Pets : their history and care. With illus. from life

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European Wild Cat (above)
Domestic Striped Tabby Cat (below)

PETS

THEIR HISTORY AND CARE

BY

LEE 8. CRANDAL:.

Assistant Curator of Birds, New York Zodlogical Park; Fellow of the New
York Zodlogical Society; Member of the American Society of
Ichthyologists and Herpetologists; Associate Member of the
American Ornithologists’ Union, etc.

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS FROM LIFE

NEW YORK
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY

ok al |

COPYRIGHT, 1917,
BY
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY

Published April, 1917

mi

THE QUINN & BODEN CO. PRESS
RAHWAY, N. J.

TO MY PARENTS

who endured much from a
pet-loving son

t?

PREFACE

Every normal child, of whatever race or creed, is born
with an innate love for wild things. If allowed to languish
from lack of intelligent parental interest and supervision,
this natural instinct is gradually lost or degenerates into
the unintentional cruelty of ignorance. Properly fostered
and developed, it is certain to exert a beneficent influence on
the trend of developing character. Given scope and sym-
pathetic guidance, the young mind is trained to observe and
appreciate the subtle ways of nature, an accomplishment
which, in later years, will prove, if nothing more, a welcome
diversion. The sterling qualities of kindness, responsibility
and regularity are acquired, and many of the problems which
perplex the adolescent adjust themselves normally by con-
stant contact with reproductive life.

By necessity, the choice of creatures mentioned in this
book has been arbitrary. The scope of the word “pet”
may seem, in some cases, to have been stretched, and in
others restricted, but no species has been included or omitted
without careful consideration. To give, in a single volume,
full and efficient directions for the treatment of so many
diverse creatures, means that the space devoted to each
must be no greater than necessary. For this reason, rare
or particularly delicate members of the various groups have
been excluded. Such animals as the lamb, calf, colt, etc.,
have not been mentioned, as their care generally is well
understood by those in a position to keep them. On the
other hand, many of the birds, such as the pheasants, cranes
and waterfowl, cannot be considered as pets in the sense

Vv

vi PREFACE

that they may be fondled, but they are widely kept for
ornamental purposes, and their proper treatment is a matter
often not well known.

No attempt has been made to give detailed descriptions
of wild species, except in so far as to make identification
reasonably easy. Domestic breeds have received more atten-
tion in this respect, as their colors and markings are more
variable than those of forms unaffected by the conditions
of long-continued confinement. Since captivity is here the
keynote, wild habits, in most cases, have not been dwelt on.
Collateral reading of books chosen from the many devoted
to that phase of the subject is strongly advised.

Except in a few cases, notably the birds, reference to
disease has been brief. If sick animals do not respond
quickly to the simple household remedies which suggest
themselves, a veterinary should be summoned, or the suf-
ferer destroyed. To attempt to treat a creature that is
seriously ill is a task which only a trained person should
assume. Bird diseases, however, have received scant atten-
tion from investigators, and the little space devoted to them
here will not be amiss.

The question of scientific breeding may seem somewhat
erudite for the field indicated by the title of this work. Its
importance is so great, however, that a few words, outlining
the fundamentals, have been added as an appendix.

For those who desire more extensive information than
is given here, a list of practical works is given. To many
of them I am indebted for reference during the preparation
of this volume, and hereby make full acknowledgment.

To Dr. William T. Hornaday, Mr. William Beebe, Mr.
Raymond L. Ditmars and Mr. Elwin R. Sanborn, I am
grateful for much invaluable assistance and advice, which
have greatly facilitated my work. Mr. Kenyon V. Painter,
Mr. Percy Warner, Mrs. Harriet V. Furness and the New

PREFACE Vii

York Zodlogical Society have contributed several illus-
trations, for the use of which I am much indebted.

Photographs not otherwise credited were taken by the
author, most of the subjects being included among the
exhibits at the New York Zodlogical Park. The goldfishes
are the property of Mr. Joseph Taubles, while the tropical
fishes are from the author’s private collection.

Several chapters included have already appeared in vari-
ous publications, and for their use my thanks are due to the
New York Zoological Society, Messrs. Doubleday, Page &
Co., and the Advanced Agricultural Publishing Co.

i , @E

New York ZOOLOGICAL Park,
January, 1917.

CONTENTS

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Section IJ—BIRDS

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WEE PRCASANTS. SGU Neg 85
IX PEAFOWL, GUINEA-FOWL AND QUAIL. . . IOI
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PE LEA © RARWES BNO COWES ee an eo ae
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Pe Age OS Sa EN ON MS la 24 cman
XVI CANARIES Bias Nal as Hae gy lt oa Chg bin
XVII Domestic PIGEