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PERKINS
AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
SOUTHAMPTON

0fork ftrqring for ^raatos:

A MANUAL ON

THE VARIETIES, BREEDING, AND MANAGEMENT OP
PIGS, SHEEP, HORSES, COWS, OXEN, ASSES,
MULES, AND GOATS,

AND

THE TREATMENT OE THEIR DISEASES.

DESIGNED FOR THE USE OP YOUNG FARMERS AND
AMATEURS.

By W. H. ABLETT

Author of " Farming for Pleasure and Profit," " Arboriculture for Amateurs," "English
Trees and Tree Planting.")

London :

"THE BAZAAR" OPPICE, 170, STRAND, W.C.

LONDON :

PRINTED BY ALFRED BRADLEY, 170. STRAND

$forfe Keeping for Xmefpurs,

CHAPTEE I.
PIGS.

Introductory Recommendations — Varieties of Pigs — The Chinese
Pig — The Suffolk and Norfolk — The Shropshire — The Budge-
wick — The Cheshire — The Old Sussex — The Hampshire —
The Berkshire — The Tonquin — The Essex Half-blacks and
the Essex and Hertford — The Dishley — The Old Irish —
Neapolitan, Maltese, (J-c. — Advice in Buying — Considerations
in Pig Keeping — Accommodation for Pigs, the Pig Stye —
Labour in Superintendence — Feeding — Breeding — Improve-
ment of Breeds — Descriptive Terms.

Intboductoey Eecommbndations.

Pigs, as a rule, are not animals that are profitably kept by farmers,
when the amount and value of the food they consume is taken
into account. They, of course, under any circumstances, eat
much that would be otherwise worthless of itself, and could be
put to no useful purpose, which in time gets converted into so
much good pork or bacon ; while they make a large amount of
valuable manure in the process — results that are apparent to
everybody. The difficult matter, however, is to make pigs pay
when there is no large amount of coarse, or half-spoiled food to
resort to. This, however, can be done by those who give suffi-
cient attention to the subject.

There is no art in their management, when the farmer

2 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

thrashes out a whole stack of " tail wheat," which is expressly-
devoted to these animals' delectation, the art consists in finding
these hearty eaters enough to enable them to subsist and leave
a profit to their owner. To do this successfully, much depends
upon the breed of pig selected. Some are chosen for the large
size they attain, and different breeds are held in estimation by
different people, for some point of excellence or other, which
possesses value in their eyes, with a definite object in view. The
main qualifications, however, to be regarded in the choice of a
breed with a view to their paying are that they be hardy, and
not sensitive to changes in the weather, that they will eat coarse
rough food, and fatten quickly, when it becomes desirable to fat
them, and these qualifications are to be found in the improved
Berkshire. They are very hardy and will eat almost anything ;
changes of weather affect them less than almost any other breed,
and when they are nearly ready for the butcher it takes com-
paratively very little to put them in first-rate condition for killing.
It is true the best bred ones do not attain a large size, but it
is one most suitable for porkers, and they fetch long prices from
the pork butcher ; and this ready means of disposing of them
gives the opportunity of clearing off a good deal of the stock at
times, when the supply of inexpensive food, which in ordinary
seasons can be scraped together, happens to fall short from some
cause or other ; but with good management this seldom needs
to be the case.

Experience has shown that store pigs, when kept simply as
store pigs, seldom pay between the ages of two months and twelve
months old. Of course, the price of pigs varies at times, like
everything else ; but in average years a pig at two months old
generally fetches a pound, and when a number of breeding sows
are kept, and the pigs are sold off at that age, and at that price,
a very handsome profit can be secured. Between two months and
twelve months, when the pig is growing (we are speaking now
when it is fed only upon food that costs very little), if the value
of its food is estimated at a shilling per week (the particulars of
which we will shortly allude to in detail) for the forty-two, or
forty-four weeks remaining to make up the year, the nominal

PIG KEEPING.

value of the pig would be supposed to be three pounds two or four
shillings, including the first pound, its estimated value at two
months ; but store pigs would not be worth nearly so much as
that in the condition they would then be found, from living upon
hard fare ; and therefore it would be a loss to keep them, unless
their manure was very desirable, or there was a quantity of rough
food for them that was wanted to be eaten up ; standing, therefore,
upon the simple merits of feeding, it is clearly the most paying
plan to dispose of them at the age of two months, just after the
time they have left the sow, and have become thoroughly weaned
and accustomed to the separation, when they will have attained a
certain value in the eyes of a purchaser as being fit for young
stores.

Vabieties of Pigs.

There is a very large number of different breeds of pigs, and it
would perhaps be impossible to name them all, but some species
stand boldly out, being remarkable for conspicuous features, which
we will briefly refer to.

The Chinese Pig. — Perhaps we are more indebted to Chinese
pigs than to any other variety for the improvement effected upon
the original European stock of swine. There are several kinds
comprised in this breed, but the most distinct are the white and
the black, the white being better shaped than the black. The
best are very white skinned, the hair being thin, and also white,
with short head and small ears, very thick neck, and high chine,
the head in a fat pig appearing buried in the fore part of the body.
The legs are short, and the belly nearly touches the ground.
The leading characteristic of the breed is to accumulate fat,
which causes them to be bad bacon pigs, the flesh being very
tender, so that a great improvement is effected by crossing the
pure Chinese pig with an English breed, which results in the
addition of more lean flesh.

The black, which are similar to the white in their main points,
are more prolific, and are quicker growers, and attain greater
weights than the white Chinese. It is, however, when they are
young, and eaten as porkers, that their meat is found to be

B 2

4 STOCK KEEPING FOB AMATEURS.

unrivalled in flavour ; and the breed is therefore held in high
estimation by dairymen and others who have a quantity of skim
milk to use up, which, mixed with barley meal, is the best food
that can be given to them, and, fattening quickly, they do not
take so large a quantity as many other kinds of pigs would
consume. When they attain a large size their flesh is coarse, oily,
and unpleasant, and their principal value is in their making the
best roasters.

There is also a small kind known as the " small white breed,"
which never attain a large size.

The Suffolk and Norfolk. — These are of two distinct kinds,
but they so closely resemble each other that they are invariably
spoken of as the same breed, They do not attain a large size,
but are held in good estimation in some districts, as being hardy
and prolific ; but they are useful only as porkers, and do not
turn out good bacon hogs.

The Shropshire. — This is a very large breed, and is held in high
estimation where a stock of bacon forming the principal article
of food in the shape of meat consisting of bacon is wanted for
consumption on a farm, for the great size it attains, as it turns out
enormous flitches. The change in the manner of living, how-
ever, when farm servants are now not commonly fed at their
employers' table, has caused this description to be less freely
resorted to of late years, and it is rapidly going out of fashion.

The liudgewich is another large sized animal, which is met
with chiefly on the further borders of Surrey and in Sussex, but
they do not appear to be commonly known throughout the
country. Their large size as bacon hogs causes them to be
chiefly valuable on this account, and they do not demand any
particular care and attention in rearing.

The Cheshire. — The original Cheshire pig attains to a very large
size, and is by no means a good looking animal, having a big
head, with large flapping ears, round and narrow back, and long
bony legs. Bacon made from this variety used to be commonly
met with in Manchester and the neighbouring large factory
towns, where it was largely consumed by the working population,
but the breed is now comparatively seldom met with. In old

PIG KEEPING.

times people wanted to see how large they could cause their pigs
to grow, and sacrificed quality to quantity, very often this de-
scription having been known in individual instances to attain
the weight of 12cwt.

The Old Sussex is a well shaped pig, which does not attain
a very large size. They grow freely and come to maturity early,
but possess no special points beyond those we have indicated.

The Hampshire enjoys a better reputation, perhaps, than it
really deserves, being a somewhat coarse, raw-boned animal, and
the favour in which it is held possibly may be traced to the
methods used in curing it, and to the mast which abounds in the
New Forest and other woods, where these pigs pick up a large
amount of food, just as they did in the days of the Saxon
Heptarchy. The old. stock, however, is being fast obliterated
having been crossed extensively in late years by other varieties, in
which the Berkshire has played the most prominent part.

The Berkshire we have spoken of in laudatory terms in our
introductory remarks, and although it is not commonly regarded
as a breed which attains a large size, yet it produces animals of
very great weight occasionally, which alteration in size must be
attributed to the gradual improvements which have been effected
by judicious crossing, to which the Chinese and Tonquin breeds
have mainly contributed.

The Tonquin, to which we have alluded above, often called
"Tonkey " or "Tunky," a corruption of the word "Tonquin,"
is said to have originated from a cross of small Berkshire and
Chinese pigs. They are small in size and well shaped, and as
pork they are not excelled by any other description of pig. They
are generally white in colour, thick, and compact in shape.

The Essex Half-blacks, and the Essex and Hertford.— Both
bear a very high reputation as good kinds of pigs, which are
distinguished for certain good points that are prized by many.

The Dishleys are handsome pigs, and are the type of perfec-
tion in the shape sought to be attained by pig breeders, springing
originally, it is said, also from crosses between Chinese and Berk-
shire ; they have several defects which render them objection-
able, as they ara very tender and subject to be unfavourably

STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

affected by changes of weather ; they also take a great quantity
of food to fatten properly ; the sows are bad nurses, and they
are not very prolific ; when fat, however, they are masses of
flesh, and appear to be " scarcely able to see out of their eyes
for fat," as is often commonly expressed ; being nearly the same
height, length, and thickness, their general contour being lost in
a mass of fat.

We will close our brief notice of the varieties of pigs by men-
tioning the Irish and Mediterranean breeds.

The Old Irish — In its original form the Irish breed of pigs
is a large and coarse one, ugly in shape, narrow in body, with
large ears, and very large bones. The breed, however, has been
vastly improved of late by judicious crossing with some of the
best English varieties, and Irish bacon and pork, which used
some years ago to be considered very inferior, now take rank
with the average qualities of English bacon. Great attention has
been paid to the improvement of stock in some parts of Ireland,
where the preparation of bacon for the English markets is now a
very large trade.

Neapolitan, Maltese, fyc. — In the Mediterranean countries there
are some very useful breeds of pigs to be met with, which
resemble one another very closely in their general characteristics,
the principal of which are the Neapolitan and Maltese.

Many of our English breeds are indebted to these for im-
provement ; as regards the smaller kinds, particularly the black
varieties, their delicacy of flesh and beauty of form having
been considerably improved by judicious crossing with the
Neapolitan.

They are symmetrical in shape, round and plump, small in
bone, fine snout, with longer head but shorter body than the
Chinese pig, which they resemble in many points ; but they are
rather larger in body, almost destitute of hair or bristle, and coal
black in colour. Their aptitude to fatten at an early age exceeds
that of almost any other kind of pig, while the flavour of their
meat is very superior. They are fairly prolific, good sucklers,
and may be kept so as to thrive on food of moderate quality
only.

PIG KEEPING.

' Advice on Buying.

From the foregoing the reader in search of information will
be able to gather the leading characteristics of the various kinds
of pigs mostly reared in this country, and he will have to take
into consideration, when making his first purchase, his own
position and circumstances, in relation to pig keeping— whether
he will have to sell them as fat roasters or porkers, as bacon,
or to breed for sale as store pigs.

A dairyman who does not rear calves, and has a large quantity
of skimmed milk to dispose of, would find the small breeds,
which fatten quickly, answer his purpose the best. But if the
farmer resides in the neighbourhood of the mining or manu-
facturing districts, the larger breeds will, in all probability, be
in much greater request, whilst the London market will be
the best for small kinds of pork, and these considerations must
direct the first choice of breeding stock, together with the class
of food that is likely to be produced, and general facilities of
feeding.

Success, or non-success, depends much more upon such con-
siderations than they generally obtain credit for, and many
people, instead of duly weighing them, take the first breed of
pigs that comes to hand, perhaps because somebody else has done
well with them, whose position and circumstances, relative to the
points to which we have referred, are entirely different to their
own, or perhaps for no reason at all, but that they want to keep
pigs, and think one sort will suit as well as another.

In purchasing, a young sow is preferable to an old one, less
money is generally asked for her, and the purchaser will have the
prime of her life. She should have a capacious belly and not too
great an inclination to fatten, free from natural defects, and
with at least twelve teats.

Many sows become too fat during their period of gestation,
but this may be overcome by restricting their food somewhat.
An old sow is invariably coarse about the teats, and wears an old
look, and they are sometimes, from the rough usage they have
experienced during the course of their lives, at times bad tem-

STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

pered. In the case of a young sow, with kind treatment, she
may be made very quiet by the time of farrowing, which will be
a great point in her favour. The sow should be chosen good at
the shoulders and loins, and long in body, with short legs.

In the case of the hog, the chief points insisted on by good
judges are breadth of chest, width of loin, chine, and ribs, depth
of carcase, and compactness of form, accompanied with docility
and general beauty of appearance. Head not too long, the fore-
head being narrow and convex, with fine snout, full cheeks, and
small mouth; the ears short and thin, with sharp pendulous
ends pointing forward, the tout ensemble of the head denoting
good temper and sprightliness.

The neck should be full and broad, especially on the top, where
it should join broad shoulders and broader chine; the ribs,
loin, and rump being of uniform breadth, ending in a tail not
too low nor too long, so as to be unseen at top when the animal
is fat. The back of a well-shaped hog is straight, or slightly
curved, the chest is deep, broad, and prominent, the ribs well set
and springing well from the chine, the shoulders widely extended,
the thighs inside and out should be very thick, and the belly,
when pretty fat, should nearly touch the ground, which entails
the possession of short legs. The bone must be fine and joints
small, the hair long, thin, and fine, having few bristles, and the
skin thin and supple, without looseness. The colour should
always be uniform.

The breed of the hog is of more importance than that of the
sow, as the progeny take after the male rather than the female,
and there may be reasons at times for the latter not being too
highly bred.

Considerations in Pig Keeping.

Some excellent points in the choice of pigs for breeding were
given in the Field newspaper a few years ago by Mr. Jno.
Coleman, Professor of Agriculture, Albert Veterinary College, as
well as good hints upon their management. The letter referred
to was in answer to the queries of a correspondent who sought
information upon the following points :

PIG KEEPING.

1st. What breed is best to keep ?

2nd. What might he expect to make by each sow per year,
with luck and care ?

" I will do my best to enlighten him upon these points/' says
the Professor, " premising that my views are based upon practical
experience in pig breeding.

" In deciding upon the description of animal, the pig breeder
must be influenced partly by the wants and prejudices of the
locality for which he breeds. There is in many places an
antipathy to black pigs, for instance, from a notion that the
meat is not so white and delicate, and, however suitable a black
breed might prove in other respects, it will not do to keep such,
unless we are bold enough to attempt conversion — a very slow
process. Again, in countries where the black breed prevails
white animals are not popular, being considered less hardy. "We
must, therefore, breed for our market. Further, our choice of
large, medium, or small breeds must be guided by the same rule.
If the pigs are wanted for pork, then the small breeds, either
white or black, are best, coming early to maturity, and laying on
fat rapidly. If, on the contrary, large bacon is required, as is the
case when a coarse feeding population has to be supplied, the
large breeds will be most profitable. And if there is a market
both for bacon and pork, then the medium-sized animals are
best.

" When black pigs are in favour I would recommend the Berk-
shire breed, for the following reasons. They are hardy, and will
pick up their living during the greater part of the year ; are
fairly prolific, and produce animals suitable for either pork or
bacon, the latter being noted for the large proportion of lean
flesh. Other breeds may fatten as rapidly, but none cut up
better, and few so well. There is no advantage in having high-
bred sows ; such animals are generally inferior breeders, and
especially is this the case if much forced when young. Select
average specimens of the sort with good breeding points ; such are,
length of body, straight back, rather fine head, and tapering neck,
depth fore and aft, twelve well-shaped teats, and a fair covering
of long soft hair, which indicates quality and constitution. It

10 STOCK KEEPING FOB AMATEURS.

must be borne in mind that the sows will at times have to live
hard and rough it, getting their own living in the grass or stubble,
and only be cared for as the time of farrowing approaches, and
whilst suckling ; therefore it is of great importance to select a
hardy breed, and the Berkshire are in this respect unequalled.

" "We now come to the second question, viz., the value of the
produce. This will depend upon two points — the prolific nature
of the sow, and the market price of the stores. Suppose we take
four litters from each animal, commencing with the young sow
when a year old ; we cannot estimate the average of each litter
above eight — the first is often only four or five, and is no criterion
of the breeding powers, as I have known cases when two or three
the first time, were succeeded regularly by ten or twelve. Of the
eight pigs farrowed, six on an average will be raised, and by good
management and some luck, two litters may be produced annually.
Perhaps we can hardly count on this regularly, but we may assume
it, having estimated our produce moderately. The value of the
offspring at eight weeks old will vary from 15s. to 20s. a head.
It follows, then, that we may expect a gross return per sow of
from £9 to £12 per annum. At three years old the mother,
unless she prove an extraordinary breeder, may be replaced by a
hilt, and the value of each will be about the same.

" What is the cost of keep ? This will vary according to the
resource of the farm and the management. On an arable farm,
or one consisting of arable and grass, there will always be a
certain proportion of damaged produce, decayed roots, &c, which
but for the pigs would be wasted, and upon such food a hardy
sow will, with the addition of a little wash, or merely water, keep
herself in good enough condition from the time of weaning
until within three weeks of farrowing again. Sometimes it may
be good policy to add a handful of beans to the wash ; but if
allowed range of ground this is often quite unnecessary. Therefore,
I think, we may fairly assume that during half the year the sow
supports herself, and repays us in her manner for what she
consumes. During the remainder of the year, however, it is a
very different story. We must improve her condition before
farrowing by generous diet, which shall encourage the secretion of

PIG KEEPING.

milk, and when she has farrowed, we must force on the young
litter through her by every means in our power. Giving a some-
what rough calculation, inasmuch as no exact experiments have
as yet been made on this point, I should consider that at least
3s. to 4s. per week for twenty-six weeks would be required to do
justice to the litter, and this does not include attendance, which,
with straw, may fairly be put against the manure. In round
numbers, the expense of maintenance will range from £4 to £5,
whilst the value of produce may be taken at from £9 to £12,
so that we may look for a clear profit per sow of about £5 to £7.
If this can be done, I venture to predict that your correspondent's
sows will prove the most paying sort of his live stock, and that
this is frequently realised, and often exceeded, I am convinced.

" One point of importance remains to be noticed. We must
contrive that our litters shall drop at periods when the weather
is not extreme, thus : Midsummer and Christmas are bad times ;
the beginning or middle of July, and about February will be the
best seasons, both as regards weather and requirements of the
market. The autumn litter will be fit for winter pork, whilst
the spring litter will run on, and come in for bacon the following
season. It will be impossible to always regulate the farrowing
as above, and, indeed, it may not be always desirable ; but it is
well to avoid as much as we can the dead of winter, or height
of summer, as the pig is, of all our domestic animals, most
sensitive to atmospheric influences."

Accommodation fob Pigs.

Having selected the breed of pig to be kept, the next question
that must be considered carefully is how to house him to the
best advantage. As to rear and feed pigs properly a good deal
of trouble has to be incurred, the sties should be constructed
upon such a principle as to enable the pigs to be fed quickly and
to be kept clean. The pigsty should always face the south. One
man or boy could look after a great number of pigs, if the
animals were housed in a way to save extra work. The sties
should be placed upon a slight inclination, so as to allow the

12 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

urine to drain off, and keep the animals dry, which is a great
point in pig economy. The sties should be fifteen feet long, and
seven wide, part to consist of a boarded house, or brick or stone
erection (according to the materials at command), which, while
snug and warm, yet ought to be well ventilated. A fair sized
opening should be made for egress and ingress of the pig, but
this in cold weather it will be found desirable to contract, by fit-
ting the opening with sliding boards to run in a groove. The
uncovered part should have but a low wall or railing only, of
sufficient height to keep in the pig. In this open portion the
trough is usually placed, where the pigs of one litter are gene-
rally fed indiscriminately, that is, they are allowed to feed them-
selves so ; but even in one litter it will be often found that the
pigs vary in size and strength very much, so that generally one or
two little ones get shouldered aside by the heavier ones, and
pushed away, when, with a deprecatory squeak, they will run
to try their chance at the opposite end of the trough, only to
meet the same rebuff, perhaps, from a strong pig which has
placed itself there. The anxiety and worry these little pigs
endure has 4 a very unfavourable effect upon their growth. Where
there is only a paling, and not a thick wall, all this can be
avoided, as well as the great waste of food prevented, which some-
times takes place through the pigs putting their feet in the
trough — slipping into it and by pushing it over in their haste to
get at it — by placing the trough, which should have a flap at
the top to turn over at pleasure, outside the sty, in the sides of
which are holes only large enough to admit the head of one
pig at a time. Not only waste will be avoided (for often men
can scarcely help pouring the wash, or barleymeal, or what-
ever the food may happen to be, over the heads of greedy
animals), but the troughs can be cleaned out more effectually,
and all knocking of the pigs about, which is sometimes done by an
angry man, is avoided by the adoption of this plan. In most
old-fashioned pigsties a trough is placed inside the wall of the
open portion, and the man who feeds the animals pours out
of a bucket the contents into the trough. The result of this
procedure is, as we have before stated, that the pigs, in their

PIG KEEPING.

eagerness to get the food, crowd round, and half of it is poured
over their heads, or on the ground, and wasted. This may be
obviated by having a spout carried through the wall, into which
the food can be poured, and so save the inevitable loss which
occurs through the slovenly plan we have mentioned, if the
previous one we have suggested cannot be adopted. A boiling
and baking house should be placed at the high end of the sty,
and a cesspool to receive the drainage at the other.

Some breeders have adopted for fattening hogs a form of sty
which is but little larger than the size of the pig. In these no
litter is allowed, the chewing of which is thought to be injurious
to the pig ; the floors consisting of boards, placed upon an
inclined plane, having holes in them for the water to drain off,
and these are swept out every day.

Both in the covered and uncovered divisions of the sty brick
or stone floors should be used, both sloping towards the drain, the
inside being raised a few inches higher than the outer division.

Although pigs will eat the dirtiest food with the greatest
possible apparent relish, and appear to enjoy wallowing in the
worst filth they can meet with, it is a vulgar error .to suppose
they thrive best when dirty. An occasional washing or brushing
will keep their skins in good order, and cause them to thrive
better than when neglected. The latter is easily performed, and
docile pigs enjoy the operation immensely.

Labotjb in Supeeintendins.

In properly constructed sties a good deal of labour and trouble
is to be saved, so that one good strong boy or man could attend
to a great number of pigs ; but no stock pays better for being well
looked after, and great saving is to be effected by constant atten-
tion. As we shall describe hereafter, pigs can be fed economically
on a good deal of waste stuff, often regarded as rubbish. This
is often thrown to them all at once, when sufficient pains are
taken to get it together, and they waste more than they
consume ; when, if a portion of it only were tossed over to them
occasionally, the extra labour incurred by the additional attention

14 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

would be more than compensated for in the saving effected, and
their feeding being made more constant and regular, the pigs
are contentedly employed during the whole day, and a cheerful
placid temperament is encouraged in the animals.

Feeding.

The getting together of food, either for sows or young store
pigs of the hardy breed we have indicated, can be managed
in a variety of ways that are often entirely overlooked. It is
bad policy to starve any animal, but a very small quantity of
good sound food is to be supplemented by a large amount of
refuse which the majority of farmers never are in the habit of
regarding as food of any value. When turnips are singled, and
mangolds thinned, and weeds hoed, it is generally customary to
allow them to lie on the land where they have been cut out.
These should all be collected together, and carted off to the
pigsties; they should not be thrown into them all at once, when
the pigs would eat a portion and trample down the remainder'
but they should be put down outside the sties and tossed over
several times during the course of the day, which anyone can do
when passing the sties from time to time. What they do not eat
their hoofs will convert into manure, which, although of lesser
account than manure made from richer food, yet possesses a
certain value, and is, of course, mixed with other manure which
has been made from more fertilizing matter by pigs which have
been receiving better food. Everything that can be got together
in this way should be carried to them. The mowings of lawns,
the trimmings of banks and hedges, garden refuse, all will be
found useful for this purpose. The pigs will readily eat young
nettles that may be cut from the hedges by a boy with a hook, and
the labour in performing these jobs will be amply repaid by the
result. In some parts, where acorns are plentiful, it pays well to
give a shilling a bushel to the wives and children of the labourers
for gathering them, and a large amount of sound food is got by
this course. Many people say that acorns are bad things to give
to pigs, as it hardens the flesh ; and, although it is not expedient

PIG KEEPING.

to give any large quantities of acorns to quite young pigs, they
will do no harm to old sows, or strong store pigs ; any ill effects
which might arise from this item of food would be removed by
the final course of fattening, when they are finished off at last
with barley meal, mixed with potatoes.

A large copper should always be kept going to boil up messes
of green stuff, which can be sweetened and made palatable by a
few handfuls of malt dust, pollard, or even bran ; sweepings of
corn from markets, damaged corn, or any other refuse that can be
had for a mere trifle in some places according to situation.

At certain seasons, when no green stuff is obtainable in any
quantity, hardy pigs can be kept on split mangold. The benefit
arising from giving the mangold merely split instead of being cut
up is that the pig has to masticate it, and thus properly mixes it
with his saliva, which is essential to the proper assimilation of
food.

We have spoken of economical contrivances for feeding pigs,
but pigs are commonly fed upon turnips, mangold, and potatoes
in winter, and upon grass, clover, and other trifoliated plants in
the summer, beside picking up a good deal in the fallow fields
under the supervision of a boy to prevent them from straying, or
getting into mischief.

As stated before, a copper should always be in use for boiling
any green stuff that can be got together during summer, and
roots and refuse in winter, which, mixed with a few handfuls of
pollard, will be eaten readily by them, and upon which they will
thrive, simply as store pigs of course.

Porkers, however, which are designed for the butcher at an
early age, require a better description of food, and are generally
fed upon skim milk and barley meal, the latter made into a thin
paste or even mixed with the milk. Upon this fare there can be
no question the pigs thrive remarkably well, and the very best
quality of young pork is turned out, but where calves are reared,
as we have mentioned elsewhere, the skim milk can be more
profitably employed. If the class of pig is one that fattens
easily, the cost of the barley meal can be sensibly reduced by
mixing it with boiled potatoes, upon which they will thrive, but

16 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

they must be finished off with the best possible food that can be
given.

Damaged rice can frequently be bought cheap, and has been
largely used by some people, but such food as tallow chandlers'
greaves should never be given to pigs, as it communicates a rank
taste to their flesh, which should be avoided. Malt dust, bakers'
sweepings, bean dust, the sweeping of corn markets and railway
depots, all come in for pigs when they are obtainable, and do
admirably well to mix with green and other food that is grown
upon the farm. It should always be borne in mind that pigs
thrive better upon cooked food than upon uncooked, and the
cooking, if made a matter of routine, soon ceases to be looked
upon as a troublesome operation.

Like every other animal the pig thrives best when fed with
regularity, and this should be done three times a day.

A great many diseased potatoes may sometimes be bought at
threepence and sixpence per bushel, according to their badness, and
these it will be found more advantageous to lake instead of to boil.
The operation of baking dries up the moisture, and the pigs will
eat them readily and enjoy them as much as they would do corn.
A convenient method of baking them is to build a small kiln with
a few bricks, and to lay a plate of iron on these. The potatoes
are laid on the plate, and the fire can be made from any old rub-
bish that is laying about, with a few handfuls of coal to light it
in the first place ; the ashes will be found very useful in drilling
in seeds, if carefully saved and put in a dry sheltered corner.

In feeding pigs most economically all small potatoes, carrots,
parsnips, the fallen fruit from the orchard, can with advantage
be used, as well as the haulms of potatoes, peas, or any similar
vegetable offal. Brewers' grains, if they are obtainable at a
cheap rate, are an excellent addition to all these, which, if sedu-
lously gathered together, will be found to go a long way towards
feeding the pigs.

In manufacturing businesses the very smallest savings in
material and labour are always taken into account, and a
variation of 2\ per cent, often makes all the difference between
loss and profit on a transaction. When markets are glutted, and

PIG KEEPING.

large manufacturers are unable to sell their goods at a profit, the
only rational step to take would appear, to those unacquainted
with the details of a manufacturing business, to cease manufac-
turing. But the manufacturer knows that to stop making
means to lose the hands which he has got together, and that
machinery deteriorates in value from standing idle. It is no easy
matter, therefore, to make up for all these inconveniences when
the trade turns again, and it is found more desirable to go on,
and even to sell goods at a small loss rather than stop ; and while
there is no necessity for a farmer to lose money by what he
rears, yet he may often profitably imitate the example of the
manufacturer in attention to trifling details, and effecting a saving
whenever he has the opportunity. In handsomely appointed pig
sties, where the owners pride themselves upon doing things well,
large quantities of clean fresh straw may often be seen thrown
down for the pigs. Chopped straw is a valuable article of food,
the details relating to which will be found in another place, and
litter of a much less costly nature can often easily be got together
for pigs, and answer quite as well. In some places large quantities
of leaves are obtainable; nothing forms better manure, and
instead of allowing these to blow all over the place and make it
untidy, they should be frequently swept up and stored away for
litter. When collected in small quantities they dry better, and
are less likely to heat than when a good many are got together
at once.

The writer upon one occasion had about forty pigs, which
were kept upon this economical system, which he showed to an
old friend, a Suffolk farmer. The latter laughed incredulously
when he was informed that a large portion of the food of the
pigs he saw consisted of nettles, boiled and unboiled. "I
know," said he, "that pigs will nearly keep themselves at certain
seasons upon grass, and I am in the habit of turning mine out
occasionally — but nettles ? — I never heard of such a thing ! "

To convince him, some cabbages were pulled up from the
garden, a little grass mown, and some young nettles cut out of
the hedge, and these were all thrown over into the sty together,
and the pigs picked out the nettles and eat them up first. And

18 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

why should they not ? Young nettles are often eaten as a vege-
table in some of the northern districts of the kingdom, while
" nettle tea " is frequently used as a useful spring medicine by
the labourers. But a vast amount of prejudice exists against the
use of such things, and there are many waste substances that can
often be profitably utilised in a similar manner, one of the chief
obstacles to the proper use of which is the labourers, who would,
as a rule, much sooner run to the miller, or to any stores at hand
for the pigs' food, rather than trouble themselves with such
economical contrivances ; but the attendants should be made to
follow, to the letter, the instructions which are given them.

Pigs which have kept up their growth and gradual improve-
ment upon rough, indifferent food, immediately make rapid
progress when put upon better-class provisions, and are fattened
off much quicker than when they have been accustomed to food
of richer quality, that has been supplied to them in quantities
adapted only for the condition of store pigs.

Breeding.

Those who are in the habit of buying their pigs, do not get
an uniform quality of stock, which is always desirable, and it will
be found better practice to raise one's own, which can be very
soon done, no animal of those kept on a farm in a domesticated
state being so prolific, the fecundity of the sow, and the early
maturity of her offspring, being unexampled in animal economy.

Both the boar and the sow will be in a fair condition for
breeding at the age of ten months. If used earlier, the genera-
tive powers of both will become deteriorated, the boar becoming
stunted in his growth, and prematurely wearing signs of old age,
while the sow soon becomes worn and feeble, and produces
unhealthy litters.

The period of gestation lasts about sixteen weeks, or 112 days,
and generally the months of April and October are chosen, as
nearly as possible, for mating, as the sow, if put to the boar
in the latter part of the above named months, will bring her
litter at the end of August and February respectively. In the

PIG BREEDING.

first case the young pigs will get sufficiently strong to be able
to go through the winter, and in the latter they will get strong
enough for summer grazing, when there is a good deal to be
picked up out of doors in the stubble fields, and amongst other
waste and litter of the different crops.

Some breeders aim at producing five litters of pigs in two
years, but it is too much for the sow to bear, and an average of
four litters is quite enough, as a reasonable period of rest is
necessary for the well-being of the animal, and, although the
sow will take the boar soon after farrowing, it is not expedient
to allow her to breed again so quickly.

The sow, during the time of her gestation, is allowed to run about
with other pigs, and she seldom slips her young, unless she meets
with some injury or other, or has by chance taken something in
the way of food which has disagreed with her, which at times
will happen when she has eaten too many roots. A sharp blow
across the nose, which an ill-tempered attendant may perhaps
give, will cause premature farrowing, but in the ordinary way she
can run with the others till within a week of the time of her
parturition.

She should then be put into a convenient sty, or pen, and fed
upon soft food, as wash, whey, swill, &o. ; and as the time ap-
proaches she should be carefully watched, and her bed made of
short dry straw, for, if a well strawed bed is prepared for her,
there is a danger of the little pigs being smothered, or the sow
overlooking them and lying down upon them.

After she has littered the sow should be nutritiously fed with
skimmed milk, warm wash, or whey, mixed with meal or bran,
and the young pigs should be allowed to feed with her, so that
they will learn to eat, and shift for themselves by the time they
are weaned.

They should be castrated or spayed while they are sucklers,
this operation being performed before they are six weeks old,
from a month onwards, so that they may be weaned at eight
weeks, when they will generally have recovered from the operation.

After they have been taken away from the sow, the young
pigs should be fed at least three times a day with good food of

o 2

20 STOCK KEEPING FOB AMATEURS.

a farinaceous order, mixed with milk, wash, or whey, and given
warm. In a week, or a little more afterwards, they will begin to
eat potatoes, when the warm food may be gradually discontinued
and cold feedings substituted, until they are strong enough to
rough it with the rest, if the litter comes at a time of year when
pigs are turned out, and at four or five months they become what
are termed store pigs.

Where young pigs are intended to be disposed of fat, it will
aid their fattening if they are occasionally washed, which can be
soon done by an experienced hand.

The litter falling in February, or at any period in the early
spring, will require careful attention during cold weather.

Improvement oe Breeds.

In making a selection of a sow for breeding purposes the
first consideration is usually to obtain an animal of large,
long body, that will weigh well in the scale, whose progeny
is likely to be numerous, and attain a large size. But from suc-
cessive breedings with thi3 main object in view, the home stock
may be gradually getting coarse, and under these circumstances
it will be a good plan to cross the sows with a boar of some of
the smaller varieties which possess the good points that are
required.

Boars retain their powers for many years, and where one is
used for a long time, a smaller one should be kept, as large boars
are sometimes very dangerous with small sows.

Boars should be fed off at about three years old — or a little
longer. After this time they are apt to feed slowly and be
unprofitable for the butcher. The boar should at all times be
carefully treated, especially when he begins to get older than
three years, for as they advance in age they occasionally turn
savage, especially when they have been thwarted by a sow being
taken from them. A blow from a boar's tusk has been known
to rip up the side of a sow, and he occasionally becomes a
very dangerous animal to those who are in the habit of looking
after the pigs, and on this account some breeders are in the

PIG BREEDING.

habit of sawing the tusks off. A strong cord is put in the mouth
and fastened round the upper jaw, care being taken that the cord
is placed over the tusks, so as to prevent it slipping, and the
tusks are then sawn off.

Desckiptive Tebms.

The boar is called indiscriminately by that name, or brawn, or
hog ; when castrated he becomes a gelt, or gilt, cut-pig, hog-pig,
or barrow pig. The female a sow, or open-sow, when young, as
a distinguishing term, when there is no doubt about her ultimate
disposition, and when spayed a gelt or sow-pig. In the other
stages of their growth, applied to both male and female, they are
termed store-pigs, fatting-pigs, sucking-pigs, and sucklers.

CHAPTER II.

PIGS (Continued).

Diseases of Pigs, and their Treatment — Diarrhoea — Colic, or Spasm
of the Bowels — Inflammation of the Bowels — Diseases of the
Spleen — Inflammation of the Chest and Dungs — Catarrh or
Cold — Protrusion of the Rectum — Diseases of the Urinary
Organs — Quinsy or Strangles — Phrenitis, or Inflammation oj
the Brain — Shin Diseases — Scrofula — Measles — Mange —
Rheumatism — Fattening ■■ — Feeding for Shows — Weight and
Measurement — Killing — Cutting Up — Scalding and Singeing
— Smoking — Ringing.

Diseases of Pigs and theie Tbeatment.

The diseases of pigs are not very numerous, and a good many of
these are brought on by carelessness and want of attention ;
and it is fortunate that this is the case, for the pig is a very
awkward patient to administer any curative treatment to, for in
consequence of its screaming, it is almost impossible to drench it,
as there is great risk of choking the animal if a draught is poured
down its throat while screaming.

Owing to the voracity of the pig, the digestive organs are most
commonly the seat of disease ; but as the symptoms of most
of these disorders are somewhat obscure, an attack generally
has made some little progress before it is discovered, which
causes cures in serious cases to be matters of difficulty.

Diarrhaa. — Diarrhoea is not uncommon, and should be checked
at an early stage, for if continued for long it sometimes ends in
inflammation, and becomes highly dangerous. A good remedy
will be found in the following :

Powdered opium 15grs.

Prepared chalk 4drs.

Powdered ginger ... ldr.

Peppermint water,. 4ozs.

DISEASES OF PIGS.

These quantities will be sufficient for about eight doses, one
dose to be administered twice a day while the disorder continues.
The faeces should be examined, and if found to be slimy a dose
of salts should be administered.

Colic, or Spasm of the Bowels. — This is not a very common
disorder, the symptoms being those of sudden and violent pain,
which are evidenced by the manner of the animal. Tincture of
opium, and spirit of nitrous ether combined — double the quantity
of the latter to one part of the former — should be administered
in doses according to the size of the animal, commencing with
one drachm of tincture of opium to two of spirit of nitrous ether,
in the case of a small pig ; up to eight drachms of the former and
sixteen of the latter in that of animals of the largest size, given
in warm water. If relief is not obtained from this treatment,
bleeding is resorted to.

Inflammation of the Bowels. — Inflammation of the bowels is
most frequently produced by unwholesome food, and is much
more common than colic, there being two phases of the disorder
— acute and sub-acute. In acute inflammation there is con-
siderable pain, as in colic, but without intermission, accompanied
with a good deal of fever and loss of appetite. In sub-acute
inflammation the symptoms are of a milder character.

Bleeding is usually resorted to for this disease, the vein on the
inside of the foreleg being opened, and a flow of blood allowed,
in proportion to the size of the animal, from two ounces to two
pounds.

If the vein in the inside of the foreleg cannot conveniently
be opened, the tail may be cut ; but as the object is to ensure
a copious flow of blood, a few drops merely will not be
sufficient.

Purgatives of an oily nature, such as linseed oil, should also
be administered to relax the bowels. If constipation prevails, an
injection should be used, and in addition a warm bath will be
found beneficial, which, in the case of small pigs, can be easily
given. In the milder form, from two to five grains each of
calomel and opium will be found efficacious.

In constipation of the bowels, where there is not inflammation,

STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

linseed oil will be. found a useful medicine, which the pig
will often take without any great degree of persuasion being
necessary, and of its own accord, and to it may be added a few
drops of croton oil when the constipation is very obstinate.
Epsom salts, Glauber salts, and infusion of senna, are all good
medicines to administer ; but, as they need to be given in the
form of a drench, are sometimes a little troublesome. Jalap, in
doses of from one scruple to a drachm, accompanied with six to
twelve grains of scammony, will be found more convenient.

Diseases of the Spleen. — There are several diseases of the spleen
which are dangerous, particularly rupture (which, strictly speak-
ing, is not a disease) and inflammation — rupture is fatal, and
inflammation very dangerous. The symptoms are obscure, but
they are generally indicated by vomiting, coughing, foaming at
the mouth, and grinding of the teeth.

Bleeding and purging is the course of treatment resorted to,
though the chances of a cure are extremely problematical.

Inflammation of the Chest and Lungs. — This disorder is commonly
brought on by neglect, and is often caused by the wet and
unsuitable places in which the animal is lodged.

The disease assumes both the form of pleurisy, which is
attended with pain, and of bronchitis, with cough and phlegm.
Bleeding in both cases is resorted to, though it is more impera-
tively demanded in the case of pleurisy.

The presence of either disease is indicated by quick breathing,
fever, and loss of appetite. As well as bleeding, the bowels should
be moderately well opened, but the animal not too much purged,
and the following administered once a day :

Calomel 1 to Sgrs.

Tartarised antimony 1 to 3grs.

Nitre 5 to 20grs.

After one or two doses, the calomel may be omitted, and if the
disease is well defined, blisters can be applied to the chest.

Catarrh or Cold. — Colds arise in the same way, and are
produced by the same causes, as with other animals, the principal
symptoms being a cough, and discharge from the nostrils. With
good warm housing and care, the animal soon recovers, but, in

DISEASES OF PIGS.

severe cases it is necessary to give medicine, of which the
following will be found a suitable description :

which should be administered several days in succession.

If the disorder extends to the lungs and becomes bronchitis,
the case gets more serious, and the animal needs to be bled. A
stimulant should also be rubbed on the brisket.

Protrusion of the Rectum. — Young pigs are rather frequently
attacked with this disease, which often ends fatally. Those which
are kept in towns, and whose food chiefly consists of strong
animal substances, abounding with gelatine, and not so well
tempered with vegetable compounds as that which forms the
food of country-bred pigs, are most subject to it. It is, however,
sometimes produced by violence. The best treatment is to keep
the subject clean and quiet, and not allow it to have any other food
but a little milk, so that the bowels may be tolerably empty
before the gut is returned to its place. The pig being firmly
held in position, the parts should be washed, and the rectum
returned and pushed up some little distance. Some strong thread
doubled several times, should then be passed through the anus
and tied with a knot, and the animal kept on milk for some days,
no solid food being given to it.

Diseases of the Urinary Organs. — The pig is seldom subject to
diseases of the urinary organs. Inflammation of the kidneys is
somewhat uncommon, but when it does occur, bleeding is often
resorted to, aperient medicines should be given and a warm bath.
Inflammation of the bladder requires to be treated in the same
manner, while a dose of opium in addition will assist in allaying
the irritation.

Quinsy, or Strangles. — Fat hogs are the most subject to this
disorder, which, if not relieved, ends very often in suffocation, to
which it owes its latter name. The throat swells up, the breath-
ing is rapid, and the pulse accelerated, while the tongue is
covered with saliva, and gangrene follows. Immediate treatment
is called for, and bleeding and purgative medicines of a cooling

Antimonial powder ...

Nitre

Digitalis ... „

... 2 to 6grs.
... 10 to SOgrs.
... 1 to 2grs.

26 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

nature resorted to. The swelling may be reduced by puncturing
it, or by the application of a seton.

The Epidemic. — Pigs are likewise subject to "the epidemic," as
it is termed in other animals, and often proves very troublesome,
the local symptoms being lameness in the feet, arising from
soreness between the toes, and inflammation of the parts which
connect the bone with the horn. Pus is thus formed, and the
hoof cast, while fever prevails in the system. Epsom salts should
be administered and an astringent, consisting of a saturated solu-
tion of sulphate of copper or zinc, or the preparation which is
commonly used for foot rot in sheep applied to the feet.

Phrenitis, or Inflammation of the Brain. — This disorder, which
occasionally attacks pigs, is indicated by dullness, and sometimes
even by blindness, and at times violent convulsions. Bleeding
and purgatives are the most suitable remedies.

Shin Diseases. — Pigs are rather subject to diseases of the
skin, which often arise from high feeding. A cooling lotion may
with advantage be used. A good application is formed of the
following :

Muriate of ammonia 4drs.

