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FARMING

FOR

PLEASURE AND PROFIT.

FARMING

FOR

PLEASURE AND PROFIT

Dairy -Farming,
Management of Cows, etc,

ARTHUR ROLAND.

EDITED BY WILLIAM H. A B LETT,
gizto (SMtion.

LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL,
Limited.
1891.

CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS,
CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY.

The present Work suggested by Inexperienced Friends —
Being One's "own Customer — Arthur Young, and a
"Book of Experiments" — Jethro Tull— Circumstances
which caused me to turn my first Attention to Farming
— Common Error that Professional Farmers are the
Best — First Experiment with Selling Turnips —
Business Men and Gentlemen above Dealing with
trifling Amounts — The Finer Kinds of Vegetables —
Selling Shelled Peas — Carrying Vegetables up to
Town— Selling "Porker" Pigs to a Pork-butcher —
Skimmed Milk — Cooks and Vegetables — Contrivance
for Kitchen Refuse — Conscientious Foreman often
branded as a Tell-tale

CHAPTER II.

DAIRY FARMING.

First Attempts— Various Breeds of Cows— The Alderney
— The Shorthorn — Ayrshire— Longhorns— The Here-
fords— The North Devons— The Suffolk Dun— West

CONTENTS.

Highland Cattle, or Kyloes — The Galloway— Points
of a Good Cow — Difference in Cows — General
Management— Saving One's Hay — Dairy Practice in
Various Counties i 27

CHAPTER III.
THE DAIRY.

Situation of the Dairy— Dairy Utensils, etc. — Produce to
be aimed at — Quality of Milk — Management of Milk
— Butter-making — Clotted or Clouted Cream — Butter
from Clotted Cream 52

CHAPTER IV.

Cheese-making — Cheshire System — Gloucester Cheese —
Egg Cheeses — Stilton Cheese — Cream Cheese — Skim-
milk Cheese — New Cheese — Cheese made Abroad — ■
Parmesan Cheese — Potato Cheese — Whole-milk
Cheese — Rennet — Scotch Method of preparing Rennet 78

CHAPTER V.

Milking — Quantity of Milk yielded by Cows— Feeding —
Straw, chaffed, as Food for Cows— Turnip-tasting
Butter— Quantity of Meal, etc.— Quality of Butter
dependent upon Feeding — The Butter Trade in
Ireland — Summer Feeding — Feeding Dry Cows —
Feeding with Hay on Bare Pastures 103

CONTENTS.

\\\

CHAPTER VI.

PAGE

Calving— Time for Cows to Calve— Fifeshire System-
Gloucestershire System— Milk Farms— Castrating—
Cow-list— Mr. Hayward's Calculations I35

CHAPTER VII.

Rearing the Calf— Scouring in Calves— Whole-milk for
Calves— Feeding Calves in Massachusetts— Various
Methods of rearing Calves-American and Canadian
Cattle and Meat

CHAPTER VIII.

DISEASES OF COWS.

Abortion (Slinking, Slipping-Calf, Warping)— The Drop-
Inversion of the Uterus— Meteorisation (Hoove, Hoven,
or Blasting)— Distension of the Rumen— Choking—
Loss of Cud— Inflammation of the Rumen— Milk Fever
—Garget (Diseases of the Udder)— The Cow-pox-
Retention or Stoppage of the Urine— Sore Teats—
Moor-ill, or Wood-evil— Pleuro-pneumonia— Foot and
Mouth Disease (Epidemic)— Paralysis— Palsy or Tail-
slip— Redwater— Hepatitis— Rheumatism (Joint-felon,
Chine-felon) — Quarter-ill - Blood-striking — Black-
quarter— Fardel-bound— Blain, or Gloss Anthrax-
Foul in the Foot— Loo, or Low— The Thrush, or
Aphtha? - Mange — Lice — Diarrhoea — Catarrh-
Bronchitis

FARMING FOR PLEASURE & PROFIT.

DAIRY FARMING.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY.

The present Work suggested by inexperienced Friends — Being One's
own Customer — Arthur Young, and a "Book of Experiments" —
Jethro Tull — Circumstances which caused me to turn my first
Attention to Farming — Common Error that Professional Farmers
are the best — First Experiment with Selling Turnips — Business
Men and Gentlemen above Dealing with trifling Amounts — The
finer Kinds of Vegetables — Selling Shelled Peas — Carrying
Vegetables up to Town — Selling " Porker" Pigs to a Pork-butcher
— Skimmed Milk — Cooks and Vegetables — Contrivance for Kitchen
Refuse — Conscientious Foreman often branded as a Tell-tale.

It has often been suggested to me by various friends
engaged in business that I should publish an account
of the methods of cultivation and management which
I have adopted upon my little farm, consisting of
fifty-five acres, made up of forty acres of grass-land
and plantations — the latter being, perhaps, five acres
in extent — ten of arable, and five of hops ; giving a
detailed account of the technical treatment pursued
in the case of each crop, and also of stock ; in order
that my experience may be serviceable to those who,
like myself, at the period when I first turned my
attention to the matter, are destitute of practical
acquaintance with the subject.

B 2

4 DAIRY FARMING.

Many of these, with a comical air of plaintiveness,
have deplored the fact that their attachment to country
pursuits and occupations, either when directed into
the channel of rearing a little stock, or in growing
farm produce, has alike turned out an expensive
hobby; so that, instead of gaining, they have lost
money by what they have undertaken.

In endeavouring to comply with the suggestion, it
has occurred to me that it would be as well perhaps
if I were to give a short account of all the circum-
stances which caused me to become a farmer upon a
small scale, while carrying on a business in London ;
which, in my case, has resulted both in pleasure and
profit.

As will be seen in the course of the details I am
about to furnish, I did not jump into active operations
all at once, but went to work very gradually, and felt
my way from time to time in what I undertook, laying
down one main principle — that, as far as possible, I
would be my own customer for the produce raised.
That is to say, that I would supply my household
with butter, milk, bacon, fresh pork, eggs, vegetables,
fruit, honey, flour for bread ; oats, beans, and straw
for my horses ; hay, etc. ; selling my surplus.

I began strictly upon this principle, and as I pro-
ceeded I found I had large quantities of produce to
dispose of upon various occasions, which ultimately
conferred a far greater degree of importance upon
my work than at first contemplated, while a con-
siderable amount of profit solaced me for what
pains I took ; which, indeed, at all times to me has
been a labour of love, and never proved in the least
irksome.

In the course of my experience, desirous of ac-

VALUE OF RECORDED EXPERIMENTS. 5

quiring all the knowledge I could obtain upon agri-
cultural subjects, I have read a great many books of
one sort and another ; and, amongst other authors,
Arthur Young, who has done so much for British
agriculture, throws out an idea to which my present
attempt may perhaps form some slight resemblance.

He says : " The publication of experiments really
made, faithfully related, and sufficiently authenticated,
is of great and important consequence to the public
good. But the very reverse is the case of those
books which are published under the title of 'General
Treatises and Systems,' comprehending more soils,
articles of culture, etc., than any one man can ex-
perimentally have a knowledge of ; consisting of the
most heterogeneous parts purloined out of former
books on the same subjects, without a common know-
ledge to discover the good from the bad. It has been
said several times, and with very great justice, that
what we want is a book of experiments. If any
practical, intelligent husbandman, who occupied a
farm, would only keep an exact register of all his
business, such a collection would form, as far as it
extended, a complete set of experiments. What we
have are the author's reflections, instead of that which
enabled him to reflect ; and from which we might
draw very different conclusions. The experiment is
truth itself ; the author's conclusions, matter of
opinion which we may either agree to, or reject,
according to our private notions."

The truth of Young's remarks were especially
verified to me, when I came across the writings of
Jethro Tull, the inventor of the drill and the horse-
hoeing system of husbandry, to whom I shall again
refer; and his narration of the circumstances which

DAIRY FARMING.

caused him to make certain experiments were, to me,
very interesting.

The great difficulty, however, of taking as a prece-
dent another person's experience is, that not only is
modification of practice caused by difference in climate,
but by variety of soil, which, while it enables, we will
say, the finest carrots to be grown in the sandy soil of
Surrey, will prevent them being a successful crop in
the stiff clay-land of some other district; while beans,
which do so admirably in a strong land of an adhesive
character, answer but poorly in sandy soils.

It was the view of furnishing authentic details
of every branch of rural economy, and the methods
of procedure followed in each district throughout
the kingdom, which induced the Government to
establish a Board of Agriculture in the year 1793,
under the presidency of Sir John Sinclair, with
Arthur Young as secretary. The labours of this
Board were chiefly directed to the arrangement of
accurate agricultural surveys of every county in the
kingdom, many of which were made by practical
farmers and men of business — as land surveyors and
others — at a time when agriculture was enjoying a
period of unexampled prosperity, when particular
attention had been directed to the cultivation of the
soil, and abundant capital and enterprise brought to
its aid, the result of the political situation of the
country at that precise period. Its work having been
thought completed in the year 1813, the institution
was then dissolved.

It has been supposed that a great impetus to farm-
ing was given when the Bank of England, in 1797,
stopped its payment of coin, and issued an unlimited
paper currency, which afforded great facilities for the

"GOOD OLD TIMES:

creation of trading capital, so that, speculation being
rife, every article which was of everyday consumption
was soon raised to an artificial value, and the very high
price of grain in the years 1800 and 1801, and from
1S09 to 1813, was the means of attracting a great deal
of public attention to farming. These were the times
which were spoken of by old farmers in the last gene-
ration as the " good old times," when they realised a
very high price for their produce. But rents and
tithes were advanced accordingly, and when the return
to a metallic currency and cash payments reduced
these fictitious values, the stimulus which had formerly
been given to the practice of agriculture, received a
corresponding check. At the season referred to, the
temptation which led to the more extended growth of
corn was the means of causing a vast amount of what
had hitherto been permanent pasture to be broken
up ; and while agriculture flourished, many important
improvements were brought into use and notice.

Since that time, the abolition of the Corn Laws
and the inauguration of Free Trade have taken place,
and the profits of farming are now supposed to have
reached their minimum, and the occupation of an
agriculturist does not offer such tempting inducements
as many others, to persons desirous of entering into a
remunerative business.

Yet there are, without doubt, a great number of
persons who would gladly supplement their incomes,
if they could see their way clear to do it, by entering
into rural occupations which are congenial to their
tastes, but who are deterred from doing so by the
want of a little practical knowledge.

There have been also many in easy circumstances
who, entirely destitute of either theory or practice in

DAIRY FARMING.

agricultural matters, have engaged in them for amuse-
ment only, and the consequence has been that, not
looking after details themselves, and trusting to ser-
vants who have not done them justice, they pay higher
wages, and more for everything that is done for them,
and get lower prices, for their stock and crops, than
they ought to do ; so that, although they may some-
times grow larger crops than their neighbours, it is
done at an expense which will not pay for the raising ;
and these consequently say that "farming does not
pay."

As the reasons which induced me to adopt the
system upon which I made my first attempts may
very likely influence others similarly situated, I may
as well give a brief account, perhaps, of the circum-
stances which prompted my first endeavours as an
agriculturist.

Having a large family of little children, the
youngest of whom had to be brought up by hand,
the little creatures were always ailing, when living in
the suburbs of London, despite all the precautions
which we could take.

We bargained with the milkman who used to serve
us, that he would bring only the milk of one particular
cow (for which we paid a higher price), as a change of
milk would sometimes derange the bodily system of
the infants ; but mistakes would happen at times, and
we knew, from the results, that we did not always
get the same cow's milk, though the dairyman, who
very likely was deceived by his subordinates, stoutly
maintained we did ; and my wife was always fretting
about the children, and wishing that we lived in
" some nice little place in the country, and kept our
own cows and poultry, and all that " — a wish that I

VA RIO US CONSIDER A TIONS.

believe has been uttered by many thousands of the
denizens of our large cities, whose business avocations
compel them to reside in town. Our doctor also said
the children would be much better in the country with
plenty of fresh air and exercise in the fields, and my
own inclinations also seconded the advice.

I accordingly began to look out for a place, but
found it very difficult to get one with a little grass
land attached, of a suitable description that came
within reach of my means, which at that time were
somewhat narrow; for, when living in the country, one
is obliged to keep at least a pony-carriage, and extra
servants ; and I had taken an idea into my head that,
if I went the right way about it, I could manage to
save in house and other expenses the extra cost that I
should necessarily be put to by my new mode of living.
I had a fair knowledge of gardening, and took great
interest in it as an occupation ; but of the manage-
ment of anything like field crops, I was utterly igno-
rant, as well as of keeping stock ; but I had a shrewd
notion that I could not do much harm with grass
land, even if I took more than I wanted for my own
use, as I could always sell the hay ; and beyond bush-
harrowing, there was really little that required to be
done.

In the course of my search for a suitable house, I
came across the one with the land attached which
forms the subject of the present work. Of the manage-
ment of hop land, I had not the most remote idea, and
had only a superstitious horror of the lottery as to
results which was always said to be attached to hop-
growing. Nor could I then entertain the idea of the
arable land, which involved, as I thought, the pur-
chase of not only agricultural implements of various

DAIRY FARMING.

kinds, but a regular staff of labourers, which would
inevitably be burdening myself with a business which
I did not understand. I stated my objections to the
landlord, who said he could easily accommodate me to
the extent of my wishes, as he had three tenants,
farmers, who would gladly take any land which I did
not require, his principal object being to get a good
tenant for the house ; but the land ought all to go
together, as it had been arranged, for the hop-kiln,
which was a substantial new structure, and which was
a very useful building as a store-house at those
seasons of the year when not being used for its legi-
timate purpose, would have to go with the hop land ;
while, for the convenience and opportunity of culti-
vating the arable, strangers would have to cross our
meadows, so that we should not be so exclusive or
private as we otherwise might be.

It was therefore definitely settled that I was to
have thirty acres of the grass land only, upon which
in due course I entered and settled down.

The drawback to my residence was, that it was
three-and-a-half miles from the railway station, and a
long journey from London for a business man to go
up and down each day to the city.

I began with one cross-bred cow, for which I paid
sixteen pounds to a neighbour, who wanted to get rid
of it, having more animals than he had feed for — cows
being somewhat cheap in our district, having been
asked twenty-three pounds for a similar animal by a
dealer in the neighbourhood of London — some fowls,
and a couple of young pigs.

This was the list of my live-stock, with which I
made my first essay, and I engaged a steady married
man to look after them and the garden, and to drive

FIRST BEGINNING.

me in a dog-cart to and from the station every
morning and evening. There were two cottages which
went with the land, which I retained in my own keep-
ing, and the man I engaged was very glad to get
the best of the two, which I allowed him to have at a
nominal rent.

I was fortunate in getting an industrious man,
who was somewhat clever in his way, and who under-
stood the district — that is to say, what could be grown
to the best advantage, management of cattle, etc.

I soon found out for myself as time rolled on, but
at the first start off I was literally ignorant of every-
thing ; and young beginners who turn their attention
to agricultural matters should make it a point of the
very first consequence to obtain the services of a
really competent, respectable man, even if they have
to pay high wages, which was not my case, as I gave
only fourteen shillings a week, with wood and vege-
tables, at the commencement, though I afterwards
gradually rose them to a pound a week, with other
little privileges, and he became a sort of working
bailiff to me ; the average wages of a farm labourer
in the south-western counties being then twelve
shillings a week.

This man at first acted as my groom, and no
matter if I were detained late in town, he was invari-
ably willing and obliging, and would never neglect his
work, however late he might be ; and would always
see the animals made thoroughly comfortable for the
night, when he had to drive me home late from the
station ; so that his general efficiency soon procured
for him an advance of wages.

From him I learnt the best way of feeding my
horse, and management of the cow, and as he showed

DAIRY FARMING.

me that two cows were necessary to calve at different
times, so that when one was dry we had a supply
of milk from the other, I bought another cow.

As I intend to speak of the various qualities
of the different breeds of cows under a separate
heading, it will be unnecessary for me to enter
upon any description of the animals here, beyond
saying that, for the use of a private family where
only one cow is kept, an Alderney will be found
to answer as well as any, as Alderneys are good
butter cows; for though yielding a much smaller
quantity of milk than almost any other breed, it is
rich in quality ; and where there are two, a good
shorthorn in addition comes in well, or any other
good breed of cows that give plenty of milk. For
myself, I always preferred a cow between an Alderney
and shorthorn, as some of the latter are disposed at
times to lay on flesh, rather than yield milk ; but
these qualities I need not particularise here, as I
have just remarked, being anxious to show merely
that my beginnings were upon the very smallest
scale, and that I had to find out for myself, in a
great measure — which my subsequent experience
will show — the best course to adopt in each particular
instance.

As we progressed, certain ideas would occur to me,
which we put into practice by way of experiment ;
and as I had no prejudices of previous education to
combat with, which my man had, in the "custom of
the country" in which he had been brought up, I have
earned the merit of having originated several methods,
and usages of procedure, which, although considered
at the time great innovations, have been found to
answer extremely well. In nothing more so than in

FARMING EDUCATION NOT REQUISITE. 13

the economical feeding and rearing of pigs, which no
farmer near us could ever make pay till they took
hints from our practice, and acted upon them. Of
course, pigs are indispensable animals upon a farm,
and eat up that which otherwise would become spoiled
and waste ; but what I mean is, that our neighbours
could not keep pigs profitably where they had to buy
or grow the food they consumed independently, and
the profit and loss had to be estimated upon the
money-value of what they ate.

There is no art in keeping pigs when a farmer
thrashes out a whole stack of " tail " corn ; the difficulty
is to keep these animals in proper condition upon an
amount of food which will leave a profit above their
actual cost. And such points as these I used to
make a study of.

The common idea that farming is only to be
made remunerative by those who have been regularly
brought up to it is a mistake. Some of the best
farmers we have are men who have been brought up
to quite a different class of business — Alderman Mechi,
of Tiptree Hall, being a very notable example.

Marshall, who published his " Minutes of Agri-
culture," containing the memoranda of his operations
from 1774 to 1777, and who did a great deal towards
the diffusion of agricultural knowledge, was brought
up to commerce. His system is not free from error,
and his practice would not be much valued nowadays ;
but he shows himself to have made greater progress
than any of his contemporaries, although he com-
mitted blunders occasionally ; while in " Middleton's
View of the Agriculture of Middlesex," the writer
states that one of the best farmers in the county of
Middlesex was a retired tailor.

DAIRY FARMING.

The most conspicuous example of all was, perhaps,
furnished by Jethro Tull, who was bred to the law ;
but, having a small estate in Berkshire, devoted
himself to its cultivation. And although he injured
his private fortune very materially, he was a decided
benefactor to his country, though his merits are
not even in this day generally so highly appreci-
ated as they deserve to be ; and there is something
very pathetic in the account of the obloquy and
opposition to which he was exposed in his lifetime,
which embittered an existence tortured by pain arising
from bodily disease.

In describing the steps I first made, it will be seen
that I took very little risk upon myself. In the first
year I got a good crop of hay, after which I let off
my grass land for the after-math, which I did not
require for my own two cows, to a neighbouring
farmer (for I soon got a second cow), who, after his
cattle had taken what they could, turned his sheep into
the meadows.

I had a large stack of hay to go through the winter
with, the first season ; for although cows can be fed
upon cheaper food than the best prime hay, after
all it is their natural food, and it answered my purpose
very well to give it to them, rather than take the
trouble to buy roots, or fetch other food for the small
number of mouths I then had to feed ; and it need
scarcely be said that, having reserved to myself the
right of taking up the remaining grass land and the
arable, and the hops, I soon saw my way clear to
take the whole in hand, the only item I did not
like being the valuation of the hop-poles, etc., which
I thought came to a good deal of money, being
mostly old poles, which I had the means of renewing

SELLING TURNIPS AS AN EXPERIMENT. 15

without cost, beyond the labour of cutting, from my
own plantations.

Two years had passed before I had taken into my
own hands the whole of the land which had been
originally apportioned to my house, and in the mean-
time I had made myself acquainted with the methods
of treatment followed in hop cultivation.

The farmer who had the hop land used to com-
plain to me of the great expense of the manure which
it was necessary to put upon the land, but in the
meantime I had solved the problem of being able to
make pigs pay, and I had collected a large heap of
manure, and knew I should be ready with plenty
more by the spring, so that I should be able to dress
my hop land without the outlay of a single penny for
manure.

I have spoken of my surplus production which
I had to dispose of. I did not get into the way of
selling this to the best advantage all at once, but
made mistakes in my practice at the first start off,
and had to buy my experience like most others, my
first venture being very instructive, which happened
in this wise :

I had a very nice "piece" of white turnips, about
an acre, which had grown remarkably quick and
well ; the rain coming just when it was wanted for
their growth. They looked so white and round, and
appeared such nice vegetables, that it struck me, when
I saw them, that the buyers of vegetables who visited
Covent Garden Market would be sure to fall in love
with the turnips if they could only see them ; so I
procured the name of an agent who sold on com-
mission, and determined to send a cartload up to town
as an experiment

DAIRY FARMING.

At this time I was employing three other men,
besides the first man of whom I have spoken, and
who was now my foreman, or working-bailiff, and he
told me that he could bunch them up nicely and put
them into the proper marketable shape for selling ;
so a large tub of water was taken into the field, and
they were nicely washed, and the tops trimmed in
regular technical fashion, and placed in a cart, which
I hired for the occasion of a neighbouring farmer.

The men were employed the best part of a day
about this job, for there was getting " withies " to tie
them up, and a good deal to be done which was not
quite straightforward work for the men to do, accord-
ing to what they had been previously accustomed to
perform, and they were duly despatched to the station,
three-and-a-half miles distant, and sent up to town by
railway.

Unfortunately, however, for me, the fertilising
showers which had made my turnips grow so nicely,
had performed the same friendly office for a number
of other turnip-growers besides, and there happened
to be. a "glut " of turnips in the market, so that mine
were sold at ninepence per dozen bunches — that is to
say, three-farthings per bunch. Doubtless they got
into the hands of the costermongers, who do so much
good in distributing cheap vegetables in the crowded
districts of London, who may have sold them for a
penny or three-halfpence per bunch ; and with this
thought I consoled myself. But upon balancing
receipts and expenditure, putting down a moderate
estimate for the men's time, cart-hire to the station,
and cost of carriage, I found that, after giving away
the turnips for nothing, I had made a loss of a few
shillings into the bargain. This experiment showed

ENDEAVOUR TO SELL CABBAGES. 17

me that it would not answer to send what may be
termed coarse vegetables up to town, and take the
risk of the market. The case would have been
different, had there been a known scarcity of any
vegetable that I might have happened to have, which
has fallen out so at other times.

I was tempted to make another trial in the
instance of cabbages, on the recommendation of a
gentleman who used to ride up and down with me
to town. This person said he could not get a decent
cabbage in his neighbourhood under threepence, and
there was a great scarcity.

As I had a good many, which I did not quite
know what to do with, beyond giving them to the
pigs, I sent a cartload of the finest, with instructions
to the man to sell them to the dealers at the best
price he could get. But the cabbages came back,
the shopkeepers stating that they were in the habit
of getting vegetables down regularly by truck-
loads from London — and they would not buy them
at all. So we gained nothing by this effort, and
only wasted the man's time, and employed a horse
and cart for nothing. They went to the pigsties after
all, and as there never was any difficulty in selling
pigs, either in the shape of pork or bacon (for we
used to smoke the latter ourselves), I saw clearly
enough that the best I could do, would be not to
trouble about the selling of inferior vegetables, but let
the pigs eat them, and make an article of merchandise
of the latter.

With the finer vegetables, those of a higher class,
such as asparagus and green peas, the case was
different, and of these I will speak again, each under
its proper heading ; my present allusion to these

18 DAIRY FARMING.

circumstances being merely for the purpose of showing
that I had many little difficulties to deal with at the
outset, and had my business to learn.

One thing which is against a gentleman's making
a profit out of what he raises is, that he does not
think it worth while to take the trouble of selling
five or ten shillings' worth of anything, although he
may do so every day, and in this way he is apt to
overlook his profits; and although he cannot very
well do this himself, or would not like to do it, he
ought to have a man who will not let the advantages
which are to be gained in this way slip through his
fingers.

The petty huckstering of small amounts was
extremely distasteful to me at first, but being very
fond of growing vegetables, we used to have such
large quantities of early green peas, that I spoke to
the landlord of the hotel where I was in the habit of
dining in the city, who agreed to take any quantity of
me of shelled peas, for which he paid me a shilling a
quart, till they got plentiful, when the price dropped
down to eightpence, and I managed the huckstering
work in this way : I got a couple of nice flat wicker
baskets made, that would go comfortably under the
seat of a first-class railway carriage. This my man
would put in the dog-cart when we drove to the
station, and when I got to London a porter would
carry it to the cloak-room ; I then sent a clerk on to
my hotel with the ticket, and the landlord used
to send for the peas. In this way I had not the
slightest trouble, for the empty basket was put under
the seat in town by my porter, which very often con-
tained something else I had to carry home, which was
slipped into the dog-cart on the return journey. By

ABOVE DEALING WITH SMALL AMOUNTS. 19

this means I never had to touch a basket with my
own hands, and of course I had not any carriage to
pay, and every now and then, the landlord, who was
my customer, would come up to me as I was having
dinner, and would lay down a paper, screwed up,
containing two or three sovereigns and some silver,
as the case might be, with the account made out,
which was checked by that kept by my man.

It is not everybody who would like to do this, I
am aware. It seemed to me at first very pettifogging
sort of work, accustomed as I was to large transactions
in business ; but I soon got used to it, and, without any
sordid feeling upon the matter, got to like the money
very much.

I used to do the same with my finest early fruit.
At first I was in the habit of packing it in large
hampers, and consigning it by rail to a person with
whom I had agreed to receive it. But fine fruit was
often dreadfully damaged, and ripe pears and plums
would arrive at their destination bruised and smashed,
so that I received very little for it. I found out that
choice fruit must be packed in small baskets, and by
this means I have received twelve shillings a bushel
for choice plums, where I only received four shillings
perhaps, for those I had sent in large baskets ; so that
my man used to say he could sell them for more at
home, on the spot, than what I realised by sending
them away.

To have things early — to be the first in the field —
is the way to make good prices. When apples have
been very plentiful in our district, some of our neigh-
bours have sent them up to town, and after paying
carriage and expenses they have not got more than
sixpence a bushel for them back.

DAIRY FARMING.

I used to tell my man that, what with the trouble
attending such a business, and the risk of losing one's
baskets — which is always happening, more or less —
it would answer the purpose better to feed the pigs
upon apples, than to sell them for such miserable
prices.

To me, there has always been a great amount of
pleasure in growing early cucumbers, early asparagus,
and other vegetable delicacies ; and, as there is a
certain amount of expense and trouble to be incurred,
when these can be sold profitably it comes as an
agreeable set-off. And the things I have mentioned
are just those which are generally overlooked.

If one has eight or ten fat hogs to dispose of, the
transaction comes to an amount of money, and there
is no fear of anything being overlooked in this way ;
and the same with a quantity of corn, which will
always sell at market price ; but the business-man,
or the gentleman, who is apt to overlook the minor
profits he can make, ought, as I have before said, to
keep a man who will look after them, if he is above
doing it himself.

Speaking of pigs, I carried out the same principle
to which I have alluded, of trying to get the best
price I could, and by managing in the most advan-
tageous manner.

Instead of sending nice young porkers, which had
been fed on skimmed milk and "finished off" on
good barley meal, to an agent to dispose of in Smith-
field Market, to be sold side by side and with far
inferior meat, I found out a good pork-butcher who
did a superior trade, and wanted the best quality he
could get ; and he would give me nearly thirty per
cent, more than I could obtain when I sold my young

SKIMMED MILK.

porkers haphazard. I, of course, had to study his
convenience, and kill, and send them up as he wanted
them ; but this was no trouble to me, or rather to my
man, for I never had any hand in it myself. I have
mentioned young porkers, but my general plan was
to keep the pigs until they attained a large size ; but
sometimes we had too many, and were obliged to
arrange to get rid of a few of them — and my customer
the pork-butcher could take eight or ten at a time
of me.

I refer in a cursory manner to these details, in
order to indicate, in a rough way, the various methods
there are of earning a profit upon agricultural produce
of different descriptions of which a man may fairly
avail himself, without entering heart and soul into
that wretched materialism which is too often common
amongst the small trading classes, and which the
pressure of circumstances compels them to adopt.

Now as I make a good deal of butter, there is a
large quantity of skimmed milk. Each man in my
employ has an allowance of two quarts per day for his
family, and as there are a number of cottagers in the
neighbourhood who have a difficulty in getting any
milk, I allow it to be sold at a halfpenny per quart to
them. My man has frequently said to me : " We
really ought not to sell this milk, as it is worth much
more to us for feeding the young calves with ; " but as
it is an advantage to my poorer neighbours who have
little children, and are glad to avail themselves of the
privilege, the calves sometimes have to go minus, and
make up with hay-tea, when we are short ; and I feel
much more comfortable in letting them have it, than I
should do if I were to give it to my calves and pigs,
and they have to go without. The few pence secured in

DAIRY FARMING.

this way I would just as soon be without, but the
independence of the cottagers is preserved while they
pay for it, and the arrangement suits all parties.

It has been a great pleasure to me to have been
the means indirectly of helping the families of the
cottagers, through my little farming plans. Some of
them earn a good deal of money by picking up acorns
for my pigs, for which I pay them a shilling a bushel.
Some women will go out with half-a-dozen little ones
and pick up a great many, so that I have often paid
eight, nine, ten, and twelve shillings — representing as
many bushels — on Saturday afternoon, when we settled
the weekly wages, for picking up acorns, in individual
instances.

In the " acorn season " it has been quite a sight,
my town friends have declared, to see the large
quantity of these lying on the floor of a roomy barn
I have, and they form a cheap and very important
item of food for my pigs.

From these preliminary observations, the reader
will be able to gather some definite outline of my
method of operation, which I shall describe more in
detail as I proceed with my task ; but I ought to add
that, being on friendly terms with my neighbours the
farmers, who are co-tenants with me, I have not found
it necessary to buy any farm implements, such as
ploughs and harrows, but have got them to turn up
my land for me, when I needed any ploughing done,
the chief part of my labour being performed with the
spade and fork. Yet my ten acres of arable are just
enough to enable me to compute the expenses and
charges for ordinary farm operations per acre, which
may be fairly taken to apply in the same ratio to
a larger quantity ; and, where I may consider such

VARIETY OF LAND. 23

information necessary, I will supplement my own
experience with an account of the best methods of
farming followed in my own and other neighbour-
hoods, in which I have taken a lively interest.

Some of the economical arrangements I have
made, frequently bring me visitors from a distance, in
order to compare my methods with their own ; and I
often get an idea in return from them which I put
to profitable account. I ought also to add, that the
bulk of what little land I have is chiefly of a light,
sandy nature, though there is some clay amongst it.
The hop land, which is close to the house, is for the
greater part light, which has been well worked, and
of course heavily manured ; but in one portion, where
it slopes upward to a by-road, it consists of sticky
clay, which owes a good deal of its moisture to the
natural surface-drainage of the adjoining land, which
is covered with coppice. The ten acres of arable again
are separated from us by three meadows, of from seven
to nine acres each, the land altogether assuming some-
what the shape of a long strip, except near the house,
which stands in park-like meadows, bounded on one
side by the hop-garden, as before described.

During the two years when I had only the thirty
acres of grass land to look after, I got into the way of
managing poultry, and also mastered the salient fea-
tures in successful pig-keeping, and in the meantime I
made myself acquainted with the methods of agri-
culture that were carried on around me ; but as far as
my experience shows, the management of arable land
is more troublesome, and less profitable, than grass
land and stock- keeping ; though the small quantity of
arable I have in hand suits me remarkably well, as it
is just sufficient to grow roots for my stock ; and, as I

24 DAIRY FARMING.

have said before, a little wheat, oats, and beans, for my
ordinary requirements.

In short, I have just enough land to experiment
with, and fairly test matters.

Hitherto I have been speaking of my preliminary
situation; henceforth I shall describe the results of
my matured experience, premising that my dairying
and stock-breeding operations are the most important
branch ; next, pig-breeding ; and, lastly, the purely
agricultural department, such as roots and cereals,
which, although they bring me in the least results,
undoubtedly cost me by far the most money in the
shape of labour, that is paid for weekly.

As the kitchen-garden attached to the house was
comparatively small, I laid out another in an adjoin-
ing meadow, which sloped towards the south, where
we grow a large quantity of fresh vegetables. I
gave orders that a liberal supply of vegetables were
always to be cooked each day for the house, knowing
that if they were not eaten at table, they would come
in for the pigs. I was not, however, always successful
in getting this done with some of the cooks I have
had, for where there was plenty the servants did not
care to eat them, I believe ; and many times, when
dining at home, there has been a short supply, much
to my vexation, for a grower who takes pride in the
vegetables he raises naturally does not wish to be put
upon " short commons ; " but the trouble in preparing
them had a great deal to do with this, as sometimes,
with our large family, we would consume as many
green peas at a meal as would cost four or five
shillings when they were realising high prices in the
market.

KITCHEN SCRAPS. 25

I also had a contrivance made that, when the cook
strains off her saucepans, instead of throwing the
cooking refuse down the sink, it passes through a
pipe to a tub outside, which is regularly emptied each
time the pigs are fed ; for, as my man observed, the
rinsings of milk-pans, tea-slops, the fatty water in
which bacon or other meat had been boiled, and the
numerous odds and ends that come out of a kitchen
in a liquid form, were much better than cold water to
mix the pigs' food up in. By looking after these
details, the profits in the course of a year are much
augmented, for less has to be bought, or, if not bought,
less of one's own produce is consumed, than if these
economical expedients were ignored.

A business man, of course, could not spare the
time to look after these details himself, nor would he
like to undertake them ; but, I repeat, he ought to have
a good man who will, and the better that man does his
duty, the more he is sure to be disliked by negligent
or wasteful servants who neglect theirs.

Many a time have I laughed in my sleeve when
my foreman has come up to me, with perhaps the
bones of two mutton-chops in his horny hand, with
all the fat attached to them (as my children hate fat),
and said with an injured air : " Look'ee here, sir, what
I have just picked up off the ash-heap, these 'er nice
mutton-chops, and we with hungry dogs tied up, to
say nothing of pigs, as would be glad on 'cm. Blest
if I can keep that cook from flinging all her bacon-
rind and crumbs and things under the kitchen-grate ;
although I speaks as perlite as maybe, and axes her
to save 'em all for me."

The man of course is quite right ; but when I,

DAIRY FARMING.

emulating my man's example, politely mentioned the
circumstance to the cook's mistress, that lady, though
not defending the woman's conduct, was disposed to
think that our foreman was somewhat inclined to be a
mischief-maker ; and that, of course, is the firm con-
viction of his fellow-servants, when their negligence
has to be reproved through his instrumentality.

Fortunate is the man who gets a good servant to
look after his interests. Things go on very swimmingly
when waste and idleness go on unrebuked in the
absence of the master amongst servants, who are all
good friends together, for which he has to stand the
cost; but no sooner does a conscientious man strive
to keep things as they should be, than he gets branded
as a tell-tale, or sneak, or a mischief-maker, or a back-
biter ; and the bickering which ensues unfortunately at
times causes vexation. Yet it is mainly to the waste
and neglect of servants that persons are so unsuc-
cessful in making their farming operations pay, when
they are followed more for the sake of amusement and
pleasure than as a help to an income. By judicious
management, however, the latter is to be obtained
easily enough, but one must not only have a liking for
the work, but be prepared to do things systematically,
and see that no point which will conduce to success is
neglected.

If he acts upon a well-arranged system, things will
work smoothly enough ; but if matters are neglected,
confusion and loss will ensue, which has caused many
a man to throw up in despair what otherwise would
have been a source of continual pleasure and profit to
him.

CHAPTER II.

First Attempts— Various Breeds of Cows— The AMerney— The Short-
horn— The Ayrshire— Longhorns— The Herefords— The North
Devons— The Suffolk Dun-West Highland Cattle, or Kyloes—
The Galloway— Points of a good Cow— Difference in Cows-
General Management— Saving One's Hay— Dairy Practice in
various Counties.

F/sst A ttempts. — The opportunity of having new
milk for our delicate little children was one of the
chief inducements that influenced my wife in going
to live in the country; and, as the produce of one
cow was quite sufficient for the family, we began
our dairying operations in the most modest manner
imaginable, by buying half-a-dozen blocked-tin skim-
ming dishes, a cream pot, and an upright churn, upon
the "plunging" principle, which a neighbour had to
dispose of.

This churn, however, caused the butter to taste
unpleasantly— perhaps from having Iain by a long
while unused— and we had to discard it, and procured
a box-churn which turned with a handle ; while we
exchanged the blocked -tin skimming dishes for
earthenware ones, glazed inside, which we preferred
on account of being kept clean easier than the others.
We had to find out the best way of doing everything

D 2

DAIRY FARMING.

for ourselves as we progressed, day by day, and expe-
rience and observation were our most effective guides,
after all ; for, though there were plenty who volun-
teered advice, much that was tendered was of little
value, compared with the best methods of doing
everything, which we afterwards found out ; and we
were not told things that we ought not to do. As, for
example, the dairy being a nice cool place, we used
to keep our meat hanging up in it, a practice that
ought not for a moment to be tolerated ; no food,
either vegetable or animal, being allowed to enter a
well-managed dairy, even the cream-jars being best
away, as it is necessary to keep the air of the milk-
house as pure as possible, so as to avoid the least
chance of contamination.

I will, however, speak of the various matters which
relate to dairy management in consecutive order; but
I cannot help reverting to my first experiences now
and then. I say my first experiences, but they were
not in reality mine, but those of my wife and her ser-
vants, and the first man whom I engaged to look after
our few belongings in the way of stock-keeping, which
gradually forced themselves upon my notice and
awakened my interest — and I draw a veil over the
many accidents that happened — the churning for
hours when the butter would not come — and many
trials of patience which neophytes have to undergo,
with which I at length got familiar, and was made a
partner in ; a result I never contemplated in the first
instance, thinking that domestic matters would go on
all very well without my taking any share in them,
but in which I finally became deeply interested ; and
the pleasure and profit resulting from well-directed

MY FIRST COW.

efforts offer a most agreeable contrast to the hap-
hazard manner in which we first conducted our
affairs.

The first cow I had was a capital one/that gave a
good pailful of milk each time of milking, at night
and morning ; but, like all animals which yield a large
quantity of milk, the cream was not so rich for
butter-making as that of the cows I have subsequently
kept, and consequently, when she approached her
time of calving, and we had to allow her to get dry, I
procured an Alderney cow, whose yield of milk was
comparatively small, but rich in cream, which made a
good quantity of butter ; and I may here remark
that it will be found a good plan, where a number of
animals are kept, even when the aim is that of a large
production of milk, to have one Alderney cow, at all
events, amongst the herd ; as the quality of the milk,
as a whole, will be greatly improved thereby.

My first cow in due time brought me a fine calf ;
and as I was quite ignorant of the best method of
management, I had to rely upon my man's advice,
who really was an excellent manager after the fashion
to which he had been accustomed ; though, in course
of time, we changed places, - as I shall duly show.
Said he : " As we shall now have plenty of milk, if we
let the calf suck its mother for five or six weeks there
will be a fine fat calf, for which the butcher will give
six pounds or so." This was accordingly done'; but
upon calculation I found that the milk and butter
produced by this cow immediately after calving was
worth one pound a week. If I had given the calf away
directly it had been calved, I should have been as well
off as fattening it up for the butcher ; though it is

3°

DAIRY FARMING.

true the calf did not take all the cow's milk during the
first few weeks. This cow could easily have brought
up two calves had we so arranged it, as she had a
profusion of milk, and another pair after these had
been sufficiently brought forward, finishing off with a
single one, or five calves altogether.

This I discovered by reading a work on farming,
which gave me the necessary information ; and as I
had a good deal of grass land, it occurred to me, after
I had acquired it, that I ought to have followed this
method, as an easy way of obtaining stock which
would be growing into money ; but I afterwards
adopted the plan of rearing my calves upon skimmed
milk, thickened with linseed, etc., by which means we
got the butter, and had the calf as well. Not indeed
a fat one, but a young stock animal that was after-
wards reared with comparatively little expense, all of
which I shall duly speak of in the proper place ; but I
may as well add here that, save in exceptional cir-
cumstances, I did not rear the bull or steer calves —
disposing of them after they had been five days or a
week with their mothers — it being a cruel thing to
both, to separate the cow and calf at once ; but the
heifers, or cow-calves, .when they fell at convenient
seasons, I have invariably reared. At one year old
the male calf is commonly called a yearling, stirk, or
" hog," assuming the name of bull at two years, which
he retains to the day of his death, unless castrated,
when he is known as a bull-stag. When castrated,
the bull-calf is termed a steer, until he attains the
age of four years, when he is known as an ox. The
cow-calf retains the name of heifer until she is five
years old, when she becomes a cow.

THE ALDERNEY.

Various Breeds of Cows. — Of the different nature
and breeds of cows, like most other young beginners,
I had only a very dim conception. I knew, of course,
that the Alderney cow gave only a small quantity of
milk, but that it was rich in butter-making properties,
and recognised a few other broad distinctions ; but I
had to find out for myself the various points that had
to be taken into consideration, such as the breed best
adapted for one's pasturage, and the nature of the
soil. Many of the larger breeds require a richer pas-
turage than other sorts, which are equally good
milkers, but are satisfied with poorer feed ; and the
success of dairy farming depends very much upon the
proper selection of animals for the land to carry ; and
of this part of the subject, perhaps, it would be better
first to speak, as many breeds will give a much larger
return than others in the form of milk for the food
consumed.

The Alderney. — The Alderney cow is one that is
highly in favour in private families, on account of the
rich quality of the cream and butter produced ; but
the yield of milk is small, and where a dairy farm is
carried on chiefly for the sale of milk, it would not be
found to answer to keep Alderney cows alone, though,
as before remarked, one or two may be kept with
advantage along with a greater number. The butter,
however, made from the milk of a really good
Alderney cow would often equal the weight of that of
another giving a much larger supply of milk ; and the
admixture of the cream of even one Alderney cow
with that of a dozen others will sensibly improve its
quality.

They, however, will do very well upon somewhat

DAIRY FARMING.

poor pasture and inferior park land, and are very
useful on a farm to cross with another breed that may-
possess more desirable features in the eyes of the
dairy-farmer, and should thus by no means be over-
looked, even when profit is the main consideration.
For the purpose of the grazier they are utterly use-
less, as he could not deal with them profitably, and
therefore it will not answer to rear the bull-calves
as stock for sale. They " cut-up " badly for the
butcher, though I believe they often turn out much
more profitable than their appearance would seem to
indicate to the purchaser. I once tried the experi-
ment of fattening an Alderney steer for the butcher ;
but I lost a good deal by it, and never repeated it.

The Shorthorn. — The Shorthorn is a favourite
breed on account of many good qualities which it
possesses ; the chief being its aptitude to fatten, and
the great weight of carcase it attains in a compara-
tively short time. But, as dairy cows, this inclination
to lay on flesh, rather than secrete, milk, is an
objection ; and they are seldom good milkers, unless
both food and climate are specially favourable to
them ; and under the best circumstances they consume
a large amount of food, yielding no more milk than
others that take far less to keep, having indeed a
tendency more to produce fat than milk.

On this account they are more valuable to the
grazier than to the dairy-farmer, though for dairy
purposes a cross between a shorthorn and an in-
ferior breed will often bring good milch cows. That
between an Alderney and a shorthorn is generally a
good one ; as a rule, highly-bred animals are mostly
bad milkers. It has often turned out to be the

THE A YRSHIRE — L ONGHORNS.

case with a number of cows, that the ugliest, most
misshapen beast of the lot, whose pedigree it would be
very difficult to trace, is the best milker of them all.
Occasionally a shorthorn will be found to yield a
good supply of milk, but for one very good one in this
way there will be three found that are only indifferent,
when compared with really first-class milk-producers.

Shorthorns require generous feeding, and pastures
of the best quality, to develop their excellences in
the most complete manner, and, after all, are better
adapted for the grazier and stock-keeper than the
dairy-farmer.

The Ayrshire. — One of the best Scotch breeds,
amongst which good milking cows are often found, is
the Ayrshire. It offers a most decided contrast to
the one just named ; no breed, perhaps, being able to
equal these cows in converting the produce of poor
soils into so much good milk, butter, or cheese ; and
for purely dairy purposes they are very difficult to
beat. They are not at all suited for stock intended
for beef, as the bullocks are hard to fatten, come badly
to the scale, and the meat is of inferior quality ; but
where an improvement is wanted, an Ayrshire cow
coupled with a shorthorn bull will produce an excel-
lent breed. They are small in size ; but great pains
have been taken in developing their milking powers
by breeders, their form being compact and sym-
metrical, with a capacious stomach, but somewhat
narrow chest. They will not give so large a quantity
of milk as some other cows, but it will be obtained at
a relatively smaller cost.

Longhorns. — The long-horned breed of cattle has
gone somewhat into the background of late years, yet

DAIRY FARMING.

at one time they were the prevailing one in most of
the midland counties of England, having given way to
the superior estimation in which shorthorn cattle are
now generally held. The cows are fair milkers, being
mostly brindled black and brown along the sides, with
white along the back, their horns at times being more
than a yard long, to which distinguishing characteristic
they owe their name.

The Hcrcfords. — The Herefords are a better breed
for the grazier than for the dairy- farmer ; the cows,
being generally poor milkers, do not, as a rule, make
good dairy animals. They need a fertile soil, attaining
a weight fully equal to that of the shorthorn breed.
They are chiefly met with in Herefordshire and the
south-western counties, and are generally of a red
colour, with the exception of the face, the breast, the
ridge of the back, and the feet, which are mostly
white.

The North Devons. — These animals are admired
for their colour, which is mostly red, with a little
white about the udder, their elegant form, and gentle
temper. Unfortunately, however, the cows are not
well suited for dairy purposes, for although the milk
they give is very rich, it is but small in quantity. The
oxen have been extensively employed in their native
country in field labour, doing the work of the farm,
for which they are admirably fitted, and are altogether
a hardy breed, but cannot be recommended where
dairy produce is the first object in view, as the cows
have a marked tendency to get dry early.

The Suffolk Dun. — This breed was originally of a
mouse dun colour in most instances, and it has been
surmised by some that the original stock has been

WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE.

crossed a good deal by the polled Galloway cattle,
which find their way in good numbers to the eastern
counties ; but although being polled, and resembling
in some respects those of Scotland, the true breed
appears to be indigenous to Suffolk. They are un-
gainly in form, but the cows yield a large quantity of
milk in proportion to the food they consume, and are
consequently a desirable breed as dairy cows.

West Highland Cattle, or Kyloes. — The cows of
this breed yield very rich milk, but give only a very
scanty supply of it, their chief recommendation being
that they will thrive on the coarsest herbage, where
higher-bred animals would be scarcely able to subsist.
They are symmetrical in form, the true Highland ox
being especially a very handsome animal, with short
muscular limbs closely covered with shaggy hair, and
altogether well-fitted for the cold humid climate and
coarse pasturage of the Highlands ; and although
unsuited for the sheltered plains and meadows of
England, they are often usefully bought to eat up the
inferior grass of park-land, upon which they will get
in better condition than a class of animals accustomed
to herbage of a superior quality.

The Galloway. — The Galloway is a polled breed,
resembling otherwise the West Highland cattle, but
possessing a larger frame, and being more adapted for
a lower range of pastures, while their docile tempera-
ment causes them to be easy of management ; but for
dairy purposes, the cows are far inferior to the Ayr-
shire, which are the best milkers of all the Scotch
breeds, of which there are several others beside those
named, as the Angus, the Aberdeen, and the Fife,
that are met with on the east coast of Scotland ; many

DAIRY FARMING.

of which are well worthy of the notice of the stock-
keeper, but not of the dairy-farmer, whose object is
to produce milk or butter.

Of Irish cows, the small Kerry cow is the best for
its milk-producing qualities, and the various breeds
mentioned, including the Glamorgan, which is a good
milker, found in that and neighbouring counties, com-
prise all that need any notice for dairy purposes ;
and the selection of animals from any of these should
be guided by the circumstances affecting the farm,
and the produce aimed at.

If the object be to obtain a large quantity of milk
for sale, those cows naturally should be chosen which
give the greatest quantity. But if the intention be to
make butter and cheese, the richness of the milk must
be made the principal point, for it often happens
that a larger quantity of cream is to be got off the
smaller yield of milk ; an instance having been
reported by Malcolm in his " Compendium of Modern
Husbandry" of an Alderney, and Suffolk cow, the
latter the best of the kind he ever saw ; while the
Alderney, which had dropped her first calf, was pur-
chased out of a drove, in a miserable condition.
During seven years — the milk and butter being
always kept separate — it was found, year after year,
that the value of the Alderney exceeded that of the
Suffolk, though the latter gave more than double the
quantity of milk at each meal. He adds, that he at
that time had a dairy of twelve cows — two Devons,
•one Derby, one Lincoln, two Sussex, two Wiltshire
•long-horned, two Holderness, one Suffolk, and one
Alderney, and the latter bore the palm clean away.
The Sussex cattle, I should remark, are similar to the

POINTS OF A GOOD COW.

Devons in colour, but larger and coarser, being mostly
found in the county from which they derive then
name. \
In keeping a definite breed of cows, as the un-
profitable animals must be weeded out of the herd
from time to time, it will be found as well to keep in
view a certain degree of improvement of stock, when
breeding from an inferior class of cow, by crossing
her with a well-bred shorthorn breed — and in most
cases, where the pastures are of average quality, a
cross between Alderney and shorthorn will be found
to bring very useful stock — but good milkers are to-
be picked up amongst all breeds ; the best in this
respect having a worse bodily appearance than those
which clothe their limbs with flesh instead of secreting
milk.

A good milch cow seldom carries much flesh,
and one that has a tendency to get fat should be got
rid of ; and as cows ought not, as a rule, to be kept
when they are over nine years of age, in a large dairy
it will make a considerable difference whether the
animals sold are likely to be held in good estimation
by the butcher. The tendency of a cow to get fat,
which is an objectionable feature to the dairy-farmer,
will of course constitute a recommendation when she
is to be sold, and a higher price be realised for
her.

Points of a good Cow. — No one likes to part with
a good cow that gives a plentiful supply of milk, but
the supply sometimes suddenly falls off after they
have passed their ninth year, and good management
will very often mainly consist in the endeavour to
reconcile apparently opposite qualifications to the

DAIRY FARMING.

requirements of the owner, and the ultimate dis-
position of the animals. Hence with cows there will
be a wide difference between the form of one meant
for fattening and that intended for a milch cow ; and
while the former should possess as much as possible
the good points of an ox, the latter should be thin
and hollow in the neck, narrow in the breast and
point of the shoulder, large stomach, thin head, with
a brisk but placid eye, light in the fore quarter, but
wide in the loins, and with but little dewlap, and not
too full-fleshed along the chine, nor showing any
indication of putting on too much fat. The udder
should be large, round, and full, with the milk-veins
boldly protruding, and, while thin-skinned, neither
hanging loosely or trending far behind. The teats
should stand squarely out, pointing at equal dis-
tances from one another, and being of the same size ;
and although neither very large nor thick close to
the udder, yet long, and tapering to a point.

A cow with a large head, high backbone, small
udder and teats, and drawn up in the belly, will
generally be found a bad milker. Temper is also
another point of importance. The cow that gave a
good pailful of milk, and then kicked it over, has
passed into a proverb 5 and kindly animals will not
only give much less trouble in their management
than those of an unruly disposition, but they will
generally be found to have a more copious supply of
milk, and will yield it up more readily. A theory
has lately been broached, called the Guenon escutcheon
theory, after the name of its suggester, who styles
the slight fringe formed by the junction of the hair
which points upwards with that which points down-

DIFFERENCE IN COWS.

wards above the udder, the cow's escutcheon. The
longer and wider this is, the better the cow will prove
as a milker. Some people have said there is a good
deal in this, while others have denied it ; but, as far
as I am personally concerned, the matter has not
interested me very much, for beyond occasionally
buying a stray cow or two out of a drove, which I
have had the opportunity of getting very cheap,
when animals have been passing our gates on their
way to a fair, I always bring up my own calves,
and am therefore not a buyer, as a rule ; for some-
times there may be the seeds of disease in a strange
cow. And when we have bought one, we always
make a practice of isolating her from the others for
a certain time, so that we may have an opportunity
of assuring ourselves upon this point.

High-pedigreed, shorthorned cows are usually
poor milkers, as well as unsafe breeders, and therefore
they are by no means desirable as dairy cows, what-
ever they may be for breeding purposes, which does
not concern our present business just now—the breed
of a cow being of very little consequence to the
dairy-farmer, as any shortcoming in this respect can
be made up by the good qualities of the bull.

Difference in Cows. — There is, however, a great
difference between cows, very often of the same breed ;
and two sisters, fed in precisely the same manner, got
by the same bull, and almost the same in appearance,
not only often vary in the quantity of the milk they
give, but produce butter of different weights from the
same amount of food. It will thus be readily seen
that to make a dairy farm answer to its fullest extent,
a constant supervision, and culling of the stock, should

DAIRY FARMING.

be going on, and the indifferent animals weeded out
and sold. A bad cow will eat as much as a good one,
and experiments should be made, by feeding the
animals on the same food, and measuring the quantity
of milk, and afterwards churning it into butter, which
can be easily done, so as to determine their relative
values ; for, as in the case cited above, it is not the
cow that gives the most milk that is always the best
butter cow.

General Management. — A good stock of cows
having been got together, the general system of
management to be pursued must be decided on. In
some parts of the country, especially in Gloucester-
shire, cows are kept out of doors a great deal. In
many dairy districts they are often badly lodged, and
insufficiently fed in winter.

Good warm housing in cold weather is indis-
pensable ; a certain amount of food being required to
keep up the natural heat of the body, and when
warmly lodged, cows require a less amount of food ;
while regularity in feeding is a very important point
in dairy management ; as a greater quantity of milk
is absolutely obtained by regular feeding upon a
smaller quantity of food, than a larger one irregularly
given. In the latter case, a marked diminution of the
milk yielded takes place, which lasts for some time ;
even when regularity of feeding has been resumed
after temporary discontinuance, it may be, from acci-
dental causes.

The most essential points in the management of a
dairy are :

First — To have a good breed of cows that are well
adapted for the land and climate, and for the purpose

ESSENTIAL POINTS IN MANAGEMENT. 41

for which they are mainly intended — i.e. whether for
the production of milk or butter.

Secondly — To have proper buildings and imple-
ments for the dairy, and for the best methods of
feeding.

Thirdly — To have efficient servants, able to carry
on the business of the farm in a thorough and proper
manner.

Lastly— Gentle treatment, combined with good
and regular feeding, and sufficient shelter for the
stock.

Dairy produce has advanced steadily in price of
late years, and there is every prospect of its being
maintained in the future ; and the mixed system of
dairying and feeding is extending very much amongst
practical farmers, as it enables them to be less
dependent upon one variety of produce, while it
affords a better division of labour ; and greater profits
can be secured under a system of good management
by the combined methods.

It does not necessarily follow that a farmer must
have plenty of meadow land to carry on a dairy
business, for on the soiling system, of which I shall
speak at length under the head of Feeding, a very
small amount of grass land is necessary upon which
to turn out the cows for air and exercise. There are,
indeed, only two kinds of farms on which an union of
the two systems cannot be adopted with advantage ;
those in the one case being stiff clays, on which only
a small breadth of turnips can be raised, aad dry
turnip soils of inferior quality, which require the
practice of sheep-farming to maintain the land in
proper order.

DAIRY FARMING.

The arable-farmer has an advantage over the dairy-
farmer, who alone has grass land, in the ability he
possesses of furnishing a greater variety of food to the
cows, and by efficient house-feeding and warmth in
well-arranged buildings, the cows can be maintained
in good health and full profit, the house-feeding system
being well adapted for milch cows, and quite com-
patible with the production of the finest quality of
milk ; the quantity, too, being much greater in propor-
tion to the food consumed, than when cows are pas-
tured in the open fields ; while the large amount of
manure made of the best quality by well-fed cows,
adds materially to the fertility of the farm.

A mixed system of tillage and dairy-farming,
where now only the former is carried on, would be
found by many to be highly advantageous so far as
profits are concerned.

Saving One's Hay. — I had acquired a little ex-
perience, and the time came round when, having read
various accounts of the management of cows, I began
to think for myself what would be the most profitable
course to pursue ; and I quite astonished my man, at
a very early stage in our dairying business, when I
had only two or three cows and an odd calf or two,
by telling him that I intended to shut up all the
fields for hay — the whole thirty acres that I first began
with, reserving only a small enclosure near the house,
of two or three acres, in which our few head of cattle
could run.

He, however, loyally assisted me in my project,
and a strong young fellow was engaged to assist him ;
and we mowed the grass, and carried it to the cows
in their stalls as they wanted it, their provender being

SHUTTING UP THE MEADOWS. 43

eked out with carrots and cabbages, some of which
we had grown ourselves, and the remainder bought of
neighbouring farmers.

We used first to mow all the long grass near to
the hedges round all the fields — some of which grew
rank and luxuriant, from being near the watercourses,
and sprang up again quickly— and continued to cut
grass wherever we thought it would best answer our
purpose.

This was thought rather a bold stroke for a man
to do who had plenty of grass, in shutting off his
dairy cows from it, being quite opposed to the
"custom of the country;" and the wisdom of my
proceeding was of course challenged. I was told
that I was keeping my cows away from the meadows
when they were in their prime, and would most
benefit the stock, and that I should lose in milk what
I gained the other way. But I stuck to my plan, and
found it answer uncommonly well. Towards hay-
harvest, the cows stood well shaded from the heat of
the sun, with no flies of consequence to torment
them ; and in the early morning and cool of the
evening they took their exercise in the small field
allotted to them— and being abundantly fed, they
did exceedingly well, and looked in better condition
than most of my neighbours' animals ; the result
being that I had a very large haystack, instead of a
comparatively small one, and we experienced no
falling off in dairy produce.

At first there seemed a good deal of trouble in
cutting the grass, but it soon became a matter of
routine ; and the first thing in the morning sufficient
was mown to last the cows through the day, and put

E 2

DAIRY FARMING.

in a cart, and taken to the cow-houses, and the same
operation performed again at evening, when the cows
relished that which was freshly served to them at
milking time. Without trouble, nothing can be done
successfully ; but when even troublesome jobs become
a matter of routine, and part of the daily work, they
are soon got through easily enough. The first thing
thought of was the cows' provender for the day,
and the task was set about with a will ; and it did
not so very much interfere with the other business of
the place, after it had become a matter of custom —
custom, which makes everything easy, and causes
difficulties to consist mainly in a change of everyday
habit.

After we had secured our hay, we turned the cows
into one field after another, to eat up the after-math ;
so that while they were consuming the grass off one,
that of the others was growing.

My man, imbued with the prejudices of his class
and the comments of our neighbours, was extremely
doubtful at first of the success of the expedient ; but
after it was accomplished, and I pointed to the fine
stack of hay we had secured in fine condition, he
could not but acknowledge the plan was a good one,
although opposed to the ordinary practice followed
in our part of the world ; and I need not say that I
invariably pursue it. I never cut the after-math, con-
tenting myself with a good crop of hay, which we
are generally fortunate enough to get — though I did
it the first year, in accordance with the advice given
me — considering it exhaustive to the meadows. In
the early stage of my operations, when I had more of
this second crop of grass than my own cows could eat,

SYSTEMS OF DAIRY PRACTICE.

I used to take in the sheep of a neighbouring farmer
at so much per score ; making the bargain that they
should be folded on the land at night, by which more
manure was left than if they had been driven off
to the farm.

Dairy Practice in various Counties. — The practice,
or method of management pursued in dairy opera-
tions, differs very much in various parts of the
kingdom, necessarily so on account of certain restric-
tions in the management of the land which are
imposed upon tenants by the landlords, and which
form "the custom of the country ; " as, for instance, in
Cheshire, the dairy-farmer is prohibited by his tenure
from having more than a fourth, or at most one-third
of his land in tillage. With few exceptions, cheese is
the principal product of the dairy in Cheshire, but
little butter being produced, except that made from
whey, which is of good quality, as the cheese is made
from whole milk. Bone manure has been largely used
upon the Cheshire meadows, to which has been attri-
buted much of their fertility ; and the cows are tied
up in stalls from the ist of November till the rst of
May, being allowed a few hours each day for air and
exercise, on the most convenient fields to the farm.

The calves are usually sold off in what is termed
half-fed condition, when about a month old, except
those which are reserved to make good deficiencies in
stock. On the clay-land farms, the cows after calving
are fed for some time on bran-mashes, then about half
a bushel of oats is given per week, a small quantity
every day ; in exceptional instances, turnips and man-
gold-wurzel are also given, but the common practice
is to feed with hay and cut grain. On the sand-

DAIRY FARMING.

land farms, however, cows are commonly fed on
turnips during the winter, the tops being given to
them first with straw, and the bulbs with hay after-
wards.

In Gloucestershire, except in those instances where
the improved modern methods of feeding cattle have
been adopted, the principal reliance is placed on the
product of the meadows for the sustenance of the
cows, both in summer and winter, in the shape of
grass in the former and hay in the latter ; very little
extra food, such as oil-cake or bruised grain, being
given to them, or even roots. The cows, too, are kept
exposed very much in the meadows ; and although
the mildness of the climate, and the richness of the
grass, will allow the Gloucestershire dairy-farmer to
take, greater liberties with his animals than others can
do in less favoured counties, there can be no question
that in carrying hay twice a day to open fields in which
to feed the cows, where it is thrown down, a good deal
becomes wasted and spoiled in rainy weather.

As roots are but little grown, the discarded cows
are seldom or never fattened, but sold to dealers ; but
the meadows are managed well, the cows being
changed from one field to another, as regularly as pos-
sible ; and the milking cows are kept as near the
homestead as possible, to avoid the fatigue consequent
upon driving them a long distance to be milked,
which both lessens the quantity of the milk as well as
deteriorates its quality.

In these and some other respects, the management
of the cows is conducted upon a good system ; the
most faulty part of the method pursued in Gloucester-
shire being the deficiency of house and shed accom-

WINTER FEEDING.

modation for stock, both in winter and summer — in
the winter from the inclemency of the season, and in
the latter from the annoyance caused by the buzzing
and biting of insects, which are often very troublesome
to cattle, and congregate alike under trees for shelter
from the rays of the sun, in the hottest period of the
day.

In Leicestershire, the pastures are naturally rich,
while roots are grown extensively, it being the
common plan to stall-feed in winter and to let the
cows graze the fields in summer. Stilton cheese is
celebrated, while the ordinary Leicester cheese bears
a good reputation in the market; a large breed of
cows being mostly kept, which the rich pastures are
well able to carry, being either shorthorn, longhorn,
or a cross betwixt the two. A good many years
back, longhorns were the principal stock kept, but
the facility with which the shorthorn breed lay on
flesh and fatten has caused them to make their way
in this county, for which they are admirably adapted.

The practice of winter feeding differs on various
farms ; straw, with a small quantity of hay, saturated
with linseed, boiled in fifteen times its quantity of
water, with bran, or oatmeal in addition, being given
by many ; and when in milk, the cows are fed with
mangold-wurzel, and get a larger quantity of meal or
bran. When straw only is given, eighty pounds of
roots are allowed daily, or twenty-five pounds of hay,
when no roots are served out, or forty pounds of roots
with eighteen pounds of hay ; or again, if the hay is
mixed one-half with straw, sixty pounds of roots.

Early in spring, clover and Italian rye grass are
given to the cows, and vetches and clover if they are

4«

DAIRY FARMING.

plentiful in the summer, when they are pastured, as
well as in the autumn ; the feeding, as a rule, adopted
in Leicestershire being high.

In Dorsetshire, which has long been celebrated for
its butter, the custom used largely to prevail of letting
off the cows to dairymen at so much per annum, the
dairyman having a portion of the farm allotted to him
called the " cow-lease," to the extent of from one to
one-and-a-half acre per cow, according to the quality
of the land. After the cows cease to give milk for
the season, they are kept in the straw yards, the sheep
being turned into the pastures during the winter
months, the mixed system of dairy, corn, and sheep-
farming prevailing a good deal in Dorset. The cows
used mostly to be of the Devon breed, which yield
rich milk, and are hardy of constitution, though not of
large size, but a great variety of breeds has lately been
tried in the county, as Alderneys, Ayrshires, as well as
Herefords and Durhams ; the former being kept where
there are numbers of others, to raise the average
quality of the milk.

In some parts of Scotland, the dairy management
is upon a very thorough and comprehensive system.
In the western districts, dairy farming is carried on
upon arable farms, combined with the breeding and
rearing of stock. In Wigtonshire and adjoining '
counties, the Ayrshire breed of cows is mostly kept,
yielding a large quantity of milk in proportion to
their size, and fattening quickly, when it becomes no
longer desirable to keep them as milch cows. In hot
weather, in summer, they are housed for a few hours
in the middle of the day to spare them from being

FIFES HI RE PRACTICE. 49

tormented by flies, and are brought into the " byre "
regularly at night and morning to be milked, and the
cows are kept in good thriving condition up to the
time they calve ; an erroneous practice prevailing in
many parts of England, of nearly half starving a cow
when she is dry. When they calve early in the season,
in addition to a full supply of turnips, they are sup-
plied with bean meal, or artificial food of some kind or
another, to keep them in high milking condition until
they are turned out to grass.

In Fifeshire, the raising of dairy produce is looked
upon as secondary to the breeding and rearing of cattle ;
but the practice gives a very fair illustration of the
results to be obtained by the mixed system. The
calves are hand-fed mostly, being seldom suckled by
the cow except when dropped in May, in which case
two calves are allotted to her to bring up. The calves
are fed three times a day with warm milk from the
cow, beginning with three pints daily, till the quantity
is increased to six quarts up to the end of four weeks,
as the calf grows and requires more, day by day,
increasing the quantity to eight quarts for another
four weeks. After six weeks, linseed and oatmeal
well boiled together are given with one of the meals,
generally either night or morning, beginning with a
quarter of a pound, and increasing to one pound to the
end of another six weeks, by which time they are
ready to turn out to grass.

In this case, the object is to get the calves on
early to arrive at maturity ; and they get sweet
milk in plenty, a little hay, or oats in sheaf. The
mode is expensive, and does not pay, unless carried

5°

DAIRY FARMING.

out in its entirety, by continued high feeding, so
as to get an animal ready at two years old for the
butcher.

The plan is no doubt good enough in its way, for
many Fifeshire farmers make it answer ; but it is
quite a different course to the one I have pursued
myself, bringing up my calves at a very trifling cost,
upon an economical system of rearing which I shall
hereafter describe in full. It is true they do not reach
maturity early, but I deal with the matter as one
of profit, and I give a brief notice of the plans and
methods pursued elsewhere, because circumstances
are so widely different in different districts.

Now in the solitary instance which I attempted, of
which I have spoken before, of fattening a young
steer for the butcher, I began with the wrong breed to
start with — the specimen being an Alderney ; whereas,
had he been a shorthorn, the result would have been
very different, inasmuch as I should both have had an
animal of larger size and greater weight, which would
have arrived at maturity in a much less time ; and
consequently, food is thrown away, as it were, upon
the fattening of a wrong breed of animal, and there
are certain conditions essential to success, which must
be understood before that success can be ensured.

In making a comparison between the two systems
of dairy-farming, where, in the one case, the food eaten
by the animals is either in the shape of grass or hay,
the product of the meadows, and in that of mixed
arable and dairy farming; where old pasture grass
and meadow-hay forms the sole food of the cows, the
quality of the butter, and cheese, is doubtless superior ;
but in the latter, there are many opportunities of feed-

TWO SYSTEMS OF DAIRY-FARMING. 51

ing, and management, which may be turned to profit-
able account, and when milk only is sought to be
produced, the opportunities of feeding the stock are
very considerable, in the varied items that are pro-
duced in the course of general cultivation.

CHAPTER III.

Situation of the Dairy — Dairy Utensils, etc. — Produce to be aimed at —
Quality of Milk — Management of Milk — Butter-making — Clotted
or Clouted Cream — Butter from Clotted Cream.

Situa tion of the Dairy. — A north aspect is the best
situation for the dairy, and the next best an east one,
and it should be well protected from the rays of the
sun, it being important in summer time that it be kept
cool. It should be removed far away from the source
of any impurities, as dunghills, or anything that
emits unpleasant smells ; not only extreme cleanliness
being necessary in all the processes connected with
the management of the dairy, but even distant sources
of contagious influence should be guarded against, as
nothing more easily receives and retains the odours
of putrescent matters than milk, its chemical con-
stituents causing it to turn acid, and inclining to
decomposition, when near other substances under-
going the process of decay, whether animal or
vegetable ; even the presence of cheeses undergoing
the process of drying on the shelves, which are some-
times allowed to remain for convenience' sake in the
dairy, being highly objectionable, and a thorough
draught near the ceiling, to be controlled at will, is

THE DAIRY.

very desirable to keep the atmosphere fresh and
sweet.

For this purpose, cloths dipped in a solution of
chloride of lime and hung up on cords fastened from
one corner of the milk-house to the other, have been
found of service ; no pains being neglected by those
who aim at doing things thoroughly to ensure this
important end. The quality of the cheese and butter
materially depends upon the construction and situation
of the dairy-house ; which, although it ought to be
placed conveniently near the house, ought not to be
near any pond, or stagnant water, the milk and cream
soon acquiring an unpleasant taste.

As a uniform temperature is of importance, the
sides of the building should be liable to be affected by
the extremes of heat or cold as little as possible, so as
to be cool during the summer and warm during the
winter ; shaded, if possible, by a wall or trees from the
south and west. A span roof rising from the centre,
and projecting downwards over the sides, to shade the
body of the house, is the best for this purpose, and
upon anything like a large and effective system of
dairy management, there should be one room for
milk, another for churning butter, or for scalding,
pressing, and salting cheeses, and another for the
implements used in the various processes. Windows,
both latticed and glazed, supplied with shutters to
regulate the temperature of the dairy, will be found of
advantage ; and the floor should so slope as to carry
off immediately all water that may be spilled, together
with milk accidentally dropped, though this declination
may be advantageously made use of, during the summer
months, for cold water to be thrown down occasionally

DAIRY FARMING.

to remove the traces of spilled milk, or to cool the
atmosphere in very sultry weather.

Dairy Utensils, etc. — Instead of keeping the milk
in dishes on shelves in the dairy, and in any nooks
and corners of the milk-house, the best plan is to have
a stone table, built of pavement upon a few bricks,
which can be readily done at a small expense, to
stand in the centre, for the milk dishes, or basins, to
stand upon. By this means the fresh air surrounds
them equally, which can never be the case when they
are stowed away in out-of-the-way places, or on
shelves against the walls.

This table should be made water-tight, easily done
by using a little Portland cement, and all crevices
stopped thoroughly, and a ledge should be formed
round the outsides, also water-tight, so that cold water
may be thrown upon it in summer time, to keep the
basins cool ; and warm water in winter to keep them
from being chilled in very severe weather.- A flat
ladle and a few woollen house-cloths will always
quickly dispose of the water when it is wanted to be
got rid of.

I am assuming that there are already existing
dairy conveniences ; but if there are not, before pro-
ceeding any farther, perhaps it would be as well for
me to mention, that suitable accommodation could be
provided for a comparatively trifling outlay, as a sunk
dairy — so that there is drainage, and it is high enough
to admit the air — which need not be more than seven
or eight feet at the sides, answers very well. In
arranging a dairy in the first place, it should con-
sist of three apartments, the principal one in the
middle, in which the milk is kept. This centre

MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY. 55

portion is required to be kept at equal temperature
as nearly as possible at all seasons of the year — about
sixty degrees ; and this is best done by excluding all
direct communication with the outer air, except at will ;
and the outer walls of this portion should be made of
sods of earth, rammed firm, to the breadth of four feet
in thickness, while the other walls of the building
need only be one brick in thickness, or even lath
and plaster. A large tin funnel should run through
the roof to act as a ventilator, the upper part pro-
jecting a couple of feet above it, a valve being fitted
to it, which, by means of a pulley, will allow of its
being shut or opened at pleasure. Through the thick-
ness of the walls of this centre apartment, the windows
must be formed upon the same principle as the em-
brasures for guns in fortifications. These windows
are closed with lattices covered with gauze wire in
summer to keep out the flies, and closed with glass in
winter.

On either side of this centre apartment there
should be two others ; the one on the right hand, we
will say, to be used as a churning-house, with a boiler
in one corner, and on the sides frames for cheese-
presses and vats, with slate vessels for holding the
whey, and pipes for carrying it to a cistern outside
for pigs' food. In old-fashioned dairies, the vessels for
holding the whey are mostly of lead ; but when any
sour liquid is allowed to remain in them, bad effects
follow at times ; and with some metals that have been
used, crystals have been known to be precipitated, on
account of the action of the acid upon the metal.
Whey keeps sweet in lead longer than in wooden
vessels, and it is easier to clean them out ; but slate

S 6 DAIRY FARMING.

is the best of all. The other apartment, at the
opposite end, should be used as a wash-house for
cleaning the utensils, and should have a furnace,
with a cauldron, for scalding them, and a pump.
The entrance should be through this first room, and
at the doorway a bench should be placed, under the
projecting roof, upon which to lay all the vessels to
dry and sweeten in the air and sun, after having been
washed.

When all the accommodation cannot be had under
one roof, apartments must be organised, and arranged
for, as near as possible to the above in those instances
where persons are not desirous of going to any expense
themselves, and who cannot get their landlords to make
the required alterations, if any are necessary.

At the same time, it is surprising, where there is a
handy man or two upon a farm, how readily necessary
conveniences can be improvised. A cleverish brick-
layer's labourer can make concrete, or concrete slabs,
out of which the walls of a dairy-house could soon
be constructed ; and a handy man, who is a bit of a
rough carpenter, is always useful on a place.

Two of my best labourers can do something in
this way. One was a London bricklayer's labourer
who earned nineteen shillings a week, but having a
delicate wife, he was glad to take service with me at
fourteen shillings a week, all the year round, with the
extra perquisites and privileges agricultural labourers
obtain— as overtime, vegetables gratis, the skimmed
milk for a trifle, and so on— so as to come and live
in the country. He acknowledges himself that
he is far better off with me, with constant employ-
ment, at fourteen shillings a week, than he was with

USEFUL JOBBING MAN ON A FARM. 57

nineteen shillings a week in London, and often out of
employment, for a month or six weeks at a stretch,
during the winter.

This man, I am sorry to say, still retains the
habits of his class, though I do all I can to reform
him, and he must go to the public-house, and drink a
pint or two, as he calls it, on a Saturday night, after
cleaning himself, when he has received his week's
wages on Saturday afternoon. This is his drawback,
for although he comes to his work regularly enough
on the Monday, and continues at it all the week, yet
he has taken more than has been good for him at times,
and has come near the house, and quarrelled with the
foreman, which he would not have done when sober.

He is a very fair bricklayer, and can do all the
odd jobs we want executed ; while another man is a
rough carpenter, and can put up gates, fences, and
perform any odd carpentry jobs that are needed to
be done. And I refer to these particulars in this
place, because the bare mention of constructing any
buildings, or edifices of any kind, would frighten a
good many people, as the cost is often made very
formidable when regular tradesmen are set upon a
job, which somehow grows under their hands in a
most mysterious manner. Now, by having a handy
man or two about the place, nearly all the tradesmen's
bills can be saved. Our jobs may not be done so
thoroughly, but they answer my purpose very well ;
and we are in the habit of "knocking up" quite
extensive erections, and conveniences out of hurdles,
which we thatch with straw or furze. Is a cow-shed
wanted in a distant part — perhaps at the extreme
end of my little farm, which is of a long straggling

S 8 DAIRY FARMING.

character ? We fell a few straight young fir trees from
out of the plantation, which we fix as uprights at the
corners, and at convenient distances, to act as sup-
ports for others, placed across them at top ; and fill
up the spaces, and cover in the roof with thatched
hurdles. A large roomy building is thus constructed
by my men in a very short time. If a door is wanted,
so that the whole may be closed entirely in, one
hurdle placed upright, and working on stout " withy "
hinges, gives us a door at once. In this way we build
sheds for the cows, which gladly avail themselves of
them in hot weather, to get away from the flies ; and
we have these handy erections all over the place,
wherever they are wanted, and pull them down with-
out ceremony, when they are not required to be
permanent, and we can do without them.

Some time ago, being desirous of keeping my
breed of black Spanish fowls distinct from the others,
my foreman's wife, who lives in a cottage on the land,
which stands by itself, but without any out-building
save their oven, agreed to look after them, and we
accordingly put up a fowl-house of the above-named
materials. It is warm, roomy, and everything that can
be desired for the purpose, and in one corner of it
my foreman keeps things, for which he was sadly
pinched for room before, having rigged up some
shelves within it, the opposite end being used for the
fowls' roosting-place.

To me, all these little improvements are a constant
source of interest, and I make this digression, in order
to show how comparatively easily things may be done
where one has the right sort of men about, who can
turn their hands to something a little different to

DESIRABILITY OF SLATE IN DAIRIES. 59

ordinary farm work. It is not of course necessary that
they all should be able to do this, but out of a number
of men, two or three could easily be found who would
prove useful upon these emergencies.

In some parts of the country, as in Devonshire,
"stud and. mud" houses are built, the walls being
made up of straw mixed with earth wetted, sods, etc.
These get firm and dry, and are " rough-cast " outside
and whitewashed, and an erection of this sort on a
small scale would answer as well for many purposes
as a proper brick building. To the citizen, and
dweller in towns, who has to pay for everything
that is brought to him, the item of carriage in some
of the bulkier articles forming the greater portion of
the cost, this sort of thing cannot be so readily
realised ; but in the country, often, the stones, which
sometimes can be used for these purposes, and always
the earth, are beneath one's feet for use.

Tiles, as a roofing for a dairy-house, are objection-
able. They are hot in summer and cold in winter,
and a thatched roof is perhaps as good as any for the
opposite seasons ; but there is one drawback, that when
a thatch gets old, it is apt to get musty, and therefore
liable to harbour vermin. Good thick slates form the
best roofing, being more impervious to the weather than
any other material. Slate, indeed, should be used
wherever it can in a dairy, even for the floors, for they
imbibe less moisture than bricks. For, although water
may be occasionally used in a dairy to advantage, as
I have before instanced, yet, as a rule, it should be
kept as dry as possible. When the floor is laid with
brick, the spilled milk gets into the crannies, and
also the water, and from these a certain amount of

DAIRY FARMING.

unpleasant odour will arise, however trifling, so that a
slate flooring, raised a few inches above the outer
ground, to make sure of a fall for water, is preferable
to anything else ; and anyone making new arrange-
ments in connection with their dairies should have
recourse to slate as much as possible, and a floor
with slanting gutters, to carry off the water used in
washing, or " swilling " down, will be found advan-
tageous.

