of Boston through its park
and recreation department contracted with the president and fellows of
the university to grant additional land, construct and maintain a system
of driveways and walks, pay any taxes that may be levied against the
property of the arboretum and police the property.

The Missouri Botanical Garden is governed by a board of trustees.
As early as 1859 Mr. Shaw, the founder and donor of the garden, "secured
the passage of an act by the Legislature of the State of Missouri which
empowered him to deed or will, as he might elect, such of his property as
he wished, to trustees for the maintenance of 'a botanical garden for the
cultivation and propagation of plants, flowers, fruit and forest trees, and
for the dissemination of the knowledge thereof among men, by having a
collection thereof easily accessible; by the establishment of a museum and
library in connection therewith, as also by the establishment of public
lectures and instruction upon botany and its allied sciences, when it shall
be deemed advisable in furtherance of the general objects of said trust;
and . . . for the purpose of maintaining a perpetual fund for the support

BOTANICAL GARDENS 967

and maintenance of said garden, its care and increase, and the museum,
library and instruction connected therewith.' When he died in 1889 his
will was found to provide for the administration of the garden by an inde-
pendent board of trustees, consisting of fifteen persons; ten named by the
testator, and the other five holding office as trustees ex officio, in various
capacities: The chancellor of Washington University, the bishop of the
Episcopal Diocese of Missouri, the president of the Public School Board of
St. Louis, the president of the Academy of Science of St. Louis and the
mayor of the city. Except for the members ex officio the board of trustees
is a self-perpetuating body, itself filling vacancies as they occur." ("The
Missouri Botanical Garden," by William Trelease, LL.D. Reprint from the
Popular Science Monthly, January 1903.)

The Brooklyn Botanical Garden is under the administrative control of
a committee of the board of trustees of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and
Sciences. This committee is known as the governing committee of the
Botanical Garden and consists of twelve appointive members and one ex
officio member, the latter being the president of the board of trustees. The
mayor of the City of New York, the president of the Borough of Brooklyn,
and the commissioner of parks, Borough of Brooklyn, are ex officio members
of the board of trustees of the institute.

The National Botanical Garden, Washington, D. C., is under the
administrative control of the Library Committee of Congress.

The various botanical gardens maintained by universities and colleges
are administratively under the governing authorities of the several institu-
tions respectively.

There are two sets of administrative agents for the government of the
New York Botanical Garden. The first of these is known as the Scientific
directors, composed (as fixed by the legislative act of incorporation) of the
president of Columbia College, the professors of botany, of geology and of
chemistry therein, the president of the Torrey Botanical Club and the
president of the Board of Education of the City of New York. These are
all also ex officio members of the New York Botanical Garden Corporation.

The scientific directors have control of the scientific and educational
departments of the corporation and the appointment of the director in chief
of the garden. The scientific directors may add to their number new mem-
bers, from time to time, by a majority vote of the existing directors approved
by a majority vote of the board of managers of the corporation.

The second administrative authority is the board of managers, com-
posed of the scientific directors, the mayor of the City of New York, the
president of the board of park commissioners of the department of public
parks, and at least nine other members elected by members of the cor-

968 PARKS

poration. The terms of office of the elective members overlap, three being
elected annually. The corporation has the power to increase the number
of elective members. All business and affairs, including the financial manage-
ment of the corporation, aside from the duties specifically delegated to the
scientific directors, are under the control of the board of managers.

As do public administrative authorities, these private-public adminis-
trative agencies have the power to draft and adopt rules and regulations
for the government of their activities, draft and adopt rules for the guid-
ance of the people in the use of the properties and facilities and to define
the duties of the executive officers. In the case of all these forms of private
corporate control the administrative authorities have the right to elect their
own officers. The officers are usually a president, one or more vice-presidents,
a treasurer and a secretary. Neither the members of the administrative
boards nor the officers receive any compensation for their services.

Some of the advantages of these various forms of private-public control
of such an institution as a botanical garden may be stated as follows:

1. It secures the direct and active interest of a considerable body of
citizens who are personally interested in the work.

2. It ensures a continuous sequence of interest and stability in policies
and plans which is very difficult to maintain under modern tendencies in
municipal government where changes in governing authorities are becoming
more and more frequent.

3. It permits a wide range of permanent affiliations with public and
private institutions, the interests of which are in some way related to the
purposes and work of the corporation.

4. Through memberships of different classes not only a fairly wide
and direct personal interest is secured but this becomes an important
means of supplementing any public funds which may be secured for the
work. Because of the character of the service rendered by a botanical
garden, persons of means are not only often interested as members and
officers but also become willing to give sums of money for specific purposes
and for general endowment. The average American while whole-heartedly
believing, theoretically at least, in the value and Tightness of the system of
popular government, often prefers to give money or other property for
public services to a private-public corporation rather than to municipal
corporations directly, for he knows that its administration will not be
subject to changing political conditions.

5. There is likely to be more flexibility and greater freedom in handling
funds and in formulating and carrying out policies and plans under private-
public administration than under municipal control, where there of neces-
sity must be very strict interpretation of functions and limiting rules as to

BOTANICAL GARDENS 969

use of funds. Scientific investigation and experimental work that may or
may not lead to "practical" results is a part of the very spirit of the work
of a botanical garden. It would be very difficult for a governing authority
or any executive officer to explain to a narrow-minded citizen who desired
to create trouble, why money and effort had been expended without any
visible result to his practical mind.

6. A very important reason of the value of private-public control of
such an institution as a botanical garden is to be found in the nature of the
work and the character of the services to be rendered.

The nature of the work requires scientific attainments of a very high
order in the various fields of knowledge relative to plants. A greater degree
of intelligent understanding and sympathy with these requirements is more
likely to be found among the membership and officers of a private-public
corporation than among the average municipal administrative authorities.
The members and officers of the corporation are more likely to appreciate
the fundamental necessity of securing a highly trained and experienced
chief executive officer and a scientifically trained staff than would be the
case under direct municipal control where frequently questions of political
affiliations enter into appointments.

The character of the services rendered are largely instructional in
nature based upon scientific knowledge. It is of the highest importance
that the staff be selected because of their scientific attainments and be
completely free from any possible political influences and entanglements if
they are to do their best work both in the handling of the garden as such
and in the instructional service to the people.

On the other hand all these possible advantages are not impossible of
attainment under direct municipal control. Municipal authorities have
handled and are handling efficiently small and large trust funds and prop-
erties given for various public purposes; it is possible, under direct municipal
governmental control to secure the direct interest of responsible citizens in
various public projects; it is possible to use ex officio officials on various
public administrative boards and it is possible to secure the necessary
trained executive officials to handle public services demanding scientific
knowledge and a high quality of executive ability irrespective of political
affiliations.

EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION

To a very large degree the form of the executive organization of a
botanical garden will be determined by the stated objectives and purposes
of the garden. In the act of incorporation of the New York Botanical
Garden the objectives and purposes of the garden are stated as follows:

970 PARKS

"For the purpose of establishing and maintaining a botanical garden and
museum and arboretum therein, for the collection and culture of plants,
flowers, shrubs and trees, the advancement of botanical science and knowl-
edge, and the prosecution of original researches therein and in kindred
subjects, for affording instruction in the same, for the prosecution and exhi-
bition of ornamental and decorative horticulture and gardening, and for
the entertainment, recreation and instruction of the people."

Out of the attempts to realize these objectives the various depart-
ments, and the types of staff members connected therewith, of the present
executive organization of the garden have gradually developed. The prin-
cipal staff members as of 1925 are as follows (Bulletin of the New York
Botanical Garden, June 3, 1925):

Director in chief. Artist.

Assistant director. Head gardener.

Head curator of the museum. Head gardener's assistant.

Honorary curator of the economic collections. Two foremen gardeners.

Honorary curator of mosses. Gardeners.

Three curators and two associate curators. Laborers.

Director of the laboratories. Custodian of herbaceous grounds.

Technical assistant to the director of the laboratories. Landscape engineer.

Librarian. Administrative assistant.

Bibliographer. Clerk and accountant.

Honorary custodian of local herbarium. Superintendent of buildings and grounds.

Paleobotanist.

Mr. Henry Shaw, founder of the Missouri Botanical Garden, stated in
his will the purposes of the trust which he established, as follows: "Having
for the use of the public a botanical garden easily accessible, which should
be forever kept up and maintained for the cultivation and propagation of
plants, flowers, fruit and forest trees, and other productions of the vege-
table kingdom; and a museum and library connected therewith, and devoted
to the same and to the science of botany, horticulture and allied objects."

Provisions were also made for the establishment of public lectures on
botany and allied sciences; for making additions to the collections of plants,
the museum and the library; for exchanges; for increase in the means and
appliances of instruction, and for the maintenance of the revenue, up to a
certain point, of the school of botany which had been established in con-
nection with Washington University. The instruction of garden pupils is
specifically indicated as a purpose of the institution, and among the sub-
jects that are mentioned (in the will) as forming a part of the purposes of
its founder are horticulture, arboriculture, medicine and the arts, so far as
botany enters into them, and scientific investigations in botany proper,
vegetable physiology, the diseases of plants, the forms of vegetable life
and of animal li'fe injurious to vegetation, and experimental investigations

BOTANICAL GARDENS 971

in horticulture, arboriculture, etc. He also specifically stated that he con-
siders it "an important feature to always keep up the ornamental and flori-
culture character of the garden." ("The Missouri Botanical Garden,"
William Trelease, LL.D. Reprint from the Popular Science Monthly, Janu-
ary 1903.)

The efforts to carry out as many of these objectives as possible has
given rise to the executive staff organization of the Missouri Botanical
Garden, the principal members of which (1924) were as follows:

Director. One employee for each of the following:

Secretary to the director. Exotics.

Physiologist in charge of graduate laboratory. Aquatics.

Pathologist. Orchids.

Curator of herbarium. Herbaceous and nursery.

Mycologist and librarian. Inside floral display.

Geneticist. Outside floral display.

Research assistant. Plant recorder.

Editor of publications. Construction and farms.

Floriculturist. Engineer.

Landscape designer. Assistant engineer.

Director of school for gardening. Carpenter.

Painter.

The purposes of the Brooklyn Botanical Garden, as stated in the act
of Legislature (May 18, 1897), providing for an agreement between the
City of New York and the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences for the
cooperative establishment and maintenance of a botanic garden in Brooklyn,
are as follows: "... for the establishing and maintaining ... a botanic garden
and arboretum for the collection and culture of plants, flowers, shrubs and
trees, the advancement of botanical science and knowledge, and the prose-
cution of original researches therein and kindred subjects; for affording
instruction in the same, and for the prosecution and exhibition of ornamental
and decorative horticulture and gardening and for the entertainment, recre-
ation and instruction of the people."

Both in this act and in the subsequent agreement entered into between
the City of New York and the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences
special emphasis was placed upon scientific research and education, although
the importance of entertainment and recreation was recognized. In the
furtherance of the above aims and purposes there has gradually evolved an
executive organization composed largely of scientists and educational spe-
cialists together with a staff of business and service employees. The prin-
cipal members of the staff are as follows (Report of the Brooklyn Botanic
Garden, 1926):

Director. Curator of plant breeding and economic plants.

Curator of plants (2). Honorary curator of Japanese gardening and floral art.

Curator of plant pathology. Curator of elementary instruction.

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Assistant curator of elementary instruction. Assistant secretary.

Curator of public instruction. Business office assistant.

Instructors (2). Registrar and custodian.

Curatorial assistants (5). Membership secretary.

Librarian. Secretary to the director.

Assistant librarian. Stenographers (2").

Resident investigator. Foremen gardeners.

Research assistants (2). Gardeners.

Consulting landscape architect. Foreman of laborers.

Photographer. Laborers.
Secretary and accountant.

Appointments to all positions are made by the director of the garden
with the approval of the Botanic Garden Governing Committee of the
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. In relation to the executive organ-
ization the governing authority, whether of a private-public corporation or
a municipal park department, has the important direct duty of selecting
a director, defining his duties and laying down general plans and policies
respecting types of functional services. It is hardly necessary to say that
the success of any botanical garden depends almost wholly upon the scien-
tific qualifications and the administrative ability and social vision of the
person selected as director. When a director has been selected he should
be given a free hand to organize and develop the work, select his staff
(subject to the approval of his governing authority), lay down rules for their
guidance and govern their work.

Mr. Henry Shaw (Missouri Botanical Garden) included an interesting
provision in his will to the effect that there shall always be a director of
the garden, appointed and subject to removal by the board of trustees, by
whom his duties are from time to time to be prescribed, but who, "when
within the sphere of his duties thus prescribed and while he shall faithfully
perform those duties thus prescribed . . . shall not be subject to the inter-
ference, management or control of said board." ("The Missouri Botanical
Garden," William Trelease,LL.D. Reprint from the Popular Science Monthly,
January 1903.) While the construction of this provision cannot be taken
so literally as to deprive the governing authority of the actual control of
the institution, Mr. Shaw's idea is so wise from an executive viewpoint,
that it should not only be adopted as a cardinal principle by all governing
authorities of botanical gardens but also by all governing authorities of
park systems.

It has already been noted that the selection of the director in chief
of the New York Botanical Garden is not made by the board of managers
of the corporation but by the scientific directors, the presumption being
that the membership of this directorate are better qualified to select a
suitable director than those who were not so closely in touch with the scien-

BOTANICAL GARDENS 973

tific and instructional requirements of the position. The director in chief
is empowered by law to appoint his first assistant and chief gardener and
be responsible for the general scientific conduct of the institution. The law
further states that "all other business and affairs of the corporation, includ-
ing its financial management, shall be under the control of the whole board
of managers."

The regulations for the office of the director in chief as laid down by
the scientific directors and board of managers are as follows:

1. The director in chief is the executive officer of the garden, and is
responsible to the board of managers, and to the scientific directors, for the
general management and control of all departments. He shall promptly
and efficiently carry out all regulations and directions, and be responsible
for the proper maintenance and good order of the buildings and grounds.

2. He may from time to time make recommendations for the develop-
ment and management of the garden in all its departments, including the
laying out of the grounds, the construction of buildings and the conduct
of the museums, the herbarium or any of the departments of the garden,
accompanying the same by his estimate of the probable cost thereof.

3. He shall recommend the employment of such persons as shall be
needed for the various departments of the garden and have power to remove
all employees, except those upon a yearly salary. All such salaried employees
he shall have power to suspend and, on approval of the appropriate com-
mittee or board, to discharge.

4. He shall make all necessary purchases of tools, implements and
supplies for the garden as authorized, and shall be responsible for the proper
inventory, care and use of the same.

5. He shall examine, correct and certify all bills incurred under his
management and shall keep, in books provided for that purpose, an accurate
account of his expenditure of all appropriations made for garden purposes,
which books, together with proper vouchers, shall at all times be open to
inspection by members of the board.

6. He shall keep a copy of his official correspondence.

7. He shall use diligent efforts to build up the garden herbarium, the
library and the museum, and the collections of living plants and trees, by
correspondence, by exchanges of duplicates not needed, and by purchases,
so far as means therefor are placed at his disposal.

8. He shall report to the board of managers, the scientific directors,
or special committees, in such manner and at such times as they may direct.

9. He shall make no expenditures and incur no liabilities, except under
appropriations made by the board.

10. He shall devote his whole time and energies to the promotion of

974 PARKS

the garden interests, and shall not engage in any outside work except with
the approval of the board or the executive committee.

POLICING

It is quite to be expected that in a botanic garden filled, as it is, with
so many interesting and beautiful plants and flowers, unscrupulous visitors
will from time to time attempt to help themselves, may try to engage in
activities not in harmony with the best interests of the garden or will enter
the garden at times when attendants are not present. It is necessary, there-
fore, for the governing authority to make certain rules and regulations for
the government and guidance of the people in the use of the garden and to
make some provision for enforcing these rules and regulations. The follow-
ing rules and regulations for the use of the New York Botanical Garden
is an excellent example of such rules:

1. The picking of flowers, leaves, fruits, nuts or the breaking of branches
of any plants, either wild or cultivated, the uprooting of plants of any kind,
the defacing of trees and the carrying of flowers, fruits or plants into or
from the grounds of the garden, are prohibited, except by written permission
of the director in chief of the garden.

2. Leaving or depositing paper, boxes, glass or rubbish of any kind
within the grounds of the garden is forbidden.

3. Dogs are not allowed within the limits of the garden except in
leash.

4. It is forbidden to take fish from within the garden, or to molest in
any way squirrels, birds, snakes, frogs, toads, turtles or any other wild
animals.

5. Throwing stones or other missiles, playing ball, football, tennis or
other games are prohibited.

6. It is forbidden to offer for sale food, candy, newspapers, books,
tobacco, beverages, flowers or any other objects, without written permis-
sion from the director in chief and the commissioner of parks for the Borough
of the Bronx.

7. Boating or rafting on the ponds, lakes and streams is forbidden.

8. Trucking or the driving of business wagons of any kind is for-
bidden on the roads of the garden, except on those designated for such
purposes.

9. It is forbidden to accept or solicit passengers for any cab, carriage
or other conveyance, at any point within the grounds of the garden without
written permission from the director in chief of the garden and the com-
missioner of parks of the Borough of the Bronx.

10. Visitors are not allowed within the garden after eleven o'clock at

BOTANICAL GARDENS 975

night nor before six o'clock in the morning except upon driveways and
paths designated for their use between those hours. The garden is also
protected by all the city ordinances referring to the park system. (Descrip-
tive Guide to the Grounds, Buildings and Collections of the New York Botanical
Garden, June 1920, pages 211-212.)

In most cities possessing botanical gardens the regular uniformed police
and plain-clothes men aid in enforcing the rules and regulations. But this
service is likely to be inadequate, necessitating the employment of special
guards and at stated times the use of regular employees for guard pur-
poses. Doubtless the best results can be obtained by each garden having
its own guard force, supplemented by swearing in the more intelligent and
reliable gardeners and laborers as peace officers.

Every botanic garden should be surrounded by a strong, high, woven
wire or iron picket fence, and all roadways and walks should be brightly
lighted. These two features are of the highest importance from the stand-
point of policing.

NOTES ON FINANCING BOTANICAL GARDENS

1. Botanical Garden oj Harvard University. Harvard University Botan-
ical Garden is not supported directly by the university funds but through
gifts made especially for the purpose. There is an endowment of about
$5,000 a year. Beyond this, the income depends on annual gifts with slight
special gifts for special purposes. For the period 1923-1926 annual expend-
itures have averaged about $12,000.

2. Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. The financing of this
great arboretum began when the trustees of the estate of James Arnold
turned over a bequest of $100,000 to the president and fellows of Harvard
University on condition that they would establish an arboretum and devote
to that purpose a part of a farm that had previously been donated to the
university by Mr. Benjamin Bussey. The university subsequently added
other parts of the Bussey farm to the area of the arboretum, and the City
of Boston made additions to the area. The City of Boston, through the
park department, constructed and maintains the system of driveways and
walks throughout the arboretum and bears the expense of policing the area.

3. The Missouri Botanical Garden. This garden, established by Mr.
Henry Shaw and maintained by him until his death in 1889, has since that
date been financed from the income of the endowment established by him
for that purpose. The appraised value of the endowment property at the
time of Mr. Shaw's death was not far from $1,333,000. In 1903 it was
carried on the books at a value of $1,588,274.60.

4. Buffalo Botanical Garden. This garden was established through the

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use of municipal (park department) funds and has been maintained to the
present date by municipal appropriations. It is the only botanical garden
in the United States that is financed entirely by municipal appropriations.

5. New York Botanical Garden. The act of incorporation of the New
York Botanical Garden (1891) provided that when the corporation has suc-
ceeded in raising privately a sum of money sufficient, in the judgment of
the Board of Commissioners of the Department of Public Parks in the City
of New York, successfully to establish and carry on the work for which the
corporation had been formed, said sum not to be less than $250,000, the
city might set aside as a site for the garden a part of Bronx Park or a part
of any other park north of the Harlem River; construct and equip a suit-
able fireproof botanical museum and herbarium and other suitable build-
ings; and, for the purpose of such construction and equipment, to issue
bonds not to exceed in the aggregate $500,000. The city was also empowered
to provide additional land whenever necessary.

With respect to maintenance the charter of the City of New York pro-
vides (Paragraph 1613) that it shall be the duty of the (park) commissioner
for the Borough of the Bronx to maintain the New York Botanical Garden
and the buildings appurtenant thereto, and to provide the necessary instru-
ments, furniture and equipments for the several buildings; and, with the
authority of the board of aldermen, to develop and improve, and to erect
additional buildings. Out of the moneys annually appropriated for the main-
tenance of the parks the commissioner may apply such sum as shall be
fixed by the board of estimate and apportionment for the keeping, preserva-
tion and exhibition of the collections in the buildings or on the grounds of
the garden. The capital outlays, and especially the annual maintenance
appropriations by the city, are supplemented by funds secured privately
by the corporation. These funds are secured chiefly from permanent endow-
ments, funds donated for special purposes and from membership fees.