Acetic acid loz.

Cold water 1 pint

Scrofula. -^Scrofulous diseases mostly occur with animals that
are very finely bred, or too much bred in-and-in. There is no
cure for this, and the only way to prevent it is by changing the
boar occasionally. Tubercles are found in the lungs, and in the
mesentery, which last interferes with the absorption of the chyle,
which ultimately causes the animal to dwindle away and die.

Measles. — Measly pork is sometimes heard of, the disease
known by this designation in swine having its seat beneath the
skin, where are found a number of small watery pustules, of a
reddish colour. There is also fever, cough, discharge from the
nostrils, and pustules under the tongue. It generally yields to
cooling medicine, such as Epsom salts and nitre, and attention to
feeding, and is very seldom fatal.

Leprosy is a formidable skin disease, but it is very rarely heard
of in this country.

Mange. — Mange is occasionally met with in pigs, but much

FATTENING PIGS.

less frequently than with cattle, horses, and sheep. It is, how-
ever, sometimes seen, being characterised by itching and the
usual symptoms. A local application is the best treatment,
such as the use of tobacco water, sulphur ointment, or mercurial
ointment, well rubbed into the skin.
Small-pox is extremely rare with pigs.

Rheumatism. — Pigs are very often troubled with rheumatism,
which is generally produced by exposure to cold, and by damp
sties or bedding, which attention and good housing mostly prevents.
From two to five grains of colchicum, repeated daily for three or
four days, is the best treatment to resort to.

As may be seen from the foregoing, due attention to the wants
and comforts of the animals are the best safeguards against
disease in pigs.

Fattening.

Fattening being often a special transaction by itself, we have
not included it under the head of ordinary feeding ; many
breeders, not fattening their hogs, disposing of their pigs either
while young or in store condition.

Fattening is the most important part of the business of pig
keeping, as the profit hinges upon the rapid and satisfactory way
in which this can be done. The almost universal method of
fattening pigs is with barley meal, mixed with water into rather
a thin paste, and given three times a day. Nothing can be
better, as they are pushed on fast by it, and the meat produced
is very fine, but the great cost is against it.

The enormous quantity of food that is sometimes given to hogs
when it is designed to make them fat, is almost beyond belief to
those who have studied this part of the business under its most
economical aspects, and it then becomes no wonder that the
question is often raised whether pigs can be made to pay.

It is commonly estimated that porkers will consume, while
fattening, from two to three pecks of corn food. If a large full
sized hog, he is supposed to consume from one and a half to two,
or even two and a half bushels per week ; the calculation being
that his weight will increase at the rate of 91b. or 101b. per

28 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

bushel — roughly speaking, if of the size of fifty stone ; and one
which fats with tolerable readiness, may probably gain in
weight at the rate of two stone per week. About six sacks of
barley, and one of peas, are supposed to be necessary to fatten a
hog of sixty or seventy stone. This is only supposed to be a
moderate calculation, for in the case of those hungry breeds of
pigs which take a large amount of food to fatten, the consumption
will be considerably greater.

Pigs, however, of a kindly sort, which have been brought up
from their infancy upon rough fare, will fatten very rapidly, and
the cost of their fattening can be lessened considerably by mixing
boiled potatoes with their barley-meal at first, or pollard, to
reduce its cost, merely finishing up with barley-meal alone. A
large hog of the improved Berkshire breed has been thoroughly
fattened upon two sacks only of barley meal, which has been
eked out by the aids mentioned.

When the pig's consumption of food begins to fall off, he will
not pay for any further feeding, and ought then to be disposed
of. The mention of potatoes reminds us that when food of a
heating nature has been given, such as beans, an eruption will
sometimes make its appearance upon the ears, and this will get
removed by a mixture of potatoes with rather more salt than is
generally given, pigs needing a certain portion of salt in all their
food. Some persons find it advisable to use a mixture of peas,
Indian-corn, and barley-meal, instead of barley-meal alone, which
lessens the expense when fattening.

Potatoes, indeed, have for a long time been an important
ingredient in the fattening of pigs, and when mixed with a
moderate portion of meal, forms an economical food of great
value, while bean-meal, pea-meal, Indian-corn-meal, and oatmeal
very nearly approach barley-meal in value as food for pigs.

Oatmeal mixed with skimmed milk or butter milk is said to
produce the most delicate flavoured bacon, and is extremely
nourishing.

In fattening for bacon, large pigs of good age and breed should
be preferred, and they should be at least fifteen months old to
make first rate breeders. Toung pigs require good nutritious

FEEDING PIGS.

food, while old pigs will fatten upon almost anything, when they
possess a fair amount of good lean flesh to begin upon.

Pigs fatten quickly when animal matter is given to them, such
as grease, greave cakes, &c, but it makes the flesh rank in
flavour ; and it is not advisable to let them have such kinds of
food.

At the same time a change of victual is advantageous, and a
little salt should be frequently used ; the main thing in fattening
pigs is to give the meals with the greatest regularity, and in the
sweetest and most attractive form — at least three times a day.
The pigs should have enough, but not so much as to be wasteful,
and the troughs cleaned, or, better still, washed out daily.

In hot weather some persons make a practice of throwing
water over their pigs, with the view of cooling both the pigs and
the sty.

Feeding for Shows.

Everyone knows that pigs are, when exhibited at the various
shows and Agricultural meetings, of enormous weight and fatness.
The Smithfleld Olub has a standing rule which directs all
exhibitors to state how their animals have been fed, and the chief
food used is found to be barley, bean, and pea-meal, peas, Indian-
corn-meal, potatoes, middlings, coarse flour (not the inferior barley-
meal, or pollard which passes under that name) skimmed milk,
whey, &c. Barley and pea-meal generally carries the palm as
being the choicest food, and the most effective in its operation of
fattening.

Weights and Measurement.

It is very commonly calculated by salesmen that the dead
weight of an animal is one half of that which it weighs alive.
This is a very convenient rule for the purchaser to go by, but not
an advantageous one for the seller, as, in most cases it will be
found to be nearer three-fifths than one half. A well-known
stock bailiff of considerable experience always calculated that the
dead weight was equal to that is to say, about eleven
twentieths of the live weight.

30 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

The difficulty found in correctly ascertaining weight, has led
to the measurement of live stock, and tables have been con-
structed by several ingenious persons, by which weight can be
calculated according to the animal's dimensions.

This is now always done in the case of cattle, and is con-
sidered equally applicable to every kind of animal, the process
being conducted in the following manner : The girth is taken by
passing a tape measure or cord just behind the shoulder-blade
and under the forelegs, this gives the circumference ; and the
length is taken along the back from the foremost corner of the
blade bone of the shoulder in a straight line to the hindmost
point of the rump, or to that bone of the tail which plumbs the
line with the hinder part of the bullock.

The weights stated in three tables, published by Eenton, Gary,
and M'Derment, as will be seen by the following, nearly all agree
with each other, and having been tested by animals measured
when alive, and afterwards killed and weighed, they were found
to approximate so nearly to the truth as to afford a very accurate
rale :

Eentoh's

M'Derment's

Cart's

Girth.

Length.

Table.

Gauge.

ft. in.

ft.

in.

st. lb.

St. lb.

St.

5 0

20 11

23 11

5 6

27 0

. 27

34 2

34*

G 0

38 8

, 38i

42 12

6 0

45 3

45i

. . 48

47 10

7 0

, 64

64 2

64*

69 13

70i

8 0

99 0

99|

107

106 9

107*

The tables are calculated upon the stone of 141b. avoir-
dupois, by multiplying the square of the girth by the length,
and this product by a decimal which may be assumed as nearly
•238, for the live weight. The dead weight is ascertained by
multiplying the live weight by the decimal -605 ; thus ^ will
give the product of the four quarters.

M'Derment suggests that in the case of very fat animals, one-

KILLING PIGS.

eighteenth or one-twentieth part should be added to the weight
obtained by measurement ; and below the ordinary state of fat-
ness the same proportion should be deducted ; also that old
milch cows, which have had a number of calves, should have one-
ninth or one-tenth of their weight deducted.

Oary's gauge is an instrument made in the form, and on the
principle, of a slider rule, giving the weights marked in stones of
81b. and 141b.

No one, however, who fattens hogs on a large scale, or extensive
grazier, should be without a steelyard ; for, by its constant use
while the animals are fattening, he can instantly ascertain the
state of progress of the beasts, and thus be enabled to compare
together their expense and their improvement, although this
cannot be done with accuracy unless the animal has fasted for at
least twelve hours.

Killing.

When it is intended to kill a pig, due notice should be given
to the man who feeds it, in order that the animal designed
for slaughter be kept without food for twenty-four hours, so
that the intestines are well emptied, but it should be allowed
water. The most common practice is by " sticking " in the
neck, and a pork butcher, who has had a great deal of expe-
rience, will deprive them of life almost immediately ; but many
adopt the method followed in killing oxen with the poleaxe, and
use a kind of hammer, three feet in length, with a spike about
three inches long at the head.

This is struck with a firm blow on the low part of the fore-
head, so as to immediately enter the brain, killing the pig
instantaneously. The vein in the neck is then quickly opened
by the knife, so as to allow the blood to flow out freely, which is
carefully saved, and often profitably made use of.

Scalding and Singeing.

When pigs are scalded after being killed, for the purpose of
removing the hair, they are placed upon a bench, or boards put

32 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

upon trestles, and scalding water is thrown over the carcase.
Some persons use a shallow tub — often a mashing tub — but this
process is apt to wet the carcase too much, the only object being
to take off the hair, which scrapes off readily with the knife when
effectually scalded.

In many counties, as Hampshire and Berkshire, the common
practice is to singe off the hair, which is called " swaleing,"
which is done immediately the animal is killed. The carcase is
laid on the ground on its side, and a thin covering of fresh dry
straw placed over it. This is set on fire, and renewed as often
as necessary,- care being used not to raise too fierce a flame so
as to scorch the skin. When one side is thoroughly done, it
is then turned over, and the reverse side served in the same
manner.

In the counties where this practice is followed it is considered
a far better one than scalding, which is thought to soften the
rind and injure the firmness of the fat. When thoroughly
singed, all the burnt bristles and bits of dirt and ashes accumu-
lated in the process are scraped off thoroughly dry.

Cutting Up.

Henderson recommends the following method of cutting up,
&c. : " After the carcase has hung all night, it should be
laid on its back on a strong table. The head should then be
cut off close by the ears, and the hinder feet so far below the
houghs as not to disfigure the hams, and leave room sufficient to
hang them up by ; after which the carcase is divided into equal
moieties, up the middle of the back bone, with a cleaving knife,
and, if necessary, with a hand mallet. Then cut the ham from
the side, by the second joint of the backbone — which will
appear on dividing the carcase, and dress the ham by paring a
little off the flank, or skinny part, so as to shape it with a half
round point, clearing off any top fat that may appear. The
curer will next cut off the sharp edge along the backbone with
a knife and mallet, and slice off the first ribs next the shoulder
where he will find a bloody vein, which must be taken out, for,

CUTTING UP AND CURING PIGS.

if left in, that part is apt to spoil. The corners should be
squared off when the ham is cut out.

" When this is done, give each ' flitch ' — as the sides are called
— a powdering of saltpetre, and then cover them with salt, and
let them remain in a cool place, and proceed in the same manner
with the hams. In this state they may lie about a week, after
which they should be turned and fresh salted, and in two or
three weeks longer they may be hung up to dry in the smoke
house ; but if allowed to remain for a month or two until it may
be convenient to dry them, no harm will occur, provided they be
occasionally turned."

"While the salting is being done, as much of the salt will melt,
it is expedient to place the pieces upon a sloping board, so that
the liquid may run off. They should also be carefully inspected
from time to time, and salt rubbed in with the hand on any
places which may appear to need it. While passing through the
process of salting the rind should be underneath.

Smoking. — In old-fashioned farmhouses, where wide chimneys
are to be found and wood is burned, the flitches and hams used to
be hung up to catch the smoke from the fire ; but a better plan
is — where any quantity of pigs are killed — to have a separate
smoking house, which can be made at a trifling expense out of
a few boards, as there the operation can be performed in an equal
and even manner. About seven feet high is sufficient, closed on
all sides, with merely the door for entrance, and a small hole at
the top for the smoke to pass through after having performed its
office in smoking the bacon. The flitches and hams should be
well rubbed over with bran and hung up on stout cross pieces
about three feet from the floor. They may hang as thickly as
possible, so long as they are not allowed to touch each other.
The necks of the flitches should hang downwards. The floor
should be covered with sawdust to the depth of five or six inches,
and then kindled, when it will smoulder without flame. Flitches
will be mostly cured in ten days or a fortnight ; but the hams,
being thicker, require longer time. A great number of hogs can
be smoked in this way in a very short time. In the Peninsula,
and on other parts of the Continent, where hams are cured in

34 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

an excellent manner, it is usual to make a mixture of sugar,
saltpetre, and salt, in the proportions of three pounds of salt to
one of sugar, and two ounces of saltpetre. The sugar causes the
fibres of the meat to be mellow, and removes the harsh pungency
of flavour which is often communicated to bacon and hams from
the too liberal use of salt. The "Westphalian hams are mostly
cured in this way.

Ringing.

Einging has been stigmatised as a cruel practice, but we are
unable to see how it can very well be dispensed with. The
amount of mischief pigs can do when their snouts are unrung,
by ploughing up a meadow which is soft, is something surprising
to those who have seen the grass cut up by them, where they
have made holes almost large enough to bury themselves in, as
well as forming long furrows in various directions.

To prevent this, some persons cut a slit in the nose, but, in
the first place, it is extremely doubtful whether it answers the
desired end; and, in the next, it gives the head a very ugly
appearance.

In order that the operation should be as little painful as
possible, the young pigs should be rung as soon as convenient
after they have been weaned ; it is easier for the operator, and
is altogether a less formidable transaction than when deferred
later on.

Even if they are not turned out in the fields, it will prevent
them overturning their troughs and "rooting" about their
sties, while it is the means of preventing their making an attack
upon one another, which they will do occasionally when their
hard noses are left intact.

The simplest and readiest system of ringing is to cut up some
sufficiently stout wire for the purpose into lengths about four
inches long, and push the wire — one end of which has been
sharpened — half its length through the nose. The ends are
then brought together and twisted with a pair of pliers, or
pincers, a small bit of stick being placed between the loop, so
as not to screw it up tightly enough to hurt the pig.

HINGING PIGS.

For old sows, and larger pigs a somewhat stronger ring is
required, there being several kinds in use ; and, as these want
renewing and come out occasionally, the larger animals are
obliged to have a cord placed round the upper jaw, and be tied to
a post during the operation to hold them securely, to which they
have a most decided objection.

If the wire is put too far in the flesh of the snout, it is not
unlikely to cause a complaint which is known as "the snuffles,"
causing the animal to breathe with a loud noise. A pig so
affected is said not to fatten so well, and therefore care is neces-
sary to place the wire near the tip of the nose, but having
sufficient hold of it to allow it to remain where it is placed.

This operation should never be performed upon sows that are
with young.

CHAPTEE III.
SHEEP.

Sheep Farming — Varieties of Sheep — Original Breeds of Sheep —
Short Wool— Long Wool — Shetland Sheep — Welsh Sheep —
Advice on Buying — Accommodation for Sheep Folding — Sheep-
cotes — Wintering Sheep in Fold — Yards — Respective Advan-
tages and Disadvantages of Various Accommodation — Labour
Required for Superintending Sheep — The Shepherd — The
Shepherd's Dog — Feeding — Summer and Winter Feeding —
Fattening for Market.

Sheep Fakming.

Shhep farming is found to be very profitable, when it is conducted
in a thorough and proper manner, owing to the comparatively
high price wool fetches in the market for manufacturing pur-
poses, and the value of the mutton, for which there is a constant
demand ; and the obvious course is, to have a breed of animals
which unite in their bodies wool-producing and meat-producing
qualities. There is an immense variety of different breeds of
sheep in England, so that there is not the slightest difficulty in
obtaining a race of animals precisely suited to the pasture
which may be waiting to receive them, whether it be that of
a rich, alluvial plain, or a mountainous district for animals to
pick a living from heathy herbage with which the hills may
be clothed.

The old breeds of sheep did not combine the various qualities
that are looked for in the present day — viz., plenty of wool on
their backs, weight of carcase and good quality of flesh, and
aptitude to feed.

BREEDS OF SHEEP.

Varieties op Sheep.

Original Breeds of Sheep. — The original breeds used to be
divided into two classes, termed " short wool " and "long wool."
The animals fed upon mountainous pastures were small in size,
and covered with a close but short coat of fine wool, which
earned for them the distinctive term of " short-woolled," in contra-
distinction to those fed on the rich low lands or fat marshes,
which attained larger size and greater amount of fat and flesh,
together with longer and coarser wool, which were termed "long
woolled." These were the two broad distinctions that used to be
drawn between existing species of sheep ; and what are now
termed the old-fashioned breeds, have been tabulated as under,
with the weight of wool of each, and the dead weight of the
flesh per quarter :

SHORT WOOL.

Weight

of Fleece

Dead

Weight

in the Yolk

of the Flesh

AND UNSMEABED.

pee Quarter.

lb.

to 3

1R to 20

Wilts and Chiltern horned

„ 24

14 ,

, 18

„ 3|

, 20

„ 2

8 ,

, 10

10 ,

, 12

» 24

12 ,

, 15

„ 2i

13 ,

» 16

Dean Forest and Mendip horned

„ 2

12 ,

, 14

Norfolk ditto

14 ,

, 18

„ 3

16 ,

, 20

Shropshire Morf horned

. 14

,. 2'

9 .

, 13

>, 2

8 ,

, 10

„ li

9 ,

, 12

„ 34

12 ,

, 18

» 3

... 13 ,

, 16

8 ,

„ 24

10 ,

Pure Merino, horned and polled

,. 5

15 ,

, 18

* Dorset Sheep.— The fact of the Dorset receiving the male at an earlier season
than other British sheep causes them to be used for rearing early lambs for the
London market, which are sold aboilt Christmas time and January. At Weyhill
and other fairs in Wiltshire and Hampshire, farmers resort to purchase ewes in
lamb, with the view of fattening the lambs first and the ewes afterwards. The
earliest lambs slaughtered previous to Christmas are most of them bred in the
house — hence the term "house-lamb/*

STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

LONG WOOL.

"Weight op Fleece

Dead Weisht

its the Yolk

of the Flesh

AND UNSMEAItED.

FEB C

ITJARTEK.

lb.

Barapton, Notts, polled

V to

22 to 28

8 „

Cotswold ditto

7 „

„ 34

Roinney Marsh ditto

6i „

„ 28

Dishley ditto

6 „

7 . .

„ 25

Leicester and Lincoln ditto .

8 „

„ 32

7 ,

„ 36

8* ,

7i ... ..

,, 26

The above table displays the average weight at two years to
thirty months old of both ewes and wether ; and in Cotswolds,
Leicesters, and Lincolns, were found both wool and meat ; but
their quality was so inferior as to be only saleable in the poorest
markets, such as manufacturing centres ; while the Southdown
gave the very best quality of meat with but a small weight of wool.
It was, therefore, desirable to have a cross, such as Shropshire or
the Oxfordshire, with the Down Leicester sheep, which will be
found to combine the qualities wanted.

The Shropshire sheep, as a cross, have been found very valu-
able in some of the western midland counties ; while the Oxford,
possessing characteristics of the long-wool species, are very suit-
able to the arable soils of that county, and were originally
derived from a cross of the Ootswold and Hampshire Down. They
are hardy and moderately prolific, and come to maturity early,
coming out at twelve to fourteen months old with 7lb. to 81b. of
wool, and weighing 201b. per quarter. The old Norfolk black-
faced sheep, which gave but a small yield of wool, are now
seldom seen, but traces of their breed may be easily recognised in
many cross-bred sheep that are commonly found in the eastern
counties. These traces may be identified in the qualities of
hardihood, large frame, and strength of constitution, combined
with profuse milking powers. This original stock, grafted with
Cotswold, improved Lincoln, or Leicester sheep (the latter im-
proved from the original), produces valuable animals.

There are two kinds of sheep which are generally regarded
as aboriginal races — the Shetland and Welsh sheep. The former
has some peculiar characteristics, being capable of supporting

BUYING SHEEP.

extreme cold and hunger, and in winter feed upon seaweed,
their instinct communicating to them the first ebbing of the
tide, when they may be seen leaving the hills for the sea-shore.
It is said they will eat animal food, and have been fed in seasons
of scarcity upon dried fish. The fleece is composed of an outer
coat of long hair, which is termed "scudda," which projects from
the wool and throws off the wet, being a protection bestowed
by nature against the furious storms which rage in these islands
at times, from which there is but little protection. At the
beginning of the summer the true fleece becomes detached from
the skin, and if not collected in time, rises through the hair and
falls off. To prevent the loss of the wool, at the proper time
the sheep are gathered together, and instead of being shorn, the
wool is pulled off by the hand. The wool of each sheep when
thus separated from the " scudda " weighs from one and a half
to two pounds, and forms the well-known Shetland wool, which
is used in making the fine shawls known as Sheltand shawls,
worn by ladies, and the better known Shetland hose.

There is a certain resemblance between the fine Welsh sheep
and the Shetland, though each possess distinct features. The
former have long tails reaching below the hocks, while the Shet"
land have a short, broad tail. Welsh sheep are divided into
classes, as, the sheep of the higher mountains, the soft-woolled
sheep, or sheep of the Welsh hills, and the larger species of the
low country. The latter, however, are not really Welsh, being
either the smaller kinds of English sheep, or crosses from them
upon the old stock. The soft-woolled sheep is the race which
furnishes the wool employed in making Welsh flannels, and the
mutton used to be sent largely to London, where it formerly
fetched a higher price than English mutton, but now their
relative positions are reversed.

Adyioe on Buying.

From the short sketch we have given of the different breeds
and crosses of sheep, sufficient may be gathered to guide the
intending purchaser as to the proper selection he should make

40 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

r and his choice should be mainly influenced by the character of
his pasture, or, if his land is chiefly arable, by what green crops
he can grow to the greatest advantage, so as to chime in with
his general arrangements in the best manner.

In England the breed most in repute is that between South-
down ewes and long-woolled rams. In Scotland, it is most fre-
quently considered that a cross between Cheviot, or black-faced
ewes, and Leicester rams, best suits the general routine of sheep-
farming there, and the natural circumstances appertaining to the
country. The main point, however, is, at the first start off, to
purchase a breed adapted for the situation, land, and general
capabilities of the farm.

Accommodation fob Sheep.

Folding. — The folding system answers best when a variety of
successive crops are produced, and some flock-masters recom-
mend two or three changes a day. Shepherds, however, often
object to the trouble of this. In the large folds common in
Lincolnshire a good deal of food is trodden down, and the plan
is wasteful. Some of the long-woolled sheep are bad travellers,
and experience bad effects from being driven about, and when
made to undergo much exertion suffer severely. Folding has
been approved now for a very long time, and in the '•' Survey
of Somersetshire " Mr. Billingsby says : "In a rich, fertile
country, where the quantity of arable land is small, and in mere
subserviency to the grazing system, where dung is plentiful,
and can be put in the corn field at a small expense, and where
each sheep is highly fed, it is not to be wondered that the
folding system should be held in derision and contempt ; but I
will be bold enough to repeat that in a poor, exposed, and
extensive corn farm, the soil of which is light and stony, it is
the sine qua non of good husbandry. Let me ask its opponents
whether the downs of Wilts and Dorset would wave with
luxuriant corn if folding were abolished ? No. The farmer
would plough and sow to little purpose were his fallows to
remain untrod with the feet, and unman ured by the dung and

ACCOMMODATION FOR SHEEP.

perspiration of these useful animals. Besides, in the hot summer
months, nothing is so grateful to the flock itself as fresh ploughed
ground ; and sheep will, of their own accord, retire to it when
their hunger is satisfied." Sheep farming has, indeed, of late
years, effected a wonderful revolution in some parts of England,
and has raised the annual value of the land to three times that
of its original worth.

On small farms, where the number of sheep kept is too small
to require the constant services of a shepherd, the manure may be
secured for the arable land by having a permanent fold adjoining
the farmyard, on a dry situation — the walls of the yard and build-
ings affording shelter — in which large quantities of manure will
be collected with but little trouble. The fold should be well
littered with leaves, stubble raked off land, or refuse straw.
The animals can then be attended to with comparatively little
trouble, and all driving the sheep about will be avoided, except
when it is deemed necessary to put them on the pastures. The
manure produced in this way will be found extremely valuable.
Wethers can be fattened for the market and the ewes, at lambing
time, can be provided with shelter. As many divisions as may
be wanted can easily be made with thatched hurdles, which are
most useful contrivances in the hands of a clever man, and they
are not so hot as enclosures with solid walls.

Sheep-cotes in exposed situations can also be made from these,
as well as stells intended for refuge in sudden snow storms in
mountainous districts. The latter are made in various shapes to
guard against the effects of the tempest, and for preventing the
snow from lodging within them, sometimes in the forms of the
letters T, H, or S, or circular in shape.

Wintering Sheep in Fold Yards. — Sheep are liable to foot-
rot when wintered in fold yards, which arises from the hoof
constantly growing and not receiving the wearing action to
which it is subject when the animal is in its unconfined state,
and, in consequence, it curls inwards and lameness ensues. To
prevent this, the feet should be carefully pared upon first being
put into the fold, and looked to every three weeks or so after-
wards.

42 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

It is important that there should always be sufficient litter of
some sort to keep the feet of the sheep from coming in too close
contact with the heating manure.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Accommodation.
— The advantages and disadvantages of different methods of
folding sheep stand thus : The ordinary movable fold permits
of the land being regularly manured by the sheep without any
cost beyond that of the labour incurred in moving the hurdles.
As, however, they are ordinarily pitched upon arable land the
dirt and wet are sometimes injurious to the animals, while, if
placed at a long distance from the pasture, the extra labour
incurred in the journeys prevents the stock from fattening.

The " stell " is only resorted to as a means of security and
shelter in districts which are liable to the visitation of mountain
snow-storms.

The " standing fold," which is placed in a dry spot, in the
most convenient situation, and bedded either with sand or litter,
supplies an accumulation of manure which can be applied where-
ever it is wanted, at the right time and proper season ; but, on
the other hand, the soil loses the supposed advantages of the
teathe, while the expense of mixing the compost and spreading
it on the land has to be considered.

In the case of the " cote," all the advantages and disadvantages
of the several systems are combined, with the addition of shelter,
but the cost of erecting sheds is to be considered, and if con-
stantly used, they make the sheep very tender, and their health
often suffers in consequence.

Protection from extremes of heat and cold is very necessary,
and in inclement winters, especially upon clay soils, there is an
advantage in feeding sheep under the cover of well-ventilated
sheds ; but care must be taken to prevent them from getting
over-heated, and it is sometimes found necessary to shear them
in order to prevent this.

Like the man who was the guest of the satyr in La Fontaine's
fable, who blew upon his finger ends to make them warm, and
upon his porridge to make it cool, the fleece of the sheep pos-
sessing a non-conducting property, it will keep in heat, or keep

LABOUR IN SHEEP FARMING.

it out, and excepting in extreme cases, their natural covering
is a sufficient defence against cold and wet.

In experiments made in feeding in sheds it has been found
that the sheep made a quicker relative progress daring the first
six or eight weeks of their being housed than when confined for a
longer period,a result that would seem to point to the time most
likely to be of advantage with animals nearly ready for market.

Labour Bequiked fok Superintending Sheep.

One man and a good dog can look after a great many sheep ;
but it is highly important that all who have sheep put under
their care should have acquired the duties of attending to them
whilst young, and be of kind and considerate disposition.

Persons who have not had that experience in the ways of
sheep, are, unfortunately, apt to display acts of unnecessaiy
violence and senseless anger, and knock the poor beasts about
in a cruel way. In Spain the shepherds have an excellent plan
of teaching a few wethers to obey their call and follow them, so
that the whole flock may be led anywhere with the greatest
docility.

Sheep are often supposed to be somewhat stupid and not very
teachable, but it is really not so. They can be easily made to
answer to their names, and any sheep can be taught to do this
by being rewarded with a handful of salt, or by feeding it with
the hand when a lamb.

The Shepherd. — Very much depends on the shepherd in the
success of sheep-farming, He should not only take an interest
in the animals he has to look after, but be sufficiently acquainted
and instructed in the common surgical operations, and modes of
prevention of disease attendant upon the care of a flock.

Long experience can only make him acquainted with their
habits, and in some families, where sheep are largely reared and
fed in the neighbourhood where they reside, the occupation is
hereditary.

Although there are long periods of daily leisure, when the
shepherd appears to have nothing to do, but to see his flock

44 STOCK KEEPING FOB AMATEURS.

grazing, there are often very arduous duties to perform, par-
ticularly in mountainous districts in stormy, snowy weather, and
these often have to be done at all hours of the night, for a good
servant knows the property under his care is extremely valuable
and demands constant attention.

A calm-tempered man makes the best shepherd, one who is
honest, active, and careful, and takes a real pride and interest
in his sheep. It is a good plan to allow the shepherd a certain
premium on the number of lambs reared, as this makes him an
active working partner in the business, as it were ; but it is a
very bad one to allow him to have a certain portion of the flock
to himself, on paying a portion of the expense of their feed, as is
sometimes done. The system leads to petty frauds and tempta-
tions to dishonesty, the shepherd's stock being generally the
best, and suffering from fewer casualties than the remainder.
It is unfortunate that this should be the case, but it will ever
remain so while human nature is as it is. Even with an honest
desire to do that which is fair and right, one cannot help feeling
a greater involuntary amount of interest in what is one's own
than in another's. There are many excellent employers of farm
labourers who will not allow their men to keep pigs on this
account, as they consider they give rise to a temptation to steal
the corn and other provender about the place.

It has been estimated that one experienced man solely engaged
in following the duties of a shepherd can, in the summer months,
under common grazing in pastures or clover, attend to about
800 sheep of an average flock. In the case of a breeding flock
the number would be somewhat less, but in that of a fattening
flock somewhat greater.

In the winter months he would have his hands full, to attend
to five hundred, fed upon cole seed and turnips — the sheep feed-
ing themselves, the shepherd only dragging out the hulls of the
turnips as it becomes necessary to do so ; but if the sheep are fed
wholly on turnips, four hundred would be a fair average to engage
one man's full attention. If the sheep are fed with cut turnips
in troughs (and this is the proper way of feeding them to the
best advantage), two hundred sheep are as many as one man can

LABOUR IN SHEEP FARMING.

well attend to, for, in addition to moving the hurdles, he has to
pull up the turnips, take them to the cutter, clean them, and
carry them to the troughs. If the shepherd's wages are a pound
a week, it will thus, in the winter, cost 10s. per week a hundred
to look after sheep, though cheaper labour is to be obtained in
the winter, as any ordinary labourer can cut turnips and feed the
sheep, the shepherd superintending the whole and attending to
other parts of his flock in different places on the farm.

During the summer months the shepherd lends his hand in
making hay, thatching ricks, and other jobs which he can find
time to attend to.

One experienced agriculturist estimates that when the turnips
are heaped up and covered with mould, as they are sometimes
stored, with a little straw under the mould, it takes a man and a
boy to attend to one hundred fattening sheep and do the routine
work of uncovering the heaps, top and tail the turnips, clean and
cut up the roots, fodder with hay, and perhaps corn or cake,
twice a day, and move the racks, troughs, and hurdles each day,
as may be required.

The same authority estimates that the same labour would be
adequate for attending to 250 sheep which eat the roots off the
land, the hulls to be picked up each day, hay supplied as above,
and the hurdles moved when necessary, and that one good shep-
herd can keep from 250 to 300 breeding ewes, making out all
the sheep when sold to be in fat condition.

The Shepherd's Dog. — There are two breeds of sheep dogs
commonly used, the one chiefly seen in England, with whose
sight most persons are familiar, with his cropped tail, and
the shag-haired " colley," as he is termed, in the more northern
districts of the kingdom, where there are many extensive sheep
walks.

Both breeds are generally considered on a par and of equal
sagacity, not only readily obeying the commands of their master,
but at times, when occasion demands, acting spontaneously for
the security and well-being of the flock, which renders him a
valuable acquisition, and, it is needless to say, saves the legs of
the shepherd, who soon would not have one to stand upon him-

46 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

self if he had to run after his charges upon the various occasions
when they are tempted to stray.

One fault in their education is, that in droving they are gene-
rally taught to bite the sheep, and although not in such a manner
as seriously to injure them, yet heavy ewes sometimes slip their
lambs through fright from this cause.

The dogs in Spain do not bite, and so far from being objects
of terror to the sheep, at times of impending danger, instead of
shunning them, the sheep will gather round them for protection.

Feeding.

There are two methods commonly followed of feeding sheep,
the one being to eat the roots off the field where they are
grown, if the land is dry enough to put the sheep with safety
upon it, or to cart the turnips to a bare pasture, where they are
sliced and given to the sheep. In the first method the field is
hurdled off in partitions. When the better part is eaten off, the
remainder of the roots are loosened from the soil by a gutter.
The lambs should on no account be allowed to touch clover or
turnips when the frost is on them.

The practice which used to prevail of giving breeding ewes a
large quantity of roots is pronounced to be a bad one, and it is
said that a good turnip year in Norfolk used to be followed
invariably by a bad lambing season. Straw and hay-chaff, made
palatable by a little artificial food and a moderate quantity of
roots, is considered far better management than used to prevail
under the old system.

A mixture of beans or peas, barley, wheat or oats, and palm-
nut meal, is considered to make the best mixture. Lincolnshire
sheep growers frequently give their ewes from ^lb. to lib. of
linseed cake daily during winter, considering they are repaid for
the outlay in the increased quantity of wool, value of manure, and
bealthy condition of the animal.

At times there are great losses both in ewes and lambs, which
may often be traced to wet lairs and insufficient feeding, which
plant the seeds of consumption in sheep.

FEEDING SHEEP.

The adoption of a straw yard at night, is considered a good
one. The sheep, lying warm, will not eat so much food ; and, if
kept in when the ground is frosty, and prevented from eating the
frozen grass, scouring is avoided. Baked chalk, in powder and
lumps, placed in the feeding troughs, is a good safeguard
against looseness in lambs. When lambs are allowed to range,
shelter should be provided in the form of a few thatched
hurdles properly fixed, or an old waggon half laden with
straw.

If dry food can be given to sheep in the fold — either chaff
of oat straw, pea haulm, or hay — it will be a good preventative
against their being "hoved," and wards off any tendency to
looseness ; but, whatever is given to them should be given
with regularity. Eoots should never be given till quite ripe.
When sheep are first put upon swedes, serious losses often
happen from the roots being unripe, and consequently deficient
in sugar, so that the nitrogenous matter, probably combined
in an unhealthy form, irritates the bowels. Locust beans will
stop this scour, and they are very valuable on this account ;
but it is best to avoid occasion for the remedy.

The chief object aimed at in feeding sheep is, of course, to
get them fat, and out of hand ready for the butcher as soon
as possible. The older the mutton, the finer the flavour, but
there is very little old mutton to be had nowadays. It is
said by connoisseurs that a spayed ewe kept for five years
before she is fattened, produces superior mutton to that of any
wether. Of course, it would be highly unprofitable to keep
such an animal.

In the summer time, when there is not land enough for them
to feed in a natural manner, it has become the custom to soil
them with various artificial grasses, and if they are then not
ready for market at the close of the season, they are finished
off with swedes, or hay and oilcake.

Nothing has a greater effect upon the increase of flesh than
oilcake, for if even the sheep have been fed upon turnips, lib.
of oilcake per day has been found more profitable, when pur-
chased at £8 per ton, than turnips at £i per acre.

48 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

"When turnips are drawn, it is a good plan to keep them a day
or two before they are given to the sheep, in order to allow their
watery juices to evaporate somewhat, by which means they
become more wholesome and nutritive.

With whatever roots they may be fed upon, hay or straw
should always be given to promote digestion — whether mangold,
cabbages, swedes, carrots, or parsnips, upon which their progress
will be found nearly equal. Parsnips are eminently nutritive,
and improve the flavour of the meat, but they are not nearly so
I largely employed as they might be.

Turnips are the stock feed relied upon for sheep, one ex-
perienced manager stating that he never found his flocks thrive
so fast on any food as swedes, with a little freshly thrashed
barley straw. When he gave them good green hay, instead of
straw, he found they ate more hay, and less turnips, and in
consequence did not thrive so fast ; the more turnips they
consumed in a given time, the quicker they became fat, the dry
food being only required to assist the digestive organs, and to
correct the watery properties of the turnips. Straw, being
less costly than hay, can be advantageously used for the same
purpose, it being a well ascertained fact that hay or straw
promotes digestion.

Fattening for Market. — The chief object, as mentioned before,
in feeding sheep, is to get them ready as quickly as possible for
market ; and in converting the crops of a farm into wool and
mutton, it must be ever borne in mind that, to do this in the best
and most economical manner, the animals must be so treated
that their uninterrupted progress is insured. A check in their
growth involves both a loss of time and a waste of food, and
the ultimate result is affected unfavourably.

There is a certain degree of fatness which is necessary for the
consumer, and profitable to the stock owner ; but, when carried
too far, it is injurious to the quality of the meat, without adding
to the gain of the feeder, though the increase of tallow puts
money into the pocket of the butcher.

Oilcake, if used too freely, imparts an oily softness, as well
as a yellow tinge to the fat ; and to delicate tastes, the lean is

FEEDING SHEEP.

also objectionable. The quantity of inside fat depends largely
upon the age and time of fattening, accumulating much more in
old sheep than young ones. The tallow of a wether under
ordinary management generally averages from an eighth to a
tenth of its dead weight, though animals have been known to
have had as high a proportion as one-sixth loose fat.

Oilcake, linseed, and other artificial foods of a similar nature,
are used for creating flesh quickly, often with profit, but it must
be admitted to the disadvantage of the mutton ; but many sheep
are fattened upon the rich grazing lands of the north of England,
in Ireland, and the marshes of Essex, Somerset, and Kent, where
they gradually attain a state of perfection, and this is usually
looked upon as the preferable mode of feeding, but then it is not
every kind of pasture which is capable of fattening the animals,
although it may support them in health.

Corn and pulse are considered to be the most efficient food
in fattening all cattle and giving firmness to their flesh and
tallow ; but the consideration for the grazier is to effect that
result in the most economical manner, and it is very questionable
whether grain can, in this country, be profitably given to sheep.
It can, doubtless, be used to advantage when the season has
been such as to render barley unfit for malting, and damaged
oats, together with potatoes, in the proportion of one-third of
the former to two-thirds of the latter, has been used with good
effect, but bruised oilcake is more commonly resorted to, as a
constant supply may be always reckoned upon.

A good mode of giving potatoes to sheep in the depth of
winter is to take the sheep into the foldyard, when the potatoes
are cut into slices, and placed in troughs under the shelter of the
sheds. Sheep have been found to fatten upon these very
quickly.

Of the value of chaffed straw mixed with roots too much can
scarcely be said, both in fattening as well as in the course of
ordinary feeding.

An able advocate (Mr. Coleman) for the employment of more
straw and straw-chaff on the score of economy in feeding stock,
in his prize essay on the "Management of Sheep Stock," pub-

STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

' lished in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, says:
" Hitherto farmers have supposed that a bellyful of turnips was
necessary for a breeding animal, and have based their calculations
on their stock of roots that were to be thus wasted. The past
winter has taught us to give these roots in a healthier form, eking
out the supply by a nice admixture of other food, supplied in a
palatable form. I have lately inspected a flock of Hampshire
Down ewes that did not have a root before lambing. They ran on
grass land during the day, being hurdled at night, so as to dress
and improve the pasture. Morning and night they got trough-
food, consisting of straw and hay-chaff — two-thirds of the former
and one-third of the latter — bruised oats, and palm-nut meal.
The cost of the artificial food amounted to 2|d. a head weekly.
; Not one ewe died during the winter, and I never saw animals in
a more promising state for lambing."

And, again : " The object of this essay is to point out the best
means of increasing sheep stock. Here, then, is one way. We
must make one acre of turnips keep twice as many sheep as
hitherto in a far more healthy condition. Last winter, in too
many cases, the difficulty was to find any roots at all ; but great
-and lasting good may be anticipated from the evil then felt, j
saw many flocks during the past winter living on damp chaff,
with a little artificial food, and doing as well as could be wished,
" with every prospect of a healthy produce and plenty of milk. I
have long desired to see an economical plan of pulping roots
■devised, as the animal might then be induced to eat a large
quantity of straw-chaff, rendered palatable and nutritious by a
small addition of artificial food. Nor would such a system be so
extravagant as at first it might appear. Let us assume, by way
of example, that one crop of turnips equals fifteen tons per acre,
and that, instead of 201b. per head, we give 101b. (amply sufficient),
with lib. of straw-chaff and Jib. per day each of artificial food,
.and it follows that 100 sheep will consume an acre in thirty-
three days, and 7cwt. of extra food will be spent on each acre,
besides 1^- tons of straw, so as to considerably increase our pro-
duce of corn, besides the chief object of keeping a heavier stock
■of breeding sheep in a healthy state." At one of the Eoyal Agri-

FEEDING SHEEP.

cultural Society's discussions, the same gentleman whom we have
quoted drew the attention of those present to the more econo-
mical system of feeding sheep with straw-chaff, so as to increase
the returns, and leave the land in a better condition for corn, his
recommendations being, as above stated, to reduce the quantity of
roots, and use more dry food, as straw, in combination with a
small quantity of artificial food to act as a stimulus to digestion.

A breeding ewe will consume one-fourth of its live weight of
turnips, or 201b. to 301b. per day, of which nine-tenths are
water, so that if the roots were reduced one-half, and an equiva-
lent substituted in the form of straw and condimental food, at
the same time attending to the external comfort of the animal, a
great point would be gained.

Prom personal experience, Mr. Coleman was convinced that
good straw may be economically substituted for hay in the
winter feeding of sheep, even without any artificial food, though
the cost of the latter is so slight that it can be very advan-
tageously given, and that by giving sheep partly straw fodder,
and partly roots, while feeding on the land, the value of the
manure left would be increased by more than one-half.

CHAPTEE IV.

SHEEP (Continued).

Washing — Shearing — Lice and Ticks — Marking — Markets for
Wool — Salving — Breeding — Age and Period of Gestation —
Improvement of Breeds — Age of Bams — Influence of Sire and
Bam — Flock for Breeding Purposes — Yeaning — Weaning —
Age of Sheep — Prime Mutton — Descriptive Terms.

Washing.

In order to disencumber the fleece of any coarse dirt which
may have been deposited in it, it is usual to wash the sheep
previous to shearing. The common practice for this purpose
is to form pens, or artificial pools, railed round with one rail
only, just above the water, so that the sheep may be thrust
under. A long pole, called "a poy," is employed for this
purpose. This pole has a projection of about 6in. on each
side of the end, so as to enable a man either to pull the sheep
to him or push it from him, as may be necessary.

Where there are small rivulets, 2ft. or 3ft. in depth, these are
generally chosen, with the wash-dyke pointing against the
current, so that the foul water may be kept draining from the
sheep. Or, a dam is placed in a convenient place, with a flood-
gate in the middle, by which means a pond of water may be
formed at pleasure, and let off as needful, a pen being formed
on one side for washing, and on the other a path is hurdled off
for the sheep to ascend when the washing is done.