In the same way a slate table will be liked by
those who make use of them, but slate is not always
so procurable as slabs of stone, or pavement, and one
has to deal often with the materials which are readiest
to hand. Marble is affected by many gentlemen who
like to see their dairies handsomely fitted up, but slate
is even preferable to marble, fishmongers finding that
it preserves fish twenty-four hours longer than marble
does.

Slates are easily laid upon a bed of mortar upon
the ground, and where the earth is loose or soft, a
bottom of concrete should be first spread. This is
composed of seven parts of dry gravel, free from clay
or loam, mixed with one part of pounded quick-lime,
mixed with water at the time of using it, till it attains
the consistency of thick mortar. A little Portland
cement would be found very useful in stopping up
chinks and crannies in the floors of dairies.

When it is necessary to build a new dairy al-
together, a very economical method is to set up a
framework of timber quartering, cased outside with
half-inch slates, the cavities between the quarters in-
side being filled up solid with concrete, made as before
described, or lime and hair mortar, with rubble of

CHEESEMAKING.

bricks, or stone, and made smooth inside with the
trowel. When lime is used, it preserves the timber
from decaying.

The requirements in the shape of dairy utensils
will comprise milk-pails, shallow pans or dishes for
holding the milk, sieves for straining it when taken
from the cow, dishes for skimming the cream, churns
for making butter, with scales, prints, and boards for
weighing and making it up.

When cheese is made, there will be required ladders,
vats, tubs, curd-breakers, and presses, with vessels
large enough to hold the whey, or buttermilk, ther-
mometer, weighing-machine, etc. The milk-pails are
of various sizes, holding from two to seven gallons of
milk, and are of wood mostly, with a handle fastened
to the side, and rising above the edge of the pail,
which, being a fixture, makes no noise when the
cow is being milked, which is to be avoided as much
as possible, all clatter and noise being highly objection-
able at milking time.

The milk is carried to the dairy, and strained,
in the case of butter-making, through an horse-hair
sieve into shallow milk-pans, which are made of
various materials, glazed earthenware, tinned iron, or
glass, which hold one-and-a-half to three gallons, and
from two to three inches in depth. Brass, and tin
milk-dishes are also sometimes seen.

Where cheese is made, the milk is strained into
tubs holding thirty gallons or more, according to the
size of intended operations. For butter-making, the
small-sized milk-dishes are preferable to the larger,
the object being to give as much surface as possible,
so as to remove all the cream, as it rises to the top

DAIRY FARMING.

after standing. Six quarts, perhaps, would be about
the best quantity to place in each.

The cream is skimmed off the surface of the dishes
by a shallow pierced tin ladle, and is stored in cream-
pots, or stone jars, until enough has been accumulated
to be put in the churn and made into butter. In cold
weather especially, the milk-dishes will bear skimming
twice.

The churn is of various forms and sizes, the old
plunge-churn having given way to the barrel-churn,
which is the easiest to work; the barrel being turned
by a handle. The common box-churn is a rectan-
gular box of wood, which contains a revolving frame
of flat wooden beaters, and is made of various sizes.
The American box-churns have been largely used in
small dairies, and for the use of private families, but
there are many modifications of the box-churn, of
which it is not worth while to speak at length, as new
churns are continually being brought before the notice
of the public. There are also churns worked by
power, designed for the production of a large quantity
of butter, but in some of the largest dairies the barrel-
churn is commonly used of various sizes, made to hold
from twelve to twenty gallons and upwards. There
is also a pneumatic churn, which gets the butter very
quickly, but there is a knack in using it that all
operators do not seem able to acquire, and I have
seen several of these put by in despair, though others
have spoken highly of their use ; but never having
tried them myself, I am not qualified to speak on the
matter. One, belonging to our squire, who lent it to
my wife at a time when I had not paid much attention
to these matters, stood in our dairy for a considerable

DEVELOPING DAIRY PRODUCE. 63

time, but they could do nothing with it, and it
was sent back, our luck having been no better than
the squire's people, who could not make anything
of it.

In making cheese, the utensils used are the milk-
pail at first, the cheese-tub, the cheese-vat and circular
board, skimming-dish, and bowl. The cheese-tub is
of sufficient size to hold the milk of which the cheese
is made, the vats being mostly made of elm turned out
solid of the size of the cheese. The cheese-tub will
depend on the size of the dairy, there sometimes being
two of them, one for use in the summer, and one for
spring and autumn. These should not be too deep,
as if so, it is inconvenient for the person leaning over
them to turn the curd. The cheese-presses are also
of various modes of construction, chiefly upon the
lever principle, for the purpose of squeezing the cheese
into shape in the vats. Of these I need not speak at
greater length just here, as I will farther on give a
brief notice of the different methods of cheese-making
followed in various counties.

Produce to be aimed at. — Before proceeding to give
an account of the different methods that are followed
in various parts of the country, for making butter and
cheese, or the management of a dairy for the sale of
milk only ; I cannot lay too much stress upon the
point that the dairy-farmer, whether he be seeking to
obtain a living from his undertaking, or whether he
be simply a private person naturally desirous of turning
matters to the best account, should, in either case,
make up his mind clearly as to the course he intends
to pursue with respect to developing produce. Nothing,
perhaps, in a profitable point of view, can beat simple

DAIRY FARMING.

milk-selling ; but then it is a somewhat lumbering
business, and necessitates the employment of horses,
carts, and drivers, to take the milk-cans to the station,
bring home the empty cans, and perhaps have a long
running account with the milk-sellers in London, or
any large town to which the milk may be consigned,
with whom he may, occasionally, make a bad debt
perhaps.

Or, it may answer his purpose to make butter
best, butter being a very profitable commodity, for
which there is always a ready market, and cash ready
too in payment from responsible dealers, who are
always anxious to obtain a first-rate article in the
shape of butter.

If he aim at cheese-making, there are different con-
siderations to be entertained ; and all these require
first to be well deliberated upon, for the profit will
hinge entirely upon a right choice being made to suit
particular circumstances.

To the inland dairy-farmer, it is of primary import-
ance that the cows he keeps be of such a breed, or
breeds, as will yield rich milk ; even though the
quantity should not be so very great, for the reason
that the refuse, either of butter or cheese making, can
be turned to little account.

In my own case, situated three-and-a-half miles
from a station, when I began to understand matters,
and could see for myself, I perceived readily enough
that butter-making would suit me best. I did not
want to have the trouble of a milk business, involving
long and troublesome accounts, and a certain risk
about payments ; while a trade in butter I could
manage without the slightest difficulty. I was driven

BUTTER MORE PROFITABLE THAN CHEESE. 65

daily in a dog-cart to the station, and a hamper con-
taining butter was put into the cart and went up to town
with me, being properly labelled, and when I got to
the terminus in London, one of the porters carried it
to the Parcels' Delivery office, and it thus cost me
nothing for carriage up to town.

Of course everyone is not situated in the same
way, but the principle will hold good, that butter is
very portable, and can be moved about at a very
trifling cost in proportion to its value ; and anyone,
however far they may happen to be from a railway
station, could easily send away a hamper of butter,
or as many hampers as they chose, once or twice a
week.

Cheese I never make, because it is not so profit-
able as butter-making, the produce of America
entering into competition with it ; and it does not
fetch nearly so much money as butter, when the
expenses of making are deducted, although, at the
first glance, cheese-making would appear to be the
more profitable of the two ; a pound of cheese being
made from a gallon of milk, the cost of a gallon of
milk to produce being estimated at about sixpence ;
while the best cheese, as Cheshire or Gloucestershire,
would fetch wholesale about sevenpence halfpenny or
sevcnpence three farthings per pound. Cows, how-
ever, fed in a certain manner, which I shall speak of
again, for the production of milk only; could be made
to produce milk at a cost of about fourpence per
gallon, and the money value of the produce of the
cow fluctuates very much according to the purpose
for which she is kept, whether for milk, butter, or
cheese. In Cheshire, and Gloucestershire, cheese-

DAIRY FARMING.

making is aimed at, and the produce commands a
comparatively high price in the market.

Quality of Milk. — Fed alike in the same manner,
and on the same food, the quality of the milk of
different cows varies exceedingly. The component
parts of milk are distinguished as the butyraceous, or
oily substance, producing cream, of which butter is
composed ; the caseine, or caseous matter, out of
which cheese is formed, and the serum, or whey ; in
round numbers, an average proportion of each being :

Cream-forming 4-5 parts

C1 »eese , 3-5 „

Whey „ 92 -o „

IOO'O

But these relative proportions will differ in degrees
like the following, when the yield of separate cows are
carefully compared :

Butter 4-318

Caseine 3-017

Whey 92-665

IOO'OOO

Butter . . . . . . 2 - 90o

Caseine 3'i44

Whey 93 - 9S6

IOO'OOO

In the two cases above instanced, the quantity of
milk yielded per week by each cow respectively was
seventeen gallons in the first, against twenty-four
gallons per week in the second ; the latter being a
larger breed of cow, consuming more food than the

VARIATION IN THE PRODUCE OF COWS. 67

first, and thus costing more to keep. The butter
churned from the milk of the first cow weighed seven-
and-a-half pounds, and that of the latter a little over
seven pounds, so that the larger quantity of milk pro-
duced rather less butter, though the money value was
greater altogether with that of the cow that gave the
most milk. I have got eighteenpence per pound for
my butter in most cases, and never less than sixteen-
pence, so that reckoning up the proceeds of the first
cow at the rate of eighteenpence per pound for butter,
and three farthings per quart, or threepence per gallon,
for the buttermilk, the money result would stand
thus :

j. d.

7>£ lb. butter at is. 6d. . . . . 11 3
16 gallons buttermilk at 3d. , , .40

15 3

The second as under :

7 lb. butter at 1* 6d. . ... 10 6
21 gallons buttermilk at 3d. , ..53

J S 9

There was rather more than seven pounds of butter in
the latter instance, so the gain in fact was a trifle
more than the figures above stated. Had the milk of
each cow been sold at eightpence per gallon, the
larger profit would have been realised upon the
produce of the second cow.

In a third instance, ten pounds of butter was
churned from the milk of one cow— the money value
of which was fifteen shillings— and there were twenty-
one gallons of buttermilk, coming to five shillings and

DAIRY FARMING.

threepence ; or a total of one pound and threepence
altogether.

I do not dispose of my skimmed milk as an article
of commerce, though I let any of the villagers have
it as a matter of convenience and service to them, as
well as my men ; for it is very valuable to me in
rearing calves — a line in which I have been very
successful — and for feeding pigs, of which I keep a
great number ; for although the latter have but rough
fare as store pigs, we " finish off" with barleymeal and
skimmed milk.

It will be seen from the above instances quoted
how various is the yield of milk from different cows,
of which the ordinary average in individual instances,
without any extra forcing, is generally assumed to be
from 550 to 600 gallons in the year; out of which a
cow is necessarily dry for a certain period.

The quality of milk differs too, as respects the
time at which it is drawn from the cow. That which
is milked first is always thinner than that which
comes afterwards, increasing in richness till the last
is obtained which can be drawn from the udder.

Management of Milk. — A great deal depends upon
the management of milk, which, in the first place,
when taken from the cow, should be carried as gently
as possible to the dairy. Milk which is carried in a
pail, or bucket, from any considerable distance, and is
shaken about a good deal on the road, or gets cold
before it is put into the milk-pans to settle for cream,
never throws up so much, nor so rich cream, as if
the same milk had been directly placed in the pans
immediately after being milked. This is one ad-
vantage of milking the cows at home, instead of at

BAD-TEMPERED MILKMEN. 69

the field. The advocates of the latter system say in
defence of it that the cows are not made to take
extra exertion, often in hot weather, and are not
hunted and driven about so much when milked in the
field in which they are grazing ; but cows with proper
treatment will stroll leisurely along towards home to
be milked of their own accord, and will assemble at
the gate of the enclosure in which they are confined,
waiting to be released — especially if they are fed
during the time the milking is going on, which I
always make a practice of having done with mine,
even if they are known not to be wanting anything
in the shape of food, a handful of something different
being given to them. I would not, indeed, keep a
man who drove the cows about, or who was hasty
and hot-tempered with them. I have seen men lose
their tempers while milking, and even throw the
milking-stool at a cow, but I would take care not to
have such a man about my place, if I knew of any
acting in such a manner.

Butter-making. — The milk, after being left in the
shallow milk-pans which are used to collect the cream,
will throw the latter up to the surface in the course of
a few hours, according to the temperature of the air.
If, as the Americans call it, a fancy article of superior
quality is desired in the shape of butter, it is skimmed
within twelve hours ; but it is more generally left till
twenty-four hours, and, in exceptional cases, even
thirty-six hours, according to the time of year — some-
times more than one skimming being necessary.

A small quantity of water, cold in summer, or
warm in winter, is sometimes put into the bottom of
the pan, with the object of assisting the cream to rise,

DAIRY FARMING.

as it equalises the heat to that of the milk-house at
times ; but this course is not always to be recom-
mended.

That portion of cream which rises first to the
surface is richer in quality, and greater in quantity,
than what rises in the same time during a second
interval — the more in quantity, and richer than in a
third interval — the milk declining in quality, as well
as quantity, each time the pan is skimmed, and the
cream will continue to rise to the surface.

The analysis of skimmed milk has been given as
under :

Water . 92875

Cheese, with a trace of butter . . . 2S 00

Sugar of milk 35 '00

Muriate of potash 170

Phosphate of potash . . . C25

Lactic acid, with acetate of potash . . 6'oo

Earthy phosphate 030

IOOO'OO

When milk is thick, it throws up to the surface a
smaller proportion of the cream it actually contains,
than milk which is thinner ; but the cream is of richer
quality. If the thick milk receives the addition of
water, it will throw up a greater quantity of cream
than it would have done had it been allowed to remain
pure ; but the quality of the cream at the same time
becomes deteriorated.

Butter is usually churned from cream alone, but it
can be made with the whole milk, unskimmed. And
although this difference in practice would lead one to
suppose the results would be something different, yet

CHURNING FROM WHOLE MILK. 71

they have little perceptible difference, either upon the
quantity or quality of the butter produced; though
the produce of the dairy may be affected in its re-
lation to the demand for skimmed milk, or butter-
milk. Butter is made from whole milk mostly in
Scotland, where the buttermilk enters largely, as an
article of food, in the consumption by farm-servants
and others ; care being taken not to allow the co-
agulum, or curd of the milk, in the stand-vat to be
broken till the milk is about to be churned. If it is
not shaken till it is turned into the churn, it may
stand from a day to a week without injury, and the
buttermilk has a pleasant acid taste, veiy agreeable
to those accustomed to partake of it ; but is not
usually given to servants, or consumed to any extent
in England.

The churning from whole milk, on account of the
larger quantity, is much more laborious ; so that in
large dairies where butter is made upon this system,
churns moved by machinery are sometimes employed,
and the method requires more time to complete the
process of obtaining butter.

When butter is made from cream alone, the milk
is usually skimmed two or three times in summer, and
as often as four times in winter, till no more cream
rises to the surface. This should be separated from
the edges of the milk-pans to which it adheres, by
running an ivory paper-knife closely round it, and the
cream carefully drawn to one side, and lifted off with
a skimming-dish — which requires a little knack in the
doing, so as to avoid leaving any of the cream behind,
and to prevent any portion of the milk being taken
up with it; which, although the skimming-dish is

72 DAIRY FARMING.

pierced with small holes, will sometimes happen unless
care is used.

The length of time milk may be allowed to stand
before skimming must depend very much upon the
temperature, and the ultimate design of the dairy-
farmer ; but in moderately warm weather, for ordinary
good butter, it may safely be allowed to stand for
twelve hours, and during cold weather much longer.

The cream, after being skimmed, is placed in a
deep vessel called a cream-pot or jar. A good many
of these are simply stone or earthenware vessels, for
holding the cream until the desired quantity is accu-
mulated to form enough for a churning ; but one that
has close to the bottom a tap, or cock and spigot, for
drawing off from time to time any of the thin serous
part of the milk that may be in it, is the best, as it
acts upon the cream in an unfavourable manner, and
diminishes the richness and quality of the butter.

Cream, when churned alone, should not be of a
higher temperature than sixty degrees ; some advocate
even lower, as between fifty and sixty degrees, for if
kept at a high temperature in the process of churning,
it will be inferior in taste, appearance, and quality ;
but whole milk needs to be about seventy to seventy-
five degrees Fahrenheit before the butter can be
separated from the milk. A thermometer should,
therefore, be hung up in every dairy ; yet it is strange
they are very seldom to be seen, experienced dairy-
maids generally trusting to their sense of touch to
guide them in this particular ; depending upon their
hands for trying the heat, which by long practice they
are enabled to judge of pretty accurately.

Experiments made with milk churned of various

CHURNING. 73

degrees of heat, from fifty-five to seventy degrees,
demonstrate that the lower degrees bring butter firm,
rich, and well tasted ; while the higher produces it
soft and spongy, and inferior in flavour.

In some parts of the country the cream is scalded
by being placed in a tin, in a water-bath, and the
water is boiled till the cream registers 165 degrees.
In Devonshire the belief prevails, that more butter is
got by this method. I have only, however, tried a
few minor experiments myself in this way, and cannot
speak positively as to results, it being a departure
from the method laid down and arranged for, requiring
somewhat different appliances and utensils to those
we are already supplied with.

In winter time, the churn should be heated by
pouring boiling water into it before the churning is
begun, the practice being the reverse in summer time,
cold water being placed in the churn ; and the vessel
which contains the cream should be put in cold water
(hot water in winter), which is best done overnight,
and the churning performed at early morning, before
the heat of the day sets in. In summer time the
handle of the churn should be turned slowly, for if
too fast, the butter will be soft and of a bad quality ;
but in winter it must be turned briskly, or it will be
difficult to convert the cream into butter.

When the butter comes, it will fall from side to
side of the churn in large lumps, when the buttermilk
should be drawn off, and the butter removed from the
churn ; a great many dairymen cause the butter to
be well washed in cold water, with the object of
extracting the whole of the buttermilk, any of which,
left with the butter, being apt to cause it to turn

74 DAIRY FARMING.

rancid. In order to guard against this, it is often
washed in repeated waters by anxious dairy-
maids, until the water comes out pure, which shows
there is no trace of buttermilk in it ; but when a dairy
is conducted upon a system of superior management,
there is no occasion for this being done ; if, when it is
taken out of the churn, it is well worked with the hand,
and the milk squeezed out, and a cloth repeatedly
pressed down upon it to absorb any milk that may
remain. The less, however, that butter is beaten, or
worked about, the better ; for the more it is kneaded,
the tougher it will become. Experience proves that
butter retains its sweetness much longer when no
water has been used in making it up.

If butter is to be salted, either for market or to
be put aside for winter use, after the whole of the
milk has been carefully pressed out, the salt should be
well mixed, by working it in equally with the hand.
If this is not done thoroughly, the butter will be of
different colours, which will "reduce its value as a
merchantable commodity, as well as cause it to look
unsightly — as it will be yellow where the salt has
fallen, but white where it has not. It should be done
at once, after it has been churned, for if deferred, the
butter loses some of its firmness and flavour. If
enough is not churned at one time to fill a firkin, it
should not be put into the package in layers, but the
surface left rough and broken, so as to unite better
with each succeeding churning.

Fresh butter needs to be salted very lightly, so
that the salt can be scarcely tasted ; and when made
up for market, is usually put up into the form of two-
pound rolls, the hamper in which the rolls are packed

CLOTTED CREAM. 7 S

being just deep enough to receive the rolls of butter
standing up endways in it. This is the method in
which it is usually prepared for the London market,
but it is sometimes formed into a lump, and then
stamped with a butter-print, in " pats " of the size
most approved by those who want their butter made
up in this form.

Clotted or Clouted Cream. — In the western counties
of England, the dairymaids say that, by the method
usually pursued there, about one-fourth more cream is
produced than by the common way ; and in making it
into butter a churn is not used, the cream being stirred
by the hand, the following being the method pursued :
The milk is carried warm from the cows, and
strained into shallow brass pans, tinned inside, in
which a small quantity of cold water has been placed,
to cause the cream to separate itself more thoroughly
from the milk and be thrown to the top ; the morning
milk standing till the middle of the day, and the
evening milk remaining undisturbed till the next
morning. They are then carried gently to a slow
clear fire, or charcoal stove, the heat of either of
which must not be allowed to get sufficiently great
as to cause the milk to boil— or, as it is called, to
" heave "—which would injure the cream. It is a
very nice point to determine when it is scalded
sufficiently, which an experienced operator, is enabled
to form a tolerably accurate opinion of, by the texture
of the surface of the cream, and the wrinkles upon it,
its texture becoming somewhat leathery. In summer
time, the process of scalding is quicker than in winter ;
for, in very hot weather, if the milk is kept too long
over a slow fire, it is apt to curdle.

G 2

7 6 DAIRY FARMING.

The milk having been duly scalded, is then carried
back in the pans to the dairy, and in summer time is
placed in the coolest situation — should the floor of
the dairy be of stone, on that, or on slate benches.
But in the winter season, it is desirable to retain some
of the heat, by putting some kind of slight covering
over the pans, as if cooled too suddenly it causes the
cream to become thin, and consequently the yield of
butter is diminished.

Butter from Clotted Cream. — In summer time,
butter is made from clotted cream the next day, but
in winter it is thought better to allow the cream to
remain one day longer upon the milk. The cream,
being collected from the pans, is put into wooden
bowls, which are first rinsed in hot, and afterwards
with cold water. It is now briskly stirred round one
way, by the hand of the operator, which must also
have been washed in hot water first, and afterwards in
cold water, not alone so as to ensure perfect cleanli-
ness, but as well to prevent the butter from sticking
to either.

The cream, after having been briskly agitated for
a short time, quickly assumes the form of butter, and
separates from the milky part, which is poured off.
The butter is washed, and pressed in several succes-
sive waters, quite cold, to get out any of the milky
portion which may remain in it ; after which it is well
beaten on a wooden trencher, previous to which a
little salt has been added to season it ; and when the
watery parts are thoroughly eliminated, it is finally
formed into shape by the butter-prints, and is ready
for market.

Butter, according to various writers, appears to

ANCIENT HISTORY OF BUTTER-MAKING. 77

have been made in England from time immemorial,
being a common food of the ancient Britons at the
time of the conquest of Britain by the Romans, who
were not a butter-making people themselves, and were
unacquainted with the process, until they were taught
by the Germans, which however cannot be a matter of
surprise, as a warm climate is unfavourable to the
production of butter; nor does the human system
appear to demand the aid of oily substances for the
furnishing of the animal economy in warm climates,
as in cold ones ; which causes the Russian moujik to
relish tallow ; an arctic traveller having related his
experience that the most delicious meal he ever par-
took of was a piece of a raw fish and a lump of fat.
Truly, indeed, may it be said that " a good appetite is
the best sauce."

Nor do any of the Greek writers refer to butter
when speaking of pastoral productions. Though made
in England at the time I have spoken of, while the
Romans might have learnt the art of making butter
from the Britons, the former certainly taught the latter
how to make cheese. The ancient history of butter-
making has been said to be very imperfectly known,
for though mentioned in the Scriptures as " being
brought forth by the churning of milk," it has been
asserted by certain writers that the word " butter," as
translated from the Hebrew, ought to have been
rendered as " cream." The patriarch Abraham is de-
scribed as entertaining his heavenly visitors with butter
when on their way to warn Lot of the impending
destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah ; and while a dish
of cool cream would be a welcome refreshment in an
eastern country, butter would be scarcely so.

CHAPTER IV.

Cheese-making — Cheshire System — Gloucester Cheese — Egg Cheeses —
Stilton Cheese — Cream Cheese — Skim-milk Cheese — New Cheese
— Cheese made Abroad — Parmesan Cheese — Potato Cheese —
Whole-milk Cheese — Rennet — Scotch method of preparing Rennet.

Cheese-making. — The best kinds of cheese made in
England are produced in the counties of Cheshire,
Gloucester, and Leicester ; the latter, in the form of
Stilton cheese, fetching the highest price in the market ;
and it is an indisputable fact that much of the peculiar
flavour and excellence of cheese must be attributed to
the quality of the pastures upon which the cows feed.
Old Fuller wittily points this out in his "Worthies,"
when speaking of Cheshire : " It doth afforde the best
cheese for quantitie and qualitie, and yet the cows are
not, as in other shires, housed in the winter. Some
essaied in vaine to make the like in other places,
thoughe from whence they fetched their kine and
dairie-maides, it seems they shoulde have fetched their
grounde too, wherein is surelie some occult excellence
in this kind, or else so good cheese will not be made."
The numerous salt-springs which abound in Cheshire
have probably a good deal to do with the special
flavour of the cheese produced there, which is so
highly appreciated by connoisseurs ; but the rule may

CHESHIRE SYSTEM OF CHEESE-MAKING. 79

be taken as universal that the quality of the cheese
produced is always best when the cows are turned out
upon the pastures during the summer months. Good
cheese may, however, be made all the year round, if
the cows are fed upon good nutritious food, of which
hay forms a large part throughout the winter ; though
in the best dairies, in nearly all counties, cheese-making
does not commence until the cows are turned out to
grass, and receive nothing but green food.

Cheshire System. — In Cheshire, cheese is always
made in the morning, the evening's milk being poured
into coolers till the succeeding morning. The cream
is then taken off, and about half of it is warmed in a
shallow pan with a flat bottom, till it attains about
100 degrees, and is poured into the cheese-tub
together with the morning's milk, and the remaining
portion of milk belonging to the last evening which
has not been warmed. The cream, mixed with a little
warm milk, is now added, which will cause the tem-
perature to be somewhere about eighty to eighty-five
degrees. The rennet and annatto (used for colouring)
are now added, and the whole well stirred up together ;
about half an ounce of annatto being sufficient to
colour seventy-five pounds of cheese ; the annatto
being dissolved overnight in a pint of warm milk.
The tub is covered up closely for an hour, when, under
ordinary conditions, coagulation will commence, and
be completed in about a quarter of an hour. The
curd is then broken, which takes about twenty
minutes for the large cheeses turned out, which
usually weigh about sixty pounds, and is allowed to
rest for a quarter of an hour, to get separated from the
whey, which is removed by gently pressing down a

DAIRY FARMING.

flat-bottomed pan on the curd, and allowing it to fill.
The whey is poured into the set pan from the cheese-
tub. The curd, to a certain extent freed from the
whey, is broken up again, and again allowed to settle
and separate; the whey being ladled out in about
half an hour's time, and as the curd begins to get more
solid, it is drawn to the side of the tub. When the free
whey has been removed, a semicircular board, per-
forated with holes, which fits one-half of the tub, is
placed upon the curd, and a thirty-pound weight put
on the top of it, which gently squeezes out the whey,
which is poured into the set-pan to catch the particles
of curd that float into it. The weight is then removed,
and the curd cut into pieces six or eight inches square.
A weight, twice as heavy as the one previously used,
is now placed on the board to press out more whey,
and this operation is successively repeated with ever-
increasing weights, according to the condition of the
curd, which is then ready to be placed in the cheese-
vat The curd is sometimes broken up into smaller
pieces by the hand, when, being placed in the first, or
large cheese-vat, which it should not quite fill, a close-
fitting board is then applied, and it is put under a
light press. When the whey leaves off draining from
the sides of the vat, the curd is again taken out and
broken as before, and then put in the proper vat, in
which a cheese-cloth has been previously placed. The
ends of the cloth are neatly drawn over the curd, and
covered with the circular board called a " sinker," and
is then submitted to heavier pressure than it has
received before. Iron skewers are thrust into the
cheese through the vat-holes, to cause the whey to
come from the interior of the cheese, which, after being

SALTING CHEESE.

withdrawn, will be the means of causing whey to drip
from the punctures thus made. After the whey has
ceased to drip, the vat is taken out from beneath the
press, and the curd is cut into sections, as it lies in the
vat, with a blunt knife, every two or three inches, and
again pressed and skewered as before for twenty
minutes. When this is done, the curd is taken entirely
out of the vat, cut into large pieces, each of which is
afterwards broken by the hand, and is then placed in
a dry cloth in the vat, covered over, pressed, and
skewered as before, until the whey is sufficiently
extracted. From first to last, beginning at the time
of coagulation, these operations will take up five or
six hours, by which time the curd ought to be in
readiness for being salted.

The process of salting lasts for three days, and
sometimes even for four ; the curd, now comparatively
free from whey, being taken out of the vat, cut to
pieces, and crumbled with the hands, or passed through
the curd-mill. Salt is then added at the rate of one
pound of salt to forty-five of curd, and thoroughly
incorporated with it. The curd, now salted, is re-
turned again to the vat, in which is a dry cloth of
finer quality than that used before ; and in order that
the curd should be pressed properly, it should more
than fill the vat, a tin hoop being used to retain that
portion which projects above the vat, the lower edge
being within the vat, and sinking with the curd when
pressed.

The pressure is still further increased this time,
and the cheese is again skewered. After being under
the press for an hour, the cheese, completely formed,
is taken out, and its edges pared ; the parings being

DAIRY FARMING.

put into a hole scooped out of the top for that pur-
pose, turned upside down, and put into the vat with a
dry cloth round it, and pressed again. In the course
of the evening, the cheese is again inverted, and is
supplied with another dry cloth ; which ends the first
day's operations.

On the second day the cheese is turned three
times, dry cloths being given, and the skewering con-
tinued. On the third day the turning is repeated
twice, dry cloths being supplied upon each occasion ;
but the skewering is discontinued. This usually
completes the process, but sometimes the pressure
is continued for another day.

Gloucester Cheese. — There are two kinds of cheese
made in Gloucestershire — single and double Gloucester
— but the mode of making either is the same, except
that the former is thinner, being called "toasting
cheese," and originally intended for that once favourite
dish "Welsh rare bit," is somewhat less salted, and
pressed one day less in the course of its manufacture.
It is occasionally, also, made somewhat less rich than
the double Gloucester, by being partially mixed with
skimmed milk.

As soon as the cows are milked in the morning,
which is usually at five o'clock in the summer, the
milk is carried to the dairy-house and strained into
the cheese-tub, and the rennet and annatto mixed
with it. But in autumn and winter, when the weather
is cold, a small quantity of the milk is warmed in a
tin pitcher, so as to raise the whole to the temperature
of eighty-five degrees, which is considered the proper
one, before adding the rennet.

The milk is then allowed to remain perfectly still

GLOUCESTER CHEESE. 83

for an hour, being covered over with a woollen cloth
to exclude the cold air. Under ordinary conditions,
the curd will form in this interval, and be ready for
breaking up, which is done by passing a three-bladed
knife made for the purpose, or a coarse wire sieve
with large meshes, gently downwards to the bottom
of the tub. After the curd has been divided into as
small pieces as its suspension in the whey will allow,
it is left undisturbed for ten minutes, or a quarter of
an hour, to give the curd time to sink enough to allow
of the whey to be ladled off at the top. As soon as
all the thin or clear whey is removed, the curd, which
will be more condensed in consequence, is broken a
second time, care being taken not to perform the
operation too roughly or quickly, so that all the butter
may be retained in it. When the curd has been
broken up to a proper degree of fineness, it is left to
settle for a short time, after which, more of the whey
is removed, and poured through a sieve, so that not
any small particles of curd are lost. When most of
the whey has been removed, the curd is divided into
lumps, and laid aside, one upon another on the
bottom of the tub, which is then tilted up, so as to
allow the whey to run on one side, in order to allow of
its being conveniently removed. When this has been
drained off, the curds are placed in the vat, over the
top of which a fine cheese-cloth is spread, and the
curd pressed down by the hands in an equal manner.
When all has been carefully placed in the vat, the
ends of the cloth are tucked up, and made as smooth
as can be at top, with as few creases as possible, and
covered with a circular board to fit the top of the vat
exactly inside. It is then put in the cheese-press for

84 DAIRY FARMING.

half an hour, and lightly pressed, after which the curd
is taken out, cut in slices, and passed through the
curd-breaker, which separates it into small pieces
without squeezing out the butter, which it is the great
object to retain, so as to ensure a rich quality. A
dry cheese-cloth is then spread over the top of the vat,
which is turned upside down, so that the curd stands
upon the cloth. The vat is now rinsed with whey,
and dried, and the curd with the cloth on which
it stands placed within it. The ends of the cloth are
then neatly and evenly folded over the top as before,
and covered with the cheese-board, or another cheese-
vat, if more than one cheese is to be placed in the
same press. The vat is allowed to remain under the
press for two hours, by which time the cheese will
have become consolidated, when the edges are pared
off, and it is inverted, after being put in a dry cloth,
and pressed again. Two or three presses are usually
employed, beginning with the lightest, and ending
with the heaviest, the process so far taking four or
five days in its course of manipulation.

The salting, in the case of Gloucester cheese, is per-
formed when the cheese has been made, and not in
the course of its manufacture, as in that of Cheshire
cheese ; although the latter is sometimes done so as
well, after the cheese has been made. After the
cheese has been twenty-four hours in the press, it is
ready for the salt to be applied — some do this as
early as twelve hours — but it should not be applied
until the skin is firm and free from openings, for these
never close completely after salting, however heavily
they may be pressed.

The salt is rubbed over the whole surface of the

EGG CHEESES.

cheese, as long as it will take it in, by hand, after
which it is wrapped in a diy cloth and put beneath
the press. In twenty-four hours afterwards it is
salted as before, but upon this occasion it is put in
the vat without a cloth, and pressed, so as to secure
a smooth and even surface. A final rubbing with
salt is given after the same interval of time, and the
cheese, after having been pressed as before, is then
ready to be taken away to the drying-room, where
it is well wiped with dry cloths, and turned every
twenty-four hours. In about a month after leaving
the press, the cheeses are ready for scraping, and when
intended for the London market, they are painted
outside with Indian red or Spanish brown, or a mixture
of both worked up with table beer, which is rubbed
in with a woollen cloth.

If the salting was performed in the same way as
first described, by applying the salt to the curd before
it is put into the vat, it would be more crumbly,
and not possess the waxy texture which is the dis-
tinguishing trait of Gloucestershire cheese ; and
therefore the salting is done outside, as described,
with finely-powdered salt. The quantity of the latter
used is about three-and-a-half pounds to the hundred-
weight.

The double Gloucester cheese generally weighs
about twenty-two pounds, while the single Gloucester
seldom exceeds a dozen pounds in weight.

Egg Cheeses. — The single Gloucester, as before
stated, was chiefly made up in its adopted thin shape
for the sake of toasting, its waxy texture enabling it
to be cut in thin slices without crumbling ; but this
result is attained in some parts of the north of

DAIRY FARMING.

England, by adding the yolks of four or five eggs to
every pound of the curd with which they are mixed.
These " egg cheeses " are very much relished in those
places where they are made, and toasted cheese is
looked upon complacently as a leading feature in
farmhouse fare.

Stilton Cheese. — Stilton cheese owes its name to
having been first made at Stilton, near Melton Mow-
bray, in Leicestershire, but it is now manufactured in
various parts of the country ; and cheese is made
upon the same plan in the counties of Cambridge
and Huntingdon, its celebrity having begot many
imitations.

Stilton cheese is very rich in cream, the night's
milk being set aside and skimmed in the morning,
the cream alone, without the skimmed milk, being
added to the milk of the following morning; and
those who desire to make a very rich cheese, add even
a greater quantity of cream, its richness, of course,
depending upon the quantity of cream of which it is
composed, butter also being said to be mixed with it
at times. The rennet is added, but no colouring is
used, and the whole is made of the temperature of
eighty-four degrees.

An hour and a half should be allowed for the
curd to form. If formed in a shorter space of time
than this, it becomes poor and tough ; and if it takes
longer, on the other hand, the extra time proves
injurious to it, as it requires to be warmed, which
deteriorates its quality. The curd is removed in
slices by the skimming-dish — not being broken up in
the ordinary manner of cheese-making — and is placed
upon a canvas strainer or sieve. When the curd has

STILTON CHEESE. 87

all been placed on the strainer, it is either pressed by
weights, until completely cleared of whey, or the ends
of the cloth are tied up, and the whey squeezed out
by gently twisting round the whole mass suspended
on a stick across the cheese-tub. It is left to drain
till next morning, when the curd is removed from
the strainer and placed in a cool place, where it is cut
into three slices and put into a shape, made of tin
perforated with holes, rather larger than the intended
cheese. A clean cheese-cloth is put between the tin
and the curd, and as the slices of the latter are laid
in a small quantity of salt is sprinkled upon every
third layer. Next morning the curd is removed from
the hoop, and clean strainers and cloths are applied ;
and it is then inverted and placed in the tin as before,
and aftenvards pricked with iron skewers in the sides]
so as to drain off the whey and dry the curd. This is
done for four or five mornings successively, until the
curd is found to have become quite firm.

While this process is going on, the cheeses are kept
in a warm place, and should the weather be cold,
they are placed in tins before the fire, or in heated
ovens, which some cheese-makers have constructed
for the purpose of drying the cheeses, the temperature
of which it is necessary to raise to one hundred de-
grees to thoroughly extract the whey. The latter
should run freely from the curd, and each time the
strainers are changed, those which have been used
should be washed, and dried thoroughly in the open
air.

When the cheese has become sufficiently firm to
be handled, it is pared and smoothed, and any in-
equalities there may happen to be in the sides are

88 DAIRY FARMING.

filled up with the parings, and the top and bottom
are also smoothed. A strip of canvas, large enough
to go two or three times round the cheese, is then
tightly bound round it and pinned together, a clean
dry cloth being placed below and above the cheese —
every morning the cloths and binders being removed,
and the cracks filled up — which is continued till the
outside, or coat, becomes hard and wrinkled. After
this, the cheeses are removed to the drying-room,
where they are regularly turned upside down, and
brushed.

Nearly two years is required to bring Stilton
cheeses to perfect maturity, which are not generally
considered at their best until somewhat decayed. The
blue mould may be communicated from an old cheese
to a much younger one, by removing pieces of the
former with the cheese scoop, or taster, and inter-
changing them. This operation, in fact, consists of
the transposition of the mould plant from one to the
other, which grows most in damp, warm cellars ; but
the cheeses selected for this inoculation should, how-
ever, of themselves be dry, and the blue mould of the
older cheese be quite free from any portion bearing a
more decayed aspect.

The modes I have indicated are those followed in
three of the best cheese-making districts in England,
which, as will be seen, differ very materially from one
another in certain particulars. This is strikingly so in
the application of rennet, the bag itself being used ;
while in Scotland, the liquid decoction extracted from
it is so much stronger, that it occasions the curd to
coagulate within fifteen minutes, whereas in England,
the operation is allowed to extend to a considerably

CREAM CHEESE. 89

longer period — from an hour to two hours. The
degree of heat at which the curd is set is one of the
nicest points of cheese-making, and there certainly is
a great risk in allowing the curd to stand a long time
cooling in the cheese-tub. On the other hand, if too
much rennet is used, or if it be unusually strong, it
will make the cheese " heave," by causing fermenta-
tion. In order to avoid the risk of this happening,
at some of the best dairies in Gloucestershire the
" maws," or " veils," are not made use of till they are
twelve months old ; but of these I will speak more
fully again. In cheese-making, it is necessary to obtain
some little knowledge before commencing operations,
as there are various nice points connected with it
which can hardly be obtained from a written descrip-
tion ; though the art of butter-making, as well as
cream cheese, is easy enough to acquire — the latter a
luxury often relished in private families.

