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PEARLS AND PEARLING LIFE.

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OPENING OYSTER-SHELLS, COLLECTED BY THE PEARLING FLEET, AND SEARCHING FOR THE PEARLS, ON BOARD MR. STREETER’S SCHOONER,

| WILLIAM H. DALE
SH ~ £ SECTIONAL LIBRARY
as DIVISION OF MOLLUSKS

Moll,

PEAKELS

AND

SEeAKILING LIFE,

BY
AN
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EDWIN W. STREETER, F.RGS., M.A.I

Gold Medallist of the Royal Order of Frederic,

Holder of a Gold Medal from H.M, the King of the Belgians,
Author of ‘PRECIOUS STONES AND GEMS,” 4th Edition,
‘““GREAT DIAMONDS OF THE WORLD,”
“GOLD: Its Legal Regulations and Standards,” &c., &c.,

SMITHSOA
,
Ellustrated, W

SEP 13 1993 |
VER ARIES Bed

LONDON: .
GEORGE BELL & SONS, YORK STREET,
COVENT GARDEN,

1886.

(ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.)
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CONTENTS.

PAGES.

Re) ee wt

CHAPTER I.—INTRODUCTORY us it 17-—22

CHAPTER II.—HIsToRIca. 4 ut 23—47
India. — China. — Persia. — PHERBE —

Egypt. — Greece. — Italy. — Europe in the
Middle Ages and later.

CHAPTER IIJ.—Ancient IDEAS ON THE
ORIGIN AND VIRTUES OF PEARLS 48—70

Their Medicinal Qualities.—Breeding Pearls.
CHAPTER IV.— PEARL-BEARERS — MARINE

AND FRESH-WATER ve ia 71—81
CHAPTER V.—MoTHER-oF-PEARL SHELL... 82—106
CHAPTER VI.—THE ORIGIN AND FORMATION

OF PEARLS ... as Fe ws IO7—126

CHAPTER VII.—THE SooLoo ARCHIPELAGO 127—143

CHAPTER VIII.— THE NortH-WEs?
AUSTRALIAN FISHERY ne .» 144—163

CHAPTER IX—TuE Torres STRAITS FISHERY 164—167

CHAPTER xX. — PEARLING- LIFE AT THE
PRESENT Day vee ae ... 168—185

CHAPTER XI.—CEYLON PEARL FISHERIES... 186—209
The Experience of Mr. Streeter’s Agent
at the Ceylon Pearl Fisheries.
THe PEARL FISHERY OF
SOUTHERN INDIA wo ws. 209—212

. be

il

CHAPTER XII. — THe PeERsIAN GULF PAGES.
FISHERIES ... ne oe we 213-219
Tuy Rep SEA FISHERIES _ ay S2IG. eee

CHAPTER XIIL Tae ‘AmERIcAN PERE
FISHERIES ... ae er ws. 222—232

CHAPTER XIV.—River-Pearis = ) oui vaO
BRITISH AND, FOREIGN. ... 3 lee

English Pearls.—Scotch Pearls. Stak Peqnisa)
~~ European Pearls. — American Fea aaa
Chinese Pearls.

CHAPTER XV.—CoLoURED PEARLS 1 260-4278

Black Pearls.—Pink Pearls.-—-Pearls of various
other colours.

CHAPTER XVI.—Famous PrarRILs. srs 279—299

The Servilia Pearl.—-The erciibhra Pear].—

The Lollia Paulina, Pearls.—The Pliny Pearl.
—The Sassanian Pearl.—The Gresham Pearl. _
—lLa Peregrina.—~The Rudolf Pearl.—

The Youssoupoff Pearl.—The Shah Pearls.—

The Aurungzeb Pearl..-The Conway Pearl— ..,. ,

The Arabian Pearl.—La Pellegrina.—The Russian Pearl.

—The Paris Pearls. —Other Famous Pearls.

CHAPTER XVII.~—TuHe SovTHERN’ CROSS 300-308
CHAPTER XVIII.—On THE VaLUE OF PEARLS 309—316
APPEN DIX—THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PEARLS 317-322
INDEX INE 4h def 70 Je 325-329

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

OPENING OYSTER-SHELLS COLLECTED BY THE
PEARLING FLEET, AND SEARCHING FOR
THE PEARLS On Board Mr. Streeter’s

Schooner the ‘*Sree Pas-Sair.” set Frontispiece
AUCTION OF PEARL OYSTERS IN CEYLON Facing page 17

BLAcK PEARL ON THE HAMMER-OYSTER
(Maileus) “ce a an oa 6 ‘iv

Mr. STREETER’s Houses in JLamenusa
Harbour, Island of Siassi, Sooloo
Archipelago, destroyed by the Spaniards
in 1884 aa ie i Su te 142

VALVE OF PEARL-OysTER (M/eleagrina, or
Avicula, Margaritifera) with a Pearl
adherent “3 or be ee ye 168

RIveR-MussEL (Unio, or Alasmodon, mar-

garitifer) with Pearl ... oo oe > 233
BLack PEARL on finna ... (oe ais i 260
Prnk PEARL on Conch-shel! (Stvombus)... E 272
Pink Peart on TZurbinella Ao re Ss 276

CHART OF THE PRINCIPAL PEARLING

REGIONS ws 1 ta Re . 316

ic

LIST OF FIGURES IN TEXT,

1.—Lithodomus, a boring bivalved mollusc,

which attacks the shell of the Pearl-oyster... page

Fics. 2, 3 & 4.—SECTIONS OF SHELL OF PEARL-

OYSTER, shewing how a Pearl, or other object,

may become buried-in the substance of the

- shell, and ultimately disappear

Fics. 5. 6 and 7.--SECTIONS OF SHELL OF PEARL-

iere’

Fic.

Pre:

EIG,

OYSTER, shewing the thickening of the internal
surface, by deposition of nacre, opposite to
the point of attack of a boring mollusc, such
as the Lzthodomus, which is piercing the shell

from without.

8. —SPLIT-SHELL OF PEARL-OYSTER,
disclosing Pearls embedded in the substance
of the shell

9.—DreEDGE, or 4ajak, used in Pearling

in the Sooloo Archipelago

10.—PARTI-COLOURED PEARL, half black and

half white, from Koepang

11.—THE GREAT SOUTHERN CROSS PEARL,
from Western Australia, as exhibited in the

Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 1886

3’

96

97

118
140

266

301

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PR-E FAC E:

T is strange that although Pearls have

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been highly valued in all ages as objects

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of personal adornment, there should not

exist in the English language a single book entirely
devoted to their history. There are, it is true, many
notices of Pearls—more or less complete—in various
works on Precious Stones, and in others on the
Mollusca, or on the products of the sea in general.
In like manner there are numerous articles on the
subject, scattered throughout our periodical literature,
or enshrined in the proceedings of our learned
societies. But the fact remains that, so far as my
knowledge extends, there exists no work in which
the subject of Pearls is treated with fulness, much
less with any approach to exhaustion, and to which
the reader may confidently turn for information on
any point connected with these lovely productions

of the sea.

In the earlier editions of my work on “ Precious

eee <3

Stones and Gems,” I introduced a chapter on Pearls.
But within the last few years so much information
has accumulated, that I felt. it impossible to do
justice to the Pearl in any other way than in a
separate volume. Moreover, the fact that a. Pearl,
although composed mainly of carbonate of lime, is
after all an organic product, renders it desirable
to remove it from association with true minerals.
Accordingly in the fourth edition of ‘“ Precious Stones
and Gems,” I was induced to omit the description
of Pearls, and to promise that the subject should
be separately dealt with in a special work. That

promise I have now the satisfaction of fulfilling.

When 1 first took the matter in hand, I had
no idea of the amount of labour which would be
involved in the production of such a work. The
study has, however, been a source of much pleasure
to myself, and I trust that the perusal of the results
set forth: in this volume, will be equally a source
of gratification to the reader. Although I cannot
for a moment hope that the work is anything like
complete in all its details, yet I may venture to
remark that I have spared no pains in collecting and
arranging my materials, and that my information
has in many cases been derived from original sources.
At the same time, the work is not put forth as a

scientific treatise, but rather as a practical guide,

,

X1.

either for those engaged in the trade, or for such of
the public as may desire to acquire a knowledge of the

history, formation and uses of Pearl and Pearl-shell.

It may be useful here to give a brief explanation
of the general arrangement of the book. After a
short introductory chapter, the subject of Pearls is
discussed historically, and reference made to the use

of Pearls by the principal nations of antiquity.

The historical chapter is followed by one in
which I have sought to give a fair notion of the
views of ancient writers on the origin and virtues
of Pearls. The fanciful theories which were current
in pre-scientific ages—some of which are not quite
exploded at the present day—lI hope will be found
to furnish many subjects of interest. Not only the
occult virtues of the Pearl, but its reputed medical
properties claim consideration; while the curious
notion, still current in certain quarters, as to the
self-generation of Pearls, is too strange a subject
to be passed over, and hence a section is devoted

to the so-called “ Breeding Pearls.”

Having thus described most of the fallacies and
fancies connected with Pearls, I proceed to treat
the subject from a natural-history point of view.

The various Pearl-bearing Molluscs, both marine and

Xi.

fluviatile, are described; and attention is then directed
to the composition and physical properties, first of
Mother-of-Pearl, and afterwards of the Pearl itself.
The opinions of modern authorities are freely quoted,
and it is hoped that my views may contribute in
some measure to the elucidation of the vexed

question of the formation of Pearls.

The principal localities producing Pearls are next
given, the description commencing with the Sooloo
Archipelago, and proceeding thence to the fisheries
off the coast of North-Western Australia and in
Torres Straits. For several years I have had a fleet
engaged in Pearl-fishing in these regions, and I have
consequently been able to introduce a considerable
amount of information which has never before been
- published.

Few have any idea of the many dangers and
difficulties experienced by pearlers, and by those
engaged in the trade of collecting Pearls and Pearl-
shell. I was horrified to notice in The Times of

the 2nd November, the following paragraph :—

MURDER OF PEARL DIVERS.
MELBOURNE, Nov. 1
Captain Craig, of the ketch Emily, and a party of
pearl divers, of whom two were Englishmen and six
Malays, have been murdered at Johannes Island, near
New Guinea.

The troubles of the Peari-seeker are not confined,

Xiii.

however, to encounters with semi-savages. For in-
stance, the houses which my men _ had erected in
the Sooloo Archipelago—of which a sketch will be
found opposite to page 142,—were wantonly pillaged
and wrecked in March, 1884, by the Spaniards, when
at war with the late Sultan of Sooloo. Not only was
my property destroyed, but the town of Lamenusa
was entirely burnt, and many of the population were

taken captive and sold into slavery.

On my behalf the English Government has
applied to the Spanish Government for redress, but
I regret to say that as yet I have only received

an acknowledgement of my complaint.

Such difficulties as that just instanced, shew the
necessity for more adequate protection of the interests
of British trade in the Pacific. This question is ably
treated by Mr. C. Kinloch Cooke, in the November
number of the Wineteenth Century, and I should like
to see his suggestion for establishing a system of
Pacific Commercial Agents carried into effect. Nor
are our troubles confined to dealings with foreign
countries. A letter just received from Mr. Haynes,
in Western Australia, sets forth another grievance
against the Government of that Colony, in respect

to many vexatious restrictions.

In order to give a vivid picture of the life led by

the Pearl-fishers in the prosecution of their exciting

xiv.

labours, a chapter is introduced on “ Pearling Life
at the Present Day.” It may here be mentioned
that an important improvement in recent fishing, is the
use of the diving dress ; and as the fishers have to go
deeper in search of shell,—the waters becoming
cooler—the employment of the dress must become

more and more extended.

Although the Pearls and Pearl-shell of the
Sooloo seas and the Australian waters have of late
years taken a most important place in commerce,
the older fisheries have by no means been neglected
in this volume. The fisheries off Ceylon, which
have been worked more or less interruptedly from
time immemorial, are fully described; and it is
hoped that the experience of my agent at the
last great Ceylon fishery, will add freshness and
life to this chapter. The ancient fisheries in
the Persian Gulf and in the Red. Sea, are next
noticed, and attention is then directed to the
American fisheries. I expected to receive some ori-
ginal information respecting the Mexican and Panama
fisheries, and the publication of the work has been
consequently delayed, but it is hoped that the anti-
cipated information may be available if a second

edition should be called for.

Fresh-water Pearls, though of far less importance

than marine Pearls, claim a chapter to themselves,

XV.

Here the reader may learn something about the
Pearls occasionally found in certain streams in
England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, various

parts of Europe, the United States, Canada and China.

Those exceptional Pearls which possess a colour
sufficiently marked to render them attractive, are
next described, and it is hoped that my own
experience in connexion with black and pink Pearls,
may be of some interest. The book would have
been incomplete without a notice of those famous
Pearls which have figured in history. A chapter is con-
sequently devoted to this subject, and another to that
remarkable cluster of Australian Pearls, known as
“The Southern Cross,” which attracted so much

attention at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition.

It only remains to tender my thanks to those
who have been good enough to assist me in the
preparation of this work. To the Earl of Crawford
and Balcarres, I am indebted for a description of
the constellation of the Southern Cross; and to
Mr. F. W. Rudler and Dr. MacLarty for much valu-
able assistance on various scientific matters. Above
all, however, I desire to thank Mr. T. H. Haynes,
a gentleman who, in connexion with my Pearling
operations, has been through the Sooloo Archipelago,
and neighbouring islands, and along the coast of

New Guinea and Northern and Western Australia,

XVi.

For nearly seven years, Mr. Haynes has been
assiduously collecting information for this work,
and to his pen is due the chapter on “ Pearling Life,”
not to mention important contributions to many

other chapters.

I have also to acknowledge the valuable services
rendered me by the late Capt. Chippindall, R.N., who
for nearly seven years commanded my Pearling
fleet in these waters, and to whose unwearied
exertions and faithful discharge of duty, the fleet
has been brought to its present state of efficiency.
Nor can I omit mention of my son, the late
Harry Edwin Streeter, who was the first to discover
shell in Port Darwin, and who passed away in the
flower of his life while Pearling in the waters of the

Southern hemisphere.

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CULAR TER. I.

INTRODUCTORY.

** Errors like straws upon the surface flow,
He who would search for Pearls must dive below.”
Dryden.

zs HERE is perhaps, no instinct implanted
in the human breast more powerful

than the love of admiration; there

is certainly none more ancient and universal. It
is a passion more or less strongly developed in
every one of us—in the savage who rejoices in
his tattooing, and barters his gold for beads and
ostrich feathers; in the Red Indian, who regards
the ring in his nose as the highest emblem of
nobility; and equally in the fashionable lady,
arrayed in all the beautiful creations of Parisian
roillinery.

To furnish becoming material wherewith to
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18 Pearls. |

gratify this passion, every realm of Nature has
been put under contribution. Earth has been
mined arjd seas have been explored, and both
have yielded lavishly of their bounty. Among all
the products which have been contributed by the
latter, the PEARL stands pre-eminent and unrivalled
for native beauty. Indeed, we find that from the
very earliest times, Pearls have attracted the
regard of man, and have been employed by him

for purposes of personal adornment.

In whatever light Pearls may be regarded by
the naturalist or man of science — whether as
redundant deformities, the result of special and
fortuitous circumstances, with which the Pearl-
bearing oyster may be surrounded, or as the
legitimate production of a function inherent
in the mollusc—they are undoubtedly ranked by
those skilled in precious stones, as costly products
rivalling in value and surpassing in beauty the
choicest gems of rock or water-course. By the
fortunate possessors of wealth and beauty, they
are highly esteemed as a means of judiciously in-
vesting the one, and of chastely yet elegantly

heightening the charms of the other.

Poets and philosophers too, have in all ages,

recognized in Pearls the emblems most fitted to -

Introduction. 19

represent whatever they regarded as of surpassing
purity, or of exceeding worth. The high estimation
in which they have always been held cannot
be attributed to any hereditary idiosyncrasy or
commercial bias; indeed, the love of these “deli-
cate gems of the ocean” appears to be more
strongly rooted in the instincts of the human race,
the deeper we enquire into it. In some instances
we find the passion for them has been communi-
cated by the conquerors to the conquered, as in
the case ‘of the Persians and the Greeks; but
nations that have never come in contact with
each other, and have originated from entirely
different root- stocks of the human family, are
yet found to have cherished the same unaccountable
love for the Pearl. In the New World, the Aztecs,
and in the Old World, the Aryan and, Semitic
races, appear to have been equally charmed with
them’; and where we have failed to find authentic
historic records, legends have come to us teeming
with allusions to them. No nation can boast a
history in which place and favour have not been
bought or sold by Pearls; and scarce a religion or
sacred literature has existed in which they have

not borne some venerable significance.

It is possible that the Pearl may be referred to,

20 Pearls,

in connection with the introduction of man upon
earth, as recorded in the opening chapters of. the
Old Testament.* But: be~this as at “may; sree
certain that when the ideal state is revealed in
the closing chapters of the New Testament, we
have presented to us, in the sublime Apocalyptic
vision, the city whose “Twelve gates were twelve
pearls,” while throughout “The Book” they are

alluded to by various inspired writers.

*

So great was the importance attached to Pearls,
and such the high estimation in which they were
held at all times and in all countries, that we can
hardly wonder that their origin should have been
the subject of much speculation and even wild
conjecture. From a very early period in their
history, when a belief existed that they were formed
from drops of rain which fell into the open oyster-

shell, down to our own time, when science has busied

itself with enquiring into their origin, numerous

* The word Bdellium (Heb.; ‘‘Bedolach”) mentioned in Genesis ii. 12,
as one of the products of the land of Havilah, is considered by
many ancient interpreters to mean a costly aromatic gum, and
this opinion is held by the majority of modern commentators.
The Rabbinic interpreters, however, reject this explanation on
the ground that the aromatic gum Adel/ium was not so valuable
a product as to deserve mention along with gold and precious
stones; they understood it to mean ‘‘ Pearls,” and Gesenius,
following Bochart, concurs in this rendering.—See Smith’s Dic-
tionary of the Bible, vol. 1., p. 173.

Introduction. 2I

‘theories, many of them fanciful and poetic, have

been advanced to account for their production.

In the following pages, an attempt will be made
to submit some of these theories to the reader,
together with such fragments of history as will

“

tend to show what an important part these “un-
ostentatious little globules” have sometimes played
in the progress of the world and the development
of civilization. We have endeavoured to rescue the
Pearl, if possible, from the superstition and confusion
in which its origin has frequently been enveloped,
and to set its true nature in a clearer light; to
specify the conditions under which Pearls are pro-
duced, and the different species of mollusc producing
them; to offer a few observations on their value
and importance; and finally to describe those Pearl
fisheries, which have been more recently opened
up, and give some idea of the modes employed in
pursuing this fascinating industry. Upon these sub-
jects the author has had exceptional opportunities
of obtaining the .most accurate, and recent infor-
mation. In addition to his experience gained in
the Ceylon fisheries, he equipped and sent out in
January, 1882, an expedition to examine and report
upon the Mother-of-pearl, and Pearl fisheries of
the Sooloo Archipelago, and of Australia. This
expedition was commanded by the late Mr. E. C.
Chippendale, R.N., and Mr. T. H. Haynes, who were

22 ~ Pearls.

afterwards joined by the late Mr. Harry E. Streeter. °

Mr. Haynes is still at work, pearling in the Eastern
Seas, and his researches combined with, those of
his former comrades, have furnished us with much
valuable information, which is embodied in some of

the later chapters of this work.

A pled

CHAPTER, 1,

—_- ——_—

HISTORICAL,

‘« The sea-born shell conceals the Unzo round,
Called by that name, as always single found,
One in one shell, for ne’er a larger race |

Within their pearly walls the valves embrace.
Marbodus,

India.

ZN the East, Pearls have always been
highly prized, not only for personal
decoration, but for the trappings of
elephants and the embellishment of popular divinities.
In very early times, Pearls ranked next to the most
valued gems, and took their place with ivory, precious
metals and the sweet smelling spices of Arabia.
Pearls are frequently mentioned in Indian mythology,
where their discovery is attributed to the god Vishnu,
who is said to have searched the ocean for these

jewels, and then to have taken them to India as a

2a. Pearls.

wedding gift to his daughter Pandaia, The Pearl
was considered no unbecoming ornament for the
great Gautama himself, for we are told that, during
the festivities on the occasion of the birth of his
son, being much pleased with the beauty of a par-
ticular serenade, he removed his necklace of Pearls,
and as a mark of appreciation, presented it to the

minstrel.

Pearls like most precious stones, being indi-
genous products of India, may certainly be classed
among the most ancient objects of Hindu luxury
and commerce; yet it is curious that in the works
of the ancient Hindus which have come down to
us, there is no allusion to the Pearl fisheries. That
they. “existed berore. the time of Alexander the
Great, is certain, from their being mentioned by his
companions. The author of the “ Periplus,” who wrote
about the middle of the second century, A.D., mentions
that Pearls were found near Manaar. The principal
market for Pearls at that time was the towseem

Nelkynda or Nelicurand.

Accounts of the natural history of the pearl-
oyster as known to the Ancients are given by
Athenzus and by Chares of Mitylene, from whose
writings we learn that, in their day, the pearl-bearing
oyster was found in the Indian Sea and in the

Persian Gulf, Every ancient Indian deity is

India. 25

represented as being adorned with Pearls, arrayed in
all conceivable forms of ornament. According to the
Indian astronomer, Varahamihira, the statue of the
Sun-god Mithra wore a crown upon his head, and
was decked with chain-work of Pearls, and ear-
rings of Pearls. Pearls and diamonds were employed
in India as eyes for images of the gods: they shone
upon the beautiful box which held Buddha’s sacred
tooth, and they also decorated the interior of his tomb.
Distinguished Indian women wore purple draperies
ornamented with Pearls, and on great public occa-
sions their arms were covered with them; and they
even wove Pearls into their hair. When the French
jeweller, Jean Baptiste Tavernier (born 1605 ; died,
1689), visited India, about the middle of the seven-
teenth century, he noticed that the women, both
high and low, generally wore in each ear a Pearl
between two coloured stones, more or less costly,
according to their means. It is still a custom in
India, at a wedding, to bore a fresh Pearl, as an em-
blem of maiden purity. Tavernier was allowed in 1665,
to see the throne of the Grand Mogul, Aurungzeb,
the most powerful sovereign of Hindustan, and he
has given a very elaborate account of this throne
in his Voyages. ‘‘The arched roof of the throne,”
he says, “is entirely ornamented with diamonds and
Pearls, and all round is a fringe of Pearls. Over the

same stands a peacock, with its outstretched tail of

26 Pearls.

blue sapphires and other coloured stones; its body is
of gold, ornamented with stones; and on its breast
sparkles a great ruby, from which hangs a pear-
shaped Pearl of a yellowish colour, about 200 grains.
But the most costly part of this wonderful throne
is the pillars which support the roof. Round these
are twined rows of Pearls of splendid quality, one
of which weighs from six to ten carats. Four feet
from the throne stand, on either side, two sun
umbrellas of red velvet, embroidered in Pearls and
with a Pearl fringe; the umbrellas stand seven or _
eight feet high, and their sticks glitter with diamonds,

rubies and Pearls.”

Pearls were used in the East as tributes of war
paid by the conquered to the conquerors. We are
told that king Partab Chund, (A.D. 500) after he had
conquered and ravaged the countries of Cabul and the
Punjaub, brought, amongst other things, as tribute
to Chosroes II. of Persia, 1000 lbs of aloe-wood and
a box full of the most costly Pearls. Malik Allah,
captured in 1290, at Deogiri, (now called Dowlatabad)
15,000 lbs of gold, 175 lbs-of Pearls, and 56 tmeeen

other beautiful jewels.

In the Hindu drama called the “ Mrichchakati,”
written by the royal author, Sudraka, who lived about
the first century (B.C. or A.D.), there is an account

of a fierce elephant, which had broken loose and

China. 27

ran about the streets, to the terror and horror of
the inhabitants, who in their fright tore off their
girdles and anklets, scattering their Pearls and dia-
monds upon the ground in all directions. In the
same drama, there is a description of the jewellers’
court, the entrance to which was through a gateway
of gold and many-coloured gems, on a ground of
sapphires, while inside were skilled artists examining

Pearls, topazes and other jewels ; some setting rubies

in gold, and some stringing Pearls.

China.

It appears, from information collected by Mr. F.
Hague, that as early as 223 centuries before the
commencement of the Christian era, Pearls were used
as a tribute or tax in China, In the “ Bh-’ya,” the
oldest Chinese dictionary, compiled more than a
thousand years B.C., Pearls are mentioned as precious
products of the western part of the empire. At
first, the Chinese used only fresh-water Pearls. The
Emperor Wuti, who lived 140— 86, B.c., sent ships
to the Indian Ocean for the purpose of procuring
Pearls. After the introduction of Buddhism, “moni-
Pearls” are often mentioned in Buddhist writings. It
is related that in the middle of the 11th century, A.D.,
an embassy was sent by an Indian king to the
Court of the Chinese emperor, to pay tribute to

him. According to the custom of their country, the

28 Pearls.

ambassadors knelt at the door of the aiidigigess
chamber, bearing in their hands a golden tray full of
Pearls and gold work. On approaching the throne,
they threw the contents of the tray at the feet of
the emperor; much to the delight of the courtiers,
who were permitted to gather them up, and divide

them amongst themselves.

Marco Polo, in his work on China, tells us that
Kubla Khan, the founder of -the 20th Chinese
dynasty, who died in 1294, A.D., always presented
his followers at great public festivals, with robes
embroidered in gold, Pearls, and other jewels. Mingti,
another Chinese ruler, notorious for his lavish ex-
penditure, is said to have had his throne, his furni-
ture, horses’ trappings, carriages, and his own and
his courtiers’ robes, so profusely covered with Pearls,
that after public processions the ground was often
literally strewn with them. The Chinese Emperor,
Kanghi (1661—1722), presented to the Temple of
the Goddess of Grace, on the Buddhist island of
Poets, an image of herself, finished in gold. It was
five inches high, and the torso consisted of a single

beautiful Pearl.

The repeated mention of Pearls in the history
of China, and the use made of them to decorate idols,
and as tribute, show the honour in which the Chinese

have always held these jewels. In our own day,

China. 29

Pearls are still very highly prized among the Chinese.
The Emperor wears upon his cap, three golden
dragons, embroidered and crowned with Pearls.
Pearl buttons decorate the caps of the Mandarins
and denote their rank. Chinese ladies are par-
ticularly fond of Pearl-embroidered shoes, in which
to encase their tiny feet. In the sacking of the
Summer Palace, or Yuen-Min-Yuen in 1860, the
Allied forces found treasures of exquisitely carved
jade, gold and silver, Pearls, precious jewels of jade
and rubies, carved lapis-lazuli, priceless furs and
the richest silks; such treasures indeed as could
only have been accumulated by a long dynasty of
Celestial rulers. The French taking advantage of
a circuitous approach, at once proceeded to sack
the palace ere the British soldiers guessed their
intention. Consequently when the latter were allowed
to join in the work of devastation and indiscriminate
plunder, all the most obviously valuable treasures
had already been removed, while the floors were
strewn knee-deep with broken fragments of price-
less china, and every.sort of beautiful object, too
cumbersome or too fragile for rough-and-ready
removal, and therefore ruthlessly smashed with the
butt ends of muskets. From 100 to 150 of the
large Pearls were brought to England, their average
weight being about 35 grains each—but they were

of a yellowish hue, and were spoiled by having

30 | Pearls.

large holes drilled through them. They had been
obtained from the troops in exchange, and _ still
had pieces of gold hanging from them, just as
they had been snatched from the idols which they
had decorated. The value of these Pearls was about

£20,000.

Persia.

The passion for Pearls, which at all times was
strongly marked among the Medes and Persians,
probably reached its zenith after the victory over
Croesus. Pearls were prized by the Persians more
highly than gold, or any other article of adorn-
ment. All the early Queens of Persia are repre-
sented as wearing ear-rings composed of three
Pearls graduated in size, one above the other, the
largest being at the bottom. The portraits of
_Sassanian kings, shew a Pearl of great size, pendant
from the right ear. The Persian nobles also wore
in the right ear a golden ornament, containing
Pearls—a fashion which also prevailed at a later
period in Athens, amongst youths of noble birth.
The women even wore a ring through the Je
nostril, upon which were strung three Pearls, and
round their head a band, from which hung pendants
of jewels.‘or Pearls: The kings of the Medes
and: Persians wore splendid bracelets and necklaces

of Pearls; Pearls too were lavishly employed in

Persia. ay

their trappings and equipages, and to this day
Pearls play a prominent part in all great festivals
in Persia. At the enthronement of a new king,
it is said to be the custom to shower Pearls upon
him,

The unrivalled Pearl which king Perozes tore
from his right ear at the moment of falling into
the horrible pit-fall prepared for him and his army
by the Ephthalite Huns, and which he cast into
fie abyss before him, was lost for ever. ©The
story is told by the old Greek historian, Procopius,
who adds that, although the Emperor Anastasius
promised the finder of the Pearl five hundred-

weight of gold pieces, the search was in vain.

Babylonian dignitaries and priests wore strings
of beautiful Pearls. Most of these Pearls were, no
doubt, derived from the fisheries in the Gulf of
Persia, but possibly some may have come from

more distant sources.

Huren, in his“ Historical Researches,” -vol.. i.
tells us that there can be no doubt that Pearls
were obtained from Ceylon, and exchanged with
the Babylonians for other merchandise, for we read
of Indian Pearl fisheries as well as those of the
Persian Gulf. Nearchus, in mentioning the latter
of these adds, “ Pearls are fished up here as well

as in the Indian Sea.” The best ancient account

32 Pearls

of the Pearl fisheries of the Persian Gulf is given -
by the Greek historian, Isidorus of Charace, in his

description of the Parthian empire.

Palestine, &c.

There can be but little doubt that the ancient
Hebrews valued Pearls, and used them for orna-
mental purposes. Probably they obtained them by
commerce with the neighbouring nations, especially
the Phcenicians. Yet it is notable that the Hebrew
word, gadish, translated “ Pear]” in our English
version, occurs only once in the Old Testament.
“No mention shall be made of coral, or of Pearls,
for the price of wisdom is above rubies,” (Job
xxviii.. 18). Even here it is highly probable that
the word rendered as Pearl really applies to rock-

crystal, or some other substance than Pearl.

The Talmud contains many references to
Pearls, and we may quote one legend showing that
at that time there was but one object in nature

worthy to be ranked higher than Pearls.

On approaching Egypt, the patriarch Abraham,
aware of the fascinating beauty of his wife, Sarah,
hid her in a chest, that none might behold her
charms. But when he was come to the place of
paying custom, the officer said ‘“ Pay custom,” and

he answered, “I will pay thee custom.” Then they

Egypt. 33.

tried to discover what this box contained, and
suggested clothes, gold, fine silk, and at last as the
most costly thing, Pearls, to all of which he re-
plied that he would pay custom for them. Then
they-said, “It cannot be, but, thou open the box,
and let us see what is therein. So they opened
the box, and the whole land of Egypt was illumined
by the brilliancy of Sarah’s beauty, transcending

even that of Pearls.

The New Testament shews us best how much
the Pearl was prized among the Jews. The parable
of “the Pearl of great price” (Matt. xiii, 45), and
our Lord’s allusion to casting Pearls before swine,
(Matt. vii, 6), are familiar references to the high
value set upon Pearls. In the time of the apostles,
Hebrew women were notorious for their extrava-
gance, and fastened their hair with strings of
Pearls. The author of the Apocalypse ornaments
his brides with the most costly jewels, among which
Pearls are not forgotten; and finally, he describes
the twelve gates of the Heavenly city as formed

of twelve Pearls, (Rev. xxi. 21).

Lepr .

It is probable that Pearls, like other Indian
products, were at first brought to Egypt from Arabia ;

but it is known that in later times Egyptian
C

34 : Pearls.

merchants were in the habit of visiting India and
purchasing Pearls and other commodities. Pearls are
represented on old Egyptian monuments, and from

time to time, diadems of Pearls have been found in

ancient sarcophagi. »

It would seem that Egyptian women, from the
earliest times, wore ear-rings ; generally simple hoops
of gold, from which hung pendants of precious
stones or Pearls. They wore, likewise, necklaces
made of alternate rows of shells, coral, scarabei,
precious stones and Pearls. One ornament worn
by both sexes was the gorget, upon which Pearls

were embroidered in every conceivable pattern.

Alexandria, a city which, under the Ptolemies,
became the central point of the commerce of the
old World, was the scene of the greatest luxury in
Pearls. We have only to re-call Cleopatra’s won-
derful Pearls, to understand to what an extent this
luxury was carried in Egypt in her day. The
history of these remarkable Pearls will be duly

narrated in the chapter on “ Historical Pearls.”

Greece.

The splendid victory which the Greeks gained
over the Persians about 490 B.C.. made them ac-
quainted with the treasures of Asia. During the

following time of peace, they gave themselves up_

Greece. 35

to the enjoyment of their riches and the extension
of commerce; but gradually their simple tastes be-
came corrupted, and engendered a love of display.
Pearls came into requisition for purposes of deco-
ration. Like the Persian nobles, Grecian men of
rank wore one Pearl ear-ring in the right ear, while
the women wore one in each ear. The women’s
neck ornament, as depicted on Greek vases, consisted
of a string or gold wire hanging loosely round the
neck, with Pearls or precious stones strung upon it.
It is probable that Pearls are referred to by Homer,
in his description of the ear-ornaments of Hera, or
Juno:
“In three bright drops,

Her glittering gems suspended from her ears.”’

Thad xiv.

Theophrastus, the favourite pupil of Aristotle, wri-
ting about 300 B.C., mentions the Pearl under the
name of papyapirne (Margarites). His notice how-
ever is very brief, and though aware that it was
produced by shell-fish, he classes it among precious
stones. In his day, Pearls were valued for necklaces
or bracelets, and in describing their size he compares
them to the eyes of rather large fish. Athenzus,
a learned Greek who lived about 230 A.D., gives a
short description of Pearls, though he represents

them as having been sold for their weight in gold;

36 | Pearls.

a statement which must probably be accepted with
some hesitation. His description is chiefly taken

from the Periplus of India by Androsthenes, —

Italy.

Pearls were probably among the merchandise
brought to Italy from the East, in the very earliest
times. We first hear of them in Rome, during the Ju-
gurthan wars in the second century, B.c. Pliny tells us
that the taste for Pearls dated from the return of
Pompey, after his successful expedition against Mi-
thridates, in whose palace a priceless collection of
Pearls was found, which being carried off, formed the
nucleus of a Museum in Rome. The same writer
informs us that Pearls took precedence over all other
gems, and commanded a higher price than even

diamonds.

Perhaps one of the grandest displays recorded
in ancient history was that presented in the triumph
of Pompey after the third Mithridatic war (B.c. 61).
The victor exhibited, among other rich trophies,
thirty-three crowns made. of Pearls; a templewar
the Muses surmounted with a dial; a portrait of
himself in Pearls, probably a kind of Mosaic, and
thirty head-bands of Pearls, which were deposited
in the Temple of Venus. In the same temple was
also suspended, as an offering by the great Cesar,
a. shield studded with British Pearls; and indeed,

Ttaly. oF

history has preserved the tradition that the quest
of Pearls was one of the inducements that tempted
the Romans to invade Britain. Tacitus however, who
enumerates Pearls among the products of our island,

describes them as being small and of inferior colour.

After this period the passion for Pearls became
quite a furore in Rome. The philosopher Seneca,
sharply rebuked the Roman women for wearing so
many Pearls. He declared they would not bend nor
yield obedience to their husbands until double or
treble the value of their own settlements was dang-
ling from their ears. Roman ladies wore necklaces
of Pearls or sometimes one row of Pearls and two
longer rows of either blue or green stones, having
occasional Pearls of particular beauty mixed with
them. A necklace of a-single row of gems was
called a monzile, of two rows a dilium, of three a
trelium. Clusters of Pearls worn as ear-drops were
known as Crofalia, or rattles, because they tinkled

together with the movement’ of the head.

Pliny, who wrote his famous zstorta Naturalis
in the first century of the Christian era, gives a
graphic description of the Pearls and other orna-
ments of a Roman empress at a private party. The
passage is translated by Holland in these quaint
terms: —‘ I myselfe have seene Lollia Paulina (late
wife and after widdow to Caius Caligula the Em-

peror), when shee was dressed and set out, not in

38 Pearls,

stately wise, nor of purpose for some great solem-
nitie, but only when she was to goe unto a wedding
supper, or rather to a feast when the assurance was
made, and great persons they were not that made
the. said feast; I have seen her, I say, so beset
and bedeckt all over with Emeraulds and Pearles,
disposed in rowes, rankes, and courses one by
another, round about the attire of her head, her
cawle, her borders, her perruke of hair, her bon-
grace and chaplet; at her ears pendant, about her
neck in a carcanet, upon her wrest in bracelets, and
on her fingers in rings; that she glittered and
shone againe like the sun as she went. The value
of these ornaments she esteemed and rated at 400
hundred thousand sestertij (about £400,000 sterling
of our money); and offered openly to prove it out

of hand by her books of accounts and reckonings.”

Pliny states that in his day, the love of Pearls —
was so widely spread in Rome, that even women
of the poorer classes strove to secure the coveted

ornaments.

“Now adaies also it is growne to this passe,
that meane women and poore men’s wives affect
to weare them, because they would be thought
rich ; and a by-word it is among them, that a faire
Pearle at a woman’s eare is as good in the street

where she goeth, as an huisher to make way, for

Italy. 39

that every one will give such the place. Nay, our
gentlewomen are come now to weare them upon
their feet, and not at their shoe latchets onely, but
also upon their startops and fine buskins, which
they garnish all over with Pearle. For it will not
suffice nor serve their turne to carie Pearles about
with them, but they must tread upon Pearles, goe
among Pearles, and walke, as it were, on a pave-

ment of Pearles,”

Pearls also decorated the altars in the Roman
temples, and the furniture of the houses, while
the arms and the trappings of the horses, and of

war-chariots shone with them.

Nero offered to Jupiter Capitolinus the first
cuttings of his beard in a golden vase decorated

with beautiful Pearls,

Caligula wore them in profusion, and had his

slippers embroidered with them.

An eye-witness, Philo Judzus, tells us that the
couches upon which the Romans reclined at meal-
times were ornamented with tortoise-shell and ivory,
and shone with gold and Pearls. He adds further,
that upon the couches lay purple coverings em-
broidered in gold or Pearls. Nero distributed them

lavishly among his favourites, and to such an

40 Pearls,

extent was the fashion carried, that a lady’s position
in society was estimated by the number and
value of the Pearls she wore on any public occasion.
Hence the J/argaritaria, or Pearl merchants, drove
a flourishing trade by the loan of Pearls)> ime
relics of females exhumed from the ashes of Pompeii,
have in some cases been found decorated with

Pearl ear-rings.

Various sumptuary laws were issued under suc-
cessive emperors for the purpose of stemming the
tide of extravagance which threatened to ruin all
classes. Julius Cesar issued an edict, prohibiting
the use of purple and of Pearls to all persons who
were not of a certain rank, and these were only to
wear them on occasions of public ceremonies. Un-
married women were forbidden to wear precious
stones, gems or Pearls—an edict which led to a
great increase in the number of marriages in every

city throughout the empire.

The last of the sumptuary laws was passed by
the Emperor Leo, in the year 460 A.D. and for-
bade all persons of whatever quality, to enrich
their baldrics, or the bridles and saddles of their

horses with Pearls, emeralds, or hyacinths.

In the dark ages which followed the ruin of

the Roman Empire, the Oriental trade in Pearls,

Europe in the Middle Ages. 4I

which had at one time threatened to exhaust the

wealth of the West, ultimately dwindled into obscurity.

Europe in the Middle Ages.

Throughout the early part of the Middle Ages,
the city of Constantinople, or the ancient Byzantium,
the capital of the Eastern Empire, was the centre of
all culture and art. This city was especially rich in
Pearls. The crowns and diadems of the Eastern
Emperors were wrought in the richest gold, decorated
with Pearls, precious stones, and enamel. The most
ancient crown known to us,—the Hungarian crown
of St, Stephen, presented to him by. the Pope in
the year 1001 A.D., when Hungary became: an
empire—was obtained from Byzantium. This crown
is richly ornamented with Pearls and jewels. When
it was pledged by Queen Elizabeth of Hungary
to the Emperor Frederic IV, it was described as

containing 320 Pearls.

The German imperial crown which dates from the
time of Charlemagne, is ornamented with numerous
Pearls, strung upon gold wire, and round it is
written, in Pearls, “Chonradus Dei Gratia Romanorum

Imperator Augustus.”

In the time of Charlemagne, (born 742; died

814 A.D.), a favourite decoration consisted of large

42 Pearls.

gold rings, set with precious stones and Pearls, worn
on the neck and arms, and in the ears. The women
interwove gold thread or strings of Pearls in their
hair, and bound fillets round their heads, which were
often richly decorated with precious stones and
Pearls. The embroidered borders of their robes and

their shoes too were richly worked in Pearls.

The 12th and 13th centuries, the age of chivalry,
were particularly luxurious, and the coats of arms
worn by the knights were made of gold or silver
stuff, velvet or silk, and embroidered in gold, silver,

Pearls or precious stones,

Pearls were used so extravagantly, not only by
the nobles, but also among the middle classes, in
rich towns, that certain laws were passed to put a
limit to their use’; Philippe: le Bel of France, ({bomn
1268; died 1314 A.D.) forbade the burgher classes
to wear ornaments of gold, precious stones, or Pearls.
The Council of Zurich, held in 1411, published an
order forbidding women or girls to wear more than
one Pearl head-band, which was not to weigh more
than 6 oz. Many noble families having been ruined
by their excessive expenditure on clothes, a council
of knights was called before the 28th great Tour-
nament at Wiirzburg, which decided that no gold
or Pearl ornaments should be worn, unless hidden

from view! Women also were not to have their

Europe in the Middle Ages. 43

dresses embroidered in Pearls. In Saxony, even
imitation Pearls were forbidden, and in Hamburg
women so loaded themselves with gold and jewels
that a mandate was issued forbidding them to wear
more than one gold chain: copies of this mandate
were posted on the town wall and at the corners
of the principal streets. The church, too, preached
against luxury in dress, but all to no purpose: the
women continued to wear Pearls and precious gems
in spite of ecclesiastical denunciation. But the
greatest splendour of the Middle Ages was to be
seen at the Court of the great house of Burgundy,
from the time of Philip the Bold to that of Charles
the Bold. Their magnificence far outshone that of
the kings of France and the German Emperors.
Magnificent jewels that can be traced back to the
time of the last dukes of Burgundy are to this
day reckoned among the most valuable possessions
of the crowns of France and Austria. Charles the
Bold surpassed all other princes of his line in
magnificence. When, in 1473, he attended the Im-
perial Diet at Treves, he wore a dress of cloth
of gold, richly embroidered with Pearls. At the
banquet which he gave to the Emperor Frederick IIL.,
the goblets shone with precious stones and Pearls.
When in the same year he went to Dijon, he was
resplendent with Pearls and diamonds; and the

crown which he wore on his triumphal entry into

44. Pearls.

Nancy in 1475, was so covered with diamonds and

Pearls as to be worth the value of a “ whole duchy.”

At the famous meeting between Henry VIII.
and Francis 1. on the Field of the Cloth of Geld
(A.D. 1520), the banqueting chamber was hung with
tissue raised with silver, and framed with cloth of
silver raised with gold; while the seams were
covered with broad wreaths of goldsmith’s work,
set with precious stones and Pearls. The foot carpet
of the English Queen’s Throne was also embroidered
with Pearls: When: “Henry VUHI. met ‘hiseipeee:
Anne of Cleves, he wore,-we are told, a-coat vor
purple velvet, embroidered in gold and clasped with
great buttons of diamonds, rubies, and Oriental Pearls;
and acollar richly ornamented with Pearls and precious
stones. Anne of Cleves’ wedding dress was a gown
of cloth of gold thickly embroidered with large
flowers of Pearls. Queen Mary wore at her wedding
a dress richly brocaded in gold, and a train mag-
nificently bordered with Pearls and diamonds.
The sleeves were turned up with clusters of gold
set with Pearls and diamonds. Elizabeth wore at a
tournament given in Mary’s reign, on December
20th, 1554, a white satin dress decorated waen

large Pearls.

Queen Elizabeth had a perfect passion for or-

naments, especially jewellery of all kinds, and her

Europe in the Middle Ages. 45

courtiers were constantly impoverishing themselves
in order to minister to her foibles. The costly
parure of Pearls belonging to the unfortunate Mary
Queen of Scots, which Elizabeth bought for much
less than its value, is thus described by the French
ambassador at the English court: “There are six
cordons of large Pearls strung as paternosters, but
there are five and twenty separate from the rest,
much finer and larger than those which are strung;

these are for the most part like black muscades.”