The business is generally made a point of being got over each
day by two or three o'clock in the afternoon, so as to give the
sheep an opportunity of getting somewhat dry, and get back

WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP. 53

their natural warmth before sundown, and the approach of the
evening damp.

Some persons repeat the operation a few days afterwards with
the object of still further cleansing the fleece, but it injures the
softness of the wool.

Eunning water is generally preferred with the object stated,
but water impregnated with chalk should be avoided, as it causes
the wool to be rough and brittle. Some persons, however, prefer
a large pond, with clear, stagnant water for washing their sheep,
if there is a sound bottom, free from mud — the softness of
the water causing it to cleanse impurities from the wool more
effectually, and the oily matter, or "yolk," contained in the wool
being of a soapy nature, strengthens the wash so much that
the greater the number of sheep that are washed in such a
pond the better has been the cleansing property of the water.

Shearing.

It will be found the best plan to shear sheep early in June,
if the weather be fine ; for although this operation is often
delayed to allow the wool to get heavier, yet there is an advan-
tage found in the growing wool, which prevents the attacks of
flies, which in some particular districts are very destructive.

Lambs, at one time, used to be shorn with the sheep in
" England, and the practice is commonly followed on the continent
still, but has been discontinued in this country, the hogget wool
being found to be of superior quality to that in those instances
where the fleece had been previously clipped.

The number of sheep which can be shorn by one man in the
course of a day varies according to the size and the description of
fleece, but about fifty head of Southdowns would be the average,
and a couple of score of the larger and heavier breeds would .
be about as many as a good man could shear.

It will be found a good plan to clip off the coarest wool on the
thighs and hock about a month before shearing, as this keeps
them clean and cool in hot weather. The clippings should be
put aside and washed, when uses can be found for them. In

54 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

shearing, the art is to clip quite close without cutting the skin, as
not only is more wool obtained, but it feels softer towards the
bottom of the pile. When the skin is cut in the operation the
flies immediately settle on the wound for the purpose of depositing
their larva, which will ultimately infest the whole carcase with
maggots. This is to be prevented by smearing the cut with tur-
pentine or healing salve.

Shearing is generally done under cover, such as upon the clean
floor of a barn, but may be equally well performed in the open air.
The sheep intended to be shorn on a certain day are penned
close to the shearer, who takes each between his legs, placing the
animal upon its rump, with its back against him, holding it with
his left hand, with his right hand holding a pair of sharp
spring shears, blunted at the points, which, being without handles
he can manage with one hand, and clips the wool from the neck
and shoulders. He then turns the sheep upon its side, and
kneeling on one knee holds it down by the pressure of his leg
upon its neck, cutting the wool circularly round the body, by
which the operation is closely and uniformly executed. The
entire fleece is thus cut off at once, and rolled up firmly by
another person, with the outside folded inwards from tail to
shoulder, and tied together.

The shearing is sometimes done along instead of across the
body, when the shears moving in a level course cuts the wool
closer, and in a more even manner. In the method we have
described the shears plying in a curved direction, although it
makes the process of shearing more difficult, as well as occasioning
a greater risk of nicking the skin, is yet, however, preferred, as
giving a neater appearance to the fleece, and is the mode most
generally practised.

For shearing sheep it is very necessary to have an able and
expert workman who thoroughly understands his business. It is
highly necessary that he should be a careful man, for if he cuts
the skin the flies will so torment the animal that it cannot
thrive. Cuts must, as before stated, be smeared with a little
turpentine or any healing kind of salve to guard against the
evil effects of these accidents.

INSECTS ON AND MARKING OF SHEEP. 55

The flock should be repeatedly and carefully examined after
shearing, in order to find whether any flies have deposited their
eggs, and, if so, the tumours should be opened and rubbed with
mercurial ointment, the smallest portion of which destroys the
insect.

Lice and Ticks.

Sheep are commonly infested with lice and ticks, and a
starling or rook may often be seen on a sheep's back render-
ing him the good office of picking them out. In order to do
away with the necessity of the starlings "shepherding," a
mixture should be made consisting of 4gals. of train oil, ■J-gal.
of oil of tar, 1 pint of oil of turpentine. This should be
rubbed on every part of the animal to kill the lice and ticks.
Tobacco juice will be found equally efficacious. A clean sweep
can be made of these pests both in the lambs and sheep by
dissolving a pound of arsenic in boiling soapsuds, and then
poured into a tub with a large quantity of warm water.
This will do for about twenty lambs, in which they should be
dipped, and the water afterwards squeezed out of the wool by
hand. One dipping destroys the lice, and keeps away the fly and
maggots during the summer. It is almost unnecessary to say
that care must be taken not to allow the lambs accidently to
swallow any of the water by careless dipping. There is no shelter
for these vermin on the sheep which have been shorn, and the
entire herd will be secured from their annoyance during the
whole succeeding year.

Maeking.

Where flocks are apt to mingle, and for the purpose of
identification, it is usual to form some distinguishing mark either
on the body or head. This is generally done with ruddle (red
ochre) in preference to using black marking material, as tar, &c,
on the fleece, but the matter being an unimportant one, may be
well left to the taste or fancy of each separate individual, except
in the usual custom of marking lambs on the off and near sides
for wethers and ewes respectively.

56 STOCK KEEPING FOE AMATEURS.

Mabkets foe Wool.

The markets for wool are very abundant all over trie kingdom,
and there are few agricultural counties without a wool market
being held in one of its principal towns, and there is never any
difficulty in disposing of any amount of produce in this form.

A great uniformity of price now also prevails for wool through-
out the kingdom, on account of the rapid inter-communication
which exists through the agency of railways, so that we may say,
for example, that if the wool trade, as respects raw wool or even
yarns, may be flat in Leicester, a brisk trade amongst the cloth
manufacturers of Yorkshire would cause the staple to be actively
in demand at Bradford and Leeds, and the wool would speedily
find its way from one town to another, according to the demand.

The depression occasionally experienced in local wool markets,
so far as consumption immediately on the spot is concerned, now
has but very little effect upon the interests of the grower.

The establishment of the colonial wool sales in Ooleman-street,
London, of late years has had a very beneficial influence upon the
English wool trade, though it may seem odd that this should be
the case to an inexperienced person. The wool being of a finer
and better description than most English wool, provokes a great
deal of competition for the best lots, and these sales have been
found to give a firm tone to the wool market, in which all kinds
have participated, when perhaps from temporary dullness of
trade prices would otherwise have languished and gone down.

Salving.

In the Highlands of Scotland it is thought necessary to smear
the sheep with oil, tar, butter, and other ingredients, for the
purpose of protecting the animals from cold and the scab, for
destroying vermin which may have lodged in the fleece, and
improving the growth of the wool ; and although it stains the
latter, so as to render it unfit for receiving very bright or
delicate colours in the course of manufacturing, as the fleece

SALVING SHEEP.

is not easily cleansed, what is thus lost in price is more than
compensated for by the additions gained in its weight.

The opponents of the practice contend that its only advantage
is to destroy the vermin, though they admit that in the case of
old ewes it prevents the wool from getting coarse and hairy.'
They consider it injurious to open the wool of the animal at
the commencement of the winter season, when it needs all the
warmth of its wool, the application of the salve also causing
chill, from which it takes ten days or a fortnight to recover.

Its advocates, while admitting that this effect may be pro-
duced, argue that the method assists in guarding the sheep
against the extreme severity of the weather; and in those
instances where some of their stock were left unsmeared at the
time of shearing, at the next season the cover of wool was not
so good on them.

The operation being both disagreeable and tedious, is often
done very negligently, the salve being applied too bountifully in
some places, while others are neglected, by which not only is
there great waste, but the vermin escape, and the scab increases
on those spots which are left untouched.

Four gallons of Virginian tar, with 351b. of butter, is the
quantity usually employed for every forty-five sheep of a flock of
Cheviots, and in very mountainous districts that are much
exposed, 401b. of butter and five gallons of tar are often used to
fifty or sixty of the small black-faced breed, and if carefully
applied the quantity would be sufficient for seventy or eighty
sheep.

In applying it, the animal is placed upon a stool of a size
sufficient to contain its body either when laid across, or at full
length, with a narrow projection at one end, forming a kind of
seat, on which the operator sits astride. The wool is then parted
longitudinally into rows, without a single pile being allowed to lie
across them, so that the salve can be applied directly to the skin.
The salve, which should be of such a consistence that it can be
taken up by the finger, and yet when drawn along the skin, can
be easily rubbed off. The rows thus formed should be at equal
distances from one another, in order that the salve in the one

58 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

may reach through the bottom of the pile to the salve in the
next, so that the shin is completely covered, and every individual
pile anointed.

No portion of the salve should, however, appear on the wool
except at its roots, every other part being quite loose and clean ;
when thus carefully laid on, a thin covering will answer every
useful purpose. One man, who is accustomed to use this salve,
can operate upon a score or five-and-twenty sheep in a day.

When too heavy a coat of salve is applied to ewes, beside
the waste caused, there is the further disadvantage that in run-
ning out it causes the loose locks of wool which hang around the
udder to form themselves into tassels, about the size of a teat.
The lamb, in its first endeavours to suck, frequently lays hold of
this instead of the teat, and being disgusted with it, does not
continue its attempts to suck. To prevent this, the tags of wool
should be cut off at the time of smearing.

Some flock-masters have been in the habit of using Gallipoli
oil alone, and have found that the wool grew more freely, and was
softer when handled than the wool of sheep which had not been
smeared ; in the words of one who followed the practice, it is
described "as taking possession of the fleece, and keeping the
animal in wet weather as dry as a duck ; it instantly kills all
vermin, and produces a heavy fleece of beautiful soft wool."

The application of tar in exposed situations, guards in some
degree against the inclemency of the weather, and also partially
prevents the scab. The mountain breeders fear to use oil alone,
considering that an oiled sheep rubs the infection of scab into
his wool and skin, and so gets the scab confirmed ; while one
smeared in the common way escapes it. The tar in its operation
appears to retain the oily ingredients within it.

Beeeding.

Ewes are generally fit to breed at fifteen to eighteen months ;
supposing them to have been dropped in January and tupped at
the beginning of the following May, their lambs would be dropped
about the end of September, which is only a practice followed for

BREEDING SHEEP.

the production of house lamb with, the Dorsetshire breed, and
eighteen months is the most usual time, and when it is not
desirable that the lambs fall until late in the spring, they are
not tupped till October. The period of gestation of the ewe
varies from 146 to 161 days; in round numbers, twenty-one
weeks is the usually estimated time.

During the lambing time everything will depend upon a good
shepherd, who, in the case of large numbers, should have
assistance, and not be nearly worked to death ; for many other-
wise good shepherds have been known to neglect their lambs
from sheer physical exhaustion, when warmth and shelter were
immediately wanted to be furnished to the young animals. The
shepherd should be provided with simple remedies only, and the
operations of nature left to themselves as much as possible. In
cases of exhaustion, gruel mixed with warm ale or gin is useful ;
and in cases of inflammation, two or three drops of aconite in
half a pint of water, repeated every three hours, is a good
remedy. The ewe should always have ready access to water.
At this season the supply of roots should be curtailed and
plenty of dry food given.

For the first month, as the lamb depends on its mother for
support, good food ought to be supplied to her to insure a flow
of healthy milk. At the end of a month the lamb will begin to
forage for itself. Great attention should be paid to see that the
lamb thrives, and although when some few weeks old they may
lie out at nights during fair weather, when it is rough some kind
of shelter should be provided for them ; and as soon as they can
run they should be allowed to pass through lamb hurdles and
pick at the food that is being consumed. The little animal soon
learns to feed, and should be made accustomed to artificials, such
as bran, dust oilcake, nut meal, and bruised oats.

Early weaning is best for both lamb and ewe, and may take
place when they are upon winter vetches.

Tup lambs are generally castrated, if strong and healthy, when
about ten days old ; and the weather should be dry and mild.
Towards morning is the better time for this operation.

Improvement of Breeds. — The qualities which every breeder

60 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

seeks to develop in his flock as much, as possible are robustness
of constitution, rapid and large growth, of fleece and carcase,
symmetry of form, fecundity, and aptness to fatten. The first
improvers of any breed of animals are obliged to couple those
which are near akin, in order to develop those salient points
which are required, and which it is desired to impart to a whole
flock; but when this has been accomplished it is unfavourable to
the health and vigour of a flock to breed too much in-and-in,
which ultimately will prove injurious to the size and constitution
of the stock ; and, in order to avoid this result, successful
breeders have got some neighbour to allow them to take out
fifty of his best ewes and put his best ram with them, from the
produce of which they select ram lambs, by which plan, and
drafting thirty or forty refuse ewes every year, they are enabled
to get up a healthy flock, not too nearly related in point of
consanguinity.

The practice of an eminent Scotch breeder, who reared some
of the finest Cheviot sheep, is well worthy of imitation. He
made a careful selection from the best of his own stock, and
bought, without heeding the price, a few from other celebrated
flocks of the same breed. He kept these apart, under his own
immediate superintendence, so as to study the tendency of each
family towards deficiency or excess in different points ; and, by
judicious crossing between the different families, he succeeded
in producing stock which excelled in quality that of both sire
and dam. The result of this course was described to have
wrought like a charm, in a few years lifting up this individual's
stock to an entirely new position, both at the tup shows and to
the more remunerative end — in the markets where stock and
wool are usually sold.

It is considered that the most vigorous offspring is secured by
using shearling rams, and restricting them to about thirty ewes
each, and this is a more preferable course to that when older
males are put to twice that number of females.

As we have pointed out elsewhere, though the character of
both sire and dam can be traced in different degrees in their
offspring, that of the male generally predominates. This is a

BREEDING SHEEP.

generally well-recognised fact amongst breeders, but it has been
the means of leading to an error by employing rams of a much,
larger size than the ewes they tupped, the progeny being
generally of an imperfect form. Trie reverse should be the case,
and the ewe proportionately larger than the ram.

Although, in the case of some of the small breeds of cows,
which have been crossed by a shorthorn, they produce calves
which ultimately attain a very large size, the principle of the
improvement in the stock of sheep resulting from coupling a
large ewe with a ram has been thus described by Mr. Olive, who
was a successful breeder :

"The proper method of improving the form of animals
consists in selecting a well-formed female proportionably larger
than the male. The power of the female to supply her offspring
with nourishment is in proportion to her size and to the power
of her nourishing herself from the excellence of her constitution.
The size of the fastus is generally in proportion to that of the
male parents ; and therefore, when the female is disproportion-
ately small, the quantity of nourishment is deficient, and her
offspring has all the disproportions of a starveling. But when
the female, from her size and good constitution, is more than
adequate to the nourishment of a foetus of a smaller male than
herself, the growth must be proportionally greater. The larger
female has also a greater quantity of milk, and her offspring is
more abundantly supplied with nourishment after birth. To
produce the most perfect formed animal, abundant nourishment
is necessary from the earliest period of its existence until its
growth is complete."

The external form of domestic animals has been much studied,
and the proportions are well ascertained, but the external form is
an indication only of internal structure. The principles of im-
provement must, therefore, be founded upon a knowledge of the
structure and use of the internal parts. The lungs are of the first
importance. It is on their size and soundness that the strength
and health of the animals principally depend, for the power of
converting food into nourishment is in proportion to their size.

In choosing animals to breed from, a deep and wide chest,

62 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

a wide loin and hips, joined with ribs springing gradually wider
until they approach nearer to the hip, are of importance. The
shoulder-blades should project gradually wider until they
approach far towards the hind quarters, which gives more service
in the chine, and this is considered a good point in animals
intende'd for slaughter, as it enables them to accumulate more
meat on that part where it is of the most value.

Disappointment has frequently resulted in breeding from the
overfeeding of both sexes, but particularly of rams. The animals
have sometimes been allowed to accumulate fat to such an un-
natural excess that they frequently fail to propagate their kind,
and if they do breed, the lambs are puny at birth, and afterwards
badly nursed.

At the same time, during pregnancy and while nursing, ewes
ought to be fed liberally, so as to be able to bring up their lambs
well and yield good fleeces.

As soon as the lambs are weaned it is a good plan to turn the
ewes into poor pastures until about a fortnight before the rams
are again admitted to them, when they should be well fed upon
succulent food, so that they may be in a rapidly improving con-
dition when conception takes place ; this course of treatment
invariably insuring a satisfactory production of healthy lambs.
Although sheep of one breed or another will thrive on all soils,
yet it must be remembered that the size and constitution of
animals must be adapted to the soil and food of the district they
inhabit. Wherever food is produced abundantly of a nutritive
description the animals will attain a large frame, but when the
produce is scanty in mountainous regions the animals are small
in size, and although it may be proper to improve the form and
quality of the meat and wool of any aboriginal race, to enlarge
the size too much would be very often injudicious, and judgment
needs to be practised in these matters.

Flock for Breeding Purposes. — A flock of sheep for the
purpose of breeding fat stock should be kept always young by
getting rid of the ewes which have produced three or four
lambs. Being sound in the mouth and vigorous, they will then
fetch a good price, and the loss which attends the sale of old

YEANING SHEEP.

broken-mouthed ewes will be avoided. Of course an exception
must be made in the case of valuable animals kept for
breeding. All those which have wintered badly and have not
done their lambs well should be at once removed.

Yeaning.

The ewes when put to the ram, as we have before indicated,
should be in fair, but not too high, condition ; nor should they
be allowed to get fat during the period of their gestation, which
may occasion a difficulty in lambing. But, on the other hand,
if they are poor in flesh, and weak, they should be put upon
better food, as the yeaning approaches, both to give them
strength to go through with it, and to get up an abundant
supply of milk for the support of their lambs.

This, however, must be done with caution, and of the two it is
the safer practice to put both the ewe and lamb on better food
after lambing has taken place than before.

The ewes are commonly left to lamb in the open field, without
any assistance, beyond the occasional attention of the shepherd,
though some careful persons use small huts, mounted upon four
wheels, which may be drawn to the flock for the use of the
shepherd whenever he may require it ; but to afford a little shelter
some movable covered pens may be easily formed with hurdles,
which can be placed in a warm paddock or anywhere under
superintendence near the house on a small farm where no regular
shepherd is kept.'

The pens should be littered with straw, fern, or leaves, in
order to make them perfectly dry, but they should be open to
the ewes, so as to allow them to range the field and return at
pleasure, and this will be found a better plan than folding.
Wherever the yeaning takes place, it should always be effected
on a piece of smooth pasture, free from hobs, ruts, ditches, or
hollows of any kind.

The most constant and sedulous attention is necessary at
yeaning time, for occasionally, in very severe weather, when it
has been long in its completion, the ewe is so exhausted as to

64 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

need some warm gruel, and to be housed from the rest of the
flock until she is sufficiently recovered to pass muster with the
others.

Weaning.

The time of weaning has to depend upon that in which the
lambs have been dropped, for if early in the season, and the
weather continues cold, they are mostly allowed to remain with
their mother till it becomes warmer.

The early part of July is the common time, and it should
never be deferred beyond the end of that month, unless the
lambs have been dropped late in the spring. Nothing more is
required to be done than to drive the lambs so far away from
the ewes that their reciprocal bleatings may not be heard one
by the other.

The weakly lambs should, however, be separated from the
stronger ones, and if possible should be placed in a different
pasture, and where breeding is carried on, close supervision
should be exercised in the selection of ewe lambs, and any
that may be ill-formed, or defective in any points, should be
sold and cleared off, or they will assuredly deteriorate the quality
of the flock.

Again, in sorting out the lambs the wethers and ewes should
be differently distinguished by being marked on the off and near
side respectively. As before mentioned, marking is done either
by the ruddle, in the fleece, or with tar, or by a brand upon the
cheek and notches in the ears. In the latter case, marks cannot
well be obliterated, and where there is any chance of identifica-
tion being difficult the latter method is sometimes resorted to.
At the same time, although a notch cannot be obliterated, another
could be added by any dishonest persons wishing to tamper with
marked sheep. After the lambs have been taken away, the ewes
should be milked three or four times, at longer intervals from the
first commencement of milking, so as to dry them up by degrees
with as little inconvenience to them as possible ; or, if this is not
done, they should be confined for three or four nights in a fold,
and in the daytime be permitted to range over a poor pasture.

WEANING AND AGE OF SHEEP. 65

The bare keep assists in preventing injury from an accumulation
of milk, but attention should be paid to the condition of their
udders, and those which appear full of milk should be partially
drawn.

It should be remembered that where this is neglected on
account of the trouble that it entails, it both occasions con-
siderable pain to the animal, and is sometimes attended with
serious consequences. At one time it was a very common
practice to milk ewes for the purpose of making cheese, but
it is now seldom done except in very remote districts where old
methods and old customs are handed down from one generation
to another.

The lambs, when taken away from the ewes, should be put
upon the best pastures on the farm, or upon the second crops,
or aftermath, of good clover and saintfoin, spring tares, or any
abundant, succulent, nourishing feed that will promote their
growth, which at this period is a very important point, and the
expense should be scarcely considered, as it is very desirable to
push them along without receiving a check. If their progress is
retarded, it cannot very easily be recovered.

The ground should be occasionally shifted, so that they are
kept upon nice fresh feed, and it pays to watch them carefully
until the herbage begins to fail, when they should be put
upon rape, turnips, &c, for the winter.

Age of Sheep.

Sheep become " broken-mouthed " in their sixth or seventh
year, their natural age being generally nine or ten years. When
deprived of the powers of easy mastication they fall off in flesh,
and, therefore, do not pay to keep. During the first year of
their lives their teeth are of small size, but at fourteen or
sixteen months old they renew the first two, and two more every
year until the fourth shearing, at which time they become full-
mouthed. Those animals which are well fed renew their teeth
the earliest. The age of sheep is usually counted from their
first shearing.

66 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

Peimb Mutton.

Mutton is really not in its prime till six years old for hanging
and eating ; and it is quite a mistake to speak of young mutton
as being desirable, for then, properly speaking, it is neither lamb
nor full-flavoured mutton ; but the system of turnip husbandry,
which has sprung up of late years, has forced sheep into earlier
maturity. An exception even now prevails, however, in killing
heath-bred Cheviot and black-faced mountain sheep, which are
not reckoned fit for the butcher until the wethers attain three
years of age, rising four, and the ewes five, rising six.

Designation of Sheep at Vaeiotjs Ages.

The male sheep is called a ram or tup before he is castrated,
after which he becomes a wedder, or wether ; the latter almost
universally employed by the butcher, and the female an ewe,
both being called lambs until they are weaned, after which the
males are termed wedder-hogs, hoggets, hoggerells, or tegs, from
the time of weaning till the first shearing ; and the females
ewe-hogs, or gimmers. After the first shearing the males are
called shearling-hogs, or Dinmonts, and the females gimmer-
shearlings, or theaves, after which they are known as two shear,
three shear, or four shear wedders or ewes, until they are full
mouthed ; when the ewes, if drafted out of the flock, either as
being barren, or to be fatted, are called cast or yelled, and, when
turned six years old, are called crones.

OHAPTEE V.

SHEEP (Continued).

Diseases and their Treatment — Signs of Health in Sheep — Blind-
ness — The Blood — Inflammation of the Bowels — Bronchitis —
Calculi in the Bladder — Catarrh — Consumption — Dysentery,
or Braxy — The Epidemic — Diseases from Exposure to Wet —
Flies — Flux, or Scouring — Foot Rot — Hoving, Hoove, or
Blasting — Obstructions in the Gullet — Pining — Pleurisy —
Pneumonia, or Inflammation of the Lungs — Rabies, or Canine
Madness — Redwater — The Rot — The Scab — Sheep Pox —
Slipping the Lamb and Protrusion of the Uterus — Sore Teats
— Sore Udders — Sturdy, Dunt, Staggers, $-c. — Ticks or
Sheep Lice — Diseases of the Urinary Organs — Worms.

Diseases and their. Treatment.

Theee may be a few other disorders and ailments, but those
we describe are the "chief ills to which (sheep's) flesh is heir
to," and, as will be seen in the following, most of them are to
be warded off by preventive treatment, if resorted to in good
time. Watchful care and attention with sheep will always be
rewarded, and if there are signs of interrupted health — however
slight they may be — a careful examination of the animal, or
animals, should be made at once.

A watchful shepherd's or master's eye will detect any failing
of health at once, and it has been correctly observed by Price,
on sheep management, that "when he is in good order he
carries his head high, the eye is of clear azure, with a quick
and lively aspect ; the mouth is clean and of a bright red, the
gums ruddy, the teeth fast, and the muzzle dry ; the nostrils
damp without being mucous, the breath free from any bad smell,
the feet cool, and the dung substantial. The hams are strong

p 2

68 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

and the limbs nimble ; the wool firmly adhering to the skin, which
ought to bear a reddish tint, with a soft mellow feel of supple-
ness, and, more especially, the appetite should be good."

Blindness. — Gold and wet, producing inflammation, is some-
times the occasions of blindness in sheep. The only treatment
which can well be followed with any chance of success is to
bleed under the inner angle of the eye, on the side of the nose.
The method of doing this is to lay the sheep on its back, and
have it held firmly in position, while the operator, with a sharp
instrument, cuts the blood-vessels on the inner angle of the eye
— one or both — at about Jin. below the angle.

The wound must be deep enough to allow the blood to flow
freely, which if it does not do upon the first incision, another cut
must be made a little lower or a little higher. Epsom salts also
should be given to open the bowels freely.

The eye-balls of the sheep will be found to present a singular
appearance, the whole surface being of a light blue colour.

Blood, The. — Sheep fed upon very rich pastures are subject to
this disorder, which is sometimes called the " yellows," from the
flesh turning yellow after death, and frequently arises from sheep
eating red clover while it is in blossom.

The sheep attacked may be seen to separate themselves from
the rest of the flock, as if in pain, and stretch out their fore legs
to find relief. The breath is short, their eyes appear heavy, and
the abdomen seems convulsed. The disorder, being of an inflam-
matory nature, is often suddenly fatal, and demands similar
remedies to that prescribed for braxy.

Bowels, Inflammation of the. — .Inflammation of the bowels is
rare with sheep, except in the form of braxy, but when it does
make its appearance the symptoms very much resemble those of
influenza in the first instance, the eyes being inflamed, closed,
and running with water, breathing laborious, with constipated
bowels, loss of appetite, and staggering gait. The liver gets
decomposed, and the spleen enlarged and gorged with blood.

Bleeding should be resorted to in the early stage, followed by
aperient and febrifuge medicine.

Bronchitis. — Sheep are not so often affected with this disorder

DISEASES OF SHEEP.

as cattle, but the treatment should be the same, i.e., bleeding, a
seton inserted in the brisket, and the administration of aperient
and febrifuge medicine of a mild character. Half-a-pint of lime
water for a sheep, and quarter of a pint for a lamb, should be
given morning and evening ; or a couple of teaspoonfuls of salt
dissolved in water, the treatment to be continued for a week.

Calculi in the Bladder. — Sometimes small stones are found in
the ureters after death, but calculi in the bladder are seldom
found, the small stones being discovered most frequently in the
urethra, where they form an obstruction to the passage of the
urine and occasion great pain, which results in inflammation,
and death follows unless relief is afforded.

Where a calculus is suspected, it is advisable to mingle acids
in the food with the view of dissolving it, as it consists almost
entirely of phosphate of lime. Linseed tea made slightly acid
with sulphuric acid might be given and repeated for some time,
but if the disease has reached an advanced stage, an operation
will be necessary to remove the calculus, and, after it, soothing
and aperient medicines should be given.

Catarrh. — At the fall of the year, particularly in a wet season,
sheep are very liable to catarrh, the seeds of which are sown by
their being exposed too much to the weather after shearing,
before the fleece has sufficiently grown to afford the necessary
protection.

The membrane lining the air passages becomes inflamed, and
an increased discharge takes place, which brings on a cough.
Sometimes the disorder will last several weeks, and then get
gradually well, the constitution of the sheep having thrown off
the ailment, but occasionally inflammation will extend to the
lungs, and turn out fatally. Plenty of shelter and good nursing
are wanted in these cases, which, when mild, a little gruel will
often cure ; but if the symptoms are severe the following
should be given :

Epsom salts ioz.

Ginger ldr.

Nitre ldr.

Tartarised antimony idr.

dissolved in gruel.

70 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

In very severe cases bleeding from the neck must be resorted

to.

Consumption makes its first appearance very often with, ewes
that have lambed. But there is every reason to believe that wet
pastures, or exposure to wet in one form or another, first laid
the foundation of this disease, which was prevented from
being manifested on account of the parturient condition of the
ewe. Abcesses are found in cutting into the abdomen, adhering
to the bowels and mesentery, as well as in the liver ; whilst the
latter is smaller and paler than usual. Abcesses are some-
times found in the lungs also. When matters have gone this
length there is no dealing with them with any hope of effecting
a cure.

Dysentery, or Braxy, being inflammation of the coats of the
intestines, is much more serious than diarrhoea. It mainly arises
from undigested food remaining in the stomach, which the
animal, as it does not immediately lose its appetite, adds to, when
fermentation takes place, resulting in inflammation, by which
many young sheep are carried off.

It is sometimes known by the name of the sickness, and com-
monly makes its appearance about the end of autumn, and is
occasioned, it is thought, by the herbage becoming more dry and
astringent, as it ceases when winter sets in, being more prevalent
on dry pasture, where there is both heath and fern, than in low
lands, a sudden change from a succulent pasturage to a dry one
having been often observed to produce it. Exposure to wet and
cold after travelling will also bring it on.

Its symptoms are — dung hard and scanty, though frequently
discharged, and covered with mucus and blood, accompanied with
an offensive smell, dulness, uneasiness, want of appetite, quick-
ened pulse and respiration, with dry nose and skin.

Bleeding, which may be effectually done by cutting the tail, is
prescribed, though most veterinary surgeons would, perhaps,
bleed in the neck or the fore leg. Glauber salts or castor oil
should also be given, and the sheep put upon turnips during the
day, and placed in a dry yard or fold during the night.

Another course of treatment is to give the animal affected

DISEASES OF SHEEP.

linseed gruel, so, as it were, to lubricate the intestines, as well as
afford nourishment ; and afterwards give the following medicine :

Linseed oil 2oz.

Powdered opium 2gr.

Next day the opium may be repeated with a scruple of
powdered ginger and two scruples of gentian root, and the oil
again be given if required.

Epidemic, The. — The disorder which passes under this name is
very similar in appearance to the foot rot, but proceeds from a
different cause, arising from fever in the system, the symptoms
exhibiting themselves either in the shape of bladders in the
mouth or soreness of the feet. The first appearance of the
disease is generally, however, in the feet, a number of sheep
falling lame at the same time, the mouth of sheep being rarely
affected.

The feet get hard previous to the formation of matter, the
result of inflammation, and in some instances the disease proves
very troublesome. The best treatment in its early stage,
while there is fever, is to give Epsom salts, so as to cool the
system and shorten the duration of the fever, and afterwards
to treat in a similar manner to the method adopted in foot rot.

Exposure to Wet, Diseases from. — In the spring which succeeds
a wet autumn, there are frequently complaints heard of ewes
casting their lambs six or eight weeks before they are due, the
lamb generally being dead.

The abdomen is found distended with water, and the ewe both
suffers during labour and afterwards. Puerperal fever follows,
and is often fatal. This is more particularly the case when the
heavy ewes have been kept upon turnips previous to lambing,
but this many farmers make a practice of avoiding. The turnip
itself contains about 90 per cent, of water, while in wet
seasons there is a good deal of wet hanging to the root and ap-
pendages as well. It is best, therefore, where it can be done, to
keep the ewes before lambing without turnips, or at least give
them a little corn, linseed, or rape cake in addition.

Flies. — Sheep are very much troubled with flies, which lay
their eggs upon the skin, and these, when hatched, produce

72 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

maggots during spring and summer, and, if not carefully looked
to, are often attended with disastrous results.

Hogg, the Ettriok shepherd, has described an occasion when
he went amongst a flock of sheep upon which the flies had
settled in such enormous numbers that when disturbed, and they
rose up, he, and the persons with him, could with difficulty see
each other ; but upon some sheep, which had been anointed
with whale oil, being turned in amongst them, to his utter
astonishment, in less than a minute, not a fly was to be seen !

Hogg also was of opinion that either a certain habit of body,
or some kinds of food, at times, give the excrement and perspira-
tion of an infected sheep a peculiarly rancid and loathsome smell,
so that when near them it is not difficult to discover those that
will be soon infected. The most healthy sheep are often attacked
by this disposition of body, which is frequently accompanied by
diarrhoea.

.There are several kinds of flies which infest sheep during the
summer months. The small common flies are very troublesome
in enclosed and woody parts of the country — more especially in
warm and showery weather. These find out any luckless sheep
that has a scratch or sore upon its skin, which they attack in
warms and never leave till they are gorged.

At these seasons sheep should be driven to the uplands if
possible, but if not, it is a good preventive to wash them after
being sheared, and once or twice more during the summer with
soap-suds, liberally impregnated with asafoetida, empyreumatic
oil, or similar applications which will retain a disagreeable
scent.

The most offensive flies are the sheep-maggot flies, or large
flesh flies, or blue bottles, of which there are several kinds, black,
white, and those of a greenish colour, which bear a strong
family likeness to one another, but which come to maturity at
different periods. These are produced by putrid carrion in the
first place, and are attracted as soon as they can fly by any strong
odour like that of the perspiration of sheep in Lot and misty
weather, or in morning dew.

The fly deposits its eggs upon any likely spot to develop them

DISEASES OF SHEEP.

into life — near the root of the tail, around the anus, or where
excrement may have been hanging in these parts, specially
attracts them, though the back is sometimes visited. It is, there-
fore, desirable to clip the rump and buttocks close previous to the
ordinary shearing time, as well as a couple of months afterwards,
and wash with the liquid prescribed below, which is likely to
prevent breeding of maggot without hurting the wool :

Arsenic, finely powdered lib.

Potash 12oz.

Common yellow soap 1 6oz.

Soft water 30 gallons.

These ingredients must be boiled together for a quarter of an
hour, the person who does it taking care to inhale as little of the
steam as possible.

Many experienced shepherds have used the following with
good effect : An ounce of sublimate, to which is added three
tablespoonfuls of turpentine, dissolved in a gallon of water.

The sheep are subject to the attacks of flies from May till Sep-
tember ; and unless a sheep which has become infected is imme-
diately attended to, within two or three days it will be perforated
by some thousands of maggots, and if neglected perhaps within a
week become a lifeless mass covered with these larvae.

Serious mischief can, however, be prevented by constant atten-
tion in clipping, cleaning, and anointing the maggoty parts.
Train oil with sulphur is a useful application, and pepper will
destroy them, and where oil of turpentine can be used, it will
be always found a capital remedy.

Sheep hang their heads and betray great uneasiness when
struck by the fly. They stamp violently with their feet, move
their tails in a peculiar manner, and draw up their bodies in a
way which indicates their restlessness, even before the skin is
wounded, which will serve as a sufficient proof to a watchful
shepherd when they have been struck ; and a sheep displaying
these signs of inquietude should be at once caught, and examined.

This should be done closely, and if only the nits have been
formed, they can be soon cleared away, and the parts affected well
washed with soap suds and urine, or goulard water. If, however,
maggots have made their appearance, the wool surrounding any

74 STOCK KEEPING FOB AMATEURS.

damaged part of the skin should be cut away, and the part well
washed with the liquor mentioned. It is best to avoid cutting
the wool away if it can be done without, as it gives an unsightly
appearance to the sheep, and also lays bare a vulnerable place to
the attack of small flies. Should the maggots have perforated
the skin and have got under it, the point of a penknife should be
used, so as to remove them, and the wound healed by any common
ointment fit for the purpose ; or, in bad cases, a good ointment is
composed of the following :

Pure quicksilver ... _ .' 41b.

Venice turpentine ilb.

-Arsenic . .' ... ioz.

rTaat's-f oot oil i pint.

Hog's lard lib.

mixed thoroughly together by well rubbing in a mortar.

Flux, or Scouring. — Diarrhoea is frequently caused by cold
and wet, but it often occurs with sheep of weakly constitutions
which are put first upon poor watery food and then removed to
rich pastures. If arising from wet, the animals should be
removed to a dry situation and be supplied with sound hay, or
good dry food of the kinds previously recommended. If occa-
sioned by being put on to rich land, they should be changed to
short grass and a little corn given to them. Chalk should also
be put into the water they drink.

If the purging becomes violent, a drachm of rhubarb in half
a pint of warmed milk will be found useful. If this treatment
does not succeed in stopping it, the dose should be repeated, with
the addition of a few drops of laudanum.

The following is also considered a good standing medicine to
be resorted to :

Catechu (powdered) 4dr.

Prepared chalk (powdered) Ioz.

Ginger (powdered) 2dr.

Opium (powdered) 2dr.

to be mixed with half a pint of peppermint water, and given
twice a day. Two or three tablespoonfuls is a dose for a sheep,
and half that quantity for a lamb.

Lambs, indeed, are more subject to diarrhoea than sheep ; in the
first place, commonly owing to the change of food after weaning,

DISEASES OF SHEEP.

and the functions of the stomach being more severely taxed, the
new food being too stimulating for their digestive organs.

Amongst lambs, the disorder is sometimes termed gall, at the
season of the year when the grass is springing, which they eat
after a few warm showers, sometimes with fatal effect. If not
old enough to eat hay, a little pea-meal, or barley-meal, and some
astringent cordial drink can be given with advantage. There are
two distinct presentations with lambs, called green skit, from
the colour of the faeces, arising from the change of food men-
tioned ; and the white shit, which is of a different nature
altogether, and arises from constipation rather than looseness.
This owes its name to the pale colour of the faeces, and is due to
coagulation of the milk in the fourth stomach, where it accumu-
lates often to the weight of several pounds, while the whey
passes off by the bowels, and gives, where the right cause is not
attributed, a deceptive appearance to the dung.

The symptoms of this latter are, in addition to the pale colour
of the faeces, heaving of the flanks, dulness, hardness, and disten-
tion of the abdomen, and sometimes costiveness.

The proper treatment is the administration of alkalies to dis-
solve the hardened mass. Half an ounce of magnesia, dissolved
in water, or a quarter of an ounce of hartshorn in water, or both
these combined, and administered in proportionately smaller
quantities, should be given and repeated, followed by Epsom
salts. After this the cordial recommended above should be
given, in a somewhat larger quantity of water.

Another phase of looseness of the bowels in lambs is when the
dung is of a very dark colour and tinged with blood, caused by
disease of the mucous coat of the intestines, which, after death,
is found of a very dense hue, and nearly black.

As this disease attacks the lamb when it has partaken of no
other food than the ewe's milk, it is communicated through this
medium, though the ewe herself gives no signs of there being
anything amiss with her. "When it is discovered the food of the
mother should be changed as quickly as possible, and more dry
food given to her, a little oilcake and salt proving a useful addi-
tion to it.

76 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

The progress of the disease is, however, so rapid that a lamb
has been found dead in the morning which gave no signs of
illness on the day previous ; and in the discovery and treatment
of such cases is afforded the best proof of a watchful shepherd's
care.

Foot-rot. — This disease, which is partly contagious, and is
supposed to be communicated by sound sheep treading upon
matter discharged from those having diseased feet, is seated in
the vascular parts which connect the hoof with the bones of the
foot, and generally arises from exposure of the hoof to too great
an amount of moisture, and is more prevalent in low marshy dis-
tricts than in uplands. Chalky soils, or ground that has been
strongly manured with lime, are thought to peculiarly exempt
from attacks the sheep placed upon them, and it has been con-
sidered a good plan to drive those sheep which are supposed liable
to infection into a pen strewed with quicklime as a precaution
against the infection.

The foot of the sheep being naturally adapted to a dry soil the
wear of its lower surface is equal to the growth above, but when
it is constantly immersed in wet it grows soft and becomes elon-
gated, and is then easily penetrated by gravel or small stones,
and the upper part where it is thinnest becomes detached from
its connections. Soreness and inflammation are thus produced,
with subsequent suppuration, and sometimes ulceration, which,
running under the horn, occasions the hoof to be sometimes en-
tirely lost ; so that the animal crawls on its knees in search of
food, and by the exertion, combined with pain, becomes so ex-
hausted that it perishes if not speedily succoured.
■ A slight halt is the first indication of the disease, and that
shortly increases to positive lameness, the foot being hot, with an
appearance of swelling about the heel, or between the toes, and
the hoof is in a slight degree loose. The animal affected should
be at once removed to an open shed or pen, with some clean
straw litter, and kept separate from the sound sheep, and the
foot well washed with soap and water.

The foot should be minutely examined, after the dirt has been
removed, so as to find out the injured part, |which, although not

DISEASES OF SHEEP.

always apparent to the eye, may be detected upon pressure with
the hand. The hoof must be carefully pared away round the
affected part with a sharp knife, using precaution not to cut
any sensible part of the foot, and anointed with one of the
ointments hereinafter mentioned, which should be laid on with
a feather in every crack or crevice that may be affected, and
the animal confined until the application becomes dry, but
no bandages should be used, as the disorder is of an inflam-
matory nature.

Previous to any subsequent application, the foot should be
kept clean and washed with lime water, the dressings to be
repeated within two or three days.

The following are all considered good recipes for foot-rot :

Tar 80s.

Lard *°z.

Oil of turpentine ioz.

Sulphuric acid ioz.

The two first ingredients should be melted together separately,
and the two remaining ones added slowly, and carefully, after-
wards.

The following composition is recommended as a speedy one in
its operation :

Turpentine ■ 2oz.

Diluted vitriol ioz.

to be stirred up before using.

Where an active application is sought for, the annexed is held
in high estimation :

Corrosive sublimate Ioz.

Blue vitriol 2oz.

Verdigris ... ••• - 2oz.

White copperas 4oz.

dissolved in half a bottle of white wine vinegar, and applied with
a feather.
Another :

Verdigris - Ioz,

Blue vitriol 90z.

Spii it of turpentine lgill.

Distilled vinegar S gills.

In damp weather a mixture of tar and salt has been used with
success.

78 STOCK KEEPING FOB AMATEURS.

The following has been used very successfully in Scotland :

Corrosive sublimate joz.

Sulphate of copper 2oz.

Verdigris ij 0 j.

Alum 2oz _

Sulphate of zino j 0 z.

Muriatic acid goz.

Charcoal 3 0z<

pounded as small as possible in a mortar, and mixed with half a
bottle of distilled vinegar.

Some flock-masters, when the disease has made its appearance,
in order to protect the animals from undue moisture, cause their
sheep to walk every day over a dry and smooth surface, upon
which lime has been strewn.

A somewhat similar treatment to that prescribed for foot-rot
should be resorted to when soreness arises from travelling and
there is irritation of the biflex canal between the claws.

Having, Hoove, or Blasting. — Sheep, in common with cattle,
are liable to this distension of the rumen by gas, caused by the
fermentation of the food which they eat upon too sudden a
transition from poor pasture into succulent artificial grasses, as
red or broad clover, &c.

This result is best prevented by giving them a little dry food
in the morning of the first three or four days, so as to partly fill
their stomachs. The disorder calls for prompt treatment, and
the hollow probang should be passed into the rumen, so as to
allow the gases to escape through it. Half a pint of linseed oil
given to each sheep with a horn occasions them to vomit, and is
said to have never been known to fail.