Cream Cheese. — Cream cheese is simply thick, sweet
cream, dried by being put into a cheese-vat, or shape,
about an inch and a half in depth, perforated with
small holes in the bottom, to allow any of the milk
which may have been taken up with it to escape. It
is covered with rushes, or a substitute, so as to admit
of its being turned without being handled, and it is
not put between a press, but gently pressed by hand
between two cloths.

Being generally wanted for immediate use, it is
kept in warm situations to sweat and ripen, for if only
chilled, it becomes comparatively insipid, and much of
its mellow richness is lost. If, however, it is kept in
too hot a place it becomes rank, so that extremes of
both heat and cold have to be guarded against.

DAIRY FARMING.

Skim-milk Cheese. — Skim-milk cheese, as its name
implies, is made of milk from which the whole of
the cream has been taken, except any minute quantity
that may remain behind, and is more or less palatable
according to the time the milk has been allowed to
stand ; for, if so long as to be entirely deprived of its
butyraceous matter, it is not only very indigestible,
but so hard that it is scarcely possible to bite it. In
Suffolk, when large quantities were made in a former
generation, it used to be called "bang;" "Suffolk bang"
having the reputation of being so hard as to need
cutting with a chopper, an ordinary table-knife being
unfit for the purpose.

The best method of making it is, not to allow the
milk to become sour, but the moment it has been
skimmed, to warm it gently, until it attains the heat
of ninety degrees. If it is made too hot its toughness
will be aggravated, as the curd coagulates more readily
than that of whole milk. This is the principal item of
difference in the management, except that the curd is
more difficult to break, and its natural adhesiveness
causes it to require less pressing, but in all other
respects the mode of making it is the same as that of
other cheese. It will also be sooner ready for use
than whole-milk cheese of the same weight.

New Cheese. — In some parts of the kingdom, in
early summer, a description of cheese is made called
new cheese, which also bears the provincial term of
"slip-coat." It is made when the cows have been
permanently turned out to grass, and is formed entirely
of new milk, with about one-third of its volume of
warm water added to it before the rennet is put in.
The whey is then gently poured off, and the curd is

CHEESE MADE ABROAD. 9 i

carefully kept entire, until put into a vat of consider-
able diameter, but only about an inch in depth. It is
very gently pressed for a few hours only, and when
removed from the vat, it is covered with a cloth, which
is frequently changed, and as soon as the skin is
formed, it is considered fit for use.

Cheese made Abroad. — Large numbers of cheeses
made abroad are annually imported into England, the
largest quantity we receive coming to us from America.
There, the system is followed of associating dairies,
the milk being sent from several farms to be made up
at one dairy-house, by which manufacturing expenses
are minimised ; the whole being conducted upon a
very excellent system of routine, with every appliance
and convenience for carrying on the business tho-
roughly; and both butter and cheese are made of
the very best, as well as inferior, qualities ; very high
prices being sometimes obtained for dairy produce in
the United States.

Cheese is turned out, too, in large quantities all
over the Continent ; Holland sending a good deal to
England, made from both whole and skim milk. Of
butter we get also a large quantity, as well as the
imitation, which is often sold as genuine butter, and
passes under the name of "butterine," being chiefly
composed of mutton and beef fat. At one time,
mutton suet was rather a "drug" with London
butchers, but happily for them, they found a ready
market for this, which has recently been put up into
bags and shipped to Holland, returning to us in the
shape of the compound referred to. It is not injurious
to the health of those who partake of it, and perhaps
answers the purpose of any other oily substance

H 2

g2 DAIRY FARMING.

required by the human system, but the imposition is,
of course, very reprehensible, and is now pretty well
known and understood by the general public ; but, for
a long time, a thriving trade was done in this line,
before it was discovered — extensive factories having
been started in Great Britain, even, for the conversion
of this fat into imitation butter— and it now gives no
little occupation to the officers appointed under the
Adulteration of Food Acts, for the detection of this
and similar frauds upon the public.

The cheeses sent from Holland, under the name of
Gonda, Eidam, and Friesland, are made much in the
same manner as the cheese in England ; but another
cheese, familiarly known, which comes to us from
Italy — that of Parmesan — is made upon the same prin-
ciple as the one carried out in the United States, of a
number of dairymen clubbing together and sending
their milk to be made up into cheese by one person.
These are invariably of large size, weighing from sixty
to one hundred and eighty pounds, being made in
that part of Italy known as the Lodesan, which lies
between Cremona and Lodi, comprising the richest
portion of the Milanese, where the meadows have
•been irrigated from time immemorial, as described in
another portion of this work ; the cows being kept in
the house nearly the whole year round, being fed
during the summer upon cut grass and during the
winter upon hay. If I remember rightly, it was read-
ing an account of the management of these celebrated
Milanese meadows, and Sydney Smith's remark of
cows grazing in pastures, "What would be thought
if we were to walk over our bread and butter ? " com-
bined, that caused me, in the first place, to shut up my

PARMESAN CHEESE.

cows in the summer till the hay was got in. Who
can tell what an effect a stray remark like this of
Sydney Smith's is capable of producing, which I
again am re-echoing ?

As Parmesan cheese fetches a high price, perhaps
some persons who keep a large number of cows may
be induced to make an imitation of it. I there-
fore insert an account of the method followed in its
manufacture, which has been given in the Journal de
Physique, as follows :

Parmesan Cheese. — " The summer cheese, which is
the best, is made of the evening milk, after having
been skimmed in the morning, and at noon, mixed
with the morning milk, which is also skimmed at
noon. Both kinds of milk are poured together into a
large copper cauldron, of the shape of an inverted bell,
which is suspended on the arm of a lever, so as to be
moved on and off the fire at pleasure. In this vessel
the milk is gradually heated to the temperature of
about 120 degrees ; after which it is removed from
the fire and kept quiet for a few minutes, until all
internal motion has ceased. The rennet is then
added, which is composed of the stomach of a calf, fer-
mented together with wheaten meal and salt ; the
method of using it being to tie a piece of the size of
a hazel-nut in a rag, and steep it in the milk while
held in the hand, squeezing it from time to time.
A sufficient quantity of the rennet thus soon passes
through the rag into the milk, which is now to be
well stirred, and afterwards left at rest to coagulate.

Within about an hour, the coagulation is complete;
and then the milk is again put over the fire, and raised
to a temperature of 145 degrees. During all the time

DAIRY FARMING.

it is heating, the mass is briskly stirred, till the curd
separates in small lumps ; part of the whey is then
taken out, and a few pinches of saffron are added to
the remainder, in order to colour it. When the curd
is thus sufficiently broken, nearly the whole of the
whey is taken out, and two pailfuls of cold water are
poured in. The temperature is then lowered, so as to
enable the dairyman to collect the curd, by passing
a cloth beneath it and gathering up the corners. It is
now pressed into a frame of wood, placed on a solid
platform, and covered by a round piece of wood fitting
into the mould, with a heavy weight at top. In the
course of the night it cools, parts with the whey, and
assumes a firm consistence. The next day one side
is rubbed with salt, and the succeeding day the cheese
is turned, and the other side rubbed in like manner ;
this alternate salting being continued for about forty
days. After this period, the outer crust of the cheese
is pared off, the fresh surface is varnished with linseed
oil, the convex side is coloured red, and the cheese is
fit for sale."

Considering that Parmesan cheese is made from
skimmed milk, it must be confessed that it is of very
superior quality to any skim-milk cheeses produced
in this country ; and in quoting the method of manu-
facture followed in Italy for possible imitation, I am
rather fearful that old Fuller's quaint remark will
apply here, as in the case of the Cheshire example —
that to have an exact similitude, it would be neces-
sary to import the pastures, as well as the method of
making the cheese.

The pores of Parmesan cheese, showing by its
texture its origin from skimmed milk, are yet filled

POTATO CHEESE. 9J

with an oily substance, which proclaims the quality to
be superior to the skim-milk cheese which is familiar
to us in England.

Potato Cheese. — Potato cheese is made from a
mixture of potatoes and sour milk, very little being
made in England, but in some parts of Saxony it is
to be met with of very fine quality. As the making
of various articles appertaining to rural economy is
very interesting to many people, I append the following
account of its method of manufacture (Bullet, de la
Soc. d'Encour. Ag): "Potatoes of a large white kind
are those to be preferred, and after being boiled they
are peeled, when cool, and reduced to a pulp of equal
consistence, either by being grated, or ground in a
mortar. To five pounds of this pulp there is added
one pound — or about a pint — of sour milk, with the
usual quantity of salt, to impart a flavour. The whole
is then kneaded together, and being covered up is
allowed to remain for three or four days, according to
the season. At the expiration of this time, the pulp
is again kneaded and placed in one or more small
wicker baskets, in order to get rid of the superfluous
moisture ; the pulp is then moulded into form by
being placed in small pots, in which the cheeses are
allowed to dry in the shade, during about fifteen days ;
after which they are put in store. The older they are
the better they become; and if kept dry, they will
keep for a great number of years. Three kinds of this
cheese are made : the first, or most common, according
to the above proportions ; the second, with four parts
of potatoes and two parts of curdled milk ; and the
third, with two parts of potatoes and four of milk.
Ewe milk is as frequently employed as that of cows

9 6

DAIRY FARMING.

and imparts a pungent taste, which to many palates
is found agreeable."

Formerly a good deal of cheese was made from
the milk of sheep and goats in England, especially
the former — either separately or together, or some-
times mixed with that of cows — which is still practised
in many parts of the Continent. The greater im-
portance that the breeding and rearing of sheep has
attained of late years in England, owing to the
extensive development of turnip-feeding husbandry,
has caused this to be discontinued, except in some of
the mountainous parts of Scotland and Wales. The
flavour of the cheese is esteemed by some persons,
and, to a certain extent, in request by those who are
familiar with it — of which there may be said to be
a decreasing number every year — at all events, in
England, where the case is somewhat different to
the warm climates of the East, or the mountainous
countries of Asia and Europe, where certain breeds
of sheep and goats browse in safety on the verge of
precipices and in the clifts of rocks that are inac-
cessible to cattle, to the owners of which, milk or
cheese is a necessary article of food.

Whole-milk CJieese. — Though seldom made in
England, cheese is commonly made from whole milk
in Scotland ; that is to say, of milk which has not
been skimmed.

The method usually followed in making cheese
from unskimmed milk is, to place the ladder across
the cheese-tub with a large canvas cloth covering the
whole, in order to prevent any of the milk falling
upon the floor, or any foreign substance into the tub.
Above this cloth the sieve is placed, through which

WHOLE-MILK CHEESE.

the milk is to be strained, which should be of the
temperature of ninety to ninety-five degrees. If it
happen to be below eighty-five degrees, some of it
should be put in a deep brass pan, and immersed in
water kept hot in the wash-house. By this means the
whole is warmed equally, which is a very important
point to see to, for if the milk is not warm enough
when the rennet is added to it, the curd will be tender,
and the cheese will bulge out at the sides. If, on the
other hand, it is too hot, it will swell — or " heave," as
it is technically called — and become spongy ; either
of which defects is injurious to the appearance and
quality of the cheese.

The rennet is at once added to the milk, which is
thus coagulated at its natural heat ; but as many
dairy-farmers have not a sufficient number of cows
to form a cheese at every milking, it must of necessity
be then allowed to cool. In doing this, it of course
throws up cream, which is sometimes taken off for
butter, while the second meal of whole milk is used
along with that which has been already skimmed ;
but if the cheese is needed to be of good quality, the
cream must be also added. This, however, should be
at the same time skimmed, for the milk, when cooled,
must be afterwards heated to full ninety degrees
Fahrenheit in the summer, and to a higher tempera-
ture still in cold weather ; and were the cream to
be warmed to that degree it would be melted, which
would cause a considerable part of the butyraceous
matter to be lost in the whey. It is therefore generally
considered the better practice to gradually bring it to
a liquid state by the admixture of moderately warm
milk before it is poured into the cheese-tubs. The

DAIRY FARMING.

curd is then broken into small pieces, and the whey-
being thoroughly squeezed out, it is salted, wrapped
in a cloth, and placed in a chessart, of such size as
may be convenient, and is then pressed with weights
proportionate to its size, and turned occasionally,
until it becomes sufficiently firm to be taken out of
the mould, and placed either on a cheese-rack, onon
the floor of the cheese-room, where it is occasionally
turned, and rubbed dry with salt, and remains until
fit for market.

Rennet. — Rennet, being a very important factor in
the manufacture of cheese, requires a special mention,
for although it can be made from the curd, which has
been formed by the coagulation of the milk when it
turns sour, yet, when done in this way, it is hard and
ill-flavoured. Recourse is therefore had to rennet to
produce it, which is made from the gastric juice of
animals, commonly that found in the maws or
stomachs of sucking calves, that have been fed
entirely upon milk. These are occasionally preserved
by salting, along with the curd, but the most usual
way is to employ the skins of the stomach bags alone,
by putting a few handfuls of salt into and around the
stomachs, which are then rolled up and hung near
the chimney to dry, after which they are put by for a
long time before being used.

If the skin be good, a piece no larger than a
sixpence is put into a teacupful of water, with a
little salt, and allowed to soak for about twelve hours
before it is wanted. This will be sufficient for eighteen
or twenty gallons of milk.

The manner of preparation and preservation of
•■hese " veils," as they are sometimes called, is, however,

RENNET. 99

very various ; and as the quality of the cheese depends
a good deal more upon the application of the rennet
than upon any other part of the manufacture, too
much pains cannot be taken with them.

One method is to clean the maw of a newly-killed
calf, salt the bag, and put it in an earthen jar for three
or four days, until it forms a pickle, when it is taken
from the jar and hung up to dry, after which it is
replaced in the jar again, the covering of which should
be pierced with a few small holes to admit the air,
where it is allowed to remain for twelve months.

In many old-fashioned dairies it was customary to
add leaves of sweet-brier, dog-rose, and bramble, a
handful of each, with three or four handfuls of salt,
and boil them together for a quarter of an hour in a
gallon of water, when the liquor was strained off and
allowed to cool. The maw was then put into the
liquid, together with a lemon stuck round with cloves,
and the longer it remained in it, the stronger and better
the rennet was thought to become ; half a pint, or less,
of the liquor being sufficient to turn fifty gallons of
milk, thus verifying the truth of the Scripture adage,
" A little leaven leaveneth the whole lump."

The lemon, undoubtedly, would perform a useful
office, but it is very questionable if the sweet leaves
mentioned possessed any influence in furthering the
business in hand.

According to the " Cheshire Report," in making
the rennet, it is customary in Cheshire to take part of
the dried maw skin in the evening previous to its
being used, and put it into half a pint of lukewarm
water, to which is added as much salt as will lie on a
shilling. In the morning, the skin, being first taken

IOO

DAIRY FARMING.

out, is put into the tub of milk ; but so great is the
difference in the quality of these skins, that it is
difficult to ascertain what quantity will be necessary
for the intended purpose. A piece the size of half-a-
crown, cut from the bottom of a good skin, will com-
monly be sufficient for a cheese of sixty pounds
weight ; though ten inches square of skin are often
found too little. It is customary, however, to cut two
pieces from each skin — one from the lower, the other
from the upper part, but the bottom end is the
strongest.

But, however, according to Aiton on "Dairy
Husbandry," when speaking of the chief dairy dis-
trict in Ayrshire, it is customary there, so far from
washing away the chyle contained in the maw of the
calf, to take steps to increase it as much as possible,
by giving the animal as much milk as it can be made
to swallow, a few hours before it is killed. The chyle
being formed by the mixture of the gastric juice with
the food, and that gastric juice being the coagulating
power, both are carefully preserved, and are regarded
necessarily as forming a stronger rennet than can be
derived from the bag alone.

A tablespoonful of rennet made upon this method
will, it is said by Mr. Aiton, coagulate thirty gallons
of milk ; but it has been pointed out that its great
superiority over the English practice is, that it will
curdle the milk in five or ten minutes, whereas the
rennet used in South Britain requires from one hour
to two, or even more, in order to form the curd — a
defect chiefly to be attributed to the removal of the
curdled milk.

The opponents of the svstem have asserted that

SCOTCH METHOD OF PREPARING RENNET. 101

the chyle gives a harsh taste to the cheese occasionally,
but in opposition to this is adduced the fact of the
universal mild flavour of the cheese made in Scotland.
It is admitted, however, that unless great care be
employed in the immediate preparation of the rennet
so made, there is a danger of the curd becoming
rancid ; and thus a certain degree of rankness may
be imparted to the cheese. The following is its
method of preparation :

Scotch Method of preparing Rennet. — " When the
stomach, or bag, is taken from the calf's body, its
contents are examined, and if any straw or other
food be found among the curdled milk, such impurity
is removed ; but no part of the chyle is suffered to be
lost. At least two handfuls of salt are put into the
bag, and upon its outside, after which it is rolled up in
salt and hung near a fire, where it is always allowed
to hang until it is well dried — and it is understood to
be improved by hanging a year, or longer, before
being infused.

"When rennet is wanted, the 'yirning,' as it is
called in Scotland, with its contents, is cut small, and
put into a jar with a handful or two of salt ; and a
quantity either of soft water, that has been boiled
and cooled, to about sixty-five degrees, or of new
whey taken off the curd which is put upon the bag in
the jar. The quantity of water, or whey, to infuse
the bag is, more or less, according to the quality of
the yirning. If it is that of a new-dropped calf, that
has not been fed, three English pints will be enough ;
but if it has been fed for four or five weeks, a couple
of quarts may at least be put on the bag to mash.
It should, however, be observed, that the yirning of a

102 DAIRY FARMING.

calf four weeks old yields more rennet than that of
one twice that age. After the infusion has remained
in the jar from one to three days, the liquid is drawn
off, and an English pint more water, or whey, put on
the bag in the jar ; and that, after standing in mash
one or two days, is also drawn off, and, with that of
the first infusion, strained, if any impurities appear in
the liquor; the whole being put up in bottles for use
as rennet, and the bag being thrown on the dunghill,
without ever being put into the milk. Some put
about a dram of good whisky into each quart bottle
of the rennet, and it may be either used immediately,
or kept for as many months as may be convenient."

Rennet is, however, made much more quickly than
by any of the methods instanced, as the following :
Place sufficient salt in a gallon and a half of boiling
water to make it of a consistency that will float an
egg. After it has got cool, it is strained, and six
maws are placed in it, and after standing a few days
the rennet so made will be fit for use.

CHAPTER V.

Milking— Quantity of Milk yielded by Cows— Feeding— Straw, chaffed,
as Food for Cows.

The subjects connected with dairy farming run some-
what into one another, yet I am anxious to keep
them distinct, and not to put the cart before the horse.
Before dairy operations can be commenced, the cows
must be provided, and the dairy-house and imple-
ments must be ready to receive the milk ; but before
the milk can be obtained, the process of milking must
be gone through, and this in proper order ought rightly
to have been referred to before butter and cheese
making were described. Yet, when in speaking of the
implements of the dairy, it seemed only natural to
describe the processes in connection with their use,
which I have done in the preceding pages, and I
will now speak of milking the cows, upon the proper
method of doing which a very great deal depends
— much more in fact than many people give credit
for, who are somewhat careless over this necessary
operation.

Milking. — Cows are sometimes milked oftener than
twice a day ; but this is unnecessary, the udder of the
cow being of sufficient capacity to hold the milk.

The time of milking will have to depend upon

104 DAIRY FARMING.

circumstances. Where a trade is done in selling milk,
it will be necessary to fix a time in the morning which
will suit the railway trains that carry it off ; and this
sometimes must needs be done as early as possible in
the morning, four o'clock being a common time in the
country during summer, and as soon as it is light
generally all the year round, when no special circum-
stances have to be taken into account; whilst the
evening milking is nearly the same throughout the
year. But whatever the times of milking may be, the
operation should always be performed with the greatest
regularity.

A dozen cows are generally considered enough for
one person to milk, as, if the cows are good ones, and
yield plenty of milk, the arms of the milker get
tired, and he or she cannot perform the task effec-
tually. Some men will milk as many as fifteen or
twenty, but this is too great a number for one person
to undertake.

The time a cow takes to milk varies very much in
individual cases. Some cows, which give their milk
readily, can be milked within four minutes, while in
that of others, it will take twenty minutes to milk
them properly; and the operation needs to be tho-
roughly performed, and not hurried over ; for if the
cow has not given up all her milk, besides the loss to
the owner of the milk, the cow herself receives an
injury.

If the milking is not carefully and properly done,
both the quantity as well as the quality will be seriously
diminished. By the illiterate milker this is not under-
stood very often, especially with regard to the quality
of the milk being affected by incomplete milking ; the

THE LAST MILK THE RICHEST. i oS

fact being that, the first milk that is drawn from the
cow is the poorest, it gradually becoming richer as the
milking is proceeded with, until the last draining of
the udder, which passes under the technical terms of
"afterings," " strippings," and " stroakings," which
must be thoroughly drawn from the cow, with the
double object of securing this latter portion, as well as
of ensuring a continuance of the usual supply • for it
any is left in the udder of the cow, she yields a smaller
quantity at the next milking.

This fact is accounted for by the supposition that
the portion left behind is absorbed into the system,
and nature generates no more than to supply the
waste of what has been taken away. It will thus be
readily seen that the greatest care should be used in
milking the cows.

The following facts, which will throw a clear light
upon this subject, related in the Bath papers as ascer-
tained by Dr. Anderson, prove that the loss of half a
pint of this milk occasions the loss of as much cream
as would be afforded by a far greater quantity of the
first milking, besides that portion of the cream which
gives the greatest richness and flavour to the butter.

"Having taken several large tea-cups, exactly
of the same size and shape, one of these was filled
at the beginning of the milking, and the others
at regular intervals till the last, which was filled with
the dregs of the stroakings. These were each weighed,
the weight of each cup being settled, so as to ascer-
tain that the quantity of milk in each was precisely
the same; and from a great number of trials frequently
repeated, with many different cows, the result was
thus :

io6

DAIRY FARMING.

"The quantity of cream obtained from the first
drawn cup was, in every case, much smaller than from
that which was last drawn ; and those between af-
forded less, or more, as they were nearer the beginning
or the end. The quantity of cream obtained from the
last drawn cup from some cows exceeded that from
the first in the proportion of sixteen to one. In other
cows, however, and in particular circumstances, the
disproportion was not so great ; but in no case did it
fall short of the ratio of eight to one.

"The difference in the quality of the cream, how-
ever, obtained from these two cups was much greater
than the difference in the quantity. In the first cup
the cream was a thin tough film, thinner, and perhaps
whiter, than paper ; in the last the cream was of a
thick consistence, and of a richness of colour that
no other kind of cream was ever found to possess.

"The difference in the quality of the milk that
remained after the cream was separated, was perhaps
still greater than either, in respect to the quantity or
the quality of the cream. The milk in the first cup
was a thin bluish liquid, like as if a very large propor-
tion of water had been mixed with the ordinary milk;
that in the last cup was of a thick consistence and
yellow colour, more resembling cream than milk both
in taste and appearance."

From this interesting experiment, it will be seen
that thorough and effective milking would make a
very sensible difference in the increased product of
butter, as against milking inefficiently performed, and
the necessity of its being done in the most skilful
manner, so that the whole milk be drawn from the
cow, will be readily seen. There are what are termed

FANCIES OF COWS WHILE BEING MILKED. 107

"hard," and "soft," or easy cows to milk ; and much
depends upon the milker. If he, or she, be rough and
unkind, or noisy, the cow will often not give the whole
of her milk, but retain a portion ; and many of them
have certain little fancies during the time they are
being milked, which it is best to humour, if of a
harmless nature ; and the whole operation should be
conducted in as quiet and orderly a manner as possible.
Some cows will not stand very quietly — these should
be humoured a little, and allowed to choose their own
attitude, as they require careful treatment. The
tempers of cows are often spoilt by bad management
and rough usage at milking time, and therefore con-
siderate persons should always be chosen to perform
this office.

If a little of their favourite food be given to them
while they are being milked, they will not only remain
more quiet, but yield their milk with less reluctance ;
and in arranging the hour for milking, it is as well to
leave as nearly as possible an interval of twelve hours,
that is to say, about five o'clock in the morning, and
four or five o'clock in the afternoon.

As I have before stated, I always make a practice of
having my cows milked at home ; but if the meadows
wherein cows are placed are a very long way off from
the farm, and it would be undesirable to drive them
so great a distance, it will be found a good plan to
form a milking enclosure with hurdles, after the
fashion previously indicated in another place, in one
corner of the field.

Quantity of Milk yielded by Cows. — Both the
quantity and quality of milk yielded by cows are
extremely various, that produced in autumn and

1 2

ioS

DAIRY FARMING.

winter being richer than that given in spring and
summer, from which the greatest quantity of butter is
to be obtained, but the least cheese ; about 600 gallons
in the course of a year being considered a fair average ;
but a much larger quantity than this has been given
by individual cows.

An instance is on record of a cow belonging to a
Mr. Cramp, which during five years yielded the extra-
ordinary amount of 23,559 quarts °f milk, producing
2,132 pounds of butter; and similar instances of pro-
ductiveness have been cited. Mr. Aiton, whom I
have quoted before, has estimated the yearly average
return of the best Kyloes at 4,000 quarts within 300
days, or until they run dry, thus :

First fifty days,

24 quarts per day

. 1,200

Second „

20 „ .

. 1,000

Third „

14 „

700

Fourth „

400

Fifth „

400

Sixth „

300

But he adds that many cows will not produce half
that quantity, and that probably 600 gallons in the
course of the year may be about a fair average of the
Ayrshire stock. Few herds of cows will exceed this
average, but by a judicious course of selection and
rejection, by turning out from the herd the inferior
milkers and the old cows, and by continually adding
productive young cows to it, a herd may be raised
considerably above the average by painstaking dairy-
men.

The yield of milk, too, can be greatly stimulated
by certain methods of feeding, which the London

VARYING YIELD OF MILK.

109

cowkeepers have carried out in a very marked degree,
feeding their stock upon brewers' grains and other
stimulating food, calculated to increase the flow of
milk, without reference to its butyraceous properties.

Some of the county agricultural surveys give the
average quantity of milk yielded by dairy cows to be :

In Devonshire . .12 quarts per day

„ Cheshire .... 8 „
„ Lancashire . . 8 to 9 „

Though, unquestionably, some prime animals in full
milk, in the height of the season, when grass is abun-
dant, will show much larger quantities, as is evidenced
by a trial on record, made at Bradley Hall, the seat of
the Earl of Chesterfield, in Derbyshire, some years
ago, of the milk and butter produced by four cows of
different breeds ; the result of which was as follows :

Gals. Qts. Butter.

From a Holderness cow . 7 1 38^ ounces

„ Ayrshire „ . 5 o 34 „

„ Alderney „ .43 25 „

„ Devon „ . 4 1 28 „

But such a large yield as this only lasts for a short
time.

It is, however, well to know what cows are capable
of producing, for in many private dairies, where
gentlemen are at the mercy of careless and inattentive
servants, the entire produce is frequently not obtained
from the animals, which are thus rendered less profit-
able than they otherwise would be, under a good and
thorough system of management, while the cows
themselves become deteriorated through bad or care-
less milking.

DAIRY FARMING.

In Dickson's " Survey of Lancashire," five short-
horned cows, of the ordinary quality of that breed, are
stated to have given in one year as follows :

One which did not go dry at all . 4,857 wine quarts
„ dry eight weeks . . . 3,985 „
» six „ ... 3,987 „

» >» >• j> • • • 3>°95 »
„ „ eighteen,, . . . 3,383 „

These cows were in summer out at grass, and in the
winter were fed on hay and turnips, for two months
on hay alone.

Others, chiefly of the shorthorned breed, produced
on an --average of the whole year, nine and three-
quarter quarts per cow per day, and three small Scots,
with an equal number of the long and shorthorned
breeds, gave an average of eight quarts ; that is,
supposing the cows to have been dry about forty days
in the year, which thus adds one-ninth to the real
quantity produced when in milk.

To sum up, the milking of the cows ought only
to be entrusted to persons of unremitting care and
even temper, who take a pride in the herd, and are
partial to the animals they tend — which will never
let down their milk to a person they dread or dislike.
The utmost cleanliness also needs to be practised all
through the operation. The udders of cows that
have been kept in stalls often need washing, and this
should be done in tepid water ; but care must be
taken that they are wiped dry, for which purpose
proper cloths should always be kept in readiness, and
not left to the makeshift of a handful of hay as a
substitute ; as if any of the droppings get mixed with

FEEDING.

the milk the consequences will be worse than if the
udder had been left untouched. Some advocate the
invariable practice of washing the udder before
milking, but cows frequently take cold when this is
done too often, and should be only practised upon
occasions of necessity. The quicker the job is got
over the better, though no speck or taint of dirt
should ever be allowed to come near the milk-pail.

Feeding.— As may be readily imagined, upon the
methods adopted in feeding the cows will mainly
depend both their productiveness and profit, and the
quantity and quality of the milk will be found pro-
portionate to the nourishment of the food that is
given to them.

Linseed, pea, and oat meal will produce richness ;
and in Holland, where a great deal of attention is
paid to milch-cows, when fed in the house, it is usual
for them to have their water mixed with oil-cake, rye,
or oatmeal. Brewers' grains will occasion a profuse
yield of milk, but it will be of the poorest kind. But
even the effect of these may be considerably modified
by the addition of oil-cake and other rich foods of a
concentrated nature.

The winter house-food is generally made up with
roots of various kinds, and these should always be
supplemented with a certain amount of good, sound
hay — the most economical plan being to cut it up —
while sweet oat straw tends very much to correct the
watery nature of roots.

Straw, Chaffed, as Food for Cows. — Amongst those
who have turned their attention to feeding with chaffed
straw, every kind of straw is sometimes given ; though
that of barley and wheat are decidedly inferior.

112

DAIRY FARMING.

Wheat straw is said to make cows run dry sooner
than oat straw, while, according to " Holland's Survey
of Cheshire," the former is said to occasion more than
the usual time to be required when churning the
cream of cows that have been fed with it. But the
practice of using straw for fodder is a very diversified
one, and the results, as stated by many who use it,
very contradictory ; but then the circumstances under
which it is administered are often widely different. Mr.
Joseph Darby, in a paper contributed to the Journal
oj the Royal Agricultural Society oj England, has
collected together a great number of instances where
straw, chaffed, enters largely into the food of cattle.
Straw has long been given as fodder to young stock,
but its usefulness as a corrective to food given to
milch-cows is also considerable, under various forms
and modifications; and thus Mr. Darby says "the
Aylesbury Vale furnishes the following as the ex-
perience of one of its farm occupiers : ' Straw is
generally used as litter, this being more of a grazing
and dairying district than a farming one ; but I
myself, having 160 or 170 acres of arable land, out of
a 500-acre farm, generally cut up a good deal of straw.
I use straw for horses in chaff consisting of about
three-fourth straw, one-fourth hay ; no long hay or
straw being given. For beasts I vary according to
circumstances. In a good year of hay, perhaps, I
give one-fourth straw to dairy cows, and three-fourths
straw to dry beasts, always mixed with pulped man-
golds, or swedes — generally mangold. Cake is used,
and varied, according to circumstances. I always use
the food fresh mixed. In a plentiful hay season I do
not always use it as chaff, but give the dairy beasts

FEEDING ON CHAFFED STRAW. 113

the hay whole, and the young beasts whole straw and
roots, or three or four pounds of cake, which I prefer
with the whole straw. No doubt more cattle can be
kept by using chaff and pulped roots ; as I myself, I
should think, keep twenty or thirty more beasts
through the year since I have adopted the system I
now yearly pursue — mowing less and grazing more —
but the increased price of labour makes it a question
with me whether it now pays. But this year I shall
be compelled, through the shortness of hay, to cut up
everything I can.' "

In giving another example, Mr. Darby says that
nothing can possibly show the variability of custom
and opinion in the straw question more than the fact
that, whereas the last statement gave as a reason for
straw being chiefly used for litter in the Vale of
Aylesbury, the circumstance of its being a dairy and
grazing district ; the following, posted to me from
Shaftesbury, points to dairy-farms as the very places
where straw ought to be used as food. The writer
says :

" On well-managed dairy-farms as little straw as
possible is used for litter, all the wheat and oat straw,
except what is used for thatching, being fed, and
even some bought for the purpose. But some farmers
do not make the most of it by any means, and of
course are obliged to do with less stock in con-
sequence. I always put wheat or oat straw chaff
with corn for horses, but never any whole ; but I keep
cows, before calving, on either wheat straw or oat straw,
or barley, if it has clover in it, whole, giving a little
cake — about four pounds — once a day. After calving,
I give, generally, straw and hay chaff, with linseed and

ii4

DAIRY FARMING.

ricemeal, twice a day, and hay besides. I prefer cows,
before calving, to eat straw whole, as it saves labour,
but afterwards I advocate giving chaff, mixed with
some kind of meal. A neighbouring farmer chaffed
the whole of his hay and straw, giving the cows
nothing but chaff mixed with meal during the last
winter, and they did exceedingly well. If cattle are
littered with cut straw, the manure will, of course, drill
after getting rotten, but I do not approve of using
much straw for litter, if it is fit for feeding. I prefer
sparred floors to perforated bricks, which economise
straw, but of course some straw is occasionally
absolutely necessary. If straw was more extensively
employed as food, I think cattle might be increased
ten to the hundred acres, and in some cases certainly
less hay might be made, were straw used for feeding
as much as it ought to be."

Quoting still from Mr. Darby's paper, Professor
Buckman considers there are no feeding properties
in wheat or barley straw, and that it would be
much more profitable for farmers living near a
railway or large town, if they were allowed to sell a
portion of their straw, and buy extra quantities of
artificial manure in return. If straw were more
generally used as food, stocks of cattle might be con-
siderably increased, but with no profit to the farmer,
as wheat and barley straw have no feeding properties.
Straw is employed in this district about half-and-half ;
wheat straw for litter, and spring-corn straw for
food, etc.

Mr. George Adams, of Pidwell Farm, Faringdon,
not only supports the views of the desirability of using
straw as a fodder, to lessen the extravagance of hay-

MR. ADAMS'S EXPERIENCE.

making and hay consumption, but states decidedly
that by giving it up, and feeding on straw and artifi-
cial foods as substitutes for hay, he has been enabled
to double his stock of cattle and sheep. Mr. Adams
says :

" In answer to yours, I keep 100 dairy cows, and
220 breeding Oxfordshire ewes, with the produce of
the latter ; the ewe lambs being kept for stock and
the ram lambs fed for sale. I could not possibly
winter so much stock if it were not for the cutting
of fifty acres of my best straw into chaff for the
young and store animals ; particularly as my land lies
low, and heads very much. I reckon on yarding 250
beasts from Christmas up to the 1st of May, and all
the young and store stock live on wheat, oat, and
barley straw cut into chaff by steam. I grow from
thirty to thirty-five acres of golden tankard man-
golds each year, and pulp on an average five cartloads
each morning, to mix with the straw chaff; and I
have 100 gallons of good linseed gruel thrown boiling
hot over and mixed with the straw chaff and pulped
mangold every morning, ready for the night and next
morning ; and on Saturday I have a double quantity
done, to last till Monday. I find my young stock do
far better than they did when living on hay, at double
the cost. The dairy cows are fed the same till near
calving. The boiling of the linseed, and putting it
into the chaff boiling hot, causes the chaff to ferment ;
and the cattle eat it eagerly, and do well. My ewes
live on the same food, with two or three bushels of
malt-dust mixed with it each morning, when they can
be got near the feeding-shed. All my barren cows
are fatted out on the same food, with four or five

DAIRY FARMING.

pounds of cotton and linseed cake per day each ; and
I find that my dairy cows do not thrive so well after
going to hay, with four pounds of cake each per day
after calving, as they did before, at one-half the cost,
upon the straw mixture. I assure you, if it were not
for cutting up all my oat and barley straw and about
fifty acres — which is one-half— of my wheat straw, I
could not keep more than half my present stock of
cattle and sheep."

These kinds of examples are extremely interesting
to those who are seeking for general information, as
well as for the correlative facts which they contain ;
although the estimation in which straw is held as
food for stock varies very considerably. But there is
one great fact which must of necessity strike those
who have studied the subject, which is this :

The stomach and digestive organs of the ox being
evidently formed with the view to his subsisting upon
bulky, but moderately nutritious, food, such as grass
or hay, it is necessary that his capacious stomach be
constantly full, if the animal is to enjoy that placid
contentment which, in the case of the cow, is favourable
for the production of milk. And this capacious paunch
must be filled before she goes to rest, and proceeds
with her rumination and digestion.

Now if fed upon too great a bulk of rich food —
and oxen can eat nearly as much of one as the other
— the powers of assimilation are not correspondingly
expansive, and often stomachic derangement ensues ;
the result being diarrhoea, produced from irritation of
the stomach, if not more serious disease. Not only
is there a considerable waste of food, but the con-
stitution of the animal becomes injured.

LARGE QUANTITIES OF STRAW WASTED. n7

When care is not taken in feeding them, excessive
purging is produced when cattle are first put upon
turnips in the autumn, or upon green food in the
spring ; but by judiciously using these, with a portion
of straw chaffed and mixed with the other, these evil
consequences can be avoided, and the hurtful purging
be prevented.

So far as my own experience is concerned, having
but little arable land, I get but a small amount of
straw ; but I wish I had more, as I grow a good
many carrots, and also some heavy crops of mangold
wurzel occasionally, while I always have a com-
paratively large quantity of hay to use — my grass
land being four times the amount of acreage of my
arable — and I have a very large number of mouths to
feed altogether, when all are reckoned up, upon my
small place; the finding food for them all being at
times a matter for much consideration and arrange-
ment. And a quantity of good straw chaff would
often prove very useful to me ; and when I see the
vast quantities of straw that are often thrown down
in open yards, upon which all the rain falls that
comes down naturally, as well as that poured upon it
in extra quantities, in certain places, from the un-
spouted sheds of many farmyards, I cannot help
regretting the waste of what might often prove an
additional source of food ; but if not, even as manure,
undergoing sad deterioration, by which farming profits
are much reduced.

When roots and straw chaff are mixed together,
for the purpose of being given to the cows, they should
be mingled twenty-four hours before being required
for use, as a slight fermentation will then have taken

118 DAIRY FARMING.

place, which is much relished by the animals. Inferior
hay, or any that may have been somewhat spoiled in
the getting, which by itself the cows would scarcely
eat, can all be used up by chaffing it, and mixing
with other items of food ; and pulped roots are always
better than when sliced, as the beasts are not so likely
to get choked, and they are unable to separate them
from the chaff, which they will sometimes endeavour
to do.

In some districts in England that are considered
first-class dairy ones, as in Gloucestershire, little or no
extra food is given to the cows, as oil-cake, bruised
grain, malt-dust, mangolds, or even turnips, carrots,
bran, pollard, palm nuts, bean and pea meal, decor-
ticated cotton cake, or brewers' grains ; all of which
are capital adjuncts and additions to the food of
cows, when properly used under judicious manage-
ment ; pea or bean meal, especially, when mixed
with other food, being extremely useful to milch-
cows.

In that county it is generally estimated that a
cow requires for her support the produce of three acres
of pasture. One-and-a-half-acre from May ist to
December ist; in the winter and spring, hay only
being given, perhaps assisted by a little chaffed barley
straw, which is given to the cows when they are not
in milk, it being reckoned that a cow will consume
two-and-a-half-tons of hay, which requires an acre and
a half to grow it.