The income of the corporation for the fiscal year ending December 31,
1925, was $308,663.81. This was composed of city maintenance appropria-
tion, $207,871.49; and $100,792.32 from private sources. The expenditures
for operation and maintenance during the samefiscal period were $306,407.15,
of which $207,871.49 were from city funds and $98,535.66 from private
sources. A statement of the permanent funds of the corporation at the close
of the fiscal year December 31, 1925, showed a balance of $1,585,175.42.
During the past two years an effort has been made to raise an additional
endowment of $4,000,000. Ultimately it is desired to secure $7,000,000.

At the close of the year 1925 the number of annual members was
1,502; life members, 125; and sustaining members, 19, or a grand total of
1,646. Dues collected during this year amounted to $14,535. The various
classes of membership follow:

BOTANICAL GARDENS 977

1. Benefactors. Those who contribute $25,000 or more to the funds of
the garden by gift or bequest.

2. Patrons. A contributor of $5,000 or more by gift or bequest.

3. Fellows for life. A contributor of $1,000 or more at any one time.

4. Fellowship member. A contributor of $100 annually until the total
of the annual contributions aggregate $1,000.

5. Sustaining member. Anyone paying from $25 to $100 annually. A
sustaining member becomes a fellow for life member when the payments
aggregate $1,000.

6. Annual member. Anyone paying an annual fee of $10.

7. Life member. Any annual member who pays a fee of $250.
All classes of members are entitled to the following privileges:

1. Tickets to all lectures given under the auspices of the board of
managers.

2. Invitations to all exhibitions given under the auspices of the board
of managers.

3. A copy of all handbooks published by the garden.

4. A copy of all annual reports and bulletins.

5. A copy of the monthly Journal.

6. The Brooklyn Botanical Garden. Practically the same plan of financ-
ing the Brooklyn Botanical Garden is followed as that described for financing
the New York Botanical Garden. The provisions of the New York City
Charter noted under the section on the New York Botanical Garden apply
to the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, and through it, to the Botanic
Garden, except that the public funds are allocated through the Department
of Parks of the Borough of Brooklyn. The city owns the lands devoted to
garden purposes, builds, lights and heats the buildings and keeps them in
repair, and includes in its annual tax budget an appropriation for other
items of maintenance. The city has met approximately two-thirds of the
cost of the present buildings ($600,000). The private income of the garden
comes chiefly from endowments, donations for special purposes, and mem-
bership fees.

The total public and private fund budgets for the Brooklyn Botanical
Garden for the years 1925 and 1926 were as follows:

Public Private

Year Appropriations Budget Total

1925 $85,245.00 $63,029.48 $148,274.48

1926 87,489.00 66,178.60 153,667.60

Thus in 1926 it may be seen that the tax appropriation budget was

57 per cent and the private fund budget was 43 per cent of the total budget.

"All plants have been purchased with private funds since the garden

97* PARKS

was established. In addition to this, it has been the practice of the garden to
purchase all books for the library, all specimens for the herbarium, all
lantern slides and numerous other items, and to pay certain salaries with
private funds." (Sixteenth Annual Report of the Brooklyn Botanical Gar-
den, 1926, page vi.)

MEMBERSHIPS

The Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences is organized in three main
departments: i. The department of education. 2. The museums. 3. The
botanic garden. Any of the following seven classes of membership may be
taken out through the botanic garden: I. Annual member, $10. 2. Sustain-
ing member, $25. 3. Life member, $500. 4. Permanent member, $2 500.
5. Donor, $10,000. 6. Patron, $25,000. 7. Benefactor, $100,000. Sustain-
ing members are annual members with full privileges in departments one
to three of the institute. Membership in classes two to seven carries full
privileges in departments one to three.

Privileges of Membership.

1. Free admission to the buildings and grounds at all times.

2. Cards of admission for self and friends to all exhibitions and open-
ings preceding the admission of the general public, and to receptions.

3. Services of docent (by appointment), for self and party, when visiting
the garden.

4. Admission of member and his or her immediate family to all lec-
tures, classes, field trips and other scientific meetings under garden auspices,
at the garden or elsewhere.

5. Special lectures and classes for the children of members.

6. Copies of garden publications, as follows: (a) Record; (b) guides;
(c) leaflets; (d) contributions.

7. Privileges of the library and herbarium.

8. Expert advice on the choice and care of plants, indoors and out,
on planting the home grounds, the care of lawns and the treatment of plants
affected by insect and fungous pests.

9. Identification of botanical specimens.

10. Participation in the periodical distribution of duplicate plant mate-
rial and seeds, in accordance with special announcements sent to members
from time to time.

The total number of members of all classes (as of April 1927) is 1,220.

BOTANICAL GARDENS

979

SECTION I

THE STATE STATUTE CREATING THE NEW YORK
BOTANICAL CORPORATION

The constitution and the by-laws of the corporation are so valuable
as suggestions to other communities considering the establishment of botan-
ical gardens that they are herewith present in full.

Act of Incorporation of the New York Botanical Garden,
as amended by Chapter 103 of the Laws of 1894, Chap-
ter 717 of the Laws of 1896 and Chapter 473 of the
Laws of 1914.

Chapter 285. An act to provide for the establish-
ment of a botanic garden and museum and arboretum,
in Bronx Park, in the City of New York, and to incor-
porate the New York Botanical Garden for carrying on
the same. Approved by the Governor, April 28, 1891.
Passed, three-fifths being present.

The people of the State of New York, represented in
Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows:

Section I. Seth Low, Charles P. Daly, John S. New-
berry, Charles A. Dana, Addison Brown, Parke God-
win, Henry C. Potter, Charles Butler, Hugh J. Grant,
Edward Cooper, Cornelius Vanderbilt, Nathaniel L.
Britton, Morris K. Jesup, J. Pierpont Morgan, Andrew
Carnegie, Thomas F. Gilroy, Eugene Kelly, Jr., Richard
T. Auchmuty, D. O. Mills, Charles F. Chandler, Louis
Fitzgerald, Theodore VV. Myers, William C. Schermer-
horn, Oswald Ottendorfer, Albert Gallup, Timothy F.
Allen, Henry R. Hoyt, William G. Choate, William H.
Draper, John S. Kennedy, Jesse Seligman, William L.
Brown, David Lydig, William E. Dodge, James A.
Scrymser, Samuel Sloan, William H. Robertson,
Stephen P. Nash, Richard W. Gilder, Thomas Hogg,
Nelson Smith, Samuel W. Fairchild, Robert Maclay,
William H. S. Wood, George M. Olcott, Charles F.
Cox, James R. Pitcher, Percy R. Pyne and such persons
as are now, or may hereafter be associated with them,
and their successors, are hereby constituted and created
a body corporate by the name of the New York Botani-
cal Garden, to be located in the City of New York, for
the purpose of establishing and maintaining a botanical
garden and museum and arboretum therein, for the
collection and culture of plants, flowers, shrubs and
trees, the advancement of botanical science and knowl-
edge, and the prosecution of original researches therein
and in kindred subjects, for affording instruction in the
same, for the prosecution of original researches therein
and in kindred subjects, for affording instruction in the
same, for the prosecution and exhibition of ornamental
and decorative horticulture and gardening, and for the
entertainment, recreation and instruction of the people.

Section 2. Said corporation shall have all such cor-
porate powers, and may take and hold by gift, grant or
devise all such real and personal property as may be
necessary and proper for carrying out the purposes

aforesaid, and for the endowment of the same, or any
branch thereof, by adequate funds therefor.

Section 3. Said corporation may adopt a constitu-
tion and by-laws; make rules and regulations for the
transaction of its business, the admission, suspension
and expulsion of the associate members of said corpora-
tion, and for the number, election, terms, and duties of
its officers, subject to the provision of this act; and may
from time to time, alter or modify its constitution,
by-laws, rules, and regulations, and shall be subject to
the provisions of Title 3, of Chapter 18, of the first
part of the Revised Statutes.

Section 4. The affairs of the said corporation shall
be managed and controlled by a board of managers as
follows: the president of Columbia College, the pro-
fessors of botany, of geology and of chemistry therein,
the president of the Torrey Botanical Club, and the
president of the board of education of the City of
New York, and their successors in office, shall be ex
officio members of said corporation and of the board of
managers, and be known as the scientific directors;
they shall have the management and control of the
scientific and educational departments of said corpora-
tion and the appointment of the director in chief of
said institution, who shall appoint his first assistant
and the chief gardener, and be responsible for the gen-
eral scientific conduct of the institution. All other
business and affairs of the corporation, including its
financial management, shall be under the control of the
whole board of managers, which shall consist of the
scientific directors, as herein provided, and of the mayor
of the City of New York, the president of the board of
commissioners of the department of public parks, and
at least nine other managers to be elected by the mem-
bers of the corporation. The first election shall be by
ballot, and held on a written notice of ten days, ad-
dressed by mail to each of the above-named incorpora-
tors, stating the time and place of election, and signed
by at least five incorporators. Three of the managers
so elected shall hold office for one year, three for two
years, and three for three years. The term of office of
the managers elected after the first election, save those
elected to fill vacancies in unexpired terms, shall be
three years; and three managers and such others as
may be needed to fill vacancies in unexpired terms
shall be elected annually, pursuant to the by-laws of
the corporation. The number of elective managers may
be increased by vote of the corporation, whose terms

980

PARKS

and election shall be as above provided; and members
may from time to time be added to the scientific direc-
tors by a majority vote of the scientific directors,
approved by a majority vote of the whole board of
managers. The board of managers shall elect from
their number a president, secretary and treasurer, none
of whom or of the board of managers, save the secre-
tary and treasurer, shall receive any compensation for
his services. Nine corporators shall constitute a quorum
at any meeting of the incorporators, but a less number
may adjourn.

Section 5. Whenever the said corporation shall have
raised, or secured by subscription, a sum sufficient in
the judgment of the board of commissioners of the
department of public parks in the City of New York,
for successfully establishing and prosecuting the ob-
jects aforesaid, not less, however, than two hundred
and fifty thousand dollars within seven years from the
passage of this act, the said board of commissioners is
hereby authorized and directed to set apart and appro-
priate upon such conditions as to the said board may
seem expedient, a portion of the Bronx Park, or of such
other of the public parks in the City of New York
north of the Harlem River in charge of the said depart-
ment of parks as may be mutually agreed upon between
the said board of commissioners and the board of man-
agers of said corporation in lieu of Bronx Park, not
exceeding two hundred and fifty acres, for establishing
and maintaining therein by the said corporation a bo-
tanical garden and museum, including an herbarium
and arboretum, and for the general purposes stated in
the first section of this act. And the said board of
commissioners is thereupon hereby authorized and
directed to construct and equip within the said grounds
so allotted, according to plans approved by them, and
by said board of managers, a suitable fireproof building
for such botanical museum and herbarium, with lecture
rooms and laboratories for instruction, together with
other suitable buildings for the care and culture of
tender or other plants, indigenous or exotic, at an
aggregate cost not exceeding the bonds hereinafter
authorized to be issued by the City of New York; the
use of said buildings upon completion to be transferred
to said corporation for the purposes stated in this act.
And for the purpose of providing means therefor, it
shall be the duty of the comptroller of the City of New

PROVISIONS OF THE CHARTER OF THE

Section 1613. It shall be the duty of the commis-
sioner for the Boroughs of Manhattan and Richmond
to maintain the meteorological and astronomical observ-
atory, the Museum of Natural History, the Metropoli-
tan Museum of Art in Central Park, the aquarium in
Battery Place, and such other buildings as now are or
may thereafter be erected in such parks or in any other
park, square or public place under his jurisdiction by
authority of the board of aldermen. It shall be the

York, upon being thereto requested by said commis-
sioners, and upon being authorized thereto by the board
of estimate and apportionment, to issue and sell at not
less than their par value bonds or stock of the mayor,
aldermen and commonalty of the City of New York, in
the manner now provided by law, payable from taxa-
tion, aggregating the sum of five hundred thousand
dollars, bearing interest at a rate not exceeding three
and one-half per centum per annum, and to be re-
deemed within a period of time not longer than thirty
years from the date of their issue.

Section $-a. The board of estimate and apportion-
ment of the City of New York may, in its discretion,
set apart and appropriate, upon such conditions as it
may deem expedient, for the extension and develop-
ment of the work and objects of the said New York
Botanical Garden, the whole or any part of that por-
tion of Bronx Park in the City of New York situated
between the southern boundary of the land in Bronx
Park heretofore appropriated for the use of the said
New York Botanical Garden by the board of commis-
sioners of the department of public parks, and the
northern side of Pelham Avenue; the land so to be
appropriated to be described more particularly in the
board of estimate and apportionment hereby author-
ized.— Chapter 473, Laws of 1914.

Section 6. The grounds set apart, as above provided,
shall be used for no other purposes than authorized by
this act, and no intoxicating liquors shall be sold or
allowed thereon. For police purposes and for the main-
tenance of proper roads and walks, the said ground
shall remain subject at all times to the control of the
said board of commissioners of the department of
parks; but otherwise, after the suitable laying out of
the same and the construction of proper roads and
walks therein by the department of parks, the said
grounds and buildings shall be under the management
and control of the said corporation. The said grounds
shall be open and free to the public daily, including
Sundays, subject to such restrictions only as to hours
as the proper care, culture and preservation of the said
garden may require; and its educational and scientific
privileges shall be open to all alike, male and female,
upon such necessary regulations, terms and conditions
as shall be prescribed by the managers of those depart-
ments.

CITY OF NEW YORK FOR MAINTENANCE

duty of the commissioner for the Boroughs of Brooklyn
and Queens to maintain the Brooklyn Institute of Arts
and Sciences, and such other buildings as now are or
may hereafter be erected in any park, square or public
place under his jurisdiction by authority of the board
of aldermen. It shall be the duty of the commissioner
for the Borough of the Bronx to maintain the New
York Botanical Garden and the buildings appurtenant
thereto, and such other institutions or buildings as may

BOTANICAL GARDENS

981

be established or erected in any park, square or public
place in his jurisdiction by authority of the board of
aldermen. It shall be the duty of the several commis-
sioners to provide the necessary instruments, furniture
and equipments for the several buildings and institu-
tions within their respective jurisdictions, and, with
the authority of the board of aldermen, to develop and
improve the same, and to erect additional buildings;
but the maintenance of all such buildings and institu-
tions shall be subject to the provisions of the acts incor-
porating said institutions, or either of them, and the
acts amendatory thereof, and to the powers of said
corporations thereunder, and of the boards by such
acts created or provided for; and shall also be subject
to and in conformity with such contracts and agree-
ments as have heretofore been made with such institu-
tions respectively, and are in force and effect when this
act takes effect, or as may be hereafter made by the
authority of the board of aldermen, and no moneys
shall be expended for such purposes unless an appropri-
ation therefor has been made by the board of estimate
and apportionment and the board of aldermen. Out of
the moneys annually appropriated for the maintenance
of parks each commissioner may apply such sum as
shall be fixed by the board of estimate and apportion-
ment for the keeping, preservation and exhibition of

the collections placed or contained in buildings or insti-
tutions now situated or hereafter erected in the parks,
squares or public places under the jurisdiction of such
commissioner.

Section 625. The commissioner for the Borough of
the Bronx is hereby authorized and directed to carry
out the existing contract made by and between the
department of parks of the corporation heretofore
known as the mayor, aldermen and commonalty of the
City of New York and the board of managers of the
corporation known as the New York Botanical Garden
pursuant to the provisions of Chapter 285 of the laws
of 1891, entitled "An act to provide for the establish-
ment of a botanic garden and museum and arboretum
in Bronx Park in the City of New York and to incor-
porate the New York Botanical Garden for carrying on
the same," as amended by Chapter 103 of the laws of
1894, which contract provides for the allotting and set-
ting apart for the uses of said garden of two hundred
and fifty acres of land or less in the northern part of
Bronx Park as shown upon a certain map thereof num-
bered 568, and signed by Messrs. Vaux and Parsons,
and filed with the former department of public parks
of the corporation known as the mayor, aldermen and
commonalty of the City of New York.

CHAPTER XIX
EDUCATIONAL PUBLICITY

The American people have invested in municipal and county park and
recreation systems several billions of dollars. Every year notable increases
are made to this already stupendous investment. In operation and main-
tenance several tens of millions of dollars are expended yearly. This capital
outlay and this yearly allocation of public funds for operation and main-
tenance has been and is being made by the people in the hope of preserving
certain fundamentals of life, and especially in the hope of securing life
more abundant for themselves, their children and their children's children.
It is, therefore, a weighty and grave responsibility that is laid upon park
governing authorities and chief executives not only in acquiring, planning,
developing and maintaining these properties which represent so large an
investment of the people's money but especially in operation, to the end
that the maximum number of people secure the life-giving values for which
the investments were made.

It is a curious fact in the history of parks in this country that park
governing authorities and executives, except when conducting campaigns
for money with which to acquire properties or to develop them, have made
little use of carefully organized educational publicity in the operation of
the properties and facilities entrusted to their care. The prevailing attitude
has seemed to be after the properties have been acquired and developed,
"Well, here are the properties and the facilities, the people may come and
use them if they wish." As a matter of fact their real work has just begun.
Their supreme function is not to acquire property or to develop it, but to
see that the people use the property and facilities. Acquisition and develop-
ment of property are merely preliminary and necessary steps in the process
of service. Their fundamental service begins when the properties are ready
to use. In the discharge of this most important of all functions it is the
duty of park and recreation governing authorities and chief executives to
make the most efficient use possible of the art and science of educational
publicity just as any business enterprise would do if administering so great
an investment.

One of the reasons, no doubt, why more park and recreation depart-
ments have not a thoroughly organized division of publicity is in the diffi-
culty in showing the results of publicity, except in terms, perhaps, of
increased attendance. In business enterprises the value of any given line
of publicity can be measured more or less definitely not only by the volume

982

EDUCATIONAL PUBLICITY 983

of sales but also by the increased profits which are the primary object of
conducting the business. Those results which represent profits in the
operation of park and recreation departments, such as raising the standard
of individual and community health, prevention of juvenile and adult
delinquency, elevating standards of moral conduct, the development of
physical, mental and cultural qualities, increasing happiness, etc., cannot
be measured definitely. In time, perhaps, by the use of scientific methods
of study and evaluation of the operative processes of park and recreation
systems, it may be possible to state in more or less definite terms the actual
results of the services on human life, but at best the results will always
remain more or less intangible and unmeasurable.

However, these considerations should not deter park and recreation
authorities from taking a leaf from the primer of the business world. In
park and recreation administration, educational publicity is of great impor-
tance from four different viewpoints:

1. In establishing a system and in securing funds for acquisition and
development of properties.

2. In educating the people as to where the properties are and what
facilities and general opportunities they will find there for their recreation,
instruction and entertainment.

3. In educating the people in the use of the properties and facilities
so that they individually will receive the greatest benefit from them and
will still leave the properties and facilities in good condition for the use of
others.

4. In acquainting the people of other recreational resources of the
community and in the vicinity of the community other than those directly
under the control of the department itself.

Each of these viewpoints will be discussed in more or less detail.

1. Publicity for Establishment of System.

The organization and the use of publicity in the establishment of a
park system, and for funds for the acquisition and development of prop-
erties has been presented in considerable detail in the Chapter on "General
Planning of a Park System" so that it will be unnecessary to discuss this
phase of publicity further here.

2. Publicity regarding Facilities and Their Location.

The ignorance of the average citizen of his own home community is
one of the interesting phenomena of community life in America. No park
governing authority or chief executive should ever assume that all the
people are acquainted with even the location of all the properties under
his jurisdiction, to say nothing of the details of the development of these

984 PARKS

properties and the opportunities offered there for the people's use. Year
after year these facts should be brought to the attention of the people
through as many avenues of publicity as possible. Some of the means of
acquainting the people with these facts may be enumerated as follows:

(a) Compilation and publication of a leaflet or pamphlet, yearly, for free
distribution, giving the name, location and the facilities of each property in the
system, together with instructions as to how to reach the property, if of general
community use. Facts concerning distinguishing characteristics as to plant
life, geological formations and fine views might be included, as well as
information regarding any organized recreations which may be conducted,
and at what seasons and hours. Following the general list of properties
and facilities a part of the leaflet or pamphlet might well be given to a
compilation of similar features or facilities. Thus all baseball diamonds and
their locations might be in one table, all tennis courts in another, bathing
places in another, picnic places in another, and distinguishing groups or
displays of plant life and good places for the observation and study of
bird life in other tables. Such information would facilitate the location by
those interested in particular features. A small map of the park and recrea-
tion sites should be included in the pamphlet.

An attempt should be made to get these pamphlets into as many homes
as possible. This could be fairly effectively accomplished by systematic
distribution through the schools; by sending them out, if not too large, in
the monthly bill envelopes of the water department; by distributing them
through the playgrounds and other places where people congregate through-
out the park and recreation system; by play leaders when visiting the homes
of the people in the vicinity of their playgrounds. No doubt the local press
would print large sections of such a publication, thus giving the information
wide circulation. Such information, or parts of it, might be published
through chamber of commerce bulletins and general city guides such as are
found in the larger cities and often in the smaller ones. Municipal direc-
tories might include much of the information. Some municipalities publish
a municipal paper through the columns of which all of the information
might be issued. Only a very few park systems issue such condensed leaflets
or pamphlets of information.