If there is nothing else at hand, some salt, about as much as
would be contained in a dessert spoon, may be dissolved and
poured down the throat ; or a drachm or more of chloride of
lime dissolved in water. Sulphuric ether in doses of two drachms
is also an effectual remedy. When the case is pressing, and
there is no time to administer medicine, it is necessary to plunge
a trochar or a pen knife into the rumen through the flank. If
the latter, a small tube formed of the stick of elder or a quill
should be inserted to allow the gas to escape.

After treatment is often essential, as indigestion is prone to

DISEASES OF SHEEP.

succeed, and it will be found necessary to administer the follow-
ing draught :

Sulphate of magnesia 2oz.

Gentian , ldr.

Ginger 2dr.

Chloride of lime lsor.

dissolved in warm water or gruel.

Caution should afterwards be practised with respect to the
diet the animals have to subsist upon, of which sufficient hints
have been given previously. Some sheep-farmers consider it
good practice to sprinkle salt upon very luxuriant herbage before
turning sheep upon it.

Obstructions in the Gullet. — A fragment of turnip imperfectly
masticated, or too much taken at one time, will sometimes occa-
sion obstruction in the gullet, but these accidents are of much
less frequent occurrence in the sheep than the ox. The symptoms,
as may be supposed, are distressed breathing and threatened
suffocation, the obstructing body pressing on the windpipe, and
thus impeding the passage of air to and from the lungs.

The probang should be passed gently into the gullet over the
. root of the tongue, the sheep's head being elevated, while firmly
held between another person's knees. Care should be taken in
using the probang (previously oiled) not to lacerate the side of
the esophagus, and in most instances the obstruction can be
pushed into the rumen.

The sheep should afterwards be kept without food for a short
time, and a dose of linseed oil can be given with advantage.
Should, however, the use of the probang fail, and there is danger
of the animal's choking, nothing remains but to cut into the
esophagus and remove the obstruction ; the operation is neces-
sarily a dangerous one, and the wound both in the gullet and the
skin must be carefully sewn up, and for some days afterwards
food must be given in a liquid form.

Pining. — This is a disorder of a very peculiar nature, which is
not met with in districts where green succulent pastures abound,
nor upon those of calcareous or sandstone soils, and is accredited
with making its appearance simultaneously with the more ex-
tended system of drainage which now prevails, and is attributed

80 STOCK KEEPING FOB AMATEURS.

to the astringency of the herbage of very dry pastures, the
disorder being more prevalent in very dry summers than when
the season has been showery. It has been most commonly met
with on the pastures of the Cheviot Hills and the mountainous
land in the counties of Boxburgh, Selkirk, and Peebles, its
appearance being attributed, in some instances, to the destruction
of moles, whose labours, although they disfigure a pasture, are
the means of producing soft succulent plants upon the ground
turned up by them.

Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd, says the farms most liable to the
disease are those which in former years were wholly overrun with
moles and which are now intermixed throughout with great
ridges and flats of white and flying bents — which last are the
bane of the flocks, and that exactly as the laxative and succulent
herbage prevails over the dry and benty, the effects of the pining
will be less felt. The Ettrick Shepherd thus describes its
effects: " On the genuine pining farms sheep do not take it
by ones and twos, but a whole flock at once. It is easily
distinguished by a practised observer, the first symptoms being
lassitude of motion and a heaviness about the pupil of the eye,
indicating a species of fever. At the very first the blood is thick
and dark of colour, and cannot, by any exertion, be made to
spring, and when the animal dies of this distemper, there is
apparently scarcely one drop of blood in the carcase. It lives
till there does not appear to be a drop remaining, and even the
ventricles of . the heart become as dry and pale as its skin.

" It is most fatal in a season of drought, and June and Sep-
tember are the mo3t deadly months. If ever a farmer perceives
a flock on such a farm having a flushed appearance of more than
ordinarily rapid thriving, he is gone. By that day eight days
— when he goes out to them again — he will find them all lying,
hanging their ears, running at the eyes, and looking at him like
so many condemned criminals. As the disease proceeds the hair
on the animal's face becomes dry, the wool assumes a bluish cast,
and if the shepherd have not the means of changing the pasture,
all those affected will fall in the course of a month."

Salt placed in lumps upon the ground, accessible to the sheep,

DISEASES OF SHEEP.

would have a beneficial effect, and laxative medicines are given
with advantage, for if the bowels are opened a change appears to
take place in the constitution of the animal ; but a change of
pasture to one of a more succulent nature, as to clover, in order
to check the costive habit, is the most effective remedy.

It is said that few of the ewes that have been attacked in
autumn with this disease have lambs the next year ; but, fortu-
nately, the disorder is not one that is very widely spread, but
appears confined to a somewhat narrow, area.

Pleurisy, — Although this is inflammation of the membrane
which lines the chest, and one often connected with diseases of
the lungs, yet it is quite a distinct disorder, being characterised
by symptoms of inflammation, pain, and fever, there being
greater external warmth than in the previous disease, and the
pulse is stronger.

The disease is produced by the system receiving a chill, and
frequently follows sheep-washing, some breeds being more sub-
ject to it than others, among which may be mentioned the
Leicester. Bleeding is generally resorted to, followed by aperient
and febrifuge medicines. Some recommend a seton in the
brisket.

Pneumonia, or Inflammation of the Lungs. — This is also a
somewhat rare disease, but does occasionally happen in low and
damp situations. Congestive inflammation is rapid in its pro-
gress, being attended by accelerated breathing, and a quick and
weak pulse ; the lungs, after death, being found congested with
blood and black in colour.

When pleurisy has been engendered, the animal shows signs of
being in pain, the pulse being strong as well as quick.

Bleeding in the neck is prescribed for these diseases, and
this can be better sustained in the latter than in the former case.
Purgatives should be given, followed by sedative medicine like
the following :

Nitrate of potash Idr.

Tartarised antimony lOgr.

Ipecacuanha 5gr.

which will be a daily dose for a sheep.

82 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

Rabies, or Canine Madness. — The bite of a rabid dog will
occasion a violent and fatal derangement of the nervous
system of a sheep, the symptoms of which exhibit them-
selves from two days to six weeks after the injury has
taken place.

The disease is invariably fatal, and there is no treatment
upon which the slightest reliance can be placed, except in
the cauterisation of the wound shortly after the injury, either
with a hot iron or lunar caustic. In order to examine the
subject thoroughly, it becomes necessary to cut off the whole
of the wool, and to carefully inspect the whole body, apply-
ing the caustic, iron, or knife to the smallest scratch which
may have been inflicted by the dog. If the bitten part is
carefully cut out" there is no danger of the flesh becoming unfit
for the butcher.

The symptoms are — propensity to mischief, a disposition to
ride other sheep, or by butting furiously ; followed by nervous
irritation, quickened respiration, twitching of the muscles, some-
times drowsiness, a great difficulty in swallowing, and a dis-
charge of saliva from the mouth. This saliva is infectious
from a rabid sheep, and care must be exercised in handling
them.

Rediuater. — Eedwater in sheep is a different disease to that
bearing the same name with cattle, which, in the case of the
latter, signifies a discharge of dark-coloured urine.

In sheep it arises from an increased action of the vessels
of the peritoneum, or serous membrane, which lines the
abdomen internally, and the bowels, &c, externally, which
causes an effusion of red serum or water in the abdomen
outside the bowels.

Young lambs are subject to it before they are weaned,
as well as afterwards, and sheep are occasionally affected.
Its victims are mostly attacked in the night, more particularly
when feeding off turnips and the ground is covered with a hoar
frost. There are some doubts whether the disease is oc-
casioned by lying on the ground or from eating a quantity of
cold watery food.

DISEASES OF SHEEP.

The following medicine will be sufficient for eight or ten sheep,
or double that number of lambs :

Sulphate of magnesia lib.

Ginger (powdered) loz.

Gentian (powdered) , loz.

Opium (powdered) Jdr.

which should be dissolved in warm water or gruel.

If a flock feeding upon turnips shows signs of being infected
with this disease, it will be best to remove them from the turnip
field, or only allow them to remain there during a portion of the
day ; and in the case of lambs, the progress of the disease is so
rapid that it is generally considered best to kill the animal at
once.

A good preventive of the disorder in lambs is the following : —
two ounces of myrrh boiled in sixty tablespoonfuls of ale, a
dose of three tablespoonfuls to be given to each lamb at
Michaelmas.

Rot, The. — At one time the rot was the most destructive
malady to which sheep were subject, but of late years, until
recently, it has not been so prevalent. The disorder (also called
cothe) consists of the presence of parasites in the liver, termed
"flukes," or "plaice," which are triangular flat-shaped worms,
somewhat resembling in shape the fish so called, and vary from
an eighth of an inch to a quarter of an inch, or more. They
are found floating about in the biliary ducts, apparently feeding
upon the bile, and preventing it from performing its allotted
functions.

The animalculae from which these disagreeable invaders pro-
ceed are deposited in the herbage of marshy places, whence
they are taken up with the food, and are afterwards developed.

Among sheep bred upon wolds and downs s the disease is
almost unknown, but sheep which have been removed to low
ground that has been covered with water during the winter
may be infected in a single night. However the case may
stand, one thing is perfectly clear, that it is dangerous to turn
sheep during the summer months over land which has been
flooded.

In the early stage of the disorder the animals appear lethargic,

»2

84 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

dull, and indifferent about feeding ; and when advanced still
further the presence of the disease can be felt by handling. The
loins feel loose and flacid, the skin has lost its healthy tinge
of red, and has assumed instead a pale hue ; the eyes wear
a dull, sickly aspect, and the animal is more restless than
usual.

The first symptoms of rot, however, do not give cause for
alarm ; on the contrary, the sheep to all appearance for a short
space of time look as if improving ; but when this stage is passed
the unfavourable one commences, which does not immediately
affect the flesh, for sheep are continually purchased to all appear-
ance in good health which, when killed, are found with their
livers full of flukes, but the meat is quite sound and well
flavoured.

Salt has been found the best preventive, and if sheep are
obliged to be placed on damp pastures they should be carefully
moved to a dry situation before evening, and fed partly with hay.
Preventive measure are, indeed, the only ones to resort to, for
when the disease is established there remains nothing but to
hurry on the fattening process with the most nutritious food, in
which linseed and oilcake should largely enter.

Damp marshes, in close proximity to the sea, where the water
is salt, do not cause the disease, and this fact would seem to
justify the belief that salt is fatal to the growth of the parasites.
A good supply of salt, therefore, in such situations where rot
might be supposed to generate is, doubtless, beneficial, though,
a certain amount of caution must be used in the case of heavy
ewes, as salt has a tendency to produce abortion, though rock
salt placed in the troughs for them to lick could not be attended
by any serious consequences.

Scab, The. — The scab is occasioned by an impure state of the
blood, chiefly arising from bad feeding in wet ground. It is a
cutaneous eruption analogous to the mange in other animals, and
generally begins with the itch, the symptoms of which are at first
indicated by small white spots on the wool, which may be seen
long before the animal betrays any signs of uneasiness or the
smallest eruption appears upon the skin. It is highly con-

DISEASES OF SHEEP.

tagioua, and the best remedy is any of the common applications
of sulphur.

If a cure is not effected by the sulphur and the intense
itching continues, blotches make their appearance upon the skin,
which wears a fretted appearance, and, if neglected, soon dis-
charges a foetid ichor which turns to scab. The animal loses
flesh, the wool becomes foul, and, if not cured, the sheep sinks
under the continued irritation to which it is subjected.

An infected animal should be immediately separated from
the flock, and, if taken at an early stage, the disorder can be
removed by any of the common washes formed of tobacco juice,
soft soap and urine, or salves of which brimstone forms the chief
ingredient. In more virulent cases, the ointment recommended
for sheep-maggot may be used.

The disease being infectious, sheep in the highest condition
sometimes contract it from coming in contact with posts and
fences against which scabby sheep have rubbed themselves, so
that it is a necessary precaution in regard to these to wash any
cotes or buildings where infected sheep have been previous to the
introduction of sound ones.

The disease is by no means incurable, even in its worst stage ;
but if it is found that, when destroyed in one part it makes its
appearance in another, it is a sure indication that the system
or whole mass of blood is infected, and internal remedies
become necessary. Purgatives of a cordial nature should be
given, but, if the disease arises from poverty, a good supply of
wholesome food is the first requisite.

Sheep-pox. — This disorder is the most prevalent during winter,
when animals are shut up, and, perhaps, kept very hot. Its
symptoms exhibit themselves in the sheep becoming dull and
loathing their food. The head, eyes, ears, and gums are swelled ;
hard white tumours appear in the groin as well as under the
joint of the shoulder, and pimples break out three or four days
afterwards in various parts of the body, those on the naked skin
between the thighs, where the wool is short, being first affected,
until the whole body is covered.

The animal swallows with pain and breathes with much

86 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

difficulty at this stage of the disease, and, if it progresses, the
pimples become inflamed, enlarge, and burst. The discharge
hardens upon the wool, and causes it to form in large lumps,
which are rubbed by the sheep, causing the scarfskin to peel off
in large pieces full of holes.

When the disorder first makes its appearance, the sheep need
to be kept warm, be well littered with straw, and fed upon hay
with a little salt, their water being given to them lukewarm.
Bleeding is practised by cutting the ear, and the cotes are
thoroughly fumigated for five or six days by burning stems of
garlic, which occasions a great discharge from the nostrils, upon
the effects of which many experienced shepherds repose great
reliance.

Whatever be the season, when the distemper abates the wool
should be clipped in order to assist the drying of the pustules
and favour the growth of a new fleece. It is said that the new
wool which comes after the distemper is finer in quality and
more silky than upon any previous or subsequent growth.

Sheep-pox so closely resembles scab that it is not known in
this country frequently as a separate disease ; but in some parts
of France, especially in those districts adjoining the Pyrenees,
whole flocks have been regularly inoculated for it, the method
of doing this being to place the skin of a sheep which has
been infected upon the floor of a cote, into which the lambs
are driven when about six months old. They voluntarily rub
and roll themselves on the skin, and symptoms of the disorder
soon make their appearance, from which they speedily recover,
much in the same manner as that of the human subject who
has been inoculated with lymph from the cow for small-pox.
The sheep are never afterwards attacked ; and where this plan
is practised, it very rarely happens that an animal ever dies
from the disease, though when taken naturally it is not only very
fatal, but, being contagious, spreads mischief among the neigh-
bouring flocks.

Slipping the Lamb, and Protrusion of the Uterus. — Slipping the
lamb is mostly caused by the ewes having been over-driven,
worried by dogs when heavy with young, and sometimes by

DISEASES OF SHEEP.

falling into ruts on their backs, whence they are unable to
extricate themselves without assistance. It has also been attri-
buted to feeding upon rape about Christmas time.

Protrusion of the uterus occasionally happens after an ewe has
gone through a difficult labour, which has caused a portion of
the uterus to be forced through the orifice. It should be
returned to its place as soon as possible, but if not held in con-
finement by some means it is apt to protrude again. In order
to keep it in its place some pass a piece of lead the size of a
crow-quill through the lips of the orifice, and twist the ends
to secure it. Others put a hog ring through the sides, or use
twine for the same purpose. Either plan answers very well,
and the ewe brings up her lamb without any further incon-
venience. There is, however, a slight drawback to the use of
the hog-iron, as it is liable to rust.

Sore Teats. — Sometimes the ewe has sore teats, and refuses to
allow the lamb to suck. When this happens, the lamb should
be put to another ewe if it can be possibly managed, or else fed
twice a day with milk, either from a cow or taken by hand from
an ewe. The udder should be bathed with tepid water, and
afterwards washed with spirits or goulard, or a slight infusion
of sugar of lead.

This treatment will generally be successful, but if not, and
inflammation takes place, the part must be poulticed in order to
cause suppuration.

Sore Udders. — After weaning, at times, the udders of ewes
are affected by tumours, which need to be looked to, as they some-
times end in mortification. The part affected should be rubbed
with camphorated spirits of wine, and if it suppurates it should
be opened with a lancet, or other sharp instrument, and the
wound cured by healing salve. It is better, however, to pre-
vent this by milking the ewes, as previously recommended in
weaning.

Sturdy, Dunt, Staggers, tJ'C. — A disease known by these names,
a3 well as by those of " Turn-sick," " Giddiness," " Goggles,"
"■ Sturdy-gig," and " Turn blob-whirl," is occasioned by a
bladder in the head containing water, in which are "hydatids"

STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

or maggots, which find their way to the brain, the aheep mostly-
attacked by it being those under two years of age, after which
time they are generally considered safe from its effects.

The animal appears stupid, as if deprived of its senses, and,
instead of going forward in the usual method of progression,
constantly turns round in one direction, in whatever side of the
head the bladder may chance to be, and keeps away from the
rest of the flock.

Cures have sometimes been effected by thrusting a wire up the
nostril and destroying the bladder ; or, if a soft place has been
felt on the surface of the skull, the hydatid has been penetrated
by means of a common awl, and in others trepanning has been
successfully resorted to ; but as more sheep die under these opera-
tions than are cured by them, it is generally thought best to con-
fine the patient, and by cut food and oilcake get it ready for the
butcher as fast as possible.

Ticks, or Sheep Lice. — Sheep, particularly if they are not in a
healthy condition, are infested by a large tick (Melophagus ovinus),
which seldom, however, occasion more than a temporary incon-
venience. Mercurial ointment and tobacco water will eradicate
them. Tobacco water should be made by boiling the tobacco in
salt water. A wash of any weak mercurial preparation is effective.
The invariable practice of dipping sheep and lambs each year,
the former after they are shorn, is a good preventive.

Urinary Organs, Diseases of the. — Cystitis, or inflammation
of the bladder, is rare with sheep, and is mostly confined to
those which have been supplied with very nutritious food, such
as beans and oilcake, and rams appear to be more liable to
it than other sheep. Copious bleeding from the neck is re-
commended, followed by aperient medicine and opiates. A
drachm of laudanum twice, or even three times, a day is a good
remedy.

Worms. — Sheep rarely have worms in the intestines, but
they have occasionally proved fatal to lambs, giving rise
in the first place to a depraved appetite, which eventually
causes irritation and inflammation of the intestines and fourth
stomach.

DISEASES OF SHEEP.

It will be best to change the food, and if there is thought to
be inflammation to give the following, mixed :

Linseed oil 2oz.

Opium (powdered) Sgr.

When the inflammation is reduced, in order to destroy the
worms, the following should be given :

LinBeed oil 2oz.

Oil of turpentine ~ 4dr.

OHAPTEE VI.

SHEEP (Continued).

Markets for Sheep— Driving to Market— Profit and Uses oj
Sheep — Importation of Sheep — Rearing Sheep Abroad —
Technical Terms of Wool.

Markets foe Sheep.

The markets for sheep are very abundant and numerous, not
only where fixed markets and fairs are held, but, owing to the
large consumption of mutton in all our large towns, there is no
difficulty of disposing of either sheep or lambs, even butchers
who are in a large way of business being now in the habit of
buying a good number to suit the requirements of their trade.
These they kill off as they want them, placing the sheep in what
is called accommodation land, which often consists of a meadow
in the immediate neighbourhood of a town or city.

Driving to Market. — As will be seen from what we have pre-
viously written on the diseases of sheep, they are apt to suffer
from being over-driven. Unnecessary worrying by dogs, and
blows, are invariably followed by painful results in one form or
another, and the quality of the sheep, so to speak, deteriorates,
and they will decrease in value in the eyes of would-be pur-
chasers. The terror and the extra heat from which the poor
animals suffer when driven with, unnecessary violence, often
encumbered with a heavy fleece, has an injurious effect upon the
meat, and should always be avoided as much as possible, and
feelings of humanity, as well as self-interest, point out that the
animals should only be put in the charge of humane persons
who will not abuse the trust confided to them.

SHEEP FARMING.

Profit and Uses of Sheep.

The modern system of turnip husbandry and sheep-farming
combined has had the effect of producing quite a revolution in
the course of agriculture when compared with the old methods
followed, and crops are raised with much greater rapidity than
used to be the case from the benefit derived by the land after
sheep have been placed upon it.

The direct results which are looked for, the value of the car-
case and the wool, have been influenced very much in this
country by their respective values.

At the close of the last century the finest wool manufactured
in this country used to be obtained exclusively from Spain. Next
to Spanish wool, the British short-woolled sheep furnished the
best quality in Europe.

Great exertions were made to improve the quality of English
wool, so that it should equal Spanish, and for that purpose
Merino rams were imported and crossed with the best breeds of
English sheep, especially as those known as the Eyelands, Mendip,
Wiltshire, Southdown, Shropshire, &c, but although it was found
the judicious crossings of these rams with ewes of the breeds men-
tioned resulted in wool even of the fourth descent being produced
nearly as fine as the best Spanish, and great expectations were
formed of the advantages to be derived, they were doomed to dis-
appointment, for the Merino element in the carcase makes it
unprofitable for the butcher.

A new competition also arose in the wool trade, in the shape
of German wools, which began to be imported at low prices, Saxon
and Bohemian wool superseding eventually the short wool of
Britain in the manufacture of fine cloth in this country.

The improvements which were brought about in Saxon wool
derived their origin from the same source ; the Elector Augustus
Frederick, in 1765, procured 300 rams and ewes from Spain,
and again, in 1778, imported 400 more. Application being
made to the Grown of Spain, large numbers of the most
celebrated breeds of sheep were sent over to England at the

92 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

request of George III., who earned the name of the " farmer
king," and these were widely distributed.

Although the experiment answered so well in Germany it
failed here, the failure not being due to any inferiority of soil
or climate, but to the high value of good mutton, which always
realised a high price in England ; while on the Continent the
case was quite different, the meat being comparatively of small
account, while the wool would always command a ready sale, and
experience has proved to demonstration that the improvement of
fleece and carcase cannot be carried on pari passu, and that one
must be sacrificed for the other.

Although, therefore, the value of English wool is below that
of some others, in conjunction with the carcase it is still remune-
rative to the grower, the loss in price being counterbalanced by
the increase of weight, the wool itself finding plenty of employ-
ment for inferior purposes in manufacturing.

Impoktation of Sheep.

Although considerable numbers of sheep are sent over to
England from various continental ports, we are now com-
paratively independent of foreign supplies.

Admirable crosses of stock have now for a length of time
been made in England, and these have caused the importation
of foreign sheep to be looked upon as a matter of secondary
importance. The original Herefordshire breed, called the Eye-
land, to which we have just referred — a breed patient of hunger,
and which will thrive on the scantiest fare — has been made
larger in carcase and lengthened in wool by repeated crosses,
mostly with Leicester, thus changing the character of the finest
wool which England used to produce.

Even the original long-woolled sheep have been vastly im-
proved. Leicestershire, one of the few counties which did not
possess an early breed of short-woolled sheep, had a race of long,
heavy, coarse-woolled animals, which, under the designation of
the " Old Leicesters," have thus been humorously described by
Marshall : " He has a frame remarkably loose and large, his bone

SHEEP FARMING ABROAD.

heavy, his legs long and thick, terminating in great splay feet ;
his chine, as well as his rump, sharp as a hatchet, his skin rattling
on his ribs, and his handle resembling that of a skeleton wrapped
in parchment."

Such was the unpromising raw material upon which breeders
had to work, for, although crosses with the improved Leicesters
have increased rather than have diminished the size of the
original Leicester, yet the smallness of bone and the symmetry of
form which the animals have acquired have considerably de-
creased the quantity of offal, and added very materially to the
dead weight of marketable flesh.

Before the period of improvement set in, the mutton of these
coarse sheep seldom amounted to more than half of their dead
weight, whereas now the common average is more than two-
thirds, and it is become an old saying that Dishley wethers,
when well fattened, are in the proportion of an ounce of bone to
a pound of flesh.

Rearing Sheep Abroad.

Considerable attention has been paid to the rearing of sheep
abroad, which has been done chiefly with an eye to the wool, and
a good deal of pains has been taken with this matter in Germany
especially, and in many European countries.

Many of the particulars which have been gathered together
relative to the management, breeding, and rearing of sheep
abroad, are very interesting, amongst which the rules promul-
gated in Fink's " Treatise on the Eearing of Sheep in Germany,
and the Improvement of Coarse Wool " are noteworthy. These
are to select, at the commencement of the undertaking, the finest
woolled rams and ewes that can be obtained for the first genera-
tion, for if those for the second race be not finer than those used
for the first, time will have been lost in effecting the proposed
improvement. In like manner, to employ rams for the subse-
quent breeds quite equal to those for the first, or otherwise the
intended improvement will be retarded. If an unimproved ewe
be tupped by a ram of a mixed breed, and which has only one-

STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

fourth pure blood in him, the offspring will only have one-eighth
of that race ; and by continuing to propagate in that manner, a
complete separation of the two breeds will be at length effected.

While on this subject, we may as well quote the progressive
scale of the amelioration of wool by the Spanish cross, given by
Dr. Parry at the time when the merino sheep were exciting so
much attention in this country.

The first cross of a new breed gives to the lamb half of the
ram's blood, or 50 per cent., the second 75 ditto, the third 87
ditto, the fourth 93|, at which period, it is said, that if the ewes
have been judiciously selected, the difference of wool between the
original stock and the mixed breed is scarcely to be discerned by
the most able practitioners.

Although these hints are suggested for the improvement of
wool only, yet the principle will be readily seen and applied in
all breeding matters, whatever the object may be, for one can
breed for any points that may be required.

The raising of sheep, however, in continental countries has
been entirely dwarfed and thrown into the shade by the enormous
proportions attained by the business in our antipodean colonies,
and thousands upon thousands of bales of wool are now sent to
us annually in the aggregate from New South Wales, Queens-
land, Port Phillip, New Zealand, Tasmania, Adelaide, and also
the Cape — Cape wool being sold in large quantities at the
Colonial Sale Booms in London at every series of the wool sales,
which attract large numbers of' continental wool buyers — espe-
cially Germans and French — who keenly compete for all the best
lots.

We must suppose that the meat of sheep finds its lowest level
in the Argentine Eepublic, from a passage in Mrs. Brassey's
entertaining book, "A Voyage in the Sunbeam," in which that
lady describes a visit paid to an estancia two leagues across the
Pampas, belonging to a Mr. Frer, who farms on an extensive
scale, possessing 24,000 sheep and 500 horses, besides goodly
herds of cattle. The authoress says : " The locusts have not
visited this part of the country, and the pastures are in fine con-
dition after the late rains, while the sheep look proportionately

TERMS OF WOOL.

well. We passed a large grasseria, or place where sheep are
killed at the rate of seven in a minute, and are skinned, cut up,
and boiled down for tallow in an incredibly short space of time,
the residue of the meat being used in the furnace as fuel! "

Technical Teems op Wool.

Each kind and class of wool at the colonial wool sales is care-
fully sorted and sold under distinctive descriptions, as fleece,
scoured, skin, locks and pieces, greasy, &c, so that each buyer
has the opportunity of obtaining the precise thing he may
require.

The two main divisions of wool are those of the long-woolled
breeds, which are termed "combing," and that of the short-
woolled, called " carding." The combing sorts are chiefly used in
the manufacture of baize, flannels, carpets, and other coarse kinds
of goods, and takes its name from being passed in the course of
its manipulation through combs that have upright steel teeth,
the design of which is to separate the filaments and assort them
evenly for the purpose of being spun ; while the carding kinds,
which are used in the manufacture of finer fabrics, are pulled
crosswise between boards, termed " cards," which are furnished
with crooked teeth composed of wire, which break it minutely
into long rolls, which are spun in a certain manner.

The filaments of both, after their original properties have been
designated, are called "pile," the fineness of which is gauged by
the diameter of their fibre, while their length and strength con-
stitute the " staple," and their serrated roughness denotes that
"felting" quality which cloth manufacturers recognise as a
material advantage in matting the cloth under the fulling mill.

This latter is peculiar to the short-woolled breeds. The freer
the wool is from " kemps " or hairs, and the softer and more
pliable it is, as well as possessing the necessary degree of elas-
ticity, the more it is appreciated. It should also be uniformly
white, and as free from stain as possible.

The chief points that are considered in the choice of wool are —
freedom of the pile from " kemps " or "stickel hairs," which are

96 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

of a brownish, colour, and short, pointed, and brittle, and most
often found in inferior breeds ; uniformity of strength throughout
the fibre, and good even colour. If the colour be bad, it is un-
suited for manufacturing purposes where delicate shades are
needed to be dyed, or for white goods ; the length of staple, as
constituting the particular uses for which the wool is destined,
that is to say, if long, for combing, if short and curly, for carding ;
its degree of softness and elasticity, upon the union of which will
depend its suitability for the manufacture of fine cloth ; its felt-
ing property, before alluded to, which, when combined with
moisture, causes it to cohere, and forms a pliable compact fabric.

As wool varies considerably in its natural properties, as well as
that each fleece contains portions of a different quality, the ser-
vices of the wool-stapler have to be called in, who acts between
the breeder and the manufacturer, it requiring great nicety of
discrimination to separate the various kinds one from another.

"When first shorn the fleece is usually sorted into three kinds.
The "prime," which is separated from the neck and back; the
" seconds," which are taken from the tail and legs ; the " thirds,"
got from the breast and beneath the belly.

The same classification was familiar of old to the buyers
of Spanish wool, the bags of which were separately marked
"E.," "F.," "S.," which stood for rafinos, or prime; finos,
fine ; and secundos, seconds ; and occasionally "T.," for terceras,
thirds or inferior ; but for a great many years there has been a
much more discriminating classification, as many as fourteen
sorts being separated by some, but commonly nine, as — prime ;
choice and choice grey ; super and middle grey ; head, downright
and third grey ; seconds ; abb ; livery ; britch ; and waste.

CHAPTER VI.

HOESES.

Varieties of Horses — The Lincoln — The Suffolk Punch — The
Cleveland — The Clydesdale — The Irish Garron — Rearing
Foals — Training Horses for Farm Work — Advice in Buying —
Accommodation for Horses — Labour Required for Superintend-
ing Horses — Feeding — Summer Feeding — Summer Feeding in
Holland and Flanders — Feeding Horses in Scotland — Method
of Feeding Horses in Ireland — Why Horses eat Dirt — Winter
Feeding — Feeding for Exhibition — Grooming — Exercise —
Shoeing — Breeding — Parturition — Foals.

Vaeieties of Houses.

There are five distinctive breeds of farm horses in Great Britain
and Ireland, and these may be said to be natives of the country.
These are, the Lincoln, the Cleveland, the Suffolk, the Irish
Garron, and the Clydesdale of Scotland. The latter have the
credit of being reared in Lanarkshire, but they are found in all
the southern parts of Scotland.

The Lincoln. — The Lincoln is the old black English horse
crossed by Flemish, as they are generally termed, or Dutch and
Friesland mares ; and are horses of great strength, fit for drawing
heavy loads, and may be seen to perfection in some of the
London brewers' drays. Notwithstanding their size and weight,
these are often found trotting along through the streets of
London at a smart pace, dragging a drayful of barrels or other
goods.

It must be remarked, however, that the dray horse is not always
black, as there are bays, a great many browns, as well as greys
and roans.

STOCK KEEPING FOB AMATEURS.

In their natural state on a farm, they are slow ; and smaller
horses are generally thought to answer better in bearing fatigue,
in being quicker steppers, and requiring less food, even proportion-
ately to their size, and that, too, of an inferior quality.

There are farmers in Lincolnshire, and some of the neighbouring
counties, who breed these horses with considerable profit. They are
mostly sold as two-year old colts, the breeders retaining the
mares for their own work, and for the purpose of breeding.

Those who purchase them, work them moderately till they are
four years old, feeding them well during the time, and get them
np into high condition as regards abundance of flesh to take the
eye of the London brewers, for whose particular use most of these
horses are bred.

Perhaps £40 may be paid for these colts at two years of age,
and by the time they are four years they may fetch £80, making
£40 profit, besides working moderately for two years.

But although this looks a paying matter at first sight, that it
is really so has been very much questioned. It is assumed by the
farmer that the horse earns the food he consumes during the two
years ; but this is considered very doubtful, for they rarely come to
perfection till five or six years of age, during which time they
must be treated very tenderly, and cost more than their work will
repay.

It appears to be a matter of pride with the London brewers
to use' these ponderous animals, which are frequently seen 17
hands high, but, whether they are suited or not for this peculiar
work, there is no doubt but that the smaller breeds are better
adapted for ordinary farm operations.

It has been pointed out that there is a great drawback attend-
ing this large breed of horses, in the tendency, which they possess
in a remarkable degree, to weak and convex feet ; and to ossifica-
tions of the cartilages, and the pasterns. The predisposition to
the former has been considered owing to their great weight press-
ing on the soft horn, induced by moist, fat pastures, and the
latter most probably owing to the large amount of phosphates
contained in the food which is given to them.

Farmers from a distance, who, not quite understanding this

VARIETIES OF HORSES.

branch of rural economy, have witnessed in the counties where
these large horses are raised, four big animals slowly drawing
a plough, have had their ridicule excited, not aware that these
were simply young cattle being trained for work, and only being
gently broken in.

The Suffolk-Punch. — The Suffolk-Punch is an extremely useful
breed of horse that appears to have been kept tolerably pure for
a great length of time, until a desire for improvement sprang up,
and crosses were made that were not always judicious.

It has been described as being a large horse in a small com-
pass, seldom exceeding 15-g- hands high, and more frequently
under. For farmers' use they are considered better than any
other kind of horse in the southern and eastern counties of
England. Steady going cobs for the use of elderly squires and
country clergymen have been obtained from them, and although
they can be met with in the original breed, a good deal of
crossing at one time and another has been practised upon them.
They are mostly chestnut colour, straight backed, broad and
arched across the loins, with short couples, full and lengthy
quarters, sinewy fore legs, and an open chest ; the shoulder low,
but well set for draught and the collar, but rather wanting depth
in the chest, and being somewhat coarse headed. Inferior horses
have ragged hips and goose rumps, but these are by no means
common, and the breed generally is a great prize taker. Though
horses of the pure breed are mostly of a chestnut colour, sorrel
and bay are to be sometimes seen.

The old breed as a draught horse was (and is now when he
is to be met with) unrivalled tugging along weights that seemed
utterly disproportioned to his size, and, at the same time, doing
the work cheerfully, with all the spirit and pluck of a thorough-
bred, till his strength was completely exhausted.

It is often deplored by the surviving members of the last
generation that the breed has been so crossed, that it is a matter
of great difficulty to get a horse of the original pure breed.

The Cleveland. — This is a fine large breed of horses, measuring
from 16 hands to 17 hands high, with a good dash of blood in
them, and they are active, powerful animals.

h 2

100 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

In the old coaching days they used to be commonly used as
heavy coach horses, but the numerous crosses made with the view
of improving their speed have considerably altered the old strain.

From the prevalence of the colour they are commonly called
Cleveland Bays, and though a good deal crossed, as we have
remarked, they retain much of their original excellence. As
they have a quick step, their value has been recognised in plough-
ing, when driven by whip-reins, though compact horses of smaller
forms, are, perhaps, more desirable for the ordinary operations of
husbandry. The breed originally was commonly found in every
part of Yorkshire and the neighbouring counties.

The Clydesdale. — The Clydesdale is an ancient race, and is
deservedly a favourite throughout the north, being extremely
docile and steady, but the old breed is said to have been crossed
by one of the Dukes of Hamilton, more than a couple of centuries
ago, with Flanders stallions.

They are celebrated as draught horses, and may be seen in
towns like Glasgow, dragging enormous loads behind them, their
great development of shoulder and drawing power being very
striking, 30cwt., besides the weight of the cart, is a common load
for one horse, which traverses regularly twenty miles of road a
day.

Mares are kept at moderate work to within a short time of
their foaling, and the foals are weaned about the end of October.
As a breed they require good feeding ; they will work well, but
they must be fed well, some of the Scotch coal-carters, it is said
feeding their horses to the extent of a bushel of oats or beans
daily. They do not get anything like this quantity of food with
farmers, who give them from half a peck to a peck of corn daily,
when doing ordinary farm jobs, but more if they are made to
work hard, feeding them partly on potatoes, carrots, and a small
portion of linseed, either in the form of oil or cake, given once
a day in steamed food.

The Irish Garron. — The native Irish horse of the mountains
is small in size, being about 14 hands, and light-limbed, but low
in the shoulder, short-legged, with close pasterns, and he is very
sure-footed. He is very hardy, but of no great value as a farm

REARING HORSES.

101

horse, and the attempts which have been made to improve the
breed do not appear to have been successful, except towards
the north, where some improvement has been effected by crossing
with the Galloway breed, which is a stoutly-built horse, somewhat
between a cart-horse and a saddle-horse. When long journeys
were performed on horse-back, before stage-coaches and railroads,
the Galloway was a breed much in fashion, and valued for his
enduring qualities on the road.

The native Irish horse is hardy and indefatigable, though
often he has to put up with very bare fare, and he makes a
capital roadster. A good many horses of one sort and another
come from Ireland, but it has been used against many of the
farmers there as a matter of reproach, that almost everyone who
has 100 acres under tillage keeps one or two breeding mares,
which are worked to within a fortnight or so of the time for
dropping their foals, the colts being mostly sold at three years
old, and that the only qualification that is thought of regarding
the stock is the size of the sire and the price of the covering,
which is seldom to exceed three half-crowns, or, at most, half a
barrel of oats. The system upon which matters used to be con-
ducted, it is said, has prevented improvement, shambling blood
horses being used to cross the native stock, which has produced
a race of mongrels.

It cannot, however, be a matter of surprise that small Irish
farmers desire to add to their gains by bringing up a few horses
annually, which many manage to do at a small cost, and by
following economical methods of feeding.

Bearing Foals.

As to the desirability of rearing foals on a farm, Mr. Hooper,
in a paper read before the Ballineen Farmers' Club, says :
" The farmer may not have all the appliances and arrangements
of a stud farm, with its paddock, open yards, loose boxes, &c. ;
still, he may like to rear a foal or two every year, and, without
entering deeply into the question whether it pays to breed farm
horses, I think most will agree with me that it is better for

102 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

a farmer to have horses to sell than horses to buy. More-
over, few farmers can afford to give up the whole time of
their brood mares to breeding, nor do I see any reason why
they should. Neither the mare nor the foal she is carrying
will be any the worse for her regular work on the farm, pro-
vided she is well fed and not put to extra hard work, nor to work
to which she has been unaccustomed. Of course, the nearer
the mare gets to her time of foaling the lighter must be the
work required of her, and a week or two before the time she
should be left perfectly idle, especially if not in high condition.
If the mare foals very early in the season, and the weather is bad,
she and the foal should be put in a loose box at night, and allowed
as much liberty by day as the weather will permit ; but if she
does not foal before the month of April, she may be kept in a
sheltered field day and night, and, unless the pasture is very good,
a feed of oats should be given her every morning. Now, we ah
know that the foal would be better if his dam had nothing to do
but to suckle him until he is old enough to wean ; but I am
speaking of rearing horses on farms where the work of the farm
is of primary, and the rearing of foals of secondary, importance.
In general, then, the mare may be put to work a fortnight after
foaling, and when she. is at work, the foal should be shut up in a
light, airy, loose box, and the mare taken in to suckle him at
intervals of not more than two hours. Of course, the mare must
be highly fed when doing this double work, and should have as
much green food as possible. In addition to the dam's milk, I
always give the foals of my working mares a quart of cow's
milk, brought to a natural heat — a pint about an hour and a
half after the mare has gone to work in the morning, and a pint
in the afternoon. At first the young thing is very shy, and is
frightened at being caught and having his nose held into tie
milk ; but he soon learns to expect it, and will come and drink
it out of the vessel when held to him. When the turnips are
all sown and there is very little work for the horses, the foal can
get two or three months of uninterrupted liberty with his dam. I
find the most convenient time to wean is when the working horses
are brought into the stable at night. By that means the foal

TRAINING HORSES.

103

is accustomed to the company of the other colts (or a donkey will
answer the purpose, if there are no other colts on the farm), and
will stay there quietly without his dam. In about another month
(according to the season) I bring him in also at night, putting
him with another of the same age, or not more than a year older,
into a loose box, and giving them as much chopped furze and
hay as they will eat, and three or four pounds of crushed oats ;
and here let me remark, there is no time of his life at which a
horse gives a better return for a few oats than the first winter.
I turn them out the whole day in all weathers, excepting very
hard frost or snow, and put them out altogether as soon as the
weather and grass are good enough. The feeding the second
winter is merely a repetition of the first."

Tbaining Hoeses foe Faem Wobk.

It must be admitted that, as a rule, the great intelligence
possessed by the horse is not appreciated and made the most of
by farmers in general.

Next to early working and bad and careless feeding, the bad
breaking-in of horses is much to be deprecated, for, unfortunately,
amongst farmers, the common way is to put the horse in the
harrow when he is three years old, and, should he be lively and
spirited, work him down ; if stubborn or sulky, flog him unmer-
cifully, very often about the head, recourse being seldom had to
gentle means of training.

By this course of usage the animal grows vicious, his temper
being ruined by ill-treatment, when with proper usage his natural
intelligence would be considerably more developed, and he would
strain every nerve in the service of his master. Of the attach-
ment and fidelity of the horse there have been given many
remarkable instances ; and young horses, instead of being used
with severity, should be coaxed to their work.

If kind usage and gentle means fail with an intractable horse,
harsher measures may then be adopted, but these should be used
with temper. With horses it will be found that, in nine cases
out of ten, gentleness succeeds better than severity.

104 STOCK KEEPING FOB AMATEURS.

It will be found the best mode of training horses to farm
work, after accustoming them to be handled and the sound of
the attendant's voice, to place them in the plough with a steady
old horse, under the care of a sober, good-tempered, intelligent
ploughman.

When two years old off they may be brought into use, or in the
course of that summer, but they must not be worked too much,
and only for half-days at a time, for their immaturity will not
allow them to bear greater exertion until they have reached the
age of four years. By the gradual increase of their labour they
will then be brought to the full extent of their powers, and their
strength may be fully employed without injury, provided they are
not made to exert it too much by taxing their speed. In the
ordinary way a working horse will seldom suffer by any fairly
managed labour, provided it is leisurely executed — that is to say,
without any very material increase of their usual and natural
walking pace.

Advice m Buying.

As the subjects treated upon in the present work are those
which relate to farm operations, it does not come within its
scope to speak of the various horses reared for special or definite
purposes, such as racehorses, carriage-horses, &c, except in a
cursory manner ; but it will be quite in place if we make
slight reference to saddle horses and hackneys, which an agri-
culturist may either require for his own use or may have an
opportunity of purchasing, which he may do either with the
view of keeping it permanently or of improving its condition
and selling it again to an advantage.

Good carriage horses and good hunters are to be had easily
enough by those who are willing to pay the price for them, but
to get a good hack is a much more difficult matter, because an
union of excellent qualities is necessary to make up a good
hackney.

He should be good-looking, strong, and well bred ; be safe and
sound, an easy and fast trotter, and a good walker — that is to
say, he should be able to walk four miles an hour and trot ten

BUYING HORSES.

105

within the same limit. Should he be required either to canter
or gallop, though these are not the lines he is expected to shine
in, he ought to be able to do either and command a certain
amount of speed.

While, on the one hand, he must not be lazy, on the other, he
must not be skittish or restive, and neither shy, stop short, nor
turn round. It will be seen that to possess all these diversified
qualities, which make up the sum and substance of a good hack-
ney, requires an animal which will be somewhat difficult to
obtain.