Good sound hay, it must be admitted, is good food
for cows, but it is an expensive method of feeding,
and not so great a supply of milk is to be obtained as
when more generous food is given ; the cost of which,

REGULARITY IN FEEDING. 119

by various economical contrivances, can be very much
reduced.

In some parts of Fifeshire, where dairy farming is
carried on in a very thorough and complete manner
in the summer, cows are sometimes pastured for about
ten hours daily, upon one or two year old clover and
rye grass lea ; and when the feed gets short, it is
supplemented by a plentiful allowance of clover and
vetches in the house at night, as well as a quantity of
brewers' grains.

In the winter, the cows are tied up in pairs in the
stalls, and boiled food is given to them, consisting of
thirty pounds of swede turnips, one and a quarter pound
of linseed, two pounds of pea or bean meal, and plenty
of oat straw, which is given at eight A.M. Two hours
afterwards, sixty pounds of yellow turnips are given,
and straw again. At two o'clock P.M., one-sixth of a
bushel of grains is given ; and lastly, at five P.M.,
sixty pounds of yellow turnips, and oat straw again
afterwards.

Regularity in the time of feeding is of the utmost
consequence ; and the cows should be disturbed as
little as possible when fed upon the soiling, or house-
feeding system ; uninterrupted high feeding while they
are in full milk is the surest way of making a profit.

Cooked linseed, bean, and pea meal, and distillers'
or brewers' grains, are all valuable articles of food for
milch-cows. The grains, as already stated, will produce
the largest quantity of milk, but its quality will be
thin and poor; while the artificial grasses, as clover,
rye grass, etc., swede-turnips, and mangold, given
in conjunction with bean-meal, oil-cake, etc., will
produce a fair yield of rich milk.

,20 DAIRY FARMING.

When too great an amount of brewers' and dis-
tillers' grains have been given to cows, they often
become what is termed " grain sick ; " straw chaff
mixed with the grains will prevent this, as will also
boiled linseed, when mixed with them.

Cows resemble human beings in liking a change
of food, and where they appear to surfeit upon any
particular one, it is very easy to make a change for
them. Potatoes are not often given to cows in
England, but they have been employed with advan-
tage in Scotland, steamed with hay and other
mixtures, which has afforded them a variety of soft
food, till green food again comes into season.

There cannot be the least doubt but that the
system of house-feeding, or soiling, is considerably
cheaper than allowing the cows to graze the meadows ;
so that even if there be but little pasture land attached
to a farm, a good many cows may be profitably kept
upon this system, which many farmers never attempt,
appearing to consider it a branch of farming business
which they are not qualified to undertake, or
account of the nature and disposition of the land they
occupy ; experiment having amply demonstrated that
cows can be fed upon roots, steamed chaff, and oat
straw, and, including all other expenses, produce milk
at a cost of fourpence per gallon, the general estimate
of cost being about sixpence, when the acreage ot
grass necessary to support them has been calculated
against its product in the shape of hay, at average
market price.

When feeding cows in winter upon roots, many
dairy-farmers have to put up with a considerable
reduction in price obtained for their butter, on account

FEEDING ON TURNIPS.

121

of its tasting of turnips. To many people the taste of
turnips in butter is very unpleasant and sickening ;
" turnip butter," as it is called, being indeed objection-
able to most persons ; and thus, many who can make
a good article enough in the summer time, when the
cows are fed chiefly on grass, have the mortification of
being obliged to accept a lower price during the winter
months, on account of the inferiority of their article ;
being, perhaps, obliged to grow turnips more or less
upon their plan of rotation.

It is supposed by some that this unpleasant taste
given to butter by common turnips may be corrected
by the use of a small quantity of dissolved saltpetre
being mixed with the milk, or of a proportion equal to
one-eighth of boiling water being added to it, when
left to stand for cream ; but the use of these expe-
dients has only a partial effect, as also the recipes of
stirring the milk some time after it is drawn — to add
to every gallon of milk a tablespoonful of the clear
solution of half an ounce of the chloride of lime in a
gallon of water — to feed the cows with turnips imme-
diately after milking, by which means the cows' animal
economy will dispose of the taint, etc. ; but if a certain
amount of concentrated food is used, no taint will be
perceptible, either from using turnips or cabbages, the
latter being, at times, equally as objectionable as the
former, only causing a different taste. The use of
mangold-wurzel, too, though seldom referred to as
affecting butter by its taste, does, indeed, commu-
nicate to it a slightly bitter and peculiar flavour, which
is quite as objectionable to some palates as the other.

Mangold-wurzel is now given very largely to
milch-cows, but as food it is not so enriching as

122

DAIRY FARMING.

turnips, the milk being very thin and poor, the chief
value of mangold being, that it is such an excellent
keeping root, and is sound, and good, late on in the
season, when the turnips are done for, being all the
better for the extra time they have been kept on
hand, and their amount of acrid juices diminished, the
yellow globe being the best keepers, though with me,
and I suppose with all others, the long red mangold
is by far the heaviest cropper.

During the summer time, there is usually very little
trouble to be apprehended from the butter tasting
badly, where cows are chiefly fed upon grass ; though
sometimes, even then some noxious weed or other
may abound in the pastures, which ought to be got
rid of ; but there is no doubt that the butter made by
some careless people is inferior in quality because
sufficient care is not taken to ensure perfect cleanliness
in the vessels in use in the dairy; from deficient
ventilation ; from allowing the milk to stand too long
in the pans, or not churning often enough. By
skimming the milk quickly, a certain portion of the
cream, though not lost, will go with the skimmed
milk, and here comes into consideration what is to be
done with the latter. There is always a ready sale
for skimmed milk, at fourpence per gallon, in the
neighbourhood of any large towns, and thus a better
return could be got for this article than if it were only
given to the pigs; yet the two plans hardly go together,
the butter-making and milk-selling — for the same
facility that would enable the skimmed milk to be
disposed of profitably, at fourpence per gallon, would
perhaps admit of the whole milk being sold at ten-
pence per gallon, it being retailed at fivepence per

TURNIP-TASTING BUTTER. 123

quart, which would give a profit of 100 per cent,
to the retailer upon the first cost; and each cow would
thus bring in a revenue of twenty-five pounds per
annum to the dairy-farmer, upon the average yield of
600 gallons per cow— an average which may always
be attained under a system of good management.

Turnip-tasting Butter.— As, cows are mostly fed
upon roots during the winter and spring months, as
few people have a large quantity of hay, the proper
course of feeding with these becomes highly im-
portant ; and if the roots given are sound, and have
not been heated in pits, excellent butter can be made
from the milk of cows fed upon turnips, but little
inferior to that made in summer, without having
recourse to any preventive expedients, by giving a
certain amount of concentrated food of various kinds ;
of which the best are, perhaps, crushed oats, bean'
Indian, and palm-nut meals, pollard, bran, and oil-
cake, when turnips are used extensively. Bran is
cheap enough, and a most excellent food to give, a
good deal of stamina being contained in it.

It is an excellent plan to give boiled food to the
cows in the winter and spring months, when they
are fed largely upon roots ; and these concentrated
foods are then the most appropriate additions, the
animals getting the full advantage of all the food so
given.

When boiled food is not used, or there is no con-
venience for cooking, the concentrated food can be
thrown into a large tub, and hot water poured over it,
the steam being confined within by a cover. By this
means it undergoes a certain amount of cooking, and
the cows relish it very much. And when this is not

K 2

124

DAIRY FARMING.

done, the meal, or mixtures of meal, or whatever is
given, should be sprinkled over the pulped turnips ;
which, as stated before, are better given this way
than sliced. Many painstaking dairymen, however,
make excellent butter from turnip-fed cows during
the winter months, with the addition of hay only,
and a few hours' run each day upon the pastures,
in conjunction with thorough cleanliness and good
management ; but it is far better to enrich the milk,
and keep the animals in first-rate health and condition,
by the addition of more nutritious food.

Quantity of Meal, etc. — By giving concentrated
food to the cows, the yield of milk is increased, and
its quality is also greatly improved, which is a very
important point in butter-making. From four to
eight pounds of meal in a day forms an ample allow-
ance, according to the size and appetite of the animals ;
the large heavy breeds needing more than the smaller
and hardier ones, who do well upon comparatively
scanty fare. Nor do the advantageous effects of
good feeding end here, for the manure of animals fed
upon a somewhat higher system is considerably richer
and more valuable, which is of great consequence to
one who carries on a mixed system of husbandry ; or
even to the cow-keeper alone, when a richly-manured
plot for mangold-wurzel is highly desirable. But,
although cows may be fed during the winter and
spring months upon hay and turnips alone, without
there being any very perceptible falling off in either
quantity or quality of the milk, it is not so with hay
and mangold-wurzel alone ; in the latter case it being
indispensable that meal, or other nutritious food,
be given, if the owner is desirous of keeping up the

QUALITY THE CHIEF POINT TO AIM AT. 125

health and stamina of his cows and the produce of
his dairy to the fullest extent.

Quality of Butter dependent vpo7i Feeding. — It will
be seen from the foregoing that the quality of the
butter produced will depend very much upon the
methods of feeding adopted — and quality is the chief
result which should be aimed at, and not so much the
quantity ; for where a high price is realised for pro-
duce, it pays relatively much better, and the plan of
management pursued may always be modified to suit
differing circumstances. Hence, we will say, the
butter-maker has no opportunity of selling skimmed
milk profitably ; and thus, the latter being given to
the pigs, it would be desirable to take all the cream
which can be made to rise to the surface. The late
skimmings should be put aside, and churned as an
inferior quality.

In all markets for butter there are various grada-
tions of quality, as first, second, third, etc. This is
strikingly exhibited at the butter-market at Cork,
which is under the superintendence of a public in-
spector, and the price of the best quality for the day
is stuck up on a board in a conspicuous situation in
the market.

The Butter made in Ireland. — In Ireland, this
system of classing the butter in accordance with
quality is carried out in a very effective manner, all
good judges of butter being able to pronounce at
once, from its taste, its marketable value ; and in
Ireland the butter trade is regulated by Act of
Parliament, the mode in which it is conducted being
as follows : The farmers assemble in the morning,
and have all their casks arranged in the market-place.

126

DAIRY FARMING.

The coopers then take out the head of each, and the
inspector follows, without knowing to whom the
casks belong, and marks the quality of each with
these distinguishing characters :

/ for the best quality.
// for the second quality
-ff- for the third quality,
for the fourth quality.

The coopers then replace the heads, and cut the
character indicated upon the side of the firkin, together
with the weight and tare of the cask, which is weighed
at the market beam ; after which the farmers proceed
to sell their produce. This is done in open market,
so as to exclude any possibility of favouritism, and
the price is only named for the first quality, a regular
diminution in value being understood to attach to
each of the other sorts.

While speaking of cask butter, I may incidentally
remark here, perhaps, that the casks usually contain
as nearly as possible eighty-four pounds each, and
are generally made of white oak or ash. The wood
of the lime-tree has been recommended, on account
of its having been ascertained by numerous experi-
ments as being the only wood free of acid, acids being
well known to act powerfully on salt, which they
decompose and turn into brine ; the quantity of salt
used being about ten ounces to the stone of fourteen
pounds, more or less, according to the length of time
the butter is intended to be preserved ; the butter
made during the summer months being the fittest
for salting ; that which is made in the latter part of
the season not taking it so well, and requiring rather

OVER-SALTING. I27

more. As lime-wood, however, is not always to be
had, fir is supposed to come next in order. It is said,
however, that by boiling the staves during four hoursj
the whole of the pyroligneous acid of all kinds of
timber may be extracted, the method of doing this
having been published in the Transactions of the
Highland Society, thus : " Have a boiler the same
length as the wood, with a weight to keep it immersed
in water, and have a wooden cover on the boiler, as it
must be done by close evaporation. The wood is
then dried for use ; becoming closer, and more con-
densed, from the fibres being more contracted, and
while it continues hot, it can be easily brought to any
shape."

While referring to the quality of butter, etc., being
dependent very much upon the system pursued in
feeding, it should be also mentioned that much good
butter is spoiled, and quality sacrificed, from over-
salting, which is sometimes done with a foolish idea
of increasing the weight, by illiterate men ; who are
blind to the fact that this defeats itself, the loss
arising from inferior quality more than over-
balancing, and exceeding any advantage gained by
extra weight.

Summer Feeding.— Although it is advisable to give
concentrated food as a counterpoise to poor provender,
too great an abundance of rich food, such as bean-
meal, etc., without a due proportion of turnips, man-
gold, straw, or hay, will inevitably cause the cows to
lose their appetite.

In the beginning of summer, and towards the
middle of it, when young grass and green barley are
given in some districts of the North, at the first cutting

128

DAIRY FARMING.

especially, the provender is mixed with a large pro-
portion of old hay, and a good quantity of salt, to
prevent swelling, is given to the cows. Salt, indeed,
ought always to be given in moderate quantity to cows
at all times, as it increases the quantity and improves
the quality of the milk. As the season advances, with
the plan of feeding on green crops, less hay and straw
require to be given, as the grass approaches ripeness,
till it is altogether discontinued ; but young, or wet,
clover should never be given without a mixture of dry
provender.

In the same line of procedure, by inverse ratio,
when grass becomes scarce upon the approach of
winter, young turnips, and turnip leaves, steamed along
with hay, will be found a good substitute for grass ; in
proportion as the grass decreases, the turnips to be
increased, until the latter can be made a complete
substitute for the former. In some Scotch dairies,
where the house-feeding system is carried on largely,
as the spring approaches, Swedish turnips and
potatoes, when cheap, are substituted for yellow
turnips. These two roots, steamed with hay and
other mixtures, will give soft food till grass — and by
grass must be understood artificials, such as clover
and other trifoliated plants — again comes into season.

When cows are soiled, or house-fed, during the
winter, and turned out upon the pastures in summer,
although they stand quietly enough in their stalls
during the winter, they show a restless anxiety to be
at liberty as the season advances ; and when pasture
land is abundant, and not saved for hay, they should
be turned out during the day, and brought in again
early in the afternoon, and fed at night upon sound

SHIFTING THE STOCK.

129

meadow hay. When the weather becomes warm, and
the grass affords a full bite, they can be allowed to lie
out all night, from the end of May till the beginning
of October, being brought under cover in the middle
of the day, in very hot weather.

This is not my practice, but there may be those
who, for special reasons, do not want to take the
trouble of house-feeding, and would rather sacrifice
the profit, than have to incur the necessary amount of
work ; for, by turning cows out in this way, there is
little or no trouble with them, for five months out of
the year.

Coarse grass will produce abundance of milk, but
it will reduce the quality of the butter, and as long
overgrown grass, although naturally of a good quality,
will impart a certain degree of rankness, it will be
found the best plan to hurdle off the fields in different
enclosures, and shift the stock from one to another
every ten days, by which means they will have a
constant supply of close, short, and fine herbage.

The plan I adopt is, to mow all the rank grass, and
give it to the cows, mixed with some dry food or
other of a corrective nature. The after-grass, or after-
math, is always favourable to a good supply of milk ;
and this I never cut, as before stated, but turn the
cows into the meadows as soon as it will afford a
good bite after mowing; using the artificial grasses
during the summer, till this time comes round, giving
it to them as each kind gets into season ; as rye
grass, young clover, spring tares, lucerne, or any-
thing that I can grow, or think it worth while to
purchase of neighbours for my stock. These are,
each in their turn, of excellent service ; producing a

DAIRY FARMING.

supply of rich milk ; though it is said by some that
tares are apt to produce "ropiness," while clover is
said to cause " hoying." But any green food, par-
taken of too greedily, will do this in the form of the
succulent grasses, and all that is required is proper
care in administering the food, and these unfavourable
results can be obviated by mixing it with dry food of
the kind suggested.

Feeding Dry Cows. — Cows vary very much in the
time they run dry. In a few cases they do not get
dry at all ; but, as a rule, the cow should be well and
regularly milked until eight weeks before calving,
when she should not be milked again, unless she
happen to be an unusually good cow, and yields a
very large quantity of milk. In such a case, the dis-
tended udder should be milked once a day, or once
every other day, as circumstances seem to indicate ;
but there is seldom any difficulty in drying them.

It is common for many farmers to turn them into
the straw-yard when dry, and feed them upon very
inferior provender till shortly before calving ; but this
is a very bad plan, for, although it is not necessary to
keep them in full flesh, yet, if allowed to fall off until
they become lean, not only will their milk become
thin, when the time for calving has arrived, but will
be deficient in quantity; and the loss in dairy pro-
duce will be much greater than any saving effected in
fodder. Milking cows should not only be maintained
in good condition, but in what may be termed a
milky habit of constitution ; and instead of, perhaps,
allowing them to feed only in the straw-yard, and
pick up what they can, some swedes, or esculent
roots of some sort or other, should be given, or their

TURNING COWS INTO THE STRAW-YARD. 131

equivalents, so as to keep them in proper condition
as milch-cows. And there should always be a plentiful
supply of water.

It is the best plan also to put the cows upon
better food a fortnight before they calve, by which
means a greater secretion of milk will take place.
Chaff, with pulped roots, will do very well for dry
cows, and let them make out with good straw, morn-
ing and evening, the better food being given at
midday.

In old times there was more propriety in turning
cows into straw-yards when they were dry, than at
present ; for under the old system, the whole of the
corn used to be thrashed out by a man with a flail, and
as he thrashed, he would toss the straw out into the
yard, and the straw would then be fresher, and more
eaten, than when it has been stacked, as is now almost
invariably the case, after having been thrashed by
machinery. When this was done by the flail, the cows
certainly thrived better than they do now, as in those
farms where the practice is still continued ; but the
conditions which formerly made this a good custom
are now changed, and thus from old habit, many
methods of dealing with stock are perpetuated when
they ought to be altered, to suit the varying cir-
cumstances of the day, to which they are no longer
appropriate.

At the beginning of November, when everything in
the shape of green food will be getting very scarce,
it will be found useful to give cows the leaves of the
mangolds, after they are drawn. I am in the habit of
giving them, plucked off the roots as they stand in the
ground, not stripping them entirely off, but leaving the

132

DAIRY FARMING.

centre ones, for I find an early frost will sometimes
half destroy them, and I never allow the animals to
eat anything- in a frozen state ; a common belief pre-
vailing amongst farmers that cows are apt to slip their
calves if they eat frozen grass, and we generally have
our mangolds up before there is any danger of the
frost touching them.

Feeding with Hay in bare Pastures. — Those dairy-
farmers, however, who rely a good deal upon their
pastures, and keep their cows out late upon them, as
in Somersetshire and other southern counties, where
they consider they understand their work thoroughly,
carry hay to them in the fields, dividing it into small
heaps, about twelve yards apart, so as to prevent them
from standing upon two heaps at once, and thus spoiling
a good deal of it. Where there is a large number of
cows, it is generally customary with good dairymen
to send the hay into the field in a cart, or waggon,
with a man standing up in it with a fork in his hands,
who throws the hay on either side in little heaps,
while the horse is led at the pace required, or made to
stop when necessary, by a boy. It is considered by
this means that very little hay is wasted, by those who
do their work well, but despite of every care that may
be used, some must inevitably be wasted, and when
done by careless men, a good deal is lost ; cutting up
the hay with chaff, and mixing it with pulped roots,
being a much more economical method, which is the
one I always adopt ; for however plentiful hay may
be, it is somewhat expensive feeding, and I always
keep my chaff-cutter going, so that there shall be no
excuse of shortness of ready provender, for the shortest
methods — those which involve the least trouble — it

ROUTINE IN PREPARING FOOD. 133

will be found, will generally be in favour with the
men most people have about them.

When the time comes for turning the cows out, of
course there is a great amount of work saved, for where
a large number are kept, there must necessarily be
plenty to do, in providing a great bulk of food for
them ; but it will be found that a daily systematic
practice of doing certain things, at certain times,
causes work to come easy, and as a matter of course ;
and I never found any much greater amount of the
general business of the farm transacted, when my cows
were turned into the meadows after hay-harvest, than
when a large amount of prepared food had to be got
into readiness. The secret of all this is, of course,
routine ; and it will be found by all who adopt the
painstaking methods necessary to economise the food
which their animals consume, that the work soon
becomes a matter of course, and is got through very
quickly, when once the men are used to it, and know
how to go about it.

Cows enjoy the air and exercise, if the pasture
wherein they are turned be nearly bare, and their
produce will be greater than when entirely confined to
sheds, even when there is abundance of food given,
the little change causing them to thrive, and keeping
them lively, and more contented upon the whole ; and
they appear to relish their food more, as would appear
to be only natural.

Advantage should be taken of fine days, even in
winter, therefore, to give them a little exercise, so that
there is no danger of doing damage by poaching the
ground. But when thus turned out for exercise, it
will be found a good plan to divide the field or fields

134

DAIRY FARMING.

into enclosures, and separate the cows, where there are
various kinds and conditions ; because the barren
cows, when in season, are generally ridden by the
others, which is dangerous to those in calf, as the calf
is liable to be turned in the cow, and a bad calving
time may be the result.

Cows, when turned out, often get little pickings
from the hedges for themselves, even in early winter,
which, however trifling, makes a little agreeable change
of diet for them, which they show unmistakably
enough they relish exceedingly, in average seasons
being pretty well able to get the principal part of
their living from the field up to November.

With dairy cows, it should be ever remembered
that it does not pay to feed them insufficiently, and
with a view to obtaining full profit, every owner of
dairy cows should exert himself in order to give them
appropriate food, and enough of it, every day through-
out the year. Without full feeding, however excellent
the management may be in other respects, the want
of it will manifest itself in a diminished flow of milk,
and consequent loss of money in the return made.

CHAPTER VI.

Calving — Time for Cows to Calve— Fifeshire System— Gloucesteishire
System — Milk Farms — Castrating — Cow-list — Mr. Hayward's
Calculations.

Calving. — The length of time a cow goes with calf
is generally put down at forty weeks ; but in most
cases it will be forty-one weeks, whilst forty-two is
often exceeded ; the fact being that the time a cow
goes with calf is very uncertain. A French writer
(M. Leissier) made some very interesting experiments,
which he duly chronicled some years back at Paris, res-
pecting the periods of gestation in different animals;
in the case of cows the result being that, out of 575,
of which an account of the date was taken when they
were put to the bull, and when they calved, it was
found that :

21 calved between the 240th and 270th days, the mean term
being 259X days.
544 calved between the 270th and 299th days, the mean term
being 282 days.

10 calved between the 299th and 321st days, the mean term
being 303 days.

It may, therefore, be fairly assumed that between
nine and ten months may be reckoned upon as the
most common period ; but it has been remarked that

136 DAIRY FARMING.

a cow generally goes about forty-one weeks with a
bull-calf, and a few days under that number with a
female.

The cow seldom drops more than one calf at a time;
though, in rare instances, sometimes two, and even
three have been known to have been brought forth ;
an instance having been recorded in the Bulletin des
Sciences, of a cow belonging to a farmer in France
which produced nine calves at three successive births,
viz. four at the first, three at the second, and two at
the third ; all of which, except two of the first that
were born, were brought up by the mother ; but the
heifers afterwards produced only a single calf each.
The exploits of this anti-Malthusian cow must be
decidedly regarded as a lusns natures.

In those instances where two calves are brought
forth, and they happen to be male and female, the
latter is generally incapable of breeding, and in some
districts they go by the name of a " free martin "
(though these supposed barren cows have been known
to bring calves), while the bull is always perfect.

About six weeks, or, at the outside, not more than
two months, before the cow is expected to calve — and
the date of this anticipated event should always be
carefully calculated beforehand, and entered, not only
in a herd-book, kept in the owner's possession, but on a
stout piece of cardboard, with ruled lines for the names
of the cows, and the date at which they were served,
to hang up in the cow-house to serve as a reminder —
she should no longer be milked, but dried ; but this
will very much depend upon the constitution of the
cow, which ought not, on any account, be allowed to
get into poor condition. If the udder is very large

FULL PERIOD OF GESTATION. 137

and evidently gives the cow pain, it may then be
advisable to milk her ; but if once done, it will be
necessary to repeat it ; or, if the weather be very hot,
and the cow suffers great inconvenience, milking may
be deemed necessary.

When the full period of gestation has nearly ter-
minated — which may be seen about a fortnight before,
when the cow's udder increases in size, and is said " to
spring" — she should be separated from the others, and
put in an enclosure, or paddock, near the homestead,
in order that assistance may be handy in case of a
difficult time at calving. When this is close at hand,
a hollow space appears on either side of the apparent
junction of the tail with the back — which is locally
termed "dropping," or "pitching" — and the beast
will exhibit a degree of restlessness, as if seeking a
sheltered corner. And they will calve sooner, and
better, if left alone, but should be carefully watched
in an unobtrusive manner, in case any assistance
may be necessary, and there is a bad, or unnatural
presentation — which will be other than the calf's head
resting on the forelegs — and it is a difficult birth ; in
which case efficient help should be obtained. Under
all circumstances, unless the cow should happen to be
very relaxed, it will be found a safe plan to cause her
bowels to be opened with a gentle dose of medicine.

The end of her term of gestation will not only be
indicated by the springing of her udder, and the
dropping of her belly, but there will be a discharge
from her bearing ; and her uneasiness, and moaning,
will proclaim the event to be not far off.

In severe weather she should be housed for a few
days, but not stalled, and a good bed of straw should

ill

138 DAIRY FARMING.

be provided for her ; but the natural progress of the
birth should not be interfered with, the animal being
better left to the course of nature, which will accom-
plish its object safely in most instances.

Youatt, a most careful and humane as well as
very efficient writer, recommends that, in instances
which present nothing more than usual delay, with-
out any supposed wrong position of the fetus, "a
pint of sound warmed ale be given in an equal
quantity of gruel. Warm gruel should be frequently
administered, or at least put within the animal's
reach ; and access to cold water should be carefully
prevented. To the first pint of ale should be added
a quarter of an ounce of the ergot of rye (spurred
rye) finely powdered ; and the same quantity of the
ergot, with half a pint of ale, should be repeated
every hour, until the pains are reproduced in their
former and natural strength, or the labour is ter-
minated."

If the cow be kept in a loose-box at night, and
allowed to walk out into an adjoining paddock, or
yard, in the morning, where she can be quiet and
undisturbed, the animal will do better than when
entirely confined, and derive advantage from the air
and exercise.

Immediately after the birth, the cow should be
milked, and although she may have a very full
udder, in some cases she will not give much, but if the
calf is placed on one side of her, and the milker takes
his place at the other, the matter can be got over
without difficulty. Some remove the calf immediately
it is born, but this must be condemned as an unnatural
course to pursue, for as Youatt humanely says : " It is

SEPARATING THE CALF FROM THE COW. 139

a cruel thing to separate the mother from its young so
soon ; the cow will pine, and will be deprived of that
medicine which nature designed for her, in that
moisture which hangs about the calf, and even in the
placenta itself; and the calf will lose that gentle friction,
and motion, which helps to give it the immediate use
of all its limbs, and which, in the language of
Mr. Berry, increases the languid circulation of the
blood, and produces, a genial warmth in the half
exhausted and chilled little animal. In whatever
manner the calf is afterwards to be reared, it should
remain with the mother for a few days after it is
dropped, and until the milk can be used in the dairy.
The little animal will thus derive the benefit of the
first milk, that to which nature has given an aperient
property, in order that the black and glutinous faxes
which have been accumulating in the intestines during
the latter months of the fcetal state, might be carried
off."

For my part, I have always acted upon the advice
here given by Youatt, though my aim is to bring my
calves up upon skimmed milk ; and I always allow
them to suck for a few days, which there is an advan-
tage in doing, for the cow's udder becomes more soft
and pliant, and especially in the case of young heifers,
whose udders are invariably hard. The cow should
be milked first, and sufficient left in the udder for the
calf, which will not only get the richest, and most
nourishing milk, and that best adapted for its support,
but in its attempts to get it, the pushings with its
head will soften the udder of the cow, which will thus
be benefited by the calf's efforts.

It sometimes happens, that when the cow's teats

l 2

140

DAIRY FARMING.

are sore, she shows a disinclination to allow the calf to
suck her, when they should be fomented three or
four times a day with warm water, after which she
should be very gently milked by hand ; an operation
best performed by women, whom I much prefer to see
milking cows than a man employing his rough fist
upon the animals, which, to me, seems scarcely a natural
task for him to perform. After milking, the teats
should be dressed with the ointment prescribed for
sore teats, which will be found under that heading in
the chapter devoted to " Diseases of Cows."

Immediately the calf is dropped, in most instances,
the cow will commence to cleanse its skin, by licking off
the slimy matter with which it is covered, but should she
show any disinclination to perform this office, usually
suggested by nature, the difficulty may be got over by
sprinkling a handful of salt over the calf ; after which
she will generally set about the job without further
delay.

Some dairy-farmers make a practice of giving the
calf about half a pint of warm gruel about an hour
after its birth, and throw the first milk, or " beestings "
from the cow away. This, however, is decidedly a
wrong practice, for nature has intended the "beest-
ings " of the cow, which are unfit for dairy purposes,
to be at once the first strengthening food for the calf,
as well as being an aperient medicine ; as it is a strong
and viscid fluid, possessing that quality which power-
fully assists in discharging the glutinous faeces before
alluded to, while it contains a peculiarly nourishing
quality, highly adapted for the early invigoration of
the young animal.

On this subject Youatt, whom I am always glad

AFTER CALVING.

141

to quote, remarks : " Parturition having been accom-
plished, the cow should be left quietly with her calf;
the licking and cleaning of which, and the eating of
the placenta — that is, the afterbirth, or cleansing — if it
be soon discharged, will employ and amuse her. A
warm mash should be put before her, and warm gruel,
or water, from which the chill has been taken off; two
or three hours after which it will be prudent to give an
aperient drink, consisting of a pound of Epsom salts
and two drachms of ginger. Attention should like-
wise be paid to the state of the udder, for it is very
subject to inflammation after calving. The natural
and effectual preventive of this is, to let the calf run
with her, and take the teat when it pleases, as the ten-
dency to inflammation is much diminished by *"he calf
frequently sucking ; and should the cow be feverish,
nothing soothes or quiets her so much as the presence
of the little one."

The placenta, or afterbirth, is generally taken away
altogether, which the cow, left to itself, will eat, which
is commonly thought disgusting, and a great many
people prevent them from doing so ; but in the opinion
of some, as the cow eats it with avidity, it is thought
to possess medicinal qualities which her instinct
teaches her to appropriate. If the placenta be not
soon discharged from the body, the aperient drink
recommended should be given, together with the ergot
and ale, as serious inconvenience will be sustained by
the cow if it be retained too long.

After the calf has been cleaned by the cow, and it
has begun to suck, the navel-string requires to be
inspected, in case it continues to bleed. Should this
prove to be the case, a ligature should be passed

142

DAIRY FARMING.

closely around it, but if it can be avoided, not quite
close up to the belly, and if at the place where the
division of the cord occurred, which may be very sore,
a pledget of tow well wetted with friar's-balsam is
recommended by Youatt to be placed over it, confined
with a bandage, and changed every morning and
night ; but caustic applications, which are resorted to
by many, should be avoided.

Although to all appearance matters may appear
to be going on very well at first, sometimes, between
the third and tenth day, inflammation will suddenly
show itself about the navel ; hence the necessity of
continued inspection, and examination, until all danger
of this happening is well over. Should any swelling
of the part exhibit itself, accompanied by redness
and tenderness, it should be well fomented with warm
water until it is thoroughly dispersed ; but if it will not
yield to this treatment, the assistance of a veterinary
surgeon should be obtained, without further loss of
time, or fatal consequences may ensue.

In the case of a heifer having a bad time with her
first calf, it will be, perhaps, the wisest course not
to attempt to breed from her again, but either dis-
pose of her, or fatten her for the butcher ; as, in all
probability, her subsequent calvings will be equally
unfortunate with the first ; and it is by taking these
kind of anticipatory precautions that a herd of cows
may be got together that are perfectly healthy and
above suspicion, and future trouble, annoyance, and
loss will be avoided.

Time for Cows to Calve. — As to the time that
cows should be made to calve will depend a great
deal upon the course of management pursued. The

BEST TIME FOR CALVING. 143

cow is always ready to take the bull soon after
calving, but this should not be allowed until a month
or five weeks afterwards ; but, as it occurs at various
other times during the spring and summer, it gives an
opportunity of regulating the calving-time as may
be desired, at such period as would appear most con-
venient, and fall in with the course of management
that is generally pursued. The inclination of the
cow lasts for three or four days, and recurs again
in about three weeks' time, if she has not conceived ;
otherwise she will not show any inclination. This
state of affairs is, however, sometimes deceptive, as
the period of her being in season sometimes passes
over without conception, and it is not until between
the third and fourth month after copulation that the
fact of pregnancy can be ascertained, which is dis-
covered by the dropping of the belly, and the motion
of the fcetus, so that sometimes these calculations may
be thrown out, and the most experienced breeders
are occasionally deceived.

Some writers have recommended March as being
the best time for calves to be dropped, while all are
unanimous that affairs should be so managed that
the cows should be made to calve down by the
middle of May at the latest ; as late calves will
not be sufficiently grown and strong enough to bear
the cold of winter ; and on this account some do
not care for rearing calves that have been dropped
after the 1st of March, avoiding, however, calves
falling in the winter months, the aim of the dairy-
farmer being, to have his cows calve before they
are turned out upon the pastures, about the 1st of
May.

144

DAIRY FARMING.

The principle of this is correct enough, and is as
it should be, although it is not the course I adopt ;
for I carry the same principle out much farther
still, and like as many calves as possible to come in
January — which is generally considered an unfavour-
able month, being in the middle of dreary winter;
but my object in this is, as I bring up my calves on
skimmed milk, and they are fed from the pail by
hand, while the necessary feeding is going on for two
or three months they are growing into strength, and
they get the benefit of so much extra time, and get
stout and strong, and have all the summer to run
through ; which builds them up by the time the
winter comes round, and they are then hardy animals
fit to stand almost anything. I have been very for-
tunate in rearing calves, my system not being very
commonly adopted, and is mostly the result of my
own observation and experiment ; an account of
which I shall reserve for a separate chapter.

Pursuing the method I do, I am more independent
of the condition of the cow from prolonged milking,
so far as the after-condition of the calf is concerned,
when it is suckled by its mother ; which is a principal
point borne in mind by those who bring up their
calves differently, a late-milked lean cow often having
an easier time of parturition than those which have
been dried earlier, but which affects the after-con-
dition of the calf. For the matter of that, her after-
milking also bears witness of the too great strain that
has been put upon her, and it is never desirable to
tax the cow's producing powers too greatly ; but I
merely record the fact that, as far as my system is
concerned, I have not to take into account, on the

LATE MILKING.

145

calPs behalf, the after-condition of the cow so much,
which is a main point to be considered by many who
bring their calves up upon a different system. The
scraggy, poor condition of many calves, is often to be
attributed to too late milking, and it is especially
unwise to milk heifers with their first calves too close
up to their time of calving. Five or six months after
calving perhaps is long enough in this case. By this
means her strength will not be so much impaired, and
she will grow, and increase in size by the time she has
her second calf ; but from four years to eight years of
age, cows in good condition can be milked up to
within six weeks or two months of calving, as before
stated ; and, in exceptional cases, the flow of milk is
so strong, that it continues almost up to the time
when the new lacteal secretion commences.

Fifeskire System. — The ordinary aim is to have
the calves well forward for early grass, by which
means they become strong, and require less care and
attention during the following winter ; which is, with-
out doubt, a very important consideration to entertain,
upon whatever system their rearing may be conducted.
Upon the Fifeshire dairy system, the cows are made
to calve as much as possible during the three spring
months — March being reckoned the best time for
calves to be dropped — where they are mostly hand-
fed, and seldom suckled by the cows, unless dropped
in May, when two are assigned to each cow. The
calves are hand-fed with milk warm from the cow,
three times a day, beginning with one-and-a-half quart
daily, the quantity being gradually increased to six
quarts at the end of five weeks, and to eight quarts at
the end of other four weeks. At the expiration ol

146

DAIRY FARMING.

six weeks, in addition to the milk, linseed and oatmeal,
well boiled together, are given with the milk, beginning
with four ounces per diem, and served at one of the
meals, either night or morning, till the quantity is
increased by degrees, to one pound per day at end of
another six weeks ; at which time the calves are ready
to be turned out to grass.

After this, the meal in the middle of the day is
discontinued, and in the course of another week the
morning meal also ; and should there happen to be
an abundant feed of grass, the night's meal is soon
after discontinued as well, the calves being entirely
left without milk, at ages varying from twelve to
fourteen weeks.

The quantity of food consumed by the calf upon
this (Fifeshire) system is considered on the average
to amount to about 120 gallons of milk, twenty-eight
pounds of linseed, oatmeal, or barleymeal (whichever
is given), and as much hay as they choose to eat ;
those dairy-farmers who are desirous of bringing their
stock early to maturity not grudging their food, but
giving them plenty of whole milk, hay, or sometimes
oats with the straw, the plan being an expensive one.
By the use of linseed, or meal, a much larger number
of calves can be reared than when they have to depend
upon milk alone.

Gloucestershire System. — I have found, in the course
of my experience, that there is often a good point to
be gathered from a system — with the whole of which
perhaps I may not agree — that may be applied with
advantage ; and in the Gloucestershire system, which
is a very defective one, so far as the housing of animals
is concerned, where the calves are fed on the best hay

TREATMENT OF THE CALF.

147

during the first winter, but are never sheltered with
any degree of care, an economical system is pursued
— the calf being taken from the cow at a week old, at
which time two quarts of new milk are given morning
and evening for the first, month. After this, contrary
to the Fifeshire system, the milk is reduced to one
quart at each time, and half-a-pound of meal substi-
tuted. This feed is continued for a month or six
weeks longer, after which the calves are turned out
upon the best grass there is on the farm ; the calves
being taught to eat a little hay as soon as possible,
while being fed on meal and milk, which is an ex-
cellent preparation for teaching them to get their own
living when the time comes round for grass-feeding ;
their stomachs by that means being got into a certain
preparedness, or condition of readiness, for receiving
the grass, which otherwise might bring on scouring,
which pulls down calves very much, and checks their
progress very materially at a critical period of their
existence.

Milk Farms. — This kind of arrangement of making
the cows to calve as nearly as possible at definite times,
suits very well the circumstances of both farmers who
pursue a mixed system of dairy and arable farming,
as well as those of Cheshire and Gloucestershire, and
those counties where cheese is largely made, and the
summer operations of the dairy have chiefly to be
considered ; but upon a milk farm, where a supply of
milk is as indispensable in winter as at any other time,
or in the case of a large private family, where the con-
sumption of milk and butter is great, the time of calving
will have to be arranged so as to suit requirements,
and in the case of the milk farm, the cows must calve

148

DAIRY FARMING.

nearly all the year round ; and the same with gentle-
men's establishments, where the cows must follow each
other in calving at appropriate intervals, and not only
calve down in the spring season, but a sort of dupli-
cate calving-season must be instituted, extending
from October to June. If the calves are not con-
sidered worth rearing, or it be awkward to do so,
they had better be got rid of at once. I always
sell off those that come late in the autumn, or early
winter, because they give a good deal of trouble
to wait upon all through the winter months ; my
practice always being to get rid of the bull-calves, at
whatever time they come, and rear the females, dis-
carding any of the latter whose size, form, or colour
I may not approve of, or that do not bear the appear-
ance of being handsome, vigorous animals, though we
seldom have to reject any on that score.