The discovery of America brought fresh treasures
@eeecnis atid Pearls to Europe. “As in the .Old
World, so in the New, they were used to decorate
the gods and their temples, and were also worn by
the natives, high and low. The temple in which
the Governor of Mexico, Montezuma, used to pray
at night, had walls of beaten silver and gold, de-
corated with Pearls and precious stones. Among
the presents which Ferdinand Cortez received from
Montezuma, and which he sent to Europe to
Charles V. (I. of Spain), were necklaces of rubies,
emeralds and costly Pearls. Fernando de Soto, in
his expedition against Florida (in 1539) found great
quantities of Pearls, and the Cacique Ichioha pre-
sented him with a splendid string of Pearls long
enough to go three times round his neck, and to

reach to his waist. As in Cleopatra’s time in Egypt,

46 Pearls.

so in Florida, the graves of the kings were deco-
rated with Pearls. Soto’s soldiers found in one of
their temples, great wooden coffins, in which the
dead lay embalmed, and beside them were small
baskets full of Pearls. The temple of Tolomecco,
however, was the richest in Pearls; its high walls
and roof were of Mother-of-Pearl, while strings of
Pearls, and plumes of feathers hung round the walls ;
over the coffins of their kings, hung their shields,
crowned with Pearls, and in the centre of the temple

stood vases full of costly Pearls.

To return to the history of Pearls in Europe;
we find them much worn both by men and women
during the 16th and 17thcenturies. Marie dé Medici,
wife of Henry IV. of France, wore at the christening
of her son (1601) a gorgeous dress ornamented with
3,000 diamonds and 32,000 Pearls, valued at 60,000

crowns.

The Elector Maximilian of Bavaria, in 1635,
sent his bride, the daughter of the Emperor
Ferdinand II.,a present of a string of 300 selected

Pearls each of which cost 1,000 gulden (about 4100).

Table decorations were also very magnificent
at that time, and Charles II. of Spain, in 1680, pre-
sented his wife with an ornament in the form of

a salad, in which the leaves’ were represented

Europe in the Middle Ages. 47

by enormous emeralds, the vinegar by sparkling
rubies, the oil by yellow topazes, and the salt by

Pearls.

Notwithstanding the dire consequences of the
Thirty Years’ war, immense sums were expended
during the 17th century upon ornaments and
luxury of all kinds. Knightly orders, sword and
hat knots, rings, shoe buckles, waistcoat buttons—
all glittered with gems, The stomacher and the
enormous collar and ruff, both richly trimmed with
Pearls and jewels, were also introduced about this
time. In the 18th century precious stones were less
lavishly employed, especially after the French
Revolution, and dress in general came to be
characterized by greater simplicity.

¥

CHAPTER aT

——$—$—_—$<<<—

ANCIENT IDEAS ON THE ORIGIN AND VIRTUES

OF PEARLS.

‘‘ And precious the tear as the rain from the sky,
Which turns into Pearl as it falls in the sea.”
—Thomas Moore.

F all subjects connected with the study
of Pearls, none is more fascinating

than that referring to the ideas which

were entertained by ancient philosophers and poets,
regarding the origin and occult virtues of these
beautiful gems. Among the ancient Persians, by
whom Pearls were very highly extolled, a solar
origin was attributed to them—an idea which har-
monized well with the sun and fire-worship of the
followers of Zoroaster. Such an idea is expressed

by the poet Sheikh Fizee, and is found in an

Ancient Ideas on their Origin and Virtues, 49

inscription occurring on the obverse of the principal
gold coin of the Shah Akbar; this has been

translated as follows :—

** The sun from whom the seven seas obtained Pear/s,
The black stone from his rays obtains the jewel ;
The mine from the correcting influence of his beams obtains
gold,
And gold is ennobled by the impression of Shah Akbar.”

It may be mentioned incidentally, that this same
Shah “ennobled” a diamond by having his name
engraved upon it, as duly recorded in the author’s
work on diamonds. See “The Great Diamonds of

the World,” chap. xxxvi., p. 232.

The most wide-spread notion respecting the
origin of Pearls, as briefly mentioned in our in-
troductory chapter, is that which regards them as
formed by dew and rain received into the gaping
shell of the Pearl-oyster. This explanation of their
origin is well set forth by Pliny, whose passage on
the subject is thus quaintly rendered into English
by old Dr. Holland :—

“This shell-fish, which is the mother of Pearle,
differeth not much in the manner of breeding and
generation from the oysters, for when the season
of the yeere requireth that they should engender,
seeme to yawne and gape, and so doe open wide ;
and then (by report) they conceive a certaine moist

dew as seed, wherewith they swell and grow bigge;
D

50 ~ Pearls,

and when time commeth, labour to be delivered
hereof; and the fruit of these shell-fishes are the
Pearls, better or worse, great or small, according
to the qualitie and quantitie of the dew which
they received. For if the dew°were pure) aud
cleare which went into them, then are the Pearles
white, faire, and orient; if grosse and _ troubled,
the Pearles likewise are dimme, foule and duskish ;
pale (I say) they are, if the weather were close,
darke, and threatning raine in the time of their
conception. _Whereby, no doubt, it is apparent
and plaine that they participate more of the aire
and skie} than of the water and-the Sea :) for eae
cording as the morning is faire, so are they cleare ;
otherwise, if it were mistie and cloudie, they also
will be thicke and muddie in colour. If they may
have their full time and season to feed, the Pearles
also will thrive and grow bigge; but if in the time
it chaunce to lighten, then they close their shells
togither, and for want of nourishment are kept
hungrie and fasting, and so the Pearles keepe at a
-Stay and prosper not accordingly. But if it thun-
der withall, then sodainly they shut hard at once,
and breed onely those excrescences which be called
Physemata, \ike unto bladders puft up and hooved
with wind, ond no corporall substance at all; and
these are the abortive and untimely fruits of

these shell-fishes. Now those that have their full

Ancient Ideas on their Origin and Virtues. 51

perfection, and may be sound and good indeed, have
many folds and skins wherein they be lapt, not
unproperly as it may be thought, a thicke, hard,
and callous rind of the bodie, which they that be
skilfull doe pill and cleanse from them. Certes, I
cannot chuse but wonder how they should so
greatly be affected with the aire, and joy so much
therein: for with the same they wax red, and loose
their native whitenesse and beautie, even as the
bodie of a man or woman that is caught and burnt
with the sunne. And therefore those shells that
keepe in the maine sea, and lie deeper than that
_ the sun-beames can pierce unto them, keepe the
finest and most delicate Pearles. And yet they,
as orient as they be, waxe yellow with age, become
riveled, and looke dead, without any lively vigor ;
so as that commendable orient lustre (so much
sought for of our great lords and costly dames),
continueth but in their youth, and decayeth with
yeeres. When they be old, they will proove thicke
and grosse in the very shells, and sticke fast unto
their sides, so as they cannot be parted from them,
unlesse they be filed asunder. These have no
more but one faire face, and on that side are
round, for the back part is flat and plaine, and
hereupon such are called Zympania, mS one would

say, Bell Pearles.”

A similar notion as to the origin of Pearls is

52 Pearls.

poetically expressed in the following lines translated
irom the Lapidarium of Marbodus, a writer of the

first century, A.D.—

‘‘ At certain seasons do the oysters lie
With valves wide gaping t’ ward the teeming sky
And seize the falling dews, and pregnant breed
The shining globules of th’ Ethereal seed.”

The assumed connexion between the character
of the Pearl and the atmospheric influences which
ruled at the time of its formation, finds expression

in the following couplet from the same poem :—

‘Brighter the offspring of the morning dew;
The evening yields a duskier birth to view.”

Other writers again give rather fuller details of the
process of Pearl formation, and inform us that—‘“‘ On
the sixteenth day of the month, Nisan, the oysters
rise to receive the rain drops, which are afterwards

made into Pearls.”

This curious legend probably furnishes us with
a clue to the nature of the gem translated Ldellium,
mentioned in the description of the Garden of
Eden, (Gen. ii., 12) and already alluded to in the
introductory chapter of this work. Benjamin of
Tolida, when writing of the Indian Seas in the
vicinity of Kathipha (Ethiopia), says ‘The stone
called Ldellius is found made by wonderful work-

manship of nature, for on the twenty-fourth day

Ancient Ideas on thetr Origin and Virtues. 53

of the month Nisan, a certain dew falleth down
into the waters, which being gathered, the inhabi-
tants wrap together, and being fast closed they
cast it into the sea, that it may sink of its own
accord to the bottom of the sea, and in the middle
of the month Tisri, two men being let down by
ropes unto the bottom, bring up certain creeping
worms, which they have gathered, into the open air,
out of which—being broken and cleft—these stones

are taken.”

It is worthy of remark that this rain or dew-—
origin of Pearls as we may call it—was found by
Columbus to exist among the semi-savages of the
New World :—

“The natives entertained the old fanciful idea
which the earlier naturalists’ did; they supposed
the Pearls formed from petrified dew-drops, in con-
nexion with sunbeams. We can therefore well
credit the astonishment of Columbus and his mari-
ners when in the Gulf of Paria they first found
oysters clinging to the branches of trees, their shells
gaping open to receive the dew which was after-

wards to be transformed into Pearls.”

The oyster here alluded to is the Dendrostrea
or “Tree Oyster,” a mollusc which is to be found

upon the roots or branches of mangrove trees

4 Pearls.

iS §

overhanging the water, and may with its “shells

?

gaping open to receive the dew” have been the

innocent cause of this fanciful idea.

‘This dew-origin of Pearls affords such ample
opportunities for the play of fancy, that it is not
surprising that poets and moralists should have
considered Pearls fit subjects for imaginative writing,
using them not only as poetic metaphors, but to
teach many moral lessons. The virtue of humility,
as embodied in the Christian precept that “ Who-
soever humbleth himself shall be exalted,” is forcibly
inculcated in the following parable recorded in the

“ Bostan” by the Oriental poet, Sadi :—

“A drop of water fell one day from a cloud
into the sea. Ashamed and confounded on finding
itself in such an immensity of water, it exclaimed,
‘What am I in comparison with this vast ocean ?
my existence is less than nothing in this boundless
abyss.’ Whilst it thus discoursed of itself, a Pearl-
shell received it into its bosom, and fortune so
favoured it, that it became a magnificent and
precious Pearl, worthy of adorning the diadem of
kings. Thus was its humility the cause of its
elevation, and by annihilating itself it merited

exaltation.”

The same sentiment, but in more modern

Ancient Ideas on their Origin and Virtues. 55

language, is poetically expressed in the following
verses by the late Archbishop Trench :— |

‘A dew-drop falling on the ocean wave
Exclaimed in fear ‘I perish in this grave;’
But in a shell received, that drop of dew
Unto a Pearl of wondrous beauty grew ;

And happy now the grace did magnify,

Which thrust it forth (as it had feared) to die;
Until again, ‘I perish quite,’ it said, %
Torn by rude diver from its ocean bed.

Vain apprehension! soon it gleamed a gem,
Chief jewel of a monarch’s diadem.”

We can well imagine that so chaste and
charming a gem as the Pearl should be deemed
worthy of a more sacred birth than that arising
from a drop of common rain or dew, and hence
arose the highly poetical idea that Pearls were
formed from tears wept by angels, or shed by
mortals under circumstances of peculiar trial. Thus,
in “The Bridal of Triermain,’ Sir Walter Scott

writes :—

J See the Pearls that long have slept,
These were tears by Naiades wept.”

So Shakespeare finds a similar idea in the

following lines :—

‘ The liquid drops of tears that you have shed,
Shall come again transformed to Orient Pearl,
Advantaging their loan with interest,

Of ten times double gain of happiness.”

The favorite poetical idea that Pearls were

“angels’ tears” has been beautifully expressed in

56 Pearls.

Buckert’s Basen und Pope a translation of which

appeared in the “ Foreign Monthly Review” for 18309.

‘‘T was the angel, who of old bowed down
From heaven to earth and shed that tear, O Pearl,

From which thou wert first fashioned in thy shell.

Pre ke * * * * *
To thee I gave that longing in thy shell,
Which guided thee and caused thee to escape,

O Pearl, from the bewitching siren’s song.”

It is difficult to say when this dew-origin of
Pearls ceased to find supporters; but as late as
1684, a member of a high Venetian family had a
medal struck, on the reverse of which is an open
oyster-shell receiving the drops of rain, with the
motto Rore Divine, ‘““By the divine dew.”

The old English traveller, Mandeville, writing»
in the fourteenth century, quaintly argues as

follows :—

“For right as the fine Pearl congels and grows
great by the dew of Heaven, so doth the true
diamond. -And right as the Pearl by ‘its“jows
nature takes roundness, so the diamond by virtue

of God, takes squareness.”

The presence of the Tree-oyster or Dendrostrea,
before alluded to, may have given rise to the dew-
origin of Pearls, in those localities in which this

oyster occurs, It is, however, to India that we must

Ancient Ideas on their Origin and Virtues. 57

look for the true home of the many other fanciful
ideas which have been entertained regarding the
origin of Pearls. Some of these have reached the
western world almost unchanged; others have
' received, in their march, such local colourings, ad-
ditions, or alterations, as were prompted by the
philosophy of the countries through which they
passed. So extensive is the literature, and so many
and diverse are the superstitions recorded, that one
would think the ingenuity of even the Oriental
imagination must have been stretched to its utmost
limit in dealing with this subject. Not to weary
the patience of the reader with a mass of details,
we will content ourselves with merely glancing at
a few of the principal superstitions. Our informa-
tion on this head has been derived chiefly from a
work entitled “Mani-Mala,” that is ‘Chain of Gems,”

written by a native Indian Prince.

“It is generally believed,” says this writer,
at the.” Pearl originates in clouds, elephants,
boars, conch-shells, fish, serpents, oysters, and bam-
boos,—of which oysters bear the largest share in
their production.” To treat them in the order here
mentioned, we will first deal with the reputed for-

mation of Pearls by Clouds.

“The Pearl which originates in the water-drop

from the clouds, is a gem of the first rank and a

58 Pearls.

rarity ; the gods appropriate it from the sky

Of. cloud-begotten Pearls, those which resemble a
hen’s egg, which are beautifully circular, substantial,
weighty, and bright as the sun, are enjoyable by
the gods, and cannot be obtained by men.” The
Oriental imagination descrikes them as “Clad in

the mighty effulgence of the mid-day sun.”

“A cloud-begotten Pearl is a blessing not only
to its owner, but it shoots its blessed influence a
hundred yojanas, (a yojana is said to be equal to
about one Europeon league), beyond the precincts
of the dominion of the king possessing it.” As to its
value as a talisman, we read that “This world
ornamented by the four oceans, the hone of the
most splendid gems of infinite variety, can scarcely
equal in value one cloud-generated Pearl, and if
by rare good fortune, a person belonging to the
very lowest order comes in possession of such a
| Pearl, he shall reign paramount in this world, so long

as the gem is with him.”

Clouds are produced by the union of three
things—water, energy, and air—and the resulting
Pearls are divided into three corresponding classes,
according to the preponderance of one or more of.

these elements,

“Pearls that originate in the head of the Elephants
of Khambogia are large as the fruit of the emédlic

Ancient Ideas on their Origin and Virtues. 59

Myrobalan, heavy, and more yellow, but not more
Justrous than the other kinds.” Persons who have
studied the elephant with particular attention, have
divided it into four classes, after the names of the
four cardinal divisions of the Hindoos ; accordingly
Pearls derived from elephants are classed under
four heads, “and were believed to produce good

fortune.”

Pearls which originate in the head of the Boar
are generally white, like the tusks of that animal,
and “as boars are divided into four orders, after
the four cardinal castes, even so are the Pearls
which are produced by them.” ‘A Boar-begotten

Pearl is not to be obtained by a meritless individual.”

A Pearl derived from the Conch-shell is of large
dimensions, has the same colour as the inner sur-
face of that shell-fish, and is productive of good
fortune to its possessor. ‘* There are twenty-seven
kinds of Conch-shells; accordingly, Pearls gene-
rated in them, being marked out by distinctive

qualities, are divided into twenty-seven orders.”

Pearls attained from the mouth of Sea-jish
are singularly round, small, and light.. Those which
originate in whales are “agreeably round, but not

highly lustrous.” Fishes are divided into seven

60 Pearis.

kinds, according to the preponderance of one, two,
or all of their three vital properties—air, bile, and
cold: consequently there are several kinds of Pearls

in this class.

Pearls which originate in the crest of Serpents,
are beautifully round, and are enbosomed in a blue
halo of surpassing glory, like the flash of a polished
sword. These, persons void of merit are denied the
privilege of even looking at; the serpents who bear
them are the descendants of Vasuki, sovereign of
the snakes, are not born everywhere, and are rarely
seen by men in some sacred ground. These Pearls
are divided into four classes, called after the names
of the principal castes, while as regards their great
value, we are told that, “ The power which is attained
by virtuous people, through the possession of innu-
merable gems and great wealth, through ordinary
prosperity or through regal good fortune, is obtained

by wearing one serpent-begotten Pearl.”

The Pearls which originate in water - drops
falling upon Oysters when the sun rests upon the
Swati star, are flawless and bright, and i1 size are
in strict concomitance with the size of the water-
drops. In one particular oyster, which is very rare,

the Pearls are white, transparent, and large as

Ancient Ideas on their Origin and Virtues. 61

nutmegs: “they are much coveted.” The fourfold
division of caste holds also with oysters ; accordingly

these Pearls are of four kinds.

Pearls which originate in the Bamboo are clear
as the moon, and are like the kakkol fruit in shape.
They are generally enjoyable by the gods—though
some mortals, through rare merit, obtain possession
of one or two. “There are five species of Bamboo,
consequently these Pearls are classified under five

distinct heads.”

This elaborate account of the various ways in
which different kinds of Pearl may be supposed to
originate, by no means exhausts the possibilities of
their formation, as recognized in the East. Thus
a very prominent Indian belief—one indeed, which
has retained a certain amount of credence even
down to our own times—is that which makes the
ead of the toad one of the many laboratories in
which Nature manufactures Pearls. The same
Indian authority we have already referred to says:
‘In certain places Pearls are found on the head
of frogs; learned men class them with serpent-
Pearls.” This notion was at one time widely pre-
valent in this country, and we find Lupton, in his
book of “ Notable Things” proposing a crucial

test, whereby the true “ Toad-jewel” may be

62 Pearls.

recognized. This idea too is immortalized in those
familiar lines of Shakespeare—

‘‘ Sweet are the uses of adversity,
Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous,
Wears yet a precious jewel in his head.”

That this superstition had its origin in India
there can be little doubt, though in later times the
right of the Pearl to this place of honor has been
called in question, and the rival claims of Amber,
and other precious substances, have each found

their respective supporters.

It is worth noting that in the Malay Archipelago
certain Pearls are said to be found in Coéoa-nuts.
They are of a light yellow colour, generally of the
size of a small marble, and it is difficult to distinguish
them from ivory, or from the yellow porcellanous
Pearls that are produced probably by some uni-valve

mollusc, and often seen in the East.

These Pearls, reputed to have had their birth
in cocoa-nuts, are frequently offered for sale by
the natives ; and Europeans are occasionally tempted

to purchase them at high prices.

According to Chinese tradition, the origin of
certain Pearls may be referred to animals which
would hardly be classed by zoologists as true

Pearl-producers.

By far the most ancient work that is known,

Ancient Ideas on their Origin and Virtues. 63

the “Shan Hai King,” supposed to have been
written B.C. 2255, makes mention of the existence
of Pearls. The 4th book. of this work, or “The
Classic of Mountains and Seas,” refers to the Li
river, one of the affluents of the Tung-Ting lake,
which drains the north-west portion of Hunan. “In
it are many Chu-pick fish” (or water animals).
“These look like lungs, but have eyes and six
feet, and they have Pearls. They taste sour but
pleasant, and are not unwholesome.” The existence
of Chu-pick fish is confirmed in Liishi’s edition of
the Book of Confucius, and they are probably
cuttle-fish with six tentacles. The same book also
states that wild animals were found which looked

like sucking-pigs, but have Pear/s.

Passing now to the significance which has been
assigned by imaginative writers to Pearls, we may
remark that from the earliest times they have been
considered as emblems of purity, beauty, and no-
bility. Among the Romans they came, besides, to
be regarded as emblematical of conjugal bonds, and
upon a very fine sardonyx, portraying the marriage
of Cupid and Psyche, “the high contracting parties ”
are represented joined together by a string of Pearts,
the ends of which are in the hands of the god

Hymen.

In comparatively modern times, however, they

64 Pearts.

acquired a more pathetic significance, and became
the symbol of tears, as already mentioned. Re-
ference is frequently made to them in this connec-
tion by many of our English poets. In his Epigram

on the Marchioness of Winchester, Milton says—

‘“And those Pearls of dew she wears,
Prove to be presaging tears.”

Shakespeare in King John, makes Constance allude

to tears as—

‘“Those heaven-moving Pearls from his poor eyes,”
Which heaven shall take in nature of a fee.”
Indeed they form a frequent metaphor in many of
Shakespeare’s plays. In “The Two Gentlemen ‘of
Verona,” for instance, they assist in making up a
pleasing picture of Valentine’s great wealth in the
possession of Silvia’s love—

‘‘Why man, she is mine own:
And I as rich in having such a jewel
As twenty seas, if all their sand were Pearls,
The water nectar, and the rocks pure gold.”

In Othello’s last, and perhaps most frequently quoted
address after the death of Desdemona, hé prays that
they might speak of him as—

‘“Of one whose hand
Like the base Indian, threw a Pearl away
Richer than all his tribe.”

Pearls have been employed from very ancient

times in the East, in the interpretation of dreams,

Their medicinal qualities. 65

and as preservatives of virtue, the marvellous
properties and talismanic virtues with which the
Pearl was supposed to be endowed, have no doubt
contributed in no small degree, to intensify that
love and admiration which a magnificent Pearl

cannot fail to excite.

The medicinal qualities of Pearls.

In India, China, and other Oriental countries,
Pearls have for ages been supposed to possess valu-
able medicinal properties. Even in our own country,
down to a period not very remote, they found a
place in the Materia Medica, and are mentioned in
many of the pharmaceutical works of the last
century. Thus, in Lewis’ “Experimental History
of the Materia Medica” (4th ed., 1791), we read
that—- “ The coarse rough Pearls and the very small
ones which are unfit for ornamental uses, called vag
Pearl and seed Pearl, are those generally employed
in medicine.” Pearls were prescribed as astringents
and antacids, a use which would be naturally sug-
gested by their chemical composition—carbonate of
lime. Their therapeutic value however, must have
been but slight; while their cost would preclude

them from being universally adopted.

Oriental potentates are said to have burned

Pearls and chewed the lime so produced, with
E

66 ~ Pearls.

the betel nut-and ‘sirth. -In the . Hast) they Swen
credited with the property of strengthening the eyes,
were considered efficacious in hemorrhages, and
were in general use for diseases of the heart, for
ague and indigestion. Though never now prescribed

or used medicinally in this country —for “ Pearl

powders,” and kindred preparations retain nothing
but the name—they are still in repute in China and
some other Eastern countries; large quantities of
seed Pearls are used in the composition of majooms
or electuaries, in the formation of which several
precious stones are sometimes employed. The ma-
joom in which there is a large quantity of Pearls
is much in use for its supposed stimulating and
restorative qualities. At the present time however,
the healing virtue of the Pearl -is regarded with
less favour than .formerly in the East, and as
now recognised and even admitted by their own
writers that “there is nothing in the gems or in the
shells which can render any more beneficial service

than that done by chalk and other antacids.”

We subjoin an extract on the Indian idea of
the supposed medicinal properties of Pearls, from
the Mani-Mala, written in 1881 by the Rajah
Sourindro Mohun Tagore: “The use of Pearls
conduces to contentment of mind and to strength

of body and soul. The burnt powder of this

Their medicinal qualities. GF,

gem if taken in with water, as sherbet, cures
vomiting of blood of all kinds. It prevents evil
spirits working mischief in the minds of men, takes
off bad smell from the mouth, cures lunacy of
all descriptions and all mental diseases, jaundice,
and all diseases of the heart, intestines and stomach.
Burnt Pearl mixed with water and taken into the
nostrils, as a powder, takes away head-sickness,
cures cataract, lachryma and swelling of the eyes,
the painful sensation such as is caused by the entry
of sand into them, and ulcers. It gives them in-
creased lustre. Used as a dentifrice it strengthens
the gums and cleans the teeth. Rubbed over the
body with other medicines it cures leprosy and the
white skin disease, known in Arabic as “ Bahac,” in
Hindo as “Chhip” and in Bengali as “Chhuli.” It
cures all skin diseases. It stops bleeding from cuts
and ultimately heals them up. Whether taken in-
ternally or externally it is a sure antidote to poison.
It drives away all imaginary fears and removes all
bodily pain. To prevent its tendency to affect the
brain it should always be used with the burnt powder
of Basud, and in its absence with that of white
mother-of-pearl. The dose of the Pearl powder

should not exceed 2} mashas.”

“Kerdbadin Kabir contains full instructions as

to how Pearls can be burnt, assimilated and made

68 Pearls.

into pills, powders, oils, and majooms. The following
is one of the processes by which burnt Pearls can
be assimilated with each other. Strain the burnt
powder well, put this into a bottle with some lime
juice, and cork it up. Fill up half of an earthen
vessel (Zandi) with vinegar, and hang the bottle
over it by means of strings from outside, so that it
does not touch the liquid. Cover the vessel up with
an earthen dish, and keep it under a heap of cow-
manure for 14 days. - Then take it -up, aud ater
opening it, the powder having been converted into
water, becomes one congealed lump. According to
some authorities, it is not necessary to pour vinegar
into the vessel ; the result desired might be obtained

by attending to the other conditions of the process.” —

It need scarcely be added that the therapeutic
virtues of the Pearl, extolled in the foregoing quota-

tion, are purely imaginary.

Breeding Peavis.

Amongst all the ideas which have been enter-
tained, both in ancient and more modern times, with
regard to Pearls—grotesque and fanciful though many
of them may be—none appears more romantic than

that of their reputed powers of re-production.

In 1878, the subject of “Breeding Pearls]

Breeding Pearls. 69

occupied the attention of the Royal Asiatic Society
at Singapore, and was introduced to their notice

in a paper read by Dr. N. B. Dennys.

In the Malay Archipelago, and especially on the
coast of Borneo, the natives allege that “ Breeding
Pearls” exist, that is to say, there are Pearls which
possess the power of reproduction or rather yger-
mination. It is asserted that if a few of these
Pearls be placed in a small box with some grains
of rice and a little cotton wool, and then sealed
up, on opening it a few months afterwards, one or
more additional Pearls are found within, and the
original ones none the worse, but the grains of rice
have their ends apparently nibbled off. Many native
women claim to possess these Pearls, and set great
store by them, though they never exceed the size
of a pin’s head, and are not worth, at most, more

than sixpence each.

Credible European evidence was adduced; pros
and cozs were strenuously maintained in the dis-
cussion that followed the reading of Dr. Dennys’
paper. But, as ysual, neither side convinced the
other; and spontaneous creation in the matter of
Pearls still owns its supporters. For our own part,
we cannot conceive it possible that one Pearl can

be developed from another de xovo; however much

70 Pearls.

the “nibbled end” of the rice particle may give

colour to the idea. Yet the author can testify that
after having kept some rice and some Pearls together
in a bon for a long time, the grains of rice, though
originally perfect, have suffered some change, whereby
they present all the appearance of having been
nibbled. While unable to explain this phenomenon,
he does not for a moment believe—although the
belief is entertained by many intelligent Europeans
resident in the East—that it has any connexion with
the reputed re-production of the Pearls: indeed, it
need hardly be added that the Pearls placed with
the rice have not increased either in number or in

magnitude.

CHAPEER. TV.

PEARL BEARERS;

Marine and Fresh-water.

‘Rich honesty dwells like a miser, Sir, in a poor house; as
your /ear/ in your foul oyster.—As You Like /t, Act v. Scene iv.

_-

Z| AVING shewn in the preceding chapters —
how universal is the love of Pearls,

and what a prominent position they

occupy in the fashionable world for purposes of
decoration ; having alluded also to some of the
ideas that have at various times prevailed with
respect to their origin, virtues and_ significance,
we are now led naturally to the consideration of
the principal sources whence our supply of these

valuable gems is derived.

Pearls may be defined, in scientific language,

as calcareous concretions, produced by certain shell-

72 Pearls,

fish or molluscs. The Pearl-bearers of the sea are
commonly known as “Pearl oysters,” though they
present but little resemblance to our “ native oyster.”
Indeed although popularly so called they are not
oysters in the scientific acceptation of the word,
but belong rather to the group of sea-mussels. The
term, however, is so commonly employed and
universally recognised, that it would be pedantry
to abandon it or to attempt to introduce any other

word as a substitute.

For our purpose the Pearl-bearing molluscs
may be conveniertly divided into two great
groups, viz.—

I. The Marine.
Il. The Fresh-water.

All Pearls, whether marine or fluviatile, are
produced by organisms belonging to that great
group of bivalve shell-fish which was termed by
the famous French naturalist, Lamarck, the
Conchifera. This name however is by no means
well-chosen, inasmuch as it literally means “Shell-
bearers” and might therefore with equal propriety
be bestowed upon other molluscs that secrete shells,
such as certain cephalopods and gasteropods. It has
hence become usual to replace the old term Con-

chifera by the better chosen name Lamellibranchiata,

Marine and Fresh-water. 73

a name which was originally proposed by another
French naturalist, De Blainville, and though rather
longer than the older word is certainly more
distinctive. The term Lamellibranchiata simply
means “ Platy gilled,” and has reference to the fact
that in this class of shell-fish the function of respir-
ation is effected by means of two lamellar gills,

placed on each side of the body.

The Lamellibranchiata or Conchifera form the
lowest group of the mollusca, and are characterized by
the absence of any distinctly differentiated part that
can represent a true head ; hence they are sometimes
referred to as the group of acephalous, or headless,
molluscs. They are familiar to every one, under
the form of oysters, scallops, cockles and mussels,
and are found on every coast and in every climate,

ranging from low water mark to a depth of 200

fathoms.

All mollusca are, as their name implies, soft-
bodied animals (so//zs=soft); but this soft body is
usually defended by an external shell, whence the
popular name of “shell-fish,” and whence too the
old scientific term of TZestacea (testa=shell.) The
shell is composed mainly of carbonate of lime, or
as modern chemists sometimes prefer to call it,
carbonate of calcium or calcic carbonate; but this

mineral-substance is associated with more or less

74 Pearls.

organic matter which serves as a uniting medium.
In nacreous or pearly shells we find an intimate
association of the two textures, often in the form of
alternating layers of very thin animal membrane
and carbonate of lime. If digested in weak acid
the calcareous ingredient of such a shell is slowly
removed in solution, while the membranous residue
retains with fidelity the original form of the shell.
The shell is secreted by the soft external integument
of the mollusc known technically as the “mantle,”
since it forms a kind of cloak, enveloping the vis- _
cera or internal organs. The edge, and indeed the
general surface of this delicate membrane, separates
calcareous matter from the food of the mollusc and
from the surrounding medium, and thus slowly builds
up the texture ot the shell. In some molluscs the
shell is formed of only a single piece, or valve, and
hence they are termed Uvzz-valves. The snail, the
whelk, and the nautilus are familiar examples of such
uni-valved mollusca. -But in other cases the shell is
composed of two parts, whence they are termed
Bi-valves. It is to this group, as previously stated,

that all the ordinary Pearl-bearers belong.

Marine Pearls.

The great class of the Lamellibranchiata, or

Marine Pearls. 75

embraces a number of separate families, while these

in their turn comprise numerous genera.

The family Aviculide embraces nearly all the
true marine Pearl-bearers, or Pearl oysters. It takes
its name from the genus Avicula (‘a little bird”’)
so named in consequence of the winged shape of
the shell. The largest quantity of medium sized
Pearls are derived from the’ Meleagrina fucata
(Gould) but the largest Pearls and mother-of-pearl
shell from the Meleagrina margaritifera (Linneus.)
Meleagrina is now commonly regarded as a sub-genus
of Avicula, and the word is therefore often written
within brackets following the name of the true genus,
thus: Avicula (Meleagrina) margaritifera. Although
a great number of Pearls are supplied by various
other species, yet the larger quantity which the
Meleagrina fucata produces, and the fine quality of
Pearls as well as shell yielded by the Margaritifera,
justify us in referring to them at some length, and
adopting them as types of the Pearl-bearers. A
description of them, therefore, will hold true of
ali the others, except in certain scientific points of
difference, which are of more interest to the marine
zoologist than to the lover of gems or to the general

reader.

The Pearl-oyster, Meleagrina fucata, is much

much smaller than the MZ. margaritifera; seldom

76 : Pearls.

exceeding in size the palm of a man’s hand, and
though it exhibits the most brilliant nacre, and pro-
duces fine small Pearls, its shell has but little market
value as mother-of-pearl, being worth only from
20s. to 30s. per ton. On the other hand, the Me-
leagrina margaritifera is considerably larger and
thicker, and yields the most valuable mother - of -
pearl, as well as the finest Pearls, although these
are not numerous. Indeed so pronounced are the
differences between the two species in this respect,
that the former might, with propriety, be called the
“Pearls and the latter then Sicil= oyster.

The number of Pearl-producing molluscs, how-
ever, is by no means confined to the Aviculide:
they are on the contrary members of a very large
eroup, which frequently differ from each other in
almost every other possible respect: indeed their
general configuration is as varied, as their distribu-
tion is widespread ; some delighting in a tropical
heat, deep seas and coral reefs, and others in the
cool water of more northern latitudes and tem-
perate zones. It is with the Pearl oyster of the
Eastern Seas however that we are at present more

immediately concerned.

All true Pearl-bearers have one feature in

common, namely, the close resemblance existing

BLACK PEARL IN HAMMER-OYSTER (Malleus).

Marine Pearls. 77

between the Pearl itself and the shell of the
mollusc producing it. The only shell however of
true commercial value is what is known as mother-
of-pearl shell, the substance of which, termed “ nacre,”
is familiar to every one, and has been transformed
into so many articles of ornament and utility from
a period almost as remote as the introduction of
the Pearl itself. A description of the shell forms

the subject of a separate chapter.

Little need be ‘said about the other marine
shells, which subordinately yield Pearls. From the
Meleagrina Californica Pearls are obtained in the
Gulf of California and the Bay of Panama. Pearls
are occasionally found in the curious J/alleus or
“Hammer Oyster;” in the Pinna, a wedge-shaped
shell usually moored by a byssus or tuft of fibres ;
in the delicate Placuna or “ Window shell;” and
even in the common edible oyster. But the last is
rather a zoological curiosity than an object of

commercial value or artistic interest.

It is perhaps worth mentioning that large
white Pearls are occasionally found in the great
clam shell, 77zdacna gigas. These are always sym-
metrical and of some beauty, having a faint but

pleasing sheen when looked at side-ways, but are

of little or no value. The giant clam is probably the

78 Pearls.

largest shell in existence, and it is occasionally
used for church-fonts: a huge pair, used as benttiers,
in the church of St. Sulpice in Paris, were presented
to Francis I. by the’ Republic .of , Venice; ime
slat is a bi-valve found buried up to the lips,
hinge downwards, in coral reef: it breathes with
siphons, but requires space to open its shell a few
inches. Instances are recorded of men having
stepped between the open valves, which have closed
immediately with the powerful adductor muscles,
and such an accident is almost certain death, either

by loss of blood, or by the rising tide.

Concretionary bodies commonly called Pearls,
but usually lacking the characteristic nacreous lustre,

are occasionally found associated with the shells of

certain gasteropods or univalves. They are of a

pink or rosy colour in the great conch shell of
the West Indies (Strombus gigas), which is one of
the very iargest known shells. Somewhat similar
pinkish concretions are yielded by another univalve

known as the 7urbinella Scolymus.

Yellow Pearls from other shells are often
offered for sale in the East, where they are much
valued, but they are not yet appreciated in England.
They evidently come from a porcellanous shell

probably a gasteropod. .The natives of the Sooloo

Fresh-water Pearls. 79

Archipelago assert that Pearls of a yellowish colour
have been taken from the Pearly Nautilus (Vautdlus
pompilius ), one of the group of cephalopodous mol-
luscs; but that they throw them away as they are
considered unlucky, adding that if a man fought with
a ring on, bearing such a Pearl, he would surely be
killed. Taking into consideration however the habits
and organization of this wonderful animal, and re-
membering the beautiful nacreous lining of its shell,
it may possibly be accepted as a true statement.
Indeed, Mr. Haynes, has a specimen in his posses-

sion which he considers an undoubted ‘“ Nautilus

Pearl.”

Fresh-water Pearls.

As our principal supply of marine Pearls is
derived from the Aviculide, so our fresh-water Pearls
are mainly supplied by the great family of the
Unionide. The most important Pearl-bearer of
this family, and the one which chiefly concerns us,
as being the most productive, is the true European
Pearl-mussel, the Unzo margaritifera. The word
unto is borrowed by conchologists, from Pliny, who
uses it to designate the Pearl, because as he tells
us no two Pearls were ever found exactly alike, so
that the task of matching a Pearl became one of

great difficulty. Each Pearl is in fact unique (unio).

rol OM Pearls.

The fresh-water Pearl-mussel is sometimes also called
Margaritana margaritifera; the sub-genus Mar-
garitana having been established by a German

naturalist named Schumacher.

The Pearl-mussel is found inhabiting lakes and
rivers in cool temperate zones, in almost all parts
of the world. It occurs in mountain streams, not
only in. Great Britain and “Ireland, but “mMesall
Northern Europe, in Bavaria and Saxony, and in the
United States, and Canada. These Pearls are also
occasionally produced by the Azodon, which although
not included in the genus Uvio, nevertheless presents
less difference to the ordinary observer than really
exists between many members of the genus Uzz0
itself; There are about one hundred species of ame
Anodon distributed over North America, Europe and
Siberia; while the genus Uzzo comprises upwards

of 400 species.

The shell of the Unio is a more or -less elon-
gated oval, generally of a dark brown or almost
black exterior, while its inside is slightly nacreous.
Though very unlike the Avicula in outward appear-
ance, yet in anatomical structure the two molluscs
are very similar, being surrounded by a correspon-
ding mantle, which secretes not only the shell but

the Pearls contained in it. These however are

Irresh-water Pearls. St

greatly inferior to the marine Pearls in value and
lustre, yet they have realized prices varying from

2% to: 4 100.

It may be mentioned that in Japan, small
Pearls are obtained from the fresh-water mussels,
known to conchologists under the names of Anadonta
Japonica and Cristaria spatiosa; while in China the
shell which yields many of the river Pearls has
been termed Dipsas plicata. Nacreous concretions,
more or less resembling true Pearls, are also
occasionally secreted by other fluviatile mollusca.
These facts are mentioned to shew that Pearls so
far from being obtained from only one or two
species, are really of wide occurrence. At the same
fae, the fact remains, that the. finest -Pearls,
whether fresh-water or marine, are of very limited
distribution, being confined to a narrow range of
species ; and that the pearly concretions occasionally
procured from other sources are fitted not so much
for use as personal ornaments as to grace the

cabinet of the conchologist.

The subject of river Pearls will be more fully
discussed in a later chapter, where descriptions will
be given of the Pearls of Great Britain, Europe

and North America.

CHAPTER -V.

ae

MOTHER-OF-PEARL’ SHELL.

Fool: ‘*Canst tell how an oyster makes his shell ?”
—King Lear. Act 1. Scene v.

__

@)HE principal sources of supply of
Mother-of-Pearl shell are the Torres

Manila, situated on the Isle of Luzon and the
capital of the Philippine Islands, was until quite
lately the greatest centre of this trade in the itages
and thus most of the shell from the surrounding
seas has obtained, and still retains in the trade, the
distinguishing name of “Manila shell.” But the
geographical advantages of Singapore, added to the

caterprise of the Chinese steam-ship owners there,

Mother-of-Pearl Shell. $3

fostered by the far-seeing policy initiated by Sir
Stamford Raffles, have transferred the whole = of
this trade from the Spanish port to the Straits’

Settlements.

The innumerable islands of the North and
South Pacific oceans, all contribute more or less
to swell the supplies—notably the Tuamotus of the
French colony Tahiti; but the shell usually finds
its way either to Sydney or to Auckland, and from
its final port of shipment it receives its commercial

nomenclature.

Three varieties are usually recognised in

Commerce :—

i. 7 ow Rite
2. Golden-Edged
3. Black-Edged

The natives of the Sooloo Archipelago however,
who raise the bulk of “ Manila” shell, profess to
distinguish four varieties of the golden-edged:
namely, white or black backs, and either smooth
or wrinkled. The meaning of these terms is not
sufficiently clear, but it is not unlikely that they
refer to the lines of horny substance sometimes
seen radiating from the centre of the hinge of the:
shell to the circumference, produced by the succes-

sive layers of the lip in its growth from youth

84 Pearls.

upwards; these lines however are not seen in old

shell, as they are soon destroyed by decay.

Great differences are presented by the appear-
ance of the oyster when opened, the outer edge of
the ‘ mantle” being in some cases black, and in others
orange, speckled with either black or white spots.
In fact the Meleagringe are subject to much lecal
variation, and the appearance of the shell will
generally allow a tolerably close conjecture as to
whence it came. The black-edged variety is the
most distinct both in the oyster and in the shell.
In some shells the pallial line is more strongly
marked than in others; in the Sooloo shell, the im-
pressions of the adductor muscles are comparatively
faint and almost smooth, whilst in the Australian
shell a rough, uneven surface is more commonly

found.

Mother-of-Pearl shells vary in weight, when
clean and dry, from 400 to 4,0CO pairs (z.¢., single
oysters) to the ton, but occasional specimens have

weighed as much as 14lbs.

The valuable white shell is obtained chiefly
from Tahiti and Macassar, the trade port of the
Aru Islands, near New Guinea. It seems to exist
in close proximity to the other varieties, without
losing its distinctive peculiarity, for it is found

year “after year to the .south side. of Tapul; ans

Mother-of-Pearl Shell. 85

island in the Sooloo Archipelago, without change,
close to the golden-edged shell. The golden-edged
is less infected with “worms” or ‘“ borers,” such
as the Lzthodomus, (see Fig. 1) a small bivalve

that eats into the shell, piercing it deeply.

Fiae 1. LITHODOMUS,
(Natural size).

The horny lip of the shell is deep, and in

some places the two valves are very similar in

appearance.

On the Australian coast both golden and
black-edged shells are found, but they are some-
what coarser and more worm-eaten, although as
bright and lustrous as the best Sooloo shell. In |
all varieties, the horny lip is sufficiently flexible to

make a tight joint when the shell is closed.

The sea bottom most favourable for shiells is
subject to wide variation. A reefy bottom near to
mud is however generally considered as good
holding ground as any, especially when there is a
luxuriant growth of weeds, and more particularly
coral cups, and a beautiful growth on the coral

resembling coach whips, four or five feet in length.

The common Mother-of-Pearl shell consists of

36 | Pearls.

two valves, the upper one rounded and the lowér one
flat. They are composed of consecutive layers of
“nacre” secreted by the oyster, each layer trending
away from the hinge and over the horny lip more
than its fellow below; these layers are thicker at
the hinge than at the lip, and they are continually
in process of formation. This continued erowth is
necessary, in the first place to enlarge the young
shell so as to accommodate the increasing dimen-
sions of the owner, and secondly in order to renew
and keep up the necessary thickness of the shell,
which through external influences decays away ; the
nacre is also secreted in order to cover any foreign
substance, such as mud or weed, that may drift
into the shell, and being unable to escape may
cause inconvenience to the delicately constructed
mollusc; it likewise serves to arrest the progress of
the “borers,” which attack the shell and seek to effect
an entrance. Conchologists assert, as stated in the
preceeding chapter, that the nacre is secreted by
the mantle, but it is probably that the adductor
muscle itself contributes to the formation of that
portion of the shell which bears the adductor

impression.

The resplendent play of colour which the inner
surface of the Pearl shell exhibits—a display that

defies any attempt at artificial imitation — is not

Mother-of-Pearl Shell. 87

due to the presence of any material pigment or
colouring matter, as might at first sight be supposed,
but is referable to the action of light on its deli-
cate structure. Like most other shells, the Mother-
of-Pearl consists of carbonate of lime, with a little
animal matter serving as a connective tissue or
frame-work. In Dr. Watts’ Dictionary of Chemistry,
the Mother-of-Pearl is said to consist of 66 per cent.
Or Garbonate of lime; 2.5 of organic’ matter, and
31.5 of water. The chemical composition, however,
offers no explanation of the cause of the exquisite
pearly lustre, and science is indebted to the late
Sir David Brewster for the discovery of the real
cause of this phenomenon. He was the first to
point out that the iridescence of Mother-of-Pearl
does not reside in the shell, nor depend on the
chemical nature of its substance, but is due to the

delicate striations of its surface.