Where it can be done, it will be found the best plan to look at
a horse first, as he stands in the stable, which will give an
opportunity of noticing whether he is gentle to approach and free
from vice ; an opportunity will be given also of inspecting his
forelegs, and whether he points or favours either of his feet, or
shakes or knuckles at his knees or fetlocks, or stands with his
legs too much under his body. Either of these peculiarities
must be counted as defects and drawbacks to the horse.

The eyes and teeth next require examination. If the eyes are
small, shrunken, cloudy, or contain large specks, these are grave
faults, which indicate that the sight is defective, though some-
times the outward appearance is not always to be trusted alone ;
for horses which have become blind through the optic nerve
being paralysed have at times exhibited clear transparent eyes.
If the teeth are very long, or project horizontally from the lower
jaw, or have three corned faces, it is a proof that the animal is
an old one. On the other hand, if some of the teeth are smaller
and whiter than the others, he is perhaps too young.

The horse on being led from the stable should not be allowed
to be hurried or driven, but the intending purchaser should take
care that he is walked and trotted gently, without being excited
either by fear or emulation, by which means his natural action
may be seen, and whether he stumbles or goes lame, violent
action when driven concealing the last-named defects very often.

The horse should next be mounted, previous observation
having been taken of his general appearance, height and
strength, and the state of his limbs and feet. At first he

106 ' STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

should be walked carefully in order to ascertain whether he
walks fast and safe, and if he shies or is restive, The pace
should then be increased in order to discover whether the animal
is sluggish or impetuous, ending by a gallop, to find out if his
wind be sound or if he is a roarer. A good hack should be
free from excess of muscular development, with good, deep,
well developed shoulders.

In buying a cart mare with an eye to breeding, choice should
be made of one long and roomy in proportion to her height,
and full in the flank, signs which are a promise of her becoming
a good nurse. Her temper should be gentle, and she should be
possessed of a sound constitution ; she should be free from
hereditary defects, and have those desirable points that are
wanted to be transmitted to her progeny.

Accommodation foe Houses.

In some old homesteads the teams are often huddled together
into low-roofed, narrow, dark, and unstalled buildings, where
fumes arise from stagnant urine and accumulating heaps of fer-
menting litter, the consequence being that though the horses
may be sleek from good feeding, their coats are foul and their
heels greasy.

A stable for farm horses should be roomy, clean, and well
ventilated, and each horse should have from 1200 to 1300
cubical feet of space allotted to him. The French put the
requirements of an ox or a horse below this, calculating that if
there are 800 to 900 cubic feet of space in a properly-ventilated
building for each it will be sufficient.

These matters are now much better understood than they used
to be, and the first conditions which are insisted upon with
stables is that the whole site of the buildings be thoroughly
drained and that good ventilation be secured. The absence of an
upper story or loft is desirable, but if there is one, there should
be openings in the roof to allow of the escape of the heated air.
Plenty of light is desirable and necessary, so that dirt may not
be overlooked, and due provision must be made for the removal

ACCOMMODATION FOR HORSES. 107

of urine and excrement in the most complete manner, and as
speedily as possible. .

Each horse should have his own stall, and, for horses of the
ordinary size, 6ft. is considered the proper width, but for small
horses 5ft. Gin. is sufficient — the object being to have it of such
dimensions that the horse cannot fairly turn himself round in
it, while yet not being sufficiently narrow as to cause the animal
to be uncomfortable in it.

It is desirable to have a .non-absorbent surface to form the
floor of the stable, which should be so pitched as to allow the
urine to flow from off it easily. With this object in view, many
floorings of stables are made to slope 6in. from the front wall.

This steep slope is, however, by no means necessary, and in the
first place it causes the bedding to be kept up with difficulty,
and next it is sometimes the occasion of injury to the horses, by
straining their hind quarters.

To avoid these results, as the staling of a horse only reaches
about half way up the stall, if the floor from that point is made
to slope very gently from the sides towards the centre, the water
is much more easily carried away than by any other manner, a
fall of a couple of inches being all that is necessary. A channel
for the water to pass off is generally also formed at the horse's
heels, extending along the stable at about 10ft. distance from the
front wall.

Underneath the channel a drain pipe should be laid, having
an eye provided with a trap, and a grating at the centre of each
stall.

Some good practical farmers, particularly in the county of
Suffolk, keep their teams, not in stables, but entirely in open
yards, or "hammels," surrounded with well-littered sheds for
them to go under at will, and it has been proved by experience
that their general health may be as well maintained in this
manner, if not better, than in stables. In the eastern district
of Suffolk it used to be the practice not to allow the horses to
remain in the stable at night, but to turn them out when fed
in the evening, by which means they became hardy, and were
neither subject to swelled legs nor to cold and inflammation,

108 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

which are often caught through changes of the atmosphere,
and a horse being removed from a warm place to stand for a
time in a cold air.

These yards are made to do duty during the whole year, for
summer soiling and winter feeding ; there are, however, three very
principal drawbacks to this plan. The first, that horses are
somewhat exposed to accidents when a number are thus put up
loose together ; the second, that their food cannot be so equally
proportioned to each separate animal ; and the third, that it is
not possible to keep them equally clean.

Labour. Bequired for Superintending Horses.

In the stables of gentlemen, where the horses are kept
remarkably neat, a good deal of labour is often expended, but
common working horses require only a little grooming, yet their
coats must be kept clear of scurf, and their feet should be well
attended to. In some counties the rough hair which encumbers
their fetlocks is a useful protection against flints, but a much
less quantity would often serve this purpose than what is allowed
to remain on, which, when clogged with dirt, is apt to bring on
grease.

There are some carters who entertain such an affection for the
animals they are associated with that they would rather starve
themselves than their horses, though there are others, on the
other hand, who are only too prone to neglect them. Such
men are, however, unfitted for their occupation. Excess of care
and regard, however, producing mistaken kindness, is apt to cause
an injury to the animals, for an affectionate carter often does
not hesitate to pilfer corn, thinking the best thing he can do to
his charges is to cram them to the utmost.

This extra care, however, both on the score of health and
economy, ought to be discouraged. The chaff as well as the corn
should be weighed and measured, and even the hay, where it is
commonly kept loose, should be trussed, so as to enable it to be
served out accurately. The expense and trouble of binding will
be more than repaid by the economy of consumption and saving

FEEDING HORSES.

109

of waste. It has been justly observed that in stinting the quan-
tity of food given to horses — so that it is not unduly done — causes
the men to become more careful ; they look upon it as something,
and know that if they use it extravagantly to-day they will run
short on the morrow, when the cattle are allowanced. The servant
by this means learns to be frugal, while the cattle are fed regu-
larly, and he will give them a little at a time, so that they eat it
up completely, and it is not blown over and wasted.

Feeding.

Corn is the most nourishing food that can be given to horses,
and oats are generally considered as the best adapted to their
constitution. Close observers have, however, remarked that grain
of other species, when mixed with a proportionate quantity of
straw chopped fine, or bran, to supply the place of the husk of
the oats — without which no corn should be given — effects the
same results when supplied in the same relative proportion as
to weight.

It may happen that a farmer may have grain by him other
than oats which it would be desirable for him to use in feeding
his horses, rather than be money out of pocket by purchasing
oats. Horses, when not hungry, will endeavour to separate
corn so mixed from the chaff or bran, and to prevent this it
is customary to sprinkle the food with water. Should this course
be followed, the greatest care should be taken to have the
manger thoroughly cleansed, for nothing is so offensive as such
food when it has become stale.

It is essential that grain of every description should be in a
perfectly dry state to cause it to be fit to feed horses with, and
free from the condition of fermentation which arises from damp-
ness. In a wet season, oats which have been harvested in bad
condition have been known to occasion epidemical disorders
amongst cattle, and by giving oats to their horses too soon
after they have been reaped, farmers have inflicted severe injury
upon them, though corn which has sprouted is not unwholesome,
provided it has not heated and has not a bad smell ; and barley

110 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

which has been slightly steeped for two or three days, without
being dry malted, is considered particularly nutritive.

The stomach of the horse is constituted in an entirely different
manner to that of the ox ; and while the latter can dispose of a
considerable quantity of food at a meal, the former is adapted to
consume only a moderate quantity, and frequently the horse's
stomach contains about three gallons, whilst the ox has four
stomachs, the first of which is considerably larger than that of
the horse.

The confined space of the horse's stomach would seem to in-
dicate that he was intended by nature to consume grain, the
formation of the molar teeth confirming this opinion. Poor,
bulky food, such as ordinary roots, is not, strictly speaking, suit-
able to the horse, though it is very often resorted to for reasons
of economy, even carrots, which are the best of them, and which
are eaten readily, containing eighty-five per cent, of water.

These are a capital aid, but they should not be depended upon
alone, but used conjointly with more concentrated food. Good
hay is the cheapest dry food which can be given to horses, when
the nutriment it contains is taken into account, but is too bulky
by itself. Oats are reckoned to be one-third dearer than hay,
when given in an equivalent quantity.

Beans are more concentrated than oats, and form a capital
staple of food as regards their flesh-making properties, and
they are also cheaper ; but they are open to this objection, that
if given too freely, being very heating and stimulating, they are
apt to produce inflammatory swellings of the limbs. They are,
however, given very advantageously in conjunction with oats
when horses are heavily worked, one-third to two-thirds of oats
being about the best proportion to give. Some use a larger
proportion — as much as a half — but as beans are astringent in
their nature, when they are cheap and oats dear, and the
temptation for economy's sake leads to the somewhat free use
of beans, it will be advisable to give bran with them also,
bran being relaxing in its effects. The two, however, are not,
even when combined, entirely capable of supplying the absence
of oats, as both are deficient in starch.

FEEDING HOUSES.

Ill

When roots and cheap substitutes for corn are given, the food
should be steamed or cooked. It assists the masticating powers
of old horses and is a safeguard against ravenous feeding. To
each feed of steamed food 4oz. of common salt should be
added.

Peas are sometimes given to farm horses without any pre-
judicial effect, but they should not be given in summer, at which
season they are found to be too heating. They should also be
at least twelve months old, and at that age what they have
shrunk up in quantity will be made up for in quality.

In feeding horses, it is best, as a rule, to give concentrated
food; for although it has been observed that when a large
quantity of hay has been given, with the view of minimising the
quantity of corn, although horses will acquire more fat than
upon the same proportion of grain, yet they are not capable of
doing so much hard work. On the other hand, when the hay is
diminished and the corn increased, although, perhaps, the horses
may get absolutely thin, yet the flesh they have upon them is
firm, and they are capable of more continued exertion.

It has been estimated that a horse consumes one-eighth less of
meadow hay than of that made from the artificial grasses, and
that the different forms or qualities of hay stand in the following
relation to one another : In the ordinary way, 81b. of meadow
hay are equal in support and nourishment to 31b. of oats ;
71b. of saintfoin, tares, clover, or other succulent hay, are sup-
posed to be equivalent to the same quantity, saintfoin standing
the highest in the scale, but 91b. of hay will be required if made
from poor pastures.

Old hay is much better than new for horses; the longer it
stands in the stack the better it is, up to a certain point, that of
one year of age being very wholesome. The second growth, or
after-math, is not so nourishing, and should be given to the
cows where there are any. In order to preserve the freshness of
the aroma of the hay for horses, it is desirable to get it into the
stack as soon as it is properly dried.

Summer Feeding. — In old times the summer feeding of horses
was almost entirely confined to pasturage, but of late years the

112

STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

advantages of soiling upon green food horses which have not
very hard work to do has become very general.

There are both advantages and disadvantages connected with
grazing. A chief benefit consists in its requiring but little
attendance, and, being the most natural form, is consequently
the most healthful, and is therefore to be preferred for all young
cattle which can be spared from constant labour. But for horses
at regular work there are several disadvantages connected with it.
These are the loss of time in getting them up from the field ;
the indisposition to work, of which they acquire a habit, from
being at large ; their being subject to suffer from the heat, or being
tormented by flies ; the waste and injury done to the grass if it
be valuable land, by their trampling upon it with their iron-shod
feet, and the loss in the value of their dung and urine.

On the other hand, from the practice of soiling, there is a more
economical consumption of grass, whether it be natural, which is
mown for them, or artificial, than by grazing. There is a satis-
factory accumulation of manure ready to be placed on the land
wherever it may be needed, and the cattle enjoy cool and quiet in
the midday heat beneath sheds or in stables, where they are
always ready when wanted without a man's having an exciting
chase after them with a halter in one hand and a sieve of oats in
the other.

As, during summer, there is a long interval of rest between the
morning and afternoon work generally, the carters can in this
time cut the necessary quantity of food that is required for use.

It is a good plan to partially follow both systems in the
summer feeding of horses, so that they may be both grazed out
and soiled. They may be fed upon cut clover, or other artificial
grasses, in the middle of the day, between yokings, and turned
out at night into well sheltered meadows or inclosures. They
thus enjoy the advantage of being under cover during the heat of
the day, when they will be sheltered from flies, and will be able
to feed at their ease, while from being pastured out during the
night they will be able to select those herbs and grasses which
instinct teaches them is necessary for their health. All animals
prefer a variety of grasses, which they cannot obtain when

FEEDING HORSES.

113

soiled. Exposure to the niglit air in summer time is also highly-
favourable to their health.

Lucerne is capital feed for soiling purposes, but as it requires
a peculiar quality of land to grow it, it cannot universally be
cultivated. Tares also come in very useful — in the first place,
because the winter species is ready earlier than any others,
excepting rye grass, and furnishes a weightier crop. Commonly,
tares are ready for cutting by the middle of May, for, if left
till they are quite ripe, they will become unfit for soiling before
the crop is completely used ; and though there may be some
loss in using them at the commencement, it will be made up
by the saving at the latter end ; they have the great advantage
of giving the opportunity of beginning the soiling earlier than it
could be otherwise done.

Before they are off clover will be ready, and the tares then
standing can be made into hay. In its turn, again, by the time
the clover begins to get strawey and loses its succulence, spring
tares will come in, which, if they have been sown at intervals of
about a fortnight, will last until the second cut of clover is
ready.

In some parts of the country a very good system is followed of
saving a portion of rye alone, to be cut green, then another
portion of rye with tares, and afterwards the remainder entirely
with tares. The rye comes first into use, and assists in raising
the earlier tares, while those of later growth do not require such
nursing.

A succession of green herbage may thus be secured for the horses
for four months throughout the summer and autumn, without
having recourse to the meadows at all, the horses requiring,
while thus fed, but very little corn. Indeed, horses can be fed
and kept in fair condition and worked throughout the summer
without any corn at all, yet the possibility of this being done in
no wise interferes with our previous views, as to the apparent
intention of Nature with regard to what constitutes the fittest
kind of food for a horse.

It is a good plan to give some green food along with the corn
and chaff, before the usual period comes round of feeding entirely

114 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

on dry fodder, so that the change from green to dry and dry to
green should be gradual.

It is a well understood principle amongst thoroughly experienced
persons who have made this subject a study, that the custom of
giving corn along with green food is unprofitable. The grain
when thus mixed passes rapidly off the stomach, and is never
thoroughly digested.

Corn is prescribed to be given to those horses whose increased
labour and exertion demand an addition of substantial food, but
that corn should be given only in the morning and at night,
accompanied with sufficient chaff to give it the necessary con-
sistence, and the green food should only be given at mid-day.
This precaution is very frequently omitted by numbers of people,
and it is very common with them to allow half the usual quantity
of corn, without taking into account the effect of the watery
juices of the green food upon the digestion, by which means a
great portion of the nutriment contained in the grain is thrown
away, as it were. .On the other hand, when horses have been
fed exclusively upon dry food, a little green is imperatively
called for.

Summer Feeding in Holland and Flanders. — According to Bad-
cliff's report of the agriculture of East and West Flanders,
the practice of summer soiling there must extend over a consider-
able time, the feed of the horses being limited to half an acre of
meadow grass, cut and carried to the stables, from the middle of
May till the middle of June, from which time till the end of
August one-sixth of an acre of clover is added with 21b. daily of
beans ; and thence to November, when the winter feeding com-
mences, the clover is replaced by an equal quantity of carrots.

A farm of 200 acres is mentioned in the report as being
cultivated by eight horses, each of which gets daily in winter
151b. of hay, 101b. of straw, and 81b. of oats, and, after every
feed, a bucket of water richly whitened with rye or oatmeal. In
summer clover is substituted for hay, but the other feeding
remains the same, and the "white water " is never omitted.

Feeding Horses in Scotland. — In Scotland, well-washed turnips
and potatoes are given steamed and mixed with sifted wheat chaff,

FEEDING HORSES.

115

oat husks being avoided, as they are thought to be injurious.
621b. weight of unsteamed turnips and potatoes produce 471b.
steamed. To each feed of steamed food 4oz. of common salt are
added, mixed up with one-fourth part of a bushel of wheat chaff,
weighing about IJlb., a greater quantity of wheat chaff being
thought to have a laxative effect. In spring, bruised beans and
oats are given instead ,of bruised oats alone. From June to
October, when horses are doing heavy work, such as drawing
manure, harvest work, or working the green crops, they are fed
with cut grass and tares in the house, and about 71b. of oats
each day given at two meals, and increasing or decreasing the
quantity according to the work they have to do. Good Scotch
farmers disagree with turning out those horses to grass which
are regularly worked, considering that the changes in the climate
often lay the foundation of diseases which they escape by being
housed.

Method of Feeding Horses in Ireland.— -Upon the occasion of
Mr. Hooper reading a paper on the rearing and feeding of live
stock, at a meeting of the Ballineen Farmers' Club, he gave
an interesting account of the method he pursued in feeding
his horses, which is well worthy of notice, for the practical
details which are given. "A farmer," says Mr. Hooper, "not
only requires to feed his horses well, so as to keep them up to
their work, but also economically. To this end it is indispen-
sable, in my opinion, that he possesses two machines, viz., the
furze cutter and oat bruiser; the price of the hay and oats s'aved
will soon repay the cost of both. I find that my horses do as
well upon 1011b. of crushed oats as on 141b. of whole oats.
They are fed in the following manner : From the time they are'
put to regular work after harvest and stabled at night they get
3|lb. of crushed oats the first thing in the morning (at five o'clock
in the autumn and spring months, when they go to work at half-
past six ; and at six, or a little before it, in the dark winter
mornings, when they cannot work till after seven), about an hour
and a half before they go to work. At twelve o'clock they get
another 8Jlt>. of oats and a pannier of chopped furze, and at night
another 3-|-lb. of oats, and two full panniers of furze. On this

i 2

116 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

feeding I have kept several horses in really good working condition
all this winter ; but I have some horses (not of my own rearing)
which will not eat enough furze, and to them we give a little hay
in addition. About the end of March the furze becomes less
nutritious, and we substitute hay for it ; and, as the days are then
long and the work hard, we give, in addition to the three feeds of
oats, a small bucket full of boiled swedes, mixed with a little
meal or bran, to each horse at eight o'clock in the evening. I
do not allow the cost of the meal or bran to exceed Is. per week
for each horse, so that the food, including turnips and firing,
costs something less than a feed of oats. If the turnips are
finished before we can cut any grass or vetches, I give a feed of
boiled barley instead ; this costs as much as a feed of oats exclusive
of the firing. As soon as grass or vetches can be substituted for
the hay, I find two feeds of oats sufficient without any boiled food.
As soon as the turnips are all sown, I turn my horses out, and as
there is then very little work to be done, and only one, or at most
two, are required to be at work at the same time till harvest, I
give them no more oats. This run out to grass during the
summer months I consider is essential to the horse's health.

" The cost of each horse per annum will thus be as follows :
lO^lb. of oats a day, reckoning the oats at the extreme price of
Is. a stone, will be 9d., i.e., 5s. 3d. a week, or £6 16s. 6d. for
twenty-six weeks. The cost of the furze is merely the rent of
the land on which it grows, as there is no expense attending its
cultivation.; the cost of preparing it is about Is. a horse per
week; this gives 26s. to be added to the £6 16s. 6d., making the
cost of feeding for twenty six weeks, from October to March,
£8 2s. 6d. We now come to eight weeks during which the horse
is fed on hay, and has an extra feed of boiled food at night, to
be reckoned at the same price as a feed of oats. This will give
Is. a day, then, for four feeds, i.e., 7s. per week, £2 16s. for the
eight weeks. As for the hay, I must confess I have never weighed
it, but I think we may put it at lcwt. and a quarter a week —
say, 4s. ; this gives 32s. to be added to the £2 16s., making
£4 8si for eight weeks, from the beginning of April to the end
May. We have still some four weeks left, during which the

FEEDING HOUSES.

117

horse requires two feeds of oats a day ; these, at Gd. a day, will
amount to 14s., and reckoning the cut grass at 3s. per week, will
make 12s., or £1 6s. for the four weeks' feeding, During the
remaining fourteen weeks of the year the horse gets no corn, ex-
cept a few sheaves of oats in harvest time, and perhaps a feed of
corn now and then, if he has to go a journey, which I think need
not be reckoned in the cost of his keep. Valuing his pasturage,
then, at 2s. 6d. per week, we have the sum of £1 15s. for the re-
maining fourteen weeks' keep. We have, then, £8 2s. 6d. for
wenty-six weeks, £4 8s. for eight weeks, £1 6s. for four weeks,
and £1 15s. for fourteen weeks' pasturage, giving the cost of
each horse for the year £15 lis. 6d. To this must be added
something for the furze (a horse will eat about a quarter of an
acre) and something for the wear and tear of the furze cutter and
oat bruiser (I have had mine in constant use for ten years, and
they , are doing their work as well as ever). With whole oats the
cost would be £4 more on each horse per annum."

Why Horses Eat Dirt. — It has been pointed out by a writer
that when horses have been turned out of badly ventilated, close
stables, they may often be observed to lick up the dust in the
roadway, which they swallow with apparent relish. When this
is seen, it is a sure indication of acidity of the stomach, and
Nature has given the animal the instinct to endeavour to cure
this by appropriating those alkaline qualities found in the earth,
and of which the stomach is deficient. Like the pig, which may
be often seen eating cinder-ashes with avidity for the same reason,
horses are at a disadvantage in the matter of stomach complaints,
inasmuch as they can neither rid themselves of anything dis-
agreeable by vomiting, like the dog, nor can they belch up
accumulated gases. The stomach of the horse is too small to
admit of heavy feeding, which tends to the formation of gases,
which cause distension, and hence the necessity of both careful
feeding and of allowing them to take in by inhalation in a well-
ventilated stable the pure air, which tends to counteract the
impure. Like human beings who suffer from acidity, or heart-
burn, to whom a dose of soda or magnesia is useful, they lick the
lime from the walls or the dirt from the roadway. For this

118 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

reason a lump of rock-salt and another of chalk may be placed
■with advantage in a corner of the manger, and an ounce of
common salt put in the water daily will be found to be of
service. Sometimes this disease or vitiated appetite may be
caused not by anything defective in stable accommodation or bad
feeding, but, according to recent opinions expressed by chemical
authorities, may arise from a deficiency of mineral properties
in the food, which has been grown upon poor soils, deficient
in silica.

This may be corrected by administering a course of tonics,
For this purpose take of oxide of iron, 2oz. ; powdered nux
vomica, 11 drachms ; powdered fennel seed, 2oz. Mix these
ingredienis together, and divide into eight powders, one to be
given at morning and one at night. The best plan, however,
to obviate the use of medicine is to pay great attention to proper
feeding, and for this purpose sound hay in moderate quantities
at regular intervals will be found very advantageous. It is also
desirable to give a change of food in the form of carrots,
turnips, or other roots. When horses have passed through a
winter chiefly fed upon dry food, there is often occasion for
administering a little medicine, which there would be no
occasion to give had they been fed upon some green food, which
is obtainable as the spring approaches. A good spring medicine
for a horse is loz. nitre, loz. of sulphur in a bran mash,
mixed up well, and while warm to be covered over with a cloth.

We merely make cursory mention of this recipe here, apart
from regular medical treatment, which we shall speak of at
greater length.

Winter Feeding. — In much the same way as summer feeding,
working horses can be supported during the autumn and winter
with only roots and plenty of hay and straw (without giving
them any corn) until the young grasses make their appearance.
Yet, although they can be maintained in health and apparent'
vigour, they will not be capable of any strong or unusual exer-
tion.

Eaw carrots washed and sliced, without the tops, are most
relished by them, and they invariably eat them in preference

FEEDING HORSES.

119

to any other roots. Oases are not uncommon where animals
have been known to refuse even to taste any others, either
cooked or uncooked. This has probably arisen from want of
care in the preparation, they being perhaps boiled too soft, or
being given in a mashed or wet state.

This, however, can hardly be a matter of surprise, for some
little management is necessary in order to get horses to take to a
kind of food with which they are unacquainted, but they may be
got into the way of doing this by offering them a small quantity
of any new species of root by hand, when there is nothing else to
eat, and to apparently coax them. When they can be got to
relish a little in this way, a small quantity should be mixed with
their ordinary food, and by this means their dislike can be
gradually overcome.

Most animals derive support from their solid food, and in
accordance with the care with which it is chewed and masticated,
and this fact has been recognised for a long time, for even
before it was generally usual to convert provender into manger-
meat in this country, this practice was universal in Flanders,
where all the farm horses are in high condition.

There is a great advantage in giving ready cut and prepared
food, by which digestion is assisted, for old horses lose much of
the power of mastication, while young and greedy cattle very
often swallow a considerable part of their corn entire, when it is
given alone ; which, passing through them in the same form in
which it was given, affords no kind of nourishment.

Giving an unlimited quantity of rack meat to horses is often a
mistaken kindness, for not only will some of them pass whole
nights in eating, when rest would be doing them much more
good, but by the unnatural distension of the stomach, its powers
are weakened and the general health of the animal is injured.

Many farmers now have their stables fitted up without racks
■at all, but the food cut up and mixed is placed in the manger,
and given several times during the day. By this means a more
thorough mastication is insured and digestion is assisted. The
food is eaten in less time, and there is an advantage, too, in
it, that damaged hay or straw, which would be refused

120 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

separately, gets consumed with. the. rest. It can be more
readily weighed and measured, and be more accurately distri-
buted to each horse. There is not any waste, and consequently
the food goes further.

Some of the best horse feeders in winter pursue this plan.
Every particle of food is given in the form of manger meat.
The hay and straw are cut very short, the beans are bruised, and
the oats sometimes coarsely ground. When barley is given, it
has been found most advantageous to wet it, and allow it two or
three days to sprout. The chaff is cut by a horse-mill, which, at
the same time, bruises the beans by a small addition of machinery,
arid one horse with a couple of lads, one to unbind and deliver
the hay and the other to fill the troughs, will cut a load of hay
in three hours.

Nothing more is needed in the way of machinery than a-
common chaff-cutter of somewhat larger size than those used by
hand, and a bruising apparatus of very simple construction, both
of which may be readily added to a thrashing-mill. It can work
in a loft above the horse-course, on the floor of which the whole
provender is afterwards mixed, the chaff being spread first, next
the bruised corn, and afterwards bran, when it is used, and the
whole united in one mass. ' "When used it is measured off in
distinct portions.

The usual allowance of hay and oats to riding horses standing
in stables and doing occasional work only is 121b. of hay and
101b. of oats, but a common hard-working cart-horse cannot be
supported in good working order upon less than 281b. or 301b.
or more if straw is substituted for any portion of the hay.

In some of the brewers' and coal merchants' stables, where
horses of large size are employed, which have to drag heavy loads
and exert a great deal of muscular power, 361b. to 401b. of dry
food is sometimes given daily in the proportion of 161b. of clover
or saintfoin-hay, and 41b. of straw, to 181b. of grain, either
oats, barley, beans, or .peas, and 21b. of bran, oats being pre-
ferred to beans in summer, but more bran is given with the latter
than with the former.

Grains are not a good thing to give horses, however desirable

GROOMING HORSES.

121

for cows, which relish thena exceedingly. It is said that the
horses of brewers, to which in some instances they have been
copiously gicen, so fed become rotten, and die in a few years, and
on dissection are found to have large stony concretions in their
bladders.

Feeding for Exhibition. — From the numerous hints which have
been already given enough can be gleaned to show how horses
can be kept in the best condition, but for the purpose of exhibi-
tion, it is needless to say the first quality of food should be sup-
plied, and an exception made in those economical expedients which
on the face of them show they are not calculated to improve
either the condition or appearance of the horse, however desir-
able their practice might be on the score of economy.

A horse, unlike an ox or a pig, does not require to be made
too fat, but the first essential is to keep him in perfect health
with sufficient exercise, abundant grooming, and enough of the
best food, occasionally a little varied.

Geooming and Exeecise.

Grooming. — Farm horses do not require very much grooming,
but it is highly necessary that their skins be kept thoroughly
clean. On the other hand, the inmates of the gentleman's stable
are expected to be seen with their coats shining both from the
effects of perfect health and the liberal use of the currycomb and
straw wisp. Not only on account of the animal's appearance,
but on the score of health, great attention should be paid to this
point. Horses are subject to the attacks of insects, not only
internally but externally, and the parasites which inhabit the
skin are only to be eradicated by care and good grooming. A
louse, called Trichodeotes equi, sometimes infests them, especially
after pasturing. These may be removed by an ointment com-
posed of white hellebore, flowers of sulphur, oil of tar, and train
oil. The itch also consists of an almost invisible mite, termed
Acaras scabies, which lives beneath the skin. Good food, good
grooming, and general attention will keep the skin of the horse
free from these visitations.

122 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

Exercise. — The daily work of a cart horse or animal employed in
agricultural labour is generally the means of affording him as much
exercise as he wants, and, in the case of somewhat lazy animals,
perhaps more ; but riding horses that are only irregularly em-
ployed, and at times have to bear considerable fatigue at a rapid
pace on occasional journeys, should always have a fair amount of
daily exercise to keep them in equal and invariable health. With-
out exercise the muscle and viscera are not sustained in their
highest condition for the performance of their various functions.

Shoeing. — A good deal of controversy has been indulged in as
to the best methods of shoeing and the form of the shoe, which
it is hardly necessary for us to enter upon, beyond pointing out
the necessity there is for employing a farrier possessed of suffi-
cient knowledge and observation to do his work properly, as
shoeing is often an operation requiring considerable delicacy and
judgment, and should never be confided to a man who is not
thoroughly master of his business.

Though the process of shoeing is generally gone through with-
out any difficulty in common cases, through the docility of the
animals, yet accidents have frequently happened to both men
and horses from the violence of the former and the unsteadiness
of the latter.

Lameness is frequently caused in the process of shoeing by
what is termed a prick — i. <?., one or more nails enter the sensible
parts within the hoof, or approach it so nearly as to cause pain
when the weight of the horse's body resting on the foot forces it
against the tender part.

When this tender part has been pricked lameness quickly
follows the injury and suppuration succeeds, which sometimes
runs under the sole and causes considerable derangement. When
the quick is not penetrated it is often some days before the lame-
ness becomes visible, and in which leg it is actually situated is
often a matter of doubt. The pain which the horse feels in the
injured leg causes him to step short with the sound one, so as
to take the weight off the lame leg, which often induces people to
believe he is lame in the wrong leg. The horse puts out the lame
limb quickly and drops upon the sound one.

SHOEING IiOESES.

123

In these eases the shoe should be taken off and the seat,
of injury discovered by the tenderness evinced upon pressure.
The foot should be pared out and the injur}' exposed, so that any
matter that may have formed can escape freely, or if not already
produced, that it should not be confined when it afterwards forms..
The foot should be well fomented and afterwards placed in a
linseed poultice, which should be continued for several days,
unless the case is slight. The wound may need to be stimulated
with a little tincture of myrrh, or, should granulations make
their appearance, caustic should be applied, such as the muriate
of antimony. The same mode of treatment should be adopted
for bruises of the foot, which may occur from pressure of the
shoe on the sole from being left too flat or not seated.

In cases of corns the shoe will require to be put on so that no
pressure comes against the affected part, for which purpose the
ground surface of the shoe needs to be bevelled or seated off for
the space of an inch or more, so that when the foot touches the
ground the heel receives but little pressure. This is assisted by
leaving a space of an eighth or sixteenth of an inch between
the heel of the foot and that of the shoe. When the feet
are weak and flat it may be necessary to apply a round or
bar shoe, by which means the heel can very effectually be secured
from pressure.

In cases of sand-crack a bar shoe should be put on, so as to
take the bearing off the affected part, and when the shoe is put on
the hind foot precaution must be used that it does not touch the
horn for the space of an inch at least on each side of the toe.

Bbeeding.

The mare goes with young eleven months, and sometimes
for nearly twelve, the greater number of foals being dropped at
the end of May, which is, doubtless, the occasion for the age of
all horses being reckoned from the 1st of May — except thorough-
bred horses, whose years are dated from the 1st of January,

It is seldom, however, that they are foaled so early as January,
though February is a very common time, the object of the

124 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

breeder for the turf being to get his foals dropped as early in
the year as he can, for the very sufficient reason that, being
required to run at three years, and sometimes even at two years
old, even a single month will give an advantage in age and
strength. This plan, however, would not be suitable with other
kinds of horses, as mild weather is desirable as well as a good
bite of grass at the time of foaling.

In breeding, it is necessary to select parents possessing those
qualifications which it is sought to be obtained in the offspring.
Faults, as well as good qualities, are perpetuated, and it is idle
to expect valuable progeny from parents which are defective in
many particulars, and, of course, the best mares on the farm
should be selected for the purpose of breeding — though some-
times one which has met with an accident, such as that of having
broken knees, would answer as well to breed from as a sound
mare, provided her constitution was perfect and there were no
other defects.

In selecting a stallion with a view of breeding draught horses,
a large compact horse should be chosen. A symmetrically
formed horse mostly appears smaller than he really is, which
often deceives a bystander as to his correct height, and it is a
good point for him to be comparatively short in the legs.

Large cart horses are very much disposed to have ring-bones
and side-bones on the pasterns, and a horse lame from this cause
should be rejected. The hock is a very important joint, being
much called upon in heavy draughts, and consequently liable to
strains; and all affections of this joint, whether curbs, spavins,
or thoroughpins, should be a reason for the horse being rejected.

The hooks should be broad in front, and neither too straight
nor too crooked, nor yet eathammed, as in the case of shaft
horses at times when a heavy load devolves upon them, when in
the action of walking the weight they have to support is thrown
alternately upon each hock.

The eyes of an old horse should be free from all appearance
of disease, unless from accident, which will be immaterial ; while
in the case of a young one, there should be not only no actual
disease, but the organ should be free from any tendency to it.

BREEDING HORSES.

125

They should be full without being too convex, the small sunken
eye being much more liable to disease than the large clear eye.

As cart horses have a greater predisposition to swellings and
humours than saddle and other horses, it is necessary to guard
against this evil by choosing a stallion as free as possible from this
inclination, and the fore legs should be strong and flat below the
knee, and not round and gummy either before or behind. The
forearm should be strong and muscular, and should not stand too
much under the body, while the shoulders should be tolerably
oblique, as when the shoulders are good there is a fair presump-
tion that the horse is likely to be a good walker. The elbow
should not be too close to the chest, but there should be room
enough to put the hand between them. The neck will be better
too thick than too thin, of average length, and, if moderately
arched, it will be advantageous, for it is a great fault in any
horse to have an ewe neck. The angles formed by the juncture
of the neck with the body, and by the head with the neck, should
not be too acute, for such horses are liable to poll evil, from the
disposition induced of throwing up their heads suddenly, and
striking their poll violently against a low doorway or other object
above them. The back should be straight and broad, with the
ribs well arched ; and the false ribs of due length, so as to give
the abdomen capacity and roundness. The quarters should be
full and muscular, and the tail well set out and not too drooping,
and the horse should girth well.

The tendency of many large horses is to have thin horn and
flat feet; and the feet being a point of great importance, a
stallion possessing such feet should be looked upon as objection-
able. The feet had better be too large than too small, and
plenty of horn is a desirable feature.

The mare should be free from vice and vicious habits, and
possess as many of the good points which have been enumerated
for the stallion as possible.

A good horse is always of good colour, according to the old
saying, yet white legs and feet are objectionable. It is well
known that white hoofs are more tender and somewhat -more
liable to accidents than black ones, and horses when thus marked,

126 STOCK KEEPING FOB AMATEURS.

do not fetch so much money, while in most instances at exhi-
bitions they are debarred as prize takers.

When once possessed of a good stock, it may easily be kept up
by breeding from a couple or more of the mares at a time, by
which very little interruption will be occasioned to their work,
and thus almost insensibly, without any apparent outlay, teams
are maintained which otherwise would cost large sums to renew.

Parturition. — The young of the mare is generally brought forth
without much inconvenience, and it is seldom that she requires
assistance, but in difficult cases the plan adopted is to insert the
hand or arm, and push back the fetus, and bring forward the
parts which ought to be presented first.

Foals. — The management and treatment of young cart stock
is so little under the control of any general system, and is so
commonly understood, that little more is required beside an
abundance of wholesome food and care to guard them from
exposure to the weather in the winter months, and prevent them
from lying in the wet. Good day hovels are better as nightly
shelter for foals than warm stables, and colts thus treated will
generally have acquired sufficient strength and hardihood when
two years old off, as we have stated before, to be put gently to
the plough in the following spring.

The breeding of race horses and pedigree horses being made
a special business of itself, an account of the various methods
followed will scarcely fall within the compass of the present
work.

CHAPTEE VII.

HOESES (Continued.)

Diseases and their Treatment — Apoplexy, Megrims, or Vertigo —
Inflammation of the Bladder, or Cystitis — Spasm of the Blad-
der — Inflammation of the Bowels, or Enteritis — Bronchitis

Calculi, or Stones in the Intestines — Canker — Catarrh, or Cold
— Chopped Heels — Colic, Gripes, Fret — Chronic Cough —
Diabetes — Diarrhwa — Dysentery — Farcy — Glanders — Grease
— Diseases of the Heart — Hernia — Influenza — Strangulation of
the Intestines, and Rupture of the Intestines — Jaundice —
Inflammation of the Kidneys, or Nephrites — Laminitis,
Founder, or Fever in the Feet — Inflammation of the Liver,
or Hepatitis — Mange — Navicular Disease — Palsy {Paralysis)
Pleurisy — Pleuro - Pneumonia — Pneumonia — Pumiced Feet —
Rabies, or Canine Madness — Rheumatism — Roaring — Stag-
gers-Mad, or Inflammation of the Brain — Stomach-staggers
— Spavin — Splint — Tetanus — Thrush — Broken Wind — Thick
Wind — Worms.

Diseases and theie Teeatment.

Apoplexy, Megrims, or Vertigo. — This is caused by sudden
determination of blood to the head, sometimes produced by a
tight collar, and induced by high feeding, particularly in the
spring or early part of the summer. It is dangerous to use
horses predisposed to this disease, and it increases with age.
The horse suddenly stops in his work, shakes his head, and often
falls ; at others, giddiness only is manifested, and after a while
the horse rallies and moves on.

Bladder, Inflammation of the, or Cystitis. — A painful disease, not
of very frequent occurrence, often produced by a chill, and from
irritating subjects received into the bladder. It is evidenced by

128 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

continual efforts to stale, when the bladder is emptied of its con-
tents, and can contain no urine. Bleeding should be resorted
to, and a sedative ball given as advised for inflammation of the
kidneys, and the bowels opened by means of linseed oil. If a
mare, thin linseed tea should be injected into the bladder.

Bladder, Spasm of the. — This, or more properly, spasm of the
neck of the bladder, arises from the animal not being allowed to
stale for a long period. The bladder being distended, gets
inflamed, and will even burst. The treatment consists of the
insertion of a catheter into the bladder to pass off the urine,
which in the case of the mare is easy, but difficult in that of the
horse. If there is much irritation bleeding is resorted to, and an
injection and opiate administered.

Bowels, Inflammation of the, or Enteritis, is rapid and violent
in its progress, and the animal mostly lies down ; the pulse
quick, small and thready, and the membrane of the eyelids and
nostrils are intensely injected. It is commonly occasioned by
exposure to wet when in a heated state, such as passing through
a stream of water, or drinking ^copiously of cold water ; and by
indigestion and unwholesome food.

The best treatment is to bleed freely, and if the pulse is weak
previous to bleeding, an ounce of spirit of nitrous ether should
be given with the same of laudanum, after which the horse will
bleed better. Draughts of linseed oil should follow, and a solu-
tion of opium given every four hours. Hot applications and
frictions to the extremities are also recommended.

Bronchitis is inflammation of the mucous membrane lining
the bronchial passages, or air tubes of the lungs, and is the
more dangerous disease from its insidious nature, for, commencing
as a common cold, it all at once assumes dangerous symptoms,
which not unfrequently terminate fatally.

Its presence is indicated by a quick, and often a very weak
pulse, with short and weak cough, which seems to proceed
from the chest, and causes pain. The discharge from the nostrils
is copious, sometimes tinged with blood, or of a brown colour.
The extremities, though occasionally hot and cold alternately,
are mostly warm ; there is an accelerated respiration and an

DISEASES OF HOBSES.

129

indisposition to lie down. As it is not considered safe treat-
ment to administer laxative medicines, moderate bleeding, with,
the finger on the pulse, is recommended.

The same ball may be given as for catarrh, as well as
stimulating the throat and blistering the course of the windpipe.
A seton also inserted in the brisket is sometimes advisable.
Counter irritation should be actively resorted to in severe cases.
Good nursing is imperatively called for, and the subject should
be fed upon linseed and oatmeal gruel, with grass in summer
and carrots in winter.

When the inflammatory symptoms have been got under, a
mild tonic ball composed of the following will be found
efficacious :

Gentian (powdered) 2dr.

Pimento (powdered) ldr.

Sulphate of iron ldr.

made up into a ball with treacle, and given once a day.
Occasionally it will be prudent to omit the iron.

Calculi, or Stones in the Intestines, are sometimes produced
by the horse eating some foreign substance, which forms a
nucleus round which portions of food accumulate, which give
rise to the symptoms of colic. When not very large they are
passed off with the dung, but in serious cases become impacted
in some portion of the intestines.

Care in feeding is the best preventive of this disease, which is
a very difficult one to treat, relief only being afforded by the dis-
lodgment of the stone.

Canker is of a similar nature to thrush, but worse, often
extending over the whole foot, and sometimes being incurable,
commonly arising from an injury to the foot from a nail, bruise,
or from grease, or neglected thrush. A strong caustic should be
applied to the granulating surface with a view of stopping the
discharge and diseased growth, and promote the secretion of horn,
such as hydrochloric acid, or, if the growth is considerable, the
knife will soonest make a sound surface, the bleeding being
stopped by the hot iron. The secretion of horn is promoted by
the application of tar, and sulphate of zinc becomes, after a
time, a useful application. Dirt and moisture must be avoided,

130 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

and care must be taken not to irritate the surface too much by-
violent treatment.

Catarrh, or Cold, is inflammation of the membrane which lines
the chambers of the nostrils and the throat. When the latter is
affected it is called sore throat. Sneezing comes on first, which
is followed by a cough and a discharge of mucus from the nose.
The symptoms may be either slight or severe, but when, in the
case of the latter, it leads on to bronchitis, it is attended with
danger.