Castrating. — It will, however, well answer the
purpose of those who have a good deal of rough
pasture, to rear their calves of both sexes upon the
plan I have adopted, and in this case the males
should be castrated as soon as possible after a month
has expired from their birth. The longer the operation
is delayed, the greater will be the danger attending it ;
and an exact register can be kept of the various
ages and breeds of the calves, by adding on to the
list, hanging up in the cow-house, the date of the
birth of each, which will save a good deal of trouble
and guessing about ages, etc., where a large number
of cows and calves are kept. It will be better,
perhaps, if I give a fac simile of the form I use,
which shows at a glance the necessary particulars
relating to both cows and calves, without which, or

BRINGING UP STORE CALVES. 149

some similar arrangement, there will often be a degree
of uncertainty :

COW LIST.

No. in
Herd
Book.

Name.

Breed.

Served by.

Age.

Expected to
Calve.

Calved.

Lady

Aldemey

Duke

Jan. 12

Jan. IS

14.

Violet

> )

„ 3°

Polly

Ayrshire

J »

Feb. 6

Rose

Shorthorn

Monarch

Spot

Devon

Mar. 1

Fanny

Cross

„ 18

Bell

»»

Duke

Nov. 20

Frisk

>»

» >

Dec. 10

Situated as I am, with only a small portion of
arable land, I have never aimed at bringing up
more calves than my own cows bring ; but upon the
inexpensive system I carry out, I can readily see
that it would answer the purpose of many farmers,
who have a large breadth of indifferent pasture, or
the run of common land, to bring up a good many,
not to fatten them for the butcher, but to sell them
as store stock, at the end of the summer season, or
autumn rather, when there is no longer a sufficient
living to be picked up, or nearly enough, without
incurring a heavy expense in the shape of purchased
food for them.

The only experiment I ever made in fattening a
young ox was such a decided failure, as before men-
tioned, that I never cared to repeat the experiment,
although it was certainly by no means a fair trial,
for the beast I essayed upon was an Aldemey,
the very worst breed that I could have selected for

DAIRY FARMING.

such a trial ; and he ate an immense amount of food,
and was a long time making himself fat; but the case
would have been far different had I tried my " pren-
tice hand" upon a shorthorn, as the latter would
have clothed his frame with flesh in a much shorter
period, and I should have got a considerably larger,
and correspondingly more valuable, animal. But I
saw enough of the transaction to be aware that I
could make a great deal more money by giving the
food to cows, and getting a return in milk, than by
fattening beasts.

In some country districts, if the farmer has not
grazing land of his own, there are often opportunities
where stock is taken to grass for a small charge per
head; and where this privilege is to be obtained, it
would be found very profitable to bring up a number
of calves upon the method I have adopted, the parti-
culars of which I am about to give; but so much
depends upon individual cases, and opportunities, that
each person ought to carefully find out for himself
what will be the best course to pursue in his own
individual case, and then carry out a definite
system which has been resolved upon after mature
consideration.

The arable farmer who grows a large quantity of
roots, might possibly find it to his advantage to feed
young stock, and deal in cattle; giving them plenty of
straw chaff and pulped roots, with the addition of oil-
cake and cheap feeding stuffs, which are to be pur-
chased so cheaply, that free-trade in this respect does
not become an unmitigated evil, when the present
high prices that are realised for stock are taken into
account.

BUTTER, CHEESE, AND VEAL. 151

English farmers cannot compete in the production
of corn with American produce and the grain of
northern Europe; but if they were to add stock-
keeping to their usual routine — I am now speaking of
arable farmers exclusively — they would often com-
mand much more satisfactory results than they are at
present able to obtain, and greatly increase their
profits. Unfortunately, it is the case with a great
many tenant farmers so situated, with only the pro-
duce of their arable land to rely upon, that they still
stick to the old-fashioned methods in vogue many
years ago, and do not adapt themselves to the altered
circumstances which now prevail.

Various calculations have been made, at different
times, as to the rate of profit to be obtained from
diverse methods of dealing with production under
what may be termed dairy produce, including the
rearing of calves for veal, associated in an account, as
against butter and cheese, in celebrated dairy counties,
amongst which may be instanced that of Mr. Hay-
ward, of Frocester Court, in Gloucestershire, a very
intelligent and experienced farmer, who kept as many
as a hundred cows in his dairy, and inclined in favour
of cheese-making. But in the annexed account,
which was drawn up a good many years ago, the
difference between the price realised for cheese and
butter was not so great, and the calculation of profit
would, at the present day, be entirely different, and
instead of fixing butter at tenpence per pound, fifteen-
pence per pound, or fifty per cent, upon the lower
quotation, would be much nearer the mark ; and the
tendency of the present day is for cheese to drop in
value, on account of American and other competition ;

IS 2 DAIRY FARMING.

while that of superior fresh butter is to increase in

price.

Mr. Hayward's Calculations.— Mr. Harvard viewed
the production of fine cheese to be the most profitable
application of milk— exceeding that of butter or veal ;
but the calculation must now be taken subject to the
altered relations of value which prevail, although the
figures are as much as ever instructive, his estimate
being as follows :

£, *. d.

100 gallons of milk produce 112 lb. of cheese of the

best quality, which at 6d. per lb. is . . . 2 16 o
And s lb. of whey butter, which at Sd. per lb. is . .034

Value of 100 gallons of milk when converted into

cheese 2I 94

100 gallons' produce of milk, butter 341b., which at

xod. per lb. is 184

And of cheese of the worst quality 74 lb., which at 3d.

per lb. is 0 18 6

Value of 100 gallons of milk when made into butter .2610

160 gallons produce 1 12 lb. of veal, which at 7%d. per
lb. is . • J

But calves, when dropped, generally sell at ior. each,

which, being deducted 0 10 0

Leaves, as the value of 160 gallons . . • . 3 0 0

And therefore, the value of 100 gallons in feeding

veal is

1 17 6

In the above calculation, no expenses are reckoned in
connection with the making of butter and cheese, nor
of the value of the pigs that can be reared upon the

MILK-SELLING PROFITABLE. 153

whey and the skimmed milk ; and no reference is made
to the time that cheese must be kept on hand before
it is sold, or fit for consumption, by which so much
capital is locked up, while butter can be sold at once ;
and there is not much trouble in rearing calves ; but
taking the figures as they stand, and substituting
fifteenpence per pound for butter instead of tenpence,
the difference will amount to one pound three shil-
lings and fivepence, or a total of three pounds ten
shillings and threepence, allowing the other items to
stand as set down, which will show a very great differ-
ence in favour of butter above the others.

There can, however, be no question in the present
day about the matter, that milk-selling ranks first in
the order of profit, unless there are drawbacks in the
shape of long distance from a station, or the wear
and tear of a bulky trade, which may be disliked, and
the consequent trouble attending it.

Next comes butter, which, no matter how far
removed from a market, can always be disposed of
profitably, on account of its portability and its rela-
tive high value in proportion to its bulk ; and, lastly,
cheese.

I do not think a comparison can well be made
as to calves, for circumstances are so widely different,
and success or non-success in rearing them profitably,
against the other products of the dairy, will depend so
much upon contingent circumstances, that a fair com-
parison cannot well be drawn between them in ordinary
cases ; for it is very apparent, that the dairy-farmer
with plenty of good pasture-land would find it much,
more profitable to keep cows upon it, which would
give him a handsome daily return in milk, that he can

, 54 DAIRY FARMING.

at once turn into cash, than feeding calves upon it,
which he would have to keep by him a long time,
and the cost of whose keep would amount to some-
thing very considerable while they were "growing
into^money," as it is termed, though the case would
be altered in that upon land where the pasturage was
not good enough for milch-cows, but upon which
growing calves might be able to glean a tolerable
living.

CHAPTER VII.

Rea F n fedinl e Cf- S "g m Calves-Whole Milk for Calves-
Feedmg Calves m Massachusetts-Various Methods of rearm-
Calves-American and Canadian Cattle and Meat.

Rearing the Calf.-I have always regarded the
rearing 0 f calves oneself as the most important branch
of dairy-farming. By paying attention to this depart-
ment one has the power of making his herd of cows just
what he pleases, so as to suit his requirements in the
shape of dairy produce, and rear cows that will best
produce either butter or milk, as well as having a breed
of animals suited to the land that is to carry them
besides knowing the quality and nature of his stock'
and what he may expect from them ; which is more
than he can reckon upon when he buys his cows
haphazard from dealers or neighbouring farmers

If the dairy-farmer takes proper care of his animals
when he rears them himself, he will seldom find them
ailing; but in buying strange cows, heifers, or calves
the new importations may have some ailment or
other, which, not perceptible at first, will be made
manifest afterwards-some latent complaint or other
which may at a future time give him trouble-
whereas, from his own healthy young stock, nothing
is ever to be feared.

M 2

156 DAIRY FARMING.

In all well-regulated herds, there will be constant
changes going on, and cows leaving it, either for the
fatting-stall, on account of approaching age, or from
judicious culling, when an animal turns out not to be
a paying one, and yields less milk than the average ;
or if not fattened for the butcher, should be sold, and
got rid of, and the young heifers growing up will take
their places.

My first aim is the product of butter, using the
skimmed milk to bring up calves, the rest going to
the pigs, keeping a large number of the latter ; and
as I want quality more than a large quantity of milk,
there is a very large element of the Alderney in my
breed, which prevails above all others. The pure-
bred Alderney cows I cross with a shorthorn bull,
which brings me a breed of animals very well suited
to my pastures ; which, though by no means rich,
cannot be called very poor, being perhaps a shade
under the average of English meadows, and not suited
for the heaviest and largest breeds of cattle. When
the shorthorn element begins to get too much
developed in a heifer, I cross her with an Alderney
bull, and where the Alderney decidedly predominates
I adhere to the shorthorn cross ; which I find suits
my purpose uncommonly well.

I have several stray cows of different breeds
amongst the older ones, and their progeny is always
modified upon the system I have named, and the
cows are moderate-sized animals, which suit my pur-
pose ; though upon one occasion I departed from this
rule, and regretted it afterwards — the occasion being
that, a neighbouring gentleman having died, his widow
sold off the stock he had, and amongst it was a pet

PET COW. 157

Brittany cow of very small size, which my wife fell
in love with, and which I became the purchaser of.

Although a small cow will often bring a large
calf, particularly those of the Ayrshire breed, this one
was too small — not being much larger than a good-
sized donkey ; its diminutive dimensions of course
constituting its chief excellence in the eye of those
who value them as pet animals — and after keeping
the first calf, which proved to be a heifer, I saw that
I should have to get rid of the others, or I should
reduce the standard of my herd.

The natural food of the calf when first born is, of
course, the cow's milk, but my aim being to rear my
calf, and yet use the cream to make butter with, so
that in keeping one I do not lose the other, I set
about the task in this wise.

I allow the calf to suck its mother generally for
five days or a week, except the rule requires modify-
ing — either that the cow is a young one, and ought to
be sucked longer, or for any other cause, if the calf for
some reason or other cannot get along without the
cow, or the cow without the calf ; but in the average
number of cases, I am generally able to rear them
after they have received this assistance, or start, from
the mother.

While the cow is suckling the calf, I never allow
her to have any roots, but cause her to be fed upon
good sound hay and a. little bean-meal, or oil-cake, or
other good food, if she appears to need it. Many
persons feed their cows upon mangold and chaff whilst
suckling their calves, and there is no doubt in my mind
that this food is often the fruitful occasion of the calves
scouring, by which many people lose a great number,

DAIRY FARMING.

and are surprised that this should be the case, as the
calf is allowed to suck its mother to an unlimited
extent. But this method is not so good as putting
them at first upon shorter commons, and calves
should not be allowed to fill themselves with milk till
they are at least a week old. Many farmers are at a
loss to understand why they should lose calves by
scouring, sometimes when they are only twenty-four
hours old ; taking, as they say, the food provided by
nature, while I, by "tinkering them, and messing them
about," as they describe it, manage to rear calves, and
hardly ever lose one !

The real reason doubtless is, in many of the cases
where calves are lost in this way, that the little animal,
suffering from diarrhoea, and weak, is often disinclined
to move about and help itself, by sucking its mother
when only a day, or a couple of days, old, and so sinks
from want of support ; and although it might help
itself if it chose, it does not do so. Under these
circumstances, a little milk should be given to it. If
the scouring continues, three table-spoonfuls of linseed
oil should be administered.

Scouring in Calves is sometimes caused when
they are sucking the mother, by derangement of the
stomach, owing to coagulation of the milk there,
which at times occasions a large mass to form, the
whey of the milk proceeding on its course and pro-
ducing diarrhcea, the faeces when evacuated being of
a white colour, these cases being attended with a good
deal of danger, when alkaline medicines should be
given with a view to dissolve the mass, and neutralise
the acid which has accumulated to excess in the
stomach ; and for this purpose carbonate of magnesia

DAMP, ILL-VENTILATED CALF-HOUSES. 159

and carbonate of soda will be found good medicines,
in doses of one or two drachms each, according to the
age of the calf.

Under ordinary circumstances of common scouring,
the medicin~ recommended under the head of "scour-
ing " in the chapter devoted to the diseases of cows,
will be found a useful remedy to be used in a reduced
quantity. Another very good recipe consists of two
ounces of castor-oil, and mix half a tea-spoonful of
ground ginger with a whisked egg. The castor-oil
will carry off offending matter, while the ginger warms
the little animal's stomach, and the egg performs a
useful office in another direction. This will be found
efficacious if there are feverish symptoms, accompanied
with refusal of food. To keep up the animal heat, a
woollen rug tied round its body will be found of
advantage.

There are, also, often external reasons for diarrhoea,
as, for example, when calves are kept in dirty, ill-
ventilated, or damp calf-houses. Calves require to be
kept both dry and clean, with not only plenty of straw
under them, but the floor to be made to slope down-
wards, at a gradient of one inch in thirty-six, so that
the urine may be carried off freely — calves voiding a
good deal in proportion to their size.

They should be well littered up twice a day, and
the straw well shaken up, and all dirty and wet patches
thrown aside.

My calves are kept in an outhouse, without any
fittings in it whatever, beyond what we " rig up " our-
selves. It is simply the earth floor, with stout stakes
driven down at suitable distances, to which we tie
hurdles, so as to allow each calf to have sufficient space

i6o

DAIRY FARMING.

to walk about and frisk in while they are quite
young ; a little hay being twisted into the hurdles for
them to nibble at, and learn to feed themselves, which
they will do in a very short space of time. Bean straw
makes capital bedding for calves, and wheat straw is
better than barley straw for this purpose.

When we take the calf away from the cow at the
end of five or seven days, which is the most usual
time, it is fed with skimmed milk and boiled linseed
mixed — the milk freshly skimmed, and perfectly sweet,
warmed to the heat of cows' milk. A good deal of
management is necessary to make them first take to
the pail, and this is done by the man putting the calfs
head in the pail, while he inserts his fingers, which he
has wetted with milk, in the calf's mouth, and gently
passes a little down its throat ; care being taken not to
push the little animal's nostrils into the milk, which
will occasion it to withdraw its head so as to enable it
to breathe. After a short time, the calf will learn to
drink without the aid of the fingers, and come readily
enough to the pail. Some, indeed, will be inclined to
be greedy over it, and will gulp it down too fast, if
they are allowed to have their own way ; but this
should not be permitted, sufficient time being given
for its admixture with the animal's saliva. A good
deal depends upon careful feeding, calves which are
allowed to drink too fast being generally recognisable
by their "paunchy " condition.

Some who bring up the calves from the pail allow
two to drink at the same time, but this should never
be allowed, as one will often get a great deal more
than the other; and they should always be fed
separately. The milk, too, must always be of the

HAY-TEA.

161

proper heat ; and not sour milk, which has stood too
long in the dairy. A mistake made by giving calves
the milk out of the wrong dishes, where some is
allowed to stand, would bring on diarrhoea ; or cold
milk, in winter time, is highly objectionable.

There are many other contrivances for bringing up
calves, instead of allowing them to suck the cows, but
I have never tried them, having plenty of skimmed
milk as a rule ; though I once made the experiment
with hay-tea, which many have successfully brought
up calves upon. Hay-tea is made by piling an earthen
vessel with as much fine, sweet hay as can be pressed
into it lightly with the hand, and then pouring boiling
water upon it. The vessel is then covered closely up,
and in a couple of hours a strong liquid is produced,
which will last good for a couple of days, and should
be used about the same heat as cows' milk. Hay-tea
is good food mixed with linseed jelly, which is made
with one quart of seed to six quarts of water, and
allowing it to boil for ten minutes.

A good mixture is also made of seven pounds of
bruised linseed cake, stirred into two gallons of hot
water, with two gallons of hay-tea, and the addition
of seven pounds of mixed meal, consisting of equal
portions of bean, oat, wheat, and barley meals, stirred
together with two gallons of water, and the whole
commingled. Two quarts of this, with the same
allowance of water, are given to each calf twice a
day. While this is being done, the little animal
should be invited to eat a little sliced carrot or turnip,
which it can be quickly got to nibble at, together with
the hay before recommended. They will soon learn
to eat a few beans, or peas, which they prefer whole

DAIRY FARMING.

to ground ; and after their stomachs have been
accustomed to a little food of this varied nature, by
the time the grass begins to spring they may be
turned out for an hour or two, during a sunny day, in
an orchard or warm enclosure, and they will begin to
nibble a little grass. Carrots, either grated and mixed
with chaff, or given alone, cut into thin slices with a
knife, they will readily eat ; and as soon as they take
to these kinds of food the supply of milk can be
gradually decreased.

Whole Milk for Calves. — In those cases where it
may be considered desirable to feed calves upon whole
milk — which is never my plan after the period I have
stated, except upon rare occasions — the quantity of
milk given to a good large breed of calf, say a
moderately-bred shorthorn, or a cross approximating
in size, should not exceed the following :

4 quarts per day at 2 meals during the 1st week with the cow

5 to 6 „ „ 2nd to 4th „

6 to 7 „ „ 4th to 6th „

and for six weeks afterwards a couple of gallons a
day, if fed for so long upon milk. In addition to the
above, the calf will eat a little green hay as it nears
the fourth week, and a week or two afterwards, sliced
roots, meal, or crushed linseed cake, mixed with
hay chaff. This kind of feeding is adopted by breeders
who want to turn out fine large beasts at two-and-a-
half years old, and who, perhaps, do not make dairy
produce the first consideration.

In addition to hay twisted into the hurdles for the
calves to nibble at, which they will soon acquire the
knack of doing, I have some common semicircular

A CALF-HOUSE EASILY CONSTRUCTED. 163

hay-racks fixed against the wall, at a height of three-
and-a-half feet frorp the ground, one of which serves
two calves, being placed between two of the rough
stalls formed by hurdles, and lower down, some small
troughs, holding about a gallon and a half each, in
which to place any other description of food, with
which the calves may be fed. Too many beans
should not be given to calves, as they are somewhat
heating ; but in cold weather, which is the time I rear
most of my calves in this way, a little food of a warm
nature is not by any means objectionable.

A convenient calf-house can thus be made out of
any shed that is dry and warm, care being taken that
the floor slopes in such a way that all the moisture
drains off. At first, I was somewhat helpless in such
matters, and thought any change, such as that of
taking up a brick floor, involved a good deal of ex-
pense, and a long bill from the bricklayer; but we do
all these kind of jobs ourselves, and would take up the
bricks or stones forming the flooring of a barn or out-
house, shovel up the earth, so as to form any desired
declivity, sink a small cesspool, and lay bricks inside
and mortar them, lay down the bricks or stones again,
and make any necessary changes we may require in a
few hours' time, all the men lending a hand and doing
certain parts, the man who formerly was a bricklayer's
labourer laying the bricks and making the mortar,
while the others are adepts at using the spade ; and
it is astonishing what convenient alterations we can
make at the cost of a few hours' labour only.

Upon one occasion, having a large underground
cellar with a brick flooring, which I used as a wine
and beer cellar, and for storing away anything that

DAIRY FARMING.

we could not find room for anywhere else conveniently
— experiencing much inconvenience when a sudden 01
violent heavy rain fell, which penetrated through the
gravel and swamped the cellar at times — I took up
all the bricks, and dug the floor out for about a couple
of feet, taking care not to go too near the walls, and
wheeled the earth out and filled up the space with
broken brick-bats and coarse gravel-stones, upon which
we relaid the bricks again. We were never troubled
with any more standing water in the cellar, for the
natural drainage of the land on which the house
stands carried all water away where it used to stand
upon the bricks, but it was very troublesome whilst
the water was there, as we had to make use of a stout
plank to walk on, to get to the beer barrels, that had
been in use for many years by the previous tenant ;
and by having a handy man or two about one,
any little difficulty of this nature may be soon got
over, so that there is really no occasion for having
damp, unhealthy buildings for stock, in which they
can never thrive.

Upon sand, and gravel, the natural drainage is
always good, and upon clay a capital dry floor may
be made by excavating it and burning the clay taken
out in a heap, with a few bushels of small coal, and
then filling the space up again with it after it has
been burnt.

Lime we buy at sixpence per bushel, at a lime-kiln
a mile or two off, and we have plenty of sand with
which to make mortar, and also whitewash, which we
use freely upon all the walls of our outbuildings, pig-
sties, etc., as well as the kitchen ceilings, or any other
that may require doing ; and I have very little to pay

METHOD OF FEEDING CALVES. 165

in the form of tradesmen's bills, for broken panes of
glass, or any little jobs that always need doing about
the house, as my man buys the glass and puts it in
at a cost of from fourpence to eighteenpence for
a large square, the glass being sold at twopence half-
penny per square foot.

In "The Sussex Report," a method is described
of rearing calves in that county upon treacle and
linseed oil-cake, in the proportion of half an ounce of
treacle and one ounce of powdered oil-cake, mixed
with a pint of skimmed milk, properly incorporated,
and given together with lukewarm whey, or hay tea.

In some parts of the north of England, calves for the
first four or five weeks are fed upon equal quantities of
new and skimmed milk, after which they are gradually
brought to drink gruel, made of bean or oat meal,
mixed with one-half of buttermilk.

Feeding Calves in Massachusetts. — A plan of rear-
ing calves in an inexpensive manner is pursued
in Massachusetts, after the following method: The
calves, when three days old, are taken from the cows,
and fed with barley and oats ground together, which
is made into gruel, one quart of the flour being boiled
during half an hour in twelve quarts of water; of
which one quart is to be given, lukewarm, to each calf,
morning and evening. In ten days a bundle of soft
hay is placed in the stable, which they will soon begin
to eat, and a little of the flour is put into a small
trough, for them to lick occasionally. They are thus
fed during about two months, gradually increasing the
quantity ; and it is said that half a bushel of the corn
is sufficient until the calf is entirely placed on grass,
to which he is occasionally turned out during the day.

DAIRY FARMING.

The greatest scourge to which calves are subject
is scouring, and it is generally thought sufficient to
feed calves twice a day, night and morning, allowing
them as much as they can eat at the time. Some
calves, having this opportunity, fill their stomachs so
full, that the large quantity they take impedes diges-
tion. As trouble should never be considered, when it
is desired to perform anything in the best possible
manner, it will be found the most advisable plan to
feed calves three times a day, giving them less each
time to make amends for the third feeding, and give
food as well in the middle of the day. By this more
frequent method of feeding, the growth of the calf will
be found to proceed much more satisfactorily, and its
general health and condition will be better. Many
advocate tying calves up, but I think the little exer-
cise they take, even when confined to a loose-box — if
it can be so called, in which I place mine, between
hurdles — is of great advantage to them, and I often
laugh to see the little animals frisking about, throw-
ing up their hind-legs, and merrily running round
their small enclosure, which they would be unable to
do if tied up by the head.

Care should always be taken not to change the
food of calves too suddenly, but accustom them to
what is coming by slow gradations, giving them a
small quantity at first, and increasing it afterwards.
They relish a little change of food, and administered
in this way, their stomachs and digestive organs are
not upset, or thrown out of order, which will often
take place upon a sudden and entire alteration of diet.

The quality of the food, too, ought to be a point
for consideration and examination. I have spoken of

YOUNG CALVES SHOULD NOT BE EXPOSED. 167

linseed-tea, or gruel, as being a capital article of food
to give as a substitute for whole milk, when mixed
with skimmed milk; but there is a great difference
in the quality of linseed, Indian linseed not being'
sufficiently gelatinous, and boiling hard. A common
idea of quantity to employ in making linseed gruel is,
five pounds for about seven gallons, sufficient for five
good-sized calves.

Nice green, soft hay should be given to the calves,
which they will learn to eat when three weeks old.
About six weeks old, the calf will begin to nibble
grass, and in two or three weeks more it can be
turned out, if the season is sufficiently advanced, and
left to graze. But if the spring is wet, and cold, they
should not be exposed to the weather, but merely
turned out for air and exercise a few hours in the
brightest part of the day, and then brought into a
yard where there are sheds to shelter them, and they
should neither be allowed to lie upon wet land or wet
bedding, but be kept dry.

I have capital convenience for my calves so far as
their run is concerned, for, having several patches
of plantation, round the borders of which grass grows,
and also in those places not entirely shaded by trees,
they pick up the best part of their living in the early
spring, and after our hay-making is done, which I
always try to finish as early as possible, they graze
the meadows with the cows, and we rear a number of
good animals that cost me but a very trifling sum
each, and those calves born in January or February,
having been well set up, and their stamina established
during the early part of their lives under cover, having
run all through the summer, and autumn, upon the

1 68 DAIRY FARMING.

pastures, at the commencement of winter are fine
strong animals, as hardy as one could wish to see
them.

Most of these turn out well as heifers, and if, when
they have brought their first calf, I am not quite
satisfied with them, or think there is not a prospect
of their turning out good milkers, I sell them. Upon
these occasions a common question is put, and indeed
is an invariable one : " Why do you part with her ? "
To which I always make a point of telling the truth,
by saying, " I have enough young stock of her des-
cription, and have better amongst my herd;" and I
give a true statement of what she does, which saves
a good deal of after trouble and annoyance, which
might occur from a charge being made of misrepre-
sentation, and the would-be purchaser can either take
her or leave her, as he likes. I always depute this
part of the business to my working foreman, and
fix a reasonable price, which we will not depart from.
Sometimes a buyer wishes to see me upon the subject,
so as to persuade me to take a pound or two less
maybe ; but my man is always ready with his answer,
which is to the effect that " Master " would not do
anything in the bargain-making line, and the price
having been fixed, there was no departing from it.

Various Methods of rearing Calves. — Calves can
thus be reared in a great number of ways. First, by
sucking the cow, which is one designed by nature, but
which is an expensive method to the dairy-farmer,
and does not suit the purpose of an economist, who
wants to make as much profit as he can, by giving
it whole new milk from the pail ; by feeding it with
partly whole milk and partly skimmed milk, by part

BRINGING UP FIVE CALVES BY ONE COW. 169

milk and other foods; by skimmed milk in con-
junction with other foods, which is the one I adopt,
and that which I consider the best, taking into conside-
ration the objects I have in view, and which I have
before explained ; by bringing up two calves sucking
one cow at the same time, following with two others,
and finishing off with one, making five calves alto-
gether, when a cow has a good flow of milk, and
calves in spring, and is afterwards turned out to graze
upon the pastures.

The latter always appeared to me a very good
plan for anyone to follow who has plenty of pasture
land desirous of raising stock quickly ; but in my
case, although the chief part of the land I occupy
consists of meadows, yet I want to save my grass for
hay, or at all events that part of it which is left uncut,
and unused by my cows, which are fed upon the soiling
or house-feeding system, while the grass is getting into
readiness for hay. More grass is trampled down and
spoiled than the cows eat when they are turned out,
and the greater part of the grass I am thus enabled
to save for hay ; making it early in the season, as soon
as ever it is ready for the scythe. I do not wait till the
grass gets thoroughly ripe, and the seeds all developed,
which makes weighty hay ; for although giving me a
less valuable hay-crop than I might otherwise obtain,
I am enabled to get the cows on to the pastures early
in the season ; while the grass is stronger, and grows
better, from the grass plants not being exhausted by
the perfection and completion of their seed-formation ;
and the meadows are consequently richer and more
succulent than they otherwise would be, for the after-
feeding of my cows and stock.

i 7 o DAIRY FARMING.

The breeders of pedigree cattle allow the calf to
suck the cow as a matter of course, their object being
to rear as fine and large a calf as possible, which is
best attained by this means; but all the methods
enumerated will, at times, require to be modified
by circumstances — as, for example, if a calf is not
quite so strong as it should be, it may be desirable to
feed it upon whole or unskimmed milk from the pail,
for a longer time than I have indicated in the method
I follow ; or, if the presence of the calf is necessary to
the comfort and well-being of the cow. But the system
I have adopted has been found to be far the most pro-
fitable, as I rear my calves, make my butter, and save
the best portion of my hay, which comes in for winter
use, when otherwise, did I not save it, I should have
to lay out a great deal of money every winter.

I shall speak of the management of grass land
hereafter, but I may as well remark here that a change
of pasture is highly desirable for milch-cows. Two
of my meadows are very large ones, but I hurdle
them off and make them of suitable size, and so let the
animals have a constant change. While they are
eating down one portion, the other is thus growing ;
and if the grass whereon they are is not quite sufficient,
a little extra food is carried to them in the fields and
placed in troughs ; or a cut of fresh clover, or other
artificial grass, placing those animals that want it
most upon the richest pastures, where there is the
best feed ; and thus the milch-cows are put first into
the fresh fields, and when they have taken off the
best, the calves and dry cows follow, to eat it down
close ; the milking-cows being moved on to another
fresh portion, and so on.

ROUTINE PLANS. J?l

All this is so well understood, and is so entirely a
matter of routine, that my plans are carried out day
after day upon the principle laid down, and I have
very little trouble with things beyond a daily con-
sultation with my working bailiff, or foreman, who
tells me how matters are going on— that a cow has
calved, and is doing well, or ill ; that he thinks of
mowing that little "bit" of clover, or taking up
the mangold ; or that he considers it would be de-
sirable to cut down the chestnut, or ash coppice, and
get the man we employ to come and make some
hurdles for us, as we shall be wanting a good many—
and so on.

It may thus be readily seen that my calves give
me but little trouble after they have done with the
pail, and are reared at a very small expense till
winter is reached, when their horns are branded with
an inch brand, and the number entered in the herd-
book. By keeping these particulars minutely, one
may see how each cow's calves have turned out, and
which answer the best to keep ; while the exact par-
ticulars as to age, sire, dame,, etc., are always there
for reference and verification.

By breeding and rearing one's own stock great
advantages are secured, which I have enumerated
before; not the least of which is freedom from con-
tagion. The importation of live cattle from abroad
will, doubtless, in course of time, increase considerably,
and notwithstanding the watchfulness of Government
officials, contagion may be brought from supposed
unsuspected districts.

American and Canadian Cattle and Meat.— In
January, 1879, the Dominion of Canada steamer

N 2

172

DAIRY FARMING.

Ontario brought to Liverpool 247 head of cattle from
Portland, Maine ; and when the vessel was brought
into dock, it was found that several animals were
affected with pleuro-pneumonia. The Ontario's cargo
was bought in the markets of Buffalo and Chicago,
and the animals were transported over the Grand
Trunk Railway of Canada to Portland for shipment.
During their transit through Canada they were under
strict quarantine, and had no opportunity of acquiring
the disease during the journey, or of communicating
it to other cattle. The Canadian Government have
always adopted the most stringent measures against
the importation of disease into their territory, and
have interdicted the landing of cattle from countries
under the slightest taint of suspicion. But such has
not been the practice in the United States, which has
allowed free importation, especially from Schleswig-
Holstein and Brittany ; and it is said that it is more
than probable the disease which has presented itself
in the Western markets may have originated from
these European imports.

If it should become necessary to prohibit the land-
ing of United States cattle in England, it will have a
very perceptible effect upon the English meat trade,
in which all stock-rearers are much interested, and the
importance of this trade may be inferred from the
fact that, while these lines are being written, seventy
additional steamers are being got ready for the trade
at Liverpool, Glasgow, and Barrow. It is not expected
that the interdict will be applied to Canada, as that
country has always been exempt from the plague ;
and in view of possible danger, the Dominion Govern-
ment are taking precautions by preventing United

AMERICAN AND CANADIAN MEAT. 173

States cattle passing over Canadian roads or rail-
ways.

The import trade from Canada has increased with
great rapidity, the number of head imported in 1877
being 6,412; but in 1878 this increased to 32,115, or
five times as many as the year before. With regard
to the ultimate disposition of this live cargo of the
Ontario, information was at once communicated to
the veterinary department of the Privy Council, and
the chief inspector visited Liverpool, and after making
a careful examination of the beasts, an order was
issued that none of the cattle should be allowed
to enter the country, and the whole consignment on
board was slaughtered on the quay. It appeared that,
in crossing the Atlantic, owing to stress of weather,
fifty beasts were thrown overboard from the Ontario,
so that it was not so much a matter of surprise
amongst experienced men that the disease became
developed.

In the year 1S78, England received from the
United States 480,000 cwt. of fresh beef, being an
increase of 230 per cent, in a couple of years over
previous importations, the import of fresh meat of
other kinds being of commensurate dimensions, while
Canada has sent us a comparatively small supply of
dead meat, because the relatively short sea route has
made it more profitable to convey the animal across
the Atlantic alive.

But, whatever may be the ultimate shaping of
either the live or dead meat trade of Canada and the
States with England, in which all breeders must be
deeply interested in this country, fresh dairy produce
will always find a ready and remunerative market

174

DAIRY FARMING.

here ; especially milk, which now, on account of the
provisions of the Adulteration of Food Acts, is obliged
to be sold pure by the milk-vendors, who are not
allowed to call in the assistance of the " cow with the
iron tail " to increase their volume of what used often
to be merely nominal lacteal fluid, which, in its
genuine unadulterated state as an article of food, is
more highly appreciated by consumers in consequence,
of late, than it used to be formerly.

Sometimes arrangements can be made for the
summer grazing of calves and dry stock in a gentle-
man's park, or other enclosure, where there will be
shelter afforded by trees, a good bite of grass, and
liberty and comfort for the animals. These advan-
tages should always be made use of where they are to
be obtained. But there are places where stock is
taken in, which are so filled and overdone that the
beasts cannot get enough to eat, besides running the
risk of contagion from other cattle ; and where there
are any doubts on this head, it will be found the best
plan to keep them at home, and make the best pos-
sible shift by economical contrivances in feeding, for
which many suggestions will be found in the fore-
going, but none that recommend under-feeding, which
is the dearest and most extravagant method that can
be pursued in the long run, in connection with the
management of anyspecies of stock, but more especially
milch-cows, or young heifers that are destined to make
cows in the future.

CHAPTER VIII.

Abortion (Slinking, Slipping-Calf, Warping) — The Drop — Inversion
of the Uterus — Meteorisation (Hoove, Hoven, or Blasting) — Dis-
tension of the Rumen — Choking — Loss of Cud — Inflammation of
the Rumen — Milk Fever — Garget (Diseases of the Udder) — The
Cow-pox — Retention or Stoppage of the Urine — Sore Teats —
Moor-ill, or Wood-evil — Pleuro-pneumonia — Foot and Mouth
Disease (Epidemic) — Paralysis — Palsy or Tail-slip — Redwater —
Hepatitis — Rheumatism (Joint-felon, Chine-felon) — Quarter-ill —
Blood-striking — Black-quarter — Fardel-bound — Blain, or Gloss
Anthrax — Foul in the Foot — Loo, or Low — The Thrush, or Aphthae
— Mange — Lice — Diarrhcea — Catarrh — Bronchitis.

Abortion {Slinking, Slipping-calf, Warping). —
Cows are subject to abortion from various causes,
which is known under the above names, according to
the district, and it is usually regarded from a scientific
point of view as being a disease, for which no remedy
can well be prescribed, or preventive treatment sug-
gested ; and a cow that has once been subject to this
disease or accident, whatever it may be termed, is
likely to be so again ; and it is the best course to get
rid of her, though abortion is often brought about
from bad treatment, over-exertion, and not unfre-
quently by being kept in too high condition. For
these, there is an assignable reason, and also a preven-
tive remedy ; but in proof of the justness of the view

176

DAIRY FARMING.

taken that it must be ranked as a disease, is the fact
that it sometimes becomes infectious among a herd,
and even occasionally throughout entire districts.

It appears sometimes to take the form of a con-
tagion, as it were, for when a cow slips her calf, it is
often putrid before it is brought forth, and the offen-
sive smell which it emits, if only allowed to remain a
short time in the field where other in-calf cows are,
exerts some sympathetic influence, and perhaps will
occasion several of them in the course of a few days
to cast their calves prematurely.

Abortion is sometimes produced by fright, blows,
or strains, or by jumping other cows, or by their
being hunted about. I once had a young horse, which
I kept for riding, that had been turned out into a
field with some cows, and seeing from a distance the
cows running wildly about the meadow, I found, when
I got there, the rascal amusing himself by chasing the
cows, who were doing their best to get out of his
way, some of them with their heavy udders swaying
to and fro, and slipping occasionally. I fortunately
stopped his game shortly after he had commenced it,
or Master Saucy might have done me a considerable
deal of mischief, and I gave orders that the horses
were never to be turned into a field where cows were
grazing again.

A disturbance of the digestive organs will cause a
cow to warp, and there are constitutional reasons in
the case of many highly-fed and highly-bred animals
which cause them to be more likely to abort than
others. After prolonged wet weather, and in some
particular seasons, the disease is much more frequent
than at other periods, the time it mostly takes place

SYMPTOMS OF DISORDER. 177

being between the ninth and fifteenth week; but it
may occur at any time during pregnancy.

The cows should be carefully watched, and if one
of them show by her appearance the least danger
of this happening, the animal should be removed
from the rest. This is always a safe plan, even if
the suspicion should turn out to be ill-grounded and
without foundation ; and men should be encouraged
to err even on the safe side in this respect, which may
occasion a misfortune to be averted.

Youatt describes the symptoms as these : " The
cow is somewhat off her feed, rumination ceases,
she is listless and dull, the milk diminishes or dries
up, the motions of the foetus become more feeble,
and at length cease altogether; there is a slight
degree of enlargement of the belly, there is a little
staggering in her walk; when she is down she lies
longer than usual, and when she gets up she stands
for a longer time motionless. As the abortion ap-
proaches, a yellow, or red glairy fluid runs from the
vagina — a symptom which rarely or never deceives —
her breathing becomes laborious and slightly con-
vulsive. The belly has for several days lost its
natural rotundity, and has been evidently falling ;
she begins to moan, the pulse becomes small, wiry,
and intermittent. At length labour comes on, and
is often attended with difficulty and danger.

"When symptoms of abortion appear, the cow
should be removed from the pasture to a comfortable
shed. If the discharge is glairy, but not offensive, it
may be presumed that the calf is not dead ; this may
be assured by the motion of the fcetus, and thus it
is possible that the abortion may be yet avoided :

i 7 8 DAIRY FARMING.

she should then be copiously bled, and a dose of
physic should be given immediately after bleeding.
The physic beginning to operate, half a drachm of
opium and half an ounce of sweet spirit of nitre
should be administered. The animal should be kept
quiet, gruel may be allowed ; but nothing like those
comfortable drinks recommended by the cow-leech.

"The treatment thus differs little from that of par-
turition ; but, should the discharge be foetid, the
natural conclusion will be that the foetus is dead,
and it must be got rid of as speedily as possible ; if
fever exists, bleeding may be requisite ; or, perchance,
the aforesaid comfortable drink may not be out of
place."