(b) Talks and lectures. In nearly every community there are organized
clubs and groups, most of which have some kind of an instructional program
during the year. The chief executive and subordinate officials will in all
probability be called upon to give talks from time to time concerning the
park and recreation system before many of these organizations, or places
on the programs can usually be easily arranged by the office of the depart-
ment or by the publicity director if there is such an employee. As a form

EDUCATIONAL PUBLICITY 985

of publicity this is not especially effective from the viewpoint of the numbers
of people reached, although a much wider audience may be reached through
the press reports of the meetings. This form of publicity can be made,
however, rather widespread and effective if definitely organized and pro-
moted. It does reach a considerable number of people who are thinking
of community problems and trying to do things in the community. In
order to lessen the burden of too much speaking by executives and subor-
dinates capable of doing this sort of thing, it might be possible to organize
a corps of speakers from among leading citizens of the community, training
them in the facts and methods of presentation and sending them out on
such occasions.

The department should be supplied with stereopticon machines and
sets of slides for use in making popular instructional talks. A portable
moving picture outfit would be found invaluable.

(V) Personal visits. In connection with the opening of a playground
or a neighborhood playfield-park or a community center, one of the most
effective means of publicity is to send out, a few days before the opening,
the workers who are to be in charge of the particular playground, park or
center, to visit among the people residing in the vicinity. The workers
would give the families first-hand information of what is going to take place,
the hours each day the playground, park or center will be open, the facilities
to be found there and the activities to be conducted. This is not only
effective publicity but also the best possible preliminary work in the man-
agement of the property and in the organization and conduct of the activ-
ities there. It gives the workers a knowledge of neighborhood conditions
that will be invaluable in the organization and conduct of the program, and
if they make a good impression on the parents they will the more readily
send their children and attend themselves.

(cT) Special announcements, placards, posters. These or similar forms of
publicity are used quite extensively in many park and recreation systems
in connection with organized activities. A few examples are:

Band Concerts. Preliminary to the opening of a series of band con-
certs a special announcement containing the schedule of concerts for the
season, giving name of band, the date, place and hour of each concert, may
be printed and widely distributed through means as those mentioned under
(a}. The press would in all probability print the entire schedule. For each
concert a special program announcement may be published and distributed
among the audience. This might have on the reverse side a list of all the
concerts for the season.

Opening of a New Playground. Preliminary to the opening of a new
playground a poster or placard might be issued announcing the date of the

986

PARKS

opening, hours to be open, list of facilities there and a statement of the
activities to be conducted. These, posted at conspicuous places about the
neighborhood, are effective means of publicity for this kind of an event.
A similar form of publicity may be used in connection with the opening
of a swimming center, a gymnasium, or a new community building, boating
center, golf course, etc. The poster or placard is the standard form of
advertising tournaments, play festivals, athletic meets, swimming meets,
field days, dramatic performances and municipal camps. Where a set of
facilities are operated seasonally, a common form of publicity is the issuance
of a poster giving a list of the facilities, the location of each, the date of
opening of each and the hours they will be operated together with the
schedule of charges if charges are made. A special announcement in the
form of a leaflet giving the same sort of information is sometimes used in
this connection.

(i) Parades, demonstrations. In cities where a great deal of interest
has been aroused in some particular sport or several different sports, a
downtown parade of all the players that have entered the contest or contests
for the season creates not only a great deal of enthusiasm among the players
but also arouses a great deal of public interest. In some instances the
mayor has issued a special proclamation concerning the opening of the
season and declared a half holiday. A parade of several hundred to a thou-
sand or more baseball players, of several hundreds of tennis players and
golf players, each with the appropriate emblem of his sport, is a sight long
to be remembered and does without doubt inspire large numbers of other

PLATE No. 374. BOARD OF PARK COMMISSIONERS EXHIBIT AT HEALTH SHOW,
MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN, APRIL 1923
Illustrating one method of educational publicity

EDUCATIONAL PUBLICITY 987

eligibles to enter the activities. Each great festival day or holiday is an
opportunity for a public demonstration of great publicity value, as are the
various play days, meets, tournaments.

(/) Pictorial, handcraft and other types of exhibits. It is usually very
easy to secure the cooperation of the proprietor or manager of large business
establishments downtown in setting up in a large show window a floral
display, pictorial display or an exhibit of handcraft work or a display of
trophies, etc. Some of the firms are also very pleased to use publicity
material concerning the park and recreation system in their newspaper
advertising. Exhibits of this character at local fairs, health shows and
other public places and affairs are also effective means of publicity.

(g) The press. Of all the forms of publicity, direct or indirect, the
most far-reaching and perhaps the most effective is to be had through the
daily and weekly press of the community. Few public service departments
have more material for news items, human interest stories, and special
feature stories or a possible wider range of pictures desired by newspapers
than does a park and recreation department. It is through the medium of
the press that most of the publicity is secured by park and recreation
departments in America today. Nearly all other avenues of publicity feed
directly into this and multiply their effectiveness a hundredfold.

SUGGESTIONS FOR NEWSPAPER PUBLICITY

Study each paper carefully to determine its policy and style.

Play no favorites. If a story breaks in the morning, give it to the
afternoon paper. If it breaks late in the afternoon, give it to the morning
paper. Learn when your editor wants his news and get it to him before
that hour.

Newspapers have collected an audience for their own purpose and con-
tributed material must meet the test of serving that purpose.

In your first paragraph, give an answer to the following questions:
What? Why? When? How? Where? Who?

Avoid technical terms or the special phrases of your own organization.

Be concrete and simple.

Prepare your copy in accordance with newspaper practice. Typewrite
it or write it legibly; leave plenty of space at top of sheet for head; write
on one side of sheet only; double or triple space all typed copy; fold copy
twice, do not roll it; spell correctly; get names correctly with all initials.

Study the way newspapers rewrite your own material.

Newspapers prefer to write their own headlines.

True human interest stories are glittering gems in the drab setting of
routine news that floods newspaper offices.

988 PARKS

Many departments of the newspaper can give you publicity — news
columns, cartoons, editorials, advertising columns, woman's page, sports
page, letter columns.

Photographs for newspaper publication must have animation, sim-
plicity of composition, and the appearance of truth — that is, the picture
must actually portray what the caption describes.

Newspapers appreciate any courtesy shown to them or their reporters.

The newspaper is a business enterprise.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN PUBLICITY

Accuracy is of fundamental importance. Do not exaggerate.

Publicity should be educational. Just to be known, even widely, is
not enough.

Reiterated impact is an important principle.

Good publicity is measured by the amount that sticks in the mind.

Attempt only those things which can be done effectively.

Express appreciation of individuals and organizations who help.

Keep yourself, as director, in the background.

Appeal to civic pride. Hammer hard at home-town stuff.

Do not promise the public too much.

Appeal to curiosity.

Get personally acquainted with the editor. Make a point of thanking
him for any publicity given by his paper.

It is not commonly recognized, but the owners, managers or editors of
a very large number of newspapers throughout the country not only print
news, and feature stories, concerning public park and recreation activities,
but they also play an important role in actively promoting desirable recrea-
tional activities, while at the same time giving an enormous amount of
space to publicity concerning the particular activity or activities. Examples
in point are zoological and botanical identification contests such as those
conducted by the Park and Recreation Department of Dallas, Texas,
which is actively aided by the local press; the promotion of marble tourna-
ments in several cities; of handcraft activities through bird box construc-
tion and pushmobile contests, and of athletic leagues and tournaments.

(h) Publication of bulletin-newspaper, whether in mimeographed or
printed form. In the larger systems, and especially in those systems where
an extensive program of recreation is carried on, a weekly or monthly bulle-
tin is very effective, not only in keeping a selected list of citizens informed
as to what is going on, but in serving as the medium for acquainting each
division of the department of the activities of the others, thereby keeping
alive esprit de corps by personal mention of the achievements of different

EDUCATIONAL PUBLICITY 989

staff members in the several divisions. Such a publication might carry
news items regarding the programs of park systems in other cities.

The commissioner of parks of the Borough of the Bronx, New York City,
issues such a publication usually in magazine form and believes that the
slight cost involved for such a publicity medium is money well invested.

A similar type of publication edited from the point of view of the users
of the facilities in the parks is valuable both as publicity and as a means
of stimulating interest among the patrons. The preparation of material
and the editing and distributing of the paper has high recreational-educa-
tional value as a form of activity. The newspaper prepared by the boys
and girls who use the facilities of the Evanston, Illinois, recreation system
has aroused nation-wide interest among park and recreation officials.

(i) Publication of annual report. It is greatly to be regretted that every
park department in the United States does not issue a printed annual
report, not so much because of its value as local publicity, although impor-
tant as such if judiciously distributed, but because it makes readily available
a current history by years of the department and facilitates exchange of
information among park departments in various cities. Due to the wave
of economy during the war, and continued since that time to a greater or
less degree, many park departments which formerly issued excellent reports
no longer do so. It is strongly recommended that every park department
which can possibly squeeze money enough from its budget to print an annual
report, issue one.

(/) Signs. The securing of publicity through signs is universally prac-
ticed to a more or less extensive degree by park departments. The type of
signs thought of in this connection include direction signs showing the
way to leading areas or the facilities of the system, name signs at main
entrances to areas, direction signs within areas, along driveways and walks,
signs which give positive instructional information, such as labels on trees
or on boards at flower beds or groups of shrubbery, and names of specimens
in the zoo. There is a type of sign, however, which has a directing-restrain-
ing intent and is closely related to the policing of the area.

(k) Bulletin board. The bulletin board is a fundamental necessity in
connection with all types of active recreation areas. It is in a certain sense
an immobile news sheet and will be in constant use during the active season
for announcements, posting of rules and regulations and for standings of
organized teams and of players in tournaments and for many other purposes.

(/) Publicity by word of mouth as a result of the merit of services rendered.
While all the forms of publicity mentioned are important, in the last analysis
the best publicity is the worth of the services rendered by the department
and the resultant personal commendations that people make to one another

990 PARKS

about the services. When a parent is moved to say, "My children attended
such and such a playground and it has been a real education for them";
or when one young person says to another, "I had a glorious time at such
and such a bathing center"; or "I spent two weeks at the municipal camp.
It is a wonderful place"; or one citizen remarks, "The flower show of the
park department was an inspiration"; or "The municipal golf course is in
fine condition and the management excellent" -the department is not
only securing the most worthwhile publicity but it is at the same time
receiving the highest praise that can be bestowed upon its efforts.

j. Education in the Use of Parks.

Most forms of publicity directed at the education of the people in the
use of park and recreation facilities, to the end that the plants and struc-
tural features will not be injured beyond what is to be reasonably expected
from usage, are in reality a constructive form of police organization and
management and might well be included in the Chapter on "Park Policing."
Such publicity, however, is so intimately connected with those forms designed
to encourage the use of recreation areas that they belong better in this
chapter. The objectives of the two classes of publicity are in some respects
diametrically opposed, the former being intended to acquaint the people
with what they have and encourage them to make use of their properties,
while the latter is intended to teach them restraint in this use.

(a) Signs. The simplest form of publicity teaching restraint is by
signs — a type of publicity which was banned about fifteen or twenty years
ago largely because it was conducted in purely commandatory and prohibi-
tory terms and because it stood for an actual prohibition of the use of park
areas by the people. In this day of positive encouragement of people to
use all the different types of park and recreation areas, a judicious use of
attractive signs, more from the viewpoint of instruction rather than that
of prohibition, may very well be practiced, although such signs are a very
difficult problem if they are at all conspicuous, and they must necessarily
be thoroughly conspicuous if they are to be seen. Such signs may use only
the single word "Please" attractively painted on a small board mounted
on a low stake in a lawn or flower bed or shrubbery. It is a hardened offender
indeed who can resist obedience to this implicitly courteous appeal. Or the
sign may carry a simple appeal such as: "Please do not pick the flowers;
others may like to see them, too." Or, "This park is for your use and enjoy-
ment. Help us to keep it attractive so that others may find happiness in
its use, too." It is good psychology to word all such signs in courteous
language, even though the mailed hand is behind them.

Signs may consist of copies of rules and regulations adopted by the

EDUCATIONAL PUBLICITY 991

governing authorities for the guidance of the people in the use of facilities.
These may be excerpts from general rules and regulations or they may be
specific directions regarding the use of play equipment, tennis courts, swim-
ming places, golf courses and other facilities. Such rules and regulations
may be printed on cloth or heavy cardboard and tacked onto boards made
expressly for the purpose, or printed on a board or sheet metal. The latter
is the more desirable and satisfactory, for the former may become faded
and easily torn. In some instances a bulletin board or sign case may be
expressly constructed with a glass door, the better to protect the sign from
weather and possible destruction.

(b) Rules and regulations. Educational publicity by signs is an indirect
method of educating people. It is not likely to prove very effective unless
it is supplemented by more direct word-of-mouth educational publicity.

One of the most difficult problems that any chief executive faces is to
inculcate in the people a sense of proprietorship in public recreation areas
which will lead to their use without abuse. Most people have a very keen
sense of proprietorship in public recreation areas, and a very large number
seem to feel that they must show this proprietorship by destroying some-
thing or by leaving places they have used in as disorderly a condition as
possible.

Police or guards have been the main reliance in parks for the restraint
of the people in their destructive or disorderly tendencies, and if properly
trained they will in all probability always be increasingly important agents,
not only in the restraint of the people, but particularly in their instruction.
Instruction of the people, however, should be conceived and handled upon
a much broader basis. It should begin in the schools with children and
from that point be carried before every organized group that can possibly be
reached in a community. A plan of this kind will require in the first place
the cooperative help of the superintendent of the schools and the teachers.
The school superintendent and the chief park executive might formulate a
simple lesson in conduct for the children in relation to the care which they
should exercise toward plants and all other natural living things in parks
and toward the care of the properties therein. For the upper grades and
the high schools this could be used as a part of the instruction in community
civics. From time to time the park department might provide some one
accustomed to talking before children to speak briefly at general assemblies
or before classes. In the courses in nature study as followed in classrooms
and in excursions to the park, the teachers can even more directly and
pointedly inculcate the desired principles of conduct. If some such instruc-
tion as this were followed year after year, there would without doubt come

992 PARKS

about a very marked change for the better with respect to the attitude of
the people toward the care of their recreation areas.

The campaign, however, should be carried further than the schools.
The preservation of the beauties and works of nature and the proper use
and preservation of man-made facilities designed for the upbuilding of
health, strength and character through joy in life, should appeal to every
religious and ethical leader in the community. Churches use parks for
picnics and active recreation areas for athletic activities. It is fitting, there-
fore, for the ministers to give some definite, pointed instruction to the
children and young people of a Sunday school, to the members of the young
people's society and to his congregation regarding their conduct in relation
to the care of properties in parks provided for their use.

Organization for Educational Publicity.

In the great majority of park systems the duty of organizing and con-
ducting educational publicity is likely to fall upon the chief executive him-
self for the reason that the larger number of such systems are in communities
of relatively small population where the general organization of the depart-
ment is not highly departmentalized. At the present time, even in the larger
communities with park departments having several functional divisions and
different types of specialists, the chief executive usually assumes the role of
educational publicist for such publicity as is secured. This is chiefly because
this fundamental duty has not been given the position its importance war-
rants among the functional services of the department, and consequently no
definite organization has been perfected for carrying it on.

In all such instances the chief executive must of necessity appear per-
sonally before different groups to give talks and addresses, must prepare
copy for the press, take pictures, or have them taken, to illustrate human
interest features, prepare bulletins, pamphlets and annual reports, take
responsibility for the preparation and posting of signs and give out informa-
tion. But in carrying on all these possible lines of publicity every member
of the executive staff should give personal assistance. Thus the playground
supervisor should keep the executive informed of interesting happenings on
the playground and of special events, and may often prepare the copy for
such material; the secretary will give out information upon calls from
citizens; the director of the conservatory and the head gardener will keep
him informed regarding the time when floral displays will be at their best
and most likely to be enjoyed by the people; the director of the zoo will
tell him of any unusual happening which may be of special public interest,
and other department heads will inform him of events in their departments.
The reporter for the local press will, no doubt, be of much assistance in the
actual preparation of copy for the press if given the information.

EDUCATIONAL PUBLICITY 993

In a number of systems some particular member of the staff, especially
one who may have had newspaper experience or who has a talent for pub-
licity, is designated to handle the publicity in connection with his other
duties.

In the larger and more highly developed park system such a method
of organizing and carrying on publicity is more or less a makeshift. Publicity
is today a distinct profession just as forestry, landscape gardening and the
conduct of organized recreation are professions. It should have a definite
divisional position in the department with a director of educational pub-
licity in charge. Where there are two departments in a community — a
park department and recreation department — the employment of such a
director might conceivably be a joint project. While it is desirable that
such a director be skilled in newspaper technique, more than this should be
required, for his real function is to educate the community in the values
of recreation and the special opportunities afforded for recreation by the
department and by other agencies in the community, and in the use of
the facilities offered. In a sense he must combine the functions of an expert
investigator and interpreter of community institutions and community
recreational needs with that of the educational publicist.

Duties of the Educational Publicity Director.

1. A publicity director should keep himself intimately informed of the
details of the activities of every division of the park department. Workers
on the firing line engrossed in the details of organizing and conducting their
divisions are not always conscious of the news value of the things they are
doing nor do they often have the time to interpret what they are doing
even if they are conscious of the interest of their program to the public.

2. He should be thoroughly conversant with every agency and insti-
tution in the community making a contribution to the city's recreational
life, studying the work of these institutions to see how their programs may
be correlated with the work of the park department. He should be familiar
with certain general community conditions relative to juvenile delinquency,
health and working conditions and cultural conditions so that he will know
better where to put the emphasis in publicity regarding these conditions,
if the services of the park department may in any way be made to affect
the situation.

3. It should be his responsibility to organize and conduct any or all
the various lines of publicity mentioned and others not specifically outlined.

It is hardly necessary to suggest that the publicity director should keep
the chief executive intimately informed of all that he plans to do. Publicity
can often do as much harm to a cause as it does good if it is ill-timed or

994 PARKS

improperly presented. The chief executive is the ultimate authority as to
the character and timelessness of publicity, for upon him rests the entire
responsibility for the success of the department.

REFERENCES

"Building Good Will," Charles E. Doell. Parks and Symposium by various park executives on methods of

Recreation, Vol. X, No. I, September-October 1926, using park signs.

pages 13-18. Illustrated. Excellent article on educa- "Standardizing Municipal Park Reports," E. T.

tional publicity. Mische. Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Conven-

"Park Signs." Bulletin No. 5, January 1909, Amer- tion of the American Association of Park Superintend-

ican Association of Park Superintendents, pages 20-24. ents, August 1909, pages 36-38.

CHAPTER XX
THE TRAINING OF PARK EXECUTIVES

In the Chapter on "General Executive Organization of a Park Depart-
ment" some factors in the training of a modern park executive were briefly
discussed (pages 536-538). Obviously the character of the functional
services provided by modern park departments will determine to a marked
degree the content of the knowledge required of park executives. The
knowledge requirements will, in turn, largely determine the courses of
training that an individual intending to make a profession of park executive
work should pursue. Before attempting to present tentatively a course in
training it is important to examine what park executives and others who
have given serious thought to this subject for the past several years have
suggested.

REPORTS OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE TRAINING OF PARK EXECUTIVES,
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF PARK EXECUTIVES

The first report of this committee was made to the American Institute
of Park Executives on August 23, 1923. Omitting the introductory para-
graph the report reads as follows: "The committee has sought and obtained
the views of a considerable number of representative men of different
training engaged in park work, and now begs to submit a general outline
course it deems advisable should be established for the adequate training
of young men who propose to make the development and care of the park
systems of the North American continent their life work.

In the first place it is well to consider whence and by what routes
have come the men now controlling, as executives, the park systems of
this continent. The majority have entered into this work from its two
major branches, horticulture and engineering, having obtained their train-
ing in such either on this continent or in Europe, or partly in each, and
their individual development in the work has been concurrent with the
development of the park systems of America; in other words, they have
developed with the systems. Little cause for quarrel will be found with
the statement that many excellent executives have been developed by this
means -- the park systems themselves are proof of this — but with the
multifarious and varied duties undertaken by the governing bodies of
present-day park systems in catering to the public demands, it is deemed
desirable that a regular and recognized course of instruction should be laid

995

996 PARKS

down to thoroughly prepare men for the responsible positions of park
executives.

It will not be out of place to enumerate a few of the characteristics it
is desirable a park executive should possess, for unless a young man shows
signs of possessing a majority of these he should look elsewhere for his
future career.

In the first place he should be of sterling character; secondly, he should
be a good organizer and able to develop executive ability. He should be a
lover of nature. He should also possess a love for humanity, as this will
enable him to render cheerful service to his fellow men, and work harmoni-
ously with those he serves and those he controls. Finally, he should be
somewhat of an artist, yet of natural constructive and practical ability.

As to education, it is essential that a candidate should have graduated
from a good high school, and if a technical high school, so much the better.

As to training — the committee deems it desirable to lay down two
alternative courses, which may be followed, viz.: (A} A four-year course
in some university situated in the vicinity of one or more large city systems,
and if possible of a state or national park. (B} A three-year course as
student-employee or apprentice on a modern park system, followed by a
two-year university course, during which time he should specialize in both
horticulture and engineering. Followed in either case by two years' practical
work on a good park system.