Change of temperature from heat to cold, or vice versa, is the
most fruitful source, some horses being much more subject to
colds than others, young horses being more liable to catch thera
than old ones. A few bran mashes will dispose of slight cases
without any regular medical treatment, but in severe cases, with
a strong pulse, bleeding is advised, and the throat should be
stimulated externally with tincture of cantharides. Should the
bowels be costive, two or three drachms of aloes should be given.
If not, the following cough ball, administered night and morning
for several days :

Nitrate of potash 2dr. '

Tartarised antimony ldr.

Digitalis (powdered) lsc.

Linseed meal 3dr.

mixed up into a ball with Barbadoes tar.

Bran mashes and soft food should be given, and in bad eases
oatmeal in linseed gruel.

Chopped Heels is a breach in the continuity of the skin, arising
from wet and cold to the legs, which inflames the skin and parts
beneath. Purgatives should be given, and linseed poultices
placed on the heels, and exercise avoided. After two days the
following lotion should be applied to the heels :

Sulphate of zinc 4dr.

Alum (powdered) 4dr.

Water ... i lpt.

After the physic has ceased to operate the following powder
may be applied daily to the chap :

Powdered chalk loz.

Sulphate of zinc ldr.

Alum ldr.

Bola Armenian 4dr.

DISEASES OF HORSES.

131

Choking. — An obstructing object should be first endeavoured
to be removed by the hand, but if too far down a flexible probang
should be used, first being well oiled. If these fail the oesophagus
must be carefully opened, and the obstruction removed, and the
■wound skilfully sewn up. The horse must be kept without solid
food for several days afterwards.

Colic, Gripes, Fret. — There is flatulent colic, the distention of
the stomach or bowels with gas ; spasmodic colic, or violent con-
traction of the coats of the intestines ; and stercoral colic, or dis-
tention of the intestines with food. Indigestion, unwholesome
food, and succulent grasses chiefly cause flatulent colic ; while the
spasmodic form often proceeds from a sudden draught of cold .
water ; and unwholesome food and ravenous feeding produce*
the stercoral form.

A draught containing an ounce of tincture of opium, with 2oz.
of spirits of nitrous ether, will sometimes afford immediate relief.
An ounce of sulphuric ether will be better than the nitrous ether
in the flatulent variety, condensing the gases more ; to this an
ounce of tincture of aloes or valerian may be added. The horse
should be bled rather copiously, and another draught adminis-
tered if relief does not follow, after which oily purgatives, such
as linseed oil ; lib. combined with smaller doses of opium, and
half a drachm each of calomel and tartarised antimony, may be
given every four hours, till three or four doses are taken. In
stercoral colic, the last method of treatment should be resorted
to first. In obstinate cases, frictions and hot fomentations to
the abdomen should follow.

Cough, Chronic, arises from irritability and too great dryness
of the air passages, and is a frequent attendant on thick wind.
It may be occasional or frequent, and on the accession of a
fresh cold the old one becomes increased. When the cough
becomes worse the throat should be stimulated, and the cough
ball suggested for catarrh given. In bad cases a seton under
the throat has done good service.

Diabetes, or excessive staling, is very troublesome and often
difficult to cure, the urine inclining to form sugar, which is pro-
duced by unwholesome food, such as mowburnt hay, or kiln-dried

k 2

132 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

oats. Wholesome food must be substituted, and the following
ball given twice a day :

Sulphate of iron

Gentian

Ginger

Opium ...

Udr.
2dr.
ldr.
Mr.

with, treacle to form a ball. Water should be allowed without
stint, but thin linseed tea is better.

Diarrhoea arises from the irritated state of the mucous mem-
brane lining the intestines. New oats and hay, as well as fresh
grass and other green food, have a tendency to produce this
deran gement.

Food of a more wholesome and binding nature should be given,
such as beans, and if medicine is necessary, the following in thick
gruel made with flour may be administered :

repeated two or three times a day.

Dysentery also consists of an irritated condition of the mucous
membrane lining the intestines. The natural mucus secretion is
greatly increased, so that the dung is passed encased in mucus,
in a half solid form. The feeces may either be relaxed, or in a
very indurated state, but in either there is a copious secretion of
mucus, and often an offensive smell. The disorder varies in
intensity from a mild to a dangerous form, being often associated
with other diseases, such as influenza.

Mild bleeding should be resorted to, and oily laxatives given,
with linseed gruel in tea. Two drachms of nitrate of potash
and four drachms of super-tartrate of potash may be given with
gruel several times a day, and bran mashes and carrots instead
of the ordinary food.

Farcy is a different manifestation of the same disorder as
glanders ; unventilated stables and bad provender, coupled with
hard work, being the most likely origin of the disorder. The
first symptom is generally lameness, with swelling of one of the
hind legs, on which a wound appears. If the disease is confined

Ginger (powdered) ...
Gentian (powdered)
Opium

ldr.
2dr.
Mr.
loz.

Prepared chalk

DISEASES OF HORSES.

133

to a single limb, it may, at times, be treated successfully, the

following ball being given twice a day :

Sulphate of iron .. ldr.

Gentian (powdered) lidr.

Pimento (powdered) idr.

Iodide of potash 5gr.

Cascarilla bark lidr.

made into a ball with treacle. The hair should be cut from the
enlarged absorbents, and either a tincture of iodine well rubbed
in, or a mercurial linament with iodine ointment.

Glanders. — The ravages of this disease amongst coach and
waggon horses was at one time very formidable, but is now by no
means so common. It consists of a discharge of postulent matter
from one or both nostrils, with a hard enlargement of the sub-
maxillary glands. The cures of this disease have been so very rare
that it is by no means profitable or desirable to mate the attempt.

Grease is an offensive discharge from the heels, which often
follows chapped heels, and, when neglected, becomes chronic.
The treatment should be the same as for chapped heels, but
pushed on vigorously and continued longer. Lameness, corns, and
sand-crack we have briefly referred to under the head of shoeing.
False-quarter is often the result of neglected sand-crack.

Heart, Diseases of the. — The heart of the horse is not very
liable to disease, carditis, or inflammation of the heart, being rare,
and generally mixed up with other diseases ; peri-carditis, or
inflammation of the membrane which invests the heart, being
more common, and often mixed up with pleurisy, which it very
much resembles, and is indicated by laboured action of the organ,
and hypertrophy, or enlargement of the sides of the heart ; but the
symptoms are generally obscure, and the treatment unsatisfactory.

Cancer of the heart is also sometimes found, the heart being
enlarged and mis-shapen. Rupture of the heart is somewhat
uncommon, but spasm of the heart is more frequently met with,
being often produced by over exertion, when the beating of the
heart can be felt all over the body. If the animal is put to fast
work before the heart recovers its former tone, a fatal result will
take place. The following draught should be given at once :

Spirits of nitrous ether 2oz.

Tincture of opium, loz.

Tepid water 12oz.

134

STOCK KEEPING FOB AMATEURS.

and repeated if necessary ; and trie bowels should be afterwards
regulated by a mild laxative and bran mashes ; several days' rest
being allowed.

Hernia is not very common in England, where horses are
mostly castrated, entire horses being most subject to it ; a portion
of the intestine escapes into the abdomen, and passes into the
scrotum with the spermatic cord. The best treatment to adopt
is what is called the covered operation of castration, by removing
the testacies without cutting into the cavity in which they are
contained, in the case of colts when scrotal-hernia is congenital, or
formed at birth. Great caution as well as skill are demanded, and
the operation should only be attempted by the most skilful hands.

Influenza is a kind of low nervous fever, attended with great
prostration of strength, affecting more particularly the mucous
membranes. In other instances it appears to connect itself with
severe inflammation of the viscera of the chest and abdomen.

A diffusive stimulant, as the following, should be first given :

Spirit of nitric ether loz.

Potassio-tartrate of antimony ldr.

Nitrate of potash 4dr,

Warm water lOoz.

to be repeated if required.

After the draught has been administered six hours, the follow-
ing ball may be given twice a day :

Proto-chloride of mercury 2ac.

Potassio-tartrate of antimony 2sc.

Nitrate of potash 2dr.

Linseed meal 3dr.

made into a ball with soft soap.

After fever has subsided, and debility and want of appetite
remain, the following tonic may be given twice a day :

Gentian (powdered) Bdr.

Pimento (powdered) ldr.

Sulphate of iron ldr.

Linseed meal 2dr.

made into a ball with treacle.

Intestines, Strangulation of the, and Rupture of the Intestines. —
The cause of these is generally obscure, sudden exertion with an
overloaded stomach doubtless being the most frequent cause.
The treatment of these diseases is quite beyond the power of any
but a veterinary surgeon.

DISEASES OF HOUSES.

135

Jaundice consists of absorption of the bile, which, entering
the blood, tinges all the membranes a yellow colour. It is, how-
ever, not a common disease, nor a very serious one, a derange-
ment of the appetite being the chief symptom.

The ball recommended for hepatitis will be the best treat-
ment, but it may be preceded by three or four drachms of aloes.

Kidneys, Inflammation of the, or Nephrites, is not very common,
but is generally acquired from a cold chill across the loins, or
sometimes a strain or injury may produce it. Great pain when
the loins are pressed, the urine dark in colour, and sometimes
black, accompanied with fever, quick pulse, and disturbed respira-
ation, are the indications.

Copious blood-letting must be resorted to, followed by a
purgative draught, with frequent injections. A fresh sheep
skin should be applied to the loins, and renewed in the course of
twelve hours, and mustard poultices applied. A sedative should
be given twice a day as follows :

Tartarised antimony ldr.

Opium £dr.

Proto-chloride of mercury ldr.

White hellabore , ••■ lsc.

made up into a ball.

Laminites, Founder, or Fever in the Feet, consists of inflamma-
tion of the sensible laminae which connects the coffin bone with
the crust, and which mainly secretes the latter. It is produced
by long-continued standing and prolonged violent exertion, some-
times following inflammation of the chest or pleurisy. The feet
are hot and tender, and if the animal has to move up when lying
down he treads on his heels with an exhibition of pain, and can
scarcely be made to stand. The shoes must be taken off and a
large quantity of blood extracted from the feet or the arms.
Setons may be inserted in the frogs and linseed poultices
applied to the feet. After a while, blistering the coronet will
be useful.

Liver, Inflammation of the, or Hepatitis. — The presence of this
disease is evidenced by loss of appetite, short and rapid breathing,
and a yellowness of the eyelids and nostrils, and the dung is
usually hard and coated. The disease is longer in its duration

136

STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

than inflammation of the lungs, and the symptoms are not so
acute.

High living and want of exercise are the causes in most
cases, and it must be met by bleeding in the first instance, to be
followed by a blister on the right side, and small doses of calomel
and opium, the bowels, if in a costive condition, having been
first opened with linseed oil. The following ball should succeed,
given twice a day :

Calomel ldr.

Opium lee

Nitrate of potash 2dr.

This ball should be given for several days.

Mange. — Mange is an offensive disease, unfortunately only too
common, and is highly contagious, communicated even by the
hands of an attendant, or contact with harness. The disease
being in the sHn this must first be cleaned thoroughly, after
which the following linament should be thoroughly rubbed in :

Sulphnr vivum 4oz.

WhiGe hellebore 2dr.

Oil of tar ". ioz.

Linseed oil lib.

well mixed together.

Navicular Disease is common in light, well bred animals, but
scarcely ever occurs in the heavy cart horse, and consists, in the
first instance, of inflammation of the membrane which covers the
cartilage of the navicular bone, as well as the tendon which cor-
responds to the bone, the inflammation being followed by
ulceration. Hard roads and the fast pace, alternated by long
confinement, to which may be attributed the hard and dry foot
which generally accompanies this disease, are the most frequent
causes, and it is only in the early stages that a cure can be hoped
for. Blood should be taken from the foot to the extent of 81b.,
or, if both feet are affected, 61b. may be taken from each foot.
The sole should be pared thin, and the quarters well rasped, and
the feet put in a linseed meal poultice for a week, after which a
seton should be inserted in the heel and kept there for a month.
The pasterns may also be blistered.

Palsy (Paralysis). — Generally produced by a slip or fall, by
which the spinal cord becomes injured, so that the horse is unable

DISEASES OF HORSES.

137

to stand, and can only be supported by means of slings. Treat-
ment is rarely of much service, and when partial recovery takes
place, the horse becomes what is termed chinked in the back, and
incapable of sustaining burdens. Bleeding and blistering the
spine are the principal remedies.

Pleurisy, or inflammation of the membrane which lines the
interior of the chest as well as the lungs and its other contents,
arises from exposure of the body to cold when heated and from
sudden alternations of temperature. The horse will lie down,
which he will not do in pneumonia. Severe pain is at times
exhibited, and there is tenderness on pressing the ribs.

Active blood-letting is prescribed till the pulse becomes almost
imperceptible, and repeated, if required, once or twice within
from six to twenty-four hours. The sides should be blistered
and the action of the blisters kept up. The same ball should be
used as prescribed previously.

Pleuro-Pneumonia is a compound of pleurisy with pneumonia,
and is a fatal disease, somewhat obscure, occasionally assuming
an epizootic form, destroying life under the name of influenza.
With oxen a disease of this nature has been dreadfully fatal.
The treatment should be modified and conducted in accordance
with the principles laid down in the following. Blood-letting is
more doubtful in its results than in diseases of a more defined
character.

Pneumonia. — There are two forms of inflammation of the
substance of the lungs, congestive and ordinary pneumonia,
which are brought on by over exertion, or from alterations from
heat to cold, and the reverse.

The congestive form is indicated by a very quick and weak
pulse, rapid and distressed breathing, and cold extremities.
Very prompt treatment is necessary, as death sometimes follows
in four-and-twenty hours. The progress of the disease is less
rapid in ordinary pneumonia, taking three, four, or five days, as
the case may be, before a fatal termination ensues. The air
cells become filled with lymph, and can no longer perform their
functions ; and suffocation finally takes place. The breathing is
greatly accelerated as well as the pulse, which may be either

1S8 STOCK KEEPING FOB AMATEURS.

strong or weak ; the extremities are cold, though not so much so
as in congestive inflammation, and the animal remains in a
standing position.

Bleeding is called for, but if the pulse is weak, it is best to
give the following in half a pint of warm water :

Spirits of nitric ether 2oz.

Solution of acetate of ammonia loz.

This will bring warmth to the shin and cause the animal to
bleed better than otherwise ; the amount of blood taken to be
regulated by the strength of the pulse, extending from six to
twelve pounds, and may be repeated if necessary in the course
of twelve or twenty-four hours. The sides should be blistered
and a seton placed in the brisket.

Every six hours a ball composed of the following should be
given :

Nitrate of potash 2dr.

Proto-chloride of mercury OJdr.

Tartarised antimony ldr.

When six of these balls have been given, those recommended
for catarrh should be given less frequently. After 2oz. of the
nitrate of potash have been taken it should be discontinued.

Pumiced Feet. — This term is applied when the soles become
convex instead of concave, and the crust is increased in obliquity,
uneven and furrowed. The disease is principally confined to
heavy horses, where the strength of the crust is not equal to the
weight of the horse, and thus the foot gradually sinks. No cure
can be effected, but relief can be afforded by shoeing, so as to pre-
vent the sole from receiving pressure, and yet protect it from injury.

Rabies, or Canine Madness. — Generally caused by the bite of a
rabid dog, the poison of which will remain in the system from
six weeks to three months, and occasionally longer.

No treatment is successful when the symptoms have manifested
themselves, but the disease may be prevented if the bitten part
is carefully cauterised soon after the injury.

Rheumatism. — Eheumatism in the horse generally takes an
acute form, and is then designated a chill, the muscles and
tendons being the seats of the disease, and it sometimes precedes
or follows pleurisy.

DISEASES OF HORSES.

139

Bleeding is recommended, after which the bowels, being
usually costive, should be opened by aperients. Six drachms of
aloes, with two of ginger, may be dissolved, in hot water, and
given with one or two ounces of spirit of nitric ether, after which
the following ball may be given twice a day :

Proto-chloride of mercury 2 sc.

Potassio-tartrate of antimony 2 bc.

Nitrate of potash 2 dr.

White hellabore 1 sc.

Linseed meal 4 dr.

to be made up into a ball with soft soap.

Roaring is a disease of tb e larynx or windpipe, when there is a
partial obstruction of air to and from the lungs. As this may
arise from several causes, it is not always easy to find out by
what it is occasioned, and the symptoms must be closely watched
so as to draw a fair inference of the cause. If it succeeds an
attack of catarrh, or is accompanied by a cough, blisters or setons
will afford relief.

Staggers-Mad, or Inflammation of the Brain. — Phrenitis is more-
common with heavy than light horses, and arises from fulness of
the blood vessels, from too high feeding and want of exercise^
Profuse bleeding should be resorted to, either from the jugular
veins or carotid arteries ; six or eight quarts of blood may be
taken, or until the pulse can scarcely be felt. The horse should
be well purged, and fever medicines given after, with cold appli-
cations to the head.

Stomach Staggers, arises from distension of the stomach with
too much food, but is rare where there is good management in
the feeding of horses. The brain, in sympathy with the stomach,
becomes oppressed, and the horse appears sleepy, and forces his
head against any object before him.

Eavenous feeding when the stomach is empty, or the food is
dry and difficult of digestion, produces it ; commonly occasioned
formerly when heavy horses were allowed to fast many hours,
which the invariable use of the nose-bag is now often the means
of preventing.

Oily purgatives should be given, assisted by draughts of warm
water, and injections containing a purgative. Stomachics, such

140 STOCK KEEPING FOB AMATEURS.

as carbonate of ammonia 2dr., gentian ldr., with loz. of spirits
of nitrous ether, twice a day, may be given, The disease is often
fatal, the stomach being distended at times beyond the power of
contraction.

Spavin. — Spavin often causes permanent pain and lameness,
being a more serious ossification than splint, situated near a most
important joint, on which the whole weight of the horse is
thrown, the disease often spreading on the articulating surface of
the joints, somewhat after the nature of navicular disease. The
higher the spavin is situated, the more likely to occasion lame-
ness.

The internal disease referred to causes treatment to be unsatis-
factory very often, but the proper course is either to use the
firing-iron, to blister, or apply a seton.

Fractions, dislocations, and wounds mostly require the services
of a veterinary surgeon, as indeed do the majority of the serious
diseases we have mentioned, and it will always be found the best
course to call in an experienced man when occasion demands,
although at the same time it is necessary that the owners of
valuable animals should be made acquainted with the outlines
and forms of the most common diseases.

Splint is a common disease, situated between the large and
small metacarpal bones, and generally on the inside. The bones
in the young animal are connected together by ligamentous sub-
stances, which become stretched and inflamed, and the vessels,
thus excited, throw out a bony deposit, which, being deposited
under the periosteum, or covering of the bone, puts it painfully
on the stretch and causes lameness.

A small incision is made through the skin at the upper and
lower part of the splint, and passing up a small narrow knife and
so cutting in and dividing the periosteum, which thus relieves
the tension and the irritation. A small seton from one incision
to the other keeps up a counter irritation for two or three weeks.
In slight cases a blister may be applied, and the following will
be found efficacious :

Iodide of mercury ldr.

Palm oil loz.

well mixed.

DISEASES OF HORSES.

141

Tetanus. — This is frequently termed locked-jaw, though the
latter is but one of its symptoms, and when confined to the neck
is called Trismus, and is more manageable than when the greater
part of the body is convulsed. It is brought on by local injury,
such as the wound of a joint, or sometimes a slight cut. Exposure
to cold and wet will produce it, and sometimes its origin cannot
be traced.

Copious blood-letting should be resorted to, and powerful
purgatives given, as aloes, eight drachms, or forty to sixty drops
of croton oil, succeeded by opium and camphor, in doses of a
drachm each. Blisters to the abdomen have been found useful,
and the animal should be kept as quiet as possible. Gruel should
be given to drink, administered between the teeth, if possible, or
by the stomach pump.

Thrush is an offensive discharge from the cleft of the frog,
which rots it away, and causes the horse to be hurt when tread-
ing upon a stone. It is produced by moisture and filth, yet
sometimes engendered in the forefeet by contraction and heat.
Thrush seldom causes permanent lameness, but is the occasion of
many a fall.

The cleft being well cleaned out by a pledget of tow being
drawn backwards and forwards, should be dressed with the
following ointment :

Oil of turpentine 4dr.

Sulphuric acid 4dr.

gradually mixed together in an open place, and after the boiling
has subsided which takes place, add to it :

Barbadoes tar 8oz.

Palm oil 4oz.

The same ointment will be found good for corns, and assist in
promoting the growth of healthy horn after it has been pared
away at the seat of disease.

Wind, Broken, consists of a rupture of the air cells of the
lungs, so that the air escapes from them and inflates the pleura
which covers -the lungs. Though a double expiration takes
place, as it were, yet there is not the same capacity for inhaling
fresh air, and the animal is, consequently, incapable of performing

142 STOCK KEEPING FOB AMATEURS.

the same amount of rapid exertion. In the case of farm horses,
the somewhat coarse, bulky, and dusty food they get aggravates
the disorder. Sudden exertion on a full stomach is the cause,
while foul and dusty provender may be regarded as the remote
agent in producing the disease.

The only treatment which can be followed is that of palliation,
and the horse kept in the highest condition to enable him to
accomplish ordinary work with as little muscular exertion as
possible, so as to make less demand on the lungs. The food
should be of a concentrated kind, and the stomach never dis-
tended — very little hay or straw, but carrots given instead. If
medicine is necessary, the cough-ball prescribed for catarrh will
be efficacious. Water should only be given in small quantities,
and the horse should not be called upon for much exercise with a
loaded stomach.

Wind, Thick, is most commonly caused by chronic attacks of
inflammation of the lungs, and the same treatment as in broken
wind will be desirable.

Worms. — Horses are subject to the visitation of several kinds
■of worms, the most common of which is a short thick grub called
the "bot," which is sometimes found in large numbers attached
to the internal surface of the stomach by a kind of hook.
Towards the spring of the year they pass off with the dung, and
are hatched by the action of the sun into a species of gadfly,
which secretes its eggs on the skin of horses, the irritation causing
the animal to bite the part, when the eggs are swallowed, and are
hatched in the stomach.

The long round worm is also frequently found in the intestines
of horses, but not being very numerous, they do not appear to
exert any very injurious effect upon the health of the horse,
the most common as well as the most injurious being small
thread-like worms, called ascarides, usually found in the large
intestines, and particularly the rectum, where they sometimes
cause great irritation.

The presence of worms may be inferred when, in spite of good
food and proper care, the horse appears out of condition, and his
coat is harsh and rough ; the true state of affairs may be sur-

DISEASES OF HORSES.

143

mised if -worms are found in the dung. When ascarides are
present, there is usually some irritation manifested at the anus,
and an ejection of a white secretion from this part.

The presence of a worm or two in the dung, particularly of the
long white sort, at rare intervals, is a matter of little moment,
unless there is plainly an appearance of a want of condition about
the horse ; but if the worms are numerous he should have bran
mashes for a day or two, and the annexed administered :

Tartariaed antimony 2dr.

Spirits of turpentine Soz.

Linseed oil lilb.

well mixed together. After this the following ball may be given
daily for a week :

Sulphide of iron ldr.

Powdered gentian 2dr.

Powdered ginger ldr.

Powdered pimento _, ... ldr.

made into a ball with treacle, which will materially help in
restoring lost condition.

To those who desire further information on the diseases of
horses, written untechnically and intelligibly, we recommend Mr.
Dalziel's cheap little handbook on the subject, issued by the
publisher of this book.

OHAPTEE VIII.
COWS.

Various Breeds of Coivs — The Shorthorn — The Alderney — The
Ayrshire — Kyloes, or West Highland — The Galloway — The
Welsh — The Irish — The Hereford, — Longhorns — North Devons
— The Suffolk Dun — Breeding — The Economical Rearing of
Calves — The Feeding of Cows — Attention to Stock.

Various Breeds op Cows.

Cows are the most profitable of all stock, there being always a
ready sale for produce in the form of either milk, butter, or
cheese; but as the operations of the dairy form a large subject
of itself, requiring special reference to different forms of manage-
ment, an explanation of the various processes pursued form no
part of the scope of the present little work, which is devoted to
the consideration of stock-keeping as a branch of husbandry by
itself, outside that of dairy farming, which, however, is a depart-
ment that ought to receive more attention than it does from the
ordinary arable farmer. It is often assumed by the latter that,
not having any pasture land of consequence, he is not in a posi-
tion to turn his attention to dairy farming successfully, over-
looking the fact . that, with only a limited area upon which to
turn out cows for air and exercise, yet with only slender means
in this way, a certain number of animals could be very profitably
kept upon the soiling system, upon the plan pursued in some of
the large London dairies when the animals are sold off quickly
and the stock frequently renewed.

When this system is carried out, the large breeds of cattle
such as the shorthorn, are usually made use of, a race of animals
that put on flesh quickly when fattening, and by the flavour of

VARIETIES OF COWS.

145

their meat after this process has been properly carried out, show
no signs of having been used for dairying purposes, and we will
commence our description of the various breeds of cows with this
important class.

The Shorthorns. — The shorthorn has arrived at its present
pitch of excellence by means of the careful and skilful breeding
which it has received, and it has now well earned its title,
"Improved Shorthorn." The shorthorns are distinguished over
all other cattle by their aptitude to fatten, which enables them
to attain a maturity and weight of carcase at a very early age,
which no other race can approach. They possess symmetrical
forms, and a quiet even temper, and in colour vary from pure
white to a rich red, and often a mixture, sometimes forming a
deep or light roan, occasionally termed hazel or strawberry.
The excellence of the breed has caused them to be in request
not only in every European country but also in America and our
colonies, where the pure breed is now as solicitously kept up as
in England, where individual animals of the best pedigrees have
realised sums at different stock sales ranging from £200 to £700
per head. The cow partakes of the general characteristics of
the male, except that her head is finer, longer, and more tapering
than that of the bull, and her shoulders are more inclined to be
narrow towards the chine.

As grazing cows, on account of their large size, they require
rich pastures, and are not well adapted for poor ones, while their
aptitude to fatten and lay on flesh, rather than secrete milk, does
not allow them to be such profitable dairy cows in proportion to
the cost of the food they consume, as many of the breeds we
shall subsequently mention, though they are very suitable for
the purpose of the arable farmer, who feeds them upon the hand
system, and can cut and bring to them an abundance of rich,
succulent food, for which they are admirably adapted. The
London dairymen stimulate the production of milk by feeding
with brewers' grains and other milk-making articles of food, and
pursue a definite system of management, which makes this breed
a very valuable one to them.

Instances are on record of a very large yield of milk being

146 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

given by different shorthorn cows, but, notwithstanding all that
may be said to the contrary, their readiness to fatten, which
is their most distinguishing trait, is naturally opposed to the
secretion of milk, which is the best quality that a dairy cow can
r be possessed of.

The Alderney. — The Alderney gives but a comparatively small
supply of milk, but it is rich in cream, and consequently enjoys
a high reputation as a butter cow, as much, or perhaps more,
butter being obtainable from her produce than from that of a
cow which gives double the quantity of milk. On this account
the Alderney has always been a favourite breed with private
gentlemen, who wish for a superior quality of dairy produce.
Alderneys are content, and will do well upon more inferior
herbage than would satisfy the wants of a grazing shorthorn.

The Alderney is not a breed that will answer the purpose of
the stock-keeper who wants to do a trade in milk. But upon
somewhat poorish land (though it must not be too poor, for
which another breed we shall nest mention is better fitted), in
an inland situation, where there are no facilities for the disposal
of milk by railway or otherwise, the Alderney will be found a
useful animal ; or, if not exclusively kept, the richness of its
milk will, in conjunction with that of cows of other breeds,
improve the general quality of the butter obtained.

For the purpose of the grazier, to be fed as stock, the Alderney,
as a breed, is totally useless, it being a work of some considerable
difficulty to fatten them.

The Ayrshire. — Quite the opposite to the Alderney is the
Ayrshire cow, which is remarkable for the abundance of its milk,
which it possesses the power of producing from poor or medium
herbage, and it has long been a favourite in many of the Scotch
dairies, where great pains has been taken in breeding for the
development of its milking powers. It is, therefore, an admirable
dairy cow in those situations where the production of milk is
aimed at, and where the feed at command is somewhat of an
inferior quality.

Success in dairy farming mainly depends upon the considera-
tion of points like these, and having a breed of cattle that is well

VARIETIES OF COWS.

147

adapted to the farm upon which they are to be placed ; for a
small Ayrshire cow will do well, and bring satisfactory produce,
in situations where the larger breeds would be scarcely able to
support an existence.

This breed, alike with the Alderney, is not suitable for the
purpose of the grazier, the beef being coarse in quality, and the
animals can only be fattened with difficulty.

Kyloes, or West Highland. — We may as. well continue our
notice of Scotch cattle, and refer to the Kyloes, which is a race
peculiarly well fitted to their native habitat, where the pastur-
age is coarse and scanty, and the climate humid, and it will be
found a useful breed in similar situations, which are not adapted
for any other breed of cattle, and hence is mostly given over to
sheep farming. The cows give but very little milk, though it is
of a rich quality, the value of the race chiefly lying with the
capabilities of the ox and his feeding qualities, of which we shall
speak again. As well as yielding only a small supply of milk,
the cows have a tendency soon to get dry, which renders them
undesirable as dairy cows, save in the exceptional circumstances
we have referred to.

The Galloway. — Similar in its general characteristics to the
Kyloe is the Galloway, which is a polled breed of larger frame
than the former, and necessarily better fitted to somewhat
richer pastures than its kindred race, possessing an aptitude to
fatten, which causes them to be valuable as store stock, but as
milch cows they have long been supplanted by the Ayrshire,
and therefore need not be much taken into account.

Welsh Cattle. — There are two distinct breeds of Welsh cattle,
the Pembrokeshire, which may be regarded as the type of the
mountain races, a small hardy breed, something after the same
standard as the West Highland or Kyloes, and are suited to a
humid climate and coarse pasturage ; and a larger breed, which
is found in the county of Glamorgan. Some excellent dairy cows
are found amongst the latter, but the race is very much confined
to the county from which it takes its name, while amongst the
former are often found excellent milkers, some of them giving a
good yield in proportion to their size, and the food they require.

148 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

There is also a heavier, coarser breed than the latter peculiar to
the Anglesea district.

Irish Cows. — Injudicious breeding has caused the great majority
of Irish cows to take but low rank as milk producers, the best
being found amongst the small breed known as the Kerry, from
the county in which they are chiefly reared, where some little
attention has been bestowed upon them and an endeavour made
to perpetuate good qualities. Of late, however, especially in the
North of Ireland, more attention has been bestowed upon the
breeding of stock, and it is probable that a better breed of cows
will ultimately be found in the sister kingdom than is now
generally met with.

The Hereford. — Hereford cows have long enjoyed a good repu-
tation in their own county, being a large race of animals, espe-
cially well fitted for rich pastures and fertile soils, like those
required for the shorthorn. Indeed, the lovers of this breed
maintain that they are equal to, if not superior to, the shorthorn
race ; but as they have made but very little way out of their own
county this conclusion is not universally adopted. Many of the
cows give a good supply of milk, but they appear to be better
fitted for the object of the grazier who has rich pastures to turn
them out upon, and who desires to rear large animals that will
come heavy to the scale for the butcher, than for the purpose of
the ordinary dairy farmer.

Longhorna. — These are a similar race of animals to the pre-
ceding, and used universally to be met with in many English
counties, receiving attention from the hands of that skilful
breeder, Bakewell, whose name is so closely connected with the
improved Leicester sheep, and whose excellent judgment in all
matters relating to stock and breeding caused him to improve
upon everything he touched, bringing conspicuously out the
best points of every animal. The ubiquitous shorthorns have,
however, displaced these, and they now no longer enjoy the repu-
tation they once possessed.

North Devons. — These are a nice breed of animals, justly in
favour on account of their excellent temper for working on the
farms, when ox-teams were used extensively instead of horses.

BREEDING OF COWS.

149

They are not well adapted, however, for dairy cows, for
although the milk they give is very rich, they yield but a small
quantity of it, and ' have a tendency to get dry soon, which are
marked defects in a milch cow that no other good qualities will
overbalance and make amends for. The North Devon must be
considered as holding a lower place than it once occupied in
general estimation, being decidedly less profitable for dairy pur-
poses than some other breeds.

The Suffolk Dun. — The Suffolk dun has long been a favourite
in its own county in the districts most celebrated for dairy
produce, as the cows yield a large quantity of milk. They take
their name from the fact that dun used to be the prevailing
colour, but it has changed a good deal latterly. They are a
polled breed, of ungainly form and shape, and as stock do not
enjoy a good reputation with the grazier as fattening animals.

There are a few other breeds, but those we have named are
the chief races that are found in the United Kingdom, the
crosses being numerous and varied between the different kinds,
many excellent cross-bred animals being obtainable, that will be
found to suit the purpose of the dairy farmer and stock keeper
better than the original breeds.

Beebding.

It will always be found the best plan to breed one's own stock,
for with care and judgment the stock keeper may obtain just
those points he wishes to have, when he would often find it
difficult to obtain animals to suit him exactly in every respect.

Although the dairy farmer may not want to fatten stock for
the butcher, yet, as he keeps cows which drop calves with a
certain amount of regularity, he may sell off his calves as store
stock to others, and bring himself a considerable revenue thereby.

The best milking cows, as we have pointed out, are ordinarily
not of a kind to answer the purpose of the grazier, yet some
excellent cross-bred animals may be obtained by crossing either
an Alderney or Ayrshire cow with a good shorthorn bull.

The issue will be a first-rate calf, if the bull is a pure-bred
one, the defective qualities of the dam being made up for by the

150 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

good ones conferred by the sire ; and they will turn out well as
milch cows when they reach maturity, or prove to be good
fattening stock, as the case may be. Good paying animals may
thus be obtained that will be found to answer the purpose of
the breeder excellently well, and although perhaps the best
milker may be the ugliest cow in the herd, yet her progeny,
the result of a cross with a first-rate shorthorn bull, will often
be a very handsome animal, possessing most of the best points of
the latter. It is somewhat remarkable, also, that the smaller
cows will often bring a calf when so crossed that will at
maturity rival in size the animals of some of our largest breeds.

The dairy farmer may, therefore, retain the heifers so pro-
duced and add to his herd as occasion may require, or dispose of
them as young stores, for which he will be enabled to realise a
good price at all times, provided they are the well-bred animals
indicated.

Bearing of Calves.

In some parts of the country where the calves are reared they
are allowed to suck their mothers for a considerable time ; and as
this interferes with the produce of the dairy, where economical
expedients are not resorted to in the process of rearing calves,
they are often got rid of very shortly after they are born. This is
done to a great extent in the Vale of Aylesbury, upon those
farms where dairy produce is made the first consideration. But
where butter making is carried on there need be no falling off
in the weekly supply, as calves can be brought up well enough
upon the skimmed milk if boiled linseed is added to it.

Care must be taken that the milk is not sour, and it must be
heated to the natural heat of milk as it comes from the cow, or,
if made hotter in the course of preparation, it must be allowed to
stand till it gets the proper degree of coolness, which an expe-
rienced person can tell at once by merely dipping the finger in it.
There is a good deal of nicety in this, and a careful man must
be employed, sufficient care being exercised that the contents of
no stray milk-pan which has .stood too long before skimming be
given, which, although immaterial, perhaps, as far as the butter

REARING CALVES.

151

is concerned, will make all the difference to the calf, as it perhaps
may cause it to scour.

The young animal will require to be taught to drink from the
pail, and this it will soon learn to do, by the man who feeds in-
serting his fingers covered with milk into the calf's mouth and
making a little to flow into it. The calf at first will not under-
stand the meaning of the business, but will soon get an inkling
of it, hunger teaching it pretty soon to learn to drink. But care
must be taken when the calf's head is in the pail not to allow its
nostrils to be covered, or, of course, it will withdraw it suddenly
for the purpose of breathing.

Hay tea is also a good article to eke out the supply of milk,
and meal of some kind may be mixed in -it.

The calves should be kept in a dry shed, where the floor
inclines to a drain, and should be kept clean and dry. An empty
shed, without any divisions or fittings, is all that is required,
as the divisions to separate the calves are best made with hurdles
fastened down with a stake to the floor. A little sweet fresh
hay should be twisted in the hurdles, and the calves will soon
learn to nibble some of it ; and, as they grow apace, they should
be tried with a few sliced carrots, after which they will soon
learn to eat and do very well. After being accustomed to be
fed from the pail they will quickly get to run to it when-
ever they see it, but two calves should not be allowed to drink
together, as one is sure to get more than its proper share, and
they cannot be fed with exactitude, which is highly necessary
in the case of all young stock. A careless man desirous of
getting his job over as quickly as possible will allow this to be
clone ; but such men ought never to be allowed to have the
care of animals, which should only be entrusted to painstaking
and considerate persons.

By this method of management the calves which drop in the
early part of the year, if kept in warm sheds and carefully
looked after, as the spring advances, may be turned out for an
hour or two in a sunny enclosure or orchard, and be allowed to
pick a little grass, taking care not to let them have too much
so as to cause disorder ; and, by the time the weather is fit for

152 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

them to be turned out altogether, they will be comparatively
strong animals, and have the whole summer and autumn before
them to run upon the pastures, or pick up their living in any odd
places where there is sufficient for such young animals, supple-
menting their feeding with a little concentrated or other food
as occasion may demand. At the end of the autumn there will
be a fine animal or two, which will have cost but very little to
their owner beyond the care that has been exercised in bringing
them up, and the value of the skimmed milk, which otherwise
would probably have been consumed by the pigs.

As the full details of this kind of management really belongs
more to the subject of dairy farming, and the management of
cows in connection with that branch of rural economy, we will
pass on to the feeding of cows, which is a very important depart-
ment, that requires close looking after.

The Feeding op Cows.

Eegularity in the hours of feeding cows is a point of the
utmost importance, and it is a well-established fact that cows
which have their food given to them with punctuality give
more milk than those which are fed upon better food, but where
punctuality is not observed in the hours that it is given to them ;
irregularity in this respect is invariably marked by a diminution
in the yield of milk.

While the cow is giving her full supply of milk her food
should not be stinted in any way, and she should have a liberal
allowance of everything that is necessary for her. Even when
giving cows a full supply of rich food there are many expe-
dients which can be safely resorted to for economising expense,
and do the cow good at the same time. One of these is the
giving of chaffed straw, especially when a large quantity of roots,
as pulped mangolds or turnips, is given. The stomach of the ox
is a very capacious one, and its digestive powers are so constructed
by nature as to be capable of extracting a considerable amount
of aliment from bulky food not rich in alimentary properties.
The chaff also corrects the watery tendency of the roots, and
in the early stage, when freshly drawn from the ground, corrects

FEEDING COWS.

153

those acrid juices which they frequently contain. By giving,
also, some cheap, bulky food, it enables the farmer to give the
animals some richer food — as meal of various kinds — which is
not only of advantage to the animals themselves, but greatly im-
proves the quality of the manure they make, and a large variety
of food can be given, a change being often very desirable.

Cooked linseed, bean meal, and distillers' grains, are excellent
auxiliaries in the diet of the cow, but if fed too exclusively upon
these without a proper admixture of chaff or hay, in time they
pall upon the appetite, and, where grains have been given largely
and continuously, with a view of stimulating the flow of milk,
the cows have become "grain-sick." A judicious mixture of
food is therefore to be recommended, as turnips, green clover,
rye grass, clover, hay, oilcake, <fcc. ; and upon those calcareous
formations which grow lucerne and sainfoin, these are excellent
food for cows. The straw-chaff as an economical agent, or hay,
in which a proper quantity of salt is given, also prevents accidents
which sometimes occur when green food is largely used, and
guards against swelling, or the disease known as hoove, or blast-
ing, and wet succulent food should never be given without a
proper proportion of dry food.

Sudden changes should never be allowed, as that of from dry
food to green, or green to dry, for, after having been kept long
upon the latter during a long winter, when roots even may have
been getting scarce, the cows are apt to eat too greedily of the
green, succulent food, and so expose themselves to injury. Half
the accidents that take place in this way could be averted by
the proper use of care and caution in this respect.

Boots steamed with hay and chaff are given with advantage,
and at the end of summer, when the grass becomes scarce, a good
substitute is to be found by steaming young turnips and turnip
leaves with hay.

Good rich grass and prime meadow hay are certainly the
natural food of cows, and where plenty of both of these is to be
had, undoubtedly the dairy produce is of finer quality than can
be got from almost any other description of food, but these are
not to be had in unlimited quantities everywhere, and the larger

154 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

variety of food now at command gives the opportunity of a much
larger stock being kept than otherwise would be the case, for hay
by itself is decidedly expensive. Oows relish a change of food,
and by feeding them on roots steamed with chaff and oat-straw,
milk has been produced, excluding other expenses, at a cost of
4d. per gallon, this being the result of careful experiment upon
the house-feeding or soiling system.

Attention to Stock.

There is no department that will pay the young farmer so well
for the occupation of his time as being a good deal amongst
his stock, which enables him to acquaint himself with the charac-
teristics and peculiarities of each animal.

vy"ith young stock, the calves soon get to know him, and
their docility is vastly increased by a little notice and attention.
There are many ignorant men who think that the proper way
to deal with cattle is to push them about, swear at them for
any trifling thing that does not quite accord with their own
humour, and handle them roughly. Animals are quite sensible
of the uniform kindness or otherwise of their attendants, and
if the former prevails, they acquire that docility and placid
look and deportment which distinguishes the ox under its most
favourable aspect, a quiet and satisfied condition being highly
advantageous to their well doing and proper rumination. By
being kindly treated, they will not manifest dislike and fear upon
being handled, when, perhaps, some little accident or ailment
may cause them to need examination and treatment.

If the calves, when they are young, are led about gently in a
halter, and petted by a handful of their favourite food being
given to them, they will be accustomed to this sort of training,
and their general management will be much easier ever after-
wards. A bad tempered man should never be employed about a
stock yard, only those of humane dispositions, who are fond of
animals, and who take a pleasure in observing them.

OHAPTEE IX.

OXEN.

Varieties — West Highland Cattle — Galloways — The Ayrshire Ox
— The Shorthorn — Hereford Oxen — Longhorns — Alderney —
Suffolk Dun — Housing — Feeding — Warm's Compound.

Vakieties.

Fkom what we shall give in the following notes, the reader will
be able to gather the principal facts relating to each breed of the
leading races of oxen, and their qualifications when they are dealt
with as a pure breed. Some excellent cross-bred cattle are, how-
ever, produced when the defects of one parent are neutralised by
another, as in the case of the Ayrshire, the cows being good
milkers, but the oxen unfit for the purpose of the stock-keeper or
grazier. By crossing, however, with a good shorthorn bull, a
capital intermediate race will be produced of cows that will prove
good milkers, and oxen that will turn out good feeders, some of
the latter rivalling in size the largest animals that are ever reared.
After the breed has been chosen that it is thought desirable to
select, the accommodation should be taken into account.

In grazing, there is one important principle that should be ever
borne in mind by the young stock-keeper, that animals should
never be taken from a rich pasture to a poor one, for they
will never thrive, but when the reverse is the case, and animals
accustomed to poor herbage are put upon better food, their pro-
gress is always highly satisfactory.

West Highland Cattle. — In no instance is this more palpably
the case than in that of the West Highland cattle, or Kyloes,
the cows of which breed we have before described as giving rich
milk, but very little of it, and as having a tendency to get dry
soon, so that they are unfitted for the purpose of the dairy
farmer.