If a cow aborts at a very early period of preg-
nancy, medical treatment is not necessary, and
perhaps no disturbance to health will ensue ; but at
a late period, a dose of salts is often given to cause
a copious action of the bowels, followed by a sedative,
consisting of an ounce each of laudanum and spirit
of nitrous ether ; and when there is inflammation of
the womb, hot fomentations are applied externally
to the loins, for a long time together, and blood is
sometimes abstracted.

Prompt treatment will sometimes stave off abor-
tion. The cow should be bled, and afterwards kept
very quiet, and one-and-a-half ounce of tincture of
opium, and the same of spirit of nitrous ether, given ;
but in this course of treatment no purgative.

It most frequently happens that the after-birth is
not got rid of after abortion has taken place, and as
this ought to come away it should be removed gently
by the hand, which, for the purpose, must be introduced

THE DROP. i 79

into the uterus, and the placenta separated from it, by
breaking down the points of attachment as carefully
as possible.

The Drop. — Dropping after calving is supposed to
be an affection of the nervous system, which is struck
in the region of the brain, or the spinal marrow ; but
chiefly of the latter, at the region of the loins ; but
the disease is somewhat mysterious in its character,
and very often comes on suddenly, just after the cow
has given birth to a fine calf, and is in apparently
good health and condition, and to all appearance in
the way of doing well ; and the disease has been
attributed by competent judges to arise from the
contractions of the womb after calving, in addition
to the muscular efforts that have been put forth in
expelling the foetus, which produce an exhaustion of
the nervous energy of the animal, particularly at the
region of the loins — the drop seldom taking place
till after the cow has had several calves, and with
each succeeding one the uterus becomes more dilated,
which causes the contractions to be greater, which
brings on a great exhaustion of the nervous system.

Some breeds of cows are much more subject to
this complaint than others, the mortality being
greatest amongst highly-fed cows; and although
cows should not be kept in too low a condition before
calving, if they are allowed to become too fleshy, a
dangerous condition of plethora may be induced.

Those cows which are naturally high feeders, as
the shorthorn and other breeds, which put on flesh in
great quantities when liberally fed, are not so subject
to this complaint as the better milking varieties, whose
secretions rather tend to milk than flesh. These are

DAIRY FARMING.

able to assimilate a greater quantity of nutriment
without injury than those breeds whose excellence
consists in their milking qualifications.

There are two phases of the disease — acute and
subacute ; and while the more serious form is very
often incurable, the other can be got over, as some
degree of appetite and animation is left to the animal,
although it may possibly be neither able to rise nor
stand. In acute cases, there is often entire torpor, the
animal's sufferings being evinced by dismal moanings,
and there appears to be an entire loss of all power,
with no ability either to eat or discharge dung or
urine — there being apparently an entire cessation of
the natural functions of the bodily organs, the pulse
being often imperceptible, and, when felt, weak and
quick; till death, which generally takes place very
quickly — from one to three days — terminates the
poor animal's sufferings.

The curative system generally adopted is to bring
on action of the stomach and bowels by purgatives
and stimulants ; and for this purpose large doses are
given, as :

Sulphate of magnesia
Flowers of sulphur
Croton oil

Carbonate of ammonia
Powdered ginger .
Spirit of nitrous ether

i pound
4 ounces
10 drops
4 drachms

4 „
i ounce

These are mixed in warm oatmeal gruel and given to
the cow, slowly and carefully ; the quantity of croton
oil being increased when constipation is very ob-
stinate. A blistering liniment is rubbed on the loins

PREVENTIVE MEASURES. 181

and spine, the cow being kept as warm as possible, a
fresh sheepskin being recommended to be afterwards
placed on the loins, with the wool outwards.

A fourth of the above mixture should be given
every six hours, leaving out the croton oil until pur-
ging is produced, and if the animal cannot pass her
urine, it should be removed from her by the catheter.
Plenty of warm gruel should be given, and bran
mashes, if the cow will eat them. When the disease
assumes a milder form, the medicine recommended
should be given in greater moderation.

The best methods of preventing the disease, is to
allow the cows, some little time before calving, to
have moderate exercise ; to keep them well sheltered
from the weather, and while allowing them to have
enough, not to overfeed them. Before the cows are
about to calve, I have always made it a point to give
mine a strong dose of Epsom salts ; the plan was
never recommended to me, but it struck me that it
must be a good one to get the bowels well emptied of
food that might perhaps be difficult of digestion ; and
I attribute the invariable " good time " my cows have
at the period of calving to this practice, and to not
giving them the opportunity of leaping the fences, or
being worried by dogs ; in short, by having a watchful
eye kept on them.

If the cow does not clean properly after calving,
the best practitioners recommend that no haste be
used in removing the after-birth, it being considered
better treatment to wait a few days, giving it mild
purgatives, when, if it is then not got rid of, the hand
should be used, and the after-birth removed as gently
as possible. There is no doubt, however, but that

DAIRY FARMING.

many of these misfortunes are brought about by want
of care and due consideration for the condition of the
cows, which demand the attention of a humane and
thoughtful attendant to see after them upon these
occasions.

Inversion of the Uterus. — Inversion of the uterus,
when it does take place, is usually after parturition ;
but inversion of the vagina sometimes occurs before.
In the case of either happening, the parts should be
carefully cleansed, and returned as quickly as possible,
the hinder parts of the animal being kept higher than
the fore ones. Calving is sometimes delayed, or pre-
vented by unnatural presentation ; in which case it is
necessary, if possible, to restore the calf to its proper
position, which should be with its head resting on the
forelegs, which protrude first, in some cases it being
necessary to turn the calf. When the hind parts are
presented first, care should be taken that both feet are
freed before the buttocks. In difficult cases it is
necessary to remove the foetus piecemeal, so as to
save the cow.

Meteorisation {Hoove, Hoven, or Blasting). — This is
invariably brought about by the cow eating green
food too ravenously, when driven first to the pastures,
or when the first artificial grasses are brought to her
in too great quantity ; and consists of distension of
the rumen by gas, given off by the food in consequence
of its fermentation. Carburetted hydrogen is engen-
dered principally in the early stage, and afterwards
sulphuretted hydrogen : which so distends the stomach
that, unless relief be given, suffocation will ensue. The
symptoms are very apparent, as the animal's stomach
gets an enormous size, and rumination ceases.

DISTENSION OF THE RUMEN. 183

The usual course is, to pass the hollow, flexible
probang down into the stomach of the animal, so that
the gas may escape through it, before, or after which
application, the following draught will be found
efficacious :

Powdered ginger 3 drachms

' Hartshorn 1 ounce

Water 1 p i nt

Should medicine not be ready at hand, of which a
small supply should always be kept in case of emer-
gencies, some lime-water may be given, or two drachms
of chloride of lime dissolved in a quart of water. A
purgative should afterwards be administered to remove
any of the lingering causes, and to restore the cow's
digestive organs to their natural state. Of course
an accident of this sort may take place, despite all
usual precautions, from a cow breaking her bounds,
and eating greedily in a growing clover field, or of
other succulent grasses, against her owner's wish, or
knowledge.

In very obstinate cases, in order to save the cow's
life, it may become necessary to make an incision in
her flank on the left side, between the last rib and the
hip-bone. For this purpose an instrument is used
called a trochar, which is put into a tube termed
a cannula, the former being withdrawn, while the latter
is allowed to remain until all the gas has escaped.
But if these professional instruments are not at hand,
substitutes may be found in a common penknife and
a quill, or stick of elder. The wound should after-
wards be sewn up, or a little plaster applied.

Distension of the Rumen. — Distension of the rumen

1 84 DAIRY FARMING.

is not nearly so common as the above, and though
not attended with such acute symptoms in the early
stage of its appearance, it is yet more difficult to apply
relief ; one of the chief objects being the necessity of
distinguishing between the cause arising from dis-
tension of the rumen with gas, or by food, which is
somewhat hard to do, as the appearances are similar.
When distension is produced by accumulated hard
and dry food, the swelling of the abdomen is not so
great, and the signs of distress exhibited by the
animal are not so urgent, though its real danger may
perhaps be greater. Upon pressing the abdomen in
the region of the rumen, it feels firm and hard ; and if
the probang is inserted no gas is liberated, and relief
obtained thereby. In tympanitis, from a stomach
which has been overloaded, meteorisation is often the
first symptom, to which must be added the fulness
and hardness of the paunch — that organ being in an
after manner the origin or source of the inflammation
of the organs of digestion. This form resists the
power of drinks of the ordinary kinds, or of ammonia
or ether, while puncturing does not give relief, the
accumulated food being formed into hard lumps
which can no longer be returned to the mouth for
a second mastication. When ordinary means have
failed, recourse is sometimes had to the trochar, in
order to find out the nature of the contents of the
rumen, and the degree to which the distension exists ;
which is ascertained by moving it about, and forming
an opinion from the amount of resistance offered
to it.

The method of treatment in mild cases is to
administer a drench, composed of purgative and car-

CHOKING. !8 5

minative medicines, as well as injections ; sometimes
blood-letting being resorted to. In obstinate cases,
the stomach-pump is used, to inject a large quantity
of liquid into the stomach, so as to excite vomiting ;
and in extreme cases, where the life of the animal
appears in immediate danger, an opening is made
through the flank into the rumen, large enough for
the hand to be introduced, and the contents taken
away ; great care being taken in the meanwhile that
the food does not escape into the abdomen ; in the
event of which great irritation would be produced.
To prevent this occurring, the edges of the wound in
the rumen should have a stitch, or two, to fasten them
to the sides of the opening of the flank, and after the
mass has been taken away, the internal wound should
be closed by sutures, the ends of which hang out of
the external opening, which is also closed by its own
sutures. A soft diet has to be given after this opera-
tion, oily laxatives being administered, till the animal
shows there is no occasion for their further use ; and
careful treatment must be pursued till the wounds are
quite well.

Choking. — Choking is an accident of frequent
occurrence; a piece of turnip or other root, being
hastily swallowed, becomes fixed in the oesophagus,
and, pressing upon the softest parts of the windpipe,
impedes respiration, which, if not removed, will cause
suffocation. When the obstructing object has been
taken away, the oesophagus is sometimes so lacerated
and injured that the animal is unable to recover from
the wounds it has received ; a smooth object being
more dangerous than a rough or unequal one. Some-
times when cows have been turned into orchards, they

!86 DAIRY FARMING. '

have picked up apples that have fallen, and these are
more to be feared than pieces of turnip, or other roots
of unequal dimensions.

The symptoms of such an accident are exhibited
in signs of distress— an attempt to vomit— and a dis-
charge of frothy saliva from the mouth, accompanied
by an enlarged stomach, from meteorisation of the
rumen. The probang has to be used, which is best oiled
first, or a little oil given to the animal by the horn.
A rather large instrument should be used with a knob
at the end, cut obliquely, and this should be passed
gently along the roof of the mouth, till it enters the
oesophagus. When the obstructing body is felt, the
head of the animal should be alternately raised and
depressed, and firm but moderate pressure used. If it
cannot be pushed away at once, injudicious haste
should not be used, for after waiting a little while it
will, perhaps, readily yield to the next attempt, while
it is getting softer in the meanwhile, and will often
readily move upon the second trial.

The process requires to be done carefully and
deliberately ; as haste, and want of care, will perhaps
produce laceration of the lining membrane of the
oesophagus and its muscles, which is to be dreaded ; a
swelling of a hard, tense nature, commencing when
in the neck part, which quickly increases, generally
more above the place of injury than below it. Respi-
ration becomes painful and difficult, the animal
refuses to eat, the breath becomes foetid, and death
takes place from the third to the fifth day. When
the obstructing object has been successfully removed,
it is best to feed the animal upon soft food for a little
time afterwards.

LOSS OF CUD. is 7

When the offending body, as is sometimes the
case, gets impacted in the roof of the mouth, instead
of pushing it downwards, it requires to be removed by
drawing it upwards, which must be done by the hand,
considerable force having sometimes to be used.
V/here it is possible to remove an obstacle by drawing
it upwards, this course is always to be preferred, as
the danger of lacerating the oesophagus is done away
with.

Veterinary surgeons use an instrument for drawing
an obstructing body upwards, with a spring forceps
at one end, and a handle at the other end of a hollow
probang, which is the better practice of the two, being
attended with less risk.

Loss of Cud. — This is more frequently a symptom of
disease, rather than a disease of itself, showing that
there is a considerable derangement of the functions
of the body, which is shown by a staring coat— the
animal wearing a dull look, and belching wind, which
indicates loss of power of the stomach. When this is
manifested without any other appearance of decided
disease, mild purgatives, and stomachics, will generally
bring round a more favourable condition, the restora-
tion of rumination being justly looked upon as a
favourable symptom in cases of indisposition of this
nature. Either excess of food, insufficient food, or bad
food, will cause loss of cud, and sometimes bad teeth will
assist in promoting it, and unsound or doubtful cows
should never be retained in the herd.

Inflammation of the Rumen.— Inflammation of the
rumen is somewhat uncommon, but is sometimes
occasioned by the presence of poisonous plants in a
pasture, such as hemlock, water-dropwort, wild

O 2

DAIRY FARMING.

parsley, henbane, and yew (the yew-tree being
poisonous to cattle), and sometimes even the common
crowfoot, and wild poppy.

The ergot of rye, and other grain and grasses, when
moderately consumed bring on abortion, and when
largely eaten causes death ; but in the case of the
preceding, the effects are usually seen to be of a
narcotic character, when purgatives should be given,
and the cows removed from the pastures.

Milk Fever. — When cows are fed too highly before,
or after calving, with a view of stimulating the supply
of milk, and it has been overdone, the result is some-
times milk fever ; the udder becoming hard, and the
flow of milk checked. The cow appears to totter,
and wears a somewhat wild look. Aperient medicine
should be given, and the cow fed upon soft relaxing
food, if in high condition ; and if the udder is large, it
should be emptied, by milking twice a day for some
days before calving, and by this means the con-
sequences apprehended will be averted.

Garget, Diseases of the Udder— -The udders of
cows, after calving, are sometimes subject to attacks
of inflammation, swelling, feeling hot to the touch,
the secretion of milk being interrupted, and a species
of milk fever produced, sometimes occasioned by
exposure to cold and wet. In bad cases, the loss
of one or two quarters of the udder ensues, and some-
times it ends fatally. The treatment to be pursued,
in the first place, is to apply hot fomentations, and
if the inflammation is considerable, bleeding from
the milk veins in the affected side is recommended.
Opening medicine should also be given, and if the
cow shivers, a stimulant should be added, consisting

THE COW-POX. 189

of an ounce of powdered ginger in warm gruel or
ale, with two ounces of spirits of nitrous ether, which
will occasionally stop any further progress of the
disease.

After fomenting the udder, it will be found effica-
cious to rub an ointment, composed of the following
ingredients, into the part : Powdered camphor, one
ounce ; mercurial ointment, two drachms ; lard, eight
ounces.

The Cow-Pox. — The cow-pox, although familiar
enough to us by hearsay, in connection with vacci-
nation and vaccine lymph, is by no means a common
disease with cows. It consists of the formation of
numerous pustules on the udder and teats, which,
being very infectious, is communicated from one cow
to another, by means of the hands of the milker.

Aperient medicine should be given, and a weak
astringent applied to the sores on the teats. The
astringent is easily made with a little powdered chalk,
with the addition of one-fourth part of alum, which
will be found a very effective application.

Retention or Stoppage of the Urine. — Pregnant
cows are sometimes subject to a stoppage of the
urine, owing to a pressure of the womb on the
stomach. When this is found to be the case, the
urine should be removed by means of the catheter,
which is a hollow tube; and if accompanied with any
other symptoms, the treatment must be in accordance
with them.

Sore Teats. — Cows are sometimes troubled with
sore teats, which causes the operation of milking to
be a disagreeable one, both to the cow and the
operator. A healing salve can be made of one ounce

rcjo

DAIRY FARMING.

of yellow wax, which, when beginning to cool, should
receive the addition of a drachm of alum, finely
powdered, and a quarter of an ounce of sugar of
lead, rubbed equally into it. Before milking, the teats
should be well washed with warm water ; and when
the milking is finished, the teats should be dressed
with a little of the salve.

Moor-ill, or Wood-evil. — These are the names
given to a disorder which sometimes afflicts cows
that are fed in the neighbourhood of woods and
commons, and is somewhat singular in its effects.
At its first commencement, the coat of the animal
presents a staring appearance, and the external in-
tegument appears to adhere to the ribs below, so that
there is quite a difficulty in raising it. The animal
daily loses flesh, and goes about with her belly tucked
up, being constipated from the beginning of the
disease till its end, the constipation often being of
a very obstinate nature. The appetite appears to be
altogether depraved, and the animal will devour all
sorts of rubbish, quite opposed to the cravings of a
healthy condition, and will pick up bones, stones, bits
of iron, oyster-shells, or anything that may be lying
about, as well as any stray linen. She will swallow
the filthiest urine, in preference to clear water, the
appetite at best being very capricious. These arc
generally the first symptoms, which are succeeded bj
stiffness in some parts of the body, oftenest in the
fore-shoulders and extremities, or the chest ; and she
may be seen uneasily shifting from limb to limb, and
sometimes falling lame. When she moves, which the
poor creature is often disinclined to do, her joints
emit a cracking noise, as if they rattled in their

MOOR-ILL, OR WOOD-EVIL. 191

sockets, while she will utter dismal groans, and alto-
gether wear such an utterly forlorn and unusual
aspect, as to cause illiterate country people, in some
districts, to consider the cow's ailments the result of
witchcraft.

The secretion of milk becomes lessened, and it is
difficult to get her to take food, and if the disorder
be not quickly arrested, it enters upon a new phase,
and the cow begins to heave at the flanks, at times
very violently, and the pulse is greatly accelerated.

The proper treatment to adopt is, at the first signs
of the disease, to regulate the bowels, by giving a
strong dose of aloes, in solution, to be followed up
with Epsom salts ; the doses to be repeated every
six hours till they operate. Bleeding is sometimes
resorted to, but this is not considered good practice,
ur.less there are signs of inflammation of the lungs, in
wliich case the animal will experience relief from it,
but bleeding requires to be done with great caution.
The purgatives should be followed by febrifuge and
alterative medicines, until the organs of digestion are
brought back into their proper condition.

Some insert a seton in the dewlap, and take away
ten pounds of blood in very severe cases. A recipe
has been given, to administer, in very obstinate ones,
six drachms of aloes, twelve ounces of sulphur, and
sixteen drops of croton oil, the first day, in addition
to a blood-letting of ten ounces ; repeat the bleeding
to the extent of eight ounces the second day, and a
smaller dose of the same purgative, and, in addition,
blister the sides.

Pleuro- pneumonia. — Pleuro -pneumonia is the
scientific name given to a disease which is supposed

DAIRY FARMING.

to have made its first appearance in this country in
the year 1840, when it was said to be introduced into
the north-west counties by some Irish cattle. It is a
highly contagious disease, and consists not only of
inflammation of the lungs, but also of the membrane
which covers them, as well as that which lines the
cavity of the chest ; and perhaps the best breeds of
cattle, as the Shorthorn, have suffered more from its
ravages than the inferior ones.

Its highly infectious character is said by some to
be due to poisonous atoms floating in the air, pro-
ceeding from the respiratory surfaces of diseased
animals. It often makes great ravages amongst a
herd of cattle before its presence is suspected, the
earlier symptoms of the disease being very faint and
obscure. A slight, but short cough, and a little star-
ing of the coat, are the first indications to be dreaded ;
and these may continue for some time. The beast
first struck with this disorder lags behind the rest of
the herd, and does not feed so readily as usual, show-
ing greater indifference to food. After a while, the
breathing becomes accelerated, and the animal begins
to lose flesh. At a later stage, the animal shows its
distress much more plainly, the appetite falling off
almost entirely, and rumination ceases ; while the
breathing becomes greatly accelerated, and is short
and catching ; till at last the animal pants for breath,
and eventually dies of suffocation.

Where pleuro-pneumonia is known to exist, it is
compulsory for the owners to have the infected
animals slaughtered, but the question of treatment
resolves into a suspicion of infection, and in a large
herd, where there seems a probability that one or two

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.

193

may be infected, it is the most prudent course to have
them slaughtered at once. It must be borne in mind,
that the first stage is merely a short husky cough and
a staring coat, and the curative measures which are
best to be adopted at this very early stage, is mode-
rate bleeding, which ought neither to be repeated nor
to be of large amount ; this course being resorted to
merely as an immediate stay to the progress of the
disease, while counter irritation in the shape of blister-
ing is being instituted. This is best effected by
removing the hair from the sides, and rubbing into
them a combination of ointment of iodide of mercury,
of tartarised antimony, and of cantharides. Croton
oil as well, mixed with the preceding, will cause the
blistering to be yet more effective, the thick hide
making it difficult to raise a blister. A large seton
may also be inserted in the dewlap, with the view of
continuing the counter inflammatory action after that
from the blister has spent itself. The bowels require
regulating, and a good medicine for this purpose con-
sists of one pound of Epsom salts, one ounce of
powdered saltpetre, and half a drachm of tartar
emetic, in two pints of gruel. This to be repeated
about every eight hours.

Another recipe consists of first giving Epsom salts
and linseed oil, and then administer afterwards a
sedative, consisting of:

White hellebore, powdered . • • 1 drachm
Tartarised antimony . . . . 1 „
Nitrate of potash 2 drachms

The latter powder to be mixed up with gruel, and
given morning and evening upon the first day, and

194

DAIRY FARMING.

once a day afterwards, for about five days. When
recovering, bran and linseed mashes are good to
administer, linseed in any form being an excellent
food to give to animals that are either suffering or
recovering from this disorder.

Foot and Mouth Disease {Epidemic). — When this
disease attacks a herd of cows, a heavy loss is some-
times experienced, but its severity has greatly varied
at different times, and in different places, the cause
of the disease being altogether obscure ; but there is
no doubt of its being communicated by contagion.
A cow, when first attacked, strays away from her
companions, eats but little, and is dull of habit.
Sometimes the first presence of the disease is mani-
fested by cold extremities, with a staring coat, followed
by a reaction, when the extremities become hot, and
a discharge of saliva takes place from the mouth ; the
tongue being found swollen, while she appears to be
tender in the feet, the muzzle feeling dry and hot,
with evident feverish symptoms. In the course of the
first day, vesicles are found on the tip and upper part
of the tongue, as well as other parts of the mouth, the
lips, and between the hoofs and the heels, the teats
and udder being sometimes covered with vesicles like
the tongue. After a while, the cow feeds slowly and
with difficulty, and evidently experiences pain in
mastication. The vesicles burst and discharge a thin
serum, with increased soreness of the mouth, and
greater discharge of saliva. Sometimes there are
swellings, like small bladders, along the back and loins,
which seem as if filled with air upon pressure. This
goes on for about five days, when in favourable cases
the animal gets better, and shows a disposition to eat,

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE.

195

and although she may be pulled down a great deal,
gets rapidly well afterwards.

These are the ordinary symptoms and presentment
of the complaint ; but sometimes a low typhoid form
is assumed, and a putrid state produced. At other
times, when there is a predisposition inherent in the
animal to become so affected, it appears to be
complicated with inflammation of the lungs, spas-
modic affection of the bowels, or Inflammation of the
liver. Under a mild form of the disease, the animals
affected will get well without any medical assistance ;
but when bleeding to excess, which has a very weak-
ening tendency, has sometimes been done, or other
improper treatment resorted to, it takes the form of
typhus fever, which will carry off the animal.

The treatment to be adopted is, to apply astrin-
gents to the mouth and feet, relaxing the bowels, and
moderating the fever which prevails, and afterwards
encourage the appetite by giving tonics. Epsom salts
is a good aperient medicine, and sulphur mixed with
it has a cooling tendency, while a good tonic is
made of gentian root, ginger, and sulphate of iron, in
the proportion of two drachms of each. A solution of
alum, with which a little treacle is mixed, will be found
useful for the mouth, and the feet should be treated
with an astringent.

A Mr. Bruce upon one occasion published an
account of the method he followed upon his farm in
Aberdeenshire, which was very successful. As soon
as he discovered the disease amongst his herd of
cattle he had all his healthy animals dressed with a
solution of carbolic acid and water, in the proportion
of one ounce of acid to one quart of water. He also

196 DAIRY FARMING.

applied to their feet a mixture of the acid and
common gas tar — one-third of the former to two of
the latter. The result of this treatment was that not a
single animal was affected that had previously been
dressed, although, in many instances, they had fre-
quently come in contact with diseased ones, which
were suffering acutely from it. I ought also to add
that if the udder is affected, local bleeding and
fomentations will be of advantage ; and if the liver
and lungs should prove to be out of order, appro-
priate treatment must be resorted to.

Paralysis, Palsy, or Tail-slip. — Most of the diseases
to which cows are subject are brought on by bad
management or neglect ; and tail-slip, as it is vul-
garly called, is a very prominent instance, mostly
occurring with animals that are much exposed, or
have been kept in damp places, or indifferently fed ;
young stock, for which almost anything is thought
good enough by some people, being very subject to it.
The seat of disease does not, however, arise in the
tail, in which region of the animal cow-doctors say a
worm has taken up its habitation, and who commonly
make an incision in that part which is weakest, or
where the joint appears to be loosest ; the inability to
raise the tail in making excretions of dung and urine,
by which the hind parts become very filthy, arising
from weakness or paralysis. It is true the sore in the
tail will induce the animal to make efforts to move it
about when it becomes painful, and the warm stimu-
lating drinks which are generally given, coupled with
improvement in keep, will sometimes strengthen the
muscles which move the tail, and moderate or stop
the scouring. But as to the removal of a worm by

TAIL-SLIP. 197

slitting the tail, there is never a worm there to move —
though in some country districts it would be con-
sidered rank heresy to doubt of its existence — rheu-
matism being the first active cause, ending in palsy ;
so that making an incision in the tail, at best, will be
merely a temporary remedy, caused by the blood-
letting, which would be of advantage.

The proper treatment to be pursued is, to bleed in
the first place, administer a purgative, combined with
a carminative ; stimulate, or blister, the loins, as well
as any other affected parts ; and insert a seton in the
dewlap. Above all things, however, the animal must
be comfortably and warmly housed, exposure to the
weather being the most common occasion of the
disease, particularly affecting cows in exposed situa-
tions, open to a cutting east or north-east wind.
Plenty of good nutritious food should be given after-
wards, coupled with warm stimulating medicine;
linseed meal, or oil-cake perhaps, being about the best
food to give. The disease sometimes comes on
gradually, but is more often sudden in its appearance,
resembling in its effects an attack of lumbago in the
human patient ; the first symptoms being that the
animal is unable to rise, caused by want of power,
and there will be tenderness upon the loins and about
the rump, the skin being tight near those parts.

Redwater. — Redwater is a disease of the digestive
organs, especially of the liver; the urine being sur-
charged with biliary matter which ought to have
passed away by other channels. By many, it is
attributed to disease of the kidneys, but this is not
so, evidenced by an absence of any flakes of blood
in the urine, the affected animal not suffering either

DAIRY FARMING.

from great tenderness of the loins, which is always
associated with inflammation of the kidneys. The
disease usually makes its appearance in hot weather,
or after it, and is sometimes brought on by a change
from poor pastures to rich ones, or from marshy and
cold *-o dry and stimulating pasturage, or richer food.
Cow. are sometimes subject to it several weeks after
having calved.

In most cases, diarrhoea first sets in, which is
followed by constipation, when the pulse and the
breathing become accelerated, and the appetite is
impaired. The flow of milk is diminished, and rumina-
tion ceases; while the urine is brown, and perhaps after-
wards becomes black. The main part of adequate
treatment consists in regulating the bowels, and
bringing back the system to a healthy condition from
its temporary derangement ; and a draught composed
of the following should be given :

Sulphate of magnesia ... 12 ounces

Sulphur 4 „

Carbonate of ammonia ... 4 drachms

Powdered ginger . . . . 3 „

Calomel ! scruple

The best form to administer it, is in warm gruel.
After this, a fourth of the above, with the calomel,
may be repeated every six hours, until the bowels are
well moved, after which it will be found expedient to
administer mild stimulants with diuretics, as :

Spirit of nitrous ether . . . . 1 ounce

Sulphate of potash .... 2 drachms

Ginger . j drachm

Gentian root . . 1

The above should be given in gruel twice a day.

HEPATITIS. 1 99

Hepatitis. — An abundant supply of nutritious food
being often given to cows, with the view of increasing
the flow of milk, in some cases, owing to the pre-
disposition of the animal, a too plethoric condition of
the system is induced, which will bring on hepatitis,
or active inflammation of the liver, which is a some-
what rare disease with cows ; but is also sometimes
brought on by exposure to heat, from their being over-
driven, or by a sudden change in the temperature, or
by a thorough alteration in their food, or from any
cause which has the effect of deranging the digestive
organs.

The first sign is a decrease in the quantity of
milk yielded, and the cream presents a somewhat
ropy appearance, the appetite falling off, and the cow
showing signs of impaired activity ; with a stiffened,
staggering, or halting gait ; the nose becoming
alternately dry and moist. As the disorder pro-
gresses, rumination is only partially performed, or
altogether ceases ; and when the disease has lasted
for a long time, and recovery is about to set in, a
yellow scurf rises from the skin. Inflammation
begins in one or more quarters of the udder, and
tumours make their appearance in different parts of
the body, which at length burst and discharge matter ;
and in some cases these indications are accompanied
with a short, sore cough. Constipation is the usual
accompaniment, the excretions being covered with
mucous and vitiated bile of a dark-coloured appear-
ance ; which is succeeded by diarrhoea, after the
lapse of several days. In some cases, the cow suffers
from violent purging, the excretions being of a very
dark colour, and extremely offensive, the pulse being

200

DAIRY FARMING.

intermittent and feeble — the result of the liver having
lost its power, and the bile unfit for performing its
usual office, being either inactive, or of a vitiated
quality, and thus unable to carry on its wonted office.
Like as in the human body, upon the occasions of
derangement of the system, when calomel has to be
resorted to, mercurial preparations need to be ad-
ministered, so as " to touch the liver," and calomel, in
doses of a scruple, should be given twice a day, with
one or two scruples of opium. The treatment of the
disorder must, however, be modified in accordance
with the symptoms exhibited, but the bowels should
always be cleared out by a dose of Epsom salts. A
blister may also be applied with advantage.

In cases of chronic hepatitis, the same treatment
should be pursued with this difference, that the doses
should be smaller, but continued longer, and mercurial
ointment rubbed into the right side.

I should never think of keeping an animal, myself,
afflicted with any chronic disorder, for, however in-
teresting prolonged treatment may be to the veterinary
surgeon from a scientific or professional point of view,
it is no joke to have to look after an ailing animal for
a continued length of time ; but in the case of a
prized or valued beast, it may be sometimes deemed
necessary to spare no pains or trouble to effect a cure ;
and under such circumstances it is, at all events,
desirable to know how to set about it.

Rheumatism, Joint-felon., Chine-felon. — Rheumatism
is often referred to under the designations of joint-
felon and chine-felon ; generally being produced by
exposure to the weather, and is sometimes partial, and
at others very severe ; the fibrous tissues becoming

QUARTER-ILL, BLOOD-STRIKING, ETC. 201

affected, which is sometimes extended to the serous
membrane lining the chest, and investing the heart.
The disorder is manifested much in the same manner
as in the human subject, being characterised by great
stiffness of the joints and pain in moving.

Bleeding is generally recommended in the first
instance, and purgative medicine given, together with
an ounce of spirit of nitrous ether. The latter, being
a very useful remedy, may be given twice a day, with
a drachm of tartarised antimony and one of colchicum.
It is also found advisable to foment the parts prin-
cipally affected, and afterwards to rub them well with
a stimulating liniment.

Quarter-ill, Blood-striking, or Black- quarter. —
There are two distinct diseases described under the
above names, or if they are not distinct, the same
disease, or diseases, closely resembling each other
are brought about by totally opposite causes, most
frequently happening to yearling heifers and two-
year-old heifers. The young animals mostly get it
from lying on cold, damp soil, particularly when there
have been hoar-frosts. In the one case, it usually
makes its appearance in the early part of winter,
and its course is so swift, that an animal, quite well
to all appearance on the preceding evening, may be
found dead the next morning. When the cases are
not thus suddenly fatal, the animal is found with
•one quarter very much swollen, hence the term
" quarter-ill," accompanied with a good deal of
lameness, and if the swelling continues to increase,
the case soon proves hopeless. After death, upon
examination, the affected parts will be found nearly
black, from distension of the capillaries with black

202

DAIRY FARMING.

blood ; lymph being deposited amongst the muscles,
and air infiltrated into the cellular membrane, which
accounts for the crackling noise which is heard, when
the hand is drawn over the beast while living; and
unless these swellings can be dispersed, death soon
ensues.

In consequence of the rapidity of the disorder,
little can be done in checking its progress, the best
course to pursue being to bleed, unless the pulse be
very feeble; before doing which, a diffusible stimulant
should be administered — as, two ounces of spirits of
nitrous ether, together with a drachm of camphor,
given with warm gruel.

The other phase of the disease is exhibited at a
different time of the year, and may often be attributed
to an injudicious change from poor winter food, when
the animals are fed with difficulty perhaps, to rich
and luxuriant pasture, or succulent grasses, which
tend greatly to increase the supply of blood, which
takes this form of disorder, instead of the more
common one of diarrhoea, by which nature exerts a
modifying influence, and endeavours to relieve the
system. Bleeding freely should be resorted to as.
quickly as possible, and the bowels should be well
opened. By gradually changing the pastures and the
food, so as not to run from one extreme to another,
the disorder, when it arises from this cause, may be
prevented. The same also under the first-named
aspect, which can be guarded against by housing the
young animals at night, and putting them into
sheltered yards, before the winter comes on, and not
leaving it to the last minute.

I once lost, from this disorder, the handsomest one-

FARDEL-BOUND. 203

year-old heifer I ever had, which was of a beautiful
dun colour, a cross between an Alderney cow and
a first-rate shorthorn young bull a neighbour of
mine possessed. It was about the second or third
calf that I had reared, and gave promise of turning
out a splendid cow; and as I had only just then
turned my attention to these matters, when it was
found dead one morning, having been apparently in
sound health the night previous, we none of us were
able to assign any reasonable cause for such a sudden
death. I knew very little about such matters then,
but it was towards the close of autumn, or beginning
of winter, and we used to allow the calves to stay out
all night after they had had the run of the meadows
for the whole summer, thinking the accessible part of
the plantations sufficient shelter for them, and my
subsequent experience, which I have derived from
reading and observation, and hearing of similar cases,
causes me to identify the mysterious loss, as it appeared
to us at the time, with quarter-ill. I had the skin
tanned, and it has been used as a hearthrug in an odd
room that is set aside as a receptacle for odds and ends.

Fardel-bound. — A disease known under this name
appears to consist in the retention of food in the reti-
culum, or second stomach of the cow, which is seldom
diseased, unless in connection with some other dis-
order, such as derangement of the rumen. The
stomachs of the ox are four in number, the digestive
organs being of a somewhat complicated character, a
much more elaborate course of digestion having to be
gone through than in the case of the horse. The food
seems to get impacted firmly between the plaits of
this stomach, and this may probably be due to the

204 DAIRY FARMING.

presence of narcotic plants in the pastures, or to too
large a quantity of dry food, unaccompanied with
sufficient moisture, or by some other cause, which has
resulted in derangement of the digestive organs.

The most appropriate treatment consists in giving
opening medicines together with stomachics, such as
Epsom salts, combined with ginger. The fine sense
of smell possessed by herbivorous animals generally
causes them to reject unsuitable food, when poisonous
plants abound in a pasture, but they are accidentally
partaken of at times, and the main object should be to
empty the stomach of its contents as speedilyaspossible.

Blain, or Gloss Anthrax— -Blain is an inflammation
of the membrane lining the mouth and tongue, which
is sometimes confounded with the epidemic, as it is
called, or foot and mouth disease. The tongue swells
very much, accompanied with much soreness, upon
which vesicles form, ending at times in mortification,
the disorder being of a very virulent character, as the
animal, under its worst forms, becomes either suffo-
cated or starved.

The main thing is to lose no time, but lance any
vesicle that has formed, and abstract some blood from
the roof of the mouth. The bowels should be opened,
but the animal not violently purged, and small doses
of nitre and tartarised antimony given daily, either
with linseed gruel, or in the water supplied. The
mouth should be washed twice a day with a lotion
formed of the following ingredients :

Powdered alum . . . ., . 2 drachms

Sulphate of zinc I scruple

Treacle 1 ounce

Warm water 16 ounces

MANGE, ETC.

205

Foul in tfie Foot, Loo, or Low. — Inflammation, and
lameness, are generally the first indications of this
disease, which resembles somewhat the foot-rot in
sheep. This is followed by soreness between the
claws, offensive matter being discharged from the
foot. Sometimes abscesses repeatedly form, and prove
extremely troublesome. Cows which are turned out
on wet or marshy land are the most liable to it, which
may be traced to moisture and the friction of mud
between the claws. The affected part should be kept
free from moisture, and a slough produced by means
of an escharotic. A large pledget of tow covered
with tar, on which sulphate of copper may be spread,
should be placed between the claws, and renewed as
often as necessary, which may probably be in the
course of every forty-eight hours.

The Thrush,or Aphthce. — This ailment takes the
form of small pustules, which cover both the tongue
and the membrane lining the mouth. These break,
and become sores, and heal in the course of about
ten days, and are produced by the heat of the system.
Cooling medicine, as Epsom salts, should be given,
and a weak solution of alum applied to the mouth.
This treatment will hasten on the cure.

Mange. — Mange in cows is the result of either
poor living or contagion, and proceeds from the
presence of aearus, an insect that burrows beneath
the skin, where it will breed to a great extent if not
checked. The presence of these parasites causes an
intolerable itching, and the animal rubbing itself,
wherever it has the chance, the affected part soon
becomes sore and denuded of hair, and the skin after
a while becomes thickened and drawn up.

2o6

DAIRY FARMING.

The mange may be cured by using an ointment
composed of the following ingredients :

This should be well rubbed in, plenty of friction
being used in the operation.

In warm or showery weather, cows are subjected
to the attacks of various insects, as breeze flies, clegs,
and stouts, the irritation from which, at times, drives
them almost frantic ; while little flies (simulium),
especially, congregate about cattle on heaths and
marshes by thousands, getting into their ears ; and
there are others which alight on the lips, nostrils,
and eyes. The discomfort and annoyance produced
by these have a very unfavourable effect upon the
general condition of the cows, while they are exposed
to their onslaughts, and it is a good plan to get them
under cover in hot weather, when they are likely to be
thus tormented.

Lice. — When cows have been reduced by poor
living, lice are apt to infest them, and prove the
source of a good deal of irritation, though not so
much so as mange. These may be got rid of by
applying the ointment recommended for mange, or by
a decoction of strong tobacco-water.

Scouring, the Scant, Diarrhoea. — Diarrhoea is
mostly brought on by unwholesome or improper
food, and a change of diet will generally remove the
ailment; but if it does not stop, an astringent and tonic
should be given, for which there are many well-kr.tywn

Sulphur vivum .

Linseed oil

Oil of turpentine

4 ounces

CATARRH. 207

recipes in use, the following being a very efficacious
one :

Prepared chalk 2 ounces

Gentian root, powdered ... 2 drachms
Opium „ . . . K drachm

This is best given in gruel, once or twice a day, the
gruel being somewhat thick.