To carry out either of these courses it is essential that the cooperation
of one or possibly two centrally situated universities be sought with a view
to the establishment of the work on a thorough and practical scale; and
what is equally necessary, the cooperation of the governing bodies of park
systems and their executives must be secured to enable students under
scheme (A} to secure practical work and experience during their vacations,
and opportunities of employment at the end of their college careers to
complete their training; and under scheme (B} to receive one or two student-
employees or apprentices on each large park system. The student or appren-
ticeship course under scheme (B) should embrace periods of work (a) in
the nursery, (b) in the forestry branch, (c) on construction work, (d) in the
drawing office, and (e) in the general office.

[, The committee is not in a position at present to recommend any definite
university curriculum under either scheme — such can be considered and
drawn up after the institute has passed verdict on the present report -
but is of the opinion that it should embrace horticulture, civil engineering,
forestry, landscape architecture, the rudiments of architectural design,
floriculture, botany, agronomy, zoology, recreation activities, economics and
business administration, together with such other general subjects as will

TRAINING OF PARK EXECUTIVES 997

tend to broaden the education and outlook of the future park executive."
Report signed by Allen S. Wootton, Park Engineer, Vancouver, B. C.,
chairman; W. L. Skoglund, Park Superintendent, St. Joseph, Mo.; L. P.
Jensen, Arboriculturist, Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, Mo.; E. A.
Piester, Associate Professor, Department of Landscape Architecture, Iowa

State College, Ames, Iowa.

<•

SECOND REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE

"The second report of the committee of the American Institute of Park
Executives on Training of Park Executives, July 15, 1924, is to be taken
as supplemental to the committee's report submitted last year at the
Kansas City Convention, the two forming the complete report of your
standing committee on this subject. After mature consideration, your com-
mittee is of the opinion that the time is not yet ripe for the institution of
a four-year university course, and that for the present the efforts of the
executives of the institute should be concentrated on the initiation of the
apprenticeship system in park work, and the establishment of the two-
year university course.

Your committee recommends the following apprenticeship and uni-
versity curricula, the latter to follow immediately after the former:

Suggested Three-Year Apprenticeship Course.

(a) In nursery (all branches of work) 12 months

(b) With forestry gang (planting, pruning, spraying, etc.) . 6 months

(d) Drawing office and field work 6 months

(e) General office 3 months

Night school subjects to be taken during apprenticeship:

(a) Mathematics (algebra and trigonometry).

(b) Drafting, map-reading and blueprint reading.

Botany in lieu of (b) if student has attended a technical high school.

University Curriculum (two-year course).

First Semester Credit Hours

English 3

Elementary botany 4

Principles and appreciation of landscape architecture (leading to its

application in park design) 3

Money and finance 2

Elementary surveying 4

998 PARKS

Second Semester

English (reports and special articles) 3

Elementary zoology .......... 2

Surveying (including setting out work and calculations for earth work) 4

Theory of design of public properties 3

Municipal government 2

Agronomy 2

Third Semester

Entomology „;'. 3

Plants and planting design 4

Parks and park details 3

Building construction and principles of architectural design .... 3

Theory of city planning ........ 3

Fourth Semester

Business methods and accounts 2

Road construction and maintenance, drainage and water supply . . 4

Building construction — methods and details 4

Materials of construction 2

Specifications, contracts and estimating 2

Sociology and recreation activities 2

Your committee further recommends that the executive of the institute
approach the governing bodies of all the larger park systems in the United
States and Canada with a view to the adoption of the apprenticeship system
in park work, and that negotiations be opened with the following universities
looking to the establishment at one, or possibly two of them of the two-
year course as set forth above, viz.: University of Minnesota, Cornell,
Michigan Agricultural College and the University of Wisconsin.

Your committee has noted with interest the report of the reporting
committee at the Kansas City Convention, but' is of the opinion that any
reasonably adaptable student, after passing through the apprenticeship and
university courses, should be fit to branch out and make a success not only
in the lines enumerated by the reporting committee, but in many other
directions, should circumstances cause him to leave park executive work."

Report signed by Allen S. Wootton, Park Engineer, Vancouver, B. C.,
chairman; E. A. Piester, Department of Landscape Design, Ann Arbor,
Mich.; L. P. Jensen, Arboriculturist, St. Louis, Mo.

TRAINING OF PARK EXECUTIVES 999

EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES Now BEING OFFERED IN
VARIOUS INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING THAT RELATE TO THE

TRAINING OF PARK EXECUTIVES

While it is true that no institution of higher learning in America is
at the present time specifically giving a course or courses for the training
of park executives, the elements of a possible four-year course of training
are to be found in many such institutions. In some few institutions the
elements of a post graduate course may also be found.

Institutions Offering Courses in Landscape Architecture.

One of the functional fields of activity most closely and fundamentally
related to park service is the field of landscape gardening or landscape
architecture. "Approximately fifty colleges, universities and technical
schools in the United States are now giving a total of several hundreds of
courses in landscape gardening. These courses have practically all grown
up in the past twenty-five years, and their propagation visibly continues."
(Frank A. Waugh, Landscape Architecture, October, 1926, page 60. Extracts
from paper prepared for the International Congress of Plant Sciences at
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, August 1926.)

The majority of these courses are more cultural than professional in
their objectives. And, in so far as they relate to the training of undergrad-
uates, Mr. Waugh suggests that landscape gardening should be a cultural
subject to one hundred college students for every one who studies it profes-
sionally, just as art is now. As a cultural subject, he further suggests, it
should emphasize the social values of the following objectives: (i) To make
snug, comfortable and beautiful homes. (2) To make clean, healthful and
beautiful cities. (3) To protect and interpret the native landscape.

To the student who elects to fit himself for park executive work the
distinction between the cultural and professional aspects of a course or
courses in landscape gardening is a very important consideration. The
probabilities are, in view of the many other fundamental fields of activity
and knowledge with which he must be more or less familiar, that he will,
in relation to the field of landscape gardening, have to pursue the subject
further than if he were studying it for cultural objectives, and not so far as
would be necessary for professional purposes. In this case, however, the
training would partake more of the nature of a cultural training than of a
professional training.

Courses of Interest to Park Executives.

At some of the institutions offering these courses special attention has
been given to the requirements of park executives. The following are
excerpts from a statement (Parks and Recreation, Vol. IX, No. 6, July-

iooo PARKS

August 1926, pages 616-618) concerning the efforts that have been made
at the Massachusetts Agricultural College: "Recognizing the need for
sound general education and thorough technical training for park execu-
tives the Massachusetts Agricultural College has endeavored to build up
a course of study which would meet those requirements. As far as possible
these requirements are met in the regular four-year curriculum of the
college, and more especially in that group of subjects known as the major
in landscape gardening. As the problem works out in college we have two
main objectives, (i) to give a good college education, (2) to lay a solid foun-
dation in the general principles of landscape architecture. In the training
of park executives we can hardly go further than to introduce the elementary
applications of these principles to the problems of park design, construction
and maintenance. A special effort is made first of all, however, to give
a good thorough general education. The park executive certainly ought to
have the standing of a college graduate. He ought to have a good general
understanding of mathematics, science, literature, economics and sociology.
There is always a tendency to crowd out these subjects, replacing them
with technical courses in landscape architecture.

In the four-year curriculum at the Massachusetts Agricultural College
the studies of the freshman course are general and required — the same for
all students. In the sophomore year students in landscape architecture
take drawing and surveying, introductory to their professional work. In
the junior year they take up engineering, architecture and elementary
design. In the fourth year they get more design along with additional work
in engineering and construction.

Throughout the entire four years considerable time is given to sub-
jects entirely outside the professional group. Some of the studies which
would be taken by practically every student following a major course in
landscape architecture are: Mathematics, surveying, chemistry, physics,
botany, entomology, geology, economics, sociology, English composition,
English literature, drawing, engineering, architecture, principles of design,
park design, estate design, city and country planning. A number of other
subjects are available at the election of the student. Special emphasis is
placed on the use of good English, and courses in English are taken prac-
tically every term of the four years. Among the technical subjects special
emphasis is laid upon engineering and construction, both of very great
importance to prospective park executives."

Prof. James Sturgis Pray, chairman of the School of Landscape Archi-
tecture of Harvard University, in writing of the opportunities offered by
the school in training park executives, says:1 "Our Harvard Graduate School

1 Excerpts from Parks and Recreation, Vol. IX, No. 5, May-June 1926, pages 513-518.

TRAINING OF PARK EXECUTIVES 1001

of Landscape Architecture always welcomes men of ability and character
who desire to equip themselves for meeting the responsibilities of a park
executive. While our school directs its two alternative curricula — the one
for the general practice of landscape architecture with some introduction to
city planning; and the other for those aiming to specialize in city planning
and who are given the principles of landscape architecture as a basis for
this specialization -- toward developing in its students the power to create
designs of land areas more than to execute them or to maintain them or to
administer them under use, there is little of the instruction offered that
does not bear fundamentally upon execution, maintenance, administration
or operation, since, in order to execute and maintain and administer intelli-
gently, an understanding of the reasoned basis of the arrangement of the
area to serve its uses is essential. In the past a common source of failure
on the part of park superintendents has been their lack of sufficient under-
standing of the designs prepared by competent landscape architects and
their consequent lack of respect for them and adherence to them and their
spirit. This lack of understanding and consequent respect has led to the
doing of many things entirely out of keeping with the main original design.
There has certainly not always, though there has sometimes, been the
excuse that the original designer so lacked understanding of the problems
of execution and economical maintenance and effective administration that
it was necessary to alter the design to make it practical. I am confident
that the better-trained and broader-minded among our present park execu-
tives will all agree with me that a park executive should have as good an
understanding as possible of landscape design, particularly as applied to
parks of different sorts and sizes, playgrounds and the various other recrea-
tion spaces which come under the administration of a superintendent of
parks. In this, our courses in theory, design, construction and planting all
give most practical instruction.

But life is short; and usually the man who looks forward to the career
of a park executive does not feel that he can take the time, however desirable
it may be, for a whole training toward the practice of landscape architec-
ture, and, if he could and did take such training he would probably go into
the general practice rather than in the work of park superintendence, though
some of our graduates do, as a matter of fact, take up park superintendence
in preference to professional practice. Therefore he must at best usually be
selective, and we are always ready to admit such men to special problems
in their own chosen field so long as their previous equipment and training is
adequate for their benefitting by these problems.

Those who have not had the equivalent elsewhere should first have
had our course in landscape topography and have acquired the power to

ioo2 PARKS

make a topographical survey, our courses in elementary drafting, lettering
and freehand sketching, something certainly of the elements of architecture
in its simpler forms and uses, for they will be concerned with at least minor
architectural features needed in parks for park purposes (all other archer
tecture should be wholly excluded from parks), the power to write correctly
and effectively in English, and, of course, the utmost possible knowledge of
the plant materials -- trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants — with which
they will be constantly concerned. This last involves fundamental instruc-
tion in many parts of horticulture as well as plant materials, and special
work in planting design. For these fundamentals we offer definite, carefully
chosen instruction, while all through our courses in design, construction
and planting, the needs and requirements, methods and relative costs of
maintenance are constantly kept in view by the instructor and brought to
the attention of the student. The problems in design and construction,
moreover, are nearly all based upon actual areas which the student visits
with the instructor, and are thus enabled to make those nice adjustments
of design to topography, which distinguish the best work not merely in
design but in execution and maintenance.

It is desirable when possible that such instruction as a future park
executive receives with us be supplemented afterwards by some study and
travel abroad, particularly in England, and by a year or more of experience
in superintendence on the ground in the service of some firm of landscape
architects in good standing. It goes without saying that some experience
also with a contracting firm and with a nursery is highly useful.

In closing, I am moved to urge that the better all-round general edu-
cation the student has before coming, the more he will get from the course,
and that the more he takes of the course, including those portions of it
which bear less directly and obviously on his future work, the better super-
intendent he will become and therefore the higher position he will be able
to attain among important park executives."

Courses Given at Harvard Bearing on Work of Park Executives.

Landscape Architecture, 2c. First half-year. Practice in Landscape Design (advanced course). Park Prob-
lems and Special Problems of Landscape Design. Solution of original problems based on topographical surveys.
Lectures, field work, drafting, criticism and collateral reading. Monday, Wednesday, Friday, 2-5, and at least
twenty-one additional hours a week.

Each of the larger problems will be preceded by special lectures with
illustrations and references, and the work on them will commonly begin
by a visit to the actual topography (in the vicinity of Cambridge) which
furnishes the basis of the problem. Under the guidance of the instructor,
the student is supposed to familiarize himself with the ground and to make
on the print of the topographic map which is furnished him such notes as

TRAINING OF PARK EXECUTIVES 1003

may be necessary. The student is then to prepare the preliminary sketch
for the solution of the problem . This is criticised by the instructor, revised
by the student, again criticised, and then put into final form, according to
the requirements of the particular problem, with such further criticism as
may be necessary. The grading plans and other construction drawings
required in the various problems are prepared under criticism in the same
way.

Landscape Architecture, jb. Practice in City Planning Design. Monday, Wednesday, Friday, 2-5, and at
least twelve additional hours.

Landscape Architecture, j.a. Second half-year. Principles of Construction (first course). Practice in Prep-
aration of Construction Drawings. Lectures, problems, criticisms and collateral reading. Monday, Wednesday,
12-1; Friday, 2-5, and seven additional hours,

Landscape Architecture, 6. (First half-year, 61; second half-year, 611.) Plants (Trees, Shrubs and Herbaceous
Plants): Their Nature and Management. Elements of Horticulture. Lectures, supplemented by reading; field
study with critical reports; work in the greenhouse. Tuesday afternoon, part of Saturday morning (second half-
year, part of Saturday afternoon), and one additional hour (seven hours a week).

The course aims to give a comprehensive view of the field of horti-
culture, with special emphasis on those parts which are of most importance
to the landscape architect. It includes (i) soils, their physical texture,
chemical composition, manures, fertilizers, soil bacteria, drainage and till-
age as these affect plant growth; (2) propagation of plants, horticultural
varieties, the influence of environment and hardiness and winter protec-
tion; (3) pruning, tree repair, tree moving, street and parkway plantings;
(4) insects and diseases, their life history, prevention and control; (5)
management of plants in greenhouse, hotbed and seed bed and nursery
processes; (6) lawn making, orchards, fruit, vegetable and cut flower garden;
(7) planting of shrubs and herbs, preparation of beds, care of plants and
hardy border; (8) special plantations, rock and alpine gardens, water and
marsh plantings.

Landscape Architecture, fa. Plant Materials. Plants in Relation to Planting Design (first course). Lectures*
reading and field work. Thursday at 9 and n, part of Saturday morning (second half-year, part of Saturday
afternoon), and three additional hours (seven hours a week).

Landscape Architecture, jb. First half-year. Plant Materials. Plants in Relation to Planting Design (second
course). Lectures, reading and field work. Thursday, 2-5, and four additional hours.

It includes (i) autumn perennials and annuals; (2) ferns, evergreen
perennials and hardy bulbs; (3) hardy border herbs; (4) wild gardening,
rock, water and marsh plants.

Landscape Architecture, p. Planting Design of Public Areas. Problems, lectures, reading, reports and field
work. First half-year: Thursday, 2-5 and at least seven additional hours. Second half-year: Thursday, by appoint-
ment and at least eight additional hours.

Landscape Architecture, loa. First half-year. Principles of City Planning, illustrated by a critical study of
examples (first course). Lectures, with collateral reading and conferences. Monday, Wednesday, 10-11. Addi-
tional hours for conferences, reading and research. Individual conferences by appointment.

Horticulture. Plant Study and Appreciation. Lectures and special readings; identifications in classroom,
and field excursions. Forenoons at Robinson Hall; afternoons in the field, or, if stormy, work in the school's
special library in Robinson Hall.

ioo4 PARKS

This course is designed to make the student acquainted with the more
common of our native trees and shrubs, as well as those introduced from
other countries for ornamental use. The work will consist of a daily lecture
at 9.00 A.M. on the character and identification of some half-dozen plants,
with sketches and notes made by the students from living material, and
a lecture at 10.00 A.M. on the manner of plant growth and the simpler
processes of horticulture. The afternoon will be devoted to a field excursion
to illustrate the morning lectures; or, if stormy, to readings in the special
library of the School of Landscape Architecture, the college library, or the
Boston Public Library, each of which has a very large collection of books
on ornamental plants and their uses.

The afternoon walks will include the Arnold Arboretum, the Harvard
Botanical Garden, the parks of Cambridge and Boston, the metropolitan
parks, and many private estates and commercial nurseries of this region.
This course will begin on July 6, 1926, and last six weeks, coinciding with
the dates of the opening and closing of the Harvard Summer School of
Arts and Sciences. The tuition fee for this special course is thirty dollars,
payable on the opening date.

(L) Play and Recreation, Lio. Community Recreation. Course for organizers of community recreation»
physical directors, playground leaders, teachers and social workers. Lectures, reading, discussion and reports.
Half course (second half-year). Friday, 7-9 P.M.

The course will begin with a consideration of the nature and signifi-
cance of play in its various educational and social aspects. The theory will
be related practically to the various uses of play in constructive education
and social progress; and the place of play in the home, school, church,
settlement and community, both in free and in commercialized forms, will
be considered. The more technical part of the course will begin with a
consideration of the organization and administration of play and recreation
systems, including from among the following topics such as prove to be of
most interest to the class : types of administration (playground association,
recreation commission, board of education, park board); types of centers;
supervision; organization of corps; training of play leaders; surveys; use of
existing facilities, school buildings and grounds, vacant lots, streets, water
fronts; commercial recreation.

Engineering Schools.

Some civil engineers have entered the field of park executive work.
This came about not because the schools of engineering consciously and
definitely attempted to train men for park executive positions but rather
because engineers employed for specific engineering services in park depart-
ments developed a capacity and a love for the general executive work. It
is doubtful whether schools of engineering will ever undertake to correlate

TRAINING OF PARK EXECUTIVES 1005

courses with the object of training park executives for the reason that
engineering, as a major form of park activity, is not a constant factor in
park service, except in very large systems. In the development of a new
system or an extensive expansion of an old system involving a great deal of
property acquisition and construction the engineer is indispensable. But
when this period is past and the work settles down to the routine of main-
tenance and operation engineering problems become of distinctly minor
importance.

In contrast with this situation, the executive, even in maintenance and
operation, is constantly faced with important problems in horticulture,
landscape design or the continued development and preservation of land-
scape designs. Moreover the engineer, as such, should always work under
the general direction of the landscape architect and according to the general
and specific plans of the landscape architect, although in the technical
execution of the engineering problems he is the supreme authority.

Practically all the larger municipalities and counties of the United
States employ one or more engineers whose services are available to park
and recreation governing authorities. In fact, in many communities, the
laws specifically provide that the engineering work be done by the city or
county engineer. The number of municipalities or counties maintaining
departments of landscape architecture is practically zero.

Educational Opportunities for Training in Play and Community Recreation.

During the past quarter of a century park and recreation departments
have been increasingly concerned with the problems of a very wide variety
of human activities — problems so varied as to include practically all the
major interests of people of all ages and both sexes which can be expressed
during their leisure time. A great many institutions of higher learning and
some special schools have taken cognizance of this general interest in play
and recreation among the people and instituted courses for the purpose of
interpreting it and for the training of leaders for its guidance in this and
that phase.

A study made by the Playground and Recreation Association of America
(1925-26) as to the number of colleges, universities and special schools offer-
ing courses in some phase of playground, general recreation and community
organization work showed one hundred and seventeen institutions giving
such courses in the United States. No doubt there are many others that
were not reported. In the majority of these institutions the courses in play
and general recreation are parts of the courses offered in the physical edu-
cation departments. However, the content of these physical education
courses is very much broader than the average layman would imagine. The

ioo6 PARKS

Chicago Normal School of Physical Education, for example, presents a two-
or three-year physical education course which includes games for all ages;
coaching of athletics; playground training; pageants and festivals; music;
folk, character, group, social, aesthetic and interpretive dancing; playground
program making; campcraft; Girl Scout and Camp Fire Girls work. The
Columbia Normal School of Physical Education (Chicago) includes in its
courses, games, sports, folk dancing, pageantry, children's plays, com-
munity drama, arts and crafts, story-telling, music, organization, and park
administration. The Normal College of the American Gymnastic Union
(Indianapolis) offers two, three and four-year physical education courses,
including campcraft, play and recreation festivals and pageantry, games,
dancing, apparatus work, nature study, handcraft, boating, swimming and
athletics. A summer session in camp at Elkhart Lake, Wisconsin, includes
courses in sports, games and dancing. Northwestern University offers
courses in physical education, playground management, pageantry, tech-
nique and methods, social centers, community organization, recreation
leadership. Practice teaching on playgrounds and in social centers is
required. Many other schools of this type might be mentioned.

The Recreation Training School of Chicago, which for a number of
years has been training recreation workers, has been amalgamated with the
College of Liberal Arts of Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, and
courses are being given in dramatics, games, playground administration
and various phases of the recreation program.

These examples are typical of what educational institutions — colleges
and normal schools and special physical education schools — are doing to
help in the training of recreation workers.