156 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

For the purpose of tlie grazier, however, there is not a better
breed to be had, where the pastures are somewhat poor. In
being accustomed to the coarse herbage of the Highlands and its
humid climate, when the ox is removed to the more genial
climate of South Britain, and to a better herbage than he has
been accustomed to feed on, he will fatten where a finer breed
would scarcely be able to pick up a living.

The superior quality of beef yielded by the carcase of the
West Highland ox causes him to be a great favourite with the
butcher, his beef commanding the highest price with private
families.

For feeding down the grass in gentlemen's parks, the Kyloe
has long been a favourite in England, and his bold erect carriage,
broad head, with short fine muzzle, long up-turned horns, short
muscular limbs, and mellow skin covered with thick shaggy hair,
causes him to be a very picturesque object in such a situation.
He is somewhat slow in reaching maturity, but he is well worthy
of his entertainment, which is very often of a coarse and in-
ferior description, which he has the knack of converting into
so much good marketable beef. As grazing stock in many
somewhat unfavourable situations, the Kyloe will be found a
most useful race.

Galloivays. — Adapted for pastures of rather a better descrip-
tion than the former, the Galloway is a most desirable animal
for the grazier and stock-keeper who sell to the butcher. They
are polled cattle of a larger size than the West Highland, and on
this account, as well as on that of their placid, contented dis-
positions, a greater number can be kept in the cattle-yard than
of those which nature arms with a formidable weapon of offence
in the shape of large horns. As grazing cattle, perhaps, no
breed can excel them, and they have long been favourites in
several of the English counties, to which some breeders in Scot-
land regularly consign them.

There are useful black cattle also which come from the east
coast of Scotland, notably Aberdeen, Angus, and Fife, both
polled and horned, that are well adapted for the purposes of the
grazier.

VARIETIES OF OXEN.

157

The Ayrshire. — Although we have praised the Ayrshire cows
as being valuable for milking purposes, very little can be said
in favour of the Ayrshire ox. He comes light to the scale,
takes a long time to fatten, while his beef is coarse, and inferior
in quality. The qualities which make the cows useful and pro-
ductive as milkers end there, for as store-stock they will be found
not to be profitable, but unsatisfactory. As before mentioned,
however, the stock-keeper who is also a dairy farmer, may raise
a capital breed by crossing an Ayrshire cow with a shorthorn
bull, but he must be of pure breed, or all the advantages which
might be obtained would probably not be secured, for in all
cross-bred animals there is a tendency to return to the original
type, for though the animal directly bred from may not present
traces of any objectionable features, they may have existed on
one side of his ancestry originally, and break out again in occa-
sional instances after a generation or two, to the disappointment
of the breeder.

The Shorthorn. — The Durham, or as it is now to be called, the
" Improved Shorthorn," has become the established breed of
cattle all over England in those situations where it can be main-
tained with any chance of profit, for, being a large animal, he
requires better pasture than some other kinds of cattle.

About a century ago the race was nearly confined to the banks
of the Tees, but its excellent qualities have caused the improved
shorthorn to be held in high estimation, not only in every part
of England, but all over the world.

The principal features in the breed are its extraordinary
aptitude to fatten, and the enormous weight and maturity of
carcase the animals attain to while only yet at the age of calves,
as it were, their symmetrical form and pleasing colours ; while
few other breeds furnish beef of so good a quality as the short-
horn.

The breed is said to have been originally derived from a large,
somewhat coarse race — the original Teeswater — in conjunction
with a yet coarser and more ungainly animal that used to be
known in the East Eiding of Yorkshire as the Holderness, which
was generally faulty in the fore-quarter, with strong shoulders,

158 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

but slow and unprofitable to feed, the meat being coarse-looking
and by no means of fine flavour.

Upon these somewhat unpromising materials a long course of
care and attention in breeding, in the first place due to the
discrimination of Messrs. Charles and Eobert Colling, the
celebrated breeders, has built up the points of excellence that
make up the sum and substance of the modern shorthorn.
About seven thousand head are registered every alternate year in
the Herd Booh.

At the sale of the shorthorn herd at Tortworth, the seat of
the late Earl of Ducie, the high average price that was realised
for the different animals was due not merely to the fact that
there were a number whose descent could be traced directly from
Mr. Charles Colling's herd, but in addition to a special value set
upon the progeny descended from one particular animal in that
herd, the original Duchess. Duchess LIX., of the eighth genera-
tion from the original, fetched 350 guineas. Duchess LXIV., of
of the seventh generation, fetched 600 guineas ; while Duchess
LXVL, of the seventh generation (hardly three years old), was
sold for 700 guineas. At Charles Colling's sale Comet fetched
1000 guineas, and the cows Countess and Lily, respectively,
400 and 410 guineas. These prices will attest, without further
comment, the thorough appreciation in which the breed is now
held, and has been held for some considerable time.

The chest of the shorthorn ox is wide, deep, and projecting,
with fine oblique shoulders, well formed into the chine, with
short forelegs, the upper arm being large and powerful ; the
barrel is well ribbed up towards the loins and hips, and a straight
back, from the withers to the setting on of the tail, but short
from the hip to the chine, thus fulfilling the requirements of
good judges," that a beast should have a short back, yet with a
long frame — the hind quarter must be lengthy, but well filled in,
the carcase approaching as near perfection as possible. The head
of the ox is short but fine, broad across the eyes, but tapering
towards the nose, the nostrils being full and prominent, the ears
somewhat large and thin, with bright, but placid eyes, the head
being finished off with a curved and rather flat horn, and set on

VARIETIES OF OXEN.

159

a broad, long, and muscular neck, and being well proportioned,
looks altogether a smaller animal than lie really is.

The great point in favour of the shorthorn is his reaching
maturity at an early age, a great number of beasts being now
regularly slaughtered at two years old, and even under; and,
in the case of four to five year old steers, it is not unusual
for them to weigh 140, or even in some cases 150 stones of
141b., large animals very often fetching £70 a piece from the
butchers.

As grazing animals they require good rich pastures, and
are, therefore, well adapted for some of the rich lowlands of
the midland counties of England, and are also capital animals
for soiling, or house feeding management ; but on poor, or thin
soils, where the herbage is scanty, they will not thrive so well
as some of the more thrifty races of cattle.

Hereford. — The Herefords are a breed also well adapted
for fertile soils and grazing in rich pastures ; and, as mentioned
previously, the breed is said by some to equal the shorthorn ;
but taking into account the early maturity at which the latter
arrives, the palm must be adjudged to it for being the most
profitable description of stock that can be fed upon rich
meadows.

Longhorns. — Much the same as the above must be said of the
longhorns, which, although a capital breed, is giving way before
the superior excellencies of the shorthorn, even in those counties
where the most pains have been taken to keep the breed as
perfect as possible.

Alderney. — The Alderney ox is quite unfitted for the pur-
poses of the stock-keeper or grazier. After a vast amount of
food and pains has been bestowed upon him, he looks but an
unpromising animal after all, it' being a work of considerable
difficulty to fatten him. He wears an unfavourable look, too,
in the eyes of a purchaser, though after being slaughtered and
cut up, his carcase generally turns out much better for the
butcher than it was thought for, by the appearance the animal
presented before being killed.

Suffolk Dun. — The Suffolk dun is another race that has been

160 SI OCX KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

displaced by the shorthorn, so far as regards oxen intended for
the fattening stall, the cows alone being useful for dairying pur-
poses.

Housing.

It is now commonly received as an established fact that,
an animal warmly and comfortably housed, needs a smaller
quantity of food than one exposed to a lower temperature, a
certain amount of sustenance first going to keep up the natural
heat of the body in all warm-blooded animals before fat is com-
menced to be made, and the question has lately been a good deal
debated which is best for them, yards, stalls, or boxes.

Stalls are liked by many because they occupy the least space,
and require but a small amount of litter, the drawbacks to the
plan being that the animals require a good deal of attendance,
and, perhaps, are likely to be too warm rather than not warm
enough, while they do not get sufficient exercise upon the stall-
feeding system.

Feeding in yards offers a good opportunity for making a con-
siderable amount of manure, and the attendance needed by the
animals is but trifling, the drawback to this method being that
both cattle and manure are likely to suffer a good deal from the
weather, the latter especially, where the rainwater pours down
upon it from unspouted sheds, which are commonly seen in many
cattle yards, so that a principal portion of the fertilising element
of the manure is washed away by the rain.

The third system, the box system, is considered to unite the
advantages of both these plans, as the cattle can get some exer-
cise, they require a smaller amount of attendance than when tied
up in stalls, they are protected from the cold, and feed undis-
turbed and in quiet, which is a great point in favour of all
fattening animals.

The manure is also screened from the weather, and retaining
the urine, the whole is trampled compactly down by the hoofs of
the beasts, and evaporation of its volatile parts is prevented. The
boxes are arranged in a roofed building, with passage room
between the rows of animals, so that each may easily be got at,

FEEDING OXEN.

161

each box being about ten feet square, in which the beasts are not
tied. To hold the accumulated manure the ground area of the
box is excavated two or three feet below the ground level, and the
litter is allowed to accumulate, the animal treading it into a
compact mass, its height gradually increasing according to the
quantity of litter supplied, which, with a fair and moderate
amount, will be about at the rate of nine inches per month.
Some excellent manure is thus made, which is extremely valuable
to the arable farmer in his usual round of cultivation.

When cattle are kept in yards they should not be too crowded,
and they should be assorted, and kept distinct as much as pos-
sible as regards age and size. Those which have been reared
together will stand closer putting up than those which have
been bought in promiscuously, and should one ill-tempered beast
be acquired that annoys, or gores his fellows, it should be
removed, for he might possibly be the means of retarding the
satisfactory progress of all the rest. Half a dozen is the average
number that are put up together, but this depends upon the size of
the yard, and the shed accommodation, as well as the temper and
disposition of the various animals, and hence more Galloways,
which are a polled breed, and destitute of organs of" offence, can
be put up together better than a breed like their cousins, the
West Highland, or Kyloes.

Feeding.

A system of feeding used to be carried on under the old
method of keeping stock, of giving as many sliced turnips to the
cattle as they could eat, the troughs being carefully cleaned
out, and duly replenished the first thing in the morning and at
noon, plenty of good oat straw being placed in their racks daily.

Very good fat cattle have been produced upon this plan, but, as
pointed out before, the capacity of the ox for stowing away bulky
food is very large, and his paunch must be quite filled with some-
thing before he goes to rest and proceeds with rumination. If
this capacious paunch is filled with costly food, his powers of
assimilation do not keep pace with his eating capacity, and so a
large amount of waste is the consequence, and when over fed with

162 STOCK KEEPING FOE AMATEURS.

rich food, the system is too much taxed, and disorder is occa-
sioned, such as diarrhoea, if not some more serious disease. When
cattle are first put upon turnips in autumn excessive purging
often follows, which is worse in the case of cattle in poor
condition.

This is to be obviated by the freer use of chaffed straw, which
prevents the hurtful purging to which many animals are subject ;
but as they cannot be got to eat a sufficient quantity in its dry
state, small quantities of linseed, or meal of various kinds should
be mixed with it, together with some salt, and then steamed in a
close vessel, or mixed with boiling water. This process makes
the straw palatable, and a sufficient quantity will be readily eaten
by the animals to fill their stomachs.

By resorting to this method it is calculated that one ton of
roots will go as far as two tons given in the old manner, and that
a bullock restricted to the use of from 801b. to 1001b. of turnips
daily, with straw chaffed, will do as well as when allowed to
eat as much turnips as he liked, which would sometimes be
a couple of cwt., some feeders stating that they are enabled to
do as much upon 70lb. of turnips daily with 61b. of linseed or
other meal as formerly, when the supply of sliced turnips was
not restricted.

Warne's Compound. — Mr. Warne, of Trimmingham, Norfolk,
the originator of the box-feeding system, introduced to the notice
of agriculturists some years ago what he termed a "bullock
compound," for which he gave the following recipe: "Let a
quantity of linseed be reduced to fine meal. Put 1501bs. of water
into an iron boiler, and as soon as it boils (not before) stir in
211bs of linseed meal; continue to stir it for about five minutes,
then let 631b. of barley-meal be sprinkled by the hand of one
person upon the boiling mucilage, while another rapidly stirs
and crams it in. After the whole has been carefully incorpo-
rated, which will not occupy more than five or ten minutes,
cover it down and withdraw the fire. The mass will continue to
simmer from the heat of the cauldron until the meal has
absorbed the mucilage. On this compound being removed into
tubs it must be rammed down to exclude the air, and to prevent

FEEDING OXEN.

163

it from turning rancid. The compound will keep a long time if
properly prepared. The consistency ought to be like clay when
made into bricks."

We may remark here, though Mr. Warne laid no stress
upon the circumstance, that in the sprinkling of the barley-meal
gradually by the hand consists a great point in the cooking. Let
anyone try the familiar household dish, porridge, that has been
made in this way, by the oatmeal being stirred gradually into the
boiling water, and let it be thoroughly well cooked for half an
hour. Persons and children who refused to eat porridge made in
the ordinary manner relish the latter extremely, and declare it to
be a highly palatable dish.

But to resume. Mr. Warne afterwards published an account
of some improved methods which he followed in making pre-
pared food for his cattle, in which he says : " I commenced
winter-feeding this year upon white turnips, grown after flax, the
tops of which being very luxuriant, are cut with pea straw into
chaff, compounded with linseed meal, and given to my bullocks
according to the following plan : Upon every six pails of boiling
water one of finely crushed linseed meal is sprinkled by the hand
of one person, while another rapidly stirs it round. In five
minutes, the mucilage being formed, a half-hogshead is placed
close to the boiler, and a bushel of the cut turnip tops and straw
put in. Two or three handcupfuls of the mucilage are then
poured upon it, and stirred in with a common muck fork.
Another bushel of the turnip tops, chaff, &c, is next added, and
two or three cups of the jelly as before; all of which is then
expeditiously stirred and worked together with the fork and
rammer. It is afterwards pressed down as firmly as the nature
of the mixture will allow with the latter instrument, which com-
pletes the first layer. Another bushel of the pea straw, chaff,
&c, is thrown into the tub, the mucilage poured upon it as
before, and so on till the boiler is emptied. The contents of the
tub are lastly smoothed over with a trowel, covered down, and
in two or three hours the straw, having absorbed the mucilage,
will also, with the turnip tops, have become partially cooked.
The compound is then usually given to the cattle, but sometimes

M 2

164 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

is allowed to remain till cold. The bullocks, however, prefer it
warm ; but, whether hot or cold, they devour it with avidity."

Later on still he yet describes another variation in his method,
and says : "I am now using a preparation of barley-straw with
that of peas, according to the following plan : To nine or ten
pails of water a bushel of swede turnips, sliced very small, is
added. After having boiled a few minutes about two pecks of
linseed meal are actively stirred in ; the mucilage is formed in
about five minutes. A hogshead is then placed by the boiler,
and one or two skips of chaff thrown in. Three or four hand-
cupfuls of jelly and turnips are next poured upon it, which being
mixed together with a three pronged fork, are firmly pressed
down with a small rammer 3ft. long and 5in. square at the
bottom, with a cross handle at the top. The first layer completed,
a small quantity of the chaff, &c, is put into the tub as before,
till the boiler is emptied, The mass being covered down, in a
short time is ready for use."

Various modifications have been made upon the system first
propounded by Mr. "Warne, different ingredients being used in
varying proportions in conjunction with one inch chaff, as
linseed, oil-cake meal, bean meal, bruised barley or oats, &c,
and some, instead of cooking the ingredients, wet them well with
cold water, it being necessary that chaff when given with crushed
grain or meal should be wetted.

In feeding, no animal should ever be allowed to go back, but
be made to progress steadily. The force of this necessity is
clearly apparent when it is considered that after a certain amount
of condition has been attained, if, from bad management, the
animals go back, so much food and the cost of the labour upon
their attendance is actually thrown away, and, in addition, it
takes a great deal more food, and often a considerable time to
enable them to make up the lost ground.

In the case of young animals, neglect in regular and ample
feeding is still more disastrous at times, for they acquire a
stunted habit of body, from which, perhaps, they never after-
wards recover.

There are, however, various ways of feeding cattle effectively,

FEEDING OXEN.

165

and yet economically, which each should endeavour to find out
for himself, as being best fitted for his own peculiar circum-
stances, the food at command, and what crops suit him best to
grow.

Flies and insects in warm showery weather are very trouble-
some to cattle, and it will always be found a good plan to keep
the animals under cover during the hottest period of the day
during summer, and turn them out when it is cooler, and, if this
cannot very conveniently be done in the case of rough store stock
that may be at a distance from home, the milch cows might, at
all events, be thus taken care of, to the manifest improvement
of their comfort and well-being.

OHAPTEE X.

THE DISEASES OF CATTLE.

The Diseases of Oxen — Abortion, Slipping Calf, or Warping

Blain — Blasting, Hoove, Hoven, or Meteorization — Bronchitis
— Catarrh — Choking — Cow-Pox — Loss of Cud — Diarrhoea,
Scouring, the Scant — Drop in Coius — The Epidemic — Hema-
turia — Inflammation of the Kidneys — Disease of the Liver —

Inflammation of the Liver — Loo, Low, Foul in the Foot

Moor-Ill, or Wood-Evil— Paralysis or Palsy — Pleuro-Pneu-
monia — Quarter -ill — Redwater — Rheumatism — Distension of
the Rumen — Inflammation of the Rumen — -Skin Diseases:
Mange, Lice — Thrush — Diseases of the Udder — Inversion of
the Uterus and Vagina.

A gbeat many of the diseases to which oxen are subject are to
be averted by careful attention to housing and feeding. In some
of what are called the best dairying counties, as Gloucester, the
cows are allowed to be exposed a great deal too much during
inclement weather in the open fields, there being throughout the
county generally a great deficiency of house accommodation. By
being exposed too much, cattle get rheumatism, catarrh, and
bronchitis, and in damp low-lying districts cows are exposed to
the chance of getting diseased udders.

There are a good many casualties that happen to cattle in
connection with the processes of feeding, and derangement of the
digestive organs.

Abortion, Slipping Calf, or Warping. — Abortion is commonly
supposed to mostly arise from the occasion of accident, but it
takes the form of a disease as well, for cows that have once
aborted are very likely to do so again, and it has been known also
to prevail amongst cows more at particular seasons, resembling
somewhat the course of an epidemic.

Cows that do not breed early are more likely to slip their calf
than young heifers, and it usually takes place between the ninth

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

167

and fifteenth week, but may occur at any period. It may be
brought on by blows, strains, or jumping other cows, or being
hunted about, or by any kind of fright, as well as by disturbance
of the digestive organs.

If it takes place during an early period of the cow's pregnancy,
the consequences are not often very serious, but when at a late
period critical consequences may ensue. Opening medicine is
usually given first, followed by sedatives, an ounce each of
laudanum and spirit of nitrous ether following a dose of salts.
When inEammation is expected, hot fomentations should be
applied to the loins.

If symptoms of likely abortion make their appearance, prompt
treatment should be resorted to, and the animal removed to a
quiet place and bled, and have administered to it an ounce and a
half each of tincture of opium and spirit of nitrous ether, but
no aperient medicine, and if a cow has slipped her calf before at
a particular time, this should be carefully noted, and she should
be bled just previous to the corresponding period when this took
place.

Slain.— Slain consists of an inflammation of the membrane
lining of the mouth and tongue, also called Gloss Anthrax, the
mouth swelling and becoming covered with blisters, so that in
bad cases the animal is unable to eat. Early treatment is
imperatively called for, and it may be necessary to lance the
tongue and take some blood from the roof of the mouth, while
a dose of salts should be carefully administered. Nitre and
tartarised antimony in small quantities should be given in gruel,
and the mouth washed with a healing lotion formed of the
following :

Powdered alum *

Honey

Sulphate of zrac

in lib. of warm water — i.e„ about one pint.

JBlasting, Hoove, Hoven, or Meteorization.-Hh.is, which is by no
means an uncommon disease where cattle are changed so quickly
from dry food to rich succulent green food without any inter-
mediate preparation, consists of distension of the rumen, due
to the gas given off by the food in its fermentation, the stomach

168 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

being often distended to an enormous size, and suffocation soon
follows unless relief is given.

The common practice is to pass a hollow flexible probang into
the stomach so as to allow the gas to escape through it. A
draught either before or after the application of the pro-
bang should be given to condense the gases through means of
chemical reagents. . The draught may consist of loz. of harts-
horn and 3drms. of powdered ginger in a pint of water. If
medicine is not readily obtainable, lime water is a useful remedy
to apply, or a couple of drachms of chloride of lime dissolved
in a quart of water. A purgative should be given afterwards
to restore the tone of the digestive organs. Sometimes an
incision has to be made in the flank by the trochar, in which a
quill or stick of elder is inserted, through which the gas escapes.

Bronchitis. — When catarrh has been neglected sometimes
bronchitis may set in, when greater soreness is apparent in
coughing. A seton should be inserted in the brisket, and bleeding
resorted to, and aperient and febrifuge medicine given.

Catarrh. — Exposure to the weather brings on, first, catarrh,
afterwards bronchitis, and frequently rheumatism, while expo-
sure to hoar frosts often brings on a sudden and fatal disease to
which young yearly heifers are especially liable, called " Quarter-
ill," "Blood-striking," or " Black-quarter."

Catarrh amongst cattle mostly prevails in the spring of the
year, when the seasons are wet and cold, and particularly when
east winds prevail — young, unseasoned animals being oftener
affected than mature beasts.

Good beds and dry housing, together with a few warm bran
mashes, will generally effect a cure if taken in time ; but should
the attack be a sharp one, moderate bleeding is recommended,
and a dose of Epsom salts. In severe cases it may be desirable
to rub a liniment into the throat, composed of :

Olive on 6oz _

Powdered cantharides loz.

Oil of turpentine 2oz.

Sometimes catarrh will turn out to be of an epidemic nature,
and upon these occasions there is a greater tendency to debility,

DISEASES OF CATTLE. 169

vegetable tonics-as gentian and ginger-can be given with

advantage. .

Choking.— Choking is a very common occurrence with animals
that are fed upon cut roots when not sufficient care is used with
them, a piece of turnip, mangold, or potato getting firmly fixed
in the oesophagus, which, pressing upon the windpipe, interferes
with respiration. The probang, with a knob at the end, which
should be first well oiled, in most cases needs to be used. It is
also a good plan to give the affected beast a little oil as well,
from the horn. The probang should be firmly but gently
pressed against the obstructing object, the animal's, head being
alternately depressed and raised the while. If it cannot be made
to pass at once, undue haste should not be used, because, at a
second attempt, it may be made to pass easily, and care must be
taken not to lacerate the lining membrane of the oesophagus and
its muscles, or serious consequences afterwards may ensue.

By giving pulped roots and steamed food, the dangers arising
from choking are a good deal lessened. Soft food should be
given for a few days after an operation of this kind has been
performed, so as to allow the overtaxed muscles, which are often
a good deal strained, to resume their wonted condition.

Sometimes the offending body will become firmly impacted m
the roof of the mouth, in which case it will need to be with-
drawn by the hand upwards.

Cow-pox:— This is now rarely met with, but the pustules which
form on the udder and teats will give way to the use of
astringents, such as a little powdered chalk and alum, while a
cooling aperient should be given. It is infectious, and can be
communicated from one cow to another by the hands of the

milker. . .

Cud Loss of.— When this takes place, it is more a sign of
there being something wrong with the system than the indica-
tion of a disease itself, and mild purgatives with tonics should be
given to restore the tone of the animal in the absence of any
other indications of disease.

Diarrhoea, Scouring, the ,W.-Diarrhcea is mostly produced
by improper food, or by a too sudden change from dry to green.

170 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

The most simple form of the disorder consists of a relaxed con-
dition of the mucous coat of the small intestines, but it will
sometimes indicate a graver disorder, as disease of the liver or of
the maniplus.

A change of food will often effect a cure in the first place, but
if the looseness continues some gruel should be given, to which
is added :

Powdered gentian root 2dr.

Opium "... idr.

Prepared chalk _ 2oz.

and given once or twice a day, or as may be deemed necessary.

If the liver is thought to be affected, calomel must be given,
which is best associated with opium, and A drachm of each
administered twice a day. When there is reason to think there
may be some irritating substance, it will be prudent to clear out
the bowels with Epsom salts.

With young calves scouring often takes place, owing to
coagulation of the milk which they suck, which causes derange-
ment of the stomach, the whey passing on and causing purging,
when the evacuations are of a white colour. A great many calves
are lost from this disorder, the coagulated milk forming a large
mass, which it is necessary to dissolve by the administration of
medicines of alkaline properties, such as carbonate of magnesia
and carbonate of soda, which should be given in doses of one or
two drachms each, according to the size and age of the calf, so
as to neutralise the acids that most likely exist in excess in the
stomach.

Drop in Cows.— The drop is a sudden disorder, which some-
times strikes down a cow shortly after she has calved, and when
to all appearance she is doing well. It is considered to be an
affection of the spinal marrow at the region of the loins. The
animal so struck down often lies stretched out without any
signs of animation, and as the drop seldom takes place till after a
cow has. had several calves, the theory of the disorder is that
with each the uterus becomes more dilated, and consequently the
contractions are greater, and the muscular effort in expelling the
foetus, combined with these involuntary contractions, produce it.

There is often no room for treatment, and the animal dies,

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

171

but in curative cases both purgatives and stimulants must be
used, which can be given in the form of the following, in oatmeal
gruel :

Flour of sulphur

4oz.
lib.

Sulphate of magnesia ; lb -

Croton oil W ^ s -

Spirit of nitrous ether

Carbonate of ammonia

Powdered ginger

the object being to restore the loss of action.

When there is obstinate constipation the dose of croton oil
may be increased, and from 8gr. to lOgr. of powdered cantharides
given, as well as rubbing a blistering liniment on the spine and
loins. A fourth of the above medicine should be given every six
hours, omitting the croton oil until purging is brought on, and
plenty of nourishing gruel should be given, as well as bran
mashes, if the patient can be got to eat them.

Injudicious feeding, in our opinion, often brings on this disease,
and the precaution should always be taken before a cow calves to
give her a good dose of Epsom salts, for sometimes the stomach
may be loaded with food difficult of digestion, or the system
be in a plethoric condition, when the muscular efforts made m
the course of parturition must be necessarily greater from the
stomach being distended by food. The same effect is also pro-
duced from too plethoric a habit of body.

Epidemic, The.— This is rather a confused term when applied
to cattle, and is identified with the murrain and Maine, and,
although not a fatal disease, is yet a very serious one m its
results to the farmer, as the flesh of the cattle decreases, and,
the supply of milk in cows fails off. Though sometimes slight,
and lasting but a short time, at other times it is dangerous,
and continues for a considerable period. The first symptoms
are a cold fit, with staring coat and cold extremities, which is
followed by a reaction, the extremities becoming warm, and a
discharge of saliva issues from the mouth. The muzzle becomes
dry and hot, feverish symptoms are exhibited, and vesicles
form on the tongue, parts of the mouth, and in the case of
cows the teats are often thus affected. The beasts feed but
slowly, sometimes from want of appetite, but very likely more

172 STOCK KEEPING FOE AMATEURS.

often from pain in eating. The nature of the disease being that
of a low fever, and tending to produce debility, it is improper
to bleed largely— which is sometimes done, with the view of
cooling and reducing the system— for occasionally this causes
the disorder to take the form of typhus, under which the animal
soon sinks.

The correct treatment consists in moderating the fever, and
using astringents to the mouth and feet, which latter are often
affected, and then to support the strength of the animal by tonics.
Epsom salts with sulphur make a useful aperient, and gentian
root, ginger, and sulphate of iron — two drachms of each— make
a good tonic. If the udder is affected, bleeding in the veins and
hot fomentations will be necessary. Should the liver or lungs
be affected, as will sometimes be the case, proper remedial treat-
ment will need to be resorted to.

Hematuria is produced by strains, sometimes occasioned by
cattle riding one another, being a rupture of small vessels in the
urinary passages. Medicines, as in Eedwater, are administered,
and if these do not have the desired effect, the following is
given in linseed gruel :

Oil of jumper ...
Oil of turpentine
Tincture of opium

Kidneys, Inflammation of the. — Nephrites, or inflammation of
the kidneys, is somewhat rare, but is sometimes produced by cold
and wet, by strains, or even blows. Its presence is indicated
by weakness in the loins, and a discharge of dark coloured urine.
Bleeding is advisable, and a purgative should be given the same
as recommended for Eedwater, and the loins be well stimulated
by a mustard poultice, and linseed gruel given.

Liver, Disease of the— In a state of nature, the liver of an ox is
seldom diseased, but high feeding with artificial foods will some-
times produce it. Epsom salts should be first resorted to, com-
bined with carminatives, and if these do not answer, a drachm of
calomel should be given in gruel.

Liver, Inflammation of the.— An abundant supply of nutritious
food, perhaps, combined with a plethoric disposition, will some-

2or.
loz.
loz.

DISEASES OF CATTLE. 173

times bring on inflammation of the liver, or hepatitis ; as will
also exposure to heat, undue fatigue, &c, by which the general
system is disordered.

The treatment must depend a good deal upon the condition ot
the affected animal, but calomel in doses of a scruple should be
given in conjunction with opium, the same quantity— or even two
scruples of the latter— twice a day, and the bowels should be
cleared out with Epsom salts.

Low Loo, Foul in the Foot— This disease commences with
inflammation and lameness, succeeded by soreness between the
toes, the foot discharging offensive matter, m its aspect
resembling somewhat the foot-rot in sheep ; successive abscesses
sometimes form. The disease most frequently occurs upon damp
or marshy soils, and is supposed to arise from the softened
condition of the feet and the friction of the mud between the

claws. . . ,

A pledget of tow, dipped in tar, over which some powdered
sulphate of copper may be spread, should be inserted between
the claws and renewed when necessary, which may probably be
in forty-eight hours. _

Moor-ill or Wood-evil— This is a singular disorder that some-
times visits cows that graze in the neighbourhood of woods and
commons, and is manifested by a depraved appetite, the animal
taking up stones, bones, pieces of iron, or any stray substances that
m ay come across her way, going about with her belly tucked up and
losing flesh daily. The bowels are invariably obstinately consti-
pated, and she appears to move with pain, which is manifested
by groans, the secretion of milk almost ceases, as does also rumi-
nation, for very little food is eaten. Opening medicine should
be given, succeeded by febrifuge, and alterative medicines, and if
there are symptoms of inflammation of the lungs, bleeding may
be necessary, but not without ; and every pains should be taken
to get the digestive powers into order, which are altogether thrown
out of gear. A seton may be inserted in the dewlap, and occa-
sionally the sides may be blistered as well.

Paralysis, or P«%.-This is a disorder frequently met with
amongst cattle, being familiarly called « Tail-slip as well, the

174 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

symptoms being an apparent inability to raise the tail in making
the usual evacuations, by which the hinder parts of the animal
become filthy. It generally proceeds from rheumatism in the *
first place, and is more common with cows and young beasts that
are poorly fed, seldom visiting stall-fed beasts. It is sometimes
associated with inflammation of the membranes of the heart and
chest.

A good deal of ignorant superstition used to prevail with regard
to this disease, one of which was that it was owing to the
presence of a worm in the tail.

An affected animal should first be comfortably housed, then
bled, the loins blistered, and a seton put in the dewlap.
Purgative medicine is given, combined with carminatives, and
the animal fed upon good nutritious food.

Pleuro-Pneunionia. — A great deal of difference of opinion has
prevailed as to the true nature of this scourge, which is well
recognised under the scientific name it bears, and which comes
under the notice and control of the veterinary department of
the Privy Council, but the term denotes inflammation of the
substance of the lungs and also of the membrane which covers
them.

Its infectious character is very manifest, which it is thought
by some is due to an animal poison floating in the air, which in
most cases proceed from the respiratory surfaces of diseased
animals.

In the early and slight stages of the disease there is a short
and slight cough, and the coat of the animal is somewhat
"staring." A singular circumstance in connection with the dis-
ease is that the most valuable kinds of stock, as the shorthorn,
appear to be amongst the readiest sufferers.

The rule adopted is not to wait for treatment, but to slaughter
the affected animals at once, even on suspicion, if the herd is
large, but when it unmistakably has made its appearance, the
Government inspector will solve the difficulty at once, and spare
all further trouble on that head.

In cases of suspicion, the animal or animals should be sepa-
rated at once, and internal remedies given in the shape of Epsom

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

175

salts and linseed oil, to regulate the bowels, and then administer
a sedative composed of the following :

Nitrate of potash 2dr.

Powdered white hellebore Idr.

Tartarised antimony ... Idr.

made up into a powder and mixed with gruel, and given at
morning and evening of the first day of treatment, and once a
day afterwards for four or five days.

Quarter-ill. — This sudden and often fatal disease is also known
by the names of "Black-quarter" and "Blood-striking," the effects
of opposite causes being included under these names. As we have
before mentioned, young cattle, and especially yearly heifers,
acquire the disorder from lying on a cold damp soil, especially
when there has been a hoar frost, which perhaps for the first
time comes as a shock to the system of the young animal. It is
so rapid in its effects that an animal well on one evening may be
found dead the following morning ; but generally the affected
beast is found with one quarter very much swollen, and lame.
The animal should be housed at once, and a stimulant adminis-
tered, consisting of a drachm of camphor and a couple of ounces
of spirits of nitrous ether, given in gruel. Bleeding is sometimes
practised, but this should not be done if the pulse is feeble.

The same apparent form of disease occurs at quite a different
time of the year, and sometimes visits two-year-old cattle when
they are put upon rich pasture, and a sudden change made from
poor winter food. The animals should be bled, the bowels well
opened, and the affected parts fomented with hot water, an
access of blood causing the disease in the latter instances.

Bedwater.— This is also a disease of the liver, principally
caused by the digestive organs being out of order, the urine
being charged with biliary deposits. The bowels should be first
well opened with a draught composed of the following :

Calomel

Sulphate of magnesia ..

Sulphor

Powdered ginger

Carbonate of ammonia

. lsc.
. 12oz.
. 4oz.
. 3dr.
. 4dr.

given in gruel.

A quarter of the above may be given every six hours, leaving

176 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

out the calomel until the bowels are relaxed, when mild stimulants
and diuretics should be given, made after the following recipe :

Sulphate of potash 2dr.

Gentian root (powdered) idr.

Ginger ditto ld r>

Spirit of nitrous ether ioz.

Rheumatism. — This affection, known also locally as "Joint
felon " and "Chine felon," is generally contracted from exposure
to the weather, and may be acute or sub-acute, affecting either the
fibrous tissues, or extending to the muscles and sinews, sometimes
attacking the serous membrane lining the chest and affecting
the heart. There is often a good deal of fever, and the usual
symptoms of stiffness and pain in moving, the joints being
generally affected when the disease is sub-acute.

Bleeding is generally resorted to, and a purgative given, in
which is mixed loz. of the spirit of nitrous ether. The ether
may be repeated twice a day, together with a drachm of colchicum
and another of tartarised antimony. It gives ease to foment the
suffering parts with warm water, afterwards rubbing into them
the stimulating liniment mentioned under catarrh.

Rumen, Distension of the, ly Solids. — Distension of the rumen,
though not so sudden or alarming in its appearance as hoove, is yet
a more serious disorder, being principally met with in the case of
stall-fed beasts, and arises from accumulated food getting so hard
and dry that it can no longer be returned to the mouth for
second mastication. It is sometimes difficult to find out the
exact state of the case, and this is at times tested by moving the
trochar to and fro. In urgent cases it is sometimes necessary,
in order to save life, to make an opening into the flank through
the rumen, large enough to allow of the contents being removed
by the hand, but when the case is not serious, a drench composed
of purgative and carminative medicines is given, assisted by in-
jections. Sometimes the stomach-pump is resorted to, and liquid
injected to excite vomiting. When there is anything like an
operation necessary, the services of a veterinary surgeon need to
be called into requisition.

Rumen, Inflammation of the. — This is comparatively a rare
disease, and mostly arises from the animals partaking of some

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

177

poisonous plant in the pastures which, as a rule, their fine sense
of smell enables them to detect and refuse. The disease, called
ergot, which is most conspicous in rye, but infests other grain and
grasses, excites abortion in cows, and sometimes causes death.
In these cases the stomach-pump must be called into requisition,
and oily purgatives and injections given. The clippings of yew
trees, which are poisonous, are sometimes eaten by cattle.

Shin Diseases — Mange — Lice. — Mange may be acquired by
contagion, or produced by poverty of condition, and is due to the
presence of an insect termed the acarus, which breeds under the
skin and causes intolerable itching. It may be cured by rubbing
into the skin, with a good deal of friction, an ointment com-
posed of

Sulphur vivum ioz -

Linseed oil 8oz -

Oil of turpentine - oz -

Lice are generally a sign of poor living, infesting cattle that
have been reduced by hard fare, and may be destroyed by the
above ointment or by using tobacco water.

Thrush.— The thrush, or aptlw, consists of small pustules
which break, become sores, and heal again in about ten days'
' time, in the membrane lining the mouth. A dose of Epsom
salts should be given, and a weak solution of alum and water
applied to the mouth.

Udder, Diseases of the.— Where cows have been exposed to
cold and wet, disease of the udder is sometimes contracted, the
part swelling, and becoming hot and hard, while the secretion of
milk is interrupted. Hot fomentations should be applied and
opening medicine given, but, if shivering comes on, a stimulant
should be administered in the form of an ounce of ground ginger
in some gruel or warm ale, together with 2oz. of spirit of nitrous
ether.

After the udder has been well fomented, ointment, composed
of the following, should be rubbed into the part :

Mercurial ointment 2<ir -

Powdered camphor

Lard ilb -

well mixed up. If disease is allowed to proceed unchecked, it
may end in the loss of one or two quarters of the udder.

178 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

Uterus and Vagina, Inversion of the. — Inversion of the uterus
generally occurs after parturition, while the latter may take place
before, in both cases it being necessary to wash the parts care-
fully, and restore them to their proper place as quickly as
possible, keeping the hinder parts of the animal higher than the
fore ones.

When calving is prevented by an unusual presentation, the
calf should, if possible, be restored to its natural position, which
is with its head resting on the fore legs, as these ought to be
presented first.

In cases of what are termed unnatural presentation, sometimes
the foetus literally has to be removed piecemeal to save the life of
the cow, and when the buttocks are presented first, care should be
taken to cause the hind feet to escape in the first place when it
can be managed.

OHAPTEE XI.

ASSES, MULES, AND GOATS.

The Domestic Ass— Varieties — Advice in Buying— Feeding-
Breeding— The Mule— The Hinny— Uses— The Goat— Advice,
in Buying — Uses.

The Domestic Ass.

It is often a matter of surprise, that the domestic ass in
England has been made -so little use of. He can be purchased
for about one-twentieth of the price of a horse, and can be kept
at a most trifling expense. It has been remarked by a writer,
"we are at a loss to know how to estimate the expense of
keeping the ass ; for so long as there is a hedgerow overgrown
with briars and thistles, so long as there is waste land furnishing
a few tufts of rank and bitter grass, the rejected of other cattle,
but to our poor friend welcome, so long will the ass stick to his
work, thrive and cost you nothing.

"But we recommend that the ass should cost something. He
ought to receive better treatment than this ; he will repay a
daily allowance of hay, or permission to graze in better pasture ;
for consider what he is, a powerful and patient drudge, rarely
the subject of disease, long-lived, and fit for Ms work almost to
the last.

"In draught, two good asses will knock up any horse. In the
plough, especially in light soils, they are sufficiently effective ;
and both male and female produce an intermediate creature by
intercourse with the horse or mare respectively, by many degrees
more valuable for this purpose than either parent. Many
objections have been urged against the ass. He has been called
obstinate, slow, and mischievous. Those accusations may be
true, but we should blush to bring them forward, for to our
mismanagement and cruelty they are alone to be attributed.

n 2

180 STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

Three generations would produce him a different creature. Give
him proper care, afford him only half as much attention as
would freely be bestowed upon the most worthless horse ; and
there is little doubt but that in a very few years the animal
would rival, in every respect save fierceness, those coursers of the
desert, described by the accurate Morier. His bad qualities are
the result of the neglect and cruelty of his treatment. Kindness
and attention will remove them. The writer of this memoir can
state from experience that the ass is as capable of as much
enduring affection and docility as the horse."

It may well be a matter of surprise that asses are so little
employed by farmers. No farm ought to be without its donkey
and little cart to perform the many odd jobs which they are so
capable of doing.

In carrying small loads, collecting manure, weeds, in moving
hurdles, or in the thousand and one jobs that are to be done
about a farm, they will be found most useful.

Varieties. — The ass known in England is of an inferior de-
scription, and has been very much neglected, but his capability
of improvement has been proved over and over again, some ladies
having driven them in low carriages very successfully, at a good
rate of speed, when they have manifested none of the bad
qualities with which they are generally accredited. Doubtless
they might be greatly improved by crossing. The wild ass of
Persia and of Africa is an animal of great speed and power,
while there is a race of Arabian origin chiefly used for the
saddle, and those reared in the Island of Gozo, in the Mediter-
ranean, have reached the height of fourteen hands ; a few of
these might with advantage be brought to this country.

The Spaniards possess a fine breed of asses, a good deal of
attention having been paid to them, a royal stud of stallion asses
having been maintained at Eeynosa, in the Asturias.

Advice in Buying. — It is very seldom that much pains is taken
when a purchase is made of a donkey, yet there are very
prominent points in the animal, which an intending purchaser
ought to look for, and obtain if possible. A good ass should be
of fair stature, as large indeed as it is possible to find one. The

THE ASS AND MULE. 181

neck should be long, the nostril wide, with large full eye, and
withers raised, in which latter particular asses are very faulty,
back full, with large quarters. A short tail is an indication of
strength and vigour, though on the score of appearance it would
not be preferred perhaps.

Feeding. — As we have previously said, the ass is contented
with the poorest and hardest fare, no food coming amiss to him,
and he will thrive upon the very commonest kind of fare usually
supplied to horses.

Breeding. — The she ass carries her young a few days over
eleven months, and the young animal does not arrive at maturity
till his fourth or fifth year ; but as the ass will breed with the
horse, a valuable creature may be produced in the form of a
mule, the progeny of the male ass and the mare.

When the pairing is reversed the offspring of the horse and
she ass is termed the "hinny," and in some parts of the country
a mute, in Ireland the "gennatin," the hybrids being very
different from each other in size and form.

The Mule.

When well and carefuUy bred, the mule is a most valuable
creature, being large in size and swift, taking the nature of the
horse rather than that of the ass, except with respect to ear and
tail. It has the quick paces of the horse, with the patience,
strength, and endurance of the ass. A Spanish jackass with an
English thoroughbred mare produces the best mules. In the
southern provinces of France and Spain the mule is used to a
very great extent as well as in the East.

They are more hardy in constitution, more muscular in propor-
tion to their size and weight than horses, and as well as being more
patient are less subject to disease than horses. They are also
long-lived, being usually able to work from thirty to forty years.

Yet, although wherever they have been employed in this
country regularly, their utility has been amply demonstrated,
there is an unaccountable prejudice against using them.

The hinny is smaller in size than the mule, less robust, and of
inferior value.