Diarrhoea may, however, proceed from other
causes, the most simple form being the relaxed state
of the mucous coat of the small intestines. In the
worst cases there will be found to be either disease of
the liver or the stomach, and particularly the mani-
plus. If the liver is affected, which may be seen
from the offensive condition of the dung, calomel,
combined with opium, in the proportion of half a
drachm of each, should be given twice a day.

Catarrh. — Young animals suffer more than old
cows from diseases affecting the air-passages, parti-
cularly in the spring, when east winds mostly prevail
in England, as well as in wet weather in autumn.
As the cows grow older, they get more seasoned, and
accustomed to the weather, but when the disorder
makes its appearance, the beast, at whatever age,,
should be comfortably housed, and supplied with a
good warm bed to lie on, and warm bran mashes
given to it, in which there is a little nitre. This
treatment will generally be found sufficient to effect a
cure ; but should the ailment prove severe, and display
signs of inflammation, moderate bleeding is recom-
mended, together with a dose of Epsom salts.

A stimulating liniment can be rubbed into the

2o8

DAIRY FARMING.

throat, or a seton inserted. The following will form
an effectual liniment :

Powdered cantharides ... I ounce

Olive oil 6 ounces

Oil of turpentine . . . . 2 „

well mixed up together.

Sometimes catarrh is epidemic, the animals suf-
fering from great debility, and in severe cases turning
even to gangrene.

Bronchitis. — Neglected catarrh often turns to
bronchitis, which consists of a more extensive in-
flammation over the same membrane, extending to a
more dangerous degree to the internal surface of the
lungs, the symptoms being similar to the former,
but greater pain evidently accompanying the act of
coughing.

It is best to bleed at an early stage of the disease,
and insert a seton in the brisket, and give mild, aperient,
febrifuge medicine.

By proper attention, and careful management,
nearly all the disorders to which cows are subject
may be avoided, as they mostly arise from causes
which may be prevented ; and, according to the well-
worn adage, " prevention is better than cure."

I have, I believe, enumerated most of the disorders
to which cows are principally subject, excepting a few
— which I shall name under another heading — common
to all cattle alike ; and while in all serious cases it
will be the best, and safest, course to call in an
experienced veterinary surgeon — one who thoroughly
understands his business — yet prompt treatment,

ADVANTAGE OF THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE. 209

taking things in good time, and applying a proper
remedy will often be the means of keeping off an
illness which may, at a later stage, be very difficult
to cure. A general theoretical knowledge of the
various forms of the most common ailments, with a
description of their general appearance, will, at all
events, guide the inexperienced dairy-farmer as to the
nature of the primary treatment to be resorted to.
Of course he can hardly be expected to perform
surgical operations ; and, in my own case, I take
care to make myself "conspicuous by my absence"
whenever some of the rather disgusting operations
are obliged to be performed on the cattle, in the
ordinary way, such as those connected with partu-
rition, which my working bailiff has the sole and
undisputed charge of ; while I act the rdle of con-
sulting physician only, and am quite content to leave
all surgical operations to others better qualified to
witness them ; although I make a point of walking
amongst my cattle, and inspecting them narrowly ;
and frequently on a winter's night, when the ground
has been covered with snow, I have gone through the
cattle-sheds in company with my foreman, carrying
a lantern, to see that the animals were all comfortable
for the night.

To me, this has never been a hardship ; though, as
I have said, I always shirk the grosser matters, which,
on account of my squeamishness, I am rather helpless
with. — upon one occasion to my cost. For upon a
bitter cold Christmas-eve, expecting a fine sow to
litter that had been watched all day, my foreman
came to me and said, " I have made the old sow com-
fortable for the night, sir, and don't think she will

2IO

DAIRY FARMING.

'pig' before morning, and I should like to go away
if you will allow me."

I did not like to refuse him upon such an occasion,
when he wished to go away and enjoy himself — ■
all our men having little presents given to them by
my wife at Christmas-time. But, sure enough, he
had not been gone an hour before somebody found
out the sow wanted looking to, and before anyone
could be found — for I would not have anything to do
with the matter — two or three of the little pigs had
crawled outside and were half frozen before matters
were properly adjusted ; and we had a smaller litter
of pigs in consequence, as some of them died from the
exposure to cold.

CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS, CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS.

FEBRUARY, 1895.

CLASSIFIED

CATALOGUE OF BOOKS

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I' AGE

INDEX OF AUTHORS ... 2
NEW AND FORTHCOMING BOOKS 3
AGRICULTURE, FARMING, HORTI-
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ART ! 6

BIOGRAPHY AND REMINIS-
CENCES g

COOKERY, Etc „

FICTION „

HISTORY AND POLITICS. . . 14
LITERATURE, BELLES LETTRES
AND POETRY ....',{

MILITARY PA ° 7 E

MISCELLANEOUS . . . l8

MUSIC, DRAMA, Etc. Ig

NATURAL HISTORY • . . . I9

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY . 2Q

SPORT „

THEOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY, SOCIO-
LOGY, Etc 22

TRAVEL 23

THOMAS CARLYLE'S WORKS. =5-36

CHARLES DICKENS'S WORKS 27 - 3I

A Separate ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE is issued,

CONTAINING

Drawing Examples, Diagrams, Models, Instruments, etc.,

ISSUED UNDEK THE AUTHORITY OF

THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT.

INDEX OF AUTHORS.

Page

Ablett (Win.) . . S

(T. R.) -6

About (E.) . . -22
Adams fH.. M.I.C.E) ■ 20
Aflalo (F. G.) . . 21
A : tchison (G., A.R.A.). 9
Alexander (Mrs.) . ■ 13
Allen (Grant) . . 13
Anderson (A. A.) .
Anderson (Capt. L.) . 12
Angel (H.) ... 6
Armstrong (W.) . 6, 7, 9
Aveling (E.) . . .20
Avon . . . • 21

Page

Dickens (Charles) 12, 14,
18, 24, 27-32
Dickens (Mary A.) . 13
Dietz (E.) . . -2i
Dilke (Lady) . • 6
Dinarte (Sylvio) . . 12
Dixon (Charles) . . 19
Douglas (J.) . • 20
Drayson (Major - Gen.

A. W.) . 10, 17, 20
Duckill (H.J.) . • 11
Ducoudray (G.) . 14, 15
Dyce (Wm.) . ■ 6

Bailey (Capt. H.) . . 21
Bailey (J. B.) . -9
Baker(W.L.,.4.3/~./.C. ?.) 20
Barfield (T. C.) . .6
Barrie (J. M.) . .13
Beatty - Kingston (W.)

9. T 9

Bell (Jas., Ph.D.). ■ 20
Benson (W.) . . .6
Bentley (H. C.) . 16, 21
Bianci (G. H.) . .8
Billington (M. F.}. . 23
Birdwood (Sir G. C. M.,

C.S.T.) ... 6
Bloo'mfield, Lady . . 9
Bonvalot (G.) . • 23
Bos (Dr. J. R.) . 5. 19
Boulger (D. C.) .
Boyle (F.) . 5, 12

Bowne (E. S.) .9
Brackenbury (Col. C. B.)

9. 14. 17

Bradley (Thos.) . . 6
Bridgman (F. A.) . . 23
Brock (Dr. J. H. E.) . 20
Bromley-Davenport (W.) 21
Buckland (F.) . 19. 21
Buffen (F. F.) . 9, 19
Burchell (R.) . .6
Burgess (E.) . .21
Burton (Lady I.) . -9
Butler (A. J.) . .14
Carlyle (Thomas) 9, 14, 16.

17, 18, 25, 26
Carstensen (A. R.) • 23
Chamberlain (The Rt.

Hon. J.) . . • 16
Charlotte Elizabeth

(Princess) . • 9
Charnay (D.) . . 23
Chaucer (Geoffrey) . 16
Chipiez (Charles) . . 7
Church (Prof. A. H.) 5, 6, 20
Collier (Hon. M.) . 12
Collins (Wilkie) . . 12
Cook (Clarence) .
Cooper-King (Lt.-Col.) 9, 17
Couperus (Louis) . . 13
Courtney (W. L.) 17, 22
Craik (G. L.) . 16, 17, 19
Crawfurd (0.) 19. 21, 23
Cripps (W. J.) . . 6
Curzon (Louis H.) . 21
Daly (J. B.) . . . 14
Das (D. N.) . . . 24
Daubourg (E.) . . 6
Davidson (E. A.) .
Dawson (W. H.j . . 14.
Doy (Wm.) . • .21
De Ainslie (General) . 17
De Bovet (Mdme.) . 24
De Champeaux (A.) . 6
De Falloux (Count)
De Koninck (L. L.)
De Lesseps (Ferdinand) 10
Delille (E.) . . .17
De Mandat - Grancey

(Baron E.) . . 14
De Windt (H.) . 14, 24
D'Haussonville (Vicomte)io
D'Orleans (Prince H.) . 24

Earl (Mrs.) . . .11
Edwards (Mrs. S.l 12, 13, 14
Elliot (Mrs. F. M.) . 15
Ellis(Col.A.B.) 12, 15, 17, 12
6, 19

Kelly (J. F.)
Kempt (R.) .
Kennard (E.)
Kennard (H. M.)
Kent (Chas.)

L (Major)

Lacordaire (Pere)
Laine (J. M.)
Laing (S.) .
Lamennais (F.)
Landor (W. S.)
Lanin (E. B.)
Laveleye (E. de)

Page
. i°

Page

• 15
. 6
. 6
. 6
. 22

• 23
17. 24
10, 17

■ 15

I Engel (Carl) .
j Escott (T. H. S.) . . 15

I Fane (Violet) . 13, 17
Farr (Wm.) . . .18
1 Field (Henry M.)
Fiske (J.) . • • 10
Fitzgerald (Percy) 10. 15, 19
Fleming (Geo., F.R.C.S.)

5, 18

Forster (John) . . 10
Fursyth (Captain) 2;, 24
Fortnum (C. D. E.) . 6
Foster (A. J.) . . 24
Fouque (De la M.) . 12
Francatelli (C. E.). .11
Franks (A. W.) . . 6

Gallenger (A.)
Gardner (J. S.) .
Garnier (E.)
Gasnault (P.)
Gillmore (P.)
Gingell (J. R.) .
Gleichen (Count) .
Gordon (General) .
Gorst (Sir J. E.) .
Gower (A. R.) . . 20
Greater Britain (Author

of) . . 14, 15. 17
Gresswell (Wm.) .
Greville-Nugent (1

Mrs.)
Griffin (Sir Lepel) .
Griffiths (Major A.)
Grimble (A.)
Gundry (R. S.) .
Hall (Sidney)
Hardy (Thos.) .
Harper (C. G.) .
Harrison (John) .
Hartington (E.) .
Hatton (R. G.) .
Hawkins (F.)
Hawthorn (Julian)
Hay (Rev. J.)
Henry (Re) .
Henslow (Prof.) .
Hildebrand (Hans)
Hill (Miss G.)
Holbein

Holmes (G. C. V.)
Hope (Andree) . 12, 15
Houssaye (A.) . io, ig
Hovelacque (A.) . . 22
Hozier (H. M.) . 10, 17
Hudson (W. H.) . . 19
Hueffer(F.) . . 19
Hughes (W. R.) . .24
Hunt (Mrs. Alfred) . 12
Huntly (Marquis of) 22, 24
Hutchinson (Rev. H. N.) 20

. 18
. 22

• 23

• 17
■ 15

• «3

• "3
10, 17

• »3

• 19

• 23

• 7
. 21

• 13

17
• S
. 11

Le Conte (J.)
Lee (F.)
Lefevre (A.) .
: Le Roux (H.)
Leroy-Beaulieu (A.) . 23
Leslie (R. C.) 10, 20, 24
I Letourneau (Dr. C.)
Lilly (W. S.) .
" I Lineham (Mrs. R. S.)

24; (W .J.)

Linton (Mrs. Lynn)
Little (Rev. H. W.)

(Rev. Canon Knox) 14

Lloyd (W. W.) .
Long (J.) .
Low (Wm.) .

M'Dermott (P. L.)
Macdonald (A. F.) . 15
McCoan (J. C.) . . 15
Malleson (Col. G. B.) 10, ic
Mallet (R.) .

Mallock (W. H.) . . 12
Marceau (Sergcnt) . 10
Marmery . • .23
Maskell (A.) ...

(W.) ... 7

Masp.ro (G.) . ■ 7
Meredith (Geo.) . . 13
Mills (John) . . .21
Mitre (General Don B.). 15
Molesworth (W. N.) . 15
Moltke (Count von) . 15
Moorhead (W. K.) . 12
Morley (Rt. Hon. John) 11

Rankin (T. T.) . • 21
Reade (Mrs. R. H.) . 13
Redgrave (E.) . . 8

(R.) • • • I

(S.) . • • 8

Reid (Sir T. Wcmyss) . 11
Renan (E.) . II, 16, 21
Riano (Juan E.) . .8
Ribton-Turner (C. J.) . 16
Roberts (Morley) . 13, 14
Robinson (J. F.) . .5

(J.Cj. . • 8

Rob«m (Geo.) . ■ 21
R. O. C. . . • 11
Rochfort (Louisa) . .11
■ R..ck (Very Rev. Canon) 8

16, 21
. 5
11, 18
• 17
. 18

. J 3.

on.

xo »

Muddock (J. E
Muntz (E.) .
Murray (Andrew) .
— (H.) . . 1;
Necker (Madame)
Nelson (W.) .
Nesbitt (A.) .
Newey (H. F.) .
Newton (E. T., F.G.S
Norman (C. B.) .
North (Barker) .
Norris (W. E.) .
O'Byrne (R.)
O'Grady (Standish)
Oliver (D.) .

(E. E.) .

Oxenham (Rev. H. N.)
Papus .

Paske (Sur.-Gen
Paterson (A.)
Payn (James)
Payton (E. W.)
Pelagius
Perrot (Georges)
Philips (F. C.)
Pierce (G. A.)
Pilling (Wm.)
Pitt-Taylor (F.)

• 13
16, 18
. 16
■ 5
24

. C. T.)

Jackson (F. G.)
James (H. A.)
Jeaffreson (J. C.)
Jeans (W. T.)
Jokai (Maurus)
Jopling (Louise)
Junker (Wm.)

• 7

• IS
. 10

12, 13
7

• 24

Pollen (J. H.)
Pollok (Col.)
Poole (Stanley Lane)
Poynter (E. J.) .
Pratt (Robert)
Purcell (T. A.) .
Pushkin (A. S.) .
Rae (W. Fraser) .
Ramsden (Lady G.

22, 24

• 24
13. '4
. 18
18

Roland (A.) .
Roosevelt (B.)
Ross (Mrs. J.)
Russan (A.) .
Russell (W. Clark)
Russell (Col. F.) .
Ryan (C.) .

Schadow (Dr. E.).

Schauermann (F. L.)

Scott (John).

Seemat: (O.).

Seton-Karr (H. W.

Sexton (A. H.) .

Shepherd (Major)

ShirrefHE.) .

Shore (A.) .

Simkin (R.) .
j Simmonds (T. L.).

Simpson (M. C. M.

Sinnett (A. P.) . ,

Smith (Major R. M.)
i " Snaffle " .
I Spalding (Lt.-Col.)
1 Spencer (Herbert)

Statham (H. H.) .

Steele (Anna C.) .

Stoddard (C. A.) .
, Stokes (M.) .

Story (W. W.) .
Sutcliffe (J.).

I Sweetland'(H. S.)

I Symonds (J. A.) .

Tanner (Prof.)
Taylor (E. R.) .
• Temple (Sir R.) .
I Thomson (D. C.)
! Thrupp (G. A.) .
Topinard (Dr. P.).
Tovey (Lt.-Col.) .
I Traherne (Major) .
1 Trollope (A.)
Troup (J. R.)
Underhill (G. F.) .
Vandam (A. D.) .
Veron (E.) .
Verschoyle (Rev. J.

Walford (Major) .

(Mrs. L. B.) .

Walker (Mrs.)
Walker (General

C. P. B.) . . 11.
Wall (A.) .
Wallis(G.) .
Ward (James) • .
Ward (R.) •
Watson (A. E. T.)
Watson (John) . •
Wegg-Prosser (F. R.) .
Westall (Wm.) .
White (Walter) .
Wicken (H. F.) .
Wiel (Hon. Mrs.) .
Wolverton (Lord) .
Woodgate (W. B.)
Wornum (R. N.) .
Worsaae (J. J. A.) .
Wrightson (Prof. John)
Younge (C. D.)

Sir

23
8
22
18
23
19
13
24
8
16
8
14
17

NEW AND FORTHCOMING BOOKS.

R. S. GUNDRY.

China, Present and Past: Foreign Intercourse, Progress and Resources,

The Missionary Question, &c. By R. S. Gundry, Author of " China and her Neigh-
bours." Demy 8vo.

OSWALD CRAWFURD.

A Year of Sport and Natural History. Shooting, Hunting, Coursing,

Falconry, and Fishing. Edited by Oswald Crawfurd. With Chapters on Birds of
Prey, Nidifications of Birds, and the Habits of British Wild Birds and Animals. With
numerous Illustrations by Frank Feller, Cecil Aldin, A. T. Elwes, Stanley
Berkeley, &c. Demy 4to. 21s.

CHARLES DIXON.

The Migration of British Birds : including their Post-Glacial Emigration

as Traced by the Application of a New Law of Dispersal. Being a Contribution to the
Study of Migration, Geographical Distribution, and Insular Faunas. By Charles
Dixon. With Maps. Crown 8vo.

A. E. T. WATSON.

Sketches in the Hunting Field. By A. E. T. Watson. A New Edition
with numerous Illustrations by John Sturgess. Crown 8vo. 3J. 6d.

G. F. UNDERHILL and H. S. SWEETLAND.
Through a Field Glass. By G. F. Underhill and H. S. Sweetland.

With Illustrations by L. Thackeray, Crown 8vo. is.

AUGUSTUS GRIMBLE.
Highland Sport. By Augustus Grimble. With Illustrations by A.
Thorburn. Large Paper Edition. £2 2s. net.

" SNAFFLE."

Gun, Rifle, and Hound, in East and West. By "Snaffle." With

Illustrations by H. Dixon. Demy 8vo. I4r.

COLONEL POLLOK.

Incidents of Foreign Sport and Travel. By Colonel Pollok, Author

of " Sport in British Burma." With Illustrations by A. T. Elwes. Demy 8vo. i6j.

GENERAL SIR C. P. BEAUCHAMP WALKER, K.C.B.
Days of a Soldier's Life. Written during active service in the Crimean,
Chinese, Austro-Prussian ('66), and Franco-German ('7o-'7i) Wars, by General Sir
C. P. Beauchamp Walker. Demy 8vo., with Portrait. iSj-.

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'CHARLES DICKENS'S WORKS.

ORIGINAL EDITIONS.

In demy 8vo.

THE MYSTERY OF EDWIN DROOD.
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engraved by Baker. Cloth, js. td.

OUR MUTUAL FRIEND. With Forty
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THE PICKWICK PAPERS. With Forty-
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DOMBEY AND SON. With Forty Illus-
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BLEAK HOUSE. With Forty Illustrations
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Uniform with the other volumes, £1 is.

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13*.

OLIVER TWIST and TALE OF TWO
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A TALE OF TWO CITIES. Separately.
With Sixteen Illustrations by Phiz. Cloth, gs.

The remainder of Dickens's Works were not originally printed in demy 8vo.

LIBRARY EDITION.

In post Svo. With the Original Illustrations, 30 vols., cloth, £12.

Illustrations.

Vols.

PICKWICK PAPERS

43 •■

NICHOLAS NICKLEBY

39 ••

MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT

40 ..

2 ..

OLD CURIOSITY SHOP and REPRINTED PIECES

36 ..

BARNABY RUDGE and HARD TIMES

36 ..

2 ..

BLEAK HOUSE

40 ..

LITTLE DORRIT

40 ..

2 . .

DOMBEY AND SON

38 ...

DAVID COPPERFIELD

38 ..

OUR MUTUAL FRIEND

40 ...

SKETCHES BY "BOZ"

39 -

OLIVER TWIST

24 ...

CHRISTMAS BOOKS

17 ...
16 ...

A TALE OF TWO CITIES

GREAT EXPECTATIONS

8 ...

PICTURES FROM ITALY AND AMERICAN NOTES

8 ...

UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER

8 ...

CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND

8 ...

EDWIN DROOD AND MISCELLANIES

CHRISTMAS STORIES from " Household Words," &c.

14 ...

Uniform with the above, \os. 6d.
THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. By John Forster. With Illustrations.

BOOKS PUBLISHED BY

CHARLES DICKENS'S WORKS — Continued.

THE "CHARLES DICKENS" EDITION.

In crown Svo. In 21 vols., cloth, with Illustrations, £2, 16s.

Illustrations. s. it.

PICKWICK PAPERS 8 ... 4 °

MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT 8 ... 4 °

DOMBEY AND SON 8 ... 40

NICHOLAS NICKLEBY 8 ... 40

DAVID COPPERFIELD 8 ... 40

BLEAK HOUSE 8 ... 40

LITTLE DORRIT 8 ... 40

OUR MUTUAL FRIEND 8 ... 40

BARNABY RUDGE 8 ... 36

OLD CURIOSITY SHOP 8 ... 36

A CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND 4 ... 36

EDWIN DROOD AND OTHER STORIES 8 ... 36

CHRISTMAS STORIES from " Household Words" 8 ... 36

SKETCHES BY "BOZ" - 8 ... 36

AMERICAN NOTES and REPRINTED PIECES 8 ... 36

CHRISTMAS BOOKS 8 ... 36

OLIVER TWIST 8 ... 36

GREAT EXPECTATIONS 8 ... 36

TALE OF TWO CITIES 8 ... 3 0

HARD TIMES AND PICTURES FROM ITALY 8 ... 3 0

UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER 4 - 3 °

Uniform with the above.

THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. Numerous Illustrations. 2 vols. 7 o

THE LETTERS OF CHARLES DICKENS. 2 vols 7 °

THE HALF-CROWN EDITION.

Printed from the Edition that was carefully Corrected by the Author,

in 1867 and 1868.

Complete in 21 vols. Containing the whole of the original Illustrations.
Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d. each.

THE PICKWICK PAPERS. With 43
Illustrations by Seymour and Phiz.

BARNABY RUDGE : A Tale of the Riots
of 'Eighty. With 76 Illustrations by George
Cattermole and H. K. Browne.

OLIVER TWIST. With 24 Illustrations by
Cruikshank.

THE OLD CURIOSITY SHOP. With
75 Illustrations by George Cattermole and
H. K. Browne. ^

DAVID COPPERFIELD. With 40 Illustra-
tions by Phiz.

NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. With 40 Illustra-
tions by Phiz.

MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. With 40 Illus-
trations by Phiz.

DOMBEY AND SON. With 40 Illustra-
tions by Phiz.

SKETCHES BY " BOZ." With 40 Illus-
trations by George Cruikshank.

CHRISTMAS BOOKS. With 64 Illustra-
tions by Landseer, Dovle, Maclise, Leech, etc.

BLEAK HOUSE. With 40 Illustrations by
Phiz.

LITTLE DORRIT. With 40 Illustrations
by Phiz.

CHRISTMAS STORIES, from "House-
hold Words." With 14 Illustrations by Dalziel,
Green, Mahoney, etc.

AMERICAN NOTES and REPRINTED
PIECES. With 8 Illustrations by Marcus
Stone and F. Walker.

HARD TIMES and PICTURES FROM
ITALY. With 8 Illustrations by F. Walker
and Marcus Stone.

A CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
With 8 Illustrations by Marcus Stone.

GREAT EXPECTATIONS. With 8 Illus-
trations by Marcus Stone.

TALE OF TWO CITIES. With 16 Illus-
trations by Phiz.

UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER. With
8 Illustrations by Marcus Stone.

OUR MUTUAL FRIEND. With 40
Illustrations by Marcus Stone.

EDWIN DROOD and OTHER STORIES.
With 12 Illustrations by Luke Fildes.

CHAPMAN &* HALL, LIMITED.

CHARLES DICKENS'S WORKS — Continued.

THE ILLUSTRATED LIBRARY EDITION.

Complete in 32 Volumes. Demy 8vo., 10s. each; or set, £16.

This Edition is printed on a finer paper and in a larger type than has been employed in
any previous edition. The type has been cast especially for it, and the page is of a size to
admit of the introduction of all the original illustrations.

No such attractive issue has been made of the writings of Mr. Dickens, which, various as
have been the forms of publication adapted to the demands of an ever widely-increasing
popularity, have never yet been worthily presented in a really handsome library form.

The collection comprises all the minor writings it was Mr. Dickens's wish to preserve.

Illustrations

AND RE-
With Illus-

SKETCHES BY " BOZ." With 40 Illustra-
tions by George Cruikshank.

PICKWICK PAPERS. 2 vols. With 42
Illustrations by Phiz.

OLIVER TWIST. With 24
by Cruikshank.

NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. 2 vols. With
40 Illustrations by PHIZ.

OLD CURIOSITY SHOP
PRINTED PIECES. 2 vols,
trations by Cattermole, &c.

BARNABY RUDGE and HARD TIMES.
2 vols. With Illustrations by CATTER-
MOLE, &c.

MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. 2 vols. With

40 Illustrations by Phiz.
AMERICAN NOTES AND PICTURES

FROM ITALY. 1 vol. With 8 Illusts.
DOMBEY AND SON. 2 vols. With

Illustrations by Phiz.
DAVID COPPERFIELD. 2 vols. With

40 Illustrations by Phiz.

Uniform with above.
LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. By John Forster,

2 vols. With 40 Illus-
2 vols. With 40 Illus-
CITIES. With 16

BLEAK HOUSE.

trations by Phiz.
LITTLE DORRIT.

trations by Phiz.
A TALE OF TWO
Illustrations by Phiz.
THE UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER.

With 8 Illustrations by Marcus Stone.
GREAT EXPECTATIONS. With 8 Illus-
trations by Marcus Stone.
OUR MUTUAL FRIEND. 2 vols. With

40 Illustrations by Marcus Stone.
CHRISTMAS BOOKS. With 17 Illustra-
tions by Sir Edwin Landseer, R.A.,
Maclise, R.A., &c, &c.
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. With 8 Illus-
trations by Marcus Stone.
CHRISTMAS STORIES. (From "House-
hold Words" and " All the Year Round.")
With 14 Illustrations.
EDWIN DROOD and OTHER STORIES.
With 12 Illustrations by S. L. Fildes.

With Portraits. 2 vols.

HOUSEHOLD EDITION.

(WITH

In 22 Volumes. Crown

MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. With 59 Illus-
trations, 5-r.

DAVID COPPERFIELD. With 60 Illustra-
tions and a Portrait, 5-r.

BLEAK HOUSE. With 61 Illustrations, 5-r.

LITTLE DORRIT. With 58 Illus., 5*.

PICKWICK PAPERS. With 56 Illus., 5s.

OUR MUTUAL FRIEND. With 58 Illus-
trations, $s.

NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. With 59 Illus-
trations, 5^.

DOMBEY AND SON. With 61 Illus., 5-r.

EDWIN DROOD; REPRINTED
PIECES ; and other Stories, with 30
Illustrations, 5*.

THE LIFE OF DICKENS. By John
Forster. With 40 Illustrations, 5-r.

BARNABY RUDGE. With 46 Illus., 4s.

LIFE.)

\to., cloth, £4 b'j. 6tf.

OLD CURIOSITY SHOP. With 32 Illus-
trations, us.

CHRISTMAS STORIES. With 23 Illus-
trations, 4s.

OLIVER TWIST. With 28 Illus., jr.

GREAT EXPECTATIONS. With 26
Illustrations, 3-f.

SKETCHES BY " BOZ." With 36 Illus. 3*.

UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER. With
26 Illustrations, 3s.

CHRISTMAS BOOKS. With 28 Illus., 3s.

THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. With
15 Illustrations, 3s.

AMERICAN NOTES AND PICTURES
FROM ITALY. With 18 Illus., 3s.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES. With 25
Illustrations, 3s.

HARD TIMES. With 20 Illus., 2s. 6d.

BOOKS PUBLISHED BY

CHARLES DICKENS'S WORK S — Continued.

THE CROWN EDITION,

Complete in 17 vols. Containing all the Original Illustrations ; and the Letterpress
is printed from Type expressly cast for this Edition. Large Crown 8vo.
Price Five Shillings each.

THE PICKWICK PAPERS. With Forty-
three Illustrations by Seymour and Phiz.

NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. With Forty
Illustrations by Phiz.

DOMBEY AND SON. With Forty Illus-
trations bv Phiz.

DAVID COPPE RFIELD. With Forty
Illustrations by Phiz.

SKETCHES BY "BOZ." With Forty
Illustrations by Geo. Cruikshank.

MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. With Forty
Illustrations by Phiz.

THE OLD CURIOSITY SHOP. With
Seventy-five Illustrations by George
Cattermole and H. K. Browne.

BARNABY RUDGE : a Tale of the Riots
of 'Eighty. With Seventy-eight Illustra-
tions by George Cattermole and H. K.
Browne.

OLIVER TWIST and A TALE OF TWO

CITIES. With Twenty-four Illustrations

by Cruikshank and Sixteen by Phiz.
BLEAK HOUSE. With Forty Illustrations

by Phiz.

LITTLE DORRIT. With Forty Illustrations
by Phiz.

OUR MUTUAL FRIEND. With Forty

Illustrations by Marcus Stone.
AMERICAN NOTES ; PICTURES FROM
ITALY ; and A CHILD'S HISTORY
OF ENGLAND. With Sixteen Illus-
trations by Marcus Stone.
CHIRSTMAS BOOKS AND HARD
TIMES. With Illustrations by Land-
seer, Maclise, Stanfield, Leech,
Doyle, F. Walker, etc.
CHRISTMAS STORIES AND OTHER
STORIES, including HUMPHREY'S
CLOCK. With Illustrations by Dai.zi el,
Charles Green, Mahoney, Phiz,
Cattermole, etc.
GREAT EXPECTATIONS. UNCOM-
MERCIAL TRAVELLER. With
Sixteen Illustrations by Marcus Stone.
EDWIN DROOD and REPRINTED
PIECES. With Sixteen Illustrations by
Luke Fildes and F. Walker.
Uniform with the above.
THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. By John Forster. With Portraits and Illus-
trations. Will be added at the request of numerous Subscribers.
THE DICKENS DICTIONARY. A Key to the Characters and Principal Incidents in the
Tales of Charles Dickens. By Gilbert Pierce, with additions by William A.
Wheeler.

THE LAZY TOUR OF TWO IDLE APPRENTICES; NO THOROUGHFARE;
THE PERILS OF CERTAIN ENGLISH PRISONERS. By Charles
Dickens and Wilkie Collins. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo., Jr.
%* These Stories are now reprinted in complete form for the first time.

CHARLES DICKENS'S CHRISTMAS BOOKS.

REPRINTED FROM THE ORIGINAL PLATES.

Illustrated by JOHN LEECH, D. MACLISE,

Fcap. cloth, is. each.
A CHRISTMAS CAROL IN PROSE.
THE CHIMES : A Goblin Story.
THE CRICKET ON THE HEARTH :
A Fairy Tale of Home.

R.A., R. Doyle, C. Stanfield, R.A., etc.
Complete in a case, ^s.
THE BATTLE OF LIFE. A Love
Story. „
THE HAUNTED MAN AND THE
GHOST'S STORY.

SIXPENNY REPRINTS of DICKENS'S WORKS.

OLIVER TWIST. With 28 Illustrations by J. Mahoney. Medium 8vo.

READINGS FROM THE WORKS OF CHARLES DICKENS. As selected and read

by himself, and now published for the first time. Illustrated.
A CHRISTMAS CAROL and THE HAUNTED MAN. Illustrated.
THE CHIMES: A Goblin Story, and THE CRICKET ON THE HEARTH.

THE 1 " BATTLE OF LIFE : A Love Story, HUNTED DOWN, and A HOLIDAY
ROMANCE. Illustrated.

CHAPMAN 6- HALL, LIMITED.

CHARLES DICKENS'S WORKS — Continued.

THE CABINET EDITION.

In 32 vols., small fcap. 8vo., Marble Paper Sides, Cloth Backs, with uncut edges,
price Eighteenpence each. Each Volume contains Eight Illustrations
reproduced from the Originals. In Sets only, bound in blue
and red cloth, with cut edges, £2 8s.

AMERICAN NOTES AND PICTURES

CHRISTMAS BOOKS.
MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT, 2 vols.
DAVID COPPERFIELD, 2 vols.
OLIVER TWIST.
GREAT EXPECTATIONS.
NICHOLAS NICKLEBY, 2 vols.
SKETCHES BY "BOZ."
CHRISTMAS STORIES.
THE PICKWICK PAPERS, 2 vols
BARNABY RUDGE, 2 vols.
BLEAK HOUSE, 2 vols.

FROM ITALY.
EDWIN DROOD; & OTHER STORIES.
THE OLD CURIOSITY SHOP, 2 vols.
A CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
DOMBEY AND SON, 2 vols.
A TALE OF TWO CITIES.
LITTLE DORRIT, 2 vols.
MUTUAL FRIEND, 2 vols.
HARD TIMES.

UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER.
REPRINTED PIECES.

THE PICTORIAL EDITION.

CO N PAINING UPWARDS OF NINE HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS.

Complete in 17 vols

DOMBEY AND SON. With 62 Illustra-
tions by F. Barnard.

DAVID COPPERFIELD. With 61. Illus-
trations by F. Barnard.

NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. With 59 Illus-
trations by F. Barnard.

BARNABY RUDGE. With 46 Illustrations
by F. Barnard.

OLD CURIOSITY SHOP. With 39 Illus-
trations by Charles Green.

MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. With 59 Illus-
trations by F. Barnard.

OLIVER TWIST and A TALE OF TWO
CITIES. With S3 Illustrations by J.
Mahoney and F. Barnard.

OUR MUTUAL FRIEND. With 58 Illus-
trations by J. Mahoney.

BLEAK HOUSE. With 61 Illustrations by
F. Barnard.

PICKWICK PAPERS. With 57 Illustra-
tions by Phiz.

Royal 8vo., 3s. 6d. each.

LITTLE DORRIT. With 58 Illustrations

by J. Mahoney.
GREAT EXPECTATIONS and HARD
TIMES. With 50 Illustrations by J. A.
Fraser and H. French.
AMERICAN NOTES, PICTURES FROM
ITALY, and A CHILD'S HISTORY OF
ENGLAND. With 33 Illustrations by
Frost, Gordon, Thomson, and Ralston.
SKETCHES BY "BOZ" and CHRIST-
MAS BOOKS. With 62 Illustrations by
F. Barnard.
CHRISTMAS STORIES and UNCOM-
MERCIAL TRAVELLER. With 49
Illustrations by E. G. Dalziel.
EDWIN DROOD, REPRINTED PIECES,
and OTHER STORIES. With 30 Illus-
trations by L. Fildes, E. G. Dalziel, and
F. Barnard.
THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS.
By John Forster. With 40 Illustrations
by F. Barnard and others.

THE TWO - SHILLING EDITION.

Each Volume contains a Fr

DOMBEY AND SON.
MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT.
THE PICKWICK PAPERS.
BLEAK HOUSE.
OLD CURIOSITY SHOP.
BARNABY RUDGE.
DAVID COPPERFIELD.
NICHOLAS NICKLEBY.
CHRISTMAS STORIES.
AMERICAN NOTES.
HARD TIMES and PICTURES FROM
ITALY.

■ontispiece. Crown 8vo., 2s.

GREAT EXPECTATIONS.
OUR MUTUAL FRIEND.
CHRISTMAS BOOKS.
OLIVER TWIST.
LITTLE DORRIT.
TALE OF TWO CITIES.
UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER.
SKETCHES BY "BOZ."
A CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENG-
LAND.

EDWIN DROOD and OTHER
STORIES.

32 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY CHAPMAN 6- HALL, LIMITED.

ZEbe ffortmcjbtlip 1Re\new,

EDITED BY W. L. COURTNEY.

PRICE TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE.
The FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW is published Monthly.

A VOLUME IS COMPLETED EVERY SIX MONTHS.

The following are among the Contributors : —

ADMIRAL LORD ALCESTER.
SIR RUTHERFORD ALC'OCK.
PROFESSOR BAIN.
SIR SAMUEL BAKER.
SIR R. BALL, F.R.S.
PROFESSOR BEESLY.
PAUL BOURGET.
DR. BRIDGES.

HON. GEORGE C. BRODRICK.

FERDINAND BRUNETIERE.

JAMES BRYCE, M.P.

EMILIO CASTELAR.

RT. HON. J. CHAMBERLAIN, M.P.

PROFESSOR SIDNEY COLVIN.

THE EARL COMPTON.

MONTAGUE CRACKENTHORPE, Q.C.

L. H. COURTNEY, M.P.

G. H. DARWIN.

PROFESSOR A. V. DICEY.

SIR CHAS. DILKE, Bart.

PROFESSOR DOWDEN.

M. E. GRANT DUFF.

ARCHDEACON FARRAR.

EDWARD A. FREEMAN.

J. A. FROUDE.

MRS. GARRET-ANDERSON, M.D.

J. W. L. GLAISHER, F.R.S.

SIR J. E. GORST, Q.C, M.P.

THOMAS HARE.

FREDERIC HARRISON.

ADMIRAL SIR G. P. HORNBY.

LORD HOUGHTON.

PROFESSOR HUXLEY.

PROFESSOR R. C. JEBB.

LADY JEUNE.

LORD KELVIN, P.R.S.

ANDREW LANG.

E. B. LANIN.

EMILE DE LAVELEYE.

W. E. H. LECKY.

T. E. CLIFFE LESLIE.

W. S. LILLY.

MARQUIS OF LORNE.

PIERRE LOTI.

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart., M.P.
W. H. MALLOCK.
DR. MAUDSLEY.
PROFESSOR MAX MULLER.
GEORGE MEREDITH.

G. OSBORNE MORGAN, Q.C, M.P.
JOHN MORLEY, M.P.
WILLIAM MORRIS.
PROFESSOR H. N. MOSELEY.

F. W. H. MYERS.

F. W. NEWMAN.

PROFESSOR JOHN NICHOL.

W. G. PALGRAVE.

WALTER H. PATER.

LYON PLAYFAIR, M.P.

SIR HENRY POTTINGER, Bart.

T. E. REDMOND, M.P.

PROFESSOR SAYCE.

PROFESSOR J. R. SEELEY.

LORD SHERBROOKE.

PROFESSOR SIDGWICK.

HERBERT SPENCER.

M. JULES SIMON.

HON. E. L. STANLEY.

SIR J. FITZJAMES STEPHEN, Q.C.

LESLIE STEPHEN.

J. HUTCHISON STIRLING.

A. C. SWINBURNE.

DR. VON SYBEL.

J. A. SYMONDS.

SIR THOMAS SYMONDS.

THE REV. EDWARD F. TALBOT.

SIR RICHARD TEMPLE, Bart.

HON. LIONEL A. TOLLEMACHE.

COUNT LEO TOLSTOI.

H. D. TRAILL.
PROFESSOR TYNDALL.
ALFRED RUSSELL WALLACE.
SIDNEY WEBB.

A. J. WILSON.

GEN. VISCOUNT WOLSELEY.
GEN. SIR EVELYN WOOD.
THE EDITOR.

ETC., ETC., ETC.

CHAPMAN & HALL, Ld., ii, HENRIETTA STREET,
COVENT GARDEN, W.C.

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