As far back as 1814, Brewster published the
result of his researches on the structure of Mother-
of-Pearl, in a letter addressed to Sir Joseph Banks,
and presented to the Royal Society. His views on
this subject were also set forth in his well-known
“Treatise on Optics,” contributed in 1831 to Lardner’s

Cabinet Cyclopedia.

The late Sir John Herschel also applied himself
to the optical study of Mother-of-Pearl, and his

88 . Pease

results appeared in the Edinburgh Philosophical

Fournal in 1820,

An elaborate examination of the microscopic
structure of shells was undertaken many years ago
by the late Dr. W. B. Carpenter, and some valuable
results obtained as to the nature of the nacreous

varieties.

Microscopic examination of a thin section of
nacre shows that the surface is traversed by nu-
merous delicate lines; in some cases almost straight,
while in others they are crumpled and corrugated.
These lines are produced by the outcrop of thin
laminz running more or less obliquely to the surface.
It appears that Sir David Brewster regarded them as
the edges of hard calcareous layers, alternating with
softer membranous lamine; the latter being more
readily worn away, would naturally form grooves,
while the former being hard, would stand out as
alternating ridges. Dr. Carpenter, however, regarded
the lines on the nacre as the plaited edges of a

single membranous layer.

Whatever be the exact nature of the lineation,
it is. certain that the iridescence is due to -the
interference of light reflected from the undulations

of the delicately-grooved surface.

When a piece of Mother-of-Pearl is digested in

Mother-of-Pearl Shell. 89

weak acid, the calcareous matter is removed; yet
the decalcified shell retains the iridescence as long
as it remains undisturbed, but loses its lustre when
pressed flat. It is, therefore, evidently the striated
structure which gives rise to the nacreous lustre.
A cast taken from a piece of Mother-of-Pearl in
wax, mastic, or fusible metal, displays similar iri-
descence, in consequence of its having received the
microscopic rippling on its surface. According to
Brewster —“A solution of gum-arabic or of isin-
glass, when allowed to indurate upon a surface of
Mother - of - Pearl, takes a most perfect impression
from it, and exhibits all the communicable colours
in the finest manner, when seen either by reflexion

or transmission.”

It is worth noting that the production of
rainbow-like effects from delicately grooved surfaces
produced artificially, is well illustrated by the or-
naments called ‘“Barton’s Buttons.” Many years
ago the late Mr. John Barton, of the Royal Mint,
succeeded in cutting grooves upon steel at a
distance of from the 2,000th to the 10,o00oth of
an inch apart. The metal surfaces thus treated
displayed the most brilliant colours in consequence
of the “interference” of the reflected undulations
of light. His “iris ornaments” consisted of buttons

and other objects wrought in brass and stamped

90 Pearls.

with hardened steel dies upon which the delicate
lines had been engraved. Nothing can better illus-
trate the nature of the optical phenomena presented
by nacre, or Mother-of-Pearl, than their artificial

reproduction by Barton’s method.

It is therefore demonstrated that the iridescent
colours of nacre are produced by the light reflected
from the corrugated surface, resulting in that
beautiful appearance by which the very atoms
of the substance seem as if lit up) by “eolour:
now at one end of the solar spectrum where violet,
blue and green rays predominate, and now at the
other end where red, orange and yellow unite in
such harmonious blending as to produce the most

pleasing offects.

This nacre then composes the whole interior
of the shell, and is the same secretion which in the
Pearl has assumed a more or less globular form:
between nacre and Pearls, therefore, there is virtually

only the difference of the form of deposition.

The Mother-of-Pearl shell lies on the sea bottom,
usually inclined at an angle of 20 degrees, with the
flat valve downwards, although it is frequently found
reversed. In young shells, more particularly the
black-edged variety, there is a byssus or bunch of

strong fibres which passes through the hinge or

Mother-of-Pearl Shell. QI

heel of the shell, and attaches it to the bottom; in

old shells however this dyssuvs is completely wanting.

The oyster is usually open an inch or two at
the lips, to admit the sea water and any organic
substance that the tides and. currents may bring to
serve as food. On being disturbed it immediately
closes, and it is no uncommon occurrence when the
water is thick for a young diver to come up with
a shell fast on his fingers: in order to free him a
knife must be used to cut the muscle of the oyster,
and thus allow the shell to open. After being
taken from its natural element, and exposed ina
boat to the tropical sun the shell opens, but it shuts
tightly again on being touched. The oysters do not
generally live longer than twelve hours after being
taken from the water, and a dry wind off shore
hastens their death; it is indeed a wonder, that,
deriving their oxygen from the water, they can live

so long in our atmosphere.

Mother-of-Pearl shells are taken as low down
as 45 and 50 fathoms ; beyond this depth the divers
have hitherto been unable to explore, and hence
their extreme limit is unknown. One has, how-
ever, been brought up, when splicing a cable, from
a depth of 150 fathoms. The zones of all sub-

marine animal life are regulated by the pressure,

Q2 Pearts.

temperature and composition of the sea water, and

by the existence of a proper food supply.

There is one peculiarity with regard to these
molluscs and, in fact, most inhabitants of the sea,
which is not generally known, namely, the frequency
of parasites, or as in many cases they are more
aptly termed “ messmates,”’ since they live in the
shell on apparently friendly terms with the oyster.
Mother-of-Pearl shells almost invariable hold one
or more, and on the Australian coast these inmates
are generally crabs, lobsters, worms and shrimp-like
creatures. One of the two former crustaceans is
almost always present, and it may be truly termed

)

a “messmate;’ the latter are simply ordinary
parasites, and are not by any means universal. In
the shells found East of Cossack, on the West
Australian grounds, the oyster is usually accom-
panied by one soft-shelled brown crab, of 2? to 14
inches in width: this is said to be poisonous.
Lower down the coast, the crab’s place is taken by
two soft transparent-looking lobsters, faintly spotted
and tinged with red, the one three times as large
as the other: probably they are male and female.
These are delicious eating. The two principal claws
or pincers are very small in proportion to the body

of the lobster, especially in the larger of the two,

and the body reminds one more of that of a drone

Mother-of-Pearl Shell. 93

than of the segmental body of a crustacean. The
tail is either absent or rudimentary and the two
claws are modified into simple feelers, protection
from enemies being gained within the closed shell

of the host.

West of Cossack the lobsters are more common,
and in the Montebello Islands they are almost
universal. In Sooloo, the Mother-of-Pearl shells
may contain one, two, or three lobsters, but almost
invariably the number is two, while the crab is
ae rarely met with. Occasionally a shell is
found without any other inhabitant than its owner.
When the shell is closed the messmate retires
within a hollow place, in the lower part of the
oyster itself, near to the hinge of the shell, and this

cavity is called by Sooloo men, the ‘“ lobster’s home.”

The idea that these messmates may play some
important part in the formation of Pearls seems to
be a groundless speculation, and their general for-
mation as defenceless creatures, with great consuming
powers, would rather imply that they perform the
service of scavengers, clearing the shell of some of
the foreign substances which drift into it and annoy
the oyster. Even as it is, the Meleagrinae often
have to renovate their shells, and are in the habit
of burying such intruders as they cannot rid them-

selves of. Stones, mud, small shells, wood, and more

94 Pearls.

especially layers of weed are thus found embedded
in shells, forming unnatural excrescences on the

surface.

These “blisters” may be found apparently empty
mad discoloured within, or full of water and half
decayed substances; in both cases an offensive
odour points out that the enclosed substance was
of animal or vegetable character. Pearls are also
frequently found in “blisters;” they escape from
the body of the oyster, and are then treated in
exactly the same manner as a stone or other
intruder, being covered over by each successive
layer of nacre. These unnatural protuberances on
the inner surface of the shell are gradually removed
by the oyster secreting thinner layers of nacre on
the top of them than at the base, until the surface
becomes again level. Slowly but steadily the ex-
terior surface of the shell decays and disappears, until
the blister and its contents come within reach of
the advancing dissolution, and then these in turn
disappear. Any inorganic or insoluble matter in
the blister falls to the bottom; and thus the oyster
literally passes a stone or other intruder through its
shell.

This process is illustrated by Figs. 2,3 and 4, (See
opposite page), In Fig. 2,asmall Pearl, or other foreign

body fallen into the shell, has become cemented to the

FIG. 4.

ARL OR OTHER OBJECT MAY BE BURIED IN THE SUBSTANCE OF THE SHELL

SECTIONS OF PEARL SHELL, SHEWING HOW A Pé

AND ULTIMATELY DISAPPEAR.

96 Pearls,

Zz!

internal surface of the valve by a single layer of nacre.
In Fig. 3, the obstruction has become buried in the
substance of the shell, and the inner surface is again
level, because the successive layers of nacre are
thinner on the top of the foreign body. At the
same time, the decay of the outer surface has been
advancing, until in Fig. 3,it has nearly reached the
Pearl or other intruder; and finally in Fig. 4, this
foreign body has entirely disappeared, together with
its encircling layers of nacre, having been set free
by the destruction of the external part of the
shell.

Besides the possession of this faculty, it is evi-
dent that the oyster is sensible to vibrations of
either sound or motion. When it is lying agape
in the boat, any slight concussion will cause it im-
mediately to close tightly, like a vice. Many a
shell is discovered by bubbles of gas arising from
it, in the act of closing, on account of the near ap-
proach of a diver, and a consequent tremor of the
water. The most remarkable fact, however, is that
it is so far conscious of the point of attack of a
“borer” (Fig. 1, p. 85), edting its way through the
shell, that, in order to guard against the danger of
being pierced, the oyster secretes extra-thick layers of
nacre at that point, and thus, in course of time,

seriously disturbs. the natural shape of its pearly

Mother-of-Pearl Shell. 97

bed. This is seen in Figs. 5, 6 and 7. (See next
page). The borer is represented in Fig. 5, attacking
the exterior of the shell, and the oyster has secreted
an unusually thick layer of nacre opposite the point
of attack. In Fig. 6, the borer has penetrated into
the substance of the shell, but successive deposits of
nacre have been formed to resist the intrusion. In
Fig. 7, the decay of the external part of the shell
has removed the borer, while the internal surface
has resumed its natural form. The three figures are
placed at different levels in order to shew that as
external decay proceeds, the -oyster adds to the
internal surface. All these figures are taken from

photographs of the Pearl shell.

The -oyster’s sole means of protection against
crabs and other enemies, is that of closing its shell;
if, however, this shell is pierced completely through
by a “borer,” (Fig. 1, p. 85), a breach of its walls is
effected, and the defenceless citadel is open to attack.
Thus dead shells generally exhibit the cause of their
late owner's disappearance. A large species of
Murex, a Univalve, is also an inveterate enemy of
the Mother-of-Pearl oyster, attaching itself to the
shell, and boring through it. When, therefore, a
shell is found with any unnatural protuberance on
its interior surface, the pearler scrapes away a little

of the decaying shell at the back of this spot, and if
G

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Mother-of-Pearl Shell. 99

the hole of a borer is disclosed, the shell is passed
aside, if, however, the shell is solid at that spot,
the blister is cut out with a hammer and punch,
and split open, in the hope of finding a Pearl

within.

The Meleagring, in common with all oysters
and mussels, produce an enormous quantity of ova,
a very small proportion of which ever escape their
numerous enemies, and succeed in establishing
themselves in their sub-marine world. The “spat”
is carried here and there by the currents until it
succeeds in attaching itself to some obstacle that
may have arrested its onward course, and here it
probably remains for life, unless some accident
happens to detach it again, such as the heavy seas
caused by hurricanes. Several thousands of Pearl
shells have been washed up on the Australian coast
after a “blow.” Turtle also may disturb shells; they
are very fond of the luscious morsel within, and full-
grown shells may be found bitten to pieces by their
powerful mandibles. There was found by our fleet
in 1884, a shell that at a certain period of its
growth had been broken, probably by a turtle, but
the oyster had succeeded in secreting fresh layers
of nacre within, before harm came to it, and the
old accident was only detected by the fracture at

the back of the shell. This case again furnishes

100 “Pearls.

an absolute proof that the shells grow from within
and not from the outside, as has sometimes been

maintained.

_It is difficult to state anything definite as to-
the rate of growth of the Mother-of-Pearl shell, but
a case that occured in 1883 may be worth men-.
tioning as it excited considerable interest in the

West Australian fleet.

In February 1883,>the “ Louisa,” a cutter oF
28 tons, was beached on the Lacepede islands and
her copper was thoroughly scrubbed and cleaned.
After remaining pearling during March, she was taken
into a creek in Roebuck Bay to clean and paint
up for returning to Cossack, the season being over.
When the ebb tide left her high and dry, it was
found that her bottom was covered in many places
with small Mother-of-Pearl oysters, from 14 to 3
inches wide; one solitary shell however measuring
5% inches across. The only feasible explanation
of this seems to be that these small shells were
originally in the dirt and scrapings of the «shells
which were thrown overboard the evening after
the copper was cleaned in February: this was
before the vessel was floated. The tide must
then have washed them against the bottom, to
which they adhered. Considering, therefore, that

they were found only six weeks after the cutter’s

Mother-of-Peavl Sheil. 101

bottom was thoroughly cleaned, this fact, if the
above explanation be correct, would point to a far
more rapid growth of oyster shell than pearlers have

hitherto thought possible.

It is often maintained in Australia, that as_
certain spots are left at the end of one season, rich
in shell, and six months afterwards the identical
spots are found bare, the oysters must possess the
power of migrating at will. There is, however, no
evidence of value to lead to such a _ conclusion,
and the inference from the disappearance of shells
is, that some change has taken place at the bottom
of the sea, the shells having been probably buried
by sand or mud, which doubtless is continually
shifting, especially where the tides are strong and

the sea shallow.

The geographical distribution of the true Mother-
of-Pearl shell is confined to the Pacific and Indian
Oceans and their connecting seas. Cape Horn, and
the Cape of Good Hope stretching away down -
into cold latitudes, appear effectually to have pre-
vented their successful migration in the present age,

by any favouring current to the Atlantic.

The ancient history of the Mollusca, as told
by Geology, is well worth studying. The Lamelli-

branchiata or Conchifera, existed as far back as the

102 Pearls.

Lower Silurian period, if not earlier, and they have
not only held their own, but have sradually in-
creased in number and variety of type, up to the
presentday. The family of Aviculzde flourished in the
Carboniferous period, and beds containing immense
numbers of Avicula Contorta occur in the Triassic
or Rhoetic series, in the Austrian Alps. The more
interesting Gasteropods and Cephalopods also have
their histories clearly marked out from a very early
date. Bivalves have undoubtedly been most suc-
cessful in the struggle for existence, and this power
may be partly attributed to their ability of closing
their shells when attacked, and presenting an im-

penetrable front of “masterly inactivity.”

It is needless to enumerate the articles for the
manufacture of which Pearl shell is sought after.
For buttons and studs, for ifohendies card-cases,
and for ornamental work generally, Mother-of-Pearl
has no rival. Its adoption is of no modern date,
articles of this substance having been discovered

in the excavations at Nineveh and Babylon.

One important application of Mother-of-Pearl
is that of hafting cutlery, especially fruit knives
and pocket knives. The-two flat plates of shell,
which are rivetted to the central part of the handle,
are technicaily termed “scales,” and these require to

be tediously ground down and polished by hand.

Mother-of-Pearl Shell. 103

At one time about 100 tons of Mother-of-Pearl were

consumed annually by the Sheffield cutlers.

Visitors to the Holy Land usually bring away
as mementoes, specimens of Mother-of-Pearl, orna-
mented with religious subjects, claborately carved in
low relief. These are frequently preserved in collec-
tions of curiosities under the name of “ Pilgrims’

shells,”

Mother-of-Pearl is often ornamented by a process
of engraving, especially in China. Among the objects
commonly made of this material, are the Chinese
card-counters, frequently shaped like fish. Such
objects are ornamented by elegant patterns incised
in the shell; but in some cases the design is etched
by means of an acid, which attacks the shell in
the same way that nitric acid bites into a copper-

plate, in the ordinary process of etching.

Mother-of-Pearl plays an important part in the
manufacture of papier-maché. Mr. W. C. Aitken,
of Birmingham, in an interesting paper on this
manufacture, informs us that “ Pearl-shell inlaying,
which contrasts so well with the brilliant black of
English papier-maché, a process suggested by foreign
lac-work—was introduced by George Souter, a
decorator in the employ of Messrs. Jennens and

Bettcridge, who patented the invention in 1825.

IO4 Pearls.

The Pearl ornaments were made from thin lamine
of shell, from one-hundredth to one-fortieth part of
an inch in thickness. The ornament was painted
on the Pearl with varnish or ‘stopping-out’ material;
acid was then applied, and the portions of Pearl
not protected eaten away. By this method the

most delicate ornaments were produced.”

_ It should be remarked that for the manufacture
of papier-maché, and for buttons and various trivial
ornaments, much use is made of certain iridescent
shells, distinct from Mother-of-Pearl, yet often
confounded therewith: these are principally the
brilliantly prismatic shells of the Ha/zotzs, sometimes.
termed, from their shape, “ear-shells,’ and from
their iridescent colours ‘‘aurora-shells ;” together with
certain species of Zurbo, such as 7. margaritaceus,

known also as “ Maara shell.”

A few years ago, when “Smoked Pearl,” de-
rived from the black-edged shells, came into use
in this country for the manufacture of the large dark
buttons, then so fashionable, it was remembered that
about thirty or forty years previously, some dark
shells ae been imported, but being then regarded as
almost useless, were buried in piles in Birmingham.
Attention was now naturally directed to their exhu-

mation. ‘‘An anecdote was recently told me,” said

Mother-of-Pearl Shell. 105

Mr. P. L. Simmonds, writing in 1879, “by a large
wholesale shell merchant in London, of a workman
in Birmingham having volunteered to dig up his
neighbour’s yard or garden free. The offer being
declined, the man persisted, agreeing to give £5 if he
might be allowed to do it, and cart away the rubbish.
Consent was at last obtained, and the digger cleared
420 by the Pearl-shells he thus obtained, and sold.
My informant also told me that the Town Hall of

Birmingham is built on such mounds of these shells

- that it would almost pay, at present prices, to pull

if down and rebuild it, for the sake of the shells

that could be thus obtained.”

In a valuable paper by Mr. J. S. Wright, on the
Jewellery trade of Birmingham, we are told that
the workers in the Mother-of-Pearl shells occasionally
find rea! Pearls embedded in the shell. “A few
years since (this was written in 1866) a small lot
of shells was brought to Birmingham, which either
from ignorance or mistake had not been cleared of
the Pearls at the fishery. A considerable number
were found and sold; and one especially was sold,
by the man who had bought the shell for working
into buttons, for 440. The purchaser, we believe, re-
sold the same for a profit of £160; and we have

heard it was afterwards held in Paris for sale at £800.”

In countries where Mother-of-Pearl is abundant,

106 Pearls.

it is occasionally employed asa decorative material
in architecture. Thus, in Manila, the verandahs of
the houses are ornamented with Pearl-shells, while
in Panama the cathedral and some of the churches
are similarly adorned. Even in our own Channel
Islands, where the lustrous ear-shells or “ormers”
(Haliotes tuberculata) are abundant, the shells are
utilized by being let into the walls of some of the
houses and disposed in symmetrical patterns. The
brilliant effect of nacreous shells when massed together
ona large scale, was well illustrated by the column
of Mother-of-Pearl shells, which formed so con-
spicuous a trophy in the Western Australian Court
of the Colonial Exhibition of 1886.

The present value of Mother-of-Pearl varies
from 460 to £200 per ton, and the Australian
fisheries of Torres Straits and the North West Coast
and those of the Sooloo seas, contribute about one

half of the total supply.

CHAPTER. VE.

THE ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF PEARLS.

‘*Some asked how fear/s did grow and where?
' Then spoke I to my girl:
To part her lips, and showed them there—
The quarelets of Pearl.’’
—Robert Herrick.

O many difficulties surround the study of

a
rt

=
SI
=
—

the Formation of Pearls, that it is by

>
mill

ATE

no means surprising that a host of con-
jectures, often of a very fanciful and even wild
character, have from time to time been promulgated
with the view of explaining the origin of these enig-
matical little bodies. Many of the ancient ideas
respecting Pearls have been set forth in an earlier

chapter; but with the advance of science these

i108 Pearls, |

crude fancies and curious fables have gradually
passed away. It is the object of the present chapter
to present a rational explanation of the origin, and
formation of Pearls, so far as the lights of our
present knowledge can guide us in solving these

difficult problems.

For a long time it was currently believed that

Pearls were found only in diseased shell-fish, and
to this day in some parts of Great Britain, when
a Pearl is discovered in a mussel or oyster, the
edible part is thrown away as unfit for use, while
the Pearl, however valueless, is carefully preserved:
Hence we often find, even at the present day, that

Pearls are alluded to as “ morbid secretions.” .

On this subject, Professor Coutance, of the
Medical School of Brest, has some remarks which
are at once sensible and amusing :—‘“ Au _ point
de vue physiologique, l’huitre ne fait, en produisant
la Perle rien d’anormal, puisque la nacre de la
coquille est formée de la méme substance. Elle ne
tire de son fond aucune matiere nouvelle poure faire
la Perle: elle y emploie seulement, peut-étre au
préjudice de sa coquille, une part de l’élément car-
bonaté qui. constitue celle-ci, ou sert méme a la
réparer. La maladie de Vhuitre n’est donc qu’ une
hypersécretion; c'est sans doute beaucoup, et nous

continuons a la plaindre, comme nous plaignons un

Origin and formation of Pears. 109

homme enrhumé du cerveau. Une autre observa-
tion a faire, c’est que rien n’est changé dans l’animal
qui sécrete ou qui a sécreté la Perle. Aucune modi-
fication dans la conformation ou dans la nature
histologique de ses tissus n’ indique une maladie,
un trouble organique; la présence seule de la Perle

est lindice de quelque chose d’anormal.”

| And after a few more pages in a similar strain,
he proceeds to say of the Pearl-oysters, in reference
to their secretions :—‘‘ Au lieu de les en plaindre il
faut les en féliciter. Et si nous voulions a toute
force conserver a la sécrétion calcaire ce nom d’
affection morbide, il faudrait dire alors ; ° combien
ces huitres seraient mal portantes si elles n’ avaient
pas cette maladie! En considérant désormais de
riches pendeloques ornées de Perles aux oreilles
fines et délicates d’une aristocratique beauté, nous
penserons non plus a une huitre malade, mais a

une huitre sauvée. C’est plus gat.”

The prevailing idea among scientific men, at
present, is that the formation of Pearls is caused
by an effort of the oyster to rid itself of irritation,
caused by the presence of some foreign body which

has found entrance from without.

Year by year some thousands of Pearls are cut

in half by working jewellers, and their universal

1IO Pearls,

experience is, that a nucleus is always to be found.

On the other hand the pearlers in the North West
of Australia, state, that most of the Pearls broken ©

there have presented a small golden-coloured cavity

capable of holding a No. 8 shot. The experience
of these pearlers on the general subject, however, is

much inferior to that of the jeweller.

The ‘nucleus of the Peatl°may be) ereierea
grain of sand, or the frustule of one of those
minute siliceous vegetables known as dzafoms, or
a minute parasite, or even one of the ova of the

Pearl. oyster itself. Around this foreign body thin

layers of nacre are deposited, one after another, like |

the successive skins of an onion, until the object
is’ completely encysted: .The Pearl is formediian
concentric layers of carbonate of lime, of extreme
tenuity, but of the same general character as those

composing the shell.

Sir Everard Home, a distinguished surgeon in
the early part of this century, having been led to
study the structure of Pearls, came to the following
conclusion: ‘A Pearl is formed upon the external
surface of an ovum, which having been blighted,
does not pass with the others into the oviduct, but
remains attached to its pedicle in the ovarium, and
in the following season, receives a coat of nacre at

the same time that the internal surface of the shell

Pm

Origin and formation of Pearls. III

receives its annual supply.” While admitting that
an ovum may occasionally form the nucleus of a
nacreous concretion, we cannot admit the general

application of Sir Everard’s explanation:

The finest Pearls are found within the mantle
of the mollusc, close to the lips of the shell, or in
the soft part of the oyster near the hinge of the
shell; the worst Pearls are those found within the
close, coarse fibres of the adductor muscle, At
very rare intervals they are found loose in the shell
outside the body of the oyster; and may, when
large, get washed out of the shell and thus be lost.
Lastly, Pearls are often found imbedded more or
less deeply in the shell, having in some cases
escaped from the soft tissues. It is notable that
the adherent Pearls occur almost invariably in the
flat or lower valve: occasionally, it is true, they are
found imbedded in the rounded or upper valve, but
in such cases it is observed that the shell has been
lying at the bottom, in the reverse position, thus
making the rounded valve the lower one. This is

by no means an uncommon occurrence.

The Pearls found imbedded in or under the
“muscular impression” are always small, irregular,
and worthless, similar to those found imbedded in

the adductor muscle itself.

Pearls are found in infinite variety of form,

112 Pearls.

and the consecutive layers vary in brightness, colour
and perfection. _The most highly prized Pearls are
quite spherical, and it is evident from their shape
that these must have been formed free in the
mantle or in the soft tissues of the mollusc, and
not cemented to the shell. Some Pearls shew defects,
caused apparently by the contact of new foreign
substances, organic or inorganic, such as grit or a
film of weed ; and in some cases it requires a number
of layers to completely hide these defects. Thus,
every new layer secreted, changes the value of the

Pearl.

When a Pearl that has been cut from the shell
presents a hemispherical surface, it is sometimes
called a perle bouton; such a Pearl is flat on one
side, and rounded or convex on the other. If a
solid Pearl has an irregular shape, having grown
over a rough object, it is known to jewellers as
buroque pearl. Sometimes the warty Pearls are hollow,

and pass under the name of coq de ferle.

An attempt has been already made in a former
chapter to explain how the Pearl-oyster rids itself
of any foreign substance that may get into its shell,’
such as a stone or piece of wood: and in now dealing
with the subject of real Pearls, the same explanation

of the formation of “blisters” must be borne in

Their origin and formation. 113

mind. Blister Pearls are generally hollow nacreous
bodies, of irregular shape, and are often due to the
deposition of nacre at some point where the shell

has been attacked by a parasite from without.

That the oyster does not work magic may be
taken for granted, and the following explanation of
the vexed question of the formation of Pearls is
now submitted to practical pearlers and conchologists,
The principle involved is applicable to all molluscs,
but due consideration in each case must be given to
the natural position of the shell, and its owner’s
habits.

The oyster lies at the bottom of the sea at an
angle more or less considerable, but is generally
inclined to the sea bottom at about 20° to 25°. The
shell is usually open about 14 inches, to admit the
entrance of water, its owner’s natural sustenance,
and the mantle is spread out over the horny outside
lips of the shell. Respiration is carried on by means
of the gills, and any organic particles in the water
which bathes these vascular organs are transferred
to the mouth. Scientists have. taught us that
“hzmoglobin,” or the colouring matter of the blood
in the animal kingdom, is the agent, that owing to
its great affinity for oxygen, extracts that supporter

of life from the air inhaled. Of the agent that
et

II4 Pearls.

extracts the oxygen from water, either salt or fresh,
“we are, however, still untaught. The water is
admitted between the “mantle lobes” into the
“pallial chambers,” where it is oxygenated: the
oyster evidently retains a considerable quantity of ©
gas within itself, many shells being discovered by
the divers, simply by the betraying bubbles of gas
emitted by the oyster, in the act of closing its

shell. The effete water is renewed by diffusion, as

there is no regular pulsating movement to eject it.

In most fishes there is a special arrangement to
guard against the admission of foreign substances
to the respiratory organs, the branchial arches being
developed into a kind of fringe. In the invertebrates
however, there is no special apparatus for that pur-
pose, and when, after storms or other disturbing
causes, the water becomes thickly charged with
sand, mud, and other substances in suspension, it
is evident that the water admitted within the pallial
chamber of the oyster must be equally thick, and
it can hardly be doubted but that some particles
of this suspended matter are accidentally retained
entangled in the tissues of the oyster, especially if

the latter happen to be weakened by disease.

The healthier the appearance of the oyster, and

the greater the amount of water emitted when

Their origin and formation. 115

opened by the knife, the less probability will there
be of finding any Pearl. As previously stated, it
is within the mantle that many of the Pearls are
found, and the inference is, that the interior surfaces
of this integument secrete the fine pearly layers
around the nucleus of what is to become a Pearl;
whilst the layers of the shell are secreted mainly by
the exterior surfaces of the mantle. With the first
layer deposited around it, the intruder becomes a
Pearl, and if this nucleus is of animal or vegetable
matter, decomposition, or probably absorption, will
in time leave an apparently empty space, the cavity
being lined and discoloured by the residue ; a hollow
Pearl is thus formed, just as the hollow “blister” is

formed in the shell as already described.

The oyster is not entirely dormant, and its
movements, together with the varying position of
the Pearl within its tissues, probably regulate the
shape assumed by the constantly accumulating
layers; owing, however, to the inclined position
of the oyster, the tendency of the Pearl is always
to work downwards through the tissues, towards
the hinge of the shell. Small Pearls often work
their way into the adductor muscle, and, owing to
the fibres of this part being coarse and close, it is
almost impossible for a large Pearl to penetrate

them, but numbers of small ones are frequently

116 Pearls.

found here, bound together like a cluster of grapes,
showing that even within this muscle these Pearls
receive further accretions. In course of time such
Pearls as avoid passing into this muscle find their
way downwards to the lowest part of the oyster,
and according to their position therein, may or may
not find their way out of the tissues of the oyster
into the shell.

Up to this time the Pearl has received regular
layers all over its surface, but rings, and other
marks of lesser brightness frequently occur, the
result probably, of contact with the coarser tissues
of the oyster. For a short time the Pearl is loose
in the shell, and it falls into the same category as a
stone, or any other intruder. It is encircled by the
erowing layer of shell, and proceeds on its down-
ward course through the shell, like an ordinary
“blister,” the upper portion receiving further layers,
until it is hidden beneath the shell which by
degrees, resumes its natural shape. This process

is well illustrated by Figs. 2 and 3, p. 95.

The shell, as stated in the last chapter, is
worn away from the outside at the same rate
that it is renewed within, so that in time, the Pearl

with its surrounding tomb yields to the general

Their origin and formation. 117

dissolution, and the nucleus of the Pearl, if of
inorganic matter, after having been the cause of
infinite annoyance to its unfortunate captor, is
returned to the place from whence it came. In
Fig. 4, p. 95, we have a representation of the
oyster shell after the Pearl has been passed through

the substance.

It may be urged that the layers of shell enve-
loping the Pearl or blister, are laid equally upon
the top of it and at the sides; and that an un-
natural excrescence would still remain on the inner
surface of the shell long after the original cause of
it has passed away; but this is not so. It must be
remembered that the laws of development by which
creatures are adapted to cope with the surrounding
conditions and difficulties of their existence, are as
applicable to an oyster as to any other form of life,
and the same power that taught the oyster to pro-
tect itself against the inveterate attacks of its enemy,
the “borer,” by increasing the thickness of its shell
at the point of danger, might also teach it to rid
itself of an uncomfortable tenant in its bed, by

exactly the reverse process,

118 | Powe

FIG. 8-SPLIT SHELL DISCLOSING ee PEARLS.

Pearls embedded in the shell are generally found
in close proximity to the hinge, and in splitting
shells open to examine a “blister,” an embedded
Pearl has often been found (see Fig. 8.), at a place
where the surface of the shell gave no indication of

its presence.

In the British Museum (Natural History), at

Ther orzgin and formation. 119

South Kensington, and in the Museum of Practical
Geology in Jermyn-street, there are specimens
which clearly illustrate the processes of re-lining the
shell, and of burying foreign substances. They are
flat shells (the lower valves), with a number of
figures of Buddha lying embedded at equal distances
apart, on the upper portion of the shell near the lips,
but not so deeply buried as to be hidden. These
are not uncommonly produced artificially in China,
in order to make a profit out of the unquestioning
religious faith of the people who, upon seeing the
apparently supernatural work of a senseless mollusc,
would lift their hands in awe, and utter an ex-
clamation which would be an equivalent of the
Moslem “Allah is great!” The little figures are
slipped carefully below the mantle of the oyster, and
the process of deposition described before covers
them with nacre. The whole subject of the artificial
production of such pearly bodies will be discussed in

a subsequent chapter.

If this system of burying Pearls be understood,
the art of “peeling Pearls” in order to get rid of
the incomplete layers of shell, or to deprive the
Pearl of one of its own delicate layers, in the hope
of finding the subjacent layer more perfect, may
readily be understood. Both Chinamen and Sooloo

men resort to it frequently, and become great

120 Pearls,

adepts in the art. In Europe too, it is successfully
carried on, and Western Australia can boast of
some skilful workers. The term by which this
delicate operation is known in that colony, has
probably been derived from the convicts. | This
process of “faking” a Pearl however, is an art
possessed only by a few individuals, combining great
skill with patience. The best “faker” in the fleet
is Duncan McRae, the cwner of the “ Dawn,” a man
of splendid physique, the boldest and most suc-
cessful pearler, and the fortunate discoverer of the
wealth of Roebuck Bay. At this delicate work the
leisure hours of this horny-handed son of toil are
passed—a very sharp knife, various sorts of files,
some pearl powder, and a piece of leather being
the only articles employed. Chinamen, however,
use a certain kind of leaf to obtain the final polish.
The shelly coatings over a buried Pearl are very
hard, and must be cut off piece by piece, except at
the lowest point, where the loose Pearl originally
made contact with the shell after its escape from
the oyster: at this point the layer of shell below
comes away quite freely. The sense of touch con-
veyed by the blade of the knife is of equal, if not

greater service to the operator, than his sense of sight.

The value of a Pearl depends upon its size,

shape, colour, brightness, and freedom from defects,

Their origin and formation. 121

The most valuable Pearls are those which are per-
fectly round; the Jdouton or button-shaped Pearl
ranks next, and then comes the drop or pear-shaped
Pearl. Perfectly round Pearls over 25 grains in
weight, are extremely scarce, and secure high prices.
They are greatly sought after to form the centre of
necklaces, and large Pearls of this character are
safe, and very profitable investments. New dis-
coveries of diamond-fields have before now so
largely increased the supply of diamonds, that
these gems are by no means steady in price. Other
discoveries may again cause a fall in value; but the
source of supply of Pearls is far more closely sealed,
and the difficulties attendant upon the prosecution
of Pearl-fishing are as great as its disappointments,
risks, and uncertain character, are deterrent to the
would-be explorer. There is, indeed, no prospect of
Pearl-fishing being increased to any great extent,
nor are the habits of the Mother-of-Pearl oysters
likely to alter and render the formation of fine

Pearls a less rare occurrence.

The finest Pearl that has been seen for years -
in England, was taken by Mr. Streeter’s fleet, having
been found by the late Capt. Chippindall, of the
Schooner “Sree Pas Sair,” on December 26th,
1884, off the North West coast of Australia. It

weighed 40 grains, was absolutely round, and was

122 Pearls,

perfect in quality. The shell in which it was
found was only knee deep in water, and the Pearl
is probably the finest which the Australian fisheries
have hitherto produced.

The following instances of the development of
blisters, will assist the reader in the study of the
growth of shell and Pearls. In 1883, a young shell
not one third the average weight and size, was
found with two blisters within. In each of these a
small stone was seen uncovered in part, and the
rest thinly covered over with a pearly film, the

stones being plainly discernible on all sides.

In another shell a blister was found more than
one inch in height from the plane of the shell.
This blister was full of black mud, and the pearly
covering was not more than 5th part of an inch

in thickness.

In 1882, on board the “ Dawn,” a small pro-
tuberance was noticed in a shell on the point of
the inside part of the hinge. A little of the outside
surface of the shell was scraped away, and the round
surface of a large shell was discovered; the hinge
of the shell was then cracked with a hammer and
chisel, and eventually a very fine coloured and

fairly-shaped Pearl weighing 80 grains was extracted.

In 1883, on board the same ship, another

Their origin and formation. 123

similar protuberance in the same position was noticed.
Again the cold chisel was resorted to, and again
a large Pearl was found. This time, however,
although perfectly round and the size of a large
solitaire marble, it had come within reach of the
advancing decay of the shell; one third of an inch
was rotten, and after its weight was reduced from
84 to 45 grains, a round slate coloured Pearl was
obtained, but of little value. A year previously this
Pearl might probably have been found perfect, and
have been worth say trom 42000 to 43000. It
is worthy of remark that when decay reaches the
lower point of an embedded Pearl, it spreads
upwards around the Pearl, aided apparently by the
upward tendency of the layers of the blister, and

eats into it, at an almost equal rate all round.

In 1882 the “Harriet” was fortunate enough
to find a Pearl, weighing 103 grains, within an
enormous blister. It was a beautiful bouton, of fine
colour on the top, but somewhat chalky beneath,
owing to the contact of salt water admitted by a
“borer,” that had chanced to pierce the shell just
at this spot, and had penetrated nearly 3} of an

inch into the Pearl.

In 1885, the “Ivy” found a Pearl in the lips
of a small-sized shell, whilst fishing in Exmouth Gulf.

124 Pearls.

This Pearl was faultless in colour and weighed 104
grains, but its. shape was that of an equilateral
triangle ; each point being beautifully rounded off.
Although its value was comparatively small, yet
it was a great curiosity to the student of Pearl-growth.
The symmetry was in every way perfect, but unfor-
tunately it was badly damaged by the knife used in
opening the shell. This remarkable Pearl was ex-
hibited at the Colonial Exhibition of 1886.

The varying tints and colours of Pearls are less
difficult to understand than some of their eccentri-
cities of growth. The changing condition of the
sea, both as regards purity and temperature, the
health of the oyster, accidents such as the discharge
of the inky fluid of the cuttle fish in the neigh-
bourhood of the oyster, all will probably affect the

colours of the successive growth periods of the Pearl.

Pearls when of extraordinary beauty, size, or
brilliancy will sell for sums which appear extravagant
in proportion to what is given for ordinary specimens.
The reason for this is obvious, for no sooner is one
of surpassing beauty in the market than it is re-
moved from the common category, and the price
will depend more upon the fancy of the purchaser

than any system of valuation.

It appears that the various forms presented

Their origin and formation. 125

by Pearls had attracted the notice of the ancient
Romans and led to a systematic nomenclature. The
Unio was the name of the globular Pearl; the zympania
of the hemi-spherical; the e/enchus of the pear-shaped ;
and the margaritum of the irregular or baroque

Pearl.

The baroque Pearls often assume very whimsical
forms, and advantage has sometimes been taken of
this fact by mounting the warty Pearls as grotesque
ornaments. Dinglinger, the court jeweller at Dresden
in the latter part of the seventeenth century, was
famous for his ingenuity in this direction, and some
beautiful specimens of Pearl mounted in gold and
enamel may be seen in the Jewel Room of the

Green Vaults at Dresden.

The chemical composition of the Pearl as pre-
viously stated is carbonate of lime associated with
a small proportion of organic matter: it is easily
affected. by acids and fetid gases, and may be
calcined on exposure to heat. It possesses a lustre
peculiar to itself which is known as the “orient.”
Its specific gravity is 2.5 to 2.7, those found on the
coast of South America, termed Panama Pearls,

being somewhat denser than the Oriental Pearls.

The beauty and value of Pearls depend on their

126 Pearls,

form, colour, texture (technically called “skin”) and
lustre. A Pearl to be perfect must possess the

following qualifications _

I. It must be perfectly spherical, seeming
as if it had been artificially fashioned

or turned into shape.

II. It must have a perfectly pure white
colour; (but in India and China the

bright yellow colour is preferred).
III. It must be slightly transparent.

IV. It must be free from eee spots, or
blemish.

V. It must possess the peculiar lustre, or

“orient,” characteristic of the gem.

Ww
~ a

Chart EE Vir.

THE SoOOLOO ARCHIPELAGO.

‘Pearls and gems of lustre bright,

All sleep beneath the wave.’’
Barton.

—

2,
Z
=

HE islands constituting the “Sooloo

Archipelago,” whence the greater num-

ber of the finest round Pearls are
derived, lie on the north side of Borneo, between
the parallels of 4° 40’ and 6 50’ north latitude; and
the meridians of 119° 20’ and 122° 20’ east longitude.
The group consists of nearly 150 islands, extending
to within 40 miles of the Bornean coast; but
geographically and geologically they belong to the
fertile chain of the Philippines, rather than to the

dismal forest-clad island of Borneo.

The appearance of the Sooloo Islands from sea-

wards is extremely beautiful; there are several

128 Pearls.

extinct volcanoes of considerable height, and the

very extensive clearings which have been made for

the cultivation of hill-paddy (rice), give a charming

park-like appearance to the landscape.

The soil is of the richest volcanic nature, and
here the delicate cacao tree (Zheobroma Cacao)
flourishes, undisturbed by the devastating hurricanes
and volcanic eruptions, that from time to time
spread such disaster in the Phillipines and in

Java.

At Maimbung, the native capital, the Sultan
of Sooloo resides, but his authority over the people
is very slight. He claims sovereignty over and
receives tribute from, the islands of Paldvem and
Balabac ; but his rights over Sabah, a large territory
in North Borneo, have been ceded to the British
North Borneo Company for the trivial sum of
5,000 dollars per annum, including his share in the
birds’-nest caves. This is considerably less than his
original income-from the territory, and there is but
little doubt that when this concession was granted
the Sultan fully expected to receive help from the
English nation to rid himself of his enemies, the
Spaniards. The presence of the Governor of the
British Colony of Labuan at Maimbung during the

negociation of the concession, would naturally

The Sooloo Archipelago. 129

heighten this impression, but the expectation was

doomed to disappointment.

For many years a weary diplomatic correspon-
dence has been going on upon the subject of the
Sooloo Archipelago. Spain has expended much
money, and lost many of her sons in attempting to
reduce the Sooloo Sultan to a state of vassalage,
and for yéars a desultory kind of warfare has been
prosecuted. This was originally occasioned by the
necessity of putting an end to the frequent piratical
attacks of the Sooloo slave-praus upon the compara-
tively defenceless natives of islands under the
Spanish rule. England, however, persistently re-
fused to recognise the Spanish claim of sovereignty
over the group, and certain high-handed measures
on the part of the Spanish authorities against various
English and German merchant vessels brought about
the Protocol of 1877, by which Germany and
England secured freedom of trade in Sooloo; and
on this point Spain has more than fulfilled her obli-
gations. In 1878, Spain at length forced the Sultan
to sign the “Capitulation,” constituting himself a
subject of Spain. For this he receives an annual
pension of 2,400 dollars, and by virtue of this
treaty, Spain not only reiterated her claim of
sovereignty over the Sooloo Archipelago, but also

over the Sabah territory, ceded to the British North
I

130 — Pearis.

Borneo Company. It is only within the last year
or two that Spain has renounced this latter claim,
and England and Germany have formally recognised
the sovereign rights of Spain in Sooloo, a certain

freedom of trade being, however, provided for.

The Spaniards have a walled settlement on the
north side of the island of Sooloo, called Jolo or
Tiangi. It is situated on a swamp, that causes
great mortality in the town. There is a garrison of
800 soldiers, besides a large number of convicts from
the Philippines, and the Spanish officers serving
there receive extra pay, as if on’ active; semice
There are three other Spanish occupations in the
Archipelago, all of the very smallest dimensions,
but sufficient for the purpose. Several gun-boats

are also kept there.

Up to the present time, but little or no inter-
course has taken place between the natives and the
alien race. The few opportunities of conciliation,
such as the famine of 1879, and the outbreak of
cholera in 1882, have been allowed by the Spaniards
to slip by neglected, and a bitter hatred now exists
against them, which will probably never be thoroughly
overcome. This is exhibited occasionally in savage,
bloodthirsty outrages, which—however they may

be condemned by Europeans — will always be

The Sooloo Archipelago. 131

regarded by this fanatical Sooloo race as noble acts

of patriotism.

Physically the natives are far superior to the
ordinary Malay type, and the national character is
a strange mixture of villainy and nobility; but the
people must be long studied before the latter will
become sufficiently evident to be appreciated. Even
in these modern days, when the Malay Archipelago
is traversed by innumerable merchant steamers, and
real piracy may be said to have well-nigh disap-
peared, the Sooloo name is still regarded in the
other islands as the synonym for cruelty, treachery
and ferocity. In the days of the late Sir James
Brooke, fleets of piratical praus were fitted out in Soo-
loo, and carried their depredations as far as Singapore
and Bangkok on the one side, and New Guinea
on the other. They spread devastation and misery
wherever they went, and there is reason to believe
they penetrated as far as Polynesia. Even at the
present day every Sooloo man is a pirate at heart,
and although steam and breech-loaders have com-
pelled the adoption of a less violent means of
livelihood, yet the character of the race is still
unaltered. Murder, theft and violence are in
Sooloo acts of everyday occurrence, whilst preva-
rication, and even a total disregard for truth are

found in company with a grave, polite and

132 Pearls.

dignified demeanour. The people are intelligent,
independent, daring, and fairly moral in their
lives. The means of livelihood are not hard to
attain, and the struggle for existence being thus
light, the Sooloos live a free and happy life; in-
deed, the dull understanding and the mental
vacancy of our Western peasant are conspicuous

by their absence.