Because of the need for a post graduate school giving definite courses
of training for recreation executives who are to assume responsibility for
the organization and administration of community-wide recreation pro-
grams, the Playground and Recreation Association of America established
in 1926 a national recreation school. The course covers one year. Appli-
cants for admission must be graduates of approved colleges or universities,
or have the equivalent in training and experience, and must satisfy the
committee on admissions that they possess the capacity for leadership.

The course at the present time includes the following subjects:

Games. How to lead and teach games for all ages.

Athletics. Emphasis upon learning, organizing and conducting major sports — basket ball, baseball, football,
soccer.

Social Recreation. Planning recreation programs for churches, clubs, neighborhood groups, industrial groups,
picnics and community gatherings.

Community Music. Training in appreciation, song leading, use of introductory instruments, organization
of choruses, bands and orchestras.

Community Drama. Emphasis upon simpler forms including story-telling, charades, pantomime, pageantry;

TRAINING OF PARK EXECUTIVES 1007

also play selection and production for neighborhood groups; special attention given to inexpensive methods of
producing dramatic activities.

Handcraft. How to design and create articles from wood, paper, wax, and other materials; toy-making,
basketry and modeling.

Folk Dancing. Training in various peasant and national dances; also old American dances.

Nature Study. Nature appreciation, leading nature hikes, seasonal programs, nature resources of the
community.

Camping. Choosing sites, planning equipment, organizing program, securing leadership for out-of-doors
camps.

Special Activities. Training in use of specialized programs such as Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Camp Fire
Girls, etc.

Reading. Selecting proper reading lists for various age groups; relationship of recreation workers to libraries.

Girls' Problems. Adaptation of recreation activities to meet the special needs of girls and women.

Boys' and Girls' Clubs. Principles of organizing and conducting boys' and girls' clubs and their use in a
recreation program.

Home Recreation. Service of the recreation department to homes in training parents for home play; selection
of material and building of simple equipment.

Program Making. How to build and develop a recreation program to serve all groups in the community
with a variety of activities throughout the year; discussion on balancing the program.

Community Centers. The use of schools and community buildings as recreation centers; problems of pro-
grams and administration.

Play in Institutions. How to provide recreation programs and leadership for institutions, including
orphanages, hospitals, prisons, asylums and homes for the aged.

Play Facilities. Layout of athletic fields, construction of buildings and swimming and wading pools,
equipping playgrounds and gymnasiums and other play centers.

Park-Recreation Problems. Securing land, adapting for recreation use, administration problems.

Special Celebrations. Programs for holidays, old home week, festivals, etc.

City Government Problems. Discussion of laws and the procedure of municipal departments responsible for
recreation.

Problems of Recreation Finance. How to secure funds for recreation; public and private support; concessions,
charges and other income-producing methods.

Publicity Problems. Interpreting the program to the public through the press, pamphlets, reports, bulletins,
radio, pictures, stunts, speaking and other forms of publicity.

Field Problems. A discussion led by field workers of actual current problems being faced.

Colored Communities. Discussion of ways of serving colored groups.

Personnel Problems. Securing and training staff workers and volunteers; salaries, hours of work, contracts,
promotions, vacations, sick leave, etc.

Character Building Problems. Analysis and discussion of character values in play activities; how to relate
play to the building of character.

Problems in Cooperation. Discussion of other agencies and how to work with and through them in the
community.

Surveys. How to obtain essential facts about a community as a basis for conducting recreation activities.

School Recreation Problems. Discussion of special problems involved both when the recreation of a city is
conducted by the school board and when school property and personnel are used by agencies other than the
school board.

Organization and Administration. A complete picture of the responsibilities of a superintendent of recrea-
tion and a discussion of the executive and administrative problems arising out of the conduct of a community-
wide recreation program.

Nature of Man and Function of Play. Discussion of the theories of play; values of play in individual and
community life.

Local Special Problems. Discussion of current recreation problems that come to the Association by mail
and personal inquiry; these questions cover the whole field of play and recreation.

The school term continues for thirty-six weeks. Instruction is given
four hours daily for six days per week. In addition twelve hours of field work
are required each week. Throughout the year special reports are required,

ioo8 PARKS

examinations are given, leadership qualities tested, observation trips taken
and frequent individual interviews are had with students by faculty mem-
bers and local recreation leaders. It is the intention to add to the subjects
already included in the course elementary instruction in horticulture, land-
scape design and construction as related to the development of parks and
other recreation areas.

Importance of Training in "Human Engineering"

The foregoing statements of suggestions concerning the training of
modern park and recreation executives represent two basic lines of approach
— two major emphases. The Committee on the Training of Park Execu-
tives of the American Institute of Park Executives and the institutions of
higher learning mentioned, approach the problem of training largely from
the landscape gardening, construction engineering phases of the problem.
The National Recreation School of the Playground and Recreation Associa-
tion of America and other educational institutions training recreation
workers approach it from the human use or human engineering side of the
problem. A well-balanced course of training for park executives would
appear to lie between these two extremes, especially when the executive is
expected to head a unified park and recreation system. However, even
where there is a park department and a recreation department in the same
community it is important that the park executive know something tech-
nically of the social-recreational functions of his department and the recrea-
tion executive know something technically of the landscape design and
engineering functions of his department.

It is vital, therefore, that in the training of park superintendents more
attention be given the human engineering problems involved. For the past
twenty-five years the development of community park service has tended
more and more toward a very broad human service, demanding of the chief
executive of a department great executive ability as a business organizer
and administrator and as an organizer and leader of the people in a range
of activities and services which run almost the whole gamut of human
interests. All the other forms or phases of his executive duties are funda-
mentally related to his functions of interpreter, organizer and leader of the
people in leisure time activities whether these activities be characteristically
active or characteristically passive. Efficient business organization is solely
for the purpose of securing maximum returns for money and energy expended
in terms of service to the people. Landscape gardening is defined as "the
art of arranging land or landscape for human use, convenience and enjoy-
ment,11 or, "the art of arranging land for human use with a controlling regard
for beauty" Construction engineering is the handmaid of landscape archi-

TRAINING OF PARK EXECUTIVES 1009

tecture and is performed solely the better to fit given areas of land and
water for human use. The same may be said of architecture in so far as it
is related to the designs and development of recreation areas. The sole
purpose of maintenance is to keep designs, the elements of designs, equip-
ment, etc., up to the nth degree of efficiency for the effective human service
for which they were intended.

The modern park executive cannot become so absorbed in the creative
phases of either landscape architecture or engineering, or in the routine
of maintenance as to fail to see, vividly and clearly, through and beyond
to the people and their recreational needs.

In this day of specialization it will probably prove better if the modern
park executive leaves the creative phases of landscape architecture, engi-
neering and architecture to the professionals in these several fields, pursuing
his studies and practical training more from the standpoint of principles and
the application of these principles to the definite and specific human pur-
poses the designs are intended to serve. He will be called on to sit in judg-
ment, along with his governing authority, on the designs of the professional
artists, and the results are more likely to conform to "practical" purposes
intended than if the professional artist were left entirely to himself or the
executive attempted to be both artist and executive.

The modern park executive's position is closely comparable to the chief
executive or superintendent of a modern school system. It is the supreme
duty of the chief executive of a modern school system to organize and direct
educational processes although he has under his supervision and control,
subject to the governing authority, lands, vast structures and a myriad
collection of equipment and supplies. He must sit in judgment on the designs
and plans of the building architect and on the designs of the equipment
builders, not so much from the viewpoint of the creative technique that has
been put into the designs as from the viewpoint of the usableness of the
structures and equipment. Maintenance problems and business organiza-
tion problems are extensive and complicated but these are subordinated
wholly to the primary purpose of the system which is to serve the educational
needs of the people.

So it is with the modern park executive, except that he is to serve the
recreational needs of the people instead of the educational needs — two
great fields of public service which, in the last analysis, are not greatly dif-
ferent from each other so far as ultimate objectives are concerned, however
different they may be in method or in the major equipment used.

ioio PARKS

A SUGGESTED COURSE

All the suggestions that have been made concerning the training of
park executives apparently agree that it is desirable that the executive
have collegiate standing, and that a broad, liberal training is fundamental.
This, coupled with studies in the special fields of knowledge intimately
related to the major functional activities of a modern park system, supple-
mented by actual field work in the various major divisions of a highly
developed and well organized and administered system during every summer
vacation, ought to give a fairly all-round training.

The subjects of study in such a course will fall naturally into five
major groups, although in some instances there will be overlapping. The
five major groups are:

(A) General Course. This would comprise, chiefly, subjects of a liberal
or cultural nature, although many of them will be preparatory to more
technical courses later.

(R} Executive Administration. Business organization and manage-
ment.

(D) Landscape Gardening.

(E) Park Engineering.

A tentative list of subjects that may be studied under each group
follows :

(A) General Course.

1. English.

(a) Composition, general.

(b) English literature including American literature.

(d) Practice in writing with special reference to composition of reports,
publicity material, orders, etc.

2. Modern languages. This may be either German, or French, or
Spanish, to be studied to extent of securing a reading knowledge of one or
the other of them.

3 . Mathematics.

(a) Higher algebra.

(b) Trigonometry.

These subjects are preparatory to courses in landscape architecture and
in engineering.

TRAINING OF PARK EXECUTIVES ion

4. History.

(a) Medieval and modern.

(b) American history.

It would be very desirable if American history could be studied more
from the viewpoint of the social, industrial, cultural, educational life of the
people than as political history. It would thus present a very definite back-
ground to a better understanding of the present-day social-recreational needs
of the people.

5. Elementary botany. This would be preparatory to a more or less
intensive study of plants in Group D. It would also bear a direct relation
to nature study as an activity in community recreation or Group C.

6. Elementary geology. Preparatory to courses in Group C (nature
study) and Groups D and E.

7. Elementary zoology. Preparatory to courses in Group C, and to
Group D. Bears a direct relation to zoological gardens.

8. Chemistry. Preparatory to courses in Group D (analysis of soils,
fertilizers, etc.) and courses in Group E (analysis of certain types of supplies
and materials used in construction).

9. Economics. Preparatory to courses in business organization and
management.

10. Sociology.

11. Social psychology.

12. Political science, with special reference to civil government of villages,
towns, cities and counties.

(B) Administration, Business Organization and Management.

1. Municipal and county government, if not covered in political science.

2. Park and recreation legislation.

3. Municipal and county finances. Sources of revenue, budget-making,
financial reports, etc.

4. Accounting, including cost accounting.

5. Principles of management.

6. Personnel practice.

7. Office management.

8. Statistics.

1. Children's playgrounds. Games and other activities suitable for dif-
ferent ages and sexes, equipment and supplies, organization and conduct
of playground activities.

2. Municipal athletics. Methods of promoting, organization and con-
duct of leagues, tournaments, meets, etc.

ioi2 PARKS

3. Community music. Promotion of musical activities through organ-
ization of bands, orchestras, choruses, glee clubs, music memory contests,
"music week," music festivals, harmonica contests, band concert programs,
opera concerts, etc.

4. Community dramatics. Organization and conduct of story-telling,
plays, pageantry; construction of equipment and operation of little theatre,
community theatre, outdoor theatre; costume making, stage lighting, com-
munity wardrobe, etc.

5. Nature study. Organization and conduct of nature study clubs,
classes, hikes, excursions for the constructive use of the general plant
resources of the parks, greenhouses, conservatory; for study of specimens
of animal life in the zoo; study of geographical and geological forms in parks
and in vicinity of community; for observation and study of bird life and
any other natural resources in parks and in the community and its vicinity.
Organization and conduct of community-wide botanical contests, contests
in correct identification of animals in zoo; vegetable and flower gardening,
home beautification; nature museum.

6. Handcraft activities, including the graphic and plastic arts.

7. Boys' and girls' and adult clubs. Organization and conduct of, pro-
grams, etc.

8. Community centers. Study of designs of structures including school
buildings, settlements and community houses; equipment; programs and
administration.

9. Municipal camps. Choosing site; layout of camp; structures; equip-
ment; water supply; sewage, garbage and refuse disposal; programs, organ-
ization and administration.

10. Community cooperation. Establishing and maintaining contacts
with the homes, schools, churches, industrial and commercial establish-
ments, the press and various types of organized groups in the community.
(D) Landscape Gardening.

1 . Surveying.

(a) Plane surveying.

(b) Topographical surveying.

2. Horticulture. A general course including practically the same sub-
jects as that presented at the Harvard School of Landscape Architecture in
landscape architecture, Course No. 6 (see page 1003).

3. Drawing. Practice in plane, cross section and perspective drawing.

4. Landscape design, principles of, with special reference to the designs
of various types of recreation areas.

5. Practice in landscape design, with special reference to designing of
different types of recreation areas.

TRAINING OF PARK EXECUTIVES 1013

6. Plants and planting design.

7. Entomology, with special reference to those insects affecting the life
of plants used in parks and other recreation areas.

8. Architecture. Study of history, orders, types of architecture suitable
for different purposes in design of parks and recreation areas.

9. Principles of city planning.
10. General forestry.

(E) Park Engineering.

1. Surveying. Plane and topographic. If studied under Group D not
necessary to repeat here unless it is desirable to take an advanced course.

2. Principle of construction. Practice in construction drawings, inter-
pretation of topographic maps, preparation of grading plans and calculation
of quantities of materials, making estimates, specifications and drawing of
contracts, etc.

3. Construction and maintenance of roads, walks and bridges. Surveys,
grading plans, estimates, specifications, etc.

4. Sanitary engineering, with special reference to those problems in
parks having to do with water supply and drainage; sewage, garbage and
refuse disposal; pest control.

5. Electrical engineering, with special reference to general lighting of
park and recreation areas; lighting of roadways, boulevards, walks, build-
ings; lighting of active recreation areas for night use; use of electricity for
power purposes; specifications, estimates, contracts, etc.

6. Architecture. Study of plan drafting, specifications, estimates, con-
tracts, materials, etc.

Extra Curricular Activities.

It is highly desirable that the student take an active interest in as
many different student activities as possible during his years at the college
or university, for these can contribute much that will be valuable in the
field of organized recreation, in general culture and in the art of meeting
and mingling with people.

Some of the possible extra curricular activities that may be found valu-
able are:

i. Athletics. During the four or five years at the college or university
it will be possible for the student to learn the rules and how to play fairly
well basket ball, tennis, indoor baseball, playground baseball, baseball,
football, soccer, golf, etc., and how to swim. Special attention should be
given to study of the methods used by the physical educational leaders of
the institution in organizing and conducting intra-mural athletics or mass
athletics, for this type of athletic organization is somewhat comparable to

ioi4 PARKS

municipal athletics as organized and conducted by park and recreation
departments. A study of the organization and conduct of athletics for
women through conferences with the women physical education leaders and
through observation of athletic games and sports conducted would give
most valuable insight into an increasingly important phase of community
recreation service. It would be very valuable for the student to learn as
much as possible concerning the organization and conduct of field meets
and tournaments.

In most universities and colleges from one to two years of physical
education is required of all students, and at the "land grant" colleges mili-
tary training is required. No provision has been made for these possible
requirements in the foregoing tentative outline of subjects in a collegiate
course.

2. Social activities. The future executive will have to deal with com-
munity social activities, and these, especially in the field of social dancing,
present some very difficult problems. While the university social problems
are somewhat different from the social activities problems of a community,
there is enough of similarity to make close observation and active partici-
pation in the university social activities very valuable. Aside from their
bearing upon future executive problems, their value as a personal cultural
training should not be overlooked.

3. Dramatics. Membership in a dramatic club and active participation
in the preparation and presentation of one or more plays, if the student has
any histrionic ability, will be a valuable preliminary training for an appre-
ciation of community dramatics, a form of communal activity that is con-
stantly becoming of increasing importance in park and recreation systems.

4. Use of the English language. Participation in dramatics is one of
the best possible forms of activity for cultivation of good enunciation and
style of speech. Participation in the public debates and writing of news
items for 'the college paper are other possible means of practice in the use
of English.

5. Music. Practically every executive will or ought to have a great
deal to do with music in his program of recreation. A close observation of
the organization and conduct of university musical organizations and affairs,
and perhaps participation in at least one organization would be a desirable
preliminary practical training in appreciation of music as a communal form
of recreation.

If the college or university happens to be located in or in the vicinity
of a city where there is a well-developed park and recreation system, time
spent in observation and study of methods of administration, types of
activities conducted, designs of different kinds of areas, equipment used,

TRAINING OF PARK EXECUTIVES 1015

structures, propagation and care of plants, construction activities and others,
would be time well spent.

With a very heavy schedule of subjects to carry in the college or uni-
versity it will, of course, be an exceptional student indeed who can find
the time or will have the ability to participate largely in extra curricular
activities, although even an average student can accomplish a great deal in
this respect by proper organization and use of his time. For one whose
role in a community is to be that of an executive and an organizer and
leader of the people the activities of the university community are in some
respects more important as a training than some of the subjects studied in
the regular curriculum.

Field Work During Summer Vacation.

No amount of university or college training can possibly give the sort
of training that experience in actual field work can give. The most that
academic study can do is to teach principles, facts, methods of getting at
facts and their orderly handling, orderly processes of thought, and give a
general vision of one or more fields of human knowledge. The real training
of a park executive begins when he is face to face with the actual problems
of his profession.

An ideal system of training would more nearly be approximated if
field service and academic and laboratory study could go hand in hand as
is practiced in some engineering schools and teacher training colleges,
whereby the student spends part time in college or university and part time
in shop or classroom. The University of Cincinnati is now offering a five-
year course in landscape architecture organized upon this plan.

In place of this desirable situation or plan it is recommended that
candidates for the profession of park executive spend each summer vaca-
tion in active service in one major field of park and recreation service. In
order to secure as much as possible of this sort of training it might be desir-
able to base the granting of a degree upon such performance for at least
four summers, which would give approximately a solid year of field work.
It is suggested that one vacation period be spent in the landscape divi-
sion, one in the construction and maintenance division, one in the organized
recreation division and one in the general office.

This plan would necessitate cooperative arrangements with several
leading park and recreation systems throughout the country.

Postgraduate Work.

Meagre as the technical subjects are, as presented in the foregoing
outline of a general collegiate course of training for park and recreation
executives, it is doubtful whether all these subjects, together with the general

ioi6 PARKS

liberal arts subjects, can be crammed into four years at any college or uni-
versity. In order to place the profession of park executive upon the plane
which its importance warrants a postgraduate course of study and training
of from one to three years is considered essential. The plan of summer vaca-
tion field work is, in a sense, a sort of postgraduate course, but this by no
stretch of the imagination can possibly take the place of a genuine post-
graduate course.

This postgraduate course should mainly comprise subjects falling
within the technical fields of service of park departments, such as courses
in executive organization and administration, landscape architecture, engi-
neering and community recreation. As to which of these fields should be
emphasized the most in postgraduate study would no doubt largely be
determined by the preferences of the individual students. It would be wise,
however, to keep them as nearly evenly balanced as possible, for even through
postgraduate work it is not the aim to turn out professional workers in
any one of the fields with the possible exception of executive organization
and management. In the larger systems the executive can always have at
his command professional landscape architects, engineers and organized
recreation workers and trained office secretaries, but the specific and general
problems of executive organization and administration he will of necessity
have to handle himself. The objectives of study in landscape architecture,
engineering and community recreation are to give him an appreciation, and
as much technical knowledge as possible, of the principles and operative
processes involved in order that his role as general executive be to that
extent strengthened. Even in the smaller systems it is desirable that the
professional services of the landscape architect and the engineer be used as
the need arises for them.

PERSONAL QUALITIES OF AN EXECUTIVE

The fundamental qualities and powers which make a successful and
efficient executive are inherent — not made by external influences of any
kind. While these qualities and powers may be developed and sharpened
by study and practice, no amount of study or practice can put them into
an executive who does not possess them in the beginning.

What are some of the essential personal characteristics of an efficient
executive? The Committee on the Training of Park Executives of the
American Institute of Park Executives mentioned some of these in their
first report to the institute (see pages 995-998). In a book entitled "Exec-
utive Control," issued by A. W. Shaw Company, the requirements of a
successful executive are given as follows: (i) Good health, (2) character,
(3) disposition, (4) originality, (5) determination, (6) good observation,

TRAINING OF PARK EXECUTIVES 1017

(7) retentiveness of mind, (8) initiative, (9) training and (10) experience.
Of this list initiative, determination and experience were found to be pre-
dominant among successful executives. To these ten requirements might be
added energy, contagious enthusiasm, cheerful personality, constructive
imagination, cooperative spirit, ability to grow with the work (openminded-
ness), faculty of putting himself in another's place, ability of forming
correct judgments of people and events and a genuine love of the work
and of the institution which the executive represents.

The majority of these requirements are mental and spiritual qualities
and powers which no amount of collegiate study or apprenticeship training,
no matter how extended, can put into a man if he does not already possess
them. Not the least of the duties and responsibilities of instructors in col-
leges and of executives taking apprentices for training is to study closely
each candidate for executive work for evidences of these mental and spiritual
qualities, and if they are not found in such numbers and combinations as to
augur success, to advise the candidate to enter some other line of work.