182

STOCK KEEPING FOR AMATEURS.

Uses. — The remains of the ass when dead are put to several
useful purposes. The integuments are employed for making
parchment, and the hide is of considerable value for making
shoes. The substance known as shagreen, but more correctly
sagri,.is also made from it. The best material for drums is said
to be of the parchment manufactured from the integuments of
the ass.

The Goat.

The goat is so similar to the sheep in its main construction,
the skeleton of both resembling each other closely, that a very
slight difference is thought to exist between them. Goats were
formerly largely kept in Wales, where the hilly districts are
peculiarly suited to their nature and habits.

As an animal devoted to the production of food, it is but of
small value in England, there being a great prejudice against the
flesh of kid, though they are regularly consumed in southern
countries ; but the she goats are valuable for the milk they give,
which is often much affected by invalids. A good goat, when
in full milk, will yield a quart of milk three times a day, at
morning, noon, and night, that is, half -past seven or eight o'clock
of the evening, for goats should be milked thrice a day, in conse-
quence of the small capacity of the udder. Goats give more
milk if tethered to a certain spot than if allowed to roam about
at will, and they can be grazed on almost any rough or waste
ground. Like the ass, they will thrive on very poor fare,
although they pay well for a more generous living.

The goat is a useful little animal if of a good sort, for there
are some which will not give the third of the quantity of milk
we have mentioned. A good goat will give milk all the year
round, up to within a few weeks of parturition.

The goat breeds once a year, going to the buck in December,
and bringing forth in April, carrying its young about four
months, and usually bringing two, and sometimes three, kids at a
time.

Advice in Buying. — The goat should be of the largest size,
having hard and stiff hair, but not too abundant. Neck short,
thick, and resembling that of the sheep. Head small and

THE QOAT— CONCLUSION. 183

narrow about the muzzle, eyes large and full, and those which
are hornless are generally the best milkers. Colour as dark as
can be found, those of a light yellow, or pied colour, not being
so good. The legs should be straight, with even and firm joints,
and the ears large and full.

Goats are best at the age of from three to six years. A goat
usually goes to the buck when sis or nine months old, but the
milk she gives at her first kidding is so trifling in quantity as to
be scarcely worth speaking of. It is also better to allow a goat
to suckle her first kid, as it increases her supply of milk, and she
will more than repay for it the following year.

Uses. — Oheese, as well as butter, has been made from goats'
milk, but both possess a peculiar taste, not welcome to all
palates. The hide is dressed and used for many purposes,
amongst others for gloves, and is admirably adapted to the
manufacture of the finer description of shoes, being durable as
well as soft and elastic.

The hair, which may be clipped annually, about the middle of
May, possesses the quality of being indestructible in water, ropes
made from goats hair bearing all weathers, and never rotting from
moisture. It is also woven up in several kinds of textile fabrics
abroad.

For further particulars of goats and their management, we
refer the reader to Stephen Holmes's " Book of the Goat."*

Farming lately has appeared to be at a discount, probably to a
great extent owing to a succession of bad seasons ; but we are
sanguine that farmers will take heart again, and that with more
favourable weather, and by the adoption of the economical
methods of feeding stock which we have recommended in the
foregoing pages, they will see a return to more prosperous and
profitable times.

* The Book of the Goat, containing Praotioal Directions for the Management of
the Miloh Goat in Health and Disease. Illustrated. By Stephen Holmes. Cheap
Edition, Is. London : The Bazaar Office.

I IN" ID EX.

Abroad, sheep rearing ... page 93

Accommodation for horses

Pigs

Sheep

Advice in buying asses .

Goats

Horses

Pigs

Ages of sheep

Ass, domestic

Asses, advice in buying

Breeding

Feeding

Uses of

Varieties of

Attention to stock

Breeding asses

Cows

Goats

Horses

Pigs...

Sheep .
Breeds of pigs, improving
Buying asses, advice on

Goats, advice on ...

Horses, advice on ...

Pigs, advice on

Sheep, advice on ...

Calves, rearing

Considerations in pig keeping
Cows, breeding

106
11
40
180
182
104
7
39
65
179
180
181
181
182
180
154

Cows, feeding . . .

Varieties of
Curing pigs . . .
Cutting up pigs

..page 152

144

..' ... 33
32

Descriptive terms for pigs
Designation of sheep
various ages ... ...

Diseases of horses

Pigs ...

Sheep

Domestic ass

66
127
22
67
179

Exercise for horses

122

181

149

Farm work, training

horses

182

for

103

123

Farming, sheep

Fattening pigs

Feeding asses

181

Cows

152

180

Horses

109

182

Pigs

104

Pigs for shows

Sheep

Flitches, smoking ...

Foals, rearing... • ...

101

150

Goats

182

149

Advice in buying

182

INDEX.

185

Goats, breeding
Uses of ...
Grooming horses

..page 182

183

121

Hams, smoking 33

Horses, accommodation for ... 106
Advice in buying ... ... 104

Breeding 123

Diseases and their treat-
ment 127

Exercise for 122

Feeding 109

For farm work, training 103

Grooming 121

Labour required for

superintending 108

Shoeing 122

Varieties of 97

Housing oxen 160

Importation of sheep 92

Improving breeds of pigs ... 20
Introductory recommendations

of pigs 1

Killing pigs

Labour required for superin-
tending horses ...

Pigs

Sheep

Lice in sheep

Long wool sheep . . .

108
13
43
55
38

Markets for sheep

Sheep's wool

Marking sheep

Measurements and weights of
P%s ...

Mules

Mutton, prime

Oxen, housing...
Varieties of

...page 181
66

160
155

90
56
55

Pigs, accommodation for ... 11

Advice on buying 7

Breeding 18

Considerations in keep-
ing 8

Curing 33

Cutting up 32

Descriptive terms for ... 21
Diseases and their treat-
ment for 22

Fattening 27

Feeding 14

For shows, feeding ... 29
Improving breeds of ... 20
Introductory recommend-
ations 1

Killing ... — 31

Labour in superintending 13

Ringing 34

Scalding and singeing ... 31

Varieties of 3

Weights and measure-
ments of 29

Prime mutton 66

Profit and uses of sheep ... 91

Bearing calves 150

Foals 101

Sheep abroad 93

Recommendations of pigs,

introductory 1

Ringing pigs 34

Salting pigs 33

Salving sheep 56

Scalding pigs 31

186

INDEX.

Shearing sheep page 53

Sheep, accommodation for ... 40

Advice on buying 39

Ages of 65

At various ages, designa-
tion of 66

Breeding 58

Diseases and treatment. . . 67

Farming ... 36

Feeding 46

Importation of 92

Labour required for super-
intending 43

Lice and ticks in 55

Long wool 38

Markets for 90

Marking 55

Profits and uses of 91

Rearing abroad 93

Salving 56

Shearing 53

Short wool 37

Washing 52

Weaning 64

Wool, markets for ... 56

Yeaning 63

Varieties of 37

Shoeing horses 122

Short wool sheep 37

Shows, feeding pigs for 29

Singeing pigs 31

Smoking flitches and hams ... 33

Stock, attention to 154

Superintending pigs, labour in 13

Technical terms of wool ... 95

Terms used for wool, technical 95

Ticks in sheep page 55

Training horses for farm work 103
Treatment of diseases in

horses ... 127

Pigs 22

Sheep 67

tr.

Uses and profits of sheep ... 91

Uses of asses... ' 182

Goats 183

Varieties of asses 180

Cows 144

Horses 97

Oxen 155

Pigs 3

Sheep 37

Washing sheep 52

Weaning sheep 64

Weights and measurements of

pigs 29

Wool, markets for sheep's ... 56

Technical terms of 95

Yeaning sheep 63

21.* 1361

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The above, forming Vol. II., price 7s., by post, 7s. 4d.

VINE CULTURE POB AMATEURS:

Being Plain Directions for the successful growing of Grapes, with the means anc?.
appliances usually at the command of amateurs. Hlustrated. By W. J. Mat.
In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id.

PRUNING, GRAFTING, AND BUDDING PBUIT TBEES:
Illustrated with ninety-three Diagrams. By D. T. Fish.

In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id.

OBCHIDS POR AMATEURS: It -

Containing Descriptions of Orchids suited to the requirements of the Amateur, with
full Instructions for their successful Cultivation. With numerous beautiful Illustra-
tions. By James Bkitten, F.L.S. (of the British Museum), and W. H. Gower.
In cloth gilt, price 7s. 6d., by post, 7s. lOd.

ROSE GBCWING POB AMATEURS:

Being Practical Instructions for the successful Culture of Hoses, with selections
of the best varieties adapted to the requirements of the Amateur In Town or
Country. By W. D. Pkior.

In paper, price Is. 6d„ by post, Is. 3d.

ROSE BUDDING: . ' . , ■

Containing full Instructions for the successful performance of thia interesting
operation. Illustrated. By D. T. Fish.

In paper, price 6d., by post, 7d,

Practical Handbooks. — Guides to Gardening. 5

THE CHRYSANTHEMUM:

Its History, "Varieties, Cultivation, and Diseases. By 1). I. Uish.

In paper, price 6d., by post 7d.

BULBS AHD BULB CULTURE (Vols. I. and II.):

Being Descriptions, both historica.1 and botanical, of the principal Bulbs and
Bulbous PlantB grown in this country, and their chief Varieties : with full and
practical instructions for their successful Cultivation, both m and out of doors.
Illustrated. By D. T. Fish. Vol. I. includes Parts I. and II., and Vol. II. Parts
III. and IV., as named below. ■

In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post, 2s. 9d.

THE SNOWDROP, BULBOCODIUM, STERNBERGIA,
Crocus, Colehiciim, Tulip, and Hyacinth.:
The beBt sorts, and their cultivation, indoors, under glass, and in the open border.
Illustrated. {Forming Part I. of " Bulbs and Bulb Culture.")
In paper, price Is., by post. Is. Id.

THE ANEMONE, THE NARCISSUS, THE LILT:

The best sorts, and their cultivation, indoors, under glass, and in the open border.
Illustrated. {Forming Part II. of " Bulbs and Bulb Culture. )

in paper, price Is., by post, Is. 2d.

THE GLADIOLUS, LACHENALIA, CYCLAMEN, RANUN-
culus, and Scilla or Squill (Star Hyacinth.):
The best sorts, and their cultivation, indoors, under glass, and in the open border.
Illustrated. {Forming Part III. of " Bulbs and Bulb Culture. )

In paper, price Is., by post, Is. lid.

ISIAS, SFARAXIS, TRITONIA.S, AND BABIANAS : IRIS,

Tiger Iris; Schizostylis Coccinea ; and the Dahlia.
The best sorts, and their cultivation, indoors, under glass, and in the open
border. Illustrated. {Forming Part IV. of " Bulb Culture.")
In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id.

GREENHOUSE MANAGE KENT FOR AMATEURS:

Descriptions of the best Greenhouses and Frames, with Instructions for Bunding
them : Particulars of the various Methods of Heating : lists of the most Buitable
plants, with general and special cultural directions; and all necessary information
for the Guidance of the Amateur. Illustrated. By W. J. May (Author of vine
Culture for Amateurs," " Cucumber Culture for Amateurs," &c).
In cloth gilt, price 3s. 6d.,by post, 3s. 9d. In extra gilt, gilt edges, price 4s., by post, 4s. 3d.

ARBORICULTURE FOR AMATEURS:

Being Instructions for the Planting and Cultivation of Trees for Ornament
or Use, and selections and descriptions of those suited to special requirements as to
Soil, Situation, &c. By William H. Ablett (Author of " English Trees and
Tree Planting," Sic.). . • .

In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d„ by post, 2s. 8d.

CUCUMBER CULTURE FOR AMATEURS :

Including also Melons, Vegetable Marrows, and Gourds. Illustrated. By W.J. Mat.
In paper, price Is., by post, 1b. Id.

VEGETABLE CULTURE FOR AMATEURS : _

Concise Directions for the Cultivation of Vegetables, so as to insure good crops, in
small Gardens, with lists of the beBt varieties of each sort. By W. J. May.
In paper, price ls„ by post Is. Id.

PROFITABLE MARKET GARDENING,

Adapted for the use of all Growers and Gardeners. By William Earley (Author
of "High Class Kitchen Gardening," Sic).

In cloth, price 2s.. by post, 2s. 2d.

GUIDES TO PLACES.

THE UPPER THAMES: , „ . „ •

From Bichmond to Oxford : A Guide for Boating Men, Anglers, Pic-mc Parties,
and all Pleasure Seekers on the River. Arranged on an entirely new plan. Illus-
trated with Specially Prepared Engravings of some of the most Beautiful Scenery
and Striking Obiects met with on the Thames.

In paper, price Is., in cloth, with elastic band and pocket, 2s„ postage 2a.

WINTER HAVENS IN THE SUNNY SOUTH:

A complete Handbook to the Riviera, with a notice of the new station, Alassio.
Splendidly Illustrated. By Rosa Bauqhan (Author of " Indications of Character
n Handwriting," " The Northern Watering Places of France"),
In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post, 2s, 8d.

G Practical Handbooks, Published at 1 70, Strand, W.C,

DICTIONARY OF WATERING PLACES, Seaside and Inland,
at Home and Abroad:

Contains Routes, Climate, and Season. "Waters, Recommended for. Scenery, Objects
of Interest, Amusements, Chinches, Doctors, Hydropathic Establishments, Hotels,
House Agents, Newspapers, &c, with Map of British "Watering Places, Seaside
and Inland, and the Routes thereto. In cloth, price 4s., by post, 4s. 3d., with
coloured Map, 3d. extra.

May also be had in Parts, as follows, price 2s. each,

Part L, BRITISH WATERING PLACES, both Inland ana Seaside, in
England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and the Islands.

Part II., FOREIGN WATERING PLACES, Seaside and Inland, including:
the Spas, the Swiss Lakes, and the Continental Centres.

SEASIDE WATERING PLACES:

Being a Guide to Persons in Search of a Suitable Place in which to Spend their
Holidays, on the English and Welsh Coasts. New and Revised Edition, with
Descriptions of over 140 Places.

In paper, price 2s., by post, 2s. 8d. ; with coloured Map, 6d. extra.

MAP OP THE SEASIDE AND INLAND WATERING^
Places of the British Isles :
Showing the rnilway and sieamboat communications, the central points, and
various places of interest to tourists, in addition to all the Watering Places men-
tioned in the British Section of the "Dictionary of Watering Places" and in
"Seaside Waterlog Place?." Size of plate 15in. by Hiin. Coloured, price 6d.,by
post, 7d. ; plain, price 3d,, by post, 4d.

NORTHERN WATERING PLACES OF FRANCE:

A Guiae for English People to the Holiday Resorts on the Coasts of the French
Netherlands, Picardy, Normandy, and Brittany. By Rosa Baoghan (Author of
*' Winter Havens in the Sunny S'mth," &c).

In paper, price 2s., by post, 2s. 2d.

HO USEHOLD MANUALS.

COOKER'S" FOR AMATEURS, or French Dishes for English
Homes of all Classes.
Includes Simple Cookery, Middle-clas^ Cookery, Superior Cookery, Cookery for
Invalids, and Breakfast and Luncheon Cookery. By Madame Valehie.

[In the Press.

INDIAN OUTFITS AND ESTABLISHMENTS:

A Practical Guide for Persons about to resi e in India; detailing the articles
. which should be taken out, and the requirements of home life aud management
there. By an Anglo-Indian.

In cloth, price 2s. 6d.. by post, 2s. 8d.
SICK NURSING AT HOME:

Being Plain Directions end Hints for the Proper Nursing of Sick Persons, an<3
the Home Treatment of Diseases and Accidents in case of sudden emergencies.
By S. F. A. Cattlfeild.

In paper, price Is., by post Is. Id.] In cloth, price Is. Gd., by post, Is. 8d.
TOILET MEDICINE:

A. Scientific Manual on the Correction of Bodily Defects, and the Improvement
and Preservation of Heisonal Appearance ; Together with Formulae for all th&
Special Preparations Recommended. By Kdwin Wooton, B.Sc (Paris),
In cloth gilt, price 2s. Gd ., by post, 2s. 9d.
HINTS TO UNTRAINED TEACHERS:

Being Directions and Suggestions for the Assistance of Parents and others engaged
in Home Education. B>- Jane Ascham,

In paper, price Gd., by post, 7d.
ARTISTIC FLOWER DECORATIONS:

For Ball Rooms, Halls, Passages, Dinner and Supper Tables ; with Directions fo:?
making Bouquets, Buttonholes, Hair Sprays, &c Illustrated. By B. C. Saward.
In paper, price 2s., by post, 2s. 2d.

LADIES' WORK.

DICTIOHAHY' OF UEEDLBWOEK:

An Encyclopaedia of Artisiic, Plain, and Fancy Needlework: giving the History
of the various Works; details of the stitches empl.>yed ; the Method of Working;
the Materials nsed ; the meaning of Technical Term* ; and other information
bearing ou the subject. Plain, practical, complete, and magnificently Illustrated.
By S. F. A. Cattlfeild and B. C. Saward. Printed with new type, and on paper
made specially for this work. Dedicated by special permission to H.B.H. Princess
Louise, marchioness of Lome.

In demy 4to, 5S6pp„ extra cloth gilt, cushioned bevelled boards, price 21s„ with
gilt edges, 22s. Od.

Practical Handbooks. — Mechanics. 7

HOHITOU LACE BOOK: .

Containing Full and Practical Instructions for Making Homton Lace. with
numerous illustrations. . , .

In cloth gilt, price 3s. 6d., by post, 8s. 9d.

PRACTICAL DRESSMAKING: u „„

Being Plain Directions for Taking Patterns, Fitting on, Cutting out, Making
up, and Trimming Ladies' and Children's Dresses. By EL. Munroe.

In paper, price Is., by post. Is. Id.

AKTISTIC FANCY WORK SEMES : ■

A series of Illnstra'ed Manuals on Artistic and Popular Fancy Work of various
kinds. Each number of the series will be complete in itself, and issued at the
uniform price of 6d.

LEATHER WORK BOOK:

Containing Full Instructions for Making and Ornamenting articles so as to
successfully imitate Carved Oak ; specially written for the use of Amateurs. By
Kosa Baughan. Illustrated.

In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d„ by post, 2s. 9d.

CATALOGUE OP LADIES' AND CHILDREN'S DKESS
Patterns (Illustrated) : *
Comprising Ladies' Dre=ses, Mantles, Underlmen, Girls' and Boys Costumes,
Children's Urderlinen, Ladies' Caps, Dressing Jackets, &c. This Mat is added to
week by week, and at present contains nearly five hundred of the newest and
most seasonable designs. Post free on application.

MECHANICS FOR AMATEURS.

PATENTS, TBADE MARKS, AND DESIGNS:

A Practical Guide to Inventors and Manufacturers for Securing Protection under
each of these heads By Archibald Craig. , . ,

In cloth gilt, price Is. 6d„ by post, Is. 8d. ; in paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id.

PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE: , nu ~

As applied to Form Builaings of every description (Cow, Cattle and Calf Houses,
Stables, Piggeries, Sheep Shelter Sheds, Boot and other Stores, Poultry Houses),
Dairies, and Country Houses and Cottages. Profusely Illustrated with Diagrams
and Plans. By Robert Scott Born.

In cloth gilt, price 5s., by post, 5s. 4d.

PRACTICAL BOAT BUILDING POR AMATEURS:

Containing full Instructions for Designing and Building Punts, skills, Canoes,
Sailing Boats, Sc. Fully illustrated with working dianrains. By Adrian
Neison, 0 E. New Edition, revised i nd enlarged by Dixon Kemp (Author of
"Yacht Designing," "A Manual of Yacht and Boat Sailing," Sc.).

In cloth gilt, price 2s. Od., by post, 2s. Sd.

ART OP PTBOTICHNT : ,

Being Comprehensive and Practical Instructions for the Manufacture of lire-
works, specially designed for the use of Amateurs. Profusely Illustrated. By
W. H. Browne, Ph.D., M.A., L.B.C.P.. 4sc. Second Edition.

In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post, 2s. lOd.

MINOR FIREWORKS : a _. , ■ . . .

Containing Instructions for the Manufacture of the Common and Simple Varieties
of Fireworks. For the Use of Amateurs. Illustrated. By W. H. Browne, Ph.D„
M.A., &c. (Author of " The Art of Pyroteohny").

In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id,

PRACTICAL PIREWORK MAKING POR AMATEURS:

Being complete and explicit Directions in the Art of Pyrotechny, as applied to
both the Major and Mini.r Fireworks, for the use or Amateurs and Beginners.
By W. H. Browne, Ph.D., M.A., L.R.C.P., &c. Illustrated.

In cloth gilt, price 3s. 6d ; , by post 3s. 9d.

PRINTING POR AMATEURS : . - .

A Practical Guide to the Art of Printing : containing Descriptions of Presses and
Materials, together »ith Details of the Processes employed, to which is added a
Glossary of Technical Terms. Illustrated. By P. E. Raynor.

In paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d,

TURNING POR AMATEURS : „.,.'« , , V

Containing full Description of the Lathe, with all its working parts and attach,
ments, and minute instructions for the effective use of thfm on wood, metal, and
ivory. Illustrated with ISO first class wood engravings. Second Edition.
In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d„ by post, 2s. 9d.

CARPENTRY AND JOINERY POR AMATEURS:

Contains full Descriptions of the various Tools required m the above Arts,
together with Practical Instructions for their use. By the Author of lurnmg
for Amateurs," " "Working in Sheet Metal," &c.

In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post, 2s. 9d.

8 Practical Handbooks, Published at 170, Strand, W.C.

PICTURE PBAMB MAKING FOR AMATEURS :

Being Practical Instructions in the Making of various kinds of Fram s for
Paintings, Drawings, Photographs, and Engravings. Illustrated. By the Author
of " Carpentry and Joinery for Amateurs," &0.

In Oloth gilt, price 2s„ by post, 2s. 2d.

WORKING- IN SHEET METAL:

Being Practical Instructions for Making and Mending small ArticleB in Tin,
Copper, Iron, Zinc, and Brass. Illustrated. Third Edition. By the Author of
Turning for Ajnateurs," &c.

In paper, price 6d., by post, 6id.

WOOD CARVING- FOB AMATEURS :

Containing Descriptions of all the reauisite ToolB, and full Instructions for their
use in producing different varieties of Carvings. Illustrated.

In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id.

PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOB AMATEURS:

A Series of Treatises on Turning, Carpentry and Joinery, Working in Sheet Metal,
Wood Carving, Firework Making, and Printing. Illustrated.

In Cloth gilt, price 10s. 6d„ by post, lis. 2d.

ORGANS AND ORGAN BUILDING:

Giving the History and Construction of the Modem Organ, and Descriptions of the
most remarkable Instruments. With Important Specifications of celebrated
Organs. Illustrated. By C. A. Edwards.

In cloth gilt, price 5s., by post, 5s. la.

TUNING AND REPAIRING PIANOFORTES:

The Amateur's Guide to the Practical Management of a Piano without the inter-
vention of a Professional. By Charles Babbington.

In paper, price Gd;, by posted.

TOYMAKING FOR AMATEURS:

Containing Instructions for the Home Construction of Simple Wooden Toys, an
of others that are moved or driven by Weights, Clockwork, Steam, Electricity,
&c. Elustrated. By James Lukin, B.A. (Author of "Turning for Amateurs."
Tn cloth gilt, price 4s„ by post 4s. -id.
Part I.— SIMPLE WOODEN TOYS, in paper, price Is. 6d.. by post Is. 8d.
Part II.-CLOCKWOEK. STEAM, and ELECTRICAL TOYS, in paper,
price 2s. , by post 2s. 2id.

MODEL YACHTS AND BOATS:

Their Designing, Making, and Sailing. Illustrated with 118 Designs and Working
Diagrams. By J. du V. Grosvenob. t "

In leatherette, price 5s., by post, 5s. 4d.

NATURAL HISTORY.

PRACTICAL TAXIDERMY:

A Manual of Instruction to the Amateur in Collecting, Preserving, and Setting-up
Natural History Specimens of all kinds. Illustrated. By Montagu Browne.
In cloth gilt, price Ss. 6d„ by post, SB. 9d.

COLLECTING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS:

Being Directions for Capturing, Killing, and Preserving Lepidoptera and their
Larva?. Illustrated. Beprinted, with additions, from "Practical Taxidermy."
By Montagu Browne (Author of " Practical Taxidermy ").

In paper, price la., by post, Is, ld.'j

POPULAR BRITISH FUNGI :

Containing Descriptions and Histories of the Principal Fungi, both Edible and
Poisonous, of our Country. Elustrated. By James Britten, F.L.S., &c.
In cloth gilt, price 8s. 6d., by post, Ss. 9d.

BRITISH MARINE ALGJE:

Being a Popular Account of the Seaweeds of Great Britain, their Collection
and Preservation. Magnficently illustrated with 205 engravings. By W. H.
Grattan. In cloth gilt, price 5s. 6d„ by post, 5s. lOd.

ZOOLOGICAL NOTES:

On the Structure, Affinities, Habits, and Faculties of Animals; with Adventures
among and Anecdotes of them. By Arthor Nicols, F.G.S.. F.E.G.S. (Author
of " The Puzzle of Life, and How it Has Been Put Together," " Chapters from the
Physical History of the Earth "). [In the press.

Practical Handbooks.— Sports and Pastimes.

SPORTS AND PASTIMES.

COUNTRY POCKET BOOK AMD DIARY, 1832:

For Eeferenoe and Registration. Full of facts .and forms of : the ; ."latest ™lua
and interest to Country Gentlemen and Sportsmen - f OOS™?-,,^^,???
fTifnrmi-tion on Shooting, Fishing. Hunting, Athletics, iootoajl, Bicycling,
gS EaSng^ bogsrWtry Exhibitions Rowing Smmmmg, Meteorology,
C?"ket, g PaIliamentar s Papers, So., 60 . with dockets, ■? e ^&

'prices: In russia leather, 5s. 6d.; roan, Ss. 6d.; postage, 2d.
RTr-vr-T.TT.R a T\TD TRICYCLES OF THE YEAR (1882):
BIC Bern^ a Ch™ of "the New Inventions and Improvements foi ^present
Kensnn and forming a Permanent Kecord of the progress in the manufacture or
BiCTdesandTriCTClls Designed also to assist intending Purchaser sin the choice
KSL Steited. By Harry Hewitt Griffin. (Published Annually.)
In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id.

PK ^ing ?ot?Pape«^n Tr™Sik Trapping for Vermin, with a chapter on General
Bird Trapping and Snaring. By W. Carnegie (" Moorman ).

In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id.

Fresh-water Fish, and Tackle and Tackle Making. Beautifully Illustrated. By
J ' H Kbbn ^ 1 oloth gilti gi lt edges, price 10s. 6d., by post, lis.

NOTES ON GAME AND GAME SHOOTING:

Miscellaneous Oteervations on Birds and Animals, . and on _the Sport they Afford
for the Gun in Great Britain, including Grouse, Partridges, Pheasants Hares,
Babbits, Quails, Woodcocks, Snipe, and Books. By J. J. Manley. M A. ( Author of
"Notes on Fish and Fishing"). Illustrated with Sporting Sketches by J. Temple.
In cloth gilt, -MO pp., price 7b. 6d., by post, 7s. lOd.

■p-RAnTTHAT, "ROAT BUILDING AND SAILING:

PBA Con T taSnl

Sailing Boats, &c. Particulars of the most suitable Sailing _Boata , and y achtsjor
Amateurs, and Instructions for their proper handling Fully Hlustratea witn
Designs and Working Diagrams. By Adrian Neison, C.E., Dixon Hemp,
A.I.N.A., and G. Christopher Da vies. •

InOne Volume, cloth gilt., price 7s.; by post, is. 6d,

B In cloth gilt, price 5s., by post, 5s. 3d.

PBA £™h A ^eie?S ^7S^S^ng2ta*S lfc S
Dry Plate Processes, Developed for Amateurs and Beginners. Illustrated, By
O. E. Wheeler. [May also be had in parts as under J :

In cloth gilt, price 4s., by poso, 4s. 4d.

WE The^t L o^Ph?to°Shv P y 1 tW?pf ocfss, developed for Amateurs and Beginners.
(Being Part I. of " Practical Photography.")

In paper, price Is., by post, Is. 2d.

DE ^he^ A ?rhot?graphy by this Process developed for Amateurs and Beginners.

( Being Part II. of " Practical Photography")

v In paper, price Is., by post, Is. 2d.

PHOTOGRAPHIC MISCELLANEA :
(Being Part III. of " Practical Photography. )

In paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d:

THE PHOTOGRAPHER'S POCKET BOOK: „„„„„
Cotrtaining Begister for nearly 1000 Negatives. Compiled by O. E Wheiler

lAuth0r ^TS^S^er 3s. 6d. ; b, post, 2d. extra.

OAK Co ) ntain^?bn^ F ^ 1 J n8traCti ^,^ t ^W>, t ? B fto
Hands for playing nearly all known games of chance or skill, from Whist to
Napoleon and Patience, and directions for performing a number of amusing Tricks.
Illustrated. By H. K. Heather. .

In eloth gilt, price 5s., by post, 5s. 4tt.

SLE Beta?Minu?e P nste urttoS i>y the Aid of which, with proper practice, the Nea^tost
£nd most Intricate Tricks of Legerdemain can be successfully performed. Illus-
trated. By Edwin Sachs. [May also be had in two parts, as follow :]
In cloth gilt, price 5s., by post, 5s. 4d.

DBA S^uri°^ ^ for display in drawing rooms.

Illustrated. (Forming Part I. of ■/ Sleight of Hand. )

In paper, price 2s., by post, 2s. 2d.

Practical Handbooks, Published at 170, Strand, W.C.

GEAITD OR STAGE MAG-IO:

Being Instructions for the Performance of more intricate and showy Conjuring
Tricks, and suited to public display. Illustrated. {Forming Part II. of " Sleight of
Sand") In paper, price 2s., by post, 2s. 2d.

TABLEAUX VIVAWTS

FOR

THEATBICAIiS AND

Amateurs :

Giving full Directions as to Stage Arrangements, " Making up," Costumes, and
Acting, with numerous Illustrations. By Chas. Harrison.

In cloih gilt, price 2a. 6d., by posb, 2a. 8d.

BAZAARS AND FANCY FAIRS, A GUIDE TO:

Their Organisation and Management, with Details of the Various Devices for
Extracting Money from the Vi-itors.

In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id.

VARIOUS.

CHARACTER INDICATED BY HANDWRITING:

With Illustrations in support of the Theories advanced, taken from Autograph
Letters of Statesmen, Lawyers, Soldiers, Ecclesiastics, Authors, Poets, Musicians,
Actors, and other persons. By B. Bauphan.

In cloth gilt, price 2s. tid. , by post, 2s. 9d.

CHURCH FESTIVAL DECORATIONS:

Comprising Directions and Designs for the Suitable Decoration of Churches for
Christmas, Easter, "Whitsuntide, and Harvest. Illustrated.

In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id.

STOCK AND SHARE INVESTMENTS:

Being Explanations for the General Beader of the Nature and Quality of the
different Classes of Securities dealt in on the Stock Exchange. By A lbert
Sharwood. In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id.

HOW TO MAKE SHAVING A PLEASURE I

■

1st.— Send 15 stamps for Edward Smith's Wonderful
SHILLING HOLLOW-GROUND RAZOR. Is the
marvel of the day ; it never wants grinding or setting.
These razors have stood every test, many thousands
having been sold since they were first introduced two
years ago. N.B.— Any razor not giving satisfaction will
be exchanged.

2nd. — Send 2s. 9d. stamps for Edward Smith's-
GRADTTATING BAZOB STROP. It is the best for
sharuening razors ever introduced. By means of a screw
it graduates its elasticity, mailing it more or less elastic

at pleasure. Its elasticity will prove invaluable to the

W^tlf ~J^y 1 /.L^- / ' ^ ^ unskilful operator, as it will prevent his incautiously bear ■•■
W'^^nj f { / \]s^?'/M'i n/Mp ing too hard upon the razor and injuring its edge, at the
same time enabling him to keep his razor in perfect order.
3rd.— Send 7 stamps for Edward Smith's DIAMOND RAZOB PASTE, for use with
the " Graduating " Razor Strop, or any other. Should never be without it, for by its use
a strop will last ten times as long, and sharpen a razor twenty times as well.

Lastly.— Send 7 stamps for Edward Smith's MAGIC SHAVING STICK. Makes the-
finest stiff lather, and is the best shaving soap ever invented.
The above four articles will be sent, post free, for -Is. 9d.

EDWAED SMIT H (late Perry & Co., La.), 3, Cheapsi de, London, E.C.

E. Smith's New Pocket Postal Letter Weicher.

This unique and handy Balance is unsurpassed. It is so small that it
can be carried in the pocket, travelling writing case, workbox, or desk,
and yet weighs up to 12oz. (the full postal letter weight). It is perfectly
accurate, and as there are no springs it cannot get out of order, and is
not affected by climate. Each one is warranted and packed in a neat
box with a table of postal rates on the lid. Sent post free for 2s. Sd.»
or two for 5s.

TENNIS ! CRICKET ! CROQUET !

Lawn Tennis and ?11 outdoor games saipplied at nett wholesale
price. Complete catalogue, which will be found much lower than the
stores, post free on application.

EDWAED SMITE (late Perry & Co., Ld.), 3, Cheapside, London, E.C.

G. REES' Pictures.

A Set of (4) FOX HUNTS, by John Dean Paul, for 25s.
Beautifully Coloured by hand. Size SO by 17.

THE GREEN MAN AND STILL.

A Struggle for tiie Start.

" Soit bene Venetor."
" They find, hark forward ! off they go-
To the mad cry of Tally Ho ! "
The First Ten Minutes.
" Bind up my wounds, give me another
liorse ! "

" He of the true, the genuine sort."
" A chosen few alone the sport enjoy.'*
Symptoms of a Scurry in a

Pewy Country.
11 The Green Man and Still."
" And stand I here an idle looker-on,
Thou railest, I thank thee not."
The Death.
" Till they have run the fox and killed
him."

" FJamiva propriere ealeseo.'

George Rees'

CELEBRATED
WINNERS.

Neatly coloured by hand by our own Artists, with Jockeys
up. Correct Portraits. Size 34 by 24. Price 15s. each, or
in Sets of 10 for £5 5s., or 5 for £3 5s.

1882. Shotover
1881. Iroquois
1880. Bend Or
1879. Sir Bevys
1S78. Sefton
1877. Silvio
1S76. Kisber
1875. Galopin

T. Cannon.
P. Archer.
P. Archer.
Pordliam.
Constable.
P. Archer.
Maidment.
Morris.

Robert The Devil T. Cannon.

Poxhall W. Macdonald,
Isonomy T. Cannon.
Chamant Goater.
Julius Cassar P. Archer.
Eoseberry P. Archer.
Peter C. "Wood.

Petrach Goater.
"Wheel of Fortune

P. Archer.

WATERLOO OTJP

SNOWELIGHT, Copper Plate Engraving, nicely
coloured by hand, size 27 by 20- Price 7/6.
Also, same size and price, and coloured bv hand,
PRINCESS DAGMAE, HONEYWOOD, PLUNGER
COOMASSIE, and MISTERTON.
Also, same size, coloured by hand, 5s. each,
MASTER McGRATH, HONEYMOON", DONALD,
or The Set of 7 Pictures Sent Carriage Eree for 25s.

7 ENGRAVINGS by the best
Masters, for 21s.

Suspense, by Sir E. Landseer, Size 29 by 21.
The Bloodhound, by Sir E. Landseer. 'Size
29 by 21.

A pair of Landseer's expressive Animal
Subjects.

The Rent Day, by Sir David Wilkie. Size
84 by 23. Village Politicians, by Sir
David Wilkie. Size 34 by 23.
A pair of Humorous Pictures.
Rural Felicity, by Paul Potter. Size 23 by IS.

A very nice line Engraving.
The Water Lily, by Bouvier. Size 30 by 22.

A Charming Figure Subject.
The Letter of Introduction, by WiTkie. Size
23 by 18.

The above form a capital set of pictures.

The 21s. FAECEL of ENGRAVINGS, after trie Old Masters.

All warranted in first-class condition, and published at much higher prices. This is one
of the best Bargains ever offered.
The Transfiguration, by Raffaele. Size 39 by 20. I The Virgin, by Murillo. Size 20 by 16.
The Raising of Lazarus, by Michael Angelo. The Holy Family, by Sir J.Reynolds. Size21bylT.
Size 39 by 26. , The Last!Supper, by Leonardo da Vmcr. 27by 17.

Packed securely, and sent on receipt of 21s.
G. R. has always for sale and Exportation, SPECIAL PARCELS of Pictures bought at Great
Reduction, which he offers exceptionally cheap.
ENGRAVINGS, in PARCELS, from 4 to 10, for 21s. CHROMOS, in SETS, from 4 to 12, for 21s.

OLEOGRAPHS, in SERIES, of 0 to S, for 21s.
ALL NEW. Executed in the best manner, suitable for Drawing Room, Dining Room, Sitting
Room, Parlour, Ntndy, Bed Iioom, Nursery, &c, &c. All persons remitting any amounts,
say £5 or £10, will receive lull value, and an extra cash discount will be added. In orders,
please state what kind of subject is preferred, whether Historical, Religious, or Landscapes.

Savoy House, GEORGE REES, 115, Strand.

"Wholesale Depot— 41, 42, and 43, Russell Street, Covent Garden, London.
Special attention given to Export Orders,

STEVENS' SILICON

JEWELLERY REVIVER
TABLET.

Large Size, Post Free, 24 Stamps.

THIS UNRIVALLED POLISH

{Direct from Nature's Laboratory)

Is not a manufactured article, but a very remarkable natural production,
the best substance known for Cleaning and Polishing Gold, Silver,
and J ewels without the least injury, and will prevent pearls becoming
discoloured.

Sold in a handsome little box, with Brush, Leather, Directions for
Use, an Analysis, and numerous Testimonials, price Is.

A large size, containing also a Ring Cleaning Stick, and one for
cleaning Studs and Buttons, price 2s.

The SILICON is also sold in Powder, for Plate Cleaning, at 6d.
and Is. per box, and in canisters at 2s. 6d.

To be had through all Chemists, Fancy Goods Dealers, Jewellers, Brush

Shops, and Ironmongers, throughout the kingdom.
Wholesale of all London Fancy "Warehouses and Wholesale Druggists,
and of the Proprietor, in bulk, rough, or in powder.

GEO. STEVENS,

SOLE IMPOBTEB,

376, STRAND, Lon^Donsr.

EL IsZCOTJlsrT,

BTJILDEE,
154, Blackstock-road, Finsbray Park, E,

Manufactures Portable Greenhouses,

AND

Builds Plain or Artistic Conservatories, 4c.

IZKT TOWH OB CO"CJ35TTE."2"-

Priee List on application, or by post for two stamps.

These portable houses, are made in The above Poultry House is P"»o™™?

complete parts. Any amateur could to be the best and cheapest m the

pultKog'ther, market. Portable, and easily put

Sent free per rail from £6 10s. together.

• MY LIST CONTAINS:

Sketches of Poultry Requisites,

GREENHOUSES, GARDEN SEATS, LAWN MOWERS,
GARDEN TABLES, SWINGS,

SZEA-TinSTO- APPARATUSES

And Numerous Articles for the Garden.

Sasn Doors, Bars, Glass, &c„ in large or small quantities to suit
Amateur Builders.
QUEEN ANNE LEADED LIGHTS, from 2s. per Foot.

ESTABLISHED 1871.

KOSPTICA.

^wi^i^. A L ^' m y ho suffer from NEURALGIA

~^ 'Ki^C^X „ RHEUMATISM, RHEUMATIC GOUT tttm-'
^^feP-^ S SCIATICA, PACE ACHE, or PAInI'

^fSBJBSSk Messrs." SQUIBB, POX and Co' BLQOmTbUSV

fi|H M^SION LONDON, for pa^ula^W^

1 m Extract, which is thoeoughly harmless, and almost

If S S i S - W t s ™ a - P° s ' fee, to any address, Cortes

* fj^l one ^ared Authenticated Testimon als° and

^JBi,- • Sf» 8 ?° m i, Pe0pIe 111 a11 Positions and all parts of

OA t ai M ' , *S? eoonfjy.Wios- testimony to the truly marvellous

[testimonials. ]

Messrs. Squibe, Pox & Co 6 " Wmiam Street Buckingham Gate, London

and ankles, and my joints became ,'litible, and f Im now my han 3 and kne °«
freely and without pain. I shall keep your KoptkS "wTrl? ™ °t g ? t0 "r 7 duties 1 uito
at to all who are troubled with EheumS Gout fSurs,™", EICHAED r oBOBN nd

Miss De St. Cnorx will thank teS 8 ^™^ S 4 ISSl!
of their " Koptica," as the last has done tor so much good ™° ther bottle

Seuenty Authenticated, Testimonials Post Free.

« Koptica « win he ««^g^^e^ 29 or 56 Stamps, hy

Messrs. SQUIRE, POX & Co.,

BLOQMSBURY MANSION, LOWd'am

% ■Pajaar, % €ffr§angp &• JIBhpL

And Journal of the Household

PUBLISHED EVERY MONDAY, WEDNESDAY, AND FRIDAY

Price 2d., lby post 24d.

Classified Advertisements of Thousands of Articles nf j ■

change or Sale, or Wanted, hy private perfoS Tblf T 3 !, 36 ^' 115 ' 10 " f or Ex "
lands of Property may be Procured or Disposed of ^?« US ? '^.Department all

r^en C &1ss^«

isafsofv^^^

« -te of 4d. for 1 2

Scientific, and E M^S News ™t hewSk L Critioue? ou'SS, C - 0n S sts ? £ Art - Dramatic,
"5°/n? anar ! e - 3 and Foreign and British Ca-e BMs " pw? ,? V %c ' ; ^Jl 8 and Notes
and.Toymakmg; Provincial and Copper cSmfaml'TV,-L-f? at Home and Abroad; Toys
published; Various Literary SubjeS P Cooker?fo? 12S ^worthy Books recently
on Porcelain ; Various Branches of Amateur MerwS™ nX Ma sp° Lanterns ; Painting
all kinds ; Present Fashions, with ^SSS SmSJ^ ^i^^S^.WmS' : Recipes of
different kinds; Cultivation of Flowers ObS^^V? 6 ^ .Materials; Fancy Work of
?S ; rv E ^ its; Ho r-l s i G °ate; KeSei-^^l^aWes; Garden Operations:
Poultry, Pigeon, and Rabbit Shows, &cT &c °" Poultry; Pigeons; Eeports of

TeHHS OF SUBSCRIPTION, buarrorlv XT !«

One issue weekly srt y- Half-yearly. Yearlv.

Two issues weekly " ??• - 6a. 4d. ... Ms. 8d.

Three issues weekly g- - \p- - 818.44

^«^«e^

London: "THE BAZAAE^i^7^-^ ANI)) w.C.

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON
THE LIBRARY 2 I.NOV 1961

This book is to be returned to the Library on or before the
last date stamped below.

„

SP 9243

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Full text of "Stock keeping for amateurs : a manual on the varieties, breeding, and management of pigs, sheep, horses, cows, oxen, asses, mules, and goats, and the treatment of their diseases : designed for the use of young farmers and amateurs"

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