The Sooloo nation presents the interesting
picture of an old civilization, the product of the
Mussulman faith, struggling against the inroad of
the innovations of Western civilization. Doubtless
the influx of strangers would enrich the Sultan
and the Sooloo aristocracy ; but the people gene-
rally would not be benefited by it, but rather the
reverse; they are wise enough to see this, and to

be contented to live the life of their fathers.

Famines and epidemics might be averted or
mitigated by Europeans, but these are only tem-
porary misfortunes, and tend to keep up the
standard of the race, by weeding out the weaker
individuals. On the other hand, the vices of the
West would take root, and multiply rapidly on
what is, to our minds, very rank soil, and the
evil would far outweigh any benefits. At present

the chiefs take good care to relieve a man of any

4 =

The Sooloo Archipelago. 133

superabundant wealth, and the consequence is, there
is no great ambition to amass it. Polygamy and
slavery, the accompaniments of the Mohammedan

faith, flourish in Sooloo,

In Sooloo a man hardly understands what it
is to work for wages; ke is somewhat ashamed
to let himself out. There must, however, be hewers
of wood and carriers of water, whether they be
slaves who are a part of a man’s establishment,
and who identify his interests with their own, or
servants earning a poor pittance, with far harder
work, and liable to be cast adrift on a pitiless
world. There are exceptional cases in which a
slave meets with a hard master, but generally
speaking, the slaves are fairly happy, well treated,
and not over-worked. They live on the same
food as their masters, and the wife they wish for
is generally obtained for them, but their children
are also slaves. Some men are born slaves, others
are stolen into captivity, others are slaves from
debt, and lastly there are certain men who admit
their liability to servitude under the sons of
their father’s masters, but they are never called
upon to render service, and are practically free

agents.

Divers will occasionally sell for as much as

134 Pearls.

too dollars, but ordinary lads and men are worth
40 to 60 dollars, whilst girls vary from 50 to 100

dollars, according to age and beauty.

The Sooloo language is a difficult one, and
there are not a dozen Europeans who can speak
it. Mr. Haynes, who has lived for several years in
the group, has framed an extensive dictionary, and
he finds a far greater resemblance between the
Sooloo and Fijian tongues, than between the Fijian
and the other Malay languages. Whether the mi-
gration has in former ages flowed from Polynesia
westwards or whether the current took an easterly
direction from Malayan countries, will probably never
be known; but there is a very close resemblance
to be found in the words expressing the numerals,
and those elements and natural phenomena which
are everywhere the earliest and simplest forms of

speech.

In the formation of verbs also there is a
remarkable similarity, the Fijian prefix vaka
being closely akin to the invariable Sooloo prefix

mak.

The Fijian language may be said to abound
in dental consonants and final vowels, whereas the

Sooloo native, with his mouth full of betel nut

The Sooloo Archipelago. 135

and sirih, delights in labial and guttural consonants,

eschewing dental sounds to a great extent.

It is notable that the Sooloo people have
preserved the tradition of Sarah and Abraham, as

recorded on pp. 32, 33.

The commerce of the group of Sooloo Islands
is carried on through the medium of Chinese traders
who exchange Manchester goods, opium, tobacco
and other articles for Pearls and Pearl-shell, sharks’
fins, béche-de-mer and native-manufactured cordage.
Of these articles Pearl-shell forms by far the largest
proportion of the trade, and is sold in London as

“ Manila” shell.

Pearls also find their way out of the country,
but to a great extent by stealth, as it is as much
as a man’s head is worth to sell any Pearl over
a certain size, these being the Sultan’s perquisites.
The Pearls from Sooloo have ever been renowned
as being the finest in the world, and may be said
to be found in very “high bred” shells, in deep, .

clear and rapid tide-ways.

When the father of the present Sultan died
in 1879, he left a box full of Pearls of large size
and fine quality. At his death the contents of

this box met with foul play; a portion of these

136 Pearls, ©

Pearls remained in the possession of his son and
successor the late Sultan Buderoodin, who died in
March, 1884, and these were sold by him in 1882,
to defray expenses on his trip to Mecca. His
mother, who is still living (1886) and is the most
influential personage in the country, retains a
number of these Pearls, and can with difficulty be

persuaded to show any of them.

Whenever she is induced to offer a Peari for
sale—a most unusual event—she sets a higher price
on it than it would be worth in London, and she
abates but very little from it. She does not wish
to sell at all and always remarks “Why should I
sell my Pearls? if the Spaniards come to attack
us I can put my Pearls into my handkerchief and
go into the hills, but if I have dollars I should
need a number of men to carry them.” Where the
stolen portion of the box went, still remains a

mystery.

The native population of Sooloo may be divided
into two classes—the hillmen (¢az gimba) the tillers
of the soil, and the coast people (tax Bajan) the
toilers of the sea. The former cultivate rice, tapioca
and other food plants, and breed horses, cattle and
water-buffaloes. There are twenty varieties of rice

from the island of Sooloo now at the Royal Botanic

The Sooloo Archipelago. 137

Gardens, Kew, including black, red and green rice
and bearded paddy; yet these do not exhaust the

varieties existing in Sooloo.

But it is with the Bajans who reap the harvest
of the sea that our subject lies. During the months
of January, February, and March, when the North-
east monsoon is at its strongest, there is but little
done by these people, except perhaps shark-fishing
under the lee of the southern islands of the group,
But from April to December, Pearl-shell fishing

goes on more or less uninterruptedly.

The boats used for this purpose are handsome
well-built little canoes with fine lines, and they are
capable of standing considerable weather. A double
outrigger of bamboo is used, and the usual Malay
triangle mast, so admirably adapted for small boats.
The sail is of grass matting, and the ropes are made
from the true Manila hemp grown in Sooloo. Mats
are spread over the canoe during the heat of the -
day, and under these the occupants rest at their
ease. In such boats the Bajans or “sea-gipsies”’
live with wife and children for months at a time,
wandering about and living on the produce of the

sea,

Pearl shell is obtained in three different ways,

the natives of various places working according to

138 Pearls.

local custom. The Sooloo and Tawi-Tawi men are
principally divers, those from the town of Parang
and the little island of Secubun, especially attaining
great depths. By dint of practice from childhood,
by hereditary gift, and by means of a naturally
fine physique, the Sooloo natives can show as fine

divers as any in the world. They dive head first,

invariably without any artificial assistance whatever ;

and the average time they remain below the surface
is from a minute to eighty seconds; but there is
European evidence that on one occasion a dive lasted
as long as 180 beats of the pulse, which may roughly
be called two and a half minutes. The greatest
depths that Mr. Haynes has seen accomplished is
seventeen and a half fathoms (105 feet) and the
same man did fifteen and a half fathoms in the
presence of the captain and officers of HLM.S.
““Champiou.’ On- that day he failed « to “rexek
bottom at nineteen fathoms, but he was considerably
_ past his prime in years,and wasalone. In descending
these great depths the men are afraid of sharks,
unless four or five divers go down together. But
there is little doubt that there are divers in Sooloo
who can do their twenty fathoms and even more.
A report has been published lately by the French
Government on the Tahitian Pearl fishing, in which
it is stated that the natives there can accomplish

thirty fathoms. This is probably an exaggeration

- The Sooloo Archipelago. 139

on their part; in the same way a Sooloo man will
say he can do thirty fathoms ; and when challenged
as to the possibility of such a statement, replies
“Well, I can do fifteen fathoms,.down and fifteen
up again. Is not that thirty?”

The Sooloo Pearl-shell banks are worked by
natives of Sooloo only, and there is no European
engaged or even interested in the industry. There
is very litttle shell in Sooloo waters under nine
fathoms, but this is not of much consequence to
the divers, as they seldom make more than fifteen
dives in the course of a morning. On good ground
a fair diver can obtain enough shell in five or six
dives to support himself and his family for a month,
and for the rest of the month he generally leads an
idle life. Slaves have to go out more frequently and
dive oftener, but even their day’s work is far less
than what a white man would expect from a man

to whom he paid wages.

Every shell is opened on being brought to the
surface, and the oyster, after being carefully searched
for Pearls, is placed in the sun to dry for food;
a thin piece of bamboo, and not a knife, is used to

open. the shell.

The loss of life from sharks is not great,

140 Pearls.

considering the large number of people who earn
their living by diving. Nevertheless, accidents do

occur every now and then.

A Pearl shell diver is called “an maksab” ; the
act of diving being expressed by the word “smaklurop.”

A Pearl shell is called “ tipez” and a Pearl “ muchia.”

The second method of obtaining shell is by
dredging for it (makbajak) as low as fifty fathoms.
This dredge (dajak) of which a sketch is here given

FIG. 9.—DREDGE FOR PEARL OYSTERS.

(Fig. 9.) is beautifully constructed of heavy sinking
wood, the parts being bound together with rattan ;
and two heavy stones are used for sinkers. It is
admirably designed and adapted to its purpose. It
consists of five curved teeth spreading outwards, the
extreme width covered by the points being about

I foot, 8 inches; a rattan rope is used to drag the

pan eae
a

The Sooloo Archipelago. I4I

dredge along, and is attached to what may be termed
the handle at each end of the stone A, (See Fig. 9) a
second line being made fast to the upper part of the
rake, where another but smaller stone is attached, and
by the second line the “dajak” is carefully lowered
to the bottom. This line is left adrift and is used
to detach the rake from any impediment that it may
foul in its course. The long rattan rope is made fast
with a bridle to each end of the canoe, which,
drifting *thwartships in the strong tideway, drags
the dredge slowly along, resting not on the points
of the teeth, but on the curve of the rake, so
that the points are free in an almost horizontal
position. On their entering the gaping shell, the
oyster instantly closes tightly on the intruder, and

effects its own capture.

The inhabitants of Siassi, Tapul and Lamenusa

adopt this plan of deep dredging.

The third method is expressed by the word
“tong tong” and consists of peering down into the
clear water under the shadow of the universal broad
brimmed leaf hat. The shell when distinguished is
carefully scooped up by the “dajak.” Certain men
in each town are particularly proficient in this test
of the eyes, and the bottom can often be seen at

a depth of thirteen fathoms.

Throughout the Sooloo Archipelago the tides

142 Pearls.

are very strong, and at spring tides the tide rips
in certain places must be carefully avoided. The
flood flows for two hours after it is high water
and the ebb continues to run a similar length of
time after the water commences rising again. It is
the sweeping tides and the vast amount of living
reef that make the Sooloo waters so favourable for
the growth of the Mother-of-Pearl oyster; and the
prosecution of the fishing amongst the turbulent
waters of their island homes, developes the Sooloo

lads into bold and enterprising sailors.

The plate opposite represents the head-quarters
of the author’s exploring party at Lamenusa. It
was built on the edge of a reef about 200 yards
from the shore, beautifully sheltered by neigh-
bouring reefs from the swells of the ocean. At
high tide there was six feet of water under the
house, so that boats and a steam launch could
come alongside. This house was wantonly pillaged
and wrecked during its owner’s absence in March,
| 1884, at the time of the civil war which broke
out after the death of the late Sultan. The town of
Lamenusa, which contained fully 2000 inhabitants,
has been entirely destroyed, the people being killed,
dispersed, and many of them sold into slavery. No
roof has been left, and where the merry voices of

scores of Bajan children at play used to echo from

PPR eI SE | So ee ee er eee

: o aH e
+ B
4

5
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4

pee |

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; ull ull i : ; {| Zz
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DESTROYED BY THE SPANIARDS IN 1884.

Mr. STREETER’S HOUSES IN LAMENUSA’ HARBOUR,

| eee ae ee ar
Wie teas Vir s
‘ *

The Sooloo Archipelago. 143

morning to night, silence and desolation now reign
supreme.

Twice a month small steamers belonging, to
Chinese merchants at. Singapore, call at Jolo and
Maimbung to deliver goods, and take away the
shell and other produce to Singapore. These
steamers fly the English ensign, and are officered
by Englishmen; but the business of the ship and

cargo is managed entirely by Chinamen.

There is one other European living in Sooloo
outside the Spanish walls, Captain H. Schiick, a

German, who has traded for many years there, and

now devotes his energies to planting cacao. Twice

a year a German man-of-war visits Sooloo on his
behalf, and many English officers and other visitors

still retain a lively recollection of the hospitality

of this patriarchal establishment..

CHAPTER Vabii

NORTH-WEST AUSTRALIAN FISHERY.

“What hids’t thou in thy treasure-caves and cells,
Thou hollow-sounding and mysterious Main ?
Pale glistening Pear/s, and rainbow-coloured shells,
Bright things that gleam unrecked of and in vain.”
—Hemans.

EARL-SHELLING was commenced on

this coast in 1868, and in spite of its

| natural difficulties and the great fall
in the price of Pearl-shells, the industry has, up
to the present time, been actively and prosperously
maintained. It commenced in a modest way; the
shells being simply picked up at low water on reefs
almost dry for two hours in the day, but covered
by from three to five fathoms of water at high
tide. As these “dry shells” became exhausted,
small boats and dingies were introduced, each boat
with a white man and six to eight natives, diving

in one or two fathoms of water, wherever they

North-west Australian Fishery. 145

could see the shells. These shallow waters in turn
became exhausted, and the boats were increased
in size to five or six tons; such boats were
capable of shifting from one ground to another,
but always kept within a short distance of the
shore. At the present day there is a large fleet of
cutters and schooners, varying between 25 and
80 tons, with three to six dingies each, working
almost out of sight of land, and several hundred

miles away from any settlement.

The whole northern coast of Australia, from
Cape York to the North-west Cape, a distance of
2000 miles, is the habitat of the Mother-of-Pearl
oyster. Immense quantities of shell have, it is true,
been taken in Torres Straits, but there the con-
ditions of working are far easier than in the
North-west, where hurricanes and six months cold
weather, deter any but men of a very adventurous
and hardy character from embarking in the

industry.

The West Australian grounds extend from
Exmouth Gulf eastwards as far as King’s Sound ;
beyond these limits the boats have seldom gone.
Roebuck Bay alone has in two seasons yielded as
much as 440 tons of shell. The head-quarters

of the pearling fleet are at Cossack, a township
K

146 Pearls.

which, until lately, consisted of about twenty wooden
buildings on the bank of a creek; but the recent
discovery of the Kimberley gold fields has led to
its rapid development. Cossack, otherwise known as
Tien Sin, and Port Walcot, is situated in 21° 41’
S. lat., and 117°_08’- E. tong. It is the port) for
Roebourne, ‘eight miles inland, and the capital of
the North-west, with which it is now connected

by a tram line.

The immediate surroundings of both Cossack
and Roebourne were, until this year, most dismal.
With the exception of a few scanty, hurricane-
torn mangroves -in the creek, neither tree nor blade
of grass is to been seen. There are, however, a

number of thriving sheep stations not many miles
distant.

The coast is regularly visited by severe hur-
ricanes — revolving storms, known elsewhere as
cyclones or typhoons. In March, 1882, both
Cossack and Roebourne were literally levelled to
the ground in the course of a few hours. The
hurricane months are from December to March
inclusive, and every year several Pearling craft are
damaged, if not totally lost. The rise and fall of

tide varies on this coast from 18 to 4o feet.

Cossack Creek, which is almost dry at low

North-west Australian Fishery. 147

water, affords a suitable place for the repair of
boats, and most of the Pearling-fleet are laid up
here from April to October. During these months
the temperature of the water and atmosphere is so
low, that naked diving cannot be carried on, and
thus these fine calm months of easterly weather
are lost to all but a few, who are now beginning
to use European diving apparatus, the author having

been the first to use them on a large scale.

The “Pearlers” or “Nor-Westers” as they
are usually styled, generally combine sheep
farming with Pearling, thus employing the divers
on the station during the cold season. A finer
but rougher set of men it would be hard to find.
They are the product of a hard and dangerous
but healthy life; and there is amongst them an
unwritten code of honour that is seldom broken,
and is indeed, more strictly observed than the rules
which receive tacit consent but sparse observance, in
more refined circles. Removed from the amenities
and restraints of more civilised life, it is not to be
wondered at that drinking, gambling and fighting
are favourite recreations of this bronzed and stalwart
class, but their fighting is carried on in true English

fashion, and the effects are transient and harmless.

These men are clannish to a degree, and a

new arrival is not unfrequently made the subject

148 Pearls.

of rough practical jokes, and horse-play, if he adopts
-a more civilised garb and demeanour than his new

companions.

‘Let us here narrate the most favourable in-
troduction a new-comer could receive. As soon as
the anchor is let go, several of the pearlers come
up the side of the vessel and introduce themselves;
this is the signal for imbibing refreshment, and as
soon as the meagre scraps of Fremantle news have
been exchanged, all repair to the wooden drinking
shanty or inn on shore. “Let me introduce you,”
said one of them (a man of fine powerful figure
and healthy face) “to the White Hart’ Hotel 1oF
Cossack: this is Frank Craig, our landlord, and
here” (pointing to various slumbering forms lying
about the house) “are the pearlers in their usual

state.”

The Government regulations for the prosecution
of the industry, are superintended by a magistrate
residing at Roebourne; he issues licenses to the
vessels, and every Australian diver employed in the
fleet has to be passed by him. There is also an
inspector of “ Pearl-shell fisheries” who _ besides
being a professional sailor, is in the commission of
.the peace. He has a small schooner, and visits the

fleet at work, in order to see that the regulations

North-west Australian Fishery. 149

are complied with, and he adjudicates on the spot.
This post requires great tact and ability, and the
Western Australian Government may be congra-
tulated upon the selections they have made to fill
it. The cost of a pearling licence is nominal, but
the colony derives considerable revenue from an
export duty of 44 per ton on the shell raised. This
system works satisfactorily on both sides, except in
one respect. When the licence is issued, the
magistrate retains the ship’s papers until the end
of the season, and the return of the ship, as security
for the due payment of the duty on the shells.
In the case of vessels working Australian aborigines
for divers this is reasonable, but in the case of
those who, like ourselves, employ Malay divers from
the Dutch islands, it works badly, especially if, as is
often the case, “beri-beri” breaks out amongst the
divers: should the ship for instance, be working in
Roebuck Bay, instead of being able to sail at once
for Koepang to return the men to their homes, she
must first go to Cossack to pay the duty, and obtain
possession of her papers before she can sail for a
foreign port. This involves an extra distance of
about 700 miles, besides the delay in Cossack, and if,
as is often the case, baffling winds or calms are met
with, many valuable lives are lost, and the employer
has to pay wages and keep the men during the extra

time. He is already under a heavy guarantee to

150 Pearls.

the Dutch government to return the divers, and
pay their wages punctually. A banker’s cuarantee
has been offered to the Australian government for
the due payment of the duty in order to retain
possession of the ship’s papers, but the dispensation

has been denied.

The crews of all the vessels, except in the case
of the “Sree Pas Sair,” and her fleet, consist of the
owners and other white men who work as dingy
hands, each dingy carrying six to eight divers,
either Australian aborigines, or Malays. The vessels
anchor near together, often ten or fifteen miles
from the land, and are left during the day with
only the cook on board, or sometimes entirely

deserted, dipping bows under in the rough sea.

At dawn the men are astir, and by 6. a.m., the
shells that were obtained the previous day are all
scraped, opened, and stowed away. Then comes
breakfast, which consists of salt beef and bread,
varied occasionally by fish, dugong, or turtle;
perhaps the egristly part of the oyster is discussed.
Eight hours’ diving is allowed ; and these hours vary
between 7. a.m. and 6. p.m,, according to the state
of the tide. On their return to the vessel, the shell
is taken out of the dingies, and each man’s “tally”
being taken down in a book, the dingies are cleaned

out and made fast for the night. Dinner of the

North-west Australian Fishery. I51

same character as the breakfast is then served, and
all hands lie down to sleep until dawn. Diving on
Sunday is strictly prohibited, and indeed the seventh

day’s rest is amply earned and needed.

The method of working the dingies is as
follows: the white man stands on the after ’thwart
with an oar over the stern, and sculls the dingy
against the tide; the divers all go down together,
partly for the sake of frightening any sharks that
may chance to be below, and partly that the bottom
may be more systematically examined. During the
time the men are below, the white man must scull
against the wind, so that his men may come up
near to the boat, and his task is regulated by the
force of the wind. The divers swim to the boat
and clamber into it to rest, each man’s shells being
stowed separately. The white man continues sculling
against the tide to prevent his drifting away from
theship toorapidly. Ifa diveis unusually productive
a buoy is thrown out and the dingy is sculled up
to the same spot again. This soon attracts the
other boats, and as soon as shells get scarce, the
buoy is taken in and the dingy allowed to drift
slowly over the ground. At times these little boats
are more than six miles away from their vessels,
and then the oars or paddles are got out, and in
case of a sudden squall coming on, the divers pull

the boat back to the vessel. These squalls aré known

L52 Pearls.

locally as “cock-eyed bobs;” they come off the
shore and last from half an hour to four hours. The
wind, heated by passing over the scorched plains, is
very trying, parching the skin and burning the

nostrils ; this wind is very furious, and the vessels

at anchor, even with top masts on deck, heel over

--as far as scuppers under before they can swing to
it. In one squall in Roebuck Bay nine anchors
were lost, and various quantities of chain, most of
the dingies being miles away from their ships at
the time; whilst two vessels were cruising about
close reefed, having lost both anchors, and waiting

for the squall to pass to borrow others.

On average ground, a diver does a fair day’s
work if he finds one “pair” of shells in eight dives,
but two or three pairs are frequently brought up
at once, and even five, the man carrying two in
each hand and one under his arm. His daily “ take”
averages from ten to twenty five pairs, but a diver
has been known to get one hundred in a single
day. In the “Dawn” in 1882, the best day’s 4ake
was 2,320 pairs to 37 men; and in 1883, the highest
tally was 840 pairs to 42 men on the same ground;
350 pairs being the lowest. This plainly shows the

exhausting effect of a season’s fishing.

From December to March the sea is rough,

and the white man’s task of sculling the dingy all

North-west Australian Fishery. 153

day under a tropical sun, wet with salt water and
occasional rain, is no light one. When the weather
is exceptionally bad and the barometer lower than
usual, the anchors are hove up and the fleet scatters
for shelter within the numerous mangrove creeks
on the coast. There the vessels lie, two or three
in company for weeks together, dry at low water, and
swarming with flies and mosquitoes; the white men
meantime, having nothing to do until the weather
moderates, but to gamble and compare Pearls. It
is particularly noticeable, how even the yield of
shell continues on this coast; the only bad bottom
is mud or sand. The state of the tides and weather,
and consequent thickness or clearness of the water,

affects the yield as much as the locality.

In the evening the men who have worked
badly, have to scrape the dirt, coral cups, and other
submarine growth off the shells and wash them,
stacking them in heaps on the deck. In the morning
the white men open them with a knife, holding
the shell with the hinge on the deck and taking
care not to scratch any Pearl that may be within.
Immediately the muscle of the oyster is severed,
the shells spontaneously spring open, and the oyster
is cut away from the shell as cleanly as possible.
Any good Pearl is usually seen at once, but a

smart little boy generally sits alongside each opener

154 Pearls.

whose duty it is to take the oyster in his fingers
and carefully feel all over it for the small Pearls.
These he places in a small shell, and very few

ever escape these sharp little fellows.

| When all are opened, the empty shells are
stacked so that the sun and wind may dry the
hinges, which after seven or eight hours are brittle
enough to be broken without injuring the shells.
The shell is then stacked in bulk in the hold, or
packed away in hogsheads for export. This opera-
tion is one in which the pearler takes considerable
pride. A well- packed hogshead weighs between
5 and 6 cwt. The: Pearls are handed over tonere
“boss” of the vessel, who washes them clean, and
puts them away—the good ones into his cash-box,
and the common ones into a pickle bottle. Every
day a few Pearls are found, but it is rarely that
anything of much value is discovered. Men have
opened over 5,000 pairs, and never found a Pearl
worth 45. The yield of Pearls in shells taken west
of Cossack, is far larger than in those from the
Eastern grounds; the usual proportion in value of
shells and Pearls taken West being 3 to 1, whereas
East it is only 5 to 1: that is to say the Pearls
found in £5,000 worth of shell will average about
% 1000.

West of Cossack shells are scarcer than to the

North-west Australian Fishery. 155

eastward, and hurrieanes are more frequent, but there

is better shelter, and fresh water is more easily obtained.

The loss of life and material from hurricanes
has been very great. When a vessel has succeeded
in entering a creek, she is beached as high up as
possible, and moored as securely as can be in the
most sheltered spot. If the hurricane actually comes
on, it is best to leave the ship and get up on the
sand hills, as the tide rises considerably above high-
water mark, and the low land is flooded: on these
sand hills both white and black men are huddled
together, but the exposure is very severe. The
vessel will probably be driven inland some distance

or lodged amongst the mangroves.

Sharks and porpoises are driven on shore and
killed, and vessels that have not succeeded in
entering a creek, are either totally lost, driven in

shore, or scuttled in shallow water.

The greatest difficulty attending the successful
prosecution of the West Australian fisheries is, as
on all other grounds, the supply of divers. The
usual plan in the North-west is to take up a
tract of land for a sheep or a cattle station; thus
most of the Nor’ Westers are styled in the official

directory, ‘ Pearlers and Graziers.”

It may be of interest in this place to say

156 Pea as

something about the natives of this part of Australia.
These aborigines do not form distinct tribes, but
are dispersed in families scattered over the face of
the land, and they gain a precarious living by
hunting. When, however, a white man takes up his
hunting grounds, erects a house, digs wells and
introduces stock, these people come in, and in
return for a regular supply of flour and tobacco
they undertake shepherding, and other light work,
looking at the new arrival as their natural superior.
The old men however are equally jealous of the
exclusive possession of the women as of the flour,
and they are only too glad to see the lads and
young men go to dive for the white man; the
junior members of the community invariably obey
the wishes of their seniors. Thus for six months
the young men work as divers, and during the
remainder of the year, they are taken care of
on their stations, and become useful as shearers, etc.,

returning to diving at each successive season.

Although many of these aborigines, when first
set to work, can neither swim nor dive, they soon
become adepts in these arts, and after two seasons
an Australian becomes a first-class diver. They
enter the water feet first, turning so as to swim
downwards ; they do not attain such excessive

depths as some other races, owing to the nature

North-west Australian Fishery. 157

of the ground worked; but for finding shell they
cannot be beaten, whilst for powers of endurance an
Australian native is unequalled in the world. Their
struggle in endeavouring to gain a bare subsistence
in this thirsty land, is most severe, and their
endurance of thirst, their patience, and their tenacity

of purpose are marvellous.

' They are all passed before the magistrate at
Roebourne every season, and he sees that each
man is willing and physically fit for the work, and
that at the end of the season he is returned to
‘his home. The regulations providing for their food,
clothes, and remuneration, are carried out fairly,
although the latter is.of far less importance ‘to
these men than the former. “ Damper,” or unleavened
bread, forms the staple food of Australian divers,
_and they consume great quantities of it; it is good
food to work on—far better than rice—and fish,
dugong, and turtle, serve as welcome additions.
Their powers of sight are very keen; when walking
on a dry reef, they will follow a white man and
pick up numbers of shells that he has passed over.
It is a curious fact that a man who by some mis-
chance has lost an eye, is always the sharpest in
finding shell.

On some days the men are in good spirits,

laughing and joking continually ; but at other times

1538 Pea rls.

they are inclined to be sullen and morose and dive
for hours without speaking a word; indeed, the
quantity of shell brought up varies greatly with
the disposition prevailing among the men, the happy
mood generally producing the best results. A kind
of freemasonry exists between the men, and at
times they agree amongst themselves not to bring
up shell, although they are well aware that failure
to do so, will not lesson the necessity of their
pretending at least to seek for it, and at the same
time will entail a loss of the small benefits that

they receive for a successful day’s work.

A notable instance of this fact occurred with
the divers of four vessels. These men, although
on what afterwards proved to be good ground,
persisted for days in declaring they could find no
shell. At length, the vessels left for other ground,
and shortly after another craft with Malay divers
came upon the vacated ground, and secured a large
quantity of shell, that was found stacked in heaps
at the bottom by the divers of the other vessels.

These aborigines possess fine constitutions, and
contrasted with the natives to be seen in the
southern parts of Australia, are of high physical
development. There is but little sickness amongst

them, but they are unrivalled adepts in simulating

North-west Australian Fishery. 159

illness, especially “fits” in the water. Fits do un-
doubtedly occur occasionally, but. the vast majority
of the cases are feigned, probably not more than
two or three real ones occurring in the whole fleet
in the course of a season; and even in these cases,
the results do not appear to call for the alarm
which their occurrence causes. The power of imi-
tation however, is so great, that the most experienced
pearler can never be absolutely sure of his judg-

ment of a case,

Although sharks are very numerous, accidents
attributable to them are fortunately rare. The loss
of life from this cause is only from a half to one per
cent. in the season. Alligators are much more
dangerous, but they do not go far out to sea, and

are never found south of King’s Sound.

The wholesome regulation against the supply
of spirits to the aborigines is doubtless of advantage
in keeping up the standard of the race, but nowhere
in the world is the ‘‘native policy” a more vexed
question than in Australia. In that Continent the
gradual extinction of the natives before the usurping

white race appears to be inevitable.

There is little to be said about the Malays that
are employed in the fishery; they are a tractable

160 | Pearls. |

set of men, quick to learn from a white man, and

pleasant to teach; in diving, however, they are not
equal to the Australians, their powers of endurance

being far inferior.

In 1872, the “ Australian Fishery Company ”
was floated in London, and two fine yachts were
fitted out in England—the “Enchantress” and the
“Flower of Yarrow” —for the purpose of prosecuting
this industry on the North-west Coast. Ample
capital was available, but the venture proved disas-
trous. The promoter actually estimated in his
prospectus, that each diver could bring up a hundred
shells in an hour! and based his reduced estimate
upon a yield of eight tons of shell from each diver
in the season; as a matter of fact, 14 tons is the
highest that has ever been obtained, and that only
under extraordinarily favourable circumstances. The
whole proceeding was a fiasco, and ludicrous to
all, except the shareholders, The working expenses
alone would have eaten up all the profits, even if
a reasonable quantity had been obtained. The
“Enchantress” was lost and the ‘‘ Flower of Yarrow”
was sold. She traded in the Malay Archipelago
for a number of years, running the Spanish blockade
in Sooloo several times, and up to the date of her
recent wreck was known as the handsomest and

fastest craft in the East. The promoters of the

North-west Australian Fishery. 16I

scheme came to an untimely end in the wreck
of the “ Gothenburg.”

Pearl fishing has perhaps about it a glamour
of romance, but in order to bring about successful
results, it requires, as much as any other industry,
economy and experience. If ever there was an
expedition fated to end in disaster it was this:
roomy, even-keeled vessels are required, not beau-
tiful yachts, and the failure may be said to have
occurred in consequence of the expedition having

been carried out in “ white-kid-glove” fashion.

To the southward of the North-West Cape,
the smaller Pearl-oyster (Avicula or Meleagrina
fucata) is found in Shark’s Bay. Here dredging
is carried on, and the oysters are allowed to decom-
pose, in order that the Pearls may be more easily
secured. It is, however, an industry conducted only
on asmall scale; it is not very remunerative, and it

presents no features of interest to the general reader.

From the following statistics of exports, which
unfortunately are of necessity incomplete, we may
trace the history of the Pearl-shell fishery in Western

Australia so far as our data permit:

YEAR. SHELLS, VALUE. PEARLS, VALUE.
PaO2) ) J ie Tle meer ie —
500° .:. Se AS. 2. mes —
iy ae ba ARS 8 ae bie —
SA eet ee sent (a0, GOO

162 Pearls.

YEAR. SHELLS, VALUE. PEARLS, VALUE,
LO7AS. ts ae OR RO ae i. PReee
PSG ik. oh cWee a TORO tee as, -TROee
1370.3. she ee aO a= t' ek sos COGS
EOol hans voc ae AAO io Oes
663) ta yas SOL 300 Ze eee ws | 6 eee

In the season 1882—1883 there were employed
in the Western-Australian fishery nineteen vessels,
manned by 539 divers, who raised 250 tons of shell,

showing an average of under half-a-ton per man.

In 1882, the Union Bank of Australia opened
a branch at Cossack and Roebourne. Previously
to this, the wants of the community were aided by
the issue of rough promissory notes, by a store-
keeper, for any sum between 6d. and £5, and the
general acceptance of Dutch guilders as two shilling
pieces. The manager of the bank and his assistant
were brutally murdered at Roebourne in January,
1885. In 1884, a steamer began to ply regularly
between Fremantle and Singapore, touching at
Cossack, and in 1885 the telegraph line was extended
700 miles from Geraldston to Cossack, thus placing
this lonely station within a few hours’ communi-
cation with Europe. The recent development of
Cossack, consequent on the discovery of gold in
the Kimberley district, in the north of Western

Australia, has already been mentioned.

It may not be out of place to remark that

North-west Anstralan Fishery. 163

Mr, E. T. Hardman, in his geological exploration
of the Kimberley country, a year or two ago,
detected gold for a distance of about 140 miles
along the course of the Ord and Elvire rivers;
this discovery led to the systematic working of the
alluvial deposits, and several nuggets of considerable
size, one weighing as much as 28 ozs., have been
brought to light. Mr. Haynes, in a letter to the
author, dated July 26, 1886, states that 3,000 people
have already arrived at these: gold-fields. On the
20th of August, the ‘ Assam” left London, carrying
on board an enterprising gentleman, who has gone
out with the intention of building several towns on
the north-west coast, to be connected by railways.
The rapid influx of immigrants in the northern
part of Western Australia, has caused Cossack to
acquire an importance, which, a short time ago,

would never have been anticipated.

CHAPTER . EX,

TORRES STRAITS.

“The Diamond sleeps within the mine,
The Pearl beneath the water.”

oe

=| LTHOUGH this fishery has been of
{| more importance than that of Western

Australia, and has produced consi-

=== ss

derably more than double the quantity of shell,
it is needless to describe it at great length, inas-
much as the Pearls which it yields are of very
little value. Torres Straits are situated at the
extreme North-Eastern corner of Australia, sepa-
rating Cape York from New Guinea. This passage of
water was discovered in 1605, by the Spanish navi-

gator Torres, after whom it was named. It measures

Torres Stratts. ; 165

about eighty miles across, and is crowded with
islands, shoals and reefs. At Thursday Island a
Police Magistrate is stationed, and his main duty
is to regulate the Pearl fishing and to collect the

revenue therefrom.

The British India Mail Steamers from London
to Brisbane call here fortnightly, besides other lines.
Upon the islands, dotted about in the Straits, the
various shelling stations are established. These con-
sist of the manager’s house, “shell” house, and
other buildings devoted to the repair of boats,

diving dresses and pumps.

The diving boats are fine little craft, of nine
or ten tons, rigged with two standing lugs, and
they carry six hands—the diver, the tender, and
four pumpers. There are no Europeans in the boats,
but coloured men of all sorts and conditions are
to be found there.

The boats are provisioned for a fortnight, and
go wherever the diver chooses, At the end of the
fortnight the boats rendezvous at some spot agreed
upon, to meet the tender from the station—either
a cutter or small schooner—which takes over the
shells and issues another fortnight’s provisions.

After a year’s work the diver proceeds to Sydney

166 Pearls,

with often as much as 4300, and usually spends
this large sum, and the proceeds of his bottle of ©

Pearls, in a few weeks of riotous living.

- The owners of boats unfortunately have not
pulled together; they have bid one against another
for the services of the men who are able to use
the diving dress, and have now to pay them £10
per month wages, and as much as 440 bonus for
every ton of shell raised. The consequence is the
men are very independent, and the owners submit
to all their whims and vagaries. They refuse to have
a white man in their boats, so that they may secure
all the Pearls for themselves. The Pearls from
here are mostly Baroque, very few fine spherical
Pearls having been produced in the Torres Straits

fishery.

During the year 1883, 206 vessels were licensed,
employing about 1,500 men; and 33 licenses were
granted for fishing stations. The yield of Pearl-
shell for that year, was 621 tons, being 207 tons
less than that of the previous year; besides this,
118 tons of béche-de-mer were exported. The total
revenue collected at Thursday Island for the year
was £10,412. The export from West Australia
seldom exceeds 250 tons for the six months’ diving

season. The amount of capital in this industry is

a

Torres Straits. 167

less than in Torres Straits, but more white men find

employment in the West.

The Torres Straits fishery dates back only to
1874. The boats work all the year round, and
large profits have been made, but the ground is far
more limited in extent than in the North-west
Australian waters, and in the future the latter will
be of far greater value. Indeed, this year (1886)
all the boats have left Torres Straits to work on

the north-western coast.

CHAPTER x.

PEARLING LIFE AT THE PRESENT DAY.

‘*Ocean’s gem the purest
Of Nature’s works! What days of weary journeyings,
What sleepless nights, what toils on land and sea,
Are borne by men to gain thee! ”’

ALLIS chapter is written in order to give

our readers some little idea of an in-

peaeesy| dustry which is carried on in remote

places, until recently out of the track of ordinary
shipping, away from all centres of civilization, and

under circumstances of no ordinary danger.

The finest and most complete pearling vessel
atioat..is;-the “Sree” Pas=sain- a aeie Belle of
Pas-Sair,” a district in Borneo), a brigantine of
112 tons, bought and equipped by the late Mr. E. C.
Chippindall, R.N., at the expense of the author

VALVE OF PEARL OYSTER (Meéeleagrina Margaritifera) WITH A PEARL,

Pearling Life at the Present Day. 169

of this work. She has large and comfortable ac-
-commodation, having a high poop. She carries
eight dingies, each 14 ft. 6 in. in length, six being
carried on davits, and two on deck; and she draws
7 ft. 6 in. aft, and carries sufficient fresh water to

last 80 men for three months.

We will first describe a prospecting cruise, and
then return to an. ordinary pearling cruise on old

grounds.

ine sepreniber, 1883, «the Sree: Pas-Sair” left
Singapore in charge of Mr. Chippindall, with a
crew of Malay sailors, a Chinese carpenter, cook and
“boy.” In Sooloo seven men only were shipped,
although sixty were required; but these natives
had never served a white man before, and were
afraid to leave their country. The vessel then pro-
ceeded to the island of Solor, not far from Timor,
and having recruited sixty-one Solorese divers, and
signed them on before the Dutch Governor at
Koepang, Mr. Chippindall sailed for the Australian
coast, being accompanied by the late Mr. Harry E.
Streeter, a son of the author. There was thus a
total of seventy-eight men on board. Admiralty
Gulf was visited, and thoroughly searched, but to
‘ no purpose; and the vessel continued her course
eastwards along the coast, prospecting all the way.

At one place seven days were employed in

170 Pearls.

collecting and curing the Chinese dainty, ‘ béche-
de-mer” (Holothuria), this creature being discovered
there in profusion. No natives were seen for the
first two days, and drying sheds were erected on
the beach. Suddenly, however, a body of natives
appeared on the scene, and attacked the party in
the open. The Solorese jumped into the sea, and
swam off to the ship, leaving the white men and
the dingy on the shore. As the spears were flying
thickly, and sticking quivering in the sides of the
dingy, the white men were forced to fire for their
own protection. The natives soon made off, fortu-
nately without loss of life on either side. Twice
again that week attacks were made, and then to
gute bloodshed, the ship left. The remains of a
Malay prau were seen here, the crew having been

probably murdered by the natives.

The pearling vessel proceeding eastwards, pros-
pecting all the unsurveyed coast up to Port Darwin,
but found nothing until that port was reached. On
the first day at Port Darwin, “shell” was struck
close to the town, to the great excitement of all
the inhabitants, the good news being telegraphed
all over Australia. As soon as shell began to get
scarce in the shallow water, Mr. Chippindall decided
to prospect outside; but the easterly monsoon

setting in, he stretched across to the Aru Islands,

Pearling Life at the Present Day. 171

on his way to New Guinea. Seven days were
spent at Dobbo, in Aru, and here a strange inci-
dent happened, worth mentioning. On attempting
to heave up the anchor, it was found to be foul;
on sending a man down to report (in 123 fathoms),
it was discovered that the anchor had dropped into
a small hole in a rock, standing solitary on a smooth
bottom, and that the flukes were firmly fixed below
the overhanging edges. The following device was
resorted to in order to clear the anchor: a man
having gone down, and made fast a small line to
the fluke of the anchor in the hole, all chain was
veered out to ensure the safety of the ship; four
candles of dynamite were bound together with a
fuse inserted, and attached to a thimble on the line.
The line was then held quite taut and vertical, the
fuse lit «and the charge dropped, the line being
held until the charge was felt to have reached the
bottom. The dingy then paddled away from the
spot and the charge was exploded. The result was
that the anchor came up with a broken fluke, and

the rock was shattered to pieces.

On April 4th, when the New Guinea coast was
sighted, a Solorese diver was suddenly taken ill.
His pulse being very weak indeed, it was thought
that a spoonful of brandy might revive him, but on

its being given, the man died in less than a minute.

172 Pearls.

At New Guinea some chiefs came on board, and
were entertained by the mate, whilst Mr. Chippindall
pulled ashore some five miles off. Here his dingy
was surrounded by hundreds of canoes with armed
savages, but everything passed off well, probably
owing to the fact that their own chiefs were on

board, and might be looked upon as hostages.

On the roth of April another diver died. On
the following day very rich ground was found, and
some enormous shells were raised. On the 12th of
April the third man died, and Mr. Chippindall,
judging from previous experience that more deaths
would occur, determined to immediately send the
men back to their homes. He therefore sailed that
day. By the end of a fortnight the total number
of deaths amounted to nine, and while in Port
Darwin harbour, in four days five more died.
Every effort was made to rouse the men and dis-
tract their attention, but it was useless; the ship
was like a charnel house. Meanwhile the seven
Sooloo men were looking on, and ridiculing the

Solorese as cowards.

During the vessel’s absence from Port Darwin,
large numbers of boats had arrived from Torres
Straits with diving dresses, and the harbour pre-

sented a most lively appearance. They did very well

Pearling Life at the Present Day. 173

for a short time, but the South-Australian Govern-
ment besides enforcing heavy license fees, offered no
inducement to get the coast prospected, and at the
present time there is not a single pearling boat left
in the waters of the northern territory. The dream
of wealth has vanished, and the golden goose is

asleep, if not dead.

The fifteenth death occured on May 6th, on
arrival at Koepang, where the Solor men were
paid off. The last death happened very suddenly
in the street, two hours after paying off. The
loss in one month was thus sixteen out of the

sixty-one men originally shipped from Solor.

The disease from which these men died js
called Lert-beri, and it appears to be allied closely
to dropsy ; large numbers of sailors die of it yearly,
and in the tin-mining districts of Perak, there are
sometimes as many as 950 Chinamen in hospital
at one time. Even the best qualified doctors are
at a loss to determine its cause or its cure. Our
own experience tends to point to the long-continued
rice-diet as the cause, and the natives themselves

are beginning to believe this.

In the “Sree Pas-Sair” the Solorese attributed
the deaths to the coast of New Guinea “being
unlucky,” but the ship herself remains as popular as

ever. The “ Flowerdale,” another pearling schooner,

174 Pearls.

has, however, not escaped so well. She lost 19 out of
72 Solorese during the same season, and the men assert
that she has a ghost on board, in the form of an old
sailor, with a white beard and a long knife, This
ghost was supposed to live in the hold in the day
and go up aloft at night ; and so great was the
fear produced, that men would only enter the hold
during the day in company with seven or eight
others, all joining hands. On suddenly waking at
night, the men would declare they saw the ghost
touching them with his knife; and screaming with
terror they would fall ill and die in a few hours,
The survivors were all in Koepang when the
“Sree Pas-Sair” returned; they had refused to
put a foot on board the haunted ship again, even
for the few hours’ run across to their own homes,
and the “Sree Pas-Sair” therefore gave them all
a passage, eventually arriving in Singapore on the
20th June, and dropping anchor for the 152nd time

since she left in the previous September.

On the Ist of August, we again find the vessel
fitted out for a two years’ voyage, and leaving
in charge of Mr. Haynes, bound for the Sooloo

Archipelago.

On the way up a dangerous shoal, with only
34 fathoms of water, was found, in the Koti Pas-

sage of the Natuna group. This shoal has been

Pearling Life at the Present Day. 175

inserted in the latest Admiralty charts, under the
name of “Haynes’ Shoal.” Another but less im-
portant reef was discovered the same week, to the

southward of the North Luconia Shoals.