CHAPTER XXI

GENERAL REFERENCES TO LITERATURE ON PARKS

The literature on parks is widely scattered through many different
kinds of publications. It is to be found chiefly in periodicals, park planning
reports, reports of park departments, United States Census Bureau reports,
city planning reports, in pamphlets dealing with specific phases of park
problems and in books dealing with city planning, landscape gardening or
architecture, horticulture, forestry, organized recreation, etc. It is inter-
esting to note that during the entire history of park planning, development
and operation in the United States only two general works upon the subject
have appeared and one of these is devoted chiefly to park engineering.

In this manual, bibliographies have for the most part been placed
within or at the end of chapters in as close proximity as possible to the
text subjects to which they refer. The general references forming the sub-
ject matter of this chapter are intended to give a brief resume of the general
literature on parks.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES

KIMBALL, THEODORA. "Manual of Information on IV. Play Facilities 98

City Planning and Zoning." Harvard University V. Organization and Administration .... 163

Press, Cambridge, 1923, 1 88 pages. This entire manual VI. The Growth of the Community Recreation

is invaluable to the city planner and the park planner. Movement 84

The bibliographies referring specifically to parks and Grand total of references in bibliographies 753
recreation are to be found on pages 148-156 inclusive.

Bibliography on Parkways, Boulevards and Pleasure SOME BOOKS TO SERVE AS A LIBRARY OF A DEPART-

Roads, page 124. These, with other references scat- MENT OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE, Landscape

tered through other sections of the manual, make the Architecture, January, 1927, pages 156-160. This

most complete bibliography on parks and allied sub- bibliography, prepared by Miss Katherine McNamara,

jects extant. Chairman, Committee on Libraries and Collections,

PLAYGROUND AND RECREATION ASSOCIATION OF National Conference on Instruction in Landscape

AMERICA. "The Normal Course in Play," A. S. Barnes Architecture, is intended to function as the title indi-

& Company, New York, 1925. At the close of each of cates. However, park executives who are especially

the following chapters there is an extensive bibliog- interested in the technical details of the landscape

raphy covering the field of organized play and recrea- phases of their work will find in this bibliography

tion quite thoroughly: something touching upon every phase of landscape art.

No. RECREATION DEPARTMENT, RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDA-

References TION, 130 East Twenty-Second Street, New York

I. The Community Recreation Program . . 301 City. "Sources of Information on Play and Recrea-

II. The Nature and Function of Play .... 87 tion." This is an extensive bibliography of literature

III. Leadership 20 on all phases of the leisure time movement.

BOOKS

BURNAP, GEORGE. "Parks- — Their Design, Equip- city planning, principles of park design, character and
ment and Use." J. B. Lippincott Company, Phila- methods of treatment of "passing-through" parks,
delphia, 1916, 328 pages, 160 illustrations, 4 diagrams. neighborhood parks, recreation parks; playgrounds in
Some of the subjects discussed include park designs in parks, effigies and monuments, architecture and seats

1018

GENERAL REFERENCES TO LITERATURE ON PARKS

1019

in parks, disposition of flowers in parks, planting de-
sign in parks, park utilities, decorative use of water,
park administration in relation to planting design, etc.
Practically the only general work on parks.

CHILD, STEPHEN. "Landscape Architecture." A
Series of Letters. Stanford University Press, Stanford
University, California, 1927, 279 pages, illustrations,
maps, plans.

ELIOT, CHARLES WILLIAM. "Charles Eliot, Land-
scape Architect." Harvard University Press, Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1924, 770 pages, illustrations, plans.
The personal and professional history of a brilliant
young landscape architect and park planner belonging
to the early group of such planners. This is a book
worthy to be in the library of every park executive.

HUBBARD, H. V., and THEODORA KIMBALL. "An
Introduction to the Study of Landscape Design."
Macmillan Company, New York, 1924, 406 pages,
illustrations, 40 drawings, 36 full-page pictures. Part
IV, "Landscape Parks and Reservations, " deals with
classification of outdoor recreation areas and design of
large landscape parks and reservations. Entire work
is of very great value to all park executives especially
interested in landscape design.

LEWIS, NELSON P. "The Planning of the Modern
City." John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1923, 457
pages, illustrations, maps, diagrams. See "Parks and
Recreation Facilities," Chapter VII, pages 130-148.

LYLE, WILLIAM T. "Parks and Park Engineering."
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1926, 130 pages,
illustrations, drawings, map. Deals briefly with the
desirability and acquisition of parks.lands and surveys,
design, landscaping and engineering, labor and con-
tracts, construction.

MAWSON, T. H. "Civic Art: Studies in Town Plan-
ning, Parks, Boulevards and Open Spaces. " B. T.
Batsford, London, 1911, 375 pages, illustrations, plans.
"Park Systems," pages 79-94; "The Adornment and
Equipment of Public Parks," pages 185-206.

NOLEN, JOHN. "New Towns for Old." Marshall
Jones Company, Boston, Mass., 1927; illustrations,
maps. This little book is a record of achievements in
civic improvement in some American small towns and
neighborhoods. While it deals with the general subject
of planning small communities, it contains much of
value to those who are concerned primarily with park
and recreation planning for small communities. Not
the least of its merits are the two excellent bibliog-
raphies comprised in Appendix A and Appendix B.

OLMSTED, F. L., JR., and THEODORA KIMBALL.
"Forty Years of Landscape Architecture." D. P. Put-
nam's Sons, New York, 1922, 131 pages, illustrations.
This is Volume I of the professional papers of F. L.
Olmsted, Sr. Other volumes are to be issued. No one
of the great park planners and builders in America is
more worthy of careful study by park officials than
Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr.

ROBINSON, CHARLES MULFORD. "Modern Civic
Art." G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1918. See
sections dealing with open spaces; parkways; distribu-
tion and location of parks, pages 287-354; illustrations.

ROBINSON, CHARLES MULFORD. "City Planning."
G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1916, 344 pages,
illustrations, diagrams, plans. This work is written with
special reference to the planning of streets and lots.
See, however, Chapter XIII, "Public Reservations Other
than the Streets," page 182.

PERIODICALS

Garden and Forest. This was a journal of horticulture,
landscape art and forestry, conducted by C. S.
Sargent, New York, from February 29, 1888 to Decem-
ber 29, 1897. Ten volumes, illustrations, plans. During
these years many references to the development of the
park movement throughout the United States appeared
in its columns.

Landscape Architecture. A quarterly magazine which
began to appear October, 1910, and has continued regu-
lar publication to date. It is the official organ of the
American Association of Landscape Architects. It is
published by The Landscape Architecture>Publishing
Co., 9 Park Street, Boston, Mass. This magazine is
of very great value to park planners, builders and
executives.

Parks and Recreation. A bi-monthly magazine pub-
lished by the American Institute of Park Executives
and the American Park Society. Began publication
October, 1917, and has been regularly issued to date
(1927). Publication headquarters, Rockford, Illinois.
It is also the official organ of the National Conference

on State Parks. The subject matter of each issue is
presented by departments, viz.: Engineering Design and
Construction; Horticulture; Zoological Exhibits; Land-
scape Design and Art; Recreation; National, State and
Provincial Parks; Conservation of Wild Life; and Gen-
eral. Each issue is profusely illustrated. Because of
the valuable material constantly appearing in this mag-
azine upon every phase of park planning, design, con-
struction, operation and maintenance, and because of
the artistic make-up and excellent editorial work this
magazine should be in the hands of every park govern-
ing authority, executive, and every lay citizen interested
in parks.

Park International. "An illustrated bi-monthly
magazine offering, from widely chosen sources, guidance
in the development and enjoyment of park areas, both
public and private." Publication began July, 1920,
and continued for about two years. During its brief
career a great deal of valuable material on parks ap-
peared. Students may find copies for reference in
various public and private-public libraries.

1020

PARKS

Park and Cemetery and Landscape Gardening. Pub-
lished monthly by the Allied Arts Publishing Company,
114 South Carroll Street, Madison, Wisconsin. Began
publication, 1891. In the pages of this magazine may
be found many references to the park movement in
America. It was for a time the official organ of the
American Association of Park Superintendents.

The American City. Published monthly by the Civic
Press, 443 Fourth Avenue, New York City. A magazine

devoted to all phases of city life and affairs. Began
publication 1910, and is now in its thirty-sixth volume.
A great deal of valuable information about parks may
be found in its columns. Illustrations, plans.

The Playground. A monthly magazine devoted to
the promotion of play and recreation. Published by
the Playground and Recreation Association of America,
315 Fourth Avenue, New York City, since April, 1907
to present date (1927). Illustrated.

REPORTS

Reference is here made to the following classes of informational
materials:

1. Reports of the proceedings of the annual meetings of various
national and local associations and other reports of such associations.

2. Park department reports.

3. Reports of city park plans by various park planners.

4. City plan reports containing reports on park plans.

5. United States Bureau of Census reports on municipal parks, and
the reports of the Bureau on financial statistics of cities.

All these various types of reports taken together constitute by far the
largest volume of material on parks that is to be had. So far as known
there is not a complete collection of this material in any one place in the
United States. The most extensive collections may be found in the reference
libraries of the larger cities, notably the municipal reference libraries of
New York, Chicago and Boston.

American Association of Park Superintendents. This
organization was the predecessor of the present Ameri-
can Institute of Park Executives. The proceedings of
the annual meetings were published in pamphlet form
from 1899 until about 1917. From 1906 the Association
also published bulletins from time to time. These
ceased when the Association was reorganized and a
regular periodical as an official organ established: The
annual proceedings and the bulletins form a valuable
and interesting library on various phases of park con-
struction, administration and maintenance. They are
now out of print and can be found only in the files of
the American Institute of Park Executives, some park
departments and reference collections in some public
libraries. Reports of annual conventions and special
articles have appeared since 1917 in Parks and Recrea-
tion, the official organ of the American Institute of
Park Executives.

American Civic Association. Many valuable refer-
ences to parks and recreation may be found in the
reports of the proceedings of the annual meetings of
this Association and in special reports issued from time
to time.

American Park and Outdoor Art Association. Addresses

and proceedings, 1897-1904. So long as this Associa-
tion remained in existence the reports of its annual
meetings were issued in pamphlet form. These reports
contained addresses and papers on parks by leaders in
this field of civic planning and development. They are
chiefly to be found in reference collections of public
libraries.

National Conference on City Planning. The reports
of this Conference, which held its first session in 1909,
contain a great deal of valuable information relative to
park and boulevard planning as an essential and fun-
damental part of general city planning.

National Conference on Outdoor Recreation. The first
session of this Conference, called at the instance of
President Coolidge, was held in Washington in 1924.
The second session was held in Washington in 1925.
The reports of these two sessions, issued as United
States Public Documents, cover the entire field of out-
door recreation, municipal, state and national, in a
general but very illuminating manner.

Park Plan Reports. The making of such reports be-
gan close to the middle of the last century. In the
second and third decades of the last half of the last
century a considerable number of cities had park plans

GENERAL REFERENCES TO LITERATURE ON PARKS

IO2I

made by the planners of that day. Among such cities
were Buffalo, Boston, Minneapolis, parts of Chicago,
San Francisco, etc., etc. During the fourth and fifth
decades many more such reports were made, and during
the past quarter of a century they have become very
numerous and have often been combined with general
city plan reports. See Chapter II, pages 68, 69 for
references to some plan reports. A more complete list
can be had upon application to the Playground and
Recreation Association of America, 315 Fourth Avenue,
New York City, or to the Recreation Department of
the Russell Sage Foundation, 120 East Twenty-Second
Street, New York City. In the Manual of Information
on City Planning and Zoning, may be found very ex-
tensive references to both park plan reports and city
plan reports.

Park Department Reports. Next to the minutes of
the proceedings of park governing authorities the
annual reports of park departments comprise the most
voluminous literature on parks and park development
in the United States that can be had. Unfortunately
this source of information does not present a continuous
record, as only a few departments have published annual
reports continuously since their establishment. In the
smaller cities these reports are almost invariably in-
cluded in general municipal reports, and during the past
ten years this has become a common custom even
among many of the larger cities. A few cities that are
now issuing very excellent annual reports are: Boston,
New Haven, Waterbury, South Park and West Park
Districts, Chicago, Minneapolis, Seattle, San Francisco,
Kansas City, Missouri, Atlanta, St. Louis.

Some county park departments issuing annual re-
ports include: Essex County, N.J.; Westchester County,
N. Y.; Wayne County, Michigan; Cook County, 111.;
Union County, N. J.

Metropolitan park departments issuing annual re-
ports include Boston Metropolitan Park Department,
Cleveland and Tacoma.

So far as known, no individual, association or public
library has a complete collection of park department
reports. There is quite an extensive collection in the
office of the American Institute of Park Executives,
Rockford, 111.; in the office of the Playground and Rec-
reation Association of America, 315 Fourth Avenue,
New York City, and in some of the large municipal
reference libraries such as those in Boston, New York
and Chicago.

Minutes of the Proceedings of Park Governing Author-
ities. The real history of the park movement in the
United States is to be found in the records of the pro-
ceedings of park governing authorities. These are sel-
dom published in full and the student of park affairs
desiring to use such source material would be under
the necessity of going to each city to consult them.
The Commissioners of the Cook County Forest Pre-
serves publish these records in full.

Playground and Recreation Association of America.
The reports of the annual meetings of this Association
since its first meeting at Chicago in 1906 to date com-
prise a veritable mine of information on all manner of
questions relating to planning for playgrounds and
recreation, administration, organization and conduct
of activities, financing, laws, etc. Since 1910 these
reports have appeared through the columns of The
Playground.

The Playground Year Book, published annually by
the Association as one of the numbersof The Playground,
constitutes a valuable series of statistical summaries
concerning playgrounds and recreation from the year
1911 to date.

The Association's collection of facts relative to the
parks and other outdoor recreation areas of approxi-
mately 2,700 villages and cities and some 45 counties
as of 1925-26 is perhaps the most comprehensive in
existence.

Portland, Oregon Public Library. In 1926 the Refer-
ence Librarian of the Portland Public Library prepared
and issued a statistical report on the parks of 66 cities
in the United States. This was later reprinted by the
Municipal Reference Library of New York City,
April, 1926.

The Civic Press, New York. This organization is the
publisher of The American City and the Municipal
Index. The latter from time to time contains valuable
reports on parks and playgrounds. The Index for the
year 1927 presents quite a comprehensive statistical
report on the parks and recreation facilities of 857
cities in the United States, section 17, pages 635-649.
This same issue also contains valuable statistics on
"Swimming Pools and other Bathing Places" in all
cities in the United States, 5,000 population and over,
section n, pages 476-490.

United States Census Bureau Reports. The Census
Bureau beginning in 1880 has issued a number of re-
ports on parks in American cities. The complete list
is as follows:

1880. Social Statistics of Cities, embodying reports
on parks in all incorporated municipalities of 8,000 in-
habitants and above. This is now out of print.

1900. Vital Statistics of Cities of 100,000 and Up-
wards, Eleventh Census of the United States, Vol. 21,
Vital and Social Statistics, Part 2, pages 3-4. Shows
total area of parks in each city, area to every 1,000
inhabitants and per cent of city area in parks.

1903. Statistics of Cities Having a Population of
over 25,000, Table II, pages 109-113. Area of public
parks.

1905. Statistics of Cities Having a Population of
over 30,000, Table 45, pages 356-358. Parks, Play-
grounds and Bathing Beaches. Table 46, Zoological
Parks and Collections.

1907. Statistics of Cities Having a Population of
over 30,000. Table 68, Public Parks and other Public

IO22

PARKS

Grounds; Table 69, Playgrounds; Table 70, Baths,
Bathing Beaches and Zoological Parks and Collections.

1916. General Statistics of Cities, including statis-
tics of parks, playgrounds, museums and art galleries,
zoological collections, music and entertainments, swim-
ming pools and bathing beaches, and other features of
the recreation service. Covered all municipalities of
30,000 and over. Copies can be had from the Govern-
ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

Financial Statistics of Cities. These reports of the
Bureau of the Census show the expenditure for recrea-
tion in all cities of the United States of 30,000 popula-
tion and above. The statistics are segregated under
the heads of educational recreation; general recreation;
parks and trees; quasi-productive park enterprises. The
reports are issued annually.

Reports of State Finance Departments. A number of
the state governments through their finance depart-
ments issue annually comprehensive financial statistics
of municipalities and counties. These reports usually
show the income and expenditure for recreation in each
municipality and county. They do not always segre-
gate the income and expenditure as between or among
public agencies conducting recreation activities, in
instances where in the same city two or more agencies
are conducting such activities. See Annual Report of
Financial Transactions of Municipalities and Counties
of California for the Year 1926, compiled by the State
Controller and published by the California State Print-
ing Office, for an excellent example of a report that
does show complete segregation of income and expendi-
ture for recreation.

INDEX

Accounting, purpose of 583; the budget 583;
cash audits 593; special fund accounting
593; plan of park accounting and books of
account 597; methods of accounting 600;
forms 602; complete code of accounts 603;
uniform accounting system 606; balance
sheet 614.

Acquisition and improvement of property,
legal power given park governing authori-
ties 403 ; examples of extraordinary meth-
ods of handling extra-territorial park prob-
lems 464; methods of financing acquisition
and permanent improvement of property
471; excess condemnation in 487.

Albany, N. Y. 476.

Allegany State Park Commission, N. Y. 40,

465-
American Institute of Park Executives 8, 67,

537; first report of Committee on Training
of Park Executives 995; second report 997,
1008.

Anaheim, Cal. n.

Animals, exhibits of 911; bears 912; cages
for 912; monkeys 916; other animals 913.

Annual appropriations for operation and
maintenance 491.

Apparatus, for little children's playground
115; for boys 10-14 121 ; for girls 10-14
121 ; miscellaneous 127; space require-
ments 129; apparatus in large parks 193;
securing apparatus 417.

Aquariums, in large parks 203; establish-
ment of 927; fishes available 928; equip-
ment of 929, 931; administration of 930;
lighting of 930; water supply for 929, 932;
table of information regarding 936; educa-
tional-recreational values of 937.

Arboretums, as part of park systems 15, 43;
in large parks 201 ; Arnold Arboretum 941,

951,955,975-
Archery 307.

Arnold Arboretum 941, 951, 955, 966,

975-
Asheville, N. C. 501.

Athletic fields, as active recreation areas 14,
32; in neighborhood playfields, for girls
and women, 134; for boys and men, 135;
general design of 150; in large parks 197;
construction of 335; areas for field events

341-
Athletics, municipal 715; sample programs

715; athletic fields. (See Athletic fields.)
Atlanta, Ga. 183, 184, 904.

Baltimore, Md. 24, 28, 79, 99, 101, 155, 387,
475, 491, 494, 497, 501, 818, 904.

Band concerts 725.

Barns 655, 658.

Bartram Botanical Garden, Philadelphia
940.

Baseball, in large parks 196; layout of dia-
mond 316; fees for use of grounds 500;
commercial baseball parks 501.

Basket ball, layout of court 318.

Bathing beaches, as active recreation areas
14, 32; in Minneapolis 375.

Bears, cages for 912.

Beaumont, Texas 88.

Bedbugs 887.

Bergen County, N. J. 465.

Berkeley, Cal. 33, 40, 944.

Bibliography. "Why of Parks" 13; "Ele-
ments in the Design of Park and Recrea-
tion Areas" 234; "Construction Notes"
417; "General Administrative Control of
Parks" 470; "Park Financing" 506; "Ex-
ecutive Organization of a Park Depart-
ment" 551; "Park Engineering Division"
645; "Recreation Division" 746; "Park
Policing" 791; "Park Lighting" 825;
"Zoological Parks and Aquariums" 938;
"Educational Publicity" 994; "General
References to Literature on Parks"
Bibliographies 1018; Books 1018; Period-
icals 1019; Reports 1020.

Biloxi, Miss. 80.

Birmingham, Ala. 93, 435, 453, 470, 472,
495, 509, 540, 904, 926.

1023

1024

INDEX

Block playgrounds 15.

Bluefield, W. Va. 490.

Boats and canoes, fees for use of 499, 504;
rules of use of 720.

Bond issues, purposes of and principles in-
volved 473; examples of bond issues 475.

Border roads for parkways and parks 214.

Boston, Mass. 20, 30, 38, 42, 45, 79, 99, 102,
103, 179, 221, 224, 383, 416, 426, 457, 458,
468, 475, 486, 497, 498, 657, 904, 908, 930,
937, 941, 956; Metropolitan Park District
of 40, 79, 102, 105, 221, 453, 460, 464, 466,
475, 497, 895, 930, 955, 966.

Botanic garden of Smith College 944.

Botanical contest 723.

Botanical garden of the University of Cali-
fornia 944.

Botanical gardens, as part of the park sys-
tem 15, 43, 519; in large parks 201; history
of a number of 940; human service values
of 944; educational work of 947; elements
in the design of 949; size of site 951; fac-
tors in design 951; examples of botanical
gardens: Harvard University Botanic Gar-
den 954; Arnold Arboretum 955, 956;
Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis 958;
New York Botanical Garden 963 ; admin-
istration of botanical gardens 966; execu-
tive organization 969; staff members 970,
971, 972; responsibilities of director-in-
chief, New York Botanical Garden 973;
policing of 974; financing of 975.

Boulder, Col. 79, 84.