At Sooloo, the seven Sooloo men were gladly
welcomed by their friends as returning heroes; and
after relating all the experiences of the late voyage,
crowds of divers came forward eager to join. Fifty
three men were engaged, including three of the
. old hands, and the ship sailed for Macassar and

Australia.

It was interesting to observe the demeanour
of these new men. They were proceeding to un-
known lands, under the control of a white man,
for the first time in their lives; the ship was equally
strange to them, and a superstitious feeling of
approaching awe was aroused. In the Straits of
Macassar, at night, the ship passed slowly close to
a great mass of floating wood, probably some tree
brought down by a river in Borneo. This tree had
been taken possession of by sea-birds for a roosting-
place, and being suddenly alarmed by the close
approach of the ship, the birds took flight, flapping
their wings, and running along the surface of the
water, making considerable noise before they were
fairly on the wing. The sleeping Sooloo men were

aroused just in time to distinguish the black mass

176 Pearls.

on the water, fading away into the darkness astern.
This phenomenon effectually disposed of further
sleep that night. In ‘the morning several of the
elder men came to their master, and gravely, and
with timidity, enquired whether “that were Satan

they saw last night!”

In Macassar, Mr. Chippindall again joined
the ship, and took charge; he and Mr. Haynes pro-

ceeding to Australia, and the mate leaving the ship.

Cossack, the headquarters of the West Aus-
tralian pearling fleet, was reached in due time. Here
a new mate joined, and work was begun at the
head of the Exmouth Gulf. From April to October
it is fine, calm, ‘clear water, but too cold for naked
diving. Even in November the water in the Gulf
was standing at 68° Fakr., and the atmosphere at
72° Fahr., while all the boats were necessarily idle.
Such cold would be sufficient to kill men if they
dived.

There was one other schooner with Solorese
on board, but all the others were working West-
Australian aborigines. These men dive feet first,
and turn in the water; such a method being far
less exhausting than plunging head foremost. The
Solorese imitated the Australian men, but the Sooloo

men would not give up their old habits, and

Pearling Life at the Present Day. 177

they treated the latter with the utmost contempt
as unclean animals. The Australians, however,

proved themselves by far the best shell-getters.

In order to avoid the excessive cold, the “Sree
Pas-Sair” and another boat went north, to the
Montebello group, where the water was quite warm
and clear. This was the first time the group had
ever been dived, and magnificent shells were found
averaging 380 pairs to the ton. (The West Aus-
tralian technical term is “a pair of shells,” ze one
oyster), Six weeks of steady diving went on, and
after “their ears were broken,” the Sooloo men did
fairly well. If a man ceases to dive for a few
months, he experiences great pain in his ears. on
again commencing, and this is slightly alleviated
by oil and laudanum. After persevering from four
to six days, something suddenly appears to give
way in the ears when under water, and then all
pain disappears; the man can at once proceed to
greater depths, and will suffer no inconvenience for
the rest of the season. There is no discharge of

blood, neither is the sense of hearing impaired.

Christmas day was spent at the Montebellos ;
and on Boxing day a magnificent Pearl weighing
40 grains was found. This is the finest and best-
shaped Pearl yet obtained from this coast. As

the fresh water was now running short, a likely
M

178 Pearls.

spot was decided upon, and a well was sunk through
20 feet of rock, below which a fair supply of good
water was fortunately found. A beacon has now
been erected to guide vessels into the group and to

the well of fresh water.

Early in January the two ships returned to the
Gulf, finding the water warm at last, and all the
other pearlers doing fairly well, but the ground did

not suit the Sooloo men.

In February all the fleet went into a creek and
beached for shelter, the barometer having fallen un-
usually low, and the weather looking very threatening,
but they escaped without a “blow” and returned
to work after four days. As stinging weed and
fishes were plentiful, and the water was very thick,
the “Sree Pas-Sair” and the “Ivy” returned to the
Montebellos. Beautiful weather set in, and every
morning the water was as smooth as oil, the shell
being seen from the top. The daily work was
performed with ease and profit ; but unfortunately
“ Beri-beri”» commenced to show itself amongst the
Sooloo men. A dropsical tendency appeared, and
half the men had to stop work. A house was built
ashore, and flour substituted for rice, and to this is

attributed the unusually low mortality. Four men

died, and to save the others, a premature return had _

to be made. Cossack was again visited, to obtain

Pearling Life at the Present Day. 179

the ship’s papers, and to pay the duty of £4 per

ton on the shells obtained.

A course was then laid for Macassar, and a
fair run made to Sapie Straits, but three more poor
fellows died on the way across, two of them within
twelve hours of their first complaining of illness.
This brought the total number of deaths up to
seven, and happily then all sickness disappeared.
Strange to say, these Sooloo men showed great
apathy at the loss of their comrades; they made
no noisy lamentations over them, and as soon as a
body was committed to the deep, the occurrence
was apparently forgotten. Had there been a panic
amongst them, the deaths would probably have
been trebled, as many of the men showed symptoms
of the disease. Fortunately, there was a deck-load
of cows and sheep, which kept the men employed
and interested. The boxing gloves were also got
up, and the men were instructed in the art of self-
defence, in order to distract their attention, great

merriment being caused by many of the combats.

At the entrance to the Sapie Straits the ship
was becalmed for six days, and the men had very
hard work towing the ship all day. Every after-
noon a little wind sprang up, and the unfathomable
straits were entered ; but after a couple of miles the

wind died away, and the ship being caught by the

180 Pearls.

furious ebb tide, was sent helpless out to sea again,
the tide rips and whirlpools spinning her round and
round. On the sixth day the last tank of fresh
water was broached, and the unsurveyed Western
passage was that night attempted and successfully
made. Water and grass were obtained from one

of the islands, and Macassar was soon reached.

Here the Sooloo men were paid their wages,
so that they might invest in goods, thereby greatly

increasing their earnings by selling their purchases in

their own country. It spoke well for their acquired |

habits of confidence and discipline, that they accepted
their master’s statement as tothe amount due to

each, with silent approval and without question.

A rule had been made that no wages should
be paid for days lost by sickness, in order to deter
the lazier men from feigning illness; and the justice
of this rule is highly appreciated by the industrious
men themselves. It is often difficult to determine
whether a complaining man is, or is not, skulking,
but it is much safer, if in doubt, to permit him to
remain on board though well, than to order him
out to dive, even at the risk of creating discontent
among the more honest and industrious of the

ship’s company.

Two days’ liberty were given to the men, who

Pearling Life at the Present Day. I8t

quickly exchanged their wages for goods. An
English acrobatic company happened to be in
Macassar at the time, and all the hands were
taken to see the performance, to the intense delight

of all, but especially of the younger men.

Unfortunately the possession of so much money
and the excitement of being in a large town proved
too much for the mind of one of the divers, Akalal
by name, who had hitherto been a slave in his own
country, but was now a free man for life, with all
a free man’s privileges. Impressed with the idea
that everybody wanted torob him of his riches, he
became greatly excited; at night he swam off to
the ship, clambered up the side, and knocking down
the Malay sailor at the cabin door with a belaying
pin, he entered the vacant cabin, and there seizing
two large krisses, attacked his comrades asleep on
deck, Fortunately he was secured before doing much

harm, and soon became quieter.

Two days afterwards, Mr. Haynes left Macassar
in charge of the ship, bound to Sooloo and back
again, Mr. Chippindall returning to Singapore. The
second day Akalal again broke out, and seriously
injured an unoffending Macassar sailor. Mr. Haynes
then put him in irons for the remainder of the

voyage, and he was kept securely tied up in one of

182 Pearls.

the boats. Indeed, there was considerable diffi-
culty in preserving his life from his comrades, who
begged to be allowed to kill him. He gradually
became better, but appeared depressed, fearing his
probable fate might be to be killed as soon as he
left the ship. On the tenth day he was allowed out
for two hours for exercise, and then again ironed,
but his comrades must have failed to tie him up
securely, for that night, the ship being becalmed,
and everybody asleep, he managed to get out of
the boat, and, ironed as he was, picked up a 9g lb.
hand lead, and struck Mr. Haynes on the forehead
whilst asleep in a chair on deck, leaving him sense-
less, covered with blood, and apparently dead, in
which state he remained for six hours. The mad-
man then attacked a Sooloo boy also asleep, but

was secured before doing much further harm.

The mate then took charge, and the ship was
headed for Macassar, where she arrived four days
later. Here Mr. Haynes was most hospitably cared
for, and kindly tended by a Dutch gentleman for
six weeks, and gradually becoming stronger, he re-
covered his senses of taste and sight, which were
temporarily lost. The outer table of the frontal
bone was severely fractured, evidence of which will
remain visible throughout life; he experiences now

but little inconvenience from the injury, beyond

Pearling Life at the Present Day. 183

that resulting from a permanent loss of the sense

of smell,

The Sooloo divers were sent home vza Singapore,
where the madman was sent to prison, but before
leaving Macassar the head-men visited Mr. Haynes
to bid him farewell, and actually shed tears to think
that one of their number had committed such an

outrage,

The late Mr. Chippindall eventually rejoined
the ship, and introduced several diving dresses for
use on the Australian coast during the cold winter
months. It is not difficult to teach natives to
become proficient in this work: indeed, several of
the Sooloo men were successfully and quickly taught.
At the first descent they are, like many white men,
very nervous; but if no hitch occurs, they soon

regain confidence, and all goes well.

Neither is it difficult, with perseverance, to
acquire the art of naked diving. <A bright little
half-caste boy joined the ship, as apprentice, in
Singapore, and at that time he could only get
down three fathoms—and even that caused his
nose to bleed,—yet he persevered steadily, although
he was not expected or even asked to dive, and

after five months’ practice, could accomplish his

184 Pearls.

ten-and-a-half fathoms. He can now find shells as

well as any native.

Mr. Chippindall practically proved that diving
dresses could be worked satisfactorily on the North-
west Australian grounds, and in a systematic manner.
This fact being assured, the use of swimming divers
will henceforth gradually but surely die out. The

)

“Telephone” and the “Sree Pas-Sair” are now used
as floating and moveable stations, for the needs
of the fleet. Each vessel carries a diving dress
and seven men; thus the fleet now consists of 21
boats carrying 150 divers, and 21 diving dresses, All
these men are signed under shipping articles, and
are therefore under complete control. The extended
nature of the West-Australian pearling grounds,
renders this system absolutely necessary, and this
will in the future tend to prevent the relations
between the masters and the men falling into the

state which now exists in Torres Straits.

It speaks well for the discipline of the crew, and
the kindness of the officers, that they never have to
punish a man, beyond sending him up aloft. Every
other night, half of the men come on to the mother
ship, to hear the music. The severest punishment
the men can receive is not to be allowed to be

present at the concert. They work hard and

Pearling Life at the Present Day. 185

willingly, and being paid so much per pair of
shells, no pressing is required to get them to work.
By feeding them with flour, mutton, and other
food, instead of rice, it is hoped that the dreaded
“Beri-beri” disease may be entirely prevented.
The Dutch have just appointed a commission of
medical men to enquire into the nature of this

dreadful disease, and if possible to devise a remedy.

CHAPTER XI.

CEYLON PEARL FISHERIES.

‘These spoils of Neptune, th’ Indian ocean boasts.”
—Marbodus.

IBN) HE Pearl fisheries of Ceylon — the

“‘Taprobane” of “ancient. elasstca

1| writers—are of great antiquity, and
were well-known to the Phcenicians, who traded
there for ‘Pearls. The first Europeans who
obtained firm footing in Ceylon were the Portu-
guese. In 1506 the ruler of the island undertook
to pay them a yearly tribute of spices and Pearls,
from which they derived a considerable revenue.
In 1640 the Dutch obtained power, and seized
upon the Pearl fishery. The fishing took place
every third year, but in consequence of a dispute
between the Dutch and the rajah, the fishing at
Manaar was forbidden, and from 1768 to 1796

Ceylon Pearl Fisheries. 187

the beds were left unmolested. Neither had there
been any fishing between 1732 and 1746. It is
said that in 1797 the fishing right was purchased by
a native of Jaffna, named Candappa Chetty, for the
sum of £110,000, and that in 1798 he again rented the
fishery, paying on this occasion 4140,000; but the
author, after much experience in the value of Pearl-
fisheries, is inclined to doubt this statement: perhaps

it does not refer to pounds sterling.

With reference to the famous fishery of 17097,
and the rent paid for it, reference may be made to
an interesting paper published by Mr. Le Beck,
in the volume of Aszatzc Researches for the following

year :—

“From the accounts of the former Pearl-
fisheries at Ceylon, it will be found” says the
writer, “that none have ever been so productive
as this year’s. It was generally supposed that the
renter would be infallibly ruined, as the sum he
paid for the present fishery was thought exorbitant,
when compared with what had been formerly given ;
but this conjecture in the event, appeared ill-founded,

as it proved extremely profitable and lucrative.

‘“The farmer this time was a Tamul merchant,
who for the privilege of fishing with more than the

usual number of donies or boats, paid between two

188 Pearls,

and three thousand Porto Novo pagodas, a sum
nearly double the usual rent. These boats he
farmed out again to individuals in the best manner
he could, but for want of a sufficient number of

divers, some of them could not be employed.

“The fishing, which commonly began about the
middle of February, if wind and weather allowed,
was this year for various reasons, delayed till the
end of the month; yet so favourable was the
weather, that the renter was able to take advantage
of the permission granted by the agreement, to fish

a little longer than the usual period of thirty days.”

The following extract from “An Account of
the Island of Ceylon,” by Mr. Robert Percival, in
1803, gives a graphic description of the animated
scene which took place during the Pearl-fishing
season in the Bay of Condatchy. The writer says:
“This desert and barren spot is at that time con-
verted into a scene which exceeds in novelty and
variety anything that I have ever witnessed. Several
thousands of people of different colours, countries,
castes and occupations, continually passing and re-
passing in a busy crowd; the vast numbers of small
tents and huts erected on the shore, with the bazaar
er market-place before each; the multitude of boats

returning’ in the afternoon from the Pearl banks,

Ceylon Pearl Fisheries. 189

some of them laden with riches; the anxious ex-
pecting countenances of the boat-owners while the
boats are approaching the shore; the eagerness
and avidity with which they run to them when
arrived, in hopes of a rich cargo ; the vast numbers
of jewellers, brokers, merchants of all colours and
all descriptions, both natives and foreigners, who
are occupied in some way or other with the Pearls,
some separating and assorting them, others weighing
and ascertaining their number and value, while
others are hawking them about, or drilling or
boring them for future use,—all these circumstances
tend to impress the mind with the value and im-
portance of that object which can of itself create

the same.”

The mode of fishing is described as follows :—
A fleet of boats, sometimes as many as 150, put
out, but not before they have gone through num-
berless ceremonies, which the natives will on no
account forego. Under the command of the “ ada-
napar,’ or head pilot, each boat is manned with twenty
men and a steersman, ten being rowers and ten
divers, besides a “fil/lal barras” or shark charmer.
The government keep the charmers in regular pay,
as no diver would descend without their presence,
Other conjurors remain on the shore, mumbling in-_

cantations until the boat returns. The men go

190 Pearls.

down into the sea five at a time; when the first
five come up the other five go down, and by this
method of alternately diving, they give each other

time to recruit themselves for a fresh plunge.

In order to accelerate the descent of the divers,
large stones are employed, five of these being taken
in each boat for the purpose; they are of a reddish
granite, common in the country, and of a pyramidal
shape, round at the top and bottom, with a hole
in the smaller end, sufficient to admit a rope. Some
of the divers use a stone shaped like a half moon,
which they fasten round their middle when they
wish to descend, and thus keep their feet free. The
stones generally weigh from 20 to 25 Ibs. each.
The diver, when he is about to plunge, seizes the
rope to which one of the stones previously described
is attached, with the toes of his right foot, while he
takes hold of a bag of network with those of his
left, it being customary with all the natives to use
their toes as well as their fingers in working or
holding, and such is the power of habit, that they
can pick up even the smallest object from the
ground with their toes, almost as nimbly as a
European can do so with his fingers. The diver
thus prepared, seizes another rope with his right
hand, and holding his nostrils shut with the left,

plunges into the water, and by the assistance of the

Ceylon Pearl Fisheries. IQI

stone, speedily reaches the bottom. Then throwing
himself flat on the bottom, and relinquishing the
stone, the diver with much dexterity and all possible
dispatch, collects as many oysters as he can while
he is able to remain under water, which is usually
half-a-minute or a little longer. This done, he
resumes his former position, makes a signal to those
above by pulling the rope in his right hand, and is

immediately drawn up into the boat.

The great dread of the divers is the ground
shark, a common inhabitant of the seas in those
latitudes. During the time of the fishery conjurors
stand on the shore till the boats return in the
afternoon, muttering prayers, twisting their bodies
into strange attitudes, and performing various cere-
monies in order to divert the sharks. All this time
they ought to abstain from food and drink, but they
occasionally regale themselves with toddy until they

are no longer able to stand at their devotions.

If an alarm be given by one diver none of
the others will descend that day. The diving dress
has been occasionally adopted, and if brought into
general use would of course much diminish the

danger.

On the return of the boats they are unloaded,

and the oysters deposited in sheds or “kottoos;”

192 Pearls.

sometimes they are left to putrefy in pits or closed
vessels, and when these are opened the decomposing
oysters are put into troughs, and the Pearls are
washed with sea-water. On other occasions however,
the shells are opened immediately, and the Pearls
forthwith extracted. The oysters, however, are
generally sold unopened, and as their contents are
alike unknown to both buyer and selier the tran-
saction takes more the form of a lottery than a
commercial exchange, —in fact the trade has in it
much of the spirit of gambling: many oysters may
be opened without yielding a single Pearl, whilst
on the other hand, one pair of shells may contain
a Pearl worth £20 or £30, but very seldom of

higher value.

The government has derived a large income
from this fishery, and it is protected by the strictest
regulations. Those places to be fished are marked
out with buoys carefully before the boats leave the
land, and are examined from time to time by

experienced divers.

Vincent, in his “Commerce and Navigation of
the Ancients,” (1807), speaks of Manaar, which was
the island of Epidorus, as: the centre of the Pearl
fishery. According to the “ Periplus of the Erythrean

Sea,” the Pearl-oysters are found only at this

Ceylon Pearl Fisheries. 193

locality. The banks are situated off the north-west
coast of the island, at a distance of about eight or
ten miles from the shore. According to Vincent,
the different powers—Kandyan, Portuguese, Dutch,
or English—who have presided over the fishery at
different times, always took up their abode at
Tutacorin, on the Indian coast, but carried on the
fishery on the Ceylon side of the Straits of Manaar, at
Chilao, Seewel, Condatchey, etc. From fifty to sixty
thousand persons would assemble to take part in
the fishery—merchants, tradesmen, divers, mariners,
etc. The sovereign of the coast, the Naygue of
Madura, received the result of one day’s fishing ;
the wife of the governor of Manaar (under the
Portuguese), the proceeds of another day’s fishing,
afterwards given to the Jesuits, and the owner of
the fishing vessel received one draught every fishing
day. When the fishing was ended the fair was held
at Tutacorin. The brokerage and duty amounted

to 4 per cent., paid by the seller.

From 1820 to 1827 there was no fishing, and
in 1834 it was again a blank. The fishery of 1837
too, was a conspicuous failure. Lady William
Norton, being about to leave Ceylon in that year,
the inhabitants, to testify their esteem and affection
for her, unanimously subscribed for a set of Pearl

ornaments as the most appropriate testimonial to
N

194 , Pearls.

their benefactress; but in consequence of the ex-
haustion of the. beds by yearly fishing, sufficient
Pearls could not be found in Ceylon, and the order
had to be executed in London. Between 1837

and 1855 there were no fisheries. ©

It is said that 150 Pearls, mostly small ones, |
have been found in one oyster. This would, no
doubt, be a group of seed Pearls, clustered together
like a bunch of grapes. At the fishery of 1828,
Captain Stewart counted 67, taken from one of
the oysters which fell to him as his official privi-
lege; but the vast proportion of the oysters
contained no Pearls. He also saw ten Pearls and
some crushed oyster-shells taken from the stomach

of a fish called the “ chartree.”

In order to extract the Pearls from the oysters,
the molluscs are allowed to putrefy, and are then
washed in water, whereby the decaying organic
matter is removed, and the coveted Pearl, if present,
readily found. During this operation, the decom-
posing molluscs exhale “an ancient and fish-like
smell,” which is in the highest degree repulsive. A
writer in raser’s Magazine, for 1860, who had
visited the fishery at Aripu, says that “a more
disgusting spectacle can hardly be conceived than

that of a crowd of women and children, employed

Ceylon Pearl Fisheries. 195

upon this loathsome work, nor can human nature
be viewed in a much more repulsive aspect, than
in that of an old coloured woman, almost destitute
of clothing, her hair tangled and dishevelled, her
eyes gleaming with cupidity, and her skinny arms
half buried in a hideous mass of corruption, that

would appal an analytical chemist.”

At the present time the government claim as
royalty two-thirds of the oysters. At the fishery of
1881, which was the last successful fishery in Ceylon,
the government share realized £59,900. The
yield of the fishery is very uncertain. The young
Pearl-oysters on the banks at Aripu have some-
times disappeared in a remarkable manner, having
probably been either buried under shifting sands or
washed away by strong currents. The young of
the Pearl-oyster are devoured in vast numbers by
skate and other voracious fish. The Ceylon oyster
attains maturity in about six years but after the

sixth year its life is very uncertain.

“It is predicted by those best able to judge
that the Ceylon banks will yield good Pearl-fishing
in the years 1888 and 1889.

It should be mentioned, that a small Pearl-
fishery is carried on in the bay at Tamblegam,

near Trincomalee, on the North-east coast of Ceylon.

196 Pearls.

Here the Pearls are obtained, not from the ordinary
Pearl oyster, but from the Placuna placenta—a
mollusc which is popularly known as the “ Window-
oyster,” in consequence of its thin flat shell being
sufficiently translucent to admit of its use in
China as a substitute for glass in windows. The
Pearls from this species are usually small, irregular
in shape, and of bad colour. Specimens of: the
Tamblegam Pearls were exhibited in the Colonial
and Indian Exhibition of 1886, but their insigni-
ficance is sufficiently indicated by the statement in
the official handbook that the Tamblegam Pearl-

fishery is now let for 500 rupees,

The experience of Mr. Streeters Agent at the
Ceylon Pearl Fisheries.

ee

After a number of unsuccessful Pearl Fisheries, the
attention of the Ceylon Government was called to
the considerable decrease in the revenue, arising from
this particular department, and a special officer was
appointed to inspect the banks periodically, and
report upon the condition of the various beds.
A most able and zealous officer was appointed—
namely, Captain Donnan, the master- attendant of

the harbour of Colombo. This gentleman made

Ceylon Pearl Fisheries. 197

frequent surveys, and at proper periods he employed
for temporary purposes certain divers, who brought
up samples of the oysters. These oysters were
carefully washed, and the Pearls found were cata-
logued, so as to arrive at an average result in
preparing for a more extensive fishery. In the year
1879, such a preliminary fishery had been attempted,
and in consequence of the general good average of
the yield of Pearls, the Ceylon Government decided
to organize the following year a much more
extensive fishery, so as to embrace a large number of
of previously explored banks, which had been
reported as having yielded a high per-centage of

fine Pearls.

The usual notices were circulated throughout
Ceylon and India, and created considerable excite-
ment amongst the natives, as for many years the
fisheries had yielded such poor results that Pearls
were becoming exceedingly scarce, as indeed they

still are.

Previously to this fishery, no European had
ever ventured upon the speculation of buying oysters
on a large scale; although for many years, as each
successive fishery had been conducted by the govern-
ment, a few Europeans, such as the military officers
and merchants of Ceylon, had speculated ina small

number of oysters, to the extent of £2 or £3, just

198 Pearls.

as they might venture on a Derby _ sweepstake.
But no regular organized washing of Pearl oysters
had ever been attempted by any European. The
whole business had for generations been monopolized’
by the native merchants from the bazaars of India

and Ceylon.

The report of the survey being encouraging,
and the sample of Pearls found in the preliminary
diving having been above the average, both in yield
and in quality, the author of this work determined
upon speculating, and accordingly an agent was
commissioned in Colombo to attend the public
auction, and bid for the whole of the yield of the
fisheries. But the Ceylon Government refused to
entertain any single private offer or tender, and
determined to put the oysters up in lots in the

usual way.

The fisheries were held off the N.W. coast of
Ceylon, at a district called Silavatorrai, or Silvatura,
a most inaccessible place, the only means of trans-
port being by common fishing canoes, or by

chartering a special steamer.

The fleet consisted of two divisions alternately
working the banks, which were situated at a distance
of about Io to 15 miles from the shore. The agent

had arranged for native brokers to purchase at

Ceylon Pearl Fisheries. 199

market rates as many lots as possible, and the
prices varied each day, according to the reports of
successful finding of Pearls. In rough numbers a
quarter of a million of oysters were purchased. As
the distance from Silavatorrai to Colombo was not
only very great, but bare of all means of transport,
a fleet of boats was kept constantly employed in
sailing between the fishery station and Colombo,
until all the oysters purchased had been brought to
the capital.

The preparation of a place to receive the oysters,
and to carry on the washing and search for Pearls,
proved a most difficult undertaking. The first
journey of the small fleet landed about 12,000
oysters, each boat being capable of carrying a
thousand. The sacks containing the oysters were
sealed at Silavatorrai, whilst the oysters were alive,
and were conveyed toa large building on the beach
at Colombo. Preparations were at once made for
immediate washing but unfortunately the difficult
passage from Silavatorrai to Colombo, with contrary
winds, had so delayed the arrival of the boats, that
by the time they had reached the capital, the sacks
of oysters emitted a most unpleasant odour. The
Superintendent of Police, Captain Hansard, upon
receiving a complaint from the residents in the

neighbourhood, at once communicated with the

200 Pearls,

agent, and threatened confiscation of the whole
cargo, if not immediately removed. On receipt of
this communication from the police, the agent
immediately prepared four large tin-lined cases, in
which were packed a sample of 10,000 oysters.
These were to be shipped at once to England, in
order to ascertain by personal knowledge, the most
satisfactory method of securing the Pearls. It was
intended that the washing should take place at
Buxted, on the river Ouse, near the Crowborough
Hills, in Sussex, where plenty of running water could

be obtained for the purpose.

In the meantime the boats had been arriving at
Colombo with fresh lots of oysters, and it became
imperatively necessary to provide a suitable place
wherein to warehouse them, especially as they were
fast decomposing. A second place was therefore,
engaged, about nine miles from Colombo, in a very
sparsely - populated native village. Here, whilst
erecting temporary huts and buildings for ware-
housing the oysters, and making the necessary
arrangements for washing them, a second notice
from the police arrived, forbidding any attempt
to commence operations. The inhabitants refused
to allow the erection of buildings to proceed, and
after considerable delay, the authorities suggested

a district several miles away from the village, in the

Ceylon Pearl Fisheries. 201

Ratnapura road. By bribing the few inhabitants
who were within a mile of the locality, permission
was at last given to conduct the washing at this

spot.

By this time the accumulation of several boat-
loads was causing considerable indignation in
Colombo, and a general protest was being made
against the offending oysters. It must be admitted
that there was ample cause for this interference,
inasmuch as the horrible odour threatened some
fearful plague. As speedily therefore, as possible—
bullock carts being the only available means of
transport—the oysters were packed and despatched
under guard, to the place appointed, and a large
native hut was hired in the neighbourhood where
the sacks were deposited as the different cartloads
arrived. To make this hut more secure, it was
boarded up with planks, and every means of entry
stopped, except a door, which was protected by stout
padlocks. At special request, the authorities had
told off for private duty four policemen, who in
turns guarded the hut and its valuable contents,

by night and day for a month.

Much preparation of the ground had to be
made, and hence there was necessarily some delay
before operations could be commenced. A deep

cutting in connection with a neighbouring stream had

202 Pearls,

to be effected, in order to get a continuous flow
of water. The staff numbered about 4o, including
four native inspectors, selected from the moormen
community, who represent almost exclusively the
precious stone and gem merchants of Ceylon.
The rest consisted of coolie labourers, both Tamil
and Cingalese, who were to work and search for

the hidden Pearls.

It may occur to certain persons that the washing
of the oyster is an easy task, and the subsequent
finding—or chance of finding—a valuable Pearl, is
‘sufficient reward for the labour. Possibly it may
sometimes be so, but in this case matters were
entirely different, for the oysters had arrived at
such a state of decomposition that they had generated
small larvz in such incredible quantities, that only
natives of the lowest caste could be induced to
enter the hut. When the sacks were brought into

the open, the contents were emptied into large
barrels or tubs; when these were about half full

of oysters, the water was turned on and flowed in
continuously. Around each tub four coolies were
stationed, each under the inspector, and as each
oyster was fished up the shell was washed clean,

and if it contained no Pearl, was thrown on one

side.

As a tule the larger Pearls were invariably

Ceylon Pearl Fisheries. 203

found in the hinge of the oyster, often imbedded
in the decayed matter, and required some effort to
dislodge them. In a few instances they were slightly
adhering to the shell and almost required cutting
away, but as a rule, the Pearl was so loosely fixed
in the oyster itself, that it fell out readily as the
mollusc was washed. The greater number of Pearls,
however, were discovered lying amongst the sandy
deposit at the bottom of the tub, mixed with
shining portions of broken shell. As fast as each
lot was inspected, the Pearls that were found were
bottled and carefully sealed preparatory to their
final washing and cleaning in rice, which effectually

prepared them for the London Market.

During the time of washing, large bonfires were
kept continually burning; but notwithstanding all
precautions it was impossible to prevent disastrous
effects on some of the men employed, especially the
Europeans: the coolies alone seemed able to endure

the horrible surroundings.

Every possible care was, of course, taken to
guard against robbery. Orders had been issued
that every man engaged in the washing was to be
stripped, with the exception of the scantiest loin
cloth. Moreover, the chewing of betel and other
masticatories commonly used by the natives was

prohibited while they were at this work, for it is

204 Pearls.

not an uncommon thing, when such orders are not
insisted upon, that under the pretence of chewing
the betel, they adroitly slip into the mouth any
rare Pearl, and effectually hide it from the owner ;
indeed, cases have been known in which the more
adventurous have swallowed several Pearls. However,
such precautions were taken that the chance of
their so cunningly disposing of the gems could only
occur on any occasional absence or slight inattention

of the overseers.

Considering the magnitude of the undertaking,
it was impossible to entirely control the thievish
propensities of the native coolies, who have a very
low standard of morality. Robbery is considered
by no means a disgrace, or even a wrong, unless
detected. Nevertheless a satisfactory result was
obtained as regards the actual net receipt of Pearls.
It is true that not many large or fine gems were
found, but the quantity of small ordinary Pearls was
very good, and reached a total of some thousands
of grains. The largest Pearls, which attained an
average weight of about 9 or ten grains each, were
very round and well-shaped, but unfortunately were

not of the best colour.

The most unfortunate condition of the Pearl

fishery was the avarice of the government, who in

Ceylon Pearl Fisheries. 205

order to secure an increase to their yearly revenue,
had opened the fishery before the oysters were of
mature age. The result of this short sightedness
was that the Pearls found were of smaller size and
less in number than would probably have been the
case had the fishery been longer delayed. Of this
there was unmistakeable proof in the opinion of
native experts, inasmuch as very many of the
shells contained large unformed Pearls, which, if
longer time had been given, would probably have
developed into valuable and perfect gems, but which
in their immature state were useless. Some two
or three hundred of these shells had as many as
from twenty to thirty massed together, but most
of these were imperfectly formed and useless for

ornamentation.

It is held by some authorities that when oysters
are left in a decaying condition, the skin of the
‘Pearl is seriously impaired. This is so in the
Australian fisheries, but was certainly not the case
in Ceylon, for experience has shewn that equally
good Pearls have been found in the shells which
have been immediately washed while the oyster is
alive, and in those which have been buried for weeks,

and generated larve.

Whilst the early washing of the oysters just

described was proceeding, the four cases already

206 Pearls,

mentioned, containing several thousand of originally
sealed sacks from Silavatorrai, had been shipped
by the W. W. Co. to the harbour for putting on
board the steamer in order to be forwarded for
examination to the author in London; but owing
to a few days’ delay, decomposition proceeded so
rapidly, that a foul gas was generated, which burst
open the tin-lined cases, and polluted the atmosphere
for miles round. The inhabitants of the Fort district
of Colombo naturally complained to the authorities,
who thereupon seized the cases, and threatened con-
fiscation if they were not immediately removed.
But the difficulty was to dispose of them, as no
place could be found in which the authorities would
permit them to be buried. Ultimately they were
taken in bullock-carts to the bungalow of the agent,
who had been sent for in haste from the scene
of the washing operations, and he at once had pits
dug to receive them. In support of the view that
decaying matter does not injure the Pearl, the fact
may be stated that two months afterwards the pits
were opened, and Pearls were found equal in quality
to those which the earlier and less polluted oyster
had yielded.

In all the more recent fisheries, great competition
has existed between local Ceylon native dealers,

chetties, and others who come over from India,

Ceylon Pearl Fisheries. 207

more especially from Madras and Bombay. As a
consequence of such competition, the price has risen
considerably for the oyster, although the yield of
the oyster in fine Pearls has been less. Formerly
at the public auction, 15 rupees was a fair average
price for a thousand oysters, but in the fishery of
1880, the competition was so keen that several lots
reached 60 and 70 rupees a thousand. To this must
be added the great expense of transfer to Colombo,
and the many changes necessary before the final
washing was undertaken ; considering the uncertain
chances of the yield of Pearls, the speculation be-

comes as risky as a gambling table.

No doubt if the business were conducted entirely
by natives much of the expense could be saved, as
the Pearls might then be washed at the fishing
station; but from the intense heat and discomfort
of a tropical country, residence in a temporary hut
and exposure for weeks to a dangerous atmosphere,
scarcely any European could live there, and, indeed,
very few of the natives care to undertake operations
on the spot. The enterprize is a most speculative
one, and is scarcely ever found to be a profitable trans-

action, even when pursued entirely by the natives.

For the purchaser of oysters a much safer and
more lucrative result could be obtained by purchasing

of the small dealers the little lots of Pearls that

208 Pearls.

each derives from his oysters. This has been proved
by personal experience. The government agent, in
payment of the boatmen and divers who engage in
the fishery, allot one fourth of the yield of each
boatful of oysters to them; and these lots are
allowed to be put up separately, and in many
cases are sold in small and convenient quantities to

suit all purchasers.

In some instances the boatmen wash the oysters
themselves, but in either case a good judge of Pearls
can with much greater safety buy the gems them-
selves than venture upon large quantities ofroysters,
with their attendant trouble and expense, and the
chance of perhaps after all realizing an insufficient

quantity of Pearls to reimburse him for the outlay.

Most of the Pearls from these fisheries are
secured by the Indian chetties, as Bombay is
considered a much better market for them than
Ceylon or even London; much higher prices are
paid by the wealthy Rajahs of India direct to the
Pearl merchants, than could ever be got from
London dealers. Notwithstanding the frequent
fisheries and finds of Pearls, it is nearly impossible

to buy any really fine ones in Ceylon.

Immediately after the famous Pearl fishery of

1880, scarcely a Pearl of any size or value was

The Pearl Fishery of Southern India. 209

to be obtained in Colombo. Several orders were
received by the agent from persons who were unable
to buy oysters, or who had been unsuccessful in
finding Pearls. As these orders could not be
executed there, the Pearls were procured from the
London market. Some ofthe wealthy natives, resident
in Ceylon, succeeded in collecting a few Pearls of
fair size and value, but only a very limited number ;
indeed, as a depdt for Pearls, Ceylon was as inferior
in supply a month after the fishery, as any small
provincial town in England could have been. It
may be confidently asserted that if the Pearls which
had been sent to London had been kept in Ceylon,
and sold when the excitement and demand were
at their height, far higher prices would have been

realized.

The Pearl Fishery of Southern India.

While the waters which wash the island of
Ceylon are studded in certain localities with banks
of Pearl-oyster, as described in the preceding pages,
it is only natural that the opposite coast of Southern
India should in like manner possess its beds of
Pearl-producing molluscs. From times beyond the
reach of our western records, Pearls have been

obtained by the natives of the southern extremity
O

210 Pearls.

of the Indian peninsula. The oyster-banks are
situated off the coast of Tinnevelly, especially
opposite to Tuticorin, but the improvement of the
Paumben Channel has of late years created currents,
which are inimical to the development of the

Pearl-oyster.

Mr. Clements Markham inspected the Tinnevelly
fishing grounds in 1866, and in the spring of
the following year, read an interesting paper on
the ‘subject before «the Society” of “Arts: asi
discussing the position of the localities where this
industry was formerly carried on, as described by
Ptolemy, and afterwards by various medizval writers,
Mr. Markham concludes that “the true locality
which was the head-quarters of the Indian Pearl-
fishery from time immemorial, is to be found at,
or near, the modern salt station of Coilnapatam,

on the coast between Tuticorin and Trichendoor.”

Friar Jordanus, a missionary bishop who visited
India about the year 1330, tells us that as many
as 8,000 boats were then engaged in the Pearl-
fisheries of Tinnevelly and Ceylon ; the value of these
fisheries in the middle ages is also attested by several
other travellers, such as Friar Odoric, Ludovico de
Varthema and the Portuguese Duarte Barbosa. For

the last two centuries the head-quarters of the fishery,

The Pearl Fishery of Southern India. 211

successively conducted by the Portuguese, the Dutch,

and the English, have been at Tuticorin.

In 1822, after the English occupation of
Tuticorin, there was a fishery which yielded a profit
of £13,000 to the Indian revenue; and another
in 1830 yielded 410,000. The Tinnevelly banks
afterwards passed into an unsatisfactory condition,
and were not profitably worked for many years.
But Capt. Robertson, and his successor Capt. Phipps,
who officially examined the fishing grounds between
1856 and 1859, reported favourably on their condition,
and in March, 1860, a fishery was commenced—the

first which had been attempted since 1830.

The Pearl-banks off Tuticorin and Trichendoor,
lie at a distance of about six or eight miles from the
shore, and at a depth of from five-and-a-half to
eight-and-a-half fathoms. From time immemorial
this fishing has been conducted by “a caste called
Parawas, who are met with along the Tinnevelly
coast, from Cape Cormorin to the Paumben Channel.
They were all converted and baptized wholesale by
St. Francis Xavier, and are now Roman Catholics,
the ancient church at Tuticorin being the freehold
of the caste.’ The divers are described as an honest
set of men, but readily yielding to intemperate habits.

“They cross themselves before plunging into the

212 Pears.

(at a7,
water ; and I was told,” says Mr. Markham, “ that the
longest time any of them has been known to keep
under, is one minute and eight seconds. They get

a rupee a day in ordinary times,”

The following is given as the native classifica-

tion of these Indian Pearls :—

1. Anie—Pearls of perfect sphericity and lustre.

2. Anathorie—failing in one of the above two
points,

Masengoe—failing slightly in both points.

Kalippo—failing still more. |

Korowel—or double Pearls.

Peesal—or mis-shapen Pearls.

Oodwoe—beauty.

Kural—very small and mis-shapen.

Thool—seed Pearls.

0 ON HM Fw

Mr. Markham has given an interesting account
of the attempts to form a nursery for the culture

and development of Pearl-oysters at Tuticorin.

Cid BRO XIE

THE PERSIAN GULF AND RED SEA FISHERIES.

‘‘ Heaps of Pearl,
Inestimable stones, unvalued jewels,
All scattered in the bottom of the sea.’’
—Richard Tlf, Act l., Scene IV.

WEARLS have been found from time
7q| immemorial in the waters that wash
NE||. the shores of “ Araby the blest.” The

Persian Gulf, which separates Arabia from Persia,

has been the scene of Pearling operations certainly
for more than two thousand years, and probably
for a much longer period. Isidorus of Charax, a
Greek historian, who is said to have lived three
centuries before the Christian era, tells us in his
description of Parthia, that “in the Persian sea is
a certain island where abundance of the Pearl-oyster
is to be found. ‘ Wherefore rafts of reeds are stationed

all around the island, from off ‘which the divers,

214 Pearls.

jumping into the sea to the depth of twenty fathoms,
bring up two shells at a time.” Then follows a
fanciful story about the influence of thunderstorms
on the breeding of Pearls; and much importance
is attached to the depth at which the Pearl-
producing mollusc lives, as a factor in determining
the character of its secretion. “The pinna of the
deep water produces the most lustrous and Glear
and large Pearl; that which swims near the surface,
is spoilt by the rays of the sun, and gives those

of bad colour and smaller size.”

An interesting account of the Pearl-fisheries of
the Persian Gulf, as carried on two centuries ago,
may be found in a curious anonymous work, entitled
“The History of Jewels,’ printed at the Sitemeen
lhe: Ship, “ii, the Upper Walk of the New Ex-
change, A.D. 1671 :—

“ Before we speak of the manner how they
fish for Pearl, and of their different qualities” says
our unknown author, “we must make report of the

divers places of the world where they are found.

“First of all they have discovered four fishing
places for Pearl in the East, the most consider-
able is performed in the isle of Bahren, in the
Persian Gulph; the which appertains to the Sophy

of Persia, who receives thence a great revenue.

The Persian Gulf Fishery. 215

While the Portuguese were masters of Ormuz and
Mascati, every vessel which went to fish was
obliged to take a passport from them at a dear
rate ; and they maintained always five or six small
galleys in the gulph, to sink those barks which
took no passports; but at present they have no
further power upon those coasts, and each fisher
forfeits to the king of Persia, not above one third

of what they gave to the Portugals.

“The second fishing is over against Bahren,
upon the coast of Arabia Felix, near to the city
of Catif, which belongeth to an Arabian prince
who commandeth that province. The most part of
the Pearls which are fished in these two places,
are carried into India, because that the Indians
are not so hard, but give a better price for them
than we; they are therefore carried thither, the
unequal as well as the round, the yellow as well
as the white, every one according to its rate: some
of them also are sold at Balfora, and those which
are transported into Persia and Moscovy, are sold
at Bandarcongue, two days’ journey from Ormuz.
They fish twice in a year, in the months of
March and April, and in the months of August and
September ; the depth where they fish is from four
to twelve fathoms, and the deeper the oyster is

found the Pearls are the whiter, because the water °

216 Pearls.

is not ‘so:hot: there; the’ .sun: not. being ables

penetrate so deep.”

Rather more than fifty years ago, Lieut. J. R.
Wellsted, an officer in the Indian navy, undertook
the exploration of part of Arabia; and in the
record of his travels he published an interesting
description of Pearl-fishing as then conducted. in
the Persian Gulf. He describes the Pearl-banks as
extending from Sharja to Biddulph’s Group, the
bottom being composed of shelly sand and broken
coral, and the depth varying from § to 15 fathoms.
It is found in the fisheries of the North-western
coast of Australia, that the finest Pearls occur in
association with coral. The season for Pearl-fishing
in the Persian Gulf extends only from June to
September. The boats employed in the fishery
are of various sizes, “averaging from 10 to 50 tons.
During the season it is computed that the island
of Bahrein furnishes, of all sizes, 3,500; the Persian
coast 100; and the space between Bahrein and the
entrance of the gulf, including the pirate coast, 700.
The value of the Pearls obtained at these several
ports is estimated at forty lacs of dollars, or
£400,000. Their boats carry a crew varying from
8 to 40 men, and the number of mariners thus
employed at the height of the season is rather above

30,000. None receive any definite wages, but each

The Persian Gulf Fishery. S17

has a share of the profits upon the whole. A small
tax is also levied on each boat by the sheikh of
the port to which it belongs. During this period
they live on dates and fish.

Wellsted’s description of the manner in which
the divers in the Persian Gulf carry on their occu-
pation is worth quotation, inasmuch as it embodies
the results of personal observation. “ When about
to proceed to business, they divide themselves into
two parties, one of which remains in the boat to
haul up the others, who are engaged in diving.
The latter, having provided themselves with a small
basket, jump overboard, and place their feet on a
stone, to which a line is attached. Upon a given
signal this is let go, and they sink with it to the
bottom. When the oysters are thickly clustered,
eight or ten may be procured at each descent; the
line is then jerked, and the person stationed in the
boat hauls the diver up with as much rapidity as
possible. The period during which they can remain
under water has been much over-rated ; one minute
is the average, and I never knew them but on one

occasion, to exceed a minute and a half.”

Among the dangers of the pearler in the Persian
Gulf, the dreaded saw-fish may be mentioned as the

chief enemy. This shark-like creature is furnished

218 Pearls. |

with a formidable weapon in the shape of a flat

projecting snout, reaching a length of perhaps six

feet, and armed along its edges with strong tooth-

like spines. In the presence of such a terrific weapon
the diver is almost powerless, and instances are
recorded in which the poor fellows have been com-
pletely cut in two. Nor are the attacks of saw-fishes
and sharks the only sources of danger. “ Diving is
considered very detrimental to health, and without
doubt it shortens the life of those who much practice
it.’. In order to ‘aid -the retention of breath, the diver

places a piece of elastic horn over his nostrils, which

binds them closely together. He does not enter

the boat each time he rises to the surface, ropes
being attached to the sides, to which he clings, until

he has obtained breath for another attempt.”

In 1853 these fisheries’ were described” By
Colonel Wilson; and in 1865 an official report
on the Bahrein Pearl-fishery was prepared by
Colonel Pelly, the political resident at the Persian
Gulf. According to this latter document the richest
banks for Pearl-fishing are those of the island of
Bahrein, where the oysters are found at all depths,
from a little below high-water mark down to eizht-
teen fathoms. The Arabs, who monopolize the right
of fishing on all the banks along the Arabian coast
of the Persian Gulf, cling to the old belief that the

The Persian Gulf and Red Sea Fisheries. 219

lustre of the Pearl depends on the depth of water
in which the oyster lives. ~The most productive
banks are formed of fine light-coloured sand, over-
lying coral-rocks. Bahrein alone employs about
1,500 boats in this industry. The fishing takes place
annually, and is said to yield a profit of about
£400,000 a year. This agrees with the estimates
previously cited by Wellsted. Bombay receives
most of the Persian Pearls, and Bagdad offers a
market for the rest. As the Pearl shells from the
fisheries of the Persian Gulf commonly pass through
Bombay, they reach England under the name of
“Bombay shells.” At the present time (October,
1886), the price of Bombay shell varies between
@2s.,6d._ and “45.55. per cwt., according to ‘the
quality.

~

The Red Sea Fisheries.

Although in the time of the Ptolemies the Red
Sea produced the chief supply of Pearls, this fishery
has long since sunk into insignificance, and is now

hardly worth working.

When Wellsted visited the Pearl banks half-
a-century ago, he described them even then as
furnishing but a scanty supply of Pearls, and these

of poor quality. “ Probably the -most convincing

220 Pearls,

proof which can be given of the insignificance of
this trade is that it has escaped the notice, or is
deemed unworthy the attention of the pasha’s
officers. A few boats are occasionally despatched
by ‘the Jeddah merchants to search for Pearls, but
the precarious and ill-paid task of collecting them
is left mostly to the Tuwal and Huteimi tribes.
The former have about forty boats engaged in the
trade, which are mostly employed upon the Abyssinian
‘coast. Their mode of collecting Pearls differs en-
tirely from that adopted in the Persian Gulf, where
they are found in nine or ten fathoms of water.
The fishermen wait for a calm day, when they pull
along the outer edge of a single reef, until they
discover the oyster from the boat in three or four

fathoms?

The Pearl-shells from the Red Sea were for-
merly sent to Alexandria, and being shipped thence to
Europe were known commercially as “ Egyptians,’—
-a designation which they still retain. At one
time large supplies were sent to Trieste, and thence
by rail to Vienna, where the Mother-of-Pearl was
worked into a variety of ornamental objects, chiefly
for the American market. A good deal of the
Red Sea produce also finds its way directly to
London. The little Pearl-fishing that is still pro-

secuted in the Red Sea is not now a government

The Red Sea Fishery. 221

monopoly, but when the goods are landed, the cus-
tomary import duty of eight per cent. must be paid
on their value. The fishing is almost exclusively
carried on by Bedouin Arabs, who have settled on
the Asiatic and African sides of the coast. The
chief places where the trade in Pearls is conducted
are Jeddah and Kosseir. The lofty Bedouins refuse
to dive themselves, but train their young slave-boys
to the art. The slave while training, will be shown
a shell-at the bottom, and told to fetch it. If he
fails to bring it up, he is bound to be flogged, and
his very life is jeopardized; and even when he
brings up the most valuable shells, scanty food is
his only reward. The Red Sea fishery formerly
exhibited slavery under one of its worst aspects.
In return for the barbarity of man, mother Nature
appears to yield but a scanty supply of Pearls, and
indeed, the Pearl-fisheries of the Red Sea may now
be regarded as practically extinct. The shell how-
ever is still imported. The price of Egyptian shell
at the present time (October, 1886), ranges according
to its quality, from 52s. 6d. to £4. 10s. per cwt.

CHAP PER OXdtit.

THE AMERICAN PEARL-FISHERIES.

‘The floor is of sand like the mountain drift,

And the Pearl-shells spangle the flinty snow;
From coral-rocks the sea-plants lift

Their boughs where the tides and billows flow.”

—Fames Percival (American Poet).

ell

sx¢|MONG the treasures of the Western
| Hemisphere, which were first brought

1)
Ly
7

sts Vy

to the notice of Europeans by the
discovery of America, at the close of the fifteenth
century, not the least remarkable were the vast
hordes of Pearls. Garcilaso de la Vega and other
old Spanish chroniclers, make frequent mention of
the surprising number of Pearls which they found
in the possession of the various tribes of Indians,

who used them as personal ornaments.

But we have evidence that ages prior to the

The American Pearl Fisheries. 223

Columbian discovery of the New World—long before
the written history of America begins—the ancient
inhabitants who built the huge mounds that are so
widely spread through the Mississippi Valley, were
in the habit of collecting and treasuring Pearls.
Messrs Squier and Davis, the explorers of so many
of these pre-historic tumuli, discovered in some of
the Ohio mounds great numbers of Pearls that had
been perforated for use as beads, but were rendered
friable by the partial calcination to which they had
been subjected on the hearths of the ancient mounds.
The explorers were led to believe that most of
these beads were not fresh-water Pearls, derived
from the neighbouring rivers, but were true marine
Pearls which must have been obtained, directly or

indirectly, from the sea coast.

When Columbus visited for the first time some.
of the islands in the Gulf of Mexico, he found the
natives fishing for Pearls, which they used as beads
for necklaces. It is curious to note that the views
of the Indians as to the origin of Pearls, were
identical with those which obtained for ages such
wide credence in the old world; and which have
been ‘set forth in the early chapters of this work.
The Indians of America regarded them, in fact, as
congealed dew-drops, which had been caught by the
gaping oysters.

During one of the expeditions of Ferdinand

224 Pearls, |

de Soto, which Garcilaso de la Vega accompanied, _

in the early part of the sixteenth century, the
cacique of the province of Ichiaha not only presented
the general with a very long string of fine Pearls, but
offered him a selection from the stores which had
accumulated at the shrine of his ancestors in the
temple of Ichiaha. He also ordered some Indians
to fish for the oysters, and afterwards, opening them
in the presence of De Soto, extracted a number of
fine Pearls, which however were much impaired in
lustre by the crude method which he employed of

opening the shells in hot ashes.

Here it may be interesting to quote some remarks
from an old work by Mons. P. de Rosnel, respecting
the large quantities of Pearls which had been brought
to Europe from South America during the latter part
of the sixteenth century. Pierre de Rosnel was jeweller
to Louis XIV. and in 1672, published a work entitled
“Le Mercure Indien, ou le Tresor des Indes,” in

which he gives this information :—

“On remarque que depuis que les Espagnols
ont esté maistres du Perou, il s’est apporté dans
lEurope-une telle quantité de Perles, et ssi ior
surprenante, qu’en l’année mil cing cens quatre-vingt
sept, on fit compte sur les memoires des Indes,

quwil avoit pour le Roy d’Espagne dix huit a vingt

The American Pearl-Fisheries. 225

marcs de Perles de differentes sortes, et toutes d’une
beauté parfaite, outre trois cassettes pleines de
menués, c’est a dire de Perles que nous appellons
Perles a lonce; et que pour les Marchands parti-
culiers d’Espagne et de Portugal, il y en avoit plus de
treize cens marcs, sans plusieurs sachets appartenans
a plusieurs passagers qui n’avoient point esté pes¢es,
ce qu’on prendroit a present pour une chose imaginée

a plaisir.”

From a curious old work on jewels, printed in
London in 1671, from which a quotation has already
been made in a preceding chapter, we extract the
following description of the Pearl-fisheries of the

Western world, as known two centuries ago :—

“In the West are discovered five Pearl Fishings,
the first is in the island of Margarita, two-and-
twenty leagues from the firm land; this isle is
thirty-five leagues about, and hath a good haven
towards the south, at the east point it is all
encompassed with rocks; it is fruitful enough, but
there is want of water; and the inhabitants go up
into the country to furnish themselves with it, yet
there are great store of cattle, and it beareth maize

and other things necessary for those who live there.

“The second Fishing was discovered in the

year 1496, by the isle of Cubagua, a league from
rE

226 Pearls. 3

the former, in the Gulph of Mexico, it is in ten
degrees-and-a-half of northern latitude, an hundred
and threescore leagues from St. Domingo in
Hispaniola, and an hundred from Santa Cruz, one
of the Careeby islands, and four leagues from the
Province of Aria, which is part of the continent ;
it is much less than Margarita, without cattle, or
any other thing which may serve for the sustenance
of man, particularly it wanteth water, but the
inhabitants are furnished from the continent, from
a river called Comana, “seven leagues from New
Cadis. This island Cubagua was discovered by
that famous Genoese, Christopher Columbus, who
having perceived a small boat with some fishers
in it and a woman who had three rows of fair
Pearls about her neck, said to his companions
that he thanked God he had now discovered the
most rich country in the world. He broke an
earthenware plate of divers colours, and for a piece
or two of it this woman gave him very willingly
a row of these Pearls, and for another plate he
received many others, and learned of the Indians

the place and manner of their fishing for Pearls.

“The third is at Comana, near the continent.
‘“‘The fourth is called Comangote, twelve leagues

from the former,

The American Pearl-Fisheries. 227

“ The fifth and last is at the isle of S. Martha, three-

score leagues from the river La Hache.

“All the Pearls of these five fishings are of a
white water, weak, dry, faint, milky, or leady; not
but that they find some fair ones, but they have
not so live a water as those of the East: in
recompence they are great ones, in weight from
eighteen to forty-two carats, and are almost all

of the shape of a pear.

“These five fishings of which I have spoken,
are all in the North sea, but they find also great
quantities in the South sea near to Panama, they
are long rather than round, but not so fair as the
others, and ordinarily are somewhat black, for the
Indians opened the oyster by fire, till Vasques Dugnez
taught the Cacique to open them without it, and
since they find the Pearls whiter. Experience
teacheth us that oysters change their places as well
as other fish, and that they pass sometimes to one

side of the island, and sometimes to the other.

“It is a considerable curiosity to know how they
fish for Pearls; seven, eight or nine men at most
go in one bark, two of which descend to the bottom
of the sea, six, nine, or twelve fathoms deep. About
the isles of Margarita and Cubagua the water is

very cold, but the greatest difficulty in fishing is

228 Pearls.

holding the breath under water, sometimes a quarter
of an hour or longer, and that these poor slaves
may the better endure it, they feed them with dry
meats and in a little quantity, avarice putting them
upon these abstinences, but besides this, they put
upon their nose little pincers made of buffalo’s horn,
which stoppeth their nostrils, they stuffe their ears
with cotton wool. Others hold oil in their mouths,
especially those who cannot hold their breath long.
Others hold their mouth under their armpits, and
after that manner breathe two or three times under
water. There is a sack of stones or sand tied to
each of their feet to make them sink straight to
the bottom, and another bag tied to their waist, to
put their oysters in. There is a cord fastened under
their armpits held by them who remain in the boat,
and they under water hold another cord in their
hands, which they draw to give notice to those in
the boat that they can now hold their breath no
longer, and that they must draw them up quickly.

“When they have found a thousand or two of
these oysters, they sell them at adventure, without
knowing what is within them. The meat of the
oyster is without relish, and of very ill digestion, and
is so far from being so good to eat as the meat of
our oysters from Spain, or those of England, that the

very fisherman disdain them, and seldom eat any

* a
’ tee

The American Pearl-Fishertes. 229

of them. Acosta, in the fourth book of his history,
glorieth that he had eat of these oysters, and found
Pearls in the middle of them. When the night
cometh, the fishermen retire to the island and carry
the oysters home to him that employeth them.
Upon the opening they find in some none, in
others from one to six Pearls, more or less, and in
some great numbers of grains, which we call seed
Pearl. These oyster shells are within of a lively
colour, towards an azure, they make spoons of them
and other toys, such as we call Mother-of-Pearl.
The Pearls are of very different forms, bigness,
figure, colour and polish, and differ also much in

their price.”

The principal fisheries or Pearl-producing centres
on the West coast of America, are those of Panama
and California. It is believed that Pearl-banks
extend with more or less interruption, from the
Gulf of Darien to the Gulf of California, though
generally at too great depths to be reached by the
ordinary methods of fishing, The Pearls from the
Western coast of America are obtained from the
Meleagrina Californica, a mollusc which has a
smaller and thinner shell than the common Pearl-
oyster— WM. Margaritéfera. The Mother-of-Pearl
shell of this species is known in commerce as

“Panama” or “bullock-shell,” but the principal

230 Pearls. —

fisheries are now in the Gulf of California rather
than the Bay of Panama. The present price of
Panama shell (October, 1886), is from 36s. to
37s. Od. per cwt.

After these American fisheries had, by continued
fishing, become exhausted they were practically
abandoned for many years, but attention has of
late been directed again to their development, and
many fine Pearls have recently been obtained.
Mr. W. H. Dall writing on Pearl-fishing in the
“American Naturalist” in 1883, says,—“Of late
years it has looked up again, and the Mexican
Government has farmed out the beds to private
parties, who have been in the habit of granting
licenses to persons provided with the equipment for
fishing. This method ignores the preservation of
the beds as such, and each licensee endeavours
to strip them as thoroughly as possible. Rubber
armour is used, and natives of Central America
are employed as divers. Even with these appliances
the work is attended with risk, and deaths are not
uncommon. About three tons of fresh shells are
obtained by an ordinary party per day, from water
about forty feet deep when the weather is fair.
About one shell in a thousand contains a Pearl,
but these are often of excellent quality. The natives

work on shares of the Pearls; the shells go to the

2

The American Pearl-Fisheries. 231

vessel’s account. The working season is about three

months.”

Unusually fine Pearls have at various times been
recorded from the Bay of Mulege, near Los Coyetes,
in the Gulf of California. It is not only, however,
along the Western coasts of North and Central
America that Pearls occur; they are also to be
found on certain parts of the Western shores of South
America, especially off Ecuador. Mr. P. L. Simmonds
states that in 1871 an American schooner was en-
gaged in Pearling near Guayaquil, the government
receiving one-fifth of the produce. On the Eastern
side of South America they are found to a limited

extent, in the waters off the coast of Brazil.

Several of the West Indian islands, especially
St. Thomas and those on the North coast of
South America, have at various times produced
large quantities of Pearls. The island of Margarita
off the Venezuelian coast, takes its name from the
Pearls which it has yielded. In 1574, a Pearl found

here weighed 250 carats.

It is said that in 1597, as much as 350 Ibs.
weight of Pearls were brought into Spain, from the
fisheries of the Caribbean Sea. It appears that the
earliest connections with the American fisheries,

were by far the most profitable, for although in the

leh Pearls.

seventeenth century they were very productive,
nothing since then has anything like approached
these figures.

The West Indian Pearls are yielded by MMelea-
grina squamulosa, Lam., the shells of which pass in
commerce under the names of “blue-edged” or
“black-lipped” shells, and it is these shells that furnish
most of the so-called “smoked Pearl.” One method
of obtaining the shells in the Caribbean waters, is
by dragging over the rocky sea-bottom a rake or
wooden frame set with curved spikes, whereby the

shells are torn from their bed.

In 1856, there were imported into England

Pearls valued at about £25,000 from the fishery in
the Caribbean seas. But our connection with this
fishery has lately been anything but satisfactory:
indeed we have known a considerable sum of
money lost upon trying to revive the industry in
this area. The author hoped to obtain further
authentic information with regard to the present
condition of the American Pearl-fisheries, and the
publication of the present work has been delayed
on that account; but as the expected information
has not yet arrived, the work cannot be kept
back any longer, and any additional matter must

therefore be reserved for insertion in a future edition.

RIVER-MUSSEL (Unio Mararitifer) WITH PEARL ON ONE VALVE.

CRAPTER, ALV.

RIVER-PEARLS; BRITISH AND FOREIGN.

os

‘She meets with Conway first, which lyeth next at hand
Whose precious orient Pearle that breedeth in her sand,
Above the other floods of Britaine doth her grace.”

—Drayton’s Polyolbion.

English Pearts.

IT seems proved beyond doubt that
Pearl-fishing in the rivers of Britain
was an established industry long before
the Roman Conquest. According to the historian,
Suetonius, who wrote the lives of the Cesars in
the early part of the second century, one of the
inducements for undertaking the expedition against

Britain, under the “divine Julius,’ was to obtain

234 Pearls.

possession of the Pearls, so coveted by the luxurious
ladies of ancient. Rome. It appears, however, that
the Roman conquerors after ransacking our rivers,
were rather disappointed with the Pearls which
they obtained, and condemned them not only as

being small but especially as lacking lustre,

Pliny, as rendered by old Dr. Holland in the
phraseology of the seventeenth century, refers to
the British Pearls in these terms:—‘“In Brittaine
it is certaine that some do ‘grow; but they bee
small, dim of colour, and nothing orient. For
Julius Czsar (late Emperour of famous memorie)
doth not dissimule, that the cuirace or brest-plate
which hee dedicated to Venus Mother within her

Temple, was. made of English Pearles.”

Mr, L. E. Adams in a recent conchological
work, reminds us that Tacitus refers to a theory
current .in his: time, to the efiect that thesauam
reddish colour of our Pearls was due to their being
collected from cast-up shells instead of being gathered
from living shells from the bottom of the sea; but
he adds with characteristic dry humour that the
fault probably lay in the Pearls themselves, as.
otherwise his avaricious countrymen would have
been sure to discover the best method of obtaining

them. It thus appears that some at least of the

River Pearls, British and Foreign. 235

Roman writers regarded the British Pearls as of

marine origin.

Of all the rivers of Britain the most famous for
Pearls in ancient times was the Conway, or Conwy,
in North Wales. This river—the Toisobius of
Ptolemy—flows through some of the most picturesque
scenery of Carnarvonshire, and has been described
not inaptly as the “Welsh Rhine.” It is in the
higher reaches of the river, above Trefriw, that the
best Pearls have been found. Mr. Robert Garner,
in a paper read before the British Association in
1856, says that “The true Pearl-mussel must be
searched for a good many miles up the river, and
the writer found it plentiful about a mile above
the ancient bridge of Llanrwst, near the domain
of Gwydir, where the water is beautifully clear,
rapid and deep, and it may be had thence up
to Bettws-y-Coed.”

Of late years, however, fewer Pearls have been
found than formerly. Thomas Pennant, writing in
the latter part of the last century, speaks of as
many as sixteen Pearls having been taken in a
single shell, in the Conway; and he then proceeds
to explain the origin of these bodies, according
to the lights of his day. He regarded them as

nacreous calculi. “They are,” says he, “the diseases

236 Pearls,

of the fish, analogous to the stone in the human
body. On being squeezed they will eject the Pearl,
and often cast it spontaneously in the sand of

the stream.”

The fame of the Conway as a source of Pearls, led
Spencer, writing in the sixteenth century, to describe

the river, in his Faerie Queen, in these terms :—

“Conway, which out of his streame doth send
Plenty of Pearles to deck his dames withall.”

The Welsh Pearls are mostly of a dull colour,
and indeed River-Pearls not unfrequently present a
dim leadenhue. The author recently received a Pearl

fromthe mouth of the Conway, which was quite black. —

The Pearl mussels are known to the Welsh
as Cragen-y-duliw. They are referred by most
naturalists, as stated in an early chapter of this
work, to the Unio margaritifer, though some con-
chologists place them in Say’s sub-genus A /asmodonta,
and others in Schumacher’s sub-genus Margaritana.
It appears that in addition to the Pearls obtained
from these fresh-water mussels, there are many
Welsh Pearls of inferior quality yielded by the
common marine mussel—the edible species, M/ytzlus
edulis—wnich is found abundantly at the mouth of
the Conway, where it is largely gathered at low

water as bait and as food for swine. These shells

River Pearls; British and Foreign. 235

are known locally as Cragen las. The Pearl-bearers
are confined to the bar of the river, no Pearls being
found either in those mussels that are collected
higher up or in those found on the sea shore.
Each Pearl usually presents in its centre a dark-
coloured hard granular nucleus; and on careful
microscopic examination of the mussels from the
bar of the Conway, Mr. Garner came to the con-
clusion that the Pearls had usually been concreted

around a small parasitical Dzstomus.

Fresh-water Pearls have been often found in
mussels from the mountain-streams of Cumberland,
especially in the Irt and the Esk. In Camden’s
Britannia we read that “At the mouth of the little
prook Irt, on the ‘sea coast, are bred a sort of
shell-fish or mussel, which gaping there, and sucking
in its dewy streams, conceive and bring forth Pearls,
or (as the Poets call them) Shell-berries. The in-
habitants gather them up at low water, and sell
them to the jewellers at London for a trifle, who
make a considerable gain of them
Those that are not bright and shining, commonly
called Sand-Pearl (and such are those found in
these parts usually) are as useful in physick as the
finest, tho’ not so beautiful. Dr. Lister says he has
found sixteen of them in one mussel, and asserts

them to be “ Senescentium Musculorum Vitia” ~

238 Pearls.

(that is to say, diseases of the old mussels). There
is a patent lately granted to some gentleman and
others for Pearl-fishing in this river; but it is un-
certain whether it will turn to any account.” The
person here referred to was Sir John Hawkins, the

famous circum-navigator of the sixteenth century.

Hutchinson in his “History of Cumberland,”
written in 1794, duly records the fact that “Pearls
are found in the river Irt, which discharges itself
into the ocean a few miles North of Ravenglas.”
But in a foot note, in another part of the work, |
he adds “None have been seen for many years
past.” He quotes, however, from Nicholson and
Burn, who say “That Mr. Thomas Patuckson, late of
How, in this country, having employed divers poor
inhabitants to gather these Pearls, obtained such a
quantity, as he sold to the jewellers in London

for above £800.”

The Pearls of Southern Britain are not confined
to the rivers of North Wales and Cumberland, but
have occasionally been found in the streams of
less mountainous districts, such as Buckinghamshire.
When Sir Hugh Plat published in 1653, his curious
“Jewel House of Art and Nature,” he introduced
into his book an interesting account of various
minerals, which he entitled “A rare and excellent

Discourse of Minerals, Stones, Gems and Rosins,

River Pearls; British and Foreign. 239

with the virtues and use thereof, by D. B. Gent.”
This worthy gentleman devotes a section to the
subject of Pearls, or as he calls them JMJargarites,
and gives some information on the subject of

British Pearls well worth quotation :—

“T have seen,” says the writer, “very fair
Margarites taken out of a shell-fish called a horse-
mussel, and on the inside of the said shell remains
the true Mother-of-Pearl. I knew an honourable
lady, which by the employing three or four men
3 tO catch these fish out of the waters, took with a
little charge so many ripe Oriental Margarites, as
made a very rich double necklace. Also I knew
one Mr. Primas Davis (a very ingenious gentleman)
who by making use of some vacant hours in taking
up these shells, in a short time got so many
Margarites of an even size and good colour, as
made him a choice hat-band. The shells of these
fish are on the outside very black, and not so
great as other horse-mussels. I have seen some in
Buckinghamshire, and other countries, and they are
so plentiful in some parts of the river Clun (which
cometh out of Montgomeryshire, through some part
of Shropshire) that they do more than cover the
bottome of that river, and were it not for the
deepnesse of the water, there would be no difficulty

in taking of them. I have some few of the said

240 Pearls.

Margarites, which I took out of the shell myselt
to see the experiment, and I further gained this
knowledge thereby, that all such that have Margarites
in them are rough and craggy on the outside, the

rest are all plain; by which observation I -soon

avoided fruitlesse labour in opening of such as had ©

nothing in them. I found also many fair ones which
were not fully ripe, and so came short of that bright

Oriental colour which others have.”

The late Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, an eminent English
conchologist, writing of the two common species of
British Unios—U. tumidus and U. pictorum—says:
“Both of these species produce Pearls, though of
very small size and inferior lustre. A consolidated
mass of Pearl is sometimes formed inside the right

valve near the margin of the posterior side.”

Scotch Pearts.

In Tytler’s “ History of Scotland,” we read that
as far back as the twelfth century, considerable com-
merce in Scotch Pearls was carried on. A fishery
existed up to the end of the last century, in the river
Tay, which is alluded to in Goldsmith’s “ Natural
History.” In the river Earn, a tributary of the Tay,

and in the river Doon, Pearl-mussel gathering found

oe

River Pearls; British and Foreign. 241

among certain families not only a trade, but their
sole means of livelihood. A more agreeable pursuit
of the manual order can scarcely be imagined, and
is, in point of fact, as pleasant as trout-fishing on a
hot day, and infinitely more profitable in the worst
of times. Elaborate apparatus is not needed, all

the skill necessary may be acquired in an hour, ;
and experience avails little where there are no
rules, and scarcely any dogma, to guide the mani-
pulator. During the years 1761 to 1764, Pearls to
the value of £10,000 were sent to London from

the rivers Tay and Isla.

The following curious extract from “An Accompt
current betwixt Scotland and England,’ by John
Spruel (Edinburgh, 1705), will give an idea of
the opinions then entertained of their value and

importance :—

“If a Scotch Pearl be of a fine transparent
colour, and perfectly round, and of any great big-
ness, it may be worth 15, 20, 30, 40 to 50 rix dollars:
yea, I have given 100 rix dollars (416 gs. 2d.) for
one, but that is rarely to get such. . . . I have
dealt in Pearls these forty years and more, and yet
to this day I could never sell a necklace of fine Scots
Pearl in Scotland, nor yet fine pendants, the gene-

rality seeking for Oriental Pearls, because farther
Q

242 Pearls.

fetched. At this very day I can show some of our
own Scots Pearls as fine, more hard and transparent
than any Oriental. It is true that the Oriental can
be easier matched, because they are all of a yellow

water, yet foreigners covet Scots Pearls.”

The revenue from this industry shortly after-
wards began to decline, and the fishing was almost
abandoned until the year 1860, when it was revived
by a German, who prosecuted the almost forgotten
trade for a while with such success that in 1865,
the value of the Pearls found was computed at
412,000 for that year alone,—an assertion, however,

that requires confirmation.

Mr. John Gibson, of the Edinburgh Museum of
Science and Art, writing in 1885, in the new
Ordnance Gazetteer, of Scotland, says that :—“Of
fresh-water bivalves the most important Scottish
species is the Pearl-mussel. It is found in most of
the mountain streams, but the Scottish Pearl-fishery
has been chiefly prosecuted in the rivers Forth,

Tay, Earn, and Doon.”

We believe that at the present time very little
is done in the way of fishing for Pearl-mussels in
any of the rivers of Scotland, and that the search

which is occasionally made by fishermen in the most

River Pearls; British and Foreign. 243

favourable localities rarely proves remunerative. The
industry has been rather discouraged, in consequence

of its reputed interference with ordinary fishing,

Ivish Pearls.

The earliest reference which we have found on
the subject of Irish Pearls occurs in the “ Philo-
sophical Transactions” for the month of March, 1693,
which contains a curious letter from Sir Robert
Redding, “Concerning Pearl-fishing in the North
of Ireland.” It appears that the writer had visited
the fisheries in the preceding August, and obtained
specimens of the shells and Pearls for transmission
to the famous Dr. Lister. “I have sent you,” he
says, “four or five of the shells, and a few of the
Pearls, though clouded and little worth, taken out
of the river, near Omagh, in the county of Tyrone,
in which county are four rivers abounding with
these mussels, all emptying themselves into Lough
Foyle, whereon stands the town of Derry, and so
into the sea. There are also other rivers in the
county of Donegal, a river near Dundalk, the shore
running by Waterford, the lough called Lough Lean
in Kerry, which afford the like fish.” After de-
scribing the primitive method of obtaining the Pearls,

the writer says that: “Although by common estimate

244 Pearls.

not above one shell in a hundred may havea Pearl,
and of those Pearls not above one in a hundred
be tolerably clean, yet a vast number of fair mer-
chantable Pearls, and too good for the apothecary,
are offered to sale by these people every summer
assize. Some gentlemen of the country make good
advantage thereof, and myself whilst there, saw one
Pearl bought for 42 Ios. that weighed 36 carats,
and was valued at £40, and had it been as clear
as some others produced therewith, would certainly
have been very valuable. Everybody abounds with
stories of the good Pennyworths of the country, but
I will add but one more: A miller took out a Pearl
which he sold for 44 10s. to a man that sold it
for £10, who sold it to the late Lady Glenanly for
£30, with whom I saw it ina necklace; she refused

£80 for it from the late Duchess of Ormond.”

Thomas Pennant in his “ British Zoology” refers
to the Pearls found in the rivers of Tyrone and
Donegal, but he evidently derived most of his
information from Sir R. Redding’s paper, to which

he adds nothing of importance.

In the river Slaney, Co. Wexford, during the
summer months when the water is low, some ten
or fifteen men are (or were) in the habit of fishing

for Pearls. They take the mussels from the bed

River Pearls; British and Foreigit. 245

of the river by a net, or slit at the end of a pole,
the shells are then opened, and are subsequently
either left on the banks or returned to the river.
Sometimes from two to three hundred may be
opened and no Pearl found. It is in the large
deformed shells that the Pearls generally occur, and
these are mostly buried in deep water, the Pearls

being worth from £4 to 410 each.

European Pearls.

Many of the rivers of the Continent are the
home of the Pearl-mussel. It is found widely
distributed in the streams of Northern Europe,
being especially abundant in Norway, Sweden,
Finland, Saxony, and Bohemia; and even as far

south as Bavaria.

The attention of scientific men in this country
was called to the River-Pearls of Norway as far
back as the year 1673; in a letter from Hamburgh,
“By the learned Christopher Sandius,” translated in
the “ Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society”
for 1674. Weare there told that ‘The Pearl-shells
in Norway do breed in sweet waters: their shells
are like mussels, but larger.” The writer then asserts
that it sometimes happens that the eggs of the

mollusc instead of being voided adhere to the

246 ead Pearls.

matrix, and lead to the production of Pearls.
“These (eggs) are fed by the oyster against her
will, and they do grow according to the length of
time into Pearls of different bignesses, and imprint
a mark both on the fish and the shell.” This curious
bit of information was obtained from a certain Dane,
named Henricus Arnoldi, described as “an ingenious
and veracious person,” who had himself studied the
subject in Christiania; “and with great seriousness,”

says the writer, “assured me of the truth thereof.”

The famous Swedish naturalist, Linnzus, or

Carl Von Linné, paid much attention to the Pearl-

mussels of the rivers of Sweden, and about the.

middle of the last century, devised a plan for in-
ducing the artificial production of Pearls, by the
insertion of a foreign body into the shell of the
mollusc. Believing that his process might be pro-
fitably carried out, he offered, in 1761, to sell his
secret to the government, but his proposal was not
entertained; and it is recorded that he afterwards
disposed of it toa merchant of Gothenburg, named
Bagge, for the sum of 18,000 copper dollars. It
seems, however, that no attempt was ever seriously
made to found an industry of this curious character
in Sweden. “In the year 1763,” says Beckmann,
in his History of Inventions, “it was said in the

German newspapers that Linnzus was ennobled on

a
ee

River Pearls; British and Foreign. 247

account of this discovery, and that he bore a Pearl
in his coat of arms: but both these assertions are
false, though Professor Fabricius conjectures that
the first may be true.” What was taken for a
Pearl, in the arms of Linnzus, was really an egg—

a symbol of Nature.

Pearl-mussels are found in considerable numbers
in some of the rivers of Saxony and Bohemia. The
principal, or perhaps we should rather say, the only
Bohemian locality in which the Pearl-fishery has
of late years been conducted, is the Horazdiowitz
district, in the beautiful valley of the river Wotawa,
between Pilsen and Budweis. Much more impor-
tant, however, are the fisheries in certain rivers in

Saxony.

The Pearl-fisheries of Saxony are chiefly located
in the basin of the White Elster and its tributary
streams, in the Saxon Voigtland. Theindustry, from
very ancient times, has been under the control of the
State. In 1621, Duke Johann Georg I., appointed
Moritz Schmirler as Conservator of the Crown
Pearl-fisheries, and the successive incumbents of the
office have been—with only a single exception—
direct descendants of Abraham Schmirler, who suc-
ceeded his brother Moritz in 1643. We read that
in 1649, this Abraham obtained 93 clear Pearls, of

248 Pearls.

which 51 were large and 42 small; 32 semi-clear

Pearls ; 59 refuse and 42 black Pearls.

Formerly the Pearls were made over to the
Royal Museum of Natural History in Dresden, but
at the present day they pass under the control of
the Ministry of Finance. In 1802 the Royal Museum
sold local Pearls for the sum of seven thousand
thalers (1,050), and with the proceeds purchased the
Rachnitz collection of minerals, Some of the finest
Elster Pearls are preserved in the Green Vaults at
Dresden. The method of fishing is thus described
by Mr. Dall, who derived his information from a
report by Dr. Nitsche, on the Pearl-fishery as
illustrated in the Berlin Exhibition of 1880, “The
waters are inspected in spring, to see if the mussel-
beds have been disturbed by ice or débris during the
freshets. The area over which the fisheries extend
is not searched every year, but is divided into 313
tracts, of which each tract is considered as equal
to one day’s work for three Pearl-seekers ; and only
zo or 30 tracts are fished over in any one year, so
after fishing, each tract has Io or 15 years’ rest
before it it fished over again. The Pearl-seekers
who appear to be quite at home in the water, gather
the mussels with a peculiarly-formed piece of iron,
which is sharpened at one end. With this they pry

open the valves, and search the animal for Pearls.

River Pearls, British and Foreign. 249

If any are detected, they cut the muscles which
hold the two valves together, and extract the Pearls ;
but if none are found, the creature is restored un-
injured to the water. The Pearls are put into a
bottle of water on the spot, and afterwards dried
and sorted in the house, Sometimes a mussel will
be found with small Pearls in it, which give promise
of better growth. Such shells:are marked with the
point of the iron and put back. Sometimes excel-
lent Pearls have been obtained from mussels which

have been so treated.”

In Bavaria the principal rivers which yield
Pearl-bearing mussels are those of the Bayrische
Wald, or Bavarian Forest, between Regensburg
(Ratisbon), and Passau, and some others which take
their rise further north, in the Fichtelgebirge. The
most celebrated rivers are the Ilz and the Regen.
At the Nuremberg Exhibition of Bavarian Products
in 1882, there was displayed a large collection of
the shells and Pearls, together with examples of the
artificial production of Pearls by causing the mol-
lusc to deposit nacre on small moulds of fanciful
shapes, after the Chinese method, which will be
explained below. The Bavarian Pearls have been
carefully studied by Dr. Theodor Von Hessling, who

has written an elaborate monograph on the subject.

River-Pearls are also found occasionally in the

250 Pearls,

fresh-water mussels of Russia and of Frances ie
1849, Dr. Adolphe de Bauran performed numerous
experiments on the production of Pearls by the
mussels (Unzo margaritifer) of the torrential stream
of Vianz, near Rhoder, in the department of Aveyron.
His experiments were not followed by any striking
success. Even less successful were the attempts to
produce Pearls in the Unio litioralis, of the Touch,
near Toulouse, as conducted by MM. Mouquin-
Tandon and Jules Cloquet, who, in 1858, read a paper
on this subject before the Soczété ‘d’Acclimatation of

Paris.

American River Pearls.

In many of the rivers flowing through the
northern part of the American Continent, the Pearl-
mussel is abundant. Dr. Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia,
has catalogued many hundreds of species of American
river-mussels belonging to the genera Unio, Marga-
vitana and Anadon. Yet the occurrence of good
Pearls in these shells does not appear to be frequent.
At any rate, the business of Pearl-fishing, involving
as it does, great expense in a country where the
value of labour is high, has not hitherto been a

very remunerative industry.

River-Pearls have been systematically fished in

the Miami river, in Warren county, Ohio. The

River Pearls ; American. 251

season extends from June to October, and some
fine specimens have occasionally been brought to
light. A remarkable Pearl weighing 46} grains,
was found in this river some few years ago, and
passed into the cabinet of Mr. Israel Harris, a
banker in Waynesville, Ohio, who has formed a very
large collection of Miami Pearls. This specimen
was described as an “agatised Pearl,” in consequence
of its displaying a curious agate-like structure, and
was christened by Mr. Harris the “ Koh-i-noor
Pearl.” One of the finest Pearls ever found in this
district was accidentally discovered by a little boy
of eleven years, named Morton L. Roberts, who,
while on a visit in the neighbourhood, was amusing
himself by collecting mussel-shells from the river,
to border a flower-bed in his aunt’s garden. In one
of the shells, lying among a heap that had been
thrown aside by the fishers as useless, the keen eye
_of the boy detected a Pearl, which turned out to
be one of unusual value; being equally fine in size,

form and lustre.

Many good Pearls have been found from time
to time, in the rivers of New England, in the
north-eastern part of the United States, and it is
said that one obtained from a stream in New Jersey
was sold in Paris for as much as £400. According

to Mr. Dall, some fine Pink Pearls have occasionally

252 Pearls.

been procured from a species of Pearl-mussel in-

habiting the rivers of Florida.

Crossing from the United States into Canada,
we find ourselves in a country which has yielded
fresh-water Pearls of considerable size and beauty. It
appears that the Pearls occur more or less abundantly
in most of the small streams in the Province of
Quebec, especially in the country to the north of the
City of Quebec, and also in the districts bordering
on the lower part of the river St. Lawrence. Some
fine Canadian Pearls, varying in weight from three
to seventy grains, were exhibited at the Colonial
Exhibiton of 1886, by a jeweller, of Quebec. The
exhibitor tells us that being desirous of making
himself practically acquainted with the occurrence of
the Pearls, he took a trip through the chief Pearl-
producing districts, in the month of August, 1885.
This trip occupied three weeks, of which time seven-
teen days were passed in kneeling and paddling in
a bark canoe, and in portaging through a primitive
region of very wild character. The streams which
are richest in Pearl-mussels are but little known,
except to the Indians and backwoodsmen, who take
care to-Keep ‘the localities as’ seeret “as peseemie:
Mr. Seifert’s exploring party “prosecuted the toilsome
task of Pearl-fishing with the greatest perseverance,

and after opening several thousand mussels, succeeded

River Pearls ;° Chinese. 253

in securing only two good Pearls.” Such at present
is the rarity of the River-Pearls of Canada! The
author believes, however, that there is a great future
for Canadian Pearls: many of them are of large size,
and in beauty they approach nearer to the Oriental

than any other River-Pearls yet discovered.

Chinese River-Pearls.

Pearls have been highly valued in China, for
purposes of personal adornment, from a very early
period. Many of the Pearls frequently mentioned
by Chinese historians, as remarkable for size and
_brilliancy, were no doubt marine Pearls; but never-
theless it seems certain that the most ancient
Chinese Pearls were of fresh-water origin. Thus,
the earliest dictionary, which was compiled eleven
centuries before our era, by Chan, the inventor of
the compass, makes mention of Pearls as one of
the precious productions of Shensi. Now as Shensi
is an inland province, in the very heart of China,
it is evident that the Pearls of this country must
have been obtained from the rivers by which

it is watered.

Fresh-water Pearls are largely used by the
Chinese at the present day; and these ingenious

people, not content with the Pearls which the

254 Pearls.

mussels naturally produce, are in the habit of
stimulating their growth by artificial means. This
method of Pearl production has already been in-
cidentally alluded to in an earlier chapter of this
work (p. 119), but as it constitutes a very ancient
and important industry in China, it may be well in
this place, to describe the process more minutely.
The industry is confined to a district within a few
days’ journey of Ningpo, and some years ago
Mr. Consul Hague and Dr. Macgowan despatched
an intelligent native to the locality, with a view of
drawing up a complete report on the methods
employed, and of procuring illustrative specimens.
In 1853, the late Sir John Bowring communicated
to the Society of Arts a valuable paper on this
subject, prepared by Dr. Macgowan, and from this
communication, we extract the following interesting

account of this curious art :—

:

“The practice of the art is confined to two
conterminous villages, near the district city of
Tehtsing, in the northern part of Chihkiang, in a
silk-producing region. In the month of May or
June, large quantities of the mussel (AZytclus cygnus),
are brought in baskets from the Tahu, a lake in
Kiangsu, about thirty miles distant, the largest
among the full-grown being specially selected. As

their health suffers on the journey, they are allowed

River Pearls; Chinese. 255

a few days’ respite in bamboo cages in water, before
being tortured for the gratification of human vanity,
when they are taken out to receive the matrices.
These are various in form and material, the most
common being pellets made of mud, taken from
the bottom of water-courses, dried, powdered with
the juice of camphor-tree seeds, and formed into
pills which, when dry, are fit for introduction into
the unfortunate subject. Moulds which best exhibit
the nacreous deposit are brought from Canton, and
appear to be made from the shell of the Pearl-
oyster. The irregular fragments thus procured are
triturated with sand in an iron mortar, until they
become smooth and globular. Another class of moulds
consists of small images, generally of Buddha, in the
usual sitting posture, or sometimes of a fish ; they are
made of lead, cast very thin, by pouring ona board
having the impression. Pearls having these forms
have excited much surprise, since they first attracted

the attention of foreigners a few years back.

The introduction of the Pearl nuclei is an
operation of considerable delicacy. The shell is
generally opened with a spatula of Mother-of-Pearl,
and the free portion of the mollusc is carefully sepa-
rated from one surface of the shell with an iron
probe ; the foreign bodies are then successively in-

troduced at the point of a bifurcated bamboo stick,

256 Pearls,

and placed in two parallel rows upon the mantle
or fleshy surface of the animal. A sufficient number
having been placed on one side, the operation is
repeated on the other. Stimulated by the irritating
bodies, the suffering animal spasmodically presses
against both sides of its testaceous skeleton, keeping
the matrices in place. This being done, the mussels
are deposited one by one in canals, or streams or
pools connected therewith, five or six inches apart,
at depths of from two to five feet, in lots of from

five to fifty thousand.

If taken up in a few days after the introduction
of the mould, they will be found attached to the
shell by a membranéous secretion, which at a later
period appears as if impregnated with calcareous
matter, and finally layers of nacre are deposited
around each neucleus, the process being analogous
to the formation of calculary concretions in animals
of a higher development. A ridge of marl generally
extends from one pearly tumour to another, con-

necting them all together.

About six times in the course of the season,
several tubs of night-soil are thrown into the
reservoir for the nourishment of the animals, Great
care is taken to prevent goat manure from falling

in, as it is highly detrimental to the mussels,

River Pearls; British and Foreign. 257

preventing the secretion of good nacre, or killing
them, according as the quantity may be great

or small.

In November the shells are carefully collected
by the hand, the muscular portion removed, and
the Pearls detached by a sharp knife. If the basis
of the Pearl be of nacre it is not removed, but the
earthen and metallic matrices are cut away, melted
yellow resin poured into the cavity, and the orifice
artfully covered by a piece of Mother-of-Pearl.
In this state these more than semi-orbicular pearly
pellicles have much of the lustre and beauty of
the solid gem, and are furnished at a rate so cheap
as to be procurable by all who care to possess them:
they are generally purchased by jewellers and others,
who set them in tiaras, circlets, and various or-
naments of female attire. Those formed on the
image of Buddha, are finished in the same manner,
and are used as ornaments and amulets on the
caps of young children. A few shells are retained
with their adhering Pearls, for sale to the curious
or superstitious, specimens of which have by this
time found their way into the principal public and
private cabinets of Europe and America. They are
generally about 7 inches long and 5 broad; con-
taining a double or triple row of Pearls or images ;

as many as 25 of the former and 16 of the latter
R

258 Pearls.

to each valve. That the animal should survive the
introduction of so many irritating bodies, and in
such a brief period secrete a covering of nacre over
them all, is certainly a striking physiological fact.
Some naturalists, indeed, have expressed strong
doubts as to its possibility, supposing the Pearls
were made to adhere to the shell by some. compo-
sition; but the examination of living specimens in
different stages of growth, having both valves studded
with Pearls, has fully demonstrated its truth A
tinge of yellow is found over the whole inner surface
of some shells, shewing that the more recent secre-
_tion of nacre by the suffering animal was unnatural ;

the flesh of all, however, is eaten,

Above five thousand families are represented
as being engaged in this singular branch of industry
in the villages of Chung-kwan and Siau-chang-
ngan; they, however, mainly derive their support
from cultivating the mulberry, and in rearing silk-
worms, and other agricultural occupations. Those
who are not expert in the management of the shells
lose ten to fifteen per cent. by deaths; others lose

none in a whole season.