Boulevards and parkways, as part of park
system 14, 41; principles in design 213;
border roads for parkways 214.

Bowling greens, in large parks 197; con-
struction of 311.

Bridgeport, Conn. 453, 476.

Bridgeton, N. J. 80.

Bridle paths, in large parks 189; riding trails
in reservations 209; construction of 270.

Brooklyn, N. Y. 202, 206, 468, 524, 904, 941,

943, 977-
Brooklyn Botanical Garden 943, 951, 967,

97i, 977-

Budgets, general statement of 583; classifica-
tion of 584; for revenue-producing activi-

ties 586; for current expense funds 607; for
golf course 737.

Buffalo, N. Y. 22, 26, 34, 36, 40, 43, 45, 99,
465, 468, 531, 657, 789, 889, 904, 942, 975.

Buffalo Botanical Garden 942, 975.

Buildings, in large parks 203; comfort sta-
tions 203; refreshment stands and restau-
rants 205; shelters 205; structures neces-
sary to active recreation areas 205; struc-
tures in themselves recreation centers 205;
structures of educational-recreational char-
acter 206; service structures necessary to
maintenance of large parks 206, 655; park
buildings — shelters and comfort buildings
393; playground field houses 397; recrea-
tion buildings 397; examples of 399; pavil-
ions 405; outdoor theatres, examples of
407; music temple 413; open-air dance
floors 414; for sanitary purposes (see Sani-
tation) for the confinement of zoological
specimens 911.

Burlington, Iowa 84.

Burlington, Vt. 889.

Cages and enclosures for animals 911; fenc-
ing for 915.

Camden, N. J. 476, 498.

Camps, as active recreation areas 14, 32;
layout of 167; tourists' camps 199, 504;
group and family camping 201; in reserva-
tions 21 1 ; fees from rental of sites 501;
camp programs 721; the staff 722; sanitary
care of camp areas 888; examples of state
laws controlling sanitation of camps 899.

Canton, Ohio 486, 904.

Casper, Wy. 84.

Cedar Falls, Iowa 76, 77.

Cedar Rapids, Iowa 904.

Cemeteries, as part of park system 47;
drainage problems of 243.

Chattanooga, Tenn. 476.

Chicago, 111. 44, 45, 101, 120, 130, 132, 155,
200, 206, 224, 261, 270, 302, 400, 449, 452,

453, 456, 465, 466, 493, 52i, 525, 526, 538,
539, 628, 638, 710, 720, 731, 739, 755, 758,
761, 781, 783, 784, 894, 904, 905, 907, 920.
Cincinnati, Ohio 44, 46, 61, 94, 95, 176, 179,
184, 423, 475, 820, 824, 904, 905, 919, 926.

INDEX

1025

Cincinnati Zoological Gardens 919.

City council, as governing authority of
parks 422, 424, 428.

City manager, plan for government of parks
422, 426, 434, 527; keeping of official
records 572.

City planning, commissions or committees
54; partial list of studies 68.

Civil Service, selection of employees through
542; for recreation workers 741; examples
of Civil Service examinations 751, 760.

Clarke County, Wash. 388.

Cleveland, 111. 8, 99, 434, 440, 475, 488, 496,
502, 503, 504, 527, 797, 893, 904; Metro-
politan Park District of 40, 105, 107, 465,

475, 894.

Clock golf 303.

Colorado Springs, Col. 88, 453, 454.

Columbus, Ga. 155.

Columbus, Ohio 502, 890.

Comfort stations, location of 203; descrip-
tion of 393.

Commission form of government of parks
422, 424, 430.

Community houses, sites for 45; in neighbor-
hood playfields 135; examples of 404.

Concessions 499; versus direct municipal
management 505.

Conservatories, in large parks 203; wisdom
of having 671.

Construction, procedure involved 237; topo-
graphical surveys 237; landscape archi-
tects' plans and designs 238; grading 238;
drainage and other engineering problems
238; construction of walks, trails and ter-
races, general procedure 253; construction
of terraces 267; of curbs for walks 267; of
tarvia walks 269; of bridle paths 270; of
curbs and gutters 270; of retaining walls
and free standing walls 277; of turf areas
for lawn sports, in the Northern States 288;
of turf areas in the Southern States 298;
of areas for lawn sports 303; of areas for
baseball 316; basket ball 318; football 320;
hand ball 321; paddle tennis 321; play-
ground ball 321; shuffleboard 322; soccer
322; tennis 323; volley ball 334; running
tracks 335; of areas for field events 341; of

pools342; of wadingpools356; of swimming
pools 358; of winter sport facilities 376;
picnic facilities 385; of park buildings 393,
664; of privies 841.

Contracts, legal provisions regarding 461;
advertisement for bids 627; the proposal
628; the contract 629; examples of 631.

Converse County, Wy., Park System 105.

Cook County, 111., Park System 33, 39, 103,
105, 452, 454, 459, 465, 466, 493.

Cornell University Arboretum 944.

Costs, of playfields 138; cost data notes on
drainage 249; on concrete walks 268; on
turf walks 269; on woodland trails 269;
on gravel or macadam walks 269; on
tarvia walks 270; on clay tennis courts
334; on pools 356; on swimming pools 366,
370; on bathhouses, Minneapolis 375; on
Evanston, 111., shelter 394; on golf club-
house, Minneapolis 402; records of costs
593, 598; rates for camps 721; per capita
cost of maintenance of aquariums 937.

Council Bluffs, Iowa 87, 904, 926.

County park systems, ownership of reserva-
tions 40; a campaign for 65; examples of
planning 101; legislation creating 443;
examples of county park systems having
special tax levies for general park purposes
496.

Croquet, construction of area for 305; golf
croquet 306.

Curbs and gutters, construction of 270; types
of 271; data on curbs — stone and con-
crete 273; turf 275; brick 276; concrete 276;
cobblestone 276; cost data on 277.

Dallas, Texas 93, 96, 156, 162, 358, 359, 371,
476, 494, 501, 717, 723, 728, 734, 736, 796,
904, 905, 926.

Dancing, pavilions and floors for 414; reve-
nues from 500, 503 ; proper conduct of 730.

Darlington, N. C. 409.

Davenport, Iowa 158, 476, 495, 660, 904.

Dayton, Ohio 390, 391, 476.

Decatur, 111. 87.

Denver, Col. 39, 40, 94, 95, 97, 475, 501, 502,
504, 904, 926.

Design of park areas, general suggestions on

IO26

INDEX

109; of little children's playgrounds 114;
examples of 132; of neighborhood play-
field parks 133; examples of 138; of miscel-
laneous types of active play areas 150;
of small ovals, triangles, circles, trapezoids
and squares 171; of intown parks 176; of
large parks 184; of reservations 207; of
boulevards and parkways 213; of water-
front development projects 227; of zoolog-
ical parks 911; of botanic gardens 949.

Des Moines, Iowa 52, 66, 495, 504.

Detroit, Mich. 8, 19, 33, 34, 44, 45, 99, 101,
145, 302, 326, 431, 457, 468, 470, 527, 528,
529, 530, 541, 712, 904, 905, 920, 924, 930,

937-

Diseases of trees and shrubs 695.

Docentry 949.

Drainage, notes on installation of 238; pur-
poses of 238; principles of 239; problems of
various areas 241; of pools 249, 345; of
turf areas for lawn sports 288; of running
tracks 337.

Dramatics, in intown parks 181; in parks of
all types 726.

Drinking water, fountains in playgrounds
127; facilities in large parks 192; purifica-
tion of 831; analysis of 837; location of
drinking fountains 837.

Duluth, Minn. 926.

Du Page Co., 111. 103.

Dwelling houses in parks 657.

East Orange, N. J. 139.

East St. Louis, 111. 89, 476, 496, 501, 504,
720, 773.

Eau Claire, Wis. 82.

Educational publicity. (See Publicity.)

Elgin, 111. 501.

Elgin Botanic Garden, New York 940.

Elizabeth, N. J. 204.

El Paso, Texas 476, 904.

Engineering, the engineer in, 619; the engi-
neering division, function of 517, 618;
organization of 621; methods of handling
620; personnel organization, with examples
621; records of operation 623; filing cabi-
nets 625; methods of procedure in han-
dling construction work 626; advertise-

ments 627; engineering schools 1004;
courses in 1010.

Entrances, to large parks 191.

Equipment. (See Supplies and equipment.)

Erie County, N. Y., Park System 105, 385,
386, 389, 390, 392, 453, 465, 827.

Erie, Pa. 476.

Essex County, N. J., Park System 12, 39,
103, 105, 452, 464, 496, 513, 657, 720, 784.

Evanston, 111. 393, 394, 712.

Evansville, Ind. 476.

Examples of general municipal and county
park planning, by population groups 70;
communities under 2,500 71; from 2,500
to 5,000 73; 5,000 to 10,000 75; 10,000 to
25,000 77; 25,000 to 50,000 84; 50,000 to
100,000 88; 100,000 to 250,000 92; 250,000
to 500,000 94; 500,000 to 1,000,000 97;
1,000,000 or more 101; county park plan-
ning 101.

Exhibits, for publicity purposes 984; of ani-
mals 911; of fish 928, 931; of plants 952.

Federal plan of government of parks 422,
425,431, 527.

Fees and charges. (See Revenues.)

Fencing, of playgrounds 125; of playfields
137; of tennis courts 334; of animal ex-
hibits 914, 915.

Fertilizers 290; for turf areas in Northern
States 296.

Field hockey 306.

Field houses 397.

Filing and indexing 6n; of engineers' maps
625.

Finances, importance of analysis of finances
53; powers of park governing authority in
regard to handling of funds 460; acquisi-
tion and permanent improvement of prop-
erties from current revenues 471; with
examples of park laws relative to uses of
current revenues 472; from the sale of
bonds secured by general taxation 472;
examples of bond issues 475; financing
through proceeds from the sale of bonds
secured by special assessments 477; ex-
amples of special assessments 478; financ-
ing through special assessments and general

INDEX

1027

bond issues combined 481; through install-
ment payment out of net proceeds from
operation of the particular project, with
examples 482; from gifts, donations, lega-
cies and bequests 485; through excess con-
demnation 487; through requiring a given
percentage of all subdivisions of a given
size to be set aside for park or playground
purposes 490; examples of 490; sources of
revenue for operation and maintenance
through annual appropriation 491; through
special tax levies 492; examples of cities
having special tax levies 493 ; of county park
systems 496; of metropolitan park systems
496; special sources of income for general
park and recreation purposes 497; reve-
nues from gifts, legacies and bequests,
with examples 497; income from operation
of certain types of recreation facilities 499;
examples of such operation 501; miscella-
neous sources of revenues 506; financial
records of municipal funds 581; fund pro-
cedure 582; accounting 583; financing of
zoological parks 924; of botanical gardens

975-
Fish, fishing in parks 791; available for large

aquarium 928; marine and fresh water

931; food for 935. (See Aquariums.)
Flagpoles 127.
Flies 884.
Flint, Mich. 92.
Fly traps, the Ober trap 885; Hodge window

sash fly trap 886; fly wire and fly paper

Food. (See Refreshment stands and Restau-
rants.)

Football, layout of court 320.

Footpaths, in large parks 189; in reserva-
tions 207, 208.

Forestry, federal forest reservations, Cali-
fornia 33; forest service, Department of
Agriculture 40; forest preserve district,
Illinois 493, 496; division of 519.

Fort Wayne, Ind. 496.

Fort Worth, Texas 33, 39, 93, 170, 360, 366,
368, 369, 423, 438, 469, 470, 482, 489, 501,
502, 504, 512, 527,904,926.

Fresno, Cal. 904, 926.

Games, space for organized games for boys
121 ; for girls 123; games children should
know 127; space requirements for games
and sports 131; games suitable for intown
parks 181; construction of areas for lawn
sports, clock golf 303; croquet 305; golf
croquet 306; lawn tennis 306; tether tennis
306; field hockey 306; archery 307; roque
308; quoits 310; horseshoe pitching 310;
hand tennis 310; bowling greens 311; lay-
out of areas for baseball 316; basket ball
318; football 320; hand ball 321; paddle
tennis 321; playground ball 321; shuffle-
board 322; soccer 322; tennis 323; volley
ball 334.

Garbage, disposal of 868.

Gary, Ind. 476, 496.

Gifts, legacies and bequests, as means of
financing acquisition and improvement of
park properties 485; example of 486; as
source of revenue for operation and main-
tenance 497.

Glendale, Cal. 80, 501, 502.

Golf courses, as active recreation area 14, 32;
layout of 156, 165; clubhouse 164, 402;
service structures 165; in large parks 195;
in reservations 212; fees for use of 501,
502; administration of 735; the staff 735;
fees and charges 736; rules for use of
courses 738.

Governing authorities of parks, city council
422; comments on 424; commission form
422; comments on 424; federal plan 422;
comments on 425; city manager type 422;
comments on 426; park boards or com-
missions 423; comments on 426; private
park associations 423; boards of education
424; comments on 428; examples of legal
provisions for each type of control 428;
internal organization of 507; by-laws mak-
ing organization possible 508; meetings
and records of proceedings 514; ordinances
West Chicago Park Commissioners, rela-
tive to duties of executive officers 526.
(See Park boards or commissions.)

Grading, purposes of 238; subgrading for
walks 258; grading for lawn areas 201;
for bowling greens 313.

1028

INDEX

Grand Rapids, Mich. 476.

Grasses and seeding, in the Northern States
293; seeding seasons 293; methods 293;
seed mixtures 294; after treatment 295;
fertilizers 296; stolons 297; top soil 297;
planting operations 297; care after plant-
ing 298; in the Southern States 298; types
of grasses 299; preparation of seed bed
299; planting and seeding seasons 300;
planting and maintenance 301; for bowl-
ing greens 314; for lawns 693.

Great Falls, Mont. 81.

Greensboro, N. C. 80.

Greenhouses 663, 670; location and construc-
tion of 663; use of 670.

Growing areas of the United States 673, 677.

Hand ball, layout of court 321.
Handcraft, for boys 121; popularity of 730.
Harrisburg, Pa. 224, 225.
Hartford, Conn, no, in, 114, 414, 453, 456,

459, 468, 486, 502, 503, 505, 520, 730.
Harvard University, Botanic Garden 940,

95i,955,966,975-

Henry County, Ind., Park System 105, 496.

Herbaceous perennials 676.

Highland Park, Mich. 34.

Hiking, trails in reservations 208; organiza-
tion of 718, 719.

Hoboken, N. J. 141.

Horticulture, function of horticulture divi-
sion 518; design 669; production 669; in-
stallation 670; maintenance 671; adminis-
tration unit for 672; employees for 673;
notes on growing areas 673; with lists of
herbaceous perennials, ornamental shrubs
and trees 674, 68 1; grasses for lawns 693;
diseases of trees and shrubs 695; insects
attacking trees and shrubs 698.

Houston, Texas 36, 90, 93, 94, 151, 162, 410,

4", 454, 739, 9°4, 910-
Hudson County, N. J., Park System 8, 103,

105, 452, 464, 496.
Hunt Botanical Garden, Brooklyn, N. Y.

941.
Huntington, W. Va. 453.

Ice hockey 380.

Ice skating rinks, construction of 376.

Illinois Park District 497.

Incinerators 844; Fort Riley-McMunn 844;
Horsfall Destructor 845; Williamson Mul-
tiple Shelf, for garbage 869.

Indianapolis, Ind. 34, 94, 95, 404, 475, 494,
740.

Inns, in reservations 211.

Insects, attacking park trees and shrubs 698;
beetles 699; borers 700; aphids 702; scale
insects 702; defoliators 703; moths 707;
insect control — mosquitoes 879; flies 884;
bedbugs 887; roaches 887.

Intown park areas or neighborhood parks,
as part of park system 14, 35; function,
design and layout of 176; factors influenc-
ing design 177; statuary in 179; use of
water in 179; forms of semi-active recrea-
tion in 180; plans of 183.

Inventories, of real estate 573; of structures
576; of tools, equipment, merchandise and
supplies 576; forms for 577; of shop equip-
ment 660.

Ithaca, N. Y. 84.

Jackson County, Mich., Park System 105.

Jacksonville, Fla. 736, 737.

Jersey City, N. J. 94, 95, 97.

Johns Hopkins University Botanic Garden

944.

Johnstown, Pa. 154.
Joplin, Mo. 904.

Kansas City, Kan. 494.

Kansas City, Mo. 47, 94, 95, 173, 224, 357,

459, 491, 494, 497, 633, 904, 926.
Keene, N. H. 79, 429.
Kenosha, Wis. 904.

La Crosse, Wis. 83, 85.

Lafayette, Ind. 904.

Lakeland, Fla. 228.

Lancaster, Pa. 116, 132, 148, 468, 498.

Landscaping, areas in which landscaping
predominates 14; the landscape architect
in, 238, 517, 619; in little children's areas
115, 123, 126; in playfields 135; in connec-
tion with golf courses 166; of small ovals
and similar spaces 171; in neighborhood

INDEX

1029

parks 176; in large parks 186; landscape
plan for zoos 909; educational institutions
offering courses in landscape architecture
996.

Large parks, as part of park system 14, 35;
considerations in selection of 185; desirable
landscape characteristics 186; zoological
features 187; elements of design 187; pro-
visions for recreation facilities 191; game
and sport facilities 194; camping in 199;
educational-recreational features in 201;
buildings in 203; plans of 206.

Lawn mowers 672.

Laws. (See Legal provisions.)

Legal provisions, for general administrative
control of parks in cities 428; for metro-
politan park districts 440; for county park
systems 443; school board legislation re-
garding recreation 449; state enabling acts
449; legal requirements regarding qualifi-
cations of park board members 455; selec-
tion of officers 458; legal provisions regard-
ing accountability for funds and purchases
of equipment 461; making of contracts
461; cooperation with outside agencies
469; excerpts from park laws relative to
use of current revenues for acquisition and
permanent improvement of properties 472;
examples of legislation granting power of
excess condemnation 488, 490; by-laws
embodying code of procedure through
which park governing authority conducts
its affairs, with examples 509; function of
legal division 518; examples of ordinances,
Chicago South Park Commissioners, de-
fining duties and responsibilities of various
executive departments 521; excerpts from
ordinances, West Chicago Park Commis-
sioners, relative to duties of executive
officers 526; examples of laws and ordi-
nances outlining duties and powers of chief
executive 538, 539, 540, 541; examples of
charter provisions regarding appointment
and duties of secretary 558; examples of
contracts 630; motor vehicle law 753 ; rules
for government of park police 771-781;
examples of legal provisions giving police
authority to park employees 783; examples

of rules for the governance of the use
of properties 785; regulations governing
rental of refreshment stands 876; examples
of ordinances requiring cleanliness of park
areas 889; examples of state laws relating
to sanitation of swimming places 897; to
sanitation of organized camps 899; Illinois
law, providing for establishment of zoos
924; of New York Botanical Corporation

979-

Lexington, Ky. 940.

Libraries, importance of 610.

Lighting, the lighting engineer 112; of play-
grounds 127; of ice skating rinks 377;
general considerations in park lighting 792,
794; standards 796; samples of specifica-
tions for lighting by electricity 798, 818;
flood lighting 802, 804; lighting for sports
802; equipment 803; lighting of aquariums

930.

Lincoln, 111. 472.
Lincoln, Neb. 496.
Litchfield, Conn. 74.
Litchfield, Minn. 74.
Long Beach, Cal. 434.
Long Island State Park Commission 465.
Longview, Wash. 180, 184, 222.
Lorain, Ohio 489.
Los Angeles, Cal. 33, 34, 40, 99, 101, 232,

475, 494, 502, 726, 738.
Los Angeles County Park System 105, 494,

502, 904.
Louisville, Ky. 395, 426, 453, 456, 458, 495,

502, 503, 657.
Lowell, Mass. 476.
Lynchburg, Va. 154.
Lynn, Mass. 476.
Lyster bag 833.

Macon, Ga. 468.

Madison, Wis. 423.

Maintenance, function of maintenance divi-
sion of park department 518; requisites for
adequate revenues 647; personnel 647;
examples of 649; employment of workers
651; adequate equipment as requisite for
successful maintenance 654; headquarters
655. , , — —

MUNICIPAL REFERENCE BUREAU

CENTRAL EXTENfOU : \V\rM\
UNIVERSITY OF MINE JCCJYA

, » i i— A r-\r\\ IO

1030

INDEX

Manchester, N. H. 384.

Manure, disposal of 868, 872.

Marathon County, Wis., Park System 105.

Marysville, Cal. 78.

Meetings, of park governing authorities 514;
of staff 546.

Memphis, Tenn. 61, 724, 727, 740, 904.

Meriden, Conn. 88, 461.

Metropolitan Park Department of Provi-
dence Plantations, R. I. 453, 460, 461, 466,
496.

Metropolitan park districts, functions of 39;
examples of legal provisions for 440; ex-
amples of metropolitan park systems with
special tax levies or general taxing powers
496; official proceedings of metropolitan
boards and commissions 570.

Michigan Agricultural College, Botanical
Garden 941.

Middletown, N. Y. 182, 184.

Milwaukee, Wis. 19, 44, 94, 95, 97, 122, 132,
379, 381, 382, 383, 384, 397, 398, 414, 415,
453, 475, 494, 496, 628, 630, 715, 751, 771,
876, 904, 918, 921, 925, 926, 986.