The invention is attributed by the villagers to

a native of the place, ancestor of many of them,

named Yu Shun-yang, to whom a temple has been

erected, in which divine honours are paid to his

River Pearls; British and Foreign. 259

image. He lived about the close of the fourteenth
century. The topography of Chih-kiang mentions a
Pearl sent to Court in 490 A.D., which resembled
Buddha, being three inches in size. The resem-
blance was probably fanciful, being but an irregular
form of Pearl, produced in the usual manner. Those
now made are but half-an-inch long, and while in
the shell have a bluish tint, which disappears with

its removal from the matrix.”

It will be observed that Dr. Macgowan, in the
above extract, refers the Chinese Pearl-mussel to
the Wytilus Cygnus. Possibly more than one species
may be used; the specimens of Buddha Pearls in
the British Museum are on shells described’ as
Dipsas plicata.

The fresh-water Pearl-mussels of Japan have
been briefly referred to at p. 81 of this volume.
We shall be glad to learn more of the history of
Japanese Pearls, and to introduce the information

into a future edition of our work.

CHAPTER XV.

oo

COLOURED PEARLS.

nn’

‘‘ Brighter the offspring of the morning dew,
The evening yields a duskier birth to view;
The younger shells produce a whiter race,
We greater age in darker colours trace.”
—Marbodus.

ns

22\N the above quotation from the curious

old “Lapidarium” of Marbodus, fol-

lowing the translation given by the
Rev. C. W. King, we have an exposition in brief of
the views of the ancients respecting the cause of the

various tints which are assumed by certain Pearls.

It was commonly held by the early naturalists,
that the dark-coloured Pearls had been formed
either under the gloomy influence of the shades of

evening, or by an aged oyster.. Dismissing these

<
Zz
<
ao
rs
O
i

PEAR

BLACK

ite. 22: >on

Coloured Pearls. 261

fancies, however, we may refer to the opinion so
often expressed and still entertained in some quarters,
that the black colour of a Pearl is traceable to some

disease in the Pearl-bearing mollusc.

Although the origin of the colour is in the
deepest degree obscure, it seems probable that it
is in some cases due to the presence of certain pig-
ments in the medium in which the molluscs live.
The subject of the colouring matter of the nacre
in the shells of the genus Unzo, afforded matter for
an interesting discussion at the meeting of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, on
March 20, 1860. If we know the nature of the
pigment which colours the nacreous lining of the
shell, we may safely conclude that we know also
the character of the colouring matter in the tinted
Pearl ; inasmuch as a Pearl is of precisely the same
nature as the nacre of its shell. Here we refer not
to the pearly hue of a nacreous shell, which, as ex-
plained in an early chapter (p. 87), is a purely
optical phenomenon, but to the substantive colour
of the carbonate of lime which constitutes both
the nacre and the Pearl, and which colour is, no
doubt, due to the presence of some material pig-
ment. The late Dr. James Lewis, of Mohawk,
New York, suggested that the colour of many fresh-

water shells might be caused by certain salts of

262 Pearls,

gold, minute quantities of the precious metal,
probably in the state of a chloride, being held in
solution in the stream, and received into the system
of the mollusc.. “I notice,” said Dr. Lewis, “that
colours are most brilliant in regions where gold may
be suspected. In the lake regions of the western
States, minerals are abundant, and the conditions
are not incompatible with the supposition that sold
is sparingly disseminated among them, in quantities
too small perhaps, to be available. . . . Of fae

streams producing identically the same _ species,

one will give a large proportion of white nacres, ~

and the other will present coloured nacres; and
usually we also notice another phenomenon —a
greater drilliancy of nacre where rich colours abound.
In this case I have my private opinion that gold
produces its peculiar tonic effect, for tonic it is, under

certain circumstances, by increasing the secretion.”

Dr. Isaac Lea, the great authority on the genus
Unio, was not disposed to attribute the colour to
any auriferous compound ; and remarked that Dr.
Draper had calcined purple shells, and could not
detect in the white calx any metallic substance.
According to Dr. Lea, the colours of many of the
American Unionide with purple, pink, and salmon-
coloured nacre, are probably due to the presence

of some organic compound, such as is supposed to

S
.
i.
"5

Coloured Pearls, 263

produce the colour of certain kinds of fluor-spar and
quartz. It is a curious fact that the Unio rectus is
usually white in the Ohio river, while in the more
northern waters it is generally of a fine rich purple
or salmon colour, Again, the Unio ligamentinus has
probably never been found, either pink or purple in
the Ohio, while at Grand Rapids, in Michigan, the
pink and salmon shells are quite common. In like
manner the Margaritana margaritifera—or common
Pearl-mussel—has usually a fine purple nacre in the
_ Columbia river and its tributaries, while it is almost
universally white in the rivers of Pennsylvania,
Connecticut, and Massachusetts, as is also the case
in Northern Europe. Instances like those seem to
prove that the colour is caused by certain foreign
substances, which are present in some streams and

not in others.

It seems probable that the gold theory of Dr.
Lewis may explain the origin of the purple and
violet colours of certain Pearls, inasmuch as it is
well known that such tints are readily yielded by
salts of gold: thus the magnificent. dye termed
“purple of Cassius” is a compound of the chlo-
rides of gold and tin. According to the American

conchologist, Mr. Tryon, jun, the Pearls found

264 Pearls.

occasionally in Avzomia cepa are purple, while those
in Arca No@ are violet. These, however, are of

no commercial value.

Black Pearls.

When we turn to the true Black Pearls, which of
late are to be reckoned among the most valued of the
jeweller’s resources, we must probably seek some
other pigment as the colouring agent; and some
authorities have suggested that in this case, the
carbonate of lime is coloured with certain compounds

of silver,

Mexico is the great centre for Black Pearls,
and it is said that the oyster-beds yielding such
Pearls lie near to the washings from certain silver
mines. Hence it has been suggested that some salt
of silver exists in the water, and that the presence
of this body causes the nacre inside the shell to
assume a black colour. Any Pearl that may be
formed will necessarily have the same composition
as the nacreous deposits lining the shell, and
will, consequently, be black instead of white. This
conclusion is partly based on the fact that of late
years certain fresh water Pearls have been artificially
dyed black by means of argentiferous pigments;

but the colour of these dyed Pearls is not constant ;

Black Pearls. 265

it lasts only for a few months, and then gradually
| fades, leaving the Pearl ultimately of a dull brownish

hue, and the original delicate tint never returning.

Here it may be well to record an incident
which occurred to a genuine black Pearl. The
Pearl, mounted with diamonds, was displayed in a
jeweller’s shop window, but upon exposure to sun-
shine, the beautiful black sheen gradually disappeared,
apparently leaving the Pearl of a dull leaden colour.
The jewel was then returned to the original setter,
and after consultation it was decided to withdraw
the Pearl from its setting. When removed, it was
found that the part of the Pearl which had been
hidden from the light had not been affected, but
remained as black as when the gem was first taken
from the shell. Upon further examination, it was
deemed advisable to peel off the outer layer of the
Pearl, and when this had been accomplished, it was
discovered, to the great joy of the owner, that the
Pearl, after losing only a few grains in weight, was
as bright and as black as in its original condition ;
thus shewing that the light had affected only the

outer skin,

Among a consignment of Pearls from Koepang,

and some other localities, a curious /usus nature

266 Pearls, 7

was once found, in the shape of a parti-coloured

Pearl, the top or upper half of which was perfectly

FIG, 10, PARTI-COLOURED PEARL, BLACK AND WHITE.

white, while the other half was perfectly black; the
two parts being separated by a sharp line of demar-
cation. It is difficult to explain with satisfaction
the cause of so unusual a phenomenon. Some who
examined it supposed that the oyster, having been
at one time diseased, had first formed a black Pearl,
and then on regaining its normal condition, was pro-
ceeding to cover the morbid concretion with a layer
of healthy white nacre, but was taken from the sea
when the work had been only half accomplished.
Others have suggested that a part of the Pearl had
been coloured by the inky secretion of the squid or

cuttle-fish, These cuttle-fishes abound in the waters

where the Pearl-oysters find their home, and it is

highly probable that the murky pigment, if ejected
in the neighbourhood of the oyster, might affect the

colour of the nacre and of the Pearl.

The dark-coloured secretion, or “ink,” of the
squid and other cephalopods, was formerly used for
writing, and is employed in the preparation of sepia

and true Indian ink. It is a body of intense

q
ae

Black Pearls. 267

tinctorial power, and if shed near a Pearl-oyster, might
determine the colour of the carbonate of lime, which
the mollusc was secreting. The organic pigment
would be decomposed by heat, and this would agree
with the behaviour of the black Pearl when exposed

to a high temperature.

When the palace at Alexandria was burnt
down during the bombardment a few years ago,
many of the Khedive’s jewels were utterly destroyed.
When the English had landed, and the fires were
extinguished, the débvis was examined, and among
the rubbish were found two black Pearls, so burnt
as to be scarcely recognizable. One of these was
a round black Pearl, worth when perfect, about
£2000; the other being a smaller one of the value
of about £200. The author bought these two burnt
Pearls as a curiosity, from a Paris merchant for a
sovereign! This shews how readily valuable Pearls
are lost or rendered useless by a conflagration, and
may in some measure account for the disappearance
of many historical Pearls. It is known for instance,
that vast numbers of Pearls once existed in the posses-
sion of the great families of Italy,and in the treasures
of the Church, of which no trace nowremains. Many
ancient Eastern cities, which, in the vicissitudes of
time, have been destroyed by fire and revolution,

must have contained, when in a flourishing condition,

268 Pearls.

extensive treasures of Pearls, collected in the course
of ages, and surpassing in magnificence anything
likely to have reached the hands of collectors in
the west of Europe. Yet no vestige of their wealth

has come down to us.

It would seem that black Pearls were not re-
garded as objects of value by the ancients. At any
rate, we have not met with any mention of them
by medizval writers. Even thirty years ago they
were but little esteemed: 7 perfect round black
Pearl weighing eight grains was bought for 44, for
which at the present day £100 would be oladly
given. The great increase in value of these Pearls
dates from the time of the Empress Eugénie, the
wife of Napoleon III., who set the fashion of wearing
black in preference to white Pearls. The Empress
possessed a famous necklace, consisting of a row of
matchless black Pearls, for which the large sum of
44000 was obtained when it was sold at Messrs.
Christie’s, after the overthrow of the Imperial dynasty.
The Pearl forming the snap was subsequently sold
at Christie’s to the Marquis of Bath for 1000 guineas,
to form the centre of a bracelet. The demand then
began to be greater than the supply, and the market

price has continued to rise until the present time.

Another instance may be given of the low

esteem in which the black Pearl was held abroad,

Black Pearls. 269

even as late as the year 1870. The author was
asked by a member of a London Syndicate to pro-
ceed to the East, to value a large quantity of jewels,
as a heavy sum of money was about to be advanced
to a certain Power, to carry on the sinews of war.
On his way he was requested to stop at one of the
principal towns in Germany, to purchase some jewels
which had been valued for probate, but were not
easy of sale in that market. The valuation paper
was shown to him, and after examining the jewels,
he agreed to take them at the prices named.
Amongst them was an old gold brooch of Russian
manufacture, valued at £4; in the centre of this
brooch was what appeared to be a piece of hematite,
but which was in reality a fine round black Pearl,
weighing 77 grains. The colour had faded from
exposure to the sun, as explained before. This
Pearl was brought to London, and the outer layer
was taken off, when a perfect black Pearl of 67
grains remained. This was sold toa manufacturing
jeweller in London for 4400, but having heard that
in Paris, there was a Pearl that would exactly
match it, the author bought it back again for
£600, and then sold it at a large profit to one
of the Paris crown jewellers who, in his turn,
sold the pair to a rich iron merchant for 50,000

francs (42000). Since then the sum of 100,000

270 Pearls,

“francs (44000), has been refused for this pair of
_ matchless black Pearls. :

Mexico, Tahiti and Fiji supply the principal
markets of the world with black Pearls. A few come
from Japan and other islands, and very few indeed
from Panama, the Pacific, and Western Australia.
Black Pearls of inferior quality are occasionally
found in the Pzzza,a genus of wedge-shaped shells,
with a thin dark nacreous lining. Very fine ones
are also occasionally yielded by the curious shells
which are known from their shape as “ Hammer”
oysters, belonging to the genus Malleus. This con-
stituted a genus of the Blainville family of Warga-
ritacea, and is placed by later writers amongst the
Aviculide, or the principal Pearl-producing group of
molluscs ; whilst it has also been made the typical
shell of a family to which it gives its name. It
consists of about six species, inhabitating the East
and West Indies. ,

Various attempts, more or less successful, have
been made to imitate the black Pearl. The material
commonly used is a compact variety of hematite
or native peroxide of iron, which is sometimes used

under the name of “iron-stone jewellery.”

At Sherm-el Dahab, or “ Creek of Gold,” in the
Gulf of Akabah (Red Sea), a beautiful kind of

ss oo.

Pink Pearls. 5 29t

hematite is said to be found, and to be worked up”
so as to represent black Pearls. Such imitations,
however, do not in the least mislead a practised eye,
for they lack the true sheen and lustre of a natural
Pearl, and are immediately distinguished by their
weight, the density of hematite being considerably
greater than that of carbonate of lime—the substance
of the Pearl.

Pink Pearls.

It has sometimes been assumed that the ancients
were familiar with pink Pearls—the assumption being
based on the slender evidence of a passage in Pliny,
which refers to Pearls of a ruddy hue. In Dr.
Holland’s quaint translation we read that “Pearles
were wont to be found in our seas of Italie; but they
were small and ruddie, in certain little shell-fishes
which they called Myz.”

The origin of the pink colour is as obscure as
that of the black referred to in the previous section
of this chapter. Chemists are aware that carbonate
of lime assumes a pink tint by the presence of man-
ganese, and a red colour by that of oxide of iron
but it seems more likely that the delicate roseate
hues of the pink Pearl are referable to some subtle

organic pigment.

Pink Pearls are found in the rivers of South

272 Pearls,

"America, in the Bahama Islands, in the Yagni
river, and at Acapulco, in Mexico, and also in the
Gulf of California. It is seen, therefore, that fresh-
water as well as marine shells may yield pink Pearls,
but those of fresh-water origin are of a more rosy
pink colour. The principal shell which produces these
beautiful objects is the great Strombus gigas.

The genus Stvombus represents the typical form
of the family of Strombid@, and consists of about
sixty species, which inhabit the West Indies, Medi-
terranean, Red Sea, India, Mauritius, China, New

Zealand, the Pacific and Western America.

The Strombus gigas,—the “fountain shell” or
“conch shell” of the West Indies—is one of the

largest living shells, some specimens weighing as

much as four or five pounds. Immense quantities

are annually imported from the Bahamas, for the
manufacture of cameos, and for use in porcelain
manufacture. According to the late Prof. Archer,
300,000 were brought to Liverpool alone in one
year. This enormous scale of importation will
account for our familiarity with the shell as a

household ornament.

It is this shell also which is generally used by
carvers of Italian shell cameos—for which purpose

it is admirably adapted by its delicate tints. The

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PINK PEARL ON CONCH SHELL (Strombus)

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Pink Pearls. 272

inner face of the shell presents a lovely pink colour,
and occasionally a Pearl is found which possesses
a similar rosy hue. The pink conch Pearl displays
a wavy appearance and peculiar sheen, something
like that of watered silk. To be perfect, it should
be quite spherical, but this shape very seldom occurs,
and a round and rosy Pearl is a gem of excessive
rarity. A writer on conch Pearls in “The Scientific
American” in 1880, says with truth, that “It is a
very rare circumstance to find a Pearl which possesses
all the requirements that constitute a perfect gem,
and when such does happen, it proves an exceedingly
valuable prize to its fortunate finder. A good Pearl
is very valuable indeed, some having been sold. in
Nassau for no less a sum than four hundred dollars.
Although many of these Pearls are annually obtained
by the fishermen in the Bahamas, not more than one
in twenty proves to be a really good gem, and hence

probably their high price.

“Pink is the most common and only desirable
colour, although white, yellow and brown Pearls are
occasionally found. Even among the pink ones
there is usually some defect which mars their beauty
and materially injures them ; some are very irregular
in shape and covered apparently with knobs or pro-

tuberances; others are too small, while many lack
S

274 Pearls.

the silky sheen, which gives them their great value
and chief beauty. |

“The conch abounds in the waters of the Bahamas,
and thousands of them are annually obtained and
destroyed for their shells, which form quite an
article of commerce, but in not one conch in a
thousand is a Pearl found. When this is taken into
account, and the other fact, that not more than one
in twenty of the Pearls found turns out to be perfect,
it will at once be seen that a good conch Pearl will

always be a rare and costly gem.

“Most of the conch Pearls found in the Bahamas
are exported to London, where they are readily
sold. A few have been sent to New York, having
been purchased in Nassau by an agent of Messrs.

Tiffany & Co., the well-known jewellers.

“ Like everything else that is valuable, the conch
Pearl has been imitated, and some of the imitations
have been sold as the genuine article. Many years”
ago an ingenious American visited Nassau and con-
ceived the idea of making conch Pearl. He succeeded
admirably in cutting out of the pink portion of the
shell some very creditable imitations. To make
success doubly sure, he procured a number of the
live shell fish, carefully inserted his spurious Pearls

in the position in which the genuine Pearl is usually

Pink Pearls. 275

found, and placed the fish in an enclosed place in
the water. At the expiration of a month or more,
the fish were again removed, and, of course, Pearls
found in them, several of which were sold to inex-
perienced persons: before the fraud was detected. It
was found out, however, and the perpetrator received

prompt and deserved punishment.”

Mr. Wood, in his “Zoography” relates that he
saw a pink Pearl, which was taken from the body
of the animal of the great West Indian conch shell,
which is fished for the table off the Island of Bar-
badoes. The Pearl was discovered by chance, while
the men were cleaning the fish. Its weight was 24
grains, but it lacked perfection of shape. The same
author states that only four of these Pearls had
been discovered in the vast number of shell fish that
are annually brought to market in that part of the
world, though he has reason to believe that this is
in some measure owing to the carelessness of the
_negroes, who clean their fish without consideration,
and have probably in their hurry returned many a
Pearl to the sea. Once there, sand, by continuous
washing against the Pearl, would soon reduce it to
powder, the carbonate of lime of the Pearl being

not so hard as the sand.

Pink Pearls have one great drawback, namely,

that ninety per cent. of them are irregular in shape,

276 Pec |

and present so ungraceful a form, as to preclude their
use for personal adornment. This may be accounted
for in the following manner. The Pearl in the
course of formation, is twisted into various fore
by the efforts made by the mollusc to unroll itself
to get out of its spiral shell. The fish naturally
often changes its position, and the disturbed Pearl
becomes ill-shapen. When a pink Pearl is found
perfectly round, it is most likely due to the molluse
having been less energetic than most of its species.
It is not generally known what difficulty is expe-
rienced in getting the great conch out of its shell,
but it is affirmed upon reliable authority that the
shells have to be placed in a certain hanging position,
with a weight attached to the mollusc. Some time
elapses before the fish is drawn out, and often by
this means the Pearl is entirely lost. The conch,
although the commonest, is not the only shell that
produces Pearls of a rosy tint. For instance, a
specimen in the British Museum shews a fine pink
Pearl attached to the Zurbinella scolymus, a porcel-

lanous univalve shell. (See plate.)

It is not unusual to find specimens of pale
pink coral cut and shaped like pink Pearls, and
offered for sale as such; but an experienced eye
will not fail to detect the absence of the peculiar

silky sheen of the concentric layers of which

PINK PEARL ON TURBINELLA.

Pink Pearls, 277

the Pearl is composed, which is widely different
from the lustre and cellular texture of the coral.
In no instance has the coral ever been found to
possess the same lines as the pink Pearl. It is true
that some Pearls themselves lack this beauty, but
they then fall: considerably in value. At the present.
time the pink Pearl is not so much in request as
formerly. Some few years back, from 1857 to 1860,
the supply was not equal to the demand, as may be
seen by the following instance: an officer in the
Ist Life Guards on his marriage, wished to present
his bride with a necklace of pink Pearls and diamonds,
but Pearls of the first quality could not be obtained,
and in order that it might be finished in time, the
necklace had to be made up with some inferior
pink Pearls. It is the same with these as with all
other commodities, excepting specimen-gems, which
always fetch their value: according to the supply and
demand, so the prices rise and fall. While black
Pearls are highly appreciated and eagerly sought
after, pink Pearls are now but little in request, and

are therefore, not of great value in the market.

In the “ Hope” collection, there was a curious
cameo pink Pearl, representing two hands mounted
on a gold ring, with a device of forget-me-nots in
diamonds. The collection also contained a cream-

coloured Pearl, obtained from Polynesia. This was

278 Pearls,

in appearance very like an opal; the summit dis-
playing a radiating lustre. Probably this Pearl was
obtained from the great clam shell—a shell which
“occasionally produces Pearls, but of no value, being .
lustreless, and not to be compared even with a

common fresh-water Pearl.

Pearls of various other Colours.

Respecting Pearls of other colours than black
and pink, very little need be said. The grcenish-
black is probably. of all tints most coveted ; it occurs,
however, but rarely, and when a Pearl of this parti-
cular hue, possesses the right orient, it exceeds in
value all other coloured Pearls. A dbluish-black
Pearl, if of fine orient, is almost. as valuable as a
true black one. The Pearls from the Placuna
placenta are often of a dull leaden colour, while those
occasionally found in the outer coat of the Pzuua
squamosa are commonly of a brown tint, Brown
Pearls are of very little value; neither are those
of plum-colour much sought after. Red Pearls are
worth only about one shilling per grain. Yellow
Pearls again do not generally realize more than a
few shillings per grain, and those of gamboge tint
are practically of no value in this country. When,
however, a Pearl is of a very fine bright golden
colour, it may be worth from twenty to forty

shillings per grain.

CEA? Tek 2 V 1

----

FAMOUS PEARLS.

** The fair Pearl Necklace of the Queen,
That burst in dancing, and the Pearls were spilt ;
Some lost, some stolen, some as relics kept,

But nevermore the same two Sister Pearls,
Ran down the silken thread to kiss each other

On her white neck.”
—Tennyson’s ** Merlin and Vivien.”

T seems desirable to introduce here a
short account of the most famous Pearls
that have figured in history. Many
of these great historical jewels have contributed in
no small degree to the adornment of royalty in
various ages, and have been the subject of strange
stories connected with the fortunes of the great.
It has been said by Miss Landon, with reference to
historical diamonds, that “ Fresh from the merchant,

diamonds convey no sentiment but that of wealth ;

280 Pearls, |

while these hereditary diamonds recall whole gene-
rations of stately beauties.” With equal, or perhaps
with even more truth, may this be said of Pearls.
The Pearls which we are about to describe have
been possessed by some of the most eminent
historical personages, and have been prized for
personal decoration by the most admired beauties
of all ages. The subject is one of peculiar fasci-
nation, but it is to be regretted that in many
cases, the information that has come down to us
from antiquity, respecting those exceptional Pearls,
is only of a meagre character. In the following
descriptions an attempt is made to arrange them
roughly in chronological sequence, but it will be
understood that many of the dates are mere ap-
proximations. The most ancient Pearl of which
we have found any record may be termed -the

“ Servilia Pearl.”

The Servilia Pearl—circa B.C. 44.

After the Roman conquests in the East, parti- —
cularly when Mithridates, the great king of Pontus,
distinguished for his knowledge of languages and
far-reaching schemes of policy, had. been overthrown
by Lucullus and Pompey—the Pearl became highly
; valued, not only in Rome, but throughout the Roman _

empire. The ladies wore them in profusion, as

Famous Pearls. 281

already mentioned (p. 36 ef seg.). Julius Cesar,
after his return from his Egyptian campaign, pre-
sented to Servilia—the mother of his murderer,
Brutus—a magnificent Pearl, which he had retained
as part of the spoils of war. The value of this gem
was estimated at a sum equivalent to 435,600 of

our present money.

The Cleopatra Pearls.—circa B.C. 30. ©

These celebrated Pearls were possessed by the
famous Cleopatra, queen of Egypt and last of the
Ptolemies. According to the well-known story,
one of these gems was dissolved in vinegar, and
drunk by the queen at a banquet given by her in
honour of Antony, one of the second triumvirate, and

_ de facto ruler of the East.

This is how Pliny tells the tale, according to
old Dr. Holland’s version: “Two onely Pearles
there were together, the fairest and richest that ever
have been knowne in the world, and those possessed
at one time by Cleopatra, the last queene of Egypt,
which came into her hands by the means of the
great kings of the East, and were left unto her by
descent. This princesse, when M. Antonius had
strained himselfe to doe her all the pleasure he
possibly could, and had feasted her day by day

most sumptuously, and spared for no cost, in the

282 Pearls.

height of her pride and wanton braverie (as being
a noble curtezan, and a queene withall), began to
debase the expense and provision of Antonie, and
made no reckoning of all his costly fare. “When he
thereat demaunded againe how it was possible to
goe beyond this magnificence of his; she answered
againe, that she would spend upon him in one
supper 100 hundred thousand sestertij. Antonie,
who would needs know how that might bee (for
hee thought it was unpossible), laid a great wager
with her about it, and she bound it againe and
made it good. The morrow after, when this was to
be tried, and the wager either to bee won or lest,
Cleopatra made Antonie a supper (because she
would not make default, and let the day appointed
to passe), which was sumptuous and roiall ynough ;
howbeit, there was no extraordinarie gergiee seene
upon the bourd, whereat Antonie laughed her to
scorne, and by way of mockerie, required to see a
bill with the account of the particulars. She againe
said, that whatsoever had been served up alreadie,
was but the overplus above the rate and proportion
in question, affirming still that shee would yet in
that supper make up the full summe that she was
seazed at; yea, herselfe alone would eat above that
reckoning, and her owne supper should cost 600
hundred thousand sestertij: and with that commanded

the second service to be brought in. The servitours

Famous Pearls. 283

that waited at her trencher (as they had in charge
before) set before her one onely crewer of sharpe
vinegar, the strength whereof is able to resolve
Pearles. Now she had at her eares hanging those
two most precious Pearles, the singular and onely
jewels of the world, and even Nature’s wonder. As
Antonie looked wistfully upon her, and expected
what she would doe, shee tooke one of them from her
eare, steeped it in vinegar, and so soon as it was
liquified, dranke it off. And as she was about to
do the like by the other, L. Plancius, the judge of
that wager, laid fast hold upon it with his hand, and
pronounced withall that Antonie had lost the wager.

Whereat the man fell into a passion of anger.”

The other Pearl of Cleopatra’s pair which was
thus preserved from a like fate, passed into the
possession of the Roman emperor, and was after-
wards sawn asunder and made into earrings, by
Agrippa, for the statue of the goddess Venus, in
the Pantheon. Pliny remarks that the statue was

satisfied with one half of Cleopatra’s banquet.

With reference to the solution of Pearls, we
may add that Cleopatra was not the only personage
who performed the costly experiment, but that the
Emperor Caligula is likewise said to have drunk
Pearls dissolved in vinegar. It is related too that

Clodius, the son of Aésop, the tragic actor, a man

284 Pale :

of great wealth, but noted for gluttony, perpetrated
a similar act of folly. Indeed the story runs that
he not only dissolved two valuable Pearls and drank
eff the solution himself, but gave to each cuest at
his table a’ Pearl to be drunk in like manner. It
is also recorded that a valuable Pearl was similarly
destroyed by Sir Thomas Gresham, ‘as will be
explained a few pages further on. In connexion
with this subject we may remind the reader that
in “Hamlet,” Shakespeare introduces the idea of
dissolving a Pearl, or as he calls it “an Union,”

im acup ol wine -

“The King shall drink to Hamlet’s better health,
And in the cup an Union shall be thrown,
Richer than that which four successive kings

In Denmark’s crown have worn.”

Let us add that a sceptical age is disposed,
not without good reason, to cast doubt upon all
the old stories of Pearl drinking. Barbot, the French
jeweller, having macerated a Pearl in the strongest
vinegar, found that the outer layer was reduced to
a gelatinous condition, while the deeper part of the

Pearl remained unaffected.

P he Lollia Paulina Pearls, c. A.D. 50.
In an early chapter of this work (pp. 37, 38) we
have quoted Pliny’s description of the extravagant
decoration of Lollia Paulina, the wife of the Emperor

Caligula, whose parure of Pearls and Emeralds was

-

Famous Pearls. 285

valued at a sum equivalent to £400,000, “ Yet were
not these jewels the gifts and presents of the prodigall
prince her husband, but the goods and ornaments from
her owne house, fallen unto her by way of inheritance
from her grandfather, which hee had gotten together
even by the robbing and spoiling of whole provinces.
See what the issue and end was of those extortions
and outrageous exactions of his: this was it; that
M. Lollius, slandered and defamed for receiving
bribes and presents of the kings in the east, and
being out of favor with C. Cesar, sonne of Augustus,
and having lost his amitie, drank a cup of poyson,
and prevented his judicial trial; that forsooth
his niece Lollia, all to be hanged with jewels of
400 hundred thousand sestertij, should bee seene
glittering and looked at of every man, by candle-
light, all a supper time.” So runs Holland’s Trans-

lation of Pliny.

The Pliny Pearl, ¢. A.D. 50.

The largest Pearl known to Pliny, the elder,
who was born A.D. 23, and lost his life during the
first recorded eruption of Vesuvius, when Pompeii
and Herculaneum were destroyed, A.D. 79, weighed
half a Roman ounce, equal to 302 grains of our

present weight. It was probably a baroque.

The Sassanian Pearl, c. A.D. 500.

It has been mentioned in an early chapter

286 Pearls.

(p. 30), that in the portraits of the Sassanian kings,
a huge Pearl is represented as hanging from the
right ear. This was worn by the monarch as a
fitting mark of sovereignty. The Sassanian dynasty
reigned in Persia from the year 226 to 641 A.D.
Procopius who lived in the reign of Justinian, relates
in his History of the Persian wars that a daring
diver obtained, by the sacrifice of his life, a .Pearl
of great size from the custody of a shark. This
Pearl, considered a miracle of nature, was worn by
King Perozes, who ultimately lost it in an engage-
ment with the Huns. Charging their flying hordes,
he was lured by their feigned retreat into a vast
pitfall, but to prevent the enemy from possessing
such a precious trophy of their victory, he tore the
Pearl from his right ear, and cast it before him.
This noble jewel was never recovered, although the
Huns were stimulated to the search by his Byzantine
rival, who promised an enormous reward to the

discoverer (see p. 31).

The Gresham Pearl, 1560.

Sir Thomas Gresham, the wealthy and muni-
ficent London merchant of Queen Elizabeth’s period,
was hardly the man to be led into acts of foolish
ostentation, Yet it is related that on one occasion

his loyalty so far got the better of his judgment,

Famous Pearls. | 287

that this sober citizen was induced to imitate the
absurdity of Cleopatra, by wantonly destroying a
Pearl of great price. In Lawson’s “History of
Banking” the incident is narrated in the following
words :—“ The Spanish ambassador to the English
court, having extolled the great riches of the king
his master, and of the grandees of his master, before
Queen Elizabeth, Sir Thomas, who was present,
told him that the queen had subjects who, at one
meal, expended not only as much as the daily
revenues of his kingdom, but also of all his grandees ;
and added ‘this I will prove any day, and lay you

a considerable sum on the result.’

“The Spanish ambassador soon afterwards came
unawares to the house of Sir Thomas, and dined
with him; and finding only an ordinary meal, said
‘Well, sir, you have lost your wager.’ ‘Not at all,
replied Sir Thomas; ‘and this you shall presently
see. He then pulled out a box from his pocket,
and taking one of the largest and finest eastern
Pearls out of it, exhibited it to the ambassador,
and then ground it, and drank the powder of it in
a glass of wine to the health of his mistress. ‘My
lord ambassador,’ said Sir Thomas, ‘you know I
have often refused £15,000 for that Pearl: have
I lost or won?’ ‘I yield the wager as lost’ said

the ambassador, ‘and I do not think there are four

288 / Pearls.

subjects in the world that would do as much for

their sovereign,’ ”

La Peregrina, 1579.

Philip II. of Spain possessed this famous Pearl
which is described as being as large as the biggest
pigeon’s egg, and weighing 134 grains. It- was
valued by the jewellers at 14,000 ducats, but pro-
nounced beyond all valuation by the engraver, Freco.
This remarkable Pearl was pear-shaped, and came
from the Panama fisheries. The oyster from which
this Pearl was derived had been found by a negro
boy, but the shell was so small that the fishermen,
regarding it as of no value, were about to throw it
back into the sea, without opening it; second thoughts
prevailed however, and to the surprise of all, this
magnificent Pearl was discovered. The slave was
rewarded with his liberty and his master with the
post of alcalde of Panama. The Pearl was presented
to -Philip 1], by Don Diego de. Témés) 210) wae

exhibited at Seville as an unparalleled curiosity.

The Rudolf Pearl, 1609.

Anselmus De Boot, a native of Antwerp, who
was physician to Rudolf II., published in the year -

1609, a learned treatise, entitled “De Gemmis et

Famous Pearls, 289

Lapidibus.” In this work he mentions a Pearl,
belonging to his patron Rudolf, which weighed 120
grains, and cost as much as 120,000 gold pieces.
Rudolf also possessed another Pearl that weighed

as much as 180 grains,

Lhe Youssoupoff Pearl, 1620.

One of the largest Pearls known in Europe, a
pear-shaped Pearl weighing 524 grains, was brought
from India in 1620, by Gongibus of Calais, and sold
by him to Philip IV. of Spain, for 80,000 ducats,
a sum equivalent to about £18,000. The merchant
when asked by the king how he could have been
bold enough to risk all his fortune in a single little
article, replied “ Because he knew there was a King
of Spain to buy it!” It is believed that this mag-
nificent Pearl is now in possession of the Russian

Princess Youssoupoff.

The Shah Pearls, 1633—1635.
The Shah of Persia possessed in 1633, a Pearl

an inch in diameter, which was valued at 464,coo.
It is said that two years later he bought another
beautiful Pearl from an Arab, coming from the
Catifa fishery. The price paid for this was 32,000
tomanas, or 456,000. It weighed 672 grains, and

the shape was an almost perfect heart. At the present
T

BHO 7 Pearls.

day this shape would considerably detract from its
value. It is believed that one of these is the Pearl
which is known in modern times to have been in

possession of Fateh Ali Shah.

The Aurungzeb Pearl, 1650.

The only jewel ever purchased by Aurungzeb,
the great Mogul, who affected a pious contempt
for all such pomps and vanities, was a perfect round
Pearl, weighing 1274 grains. No value is given to
this fine Pearl, but it is related, with reference to
other Pearls, that there were in India certain persons
who would give higher prices than could be obtained

from Aurungzeb.

The Conway Pearl, 1662.
_ History has recorded that Sir Richard Wynn,

of Gwydir, who was chamberlain to Catherine of
Braganza, the Queen of Charles II., presented to her
Majesty a Pearl of unusual beauty and magnitude,
which had been found in the river Conway, in North
Wales. This Pearl is said to be still preserved in
the Imperial State Crown. It is recorded that the
Pearl was accidentally found by a lady who care-
lessly opened a mussel which she happened to
pick up, without the slightest expectation of its

disclosing a Pearl; it was probably derived from

Famous Pearls. | 291

that part of the river which flows near the domain

of Gwydir.

The Arabian Pearl, 1689.

Aceph Ben Ali, prince of Nolenna, Arabia,
possessed a Pearl to which Tavernier awards
the palm for perfection in beauty, but not in
magnitude. Its weight was only 127, carats, 48}
grains, so that many others far surpassed it in
that respect. But such was the fame of its per-
fection that 4140,000 is said to have been offered
in vain for it by Aurungzeb.

La Pellegrina, 1830.

There is in the Zosima Museum at Moscow, a
Pearl of exceptional beauty, which has been called
“La Pellegrina,” and is sometimes confounded with
= La Peregrina” already described. It is said that
the Moscow Pearl was purchased by Zosima in the
early part of this century from the captain of an
Indian ship, at Leghorn, in Italy. The Pearl weighs
about 90 grains, and is described as being perfectly

spherical and of surpassing lustre.

The Hope Pearl, 1839.
In the collection formed by the late Mr. Henry

Philip Hope, and arranged by Hertz, were several

Pearls of unusual magnitude and beauty. The largest

292 Pearls.

was a baroque Pearl weighing 1,800 grains, which is
thus described in the catalogue of the Hope collec-
tion, published in 1839 :—

‘““A most extraordinary large specimen of an-
Oriental Pearl, of an irregular pear shape, measuring
2 inches in length, 44 inches in circumference at the
broadest end, and 34 inches at the narrower end;
weighing 3 ounces, or 1,800 grains. About 14 inches
of the Pearl are of a fine bright orient ; the bottom
part is of a fine bronze tint, or dark green shaded
with copper colour. This gigantic Pearl was detached
from the shell, but it was deemed necessary to leave
a small portion of the shell adhering to it, but which |
is of so fine an orient, and so well polished, that it is

not distinctly perceived to be of the nature of shell.

“Considering the growth of Pearls in general,
that they are a morbid secretion of a species of
oyster, which is of small size, it is surprising to be-
hold, in the present specimen, a mass of Pearl which
must surpass the fish which formed it at least six
times in weight ; and we may presume that it is the
largest Pearl ever found. -It is surmounted with a
royal crown of red enamelled gold, and studded with

fine brilliants, rubies, and emeralds.”

This specimen was for many years exhibited
at the South Kensington Museum, by permission of

A. J. Beresford-Hope, Esq., and was sold this year

Famous Pearls. 293

(1886), at Messrs. Christie & Manson’s with the rest

of the Hope collection of precious stones.

The Russian Pearl, 1840.

“Sometime before I went to Moscow,” observes
the traveller, J. G. Kohl, in his work on Russia,
“theré died in a convent, whither he had retreated
after the manner of the wealthy pious ones of his
nation, ‘a rich merchant, whose house had large
establishments in Moscow, Constantinople, and
Alexandria, and extensive connexions throughout
the East. Feeling the approach of age, he had by

degrees given up the toils of business to his sons.

‘ His wife was dead and the only beloved object, which

even in the cloister, was not divided from him, was
one large, beautiful Oriental Pear’, This precious
object had been purchased for him by some Persian
or Arabian friend at a high price, and enchanted by
its water, magnificent size and colour, its perfect
shape and lustre, he would never part- with it,
however enormous the sum offered for it. Perhaps
in the contemplation of its peerless beauty, as it
lay before him in his leisure hours, he recalled the
events of his early life, and the glories of the East,
as he had formerly beheld them with his own eyes.
He fairly worshipped the costly globule. He himself

inhabited an ordinary cell in the convent; but this

204 Pearls.

object of his love was bedded on silk in a golden
casket. It was shown to few; many favorable
circumstances and powerful recommendations were
necessary to obtain such a favor. One of my
Moscow friends who had succeeded in introducing
himself, and had received a promise that he should
behold the Pearl of Pearls, informed me of ‘the
style and manner of the ceremony. On the appointed
day he went with his friends to the convent, and
found the old man awaiting his cuests at a splendidly
covered breakfast, in his holiday clothes. Their
reception had something of solemnity about it. The.
old man afterwards went into his cell and brought
out the casket in its rich covering. He first spread
a piece of white satin on the table, and then un-
locking the casket, let the precious Pearl roll out
before the enchanted eyes of the spectators. No one
dared to touch it, but all burst into acclamations, and
the old man’s eyes gleamed like his Pearl. It was,
after a short time, carried back to its hiding-place.
During his last illness, the old humourist never let
his Pearl out of his hand, and after his death it was
with difficulty taken from his stiffened fingers. It

found its way afterwards to the Imperial Treasury.”

The Paris Pearls, 1878.
‘It may be doubted whether any of the famous

Pearls of antiquity were equal in beauty, perfection,

Famous Pearls. 295

and rarity to the marvellous pair, weighing 227

grains, exhibited in the French Exhibition of 1878.

One of these Pearls, weighing in its then con-
dition 116 grains, was purchased by the author in
1877, of a private customer, and sold to one of our
leading London merchants who, with great skill re-
moved a blister that then disfigured it on one side, and
made of ita perfect Pearl of 113% grains. This gentle-
man held it for some time without being able to sell
it. In the beginning of 1878, it occurred to him, the
merchant, to suggest to Messrs. Hunt and Roskell
that it would probably match a famous Pearl of
1134 grains, sold by them to Prince Dhuleep Singh
some fifteen years previously, and that the prince
might consequently like to purchase it. It was sub-
mitted by Messrs. Hunt and Roskell to the prince,
and on being compared with his Pearl, was found
to match it exactly, and to form with it a pair pro-
bably unique in the history of such jewels. The one
weighs 113} grains, the other 1133 grains: both are
absolutely round, like a marble, perfect in whiteness
and skin, and very lustrous (orienté). The one
originally bought, having been mounted in a brooch,
and in the usual manner fastened on a peg, has a
small hole drilled on one side, but this, of course,
in no way detracts from its beauty or value; the

other, not having been mounted, was intact. Early

296 Pearls.

in 1878, Messrs. Hunt and Roskell purchased both
Pearls,—the one from Prince Dhuleep Singh, and
the other from the merchant,—and shortly after-
wards sold them back as a pair to the above-
mentioned merchant for £4,800, which was even
then much below their value, and to-day they would
be worth £10,000. They were almost immediately
__re-sold to Messrs. Bapst, jewellers, of Paris, -and
by them exhibited suspended on wires in their case
in the great Paris exhibition, 1878. There they
attracted universal attention and were pronounced
by connoisseurs to be the most extraordinary pair
of Pearls ever seen in Europe. They were sold
from the Exhibition to a private individual for

a very large sum.

Other Famous Pearls.

Among the list of monies received by’ tte
Earl of Craven as executor to Prince Ruperiewe
find mention of Mrs. Ellen Gwynne, 44,520 for

the great Pearl necklace.

In a curious and characteristic letter of Lady
Compton to her husband, apparently written at the
end of the sixteenth century, we find among other

items which she terms “reasonable,” the following

Famous Pearls. 2907

remark :—“I would have £6,000 to buy me jewels,

and £4,000 to buy me a Pearl chain or necklace.” |

In the time of James I. (1617), the chamberlain
consoles himself with the reflection, that “the choice
of Pearls and other rare jewels is not touched,
among which there is a carquenet of round and
long Pearls, rated at £40,000, in the judgment of
Lord Digby and others, the fairest that are to be

found in Christendom.”

The following is a valuation of the Pearls in

the Crown Treasury of France (1791).

A perfect white round virgin grains Value

Pearl, weighing ... ... 388—£8,000

@ pear shaped Pearls each... 214 . 12,000
ee 3 Pe together 399 2,560
6 round Pearls, together .... 7722 2,400
3 ” ” y ie (232 880
5 ” ” '. ise 4OS+5. *)-1)200
7 ” 99 i -» 46432 1,320
8 +9 i ate. (C282 960
6 bs ‘ fs ae 728
II 99 o : AP ay glee: 448

At the present day these Pearls, which doubt-
less were of the purest and finest description, would

be worth a far larger sum than the amounts named.

298 Pearls.

t is said that Napoleon I. possessed a Pearl of
about 160 grains weight, but no trace of it has

ever been found.

_ The Municipality of Florence possessed for a
long time a magnificent single row of Pearls. After
the restoration in 1849, this was borrowed by the
Grand Duchess, who having once obtained possession

of this prize, was in no hurry to return it.

The Crown Prince of Germany gave the Princess
Royal of England, on their marriage, a Pearl neck-
lace valued at 420,000, but the Pearls are not all

round, and some are darogue.

The Devonshire Cabinet contains an enormous
Pearl, of the finest lustre, but singularly mis-shapen.
This Pearl has been skilfully converted into the
body of a very graceful mermaid. It was at one
time valued-at 42,000, but at the present day,
large ill-shapen Pearls are of comparatively little
value. North-Western Australia having yielded
several examples, their value has dropped fully 75

per cent.

Among other Pearls of unusual magnitude and
beauty, mention may be made of the magnificent
Pearl of 40 grains weight, found on December 26,

1884, in the Montebello Archipelago, as narrated

Famous Pearls. 299

at p. 177. The necklace of matchless black Pearls,
belonging to the Empress Eugénie has been referred
to at p. 268; and the curious history of the pair of
fine black Pearls, weighing 77 and 67 grains, will be
found at p. 269. There are no doubt, other famous
Pearls worthy of description, and some of these we
hope to describe in a future edition of this work.
The author will always be glad to receive information
respecting any Pearls of exceptional interest, with
the view of rendering the subject, in a future edition,

as perfect as possible.

CHAPTER XVII.

THE SOUTHERN CROSS PEARL.

''To thee as thy loadstars resplendently burn,
In their clear depths of blue, with devotion I turn,
Bright Cross of the South! and beholding thee shine,.

Scarce regret the loved land of the olive and vine.”

—Myrs. Hemans.

BNHE extraordinary Pearl, or rather cluster
of Pearls, known as “The Southern

Cross,” is probably the most remark-

able production of its kind, that Nature has ever

produced. So far as is known, it occupies an

absolutely unique position in the history of Pearls.