Milwaukee, Wis., County Park System 105,
496.

Minneapolis, Minn. 12, 19, 47, 94, 95, 97, 98,
138, 14$ 147, 223, 226, 227, 269, 270, 327,
333, 334, 353, 357, 374, 37,5, 402, 403, 45^,
453, 456, 468, 47.5, 479, 482, 483, 494, 502,
503, 504, 520, 656, 660, 716, 719, 736, 740,
769, 807, 808.

Minot, N. Dak. 357.

Miscellaneous types of active recreation
areas 14, 131, 150; drainage problems of

243-
Missouri Botanical Garden 942, 943, 951,

958, 961, 966, 970, 971, 975.
Mobile, Ala. 476.
Monkeys 916.
Morgantown, W. Va. 499.
Mosquitoes 879.
Motion pictures 727.
Muncie, Ind. 472.
Municipal garage 657.
Museums, sites for 47; in large parks 203;

nature museums 213; admission fees to

art museums 500.

Music, in intown parks 181; community

music 724; band concerts 725.
Muskegon County, Mich., Park System 105.

Nashville, Tenn. 303, 453, 455, 476, 488, 494,

540.
National agencies, of assistance in campaigns

for parks 671.
National Botanic Garden, Washington, D.C.

943, 967-

National Bureau of Fisheries 931.

National Park Service 40.

National Zoological Park 920.

Nature study, in reservations 213; a zoolog-
ical contest 723; a botanical contest 723;
contribution of botanical gardens to 946.

Neighborhood playfield areas or playfield
parks, as unit element of park system 14;
functions of 25; size of 27; space require-
ments for organized games and sports 133;
layout 134; community house 135; land-
scaped areas 135; examples of divisions
136; plans 137, 138; costs 138.

Newark, N. J. 94, 95, 97.

New Haven, Conn. 453, 454, 476, 494, 512,
926.

New London, Conn. 434.

New Orleans, La. 94, 95, 423, 452, 453, 721,

904, 937-
New York Botanical Garden 925, 943, 948,

949, 963, 967, 969, 974, 979-
New York City, N. Y. 12, 17, 33, 36, 44, 45,
79, 101, 112, 190, 208, 466, 467, 468, 657,
895, 904, 918, 925, 927, 930, 934, 937, 940,

943, 95i, 963, 967, 974, 976, 979-
Niagara State Park Commission, N. Y. 465.
Norfolk, Va. 904.

Oakland, Cal. 33, 34, 45, 160, 196, 456, 472,

476, 503, 504, 505, 76o, 904, 926.

Oak Park, 111. 124, 132, 382.

Office management, function of office divi-
sion 517; need for better facilities 553;
questions of policy 553; qualifications of
secretary 555; the office force 556; duties
of employees 558; assignment of duties to
employees 559; organization charts 561,
563; individual qualifications of employees

INDEX

1031

562; compensation and grades 562; disci-
pline and office character 565; the office
manual 566; chart showing progress of
office work 567; record keeping 569.

Oklahoma City, Okla. 86, 91, 476, 496, 904,
926.

Omaha, Neb. 476, 495, 503, 504, 904, 926.

Operation and maintenance, sources of reve-
nue for 491.

Organization, office organization 507; com-
mittee organization 508; by-laws 508;
meetings and records of proceedings 514;
executive organization, importance of 516;
divisional organization, office 517; engi-
neering 517; legal 518; maintenance 518;
horticultural 518; forestry 519; botanical
gardens, arboretums, conservatories 519;
police 519; recreation 519; miscellaneous
520; charts showing types of organization
516, 521, 523, 524, 525, 528, 529, 530, 531,
532, 533; the chief executive 534; execu-
tive organization in small and large com-
munities 549.

Orlando, Fla. 220, 229.

Outdoor theatres, examples of 407.

Ovals and other areas of small dimensions,
as part of park system 14.

Ovens, at picnic places 193; designs of 386.

Paddle tennis, layout of court 321.

Palisade Interstate Park, N. Y. 40, 465.

Palo Alto, Cal. 145.

Pana, 111. 484.

Park association as method of government

423-

Park boards or commissions, in relation to
study of parks 55; as method of govern-
ment 423, 426, 435; membership of park
boards 452; powers given by law to 458,
460, 461, 462, 463. (See Governing author-
ities.)

Park funds. (See Finances and Records.)

Parking space 341.

Pasadena, Cal. 87, 152, 178, 184, 188, 326,

329, 344, 370, 392, 527, 531, 788, 890.
Passaic, N. J. 476.
Pavilions, plans of 405.
Pawtucket, R. I. 476.

Pension fund, for park police 783.

Peoria, 111. 495.

Permits 744.

Personnel, of an executive organization 516;
of the engineering division 517, 621; of the
legal division 518; of maintenance divi-
sion 518, 647-654; of horticultural division
518, 673; of police division 519; relation-
ships 542, 545, 619; office force 556; play-
ground workers 712; municipal camp staff
731; golf course workers 735; park police
749; director and staff of zoological divi-
sion 922, 923; of aquariums 934; of botan-
ical gardens 970, 971, 972; publicity direc-
tor 993. (See Salaries.) (See Training.)
(See Civil Service.)

Petersburg, Va. 88.

Philadelphia, Pa. u, 35, 36, 45, 100, 101,
103, 161, 215, 225, 367, 396, 400, 401, 452,
657, 785, 889, 904, 906, 911, 916, 917, 919,
925, 940.

Philadelphia Zoological Garden 911, 916,
917.

Phoenix, Ariz. 39.

Picnic facilities, importance of 191; desirable
features 192; in reservations 209; designs
of ovens 385 ; of tables 388; of shelters 389;
picnic kit 728; suggested program 720;
regulations for use of grounds 720; sani-
tary care of grounds 888.

Pittsburgh, Pa. 99, 101, 503, 736, 904, 926.

Planning a park system, principles involved
48; study of existing facilities and needs
50; putting plans into execution 59; pub-
licity campaign 67; national agencies able
to help in campaigns 67; partial list of
recreation surveys and city plan studies
68; examples of general municipal and
county park planning by population
groups 70.

Plants, propagation of 670; herbaceous per-
ennials 676; exhibits of 952; in New York
Botanical Garden 965.

Playgrounds, as part of park system 14; for
kindergarten age and under 15; topog-
raphy of 114; equipment 115, 127; planta-
tions 115; space requirements for equip-
ment 115; for children 5 to 14 17; the

1032

INDEX

school and the playground 18; radius of
influence 19; size of 19; age groupings 117;
topography 117; space divisions 119, 121,
123; space requirements, miscellaneous
123; for apparatus 129; for games and
sports 131; in large parks 199; in reserva-
tions 212; the playground program 712;
personnel 712; conduct of 713; lighting of
807; sanitary care of playgrounds 889.

Policing of parks, division of 519; rules and
regulations 747; methods used 748; ex-
amples of examination questions for park
police 751-760; series of lessons used in
training of 761 ; organization of park police
770; rules for government of park police
771-781; examples of legal provisions giv-
ing police authority to park employees
783; pension fund 783; examples of rules
and regulations for the governance of the
use of properties 785; policing of botanical
gardens 974.

Polo 197.

Pomona, Cal. 502.

Pools, construction of 342; cost data 356.
(See Swimming pools.)

Portland, Me. 428, 495.

Portland, Ore. 94, 95, 475, 904, 926.

Poughkeepsie, N. Y. 408.

Privies 841.

Providence, R. I. 453, 476, 498, 904.

Publicity, in connection with park study 61 ;
through superintendent's contacts with
public 548; educational publicity regard-
ing facilities and their location 983 ; pub-
lished pamphlets 984; talks and lectures
984; personal visits 985; special announce-
ments 985; parades and demonstrations
986; exhibits 987; newspaper publicity
987; bulletin — newspapers 988; annual
reports 989; signs and bulletin boards 989;
publicity for use of park signs 990; rules
and regulations 991; organization for edu-
cational publicity 992; the publicity direc-
tor 993.

Pueblo, Col. 429, 904.

Quincy, 111. 423.
Quoits 310.

Racine, Wis. 496, 655, 656, 660, 904, 926.

Records, of meetings; record keeping, of legal
provisions 569; of official proceedings 570;
inventories 573; land records 573; forms
for inventories 577, 578, 579, 580; financial
records of municipal funds — general or
current expense 581; special 581; operating
582; accounting 583 ; thebudget 583 ; finan-
cial records for management purposes 589;
for the operation of business activities 591 ;
cost records 595; performance records and
business statistics 604; uniform systems
and records 606; uniform park statistics
607; filing and indexing 61 1 ; of engineering
operations 623; records of trees and shrubs

957-

Recreation, surveys 68; recreation division,
functions of 519, 708; statistics on 605;
buildings 397, 399; the program — chil-
dren's playgrounds 712; athletics 715;
hiking 718; winter sports 719; boating 720;
fishing 721; camping 721; nature activities
723; community music 724; drama 726;
social activities 727; picnicking 728; danc-
ing 730; handcraft 730; administration of
recreation facilities, of swimming pools
731; of golf courses 735; administrative
staff 740; lighting for recreation facilities
803. (See Playgrounds, Neighborhood
playfield parks, Games.)

Refreshment stands and restaurants, facili-
ties in picnic groves 192; stands 205, 21 1;
restaurants 205; charges for refreshments
500, 504; protection of food served 873;
example of regulations governing rental of
refreshment stands 875.

Reports, of park studies 57; legal require-
ments regarding general reports 462; man-
ager's daily reports 593; cost reports 593,
598; annual reports 609, 989; time 652;
pay roll 652; efficiency rating 65 3; accident
653; attendance 714; of recreation workers
743; park reports 1020.

Reservations or forest parks, as part of park
system 14, 37; ownership of 39; functions
and design of 207; picnic places in 209;
sanitation 209; camping 210; bathing and
boating 211; inns and refreshment stands

INDEX

1033

21 1 ; golf 212; playgrounds 212; winter
sports 213; nature museums and nature
study classes 213.

Reservoirs, in water supply 834; in aqua-
riums 931.

Restaurants. (See Refreshment stands.)

Revenues, from operation of various types
of recreation activities — swimming 499,
733; boats and canoes, 499, 721; skates,
sleds, skis 499; tennis 500; municipal
theatres 500; art museums 500; zoological
gardens 500; dances $00; baseball 500;
refreshment stands and restaurants 500;
rental of public halls 500; amusement
dances of various kinds 500; golf 501, 736;
rentals of camp sites 501 ; operation of bus
lines 501; commercial baseball parks 501;
examples of the operation of such facilities
501 ; budget for revenue producing activities
586; profit and loss statement 591; com-
parison of scales with value of merchan-
dise dispensed 591 ; manager's daily reports
593; statement of receipts and disburse-
ments 614.

Revere, Mass. 424.

Richmond, Va. 8.

Roaches 887.

Roads and roadways, pleasure driveways
137; in large parks 187; in reservations
208; service-pleasure roadways 188, 208;
major highways 208; drainage problems of
roads 241.

Rochester, N. Y. 94, 95, 475, 904.

Rockford, 111. 453, 476, 496.

Rock Island, 111. 459.

Roque 308.

Running track, general design of 152; con-
struction of 335.

Sacramento, Cat. 89, 132, 169, 399, 423, 472,

527, 541, 904, 926.
Saginaw, Mich. 476.
St. Augustine, Fla. 434.
St. Joseph, Mo. 496.
St. Louis, Mo. 43, 56, 58, 62, 79, 99, 101, 140,

411, 434, 468, 475, 528, 529, 657, 658, 659,

660, 726, 783, 904, 912, 918, 920, 924, 951,

958, 966, 975.

St. Louis Zoological Garden 912.

St. Paul, Minn, n, 19, 740, 744, 904.

St. Petersburg, Fla. 230.

Salaries, of park employees 565; of personnel
of engineering division 621; of mainte-
nance division 649; of camp workers 722;
of staff on golf courses 736; of recreation
executives 742; of other recreation workers
742; of executive and maintenance staff,
zoological parks 923.

Salem, Mass. 407, 408, 725.

Salt Lake City, Utah 40, 93, 412, 726, 727,
904.

San Antonio, Texas 430, 461, 476, 904.

San Diego, Cal. 90, 476, 496, 503, 904, 919,
925, 926.

San Francisco, Cal. 10, 36, 99, 118, 132, 146,
194, 198, 226, 371, 413, 456, 457, 472, 475,
494, 503, 505 , 736, 904, 926.

Sanitation, in connection with camps 171;
in large parks 192; comfort stations 203;
in reservations 209; water supply problems
826; sewage 838; disposal of feces and
urine 839; through flush toilets 839; sani-
tary privies 841; incinerators 844; privies,
L. R. S. 848; barrel sawdust 849; pit privy
(latrine) 849; chemical closets 851; sani-
tation of toilets 866; water-carriage system
852; sewage treatment 854; disposal by
dilution 855; by septic tank 856; by sub-
surface irrigation 857; by underground ni-
tration trenches 860; by intermittent fil-
tration 861; in cesspools 864; disposal of
urine 864; by soakage pit 865; disposal of
bath water 867; disposal of liquid kitchen
wastes 867; disposal of garbage, rubbish
and manure 868; protection of food 873;
regulations governing rental of refresh-
ment stands 875.

San Jose, Cal. 87, 429, 502.

San Rafael, Cal. 502.

Santa Cruz, Cal. 79.

Savannah, Ga. 35, 654, 655, 783.

Schenectady, N. Y. 476.

Schools, playgrounds in connection with 18,
21, 125; boards of education as governing
authorities of parks 424, 428; school board

1034

INDEX

legislation in regard to recreation 449;
service of aquariums to 937.

Seats, design of combined picnic bench and
table 388; stationary seat 416.

Seattle, Wash. 94, 95, 455, 475, 491, 494, 497,
904, 0.26.

Secretary, of park board 508; duties as pre-
scribed by law 509, 513, 521, 526, 558,
616; qualifications of 555; personal quali-
ties 556; duties of secretary 558.

Service areas 114; importance of proper de-
signing 234; examples of 655; for zoolog-
ical parks 917; in botanical gardens 951.

Sewage, disposal of, treatment of. (See
Sanitation.)

Sheds 661.

Shelters, at picnic places 193; in large parks
205; at ice skating rinks 377; designs of
picnic shelters 389; shelters and comfort
buildings 393; examples of 395.

Shooting range, in large parks 199.

Shops 635; advantages of 658; inventory of
shop equipment 660.

Shuffleboard, layout of court 322.

Sioux City, Iowa 89, 476, 496, 904, 926.

Ski jumps 380.

Sleeping quarters, sanitation of 878; insect
control 879; sanitary care of areas and
facilities 888; of swimming pools 891, 897;
of organized camps 899.

Soccer 322.

South Bend, Ind. 496.

Spartanburg, S. C. 889.

Special assessments, for acquisition and im-
provement of park property 477.

Special tax levies, for operation and mainte-
nance 492.

Spokane, Wash. 92, 93, 452, 476, 503, 504,
904, 926.

Spray outfits 672, 707.

Springfield, 111. 496, 498.

Springfield, Mass. 34, 93, 355, 498, 657, 904.

Springfield, Mo. 904, 926.

Springfield, Ohio 498.

Stadiums, as active recreation area 14, 32;
design of 150; seating plans 153; in large
parks 197.

Stamford, Conn. 458, 462.

State parks, Pennsylvania 33; New York 33.

Statuary 179.

Stock room 613.

Stockton, Cal. 904, 926.

Storehouse 602.

Streams, pollution of 892.

Streets, in relation to parks 48.

Studies, principles of and considerations
entering into 50-57; partial list of 68.

Superintendent of parks, duties and powers
as prescribed by law 510, 521, 538, 539,
540, 541, 570; type of executive needed
535; where to secure executives 536; train-
ing of 537; relation of superintendent to
governing authority 541; to staff 542; to
department heads 545; personal contacts
547; contacts with the public 548; per-
sonal qualities of 1016.

Supplies and equipment, legal provision for
purchase of 461; inventory of 576; forms
used 577; stock room 613; examples of
shop equipment 660; equipment for horti-
cultural division 672; equipment for light-
ing 803; for aquariums 929.

Surfacing, of little children's playgrounds
114; of play areas 302.

Swimming pools, sites for 44; general facts
about 134; in San Francisco 146; natural
swimming places in large parks 198; con-
struction of 358; examples of plans 367;
charges for 499, 501; administration of
731; fees and charges 733; instructions to
bathers 733; rules and regulations regard-
ing use of pool 734; sanitation of 891;
examples of state laws relating to sanita-
tion 897. (See Pools.)

Syracuse, N. Y. 476, 904, 926.

Tables, for picnicking 388.

Tacoma, Wash. 91, 153, 155, 440, 453, 496,
497, 504, 718, 904, 926.

Tampa, Fla. 496.

Tarrytown, N. Y. 149.

Tennis, courts on playgrounds 123; in large
parks 195; tether tennis 306; hand tennis
311; paddle tennis 321; construction of
courts 323; turf 324; asphalt 325; concrete

INDEX

1035

327; clay 332; dirt 334; charges for use of
courts 500; rules for use of courts 717;
lighting of 805.

Terraces, problems of construction 267.

Terre Haute, Ind. 496.

Territorial jurisdiction of park governing
authorities, extent of 463; methods of
handling extra territorial park problems
464; comments on divisions of functions
in jurisdiction within incorporated limits
of municipalities 466.

Tether tennis 306.

Toboggan slides, construction of 381; ex-
amples of 382.

Toilets 839.

Toledo, Ohio 8, 16, 192, 476, 904, 926.

Topographical .surveys, importance of 109;
as function of engineering division 517.

Tourists' camps, in large parks 199; fees
from rental of 504; examples of state laws
regarding sanitation of 902.

Training of workers, of park executives 537;
of park police 760-769; reports of com-
mittee, American Institute of Park Execu-
tives, on the training of park executives
995; educational opportunities offered in
colleges 999; training in play and com-
munity recreation 1005; the national rec-
reation school 1006; importance of train-
ing in human engineering 1008; suggested
courses for training of park executives
1010; extra curricular activities 1013; field
work 1015; postgraduate work 1015.

Trees, ornamental trees and shrubs 68 1;
diseases of 694; insects attacking 698.

Trenton, N. J. 476.

Troy, N. Y. 476.

Tulsa, Okla. 91, 476, 496.

Turf areas for lawn sports, construction of,
in the Northern States 288; drainage of
288; lime 289; humus 290; fertilizers 290;
tillage and grading 291; seeding 293; after
treatment 295; areas in the Southern
States 298; types of grasses 299; seeding
299; planting and maintenance 301.

Union County, N. J., Park Commission 39,
103, 104, 105, 166, 206, 452, 464, 523, 657.

University of Pennsylvania, Botanic Garden
944-

Values of parks, to good physical condition
i; to creative recreation 3; to beauty and
art 4; to music and drama 5; to scientific
interests 5; to increase of neighborliness 7;
to happiness 7; as safety measures 8; as
preventives of delinquency 9; in increasing
property values n; educational-recrea-
tional values of aquariums 937; of botan-
ical gardens 944.

Vicksburg, Miss. 84.

Volley ball 334.

Wading pools, in playgrounds 125; principles
of construction 357; wading-swimming
pools 357; care of 890. (See Pools.)

Walks, drainage problems of 24; construc-
tion of 255; curbs for walks 267.

Walls, construction of 277; cost data on 286.

Washington, D. C. 19, 34, 43, 44, 94, 95, 97,
173, 175, 215, 217, 373, 904, 920, 924, 926,

943, 967-

Waterbury, Conn. 405, 406, 476, 484, 496,
904.

Waterfront areas 114; general statement re-
garding 227; plans of various develop-
ments 232.

Water sports, in large parks 197; in reserva-
tions 21 1 ; fishing 721. (See Boats and
canoes, Swimming.)

Water supply, problems of 826; protection
of 829; purification of 831, 834; analysis
of 837; distribution of supply 837; for
aquariums 929. (See Sanitation.)

Waukegan, 111. 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 421.

Wayne County, Mich., Park System 105,

454-

Wells and springs 829.
Westchester County, N. Y. 33, 39, 105, 106,

231, 357, 443, 45°, 453, 4^5, 525, 621, 717,

727, 776, 895.

Wichita, Kan. 476, 496, 904.
Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 233.
Wilmington 452, 772.
Winston-Salem, N. C. 424, 532.

1036

INDEX

Winter Haven, Fla. 322.

Winter sports, in large parks 199; in reserva-
tions 213; facilities for 376; ice skating
rinks 376; shelter house 377; ice hockey
380; ski jumps 380; sled and toboggan
slides 381; fees for use of equipment 499;
sample program 719.

Woonsocket, R. I. 126, 127, 132, 409.

Worcester, Mass. 378.

Youngstown, Ohio 39, 459, 495.

Zoning 51.

Zoological contest 723.

Zoological parks or gardens, as part of park
system 15, 43; in large parks 187, 203;
admission charges 50x3; parks in the United
States 904; site of 905; design or plan of
909; structures for zoological specimens
911; administration of zoological parks
918; examples of forms of administration
918; personnel 922; financing of zoos 924.

Zoological societies 918.

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