The Southern Cross Pearl. 301

It consists of a group of nine Pearls, naturally
srown together in so regular a manner, as to

form an almost perfect Latin Cross. Seven Pearls

FIG. Il.—THE GREAT SOUTHERN CROSS PEARL.

compose the shaft, which measures an inch-and-a-
half in length, while the two arms of the cross are
formed by one Pearl on each side, almost opposite
to the second Pearl, reckoning from the top down-
wards. The component Pearls are of fine orient,
and would be of good shape were it not that by
mutual compression during growth, they have be-
come slightly flattened on their opposed sides, while
some of them, though round in front, are distorted

into drop shapes at the back.

For the following account of the discovery of
this remarkable Cross, the author is indebted to Mr.
F. H. Cheesewright, by whom the Pearl was brought

to this country :—“I learn from the Hon. Maitland

302 Pearls.

Browne,’ writes Mr. Cheesewright, under date August
7, 1886, “that the Pearl was discovered by a man
named Clark, while Pearl-fishing at Roeburn, in
Western Australia, in the schooner ‘Ethel,’ the
owner being a Roman Catholic, called ‘ Shiner
Kelly.’ When the shell was opened, Clark senior,
Shiner Kelly, and more especially young Clark,
were filled with amazement and awe. Kelly re-
garding it as some Heaven-wrought miracle, with a
certain amount of superstitious dread, buried it—
for how long it is not known. The Pearl was dis-
covered in 1874, and in 1879 the great Australian
explorer, Alexander Forrest, saw it in Roeburn, just
before he commenced his journey to Kimberley. The
Pearl has changed hands many times, and each time
it has done so, the person parting with it has madea
hundred per cent. on the price he paid for it. It is
now the property of a syndicate of gentlemen in
Western Australia, and it was at the solicitation of

these gentlemen that I was induced to bring it home.”

This extraordinary Pearl Cross was exhibited in
a prominent position in the Western Australian
Court of the Colonial and Indian Exhibition of
1886. The cluster of Pearls was set in a simple
gold mount, leaving the back of the Cross as well

as the front face perfectly free. In consideration of

The Southern Cross Pearl. 303

the unique character of the Pearl, it was valued
by the owners at 410,000; but this price is un-

reasonably high.
At first sight it might be supposed that the

component Pearls, or at least some of them, had
been artificially grouped together; and it was
natural that many visitors, who had not had the
opportunity of closely inspecting the cross, should
be disposed to entertain this opinion. Considering
the almost geometrical regularity in the grouping
of the Pearls, such an attitude of scepticism was
pardonable enough. But minute examination of the
Cross under high magnifying power is sufficient to

dispel any notion of its artificial character.

It is notable that when any natural object
of striking novelty is presented to a scientific
observer, he is, by force of training, disposed to hesi-
tate before assenting to its genuineness. This is
not the first time that Australia has puzzled our
cautious men of science by the singularity of its
native products. For instance, when the duck-
billed platypus (Oruithorhynchus paradoxicus) was
originally brought to this country, zoologists hesi-
tated to believe that so strange a creature could
be natural, and were led to conclude that a hoax
must have been perpetrated, by cunningly grafting
the bill of a duck on to the body of a small

304 Pearls.

mammal. Yet it was soon found that this para-
doxical creature was no manufactured monster, but
a veritable product of the great island-continent,—
a curious union of bird and beast, which in our
limited knowledge we might be led to regard as a

strange “freak of nature.”

In somewhat like manner, the great Southern
Cross Pearl might be regarded on a cursory view,
as having been manufactured by art, or at least
improved artificially. The author was therefore
anxious to submit it to severe scrutiny, and was
indebted for an opportunity of doing so to the
courtesy of Mr. A. F. Thompson, of the West
Australian Court. On the 29th of July, 1886, the
Cross was exhibited, with a collection of choice
diamonds and other objects of value, at 18, New
Bond Street. A large number of scientific and literary
men, with many Colonists and Indians, availed them-
selves of the invitations which had been sent to
them, to inspect this strange curiosity. In order
that the fullest opportunity might be given for a
thorough examination, the Pearl was freely handled
by the visitors; and to make the scrutiny more
severe, a powerful lime-light was projected on to the
Cross, while magnifying glasses of high power were
provided to assist in the criticism. Under these

circumstances of strong illumination and_ close

The Southern Cross Pearl. 305

examination, any artificial junction between the
Pearls, or any trace of an artificial cementing medium,
must have been detected by some of the acute critics
who handled the gem. It is satisfactory however, to
state that the Cross came out from the ordeal with-
out shadow of suspicion, and was pronounced to

be a lusus nature of unique character.

How it came about that these Pearls should
be so regularly grouped together, no one has yet
been able to explain with satisfaction. Dr. MacLarty
has suggested, with some feasibility, that a fragment
of serrated sea-weed may have gained access to
the shell, and that the succession of teeth along
the margin of the frond, may have determined the
deposition of nacre at regular intervals, so as to
form a string of Pearls running in a straight line.
Whatever may have been the determining cause,
it seems clear that it was a perfectly natural one,
in no way resembling that artificial production of
Pearls, which is practised on the fresh-water mussels
of China. The Cross was found in the oyster, just
as it was taken from its native element, without
any possibility of its having been subjected to

human manipulation.

As this remarkable cruciform group of Pearls
was found in the southern hemisphere, it has very

appropriately received the name of the Southern Cross,
41

306 Pearls.

in allusion to the famous constellation of that name.
This constellation is of course unknown, by obser-
vation, to dwellers in the northern hemisphere:
and hence a description of it may be acceptable
to the English reader. The author has therefore
applied for information to the Right Hon. the Earl
of Crawford and Balcarres, whose observations at
the Dun Echt observatory, in Aberdeenshire; are
known in every part of the world where science is
cultivated. His lordship, with characteristic courtesy,
has most obligingly favoured us with the following
interesting letter :—

CARLTON CLUB,
PaLL Matt, S.W.
24th Fune, 1886.
DEAR SIR,

As | *promised, I send you a few notes
on the constellation known as Crux Australzs, or
‘‘Southern Cross,” and I hope that they may be of

service to you.

The existence of this group of stars was not
recognized as a separate constellation by the ancients,
and they were placed by Ptolemy and ’As-Sufi,

the Arabian astronomer, as forming a foot of the

Centaur.

The Arabic globes and catalogues of stars were

known in early medieval times in Europe, and I

The Southern Cross Pearl. 307

think that there is little doubt but that Dante was
acquainted with them when he used the following

lines in the Purgatorio, canto i., lines 22-4.

‘To mi volsi a man’destra, e posi mente
Ali’altro polo, e vidi quatro stelle
Non viste mai fuor’ ch’alla prima gente.”

The last line would probably allude to the few
travellers who had gone so far to the south that the

group was seen by them.

The first notice of it in modern times occurs
in the letters of the great Florentine traveller,
Corsali, where he speaks of it as the “Croce mara-
vigliosa,” in 1515. Again, Pigafetta notices it in his
account of the voyage to South America, under the

leadership of Magellan, in 1520-22:

It was considered then to be of a good omen,
and had much mystic effect on the crew of the ship.
It was first figured as a separate constellation by
Bayer, in his atlas engraved in 1648, and is there

noted as a new constellation.

It has gained its reputation solely on account
of its form, as its component stars are small, and it
is insignificant in comparison with others in the
southern heavens. Only eight stars are visible to

the naked eye. One of these, however, though

308 Pearls.

barely visible to unaided vision, offers a most lovely
object to the telescope. It is then found to consist
of a cluster of no less than I10 stars, very small, but
of the most vivid colours. Two are ruby red, two
emerald green, three of an aquamarine tint, another
of sapphire blue, while others range from dark
orange to delicate lemon colour. Those which are
white seem to shine out more vividly from the

contrast.

It may truly be considered to form a tray of

the jeweller’s finest gems.

I enclose a little sketch of the stars, and am,
Yours faithfully,
CRAWFORD.
Mr. EDWIN W. STREETER.

CHAPTER XVIII.

ON THE VALUE OF PEARLS.

‘So pray you add my
Diamonds to her Pearls.’”—
Tennyson’s Elaine.

SIN order to shew how the value of Pearls

=

uit

has varied in this country at different

Milli

periods, the following extracts are given

from the writings of recognized authorities. It is
interesting to compare the several estimates, and
mark the rise and fall at different times within the

last two centuries.

Value of Pearls, A.D. 1671.

The following Table is extracted from “The
History of Jewels,” printed by T. N., for Hobart
Kemp, at the sign of “The Ship,” in the New
Exchange, 1671. The author, who does not give
his name says:—“One curious and intelligent in
these matters furnished me with the following rule

for the price of Pearls according to their weight.”

310 Pearls. |

A round Pearl weighing
I grain aes. wee 25 Orth 1 Crown

2 ‘grains. ‘ws. see ne Shae 4 Crowns

99 eee eee 99 9 99

3
Ais, ngs ods e 16 &
5
6

Meta Pe hgee fas on AG’ Vue
99 -) 30)5 shes

t 9? ? 49 9?
Ss Ss ee cae eS 64 i
ines. ae Mere 9 81 .
BOinn 5: an ae res 100 x
ie Se ae a ae 121 53
| edg aite sae Aye #3 144 \
BSH 2G, ae en s 169 RS
rr: age fr Sear 196 r
= ae . ae © 225 rs

EG. -i2: ao seh lacen igs 256) cit

iy ee oe ane . 289 ms
POPs ors See we ae 324 2
EQ) 5, ye oe x“ 361 Pe
20. Ve: Se, eeennc, ye 400 <
Hage Pe Rete is 441 9
de ae ae : 2 29 484 ”
A at he Misses 529 e
24 5, 2 SG ies
25 ‘ Tats ie “ 625 i
26 i , 675 ”
Ce ee ws sain pc 729 =.

On the Value of Pearls. 311

29 grains... ... 2s worth 841 Crowns
ae “ Se ei goo ”
OE Las sis: Weeks 960 55
a “ae bo 55 1,024 a

It is remarkable that this “curious and intelli-
gent” man, by the very simple method of multiplying
the number of grains by its own number, approached
nearer to the true value of the Pearl than is done, so
far as we know, in any other published table. It should
be mentioned that in the greater part of the original
table, the weights are given in carats, and that in
the above extract they have been reduced to grains,
in accordance with modern practice ; 4 grains making
one carat, and 1514 carats making one ounce, by
which weight seed Pearl and baroque Pearls are

bought by the trade.

Value of Pearls, A.D. 1753.

The next Table is extracted from a “Treatise
on Pearls,” by David Jeffries, printed at “The Rose,”
in Paternoster Row, 1753, and therefore 82 years
later than the date of the preceding Table, Although
the author gives the following value of Pearls, it is
most probable that the large ones existed only on
paper, inasmuch as not half-a-dozen fine round
Pearls of over 50 grains each come into the market

in the course of a year. The Table is, therefore, to

312 . Pearls.

a large extent, imaginary. A drop or bouton is
of considerable less value than here stated, and an

ill-shaped Pearl is of hardly any value.

£ s. d.
A 4 grain Pearl is valued at ong
” 8 ” ” 9 : tr 12 0
97 12 29 29 ” 3 12 0
» 16 9 99 ” 6.) Shoes
97 +20 29 ” ” 10), Ce ge
» 24 DD 9 aa 14. > 3) ©
” 28 9 ” ” I9 12 0
» 32 ” ” ” 25 12 Oo
Ee 36 9 re) ” 32 8 ©
29 40 99 9 99 40 1e) 0
» A4 ”? 9 * 48 8 oO
» 48 29 9 ” 57 12 0
» 52 ” ” ’ 67 12 0
99 56 yy) 99 99 73 8 o
99 60 99 99 oy) go 12)
99 64 9? re) 29 102 8 0
reO8 ” 29 ” 115 12 0
» 72 9 »” ps 127 12 0
» 76 . 59 , 144 <6 30
” 80 ” ” ” 160 0 0
9) 84 9? 99 99
po eoBs 5, , r 193 12 ©
99 92 99 99 9 211 12 eo)
99 96 7) 99 9 230 8 °)

97 100 ” 9 2) 250 90 Oo

A 104 grain Pearl is valued at

9

>

”

99

108
112
116
120
124
128
132
136
140
144
148
152
156
160
164
168
172
176
180
184
188
192
196
200
204
208

212

On the Value of Pearls.

9)

”?

3?

99

”?

9

PB)

>

?

”?

?

9)

9)

9?

>

9

9?

9

9)

?

9

”

+h)

”

795
739

774
810

846
833
g21
960
1,000
1,040
1,081

i724

12

12

I2

12

313

314

A 216 grain Pearl is valued at

4 220
99 224
3 220
pn e32
», 236
97 240
» 244
» 248

» 252

Pearls.

£
1,166
1,210
1,254
1,299
1,345
1,392
1,440
1,488
1,537
1,587

S.

8

(o/e)

I2

d+.
fo)

ie)

Value of Pearls, A.D. 1865 and 1867.

The following Tables are extracted from a work
on “Diamonds and Precious Stones,” by my prede-
cessor, Mr. Harry Emanuel.
in the two different Tables given below shew the

increase between the publication of the first edition

The values mentioned

in 1865, and that of the second in 1867.

A round Pearl of

3 grains

4
5

9?

9?

each 12/-

to

On the Value of Pearls, 215

A round Pearl of 18 grains each £30 to £40

” ” 9 20 ” ” 49 3») 59°
=) ” » 24 ” 9 60 ” 72
” ” » 30 ” ” BO." ',,' LOO

It is probable that during the whole time the
author of the preceding Table was in business—from
1845 to 1870—he did not have a dozen really fine
round Pearls of over 50 grains, pass through his
hands,

The above Table was published in 1865. The
same author gives in 1867 the following estimates—

A round Pearl of 3 grains each 18/- to 20/-

”? ? » 4 ”? ee) 28/- ”? 35/-
” ”? » 5 ”? ”? 40/- ”? 50/-
” ” ” 6 ” ” 70/- ” 80/-
” ” 3 3 ” ” 100/- 55 120/-
” oy) 9, IO ” ” Zio ” Ail
” ” », 12 ” | ” 14 5 16
”? ” » 14 ” ” 18 ” 20
” ” ” 16 ” one |) 20. 5) 3°
” ” ” 18 ” ” 3° 1» 40
” ” 97 20 ” ” 4° » 5°
” ” » 24 ” ” 60 ” 72
” ” » 30 ” ” 80 9 OO

These prices seem to-day ridiculously low. It
may interest the reader to know that the author

recently sold a fine round Pearl of a little under 30

316 Pearls.

grains, for a sum considerably higher than that

quoted in the preceding table.

Value of Pearls, AD. 1886.

The author of the present work has not attempted
to give a Table of the present value of Pearls, because
in forming an estimate, so many circumstances have
to be taken into consideration, such as the shape,

the colour, and the brilliancy of the Pearl. For

instance, a perfectly round white Pearl of 4o grains _

may realize a fancy price, while a spot or dent will
lessen the value to one-half; and if the Pearl be
a little out of the round it may fall to even one-
- fourth. A bouton of equal weight will not be worth
more than a quarter the price of a round Pearl of
equal weight; and a Pearl of pear or drop shape
only half the value of a bouton. Ear-rings of Pearl
drops are not at present in fashion, round Pearls
having taken their place, and as there is conse-
quently little or no demand for drop-shaped Pearls,
the price of such Pearls has fallen considerably.
This example sufficiently shews what a difference
in price is caused by fashion, or by any circum-
stance that detracts from the perfection of the
Pearl in either shape or quality. At the present

day black Pearls, if of the finest quality, are more
valuable than white.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PEARLS.

HE following list of Works which have been consulted
in the preparation of the present treatise may be
useful, as forming a Bibliography of the subject of Pearls.
It is not to be supposed that such a list can be complete,
for, notwithstanding the vigilance of the writer in collecting,
for many years, ail literature within his reach, bearing upon
the subject of Pearls, there are, no doubt, many writings,
especially articles scattered through various journals, that
have escaped his notice. At the same time he confidently
believes that no work of importance is omitted from the
following list.

Apams, L. E. ‘The Collector's Manual of British Land
and Freshwater Shells.” London, 1884.

AITKEN, W. G. Papier Maché Manufacture. In
Timmin’s ‘ Resources, Products and _ Industrial
History of Birmingham.” London, 1866.

BARBOT, CHARLES. “Traité complet des Pierres
Précieuses.” Paris, 1858.

BARRERA, MaDaME De. ‘Gems and Jewels.” London,
1860,

Beck, Henry J, Le. An Account of the Pearl
‘Fishery in the Gulph of Mandar in March and
April, 1797. Asiatick Researches. Vol. V., 1798,
P- 393.

318 A ppendix.

BERTRAM, J. G. “The Harvest of the Sea.” 3rd
_ Edition. London, 1873.
Bonten, J: P,. “Das Alte Indien.” Konigsberg, 1830.
BREWSTER, SIR DaAvID. “On New Properties of

Light, exhibited in the Optical Phenomena of
Mother-of-Pearl.” Philosophical Transactions, 1814.
Part LL, p: 30% ,
‘“‘ Observations on the peculiar Lustre of Pearls.”
Edinburgh Fournal of Suence. Vol. VI.,- 1827,
Pp. 277: 3
“A Treatise on Optics,” Lardner’s Cabinet
Cyclopedia. London, 1831.

BROCKENHAUS’S ““ Conversations-Lexikon.” (Article,
Perlen). 13th Edition. Leipzig, 1885.

BuRNHAM, S. M. “Precious Stones in- Nature, Art and
Literature.” Boston, 1886.

CaMDEN, WILLIAM. ‘‘Magna Britannia et Hibernia, or
a New Survey of Great Britain.” Wherein to the
Topographical account given by W. CAMDEN, is
added a more large history. 6 Vols. London,

1720—173I. 3
CARPENTER, W.B., M.D., F.RS. ‘On the Microscopic
structure of shells.” Report of the British

Association for 1844. p. I.

Crvton. “ Official Handbook and Catalogue of the
Ceylon Court.” Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 18386.

Cryton. “Recollections of Ceylon; its Forests and
Pearl Fishery. (Anonymous). /vaser’s Magazine.
Vol, -L Xie o1860,".p. 753.

CHARDIN, JEAN. ‘‘ Voyage en Perse.” 10 Vols. Paris, 1811.

Cuurcu, A. H., ma. “Precious Stones.” (South
Kensington Museum Handbooks). London, 1883.

Appendix. 319

CouTance. A Chapter, ‘La Perle” in “ Diamants
et Pierres Précieuses.” By E. JANNETTAZ, FE.
VANDERHEYM, E. FoNnTENAy and A. CoUTANCE.
Paris, 1881.

DatL, W. H. “Pearls and Pearl Fisheries.” American
Naturalist. Vol. XVII., 1883, p. 579, and p. 731.

DIEULAFAIT, Louis. ‘“Diamants et Pierres Précieuses.”
(Bibliothéque des Merveilles). Paris, 1871.

EMANUEL, Harry. ‘Diamonds and Precious Stones.”
London. st Edition, 1865; znd Edition, 1867.

GARNER, Ropert. “On the Pearls of the Conway
River, North Wales.” S&ritish Association Report
Peemoso. ob ar EL. op. 92:

GIBSON, JOHN. “Ordnance Gazetteer of Scotland.”
Edited by Francis H. GroomeE. 3 Vols., 1885.

Hacur, W. F. “On the Natural and Artificial Pro-
duction of Pearls in China.” Sournal of the Royal
assartc Society. .Vol. XVI., 1856, Part I1., Art. XV.

HERSCHEL, Sir J. F. W. “On certain Optical Pheno-
mena exhibited by Mother-of-Pearl.” <dinburgh
Philosophical Fournal. 1820. Vol. II. p. 114.

HEssLinc, Dr. THEODORE Von. “Die Perlmuscheln und
ibre Perlen, naturwissenschaftlich und_ geschicht-
lich; mit Beriicksichtigung der Perlengewidsser
Bayerns.” Leipzig, 18509.

Home, Str EverarD, Bart. ‘On the Production and
Formation of Pearls.” Philosophical Transactions.
1826. Part III.

HutcuHinson, WituiaM. “The History of the County
of Cumberland.” Carlisle, 1794.
IRVING, THEODORE. “Conquest of Florida.” London,

1835.
Jackson, J. R. “ Minerals and their Uses.” London, 1849,

320 - Appendix.

JEFFRIES, DaAvip. “A Treatise on Diamonds and
Pearls.” 2nd Edition. London, 1751.

JEFFREYS, J. Gwyn. “British Conchology.” 5 Vols.
London, 1862.

Jewets. ‘The History of Jewels, and of the Principal
Riches of the East and West. Taken from the
Relation of divers of the most famous Travellers
of our Age, attended with fair Discoveries conducing
to the knowledge of the Universe and Trade.”
Printed by T.N., for Hobart Kemp, at the sign of
“The Ship,” in the Upper Walk of the New
Exchange. 1671.

Kine, C. W. m.a. ‘The Natural History, Ancient and
Modern, of Precious Stones and Gems.” London,
1865.

Kiuce, Karu Emite. ‘ Handbuch der Edelsteinkunde.”
Leipzig, 1860.

Lawson, W. J. “History of Banking.” (Sir T. Gresham’s
Pearl). London, 1850.

Lewis, Dr. JAMEs. “On the colouring matter of

Pearl-shells.” Proceedings of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia for 1866. p. 88.

Lewis, W. ‘Experimental History of the Materia
Medica.” 4th Edition. London, 1791.

Maccowan, D. T. mp. ‘Pearls and Pearl-making in
China.” Sournal of the Society of Arts. Vol. IL,
1958, e012:

Marco Poto’s Travets. Edited by Col. H. YUL, c.B.
London, 1871.

MARKHAM, CLEMENTS R., Esq. “The Tinnevelly
Pearl Fishery.” Sournal of the Society of Arts.
Matchctarooy. “Vol. Gv... Darano:

Moesius, Karu. “Die Echten Perlen.” Hamburg, 1858.

Appendix. Tl

OUSELEY, SIR Wituiam. “Travels in the East.” 3 Vols.
London, 1819—23.

PENNANT, THomasS. “British Zoology.” 4th Edition, 1777.

PERCIVAL, ROBERT. “An Account of the Island

of Ceylon.” 2nd Edition. London, 1806. See
also Edinburgh Review. Vol. II., 1803., p. 136.

PEAT, Str Hucw.. “The Jewel House of Art and
Nature.” London, 16§3.

Puiny. ‘‘ The Historie of the World. Commonly called
The Naturall Historie of C. Plinius Secundus.”
Translated into English by PHILEMON HOLLAND,
Doctor of Physick. London, 1601.

REDDING, Sir R. “A letter from Sir ROBERT REDDING,
Jate Fellow of the R.S., concerning Pearl-Fishing
in the North of Ireland; communicated to the
Publisher by Dr. Lister, r.s.s.” Lhilosophical
Transactions, 1693. Vol. XVII, p. 659.

ROSNEL, PIERRE DE. “Le Mercure Indien, ou Le
Tresor des Indes.” Paris, 1672.

RuDLER, F. W. Article ‘ Pearl,” in “ Eacyclopedia
Britannica.” gth Edition, Vol. XVIII., 1885.

RUSCHENBERGER, W. S. W. ‘“ Voyage round the World.”
2 Vols., London, 1838.

Smamonps, PL L.,.4.R.Cs., F.S.S.. “On the Pearl, Coral,
and Amber Fisheries.” Sournal of the Society of

ivaene + VoL CAVE, - 1876) "p, 173;
‘The Commercial Products of the Sea.”
London, 1879.

SMITH, W., LL.D. “A Dictionary of the Buble.”
(Articles ‘‘ Bdellium” and ‘“ Pearls.”) London,
1860-3.

SOURINDRO MoHUN TaGoRE, Raja. ** Mani-M4la, or

a Treatise on Gems.” 2 Vols. Calcutta, 1881.
x

322 Appendix.

Spon’s ‘‘ Encyclopedia of the Industrial Arts, -Manu-
factures, and Raw Commercial Products. Edited by
CHARLES G. WARNFORD Lock. (Article ‘ Pearl.”)
London, 1882. | ;

‘TAVERNIER, JEAN Baptiste. ‘‘Les Six Voyages qui]

a fait én Turquie, en Perse et aux Indes.” 2 Vote,
Paris, 1681-82.

TrRYON, GEoRGE W. Jun. “Structural and Systematic
Conchology.’ Philadelphia, 1882.

Tyrer, P.\) F. “History of=Scotland.’ © 2nd Heine
London, 1843. (For Scotch Pearls).

UrReE’s ‘Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines.”
By R. HUNT, F.RS., and F. W. RUDLER ies
(Article “ Pearls”) 7th Edition. Londonp rege

VINCENT, WILLIAM, D.D. ‘The Commerce and Navi-
gation of the Ancients in the Indian sOccams:
2 Vols. London, 1807. (Containing a version of
the anonymous work, ‘“‘ The Periplus of the
Exythrean Sea.”) |

Watts, Henry. ‘A Dictionary of Chemistry.” Vol. 3.
(Article ‘ Mother of-Pearl.”) 1865.

WELLSTED, LizuT. J.R., F.R.s. “Travels, tay Awaiiae-
London, 1838. |

“Travels to the City of the Caliphs.” 2 Vols.
London, 1840.

WILKINSON, SiR J. GARDNER. ‘Manners and Customs
of the ancient Egyptians.” 6 Vols. London, 1840-41.

Woopwarp, S. P. “A Manual of the Mollusca.”
2nd Edition. By RatpH Tate. London, 1877.

VRIcHT, J.°S, “The Jewellery and Gilt Toy Prades:
In Timmins’ “ Resources, Products, and Industrial
History of Birmingham.” London, 1866,

PN DE Xx.

PAGE
ABRAHAM AND Sarau, Tra-
dition of a ees 32
Sooloo tradition ... 135
Acephalous molluscs rat 73
Acosta on Pearls . 229
Adams, Mr. L. E., ' qbiated 234
Agatised Pearl... see 250
Alasmodonta ae 236
Alexandria, burnt Pearls
from. 20. He. 267
American Pearl fishery 222
river Pearls ee 250
Anastasius offers reward for
lost Pearl... a 31
Anathorie ... we a 212
Anie bts eee y 212
Anne of Cleves... a 44
Anodon ... a ts 80
Anodonta ... sae ae 31
zinomia cepa : 264
Arabia, Pearl-fishing off . 215
Arabian Pearl, famous... 291
Arca Noz... : can 264
Aripu Pearl banks ee 195
Arnoldi, Henricus.., oul 246
Athenzus on Pearls 24, 35
Aurora shells 104
Aurungzeb, famous Pearl of 260
throne of ... eo 25
Australia, West, Pearl cross
from ... ode see 300
Australian Pear] fisheries... 143, 164
Avicula contorta ... oath 102
Aviculidz ... eae re 75
BaBYLONIANS wore Pearls,., 31
Bamboo, reputed origin of
Pearls from... ese 61

Bapst, Messrs., of Paris ... 296
Barbot on action of acids
on Pearls

PAGE
Baroque Pearl... +) 112
Barton, poet, quoted ase 127
Barton's buttons ,.. ope 89
Bath, Marquis of, pur-

chases black Pearl ... 268
Bauran, Dr. A. de... 250
Bavarian Pearls 249
Bayer figured the “ Shnitheen

Cross” 307
Bdellium = in 285 52
Beck, Le, quoted ... ae 187
Beckmann, quoted __.. 246
Bell Pearls na a8 51
Beri-beri ... : 173
Bible, reference to Peale

in oa th ein, eeige re
Black-edged shell ... oes 83
Black-lipped shell... lt eRe
Black Pearls ee 264
Blister Pearls a RLS
Blue-edged shell ... i 232
Bluish-black Pearls ee 278
Boars, reputed origin of

Pearls from ... a 59
Bohemian Pearls ... o 247
Bombay shell a ae 219
Boot, De, on Pearls ae 288
Boring shells ss 85, 95, 97
Boston of Sadi... ba 54
Bouton Pearls ee 121
Braganza, Catherine of,

Pear] of cas ee 290
Breeding Pearls 2es 68
Brewster, Sir D., on iride-

scence a a 87
British Pearls sas Bb 232
Brown Pearls ae = 278
Buckert quoted... we 56
Buckinghamshire, _ Pearl-

mussels of ... nas 239

Buddha, figures of... sos 119, 255

324 Index.

PAGE

Buddha, tomb of, decorated
with Pearls ... a5 25
Bullock-shell Se ie 229

Burgundy, Dukes of, jewels of 43
Byzantium, Pearls in
, ancient 4 a 4!

Czsar, Jutivs, on British

Pearls wis a+» 233, 234
California fishery ... Fe 229
Caligula, Pearls of oor 39

dissolves Pearls ... 283
Camden, quoted ... se 237
Canadian Pearls ... ap 252
Caribbean sea fishery _... 232
Carpenter, Dr., on structure

of Mother-of-Pearl ... 88
Ceylon Pearl fishery ae 136
Channel Isles, use of shell in 106
Chares on Pearls ... waa 24
Charlemagne nas oth NAS
Charles II., Queen of, re-

ceives Pearl ... BH 290
Charles V., Emperor,

Pearls of De, oa 45
Charles the Bold ... ond 43

Cheesewright, Mr. F. H.,
on the “Southern

Cross,”’ Has ee oS 301
Chemical composition gE

Mother-of-Pearl _.., 87

of Pearl ... Ba o25

China, history of Pearls in 27, 253

Chinese on Pearls... ale 62

river Pearls ee 253

Chippendall, Capt. E. C.,
21,121, 168, 176, 181, 183
Chosroes of Persia receives

tribute of Pearls i 26
Christies, Messrs., sale of

Pearls aire i. 268, 293
Clam shell... be ts 77
Cleopatra’s Pearls ie 281
Clodius dissolves Pearls ... 283

Cloth of Gold, field of ... 44

PAGE
Cloquet, Jules 250
Clouds, reputed origin oft

Pearls from ... 57
Clun, river, Pearls of — 239
Cocoa-nuts, Pearls said to

be found in ... si 62
Colonial Exhibition, Pearl

shell trophy at 106

Pearl cross at 302
Coloured Pearls 260
Columbus discovers Ameri-

can Pearls 223
Comana 226
Comangote 226
Compton, Lady bas 296
Conch shell Pearls 59,78, 272
Conchifera... ce 72
Constantinople, Pearls in

ancient 41
Conway Pearls ee ae 236, 290
Coq de Perle 112
Corsali on the Boutiecs

Cross” 307
Cortez wai bie 45
Cossack 145, 146, 162, 163
Coutance, Prof., quoted ... 108
Cragen las... 237
Cragen y duliw 236
Craven, Earl of : 296
Crawford, Earl of, on the

‘* Southern Cross ”’ 306
Cristaria 81
Crotalia aio 37
Crown of Hungary 4I
Crown Treasury of France,

Pearls in 297
Crux Australis 306
Cubagu : 225
Cumberland, Pearls of 238
Cuttle-fishes, ink of 266
Dati, Mr. W. H., quoted

229, 248, 251
Dante quoted 307
De Bauran, Dr. A, 250

Index.

PAGE
De Boot on Pearls 288
De la Vega, Garcilaso’ ... 222, 224
De Rosnel, M.P., quoted 224
De Soto, Ferdinand 224
Dendrostrea vee 53, 56
Dennys, Dr., on breeding

Pearls vm Sie 69
Devonshire Pearl ... . 298
Dew-theory of origin of

Pearls.. as 49
Dhuleep Singh, Bites

Pearls of 295
Digby, Lord, on Pearls 297
Dilium_..... 37
Dinglinger’s baroque Peads 125
Ppeas” ... cay ONY BEG
Donnan, Capt., on pices

Baberics 196
Doon, river, Pearls of 240

Drayton quoted ove 233
Dryden quoted... — 17
Dresden, Pearls at...

125
Ear SHELLS me 104
Earn, river, Pearlsof ... 240
Egypt, Pearls in ancient ... 33
Egyptian shell 221
Elenchus ... Ae 125
Elephants, reputed origin ee
Pearls from ... as 58
Elizabeth of Hungary... 41
Elizabeth, Queen, Pearls of 44, 45
Emanuel, Mr. H., on value
of Pearls 314
English Pearls 233
Epidorus ..,, 192
Erythrean sea, Pistpins ae 192
Esk, river, Pearls of 237
Eugénie, Empress, set
fashion of wearing
black Pearls ... 268
European Pearls ... 245
Fakinc Pearts 120

Famous Pearls, 279

Fateh Ali Shah

Ferdinand de Soto...

Field of Cloth of Gold

Fish, reputed origin of
Pearls from

Fizee, Sheikh

Florence, Pearls of

Fountain Pearls

France, famous Pearls of ...

Fraser’s Magazine, quoted

Frederick III., Emperor ...

Frederic 1V., Emperor

French revolution, effect on
dress ...

Fresh water Pearls

GamMBoGE PEaRLs ..
Garcilaso de la Vega
Garner, Mr. R., quoted ...

Gautama adorned with
Pearls... aoe
Geographical distribution.

of Pearl oysters

Geological history of Con-
chifera Se

German Imperial Crown ..,

Germany, Crown Prince of

Gibson, Mr. J., quoted ...

Glenanly, Lady

Gold as a colouring matter
of nacre

Gold, Field of Cloth of

Golden-edged shell

Golden Pearls

Gongibus, of Calais, sells
Pearl to Philip IV. of
Spain

Great Southern Cross

Greece,:Pearls in ancient...

Greenish-black Pearls

Gresham Pearl

Gresham, Sir T., dissolves
a Pearl

Guayaquil fishery ...

Gwydir Pearls... se

222
435

Io!

300

278
286

287
231
235

— a

326 Index.
PAGE PAGE -
Gwynne, Mrs., Pearl neck- Jerrreys, Mr. Gwyn, quoted 240 3
lace of ee atnsce 296 Jeffries on Value of Pearls 311
Jews, Pearls among ancient 32
Hacur, Mr,, quoted soe 254 Jordanus, Friar... ne 210
pidaliGtis,| "oe, ae me 104 Julius Czsar 40, 233
Hamburg, luxary in Pearls in 43 Juno’s Pearls aan aes 35
Hammer oyster ... ie 775 BO '
Hansard, Capt. are 199 KKALIPPO ... ae atts 212
Hardman, Mr., on Gold Kanghi, Chinese Emperor,
of West Australia... 163 Pearls of see ee ec:
Harris, Mr, Israel... bse 251 Kimberley gold fields . 162,068
Waynes,’ Mr. I. F.s on “© Koh-i-noor”’ Pearl~... 50
Pearling 21, 174, 176, 181, 182 Kohl, J. G., quoted as 293
on the Sooloo lan- Korowel ... eae 212
guage... cea ae 134 Kubla Khan, Pearls of ... 28
Haynes’ Shoal... rk 175 Kural vis bes 5.4) ue
Hemans, Mrs., quoted ... 144, 300
Henry VUI., Pearlsof ... 44 LAMELLIBRANCHIATA: _... 72
Hera’s Pearls sie eee 35 Landon, Miss, quoted... 279
Herrick, Robert, quoted ... 107 Lapidarium of Marbodus,
Herschel, Sir J., on iride- quoted 1-0 23; 5125 TSG ee
scence sae es 87 Laws, sumptuary ... wa 40, A@
Hessling, Dr, TF. Von |= <<. 249 Lea, Dr. Isaac . 250, 262
Hindus, Pearls among ancient 24 Le Beck, quoted ... i 187
Home, Sir E., on Pearls ... 110 Leo’s sumptuary laws... 40
Homer, quoted ... sid 35 La Pellegrina... gas 2g
Hope collection, pink La Peregrina ob a 288
Dean isyil, ler. ae 279 Lewis's Materia Medica
Hope Pearl wu Ps 291 quoted sae bi 65
Huren, quoted... ae 31 Lewis, Dr. James, quoted 261
Hungarian crown... oi Al Life of Pearlers ... ae 168
Hunt & Roskell, Messrs, Light, effect on black Pearls 265
purchase Pearls sae 295 Linnzus on Pearls ot eae
Hutchinson, quoted as 238 Lister, Dr., quoted » 2ASy Bay
Lithodomus a nei 85
Inp1A, history of Pearls in 23 Lobsters’ home... we 93
- Pearl fishery of ... 209 Lollia Paulina’s Pearls ... 37, 284
Iridescence of shells “is 39 Loss of ancient Pearls... 267
Iris ornaments _... ane 39
Irish Pearls ae Me 243 Maara-sHELLs.... = 104
Iron-stone jewellery Sra 270 Macgowan, Dr., quoted ... 254.
Irt, river, Pearls ot 237, 238 MacLarty, Dr., on the
Isidorus, of Charax,on Per- | ‘¢ Southern Cross” ... 305
sian Pearls ... CAS AR Malik Allah’s capture of
Italy, history of Pearls in... 36 Pearls as ste 26

PAGE
Malleus, black Pearls of .... 77, 270
Manaar Js 192
Mandeville, Sir },, ei Ciecentl 56
Manila, Pear|-shells in 106
shell $2, 83, 135

Mani-Mala quoted 57, 66
Marbodus quoted 23, 52, 186, 26c
Marco Polo on Pearls 28
Margarita, Isle of... 225, 226, 231
Margaritana 80, 236
Margaritaria 40
Margarites 35, 239
Margaritum 125
Marie de’ Medici, ibe of 46
Marine Pear!s : 74
Markham, Mr, Clement,

quoted 210
Martha, S., island 229
Mary, Pearls of Queen 44
Mary, Queen of Scots 45
Masengoe .. 212
Materia Medica, Pearls i in 65
Maximilian of Bavaria 46
Medes fond of Pearls 30
Medicinal qualities of Pearl 65
Meleagrina : 75
Messmates of the Peatl-

oyster... “ 92
Mexican black ma . wba, 270
Miami P earls 250
Milton, quoted 64
Mississippi mounds 223
Mithra decked with Pearls 25
Mogul, great Pearl of 290
Moni P earls 27
Monile ees ae 37
Montebellos, large Pearl .

found there ... 177
Montezuma : + 45
Moore, ‘Thomas, as 48
Moscow, famous Pear] at... 293
Mother-of-Pearl] ,.. 82
Mouquin-Tandon, M. 250
Murex attacks Pearl oysters 97
Muscles of oysters, Pearls in 111

Index.

Mytilus cygnus
Napoteon I,, Pearl of
Nassau, U.S., pink Pearls of
Nautilus Pearls
Nearchus, quoted ...
Necklaces of famous Pearls
277, 296,
Nero
North-west erated eee
Norton, Lady William
Norway, Pearls of
Nuremberg Exhibition
Oulo mounds
Pearls
Oodwoe
Orient of Pearls
Origin of Pearls, ancient
ideas on 48,
Ormers
Ormond, Dechess of
«Pair of shells,”? technical
term ...
Palestine, use of Poids in
Panama Pearl fishery
shell . 229,
use of shell in
Papier-maché :
Parasites on Pearl oysters...
Paris Exhibition, Pearls at
Partab Chund’s tribute of
Pearls
Parti-coloured Pearls
Pearling li‘
Pearls, breeding
coloured ...
embedded in shell
famous
fresh water 79,
history of ...
— marine
origin of ... 48,
virtues of ...

Pear\ shell, Australian...

328

Peeling Pearls

Peesal =

Peking, summer palace of

Pellegrina, La

Pelly, Col., on peraan fishery

Pennant, cTthamde

’ Percival, James, quoted

Percival, Robert, on Ceylon

Peregrina, La.

Periplus of the Erthyrean a

Persia, history of Pearls in

Persian Gulf Pearl fishery

Perozes, Pearl of... es

Philip II. of Spain, Pearl of

Philip FV. of Spain, Pearls of

Philippe le Bel

Philo Judzus

Phoenicians

P hysemata

Pigafetta on the “ Bauekess
Cross ”

Pilgrims’ shells

Pink Pearls

eae i

PAGE
119
212

29
291
218
244
222
188
283
192

30
213
280
288
289

Pinna, black Pearls of 77, 270, 278

Placuna Pearls
Plat, Sir Hugh
Pliny Pearl

quoted 36, 37, 49,

234, 271, 281,

Plum-coloured Pearls

Polyolbion, quoted

Pompey’s triumph

Princess Royal, Pearl neck-
lace of :

Procopius on the Pearl of
Perozes

Purple colour of shells

Purple of Cassius ...

Quebec Pear_s

Rate of eee of Pearl
shells ..

Red Pearls

Red Sea Pearl daheey

Redding, Sir R., on Irish Pearls

77, 196,

. 262;

263

100
278
219
243

Tuten

River Pearls

Roberts, Morton L.
Romans on British Pearls
Rosnel, M. P., de, quoted
Rudolf Pearl

Russian Pearl

Sabi, quoted

S. Martha island ...

St. Stephen, crown of

St. Thomas, Pearls of

Sand Pearl...

Sandius, Ch., quoted

Sarah and Abraham

Sassanian Pearl

Saxon Pearls

Saxony, Pearls forbidden in

Scales of knife handles

Schmirler, Moritz

Scientific American quoted.

Scotch Pearls ;

Scott, Sir Walter, qe

Sea-fish, fepmied formation
of Pearls by ...

Seed Pearls cia

Seifert, Mr., on Canadian
Pearls a

Seneca against luxury in
Pearls...

Sepia, nature of

Serpents, reputed origin of
Pearls by

Servilia Pearl

Shah Pearls

Shakespeare, quoted 55, as

PAGE
79, 233
25
233
224
288
293

54
227
41
341
237
245
135
30, 285
247

43

102
247
273
240

55

59
65

252

37
266

60
280
289

64, 71, 82, 213, 284

Shell-berries

Silavatorrai

Silver, possible colouring of
black Pearls by

Singh, Dhuleep,
Pearls of

Skin of Pearl

Slaney, river, Pearls in

Smoked Pearl

Prince

198, 199, 206

=S7

264

295
126
244
232

Index. 329
PAGE PAGE
Solution of Pearls... 281, 283 Turbinella, pink Pearls of 78, 276
Sooloo Archipelago 127 Turbo ‘ 104
Soto, Ferdinand de 224 Tuticorin, Pearl eee of 211
Southern Cross 306 | Tympania ... = fea 1985 TRS
Southern Cross Pearl 300 | ‘Tyrone, Pearls of .. bes 243
Southern India, Pearl fishery of 209 Tytler, quoted 240
Specific gravity of Pearl ... 125
Spencer, quoted 236 Unio 79, 80, 236
Spruel, John, quoted 241 Union, or Pearl 234
Squier and Davis on Pearls Unionidz ... a oa 79
in mounds ae 223 Univalves ... zh oe 714
Sree Pas-Sair 168, 173, 177, 184
Statistics of Australian fishery 162 | Vatueof Pearls ... 309
Strombus ... sais oe, Jey B72 Varahamihira on Pearls ... 25
Suetonius on British Pearls 233 Vega, Garcilaso de la 222
Summer Palace of Peking, Vianz, Pearl mussels in 250
Pearlsin_... wes 29 Vincent, Dr,, quoted 192

Sumptuary laws 40, 42
Tamrian Pearl fishing... 138
Talmud... re ‘a 32
Tamblegam Pearls = 195
Taprobane : 186
Tavernier on Pearls wale 25
Tay, river, Pearls of ! 240
Tennyson, Lord, quoted ... 279, 309
Testacea ... ie 73
‘Theophrastus on Beads ae $5
Thomas, St., Pearls of ... 231
Thompson, Mr. A. F. 304
Thool Fe rest oe 212
Throne of Aurumgzeb _... 25
Tinnevelly, Pearl fishery ... 210
Toad-jewel ea ei 61
Tolomecco, Temple of ... 46
Torres’ Strait fishery 164
Touch, river, mussels of ... 250
Tournaments 43, 45
Tree oysters 53, 56
Trelium ... a 7
Trench PRircdidldiep, area 55
Tréves, Diet at... ee 43
Tridacna ... “ 77
Tryon, Mr. jun., on slaased

Pearls 263

Vishnu, discovery of Pearls
attributed to... =! 23

Von Hessling, Dr, 249
WELLsTeED on Persian Gulf ©
fishery 216
on Red Sea Poul
fishing sie 219
Welsh Pearls «+ 235, 236
West Australian fishery ... 143
West Indian Pearls <. 293, 242
White shell wr ons 83
Wilson, Col., on Persian
fishery me 218
Window oysters ... 97, 196
Wood’s Zoography, ence 275
Wiirzburg tournament ... 43
Wynn, Sir R., gives Pearl
to queen of Charles II. 290
YeL.tow Pearts ... 278
Youssoupoff Pearl... é 289
Yuen-Min-Yuen, Pearls in 29
ZoocraPpuy of Wood 275

Zosima Museum, Moscow,
Pearl in ne 291
Zurich, council of ve 42

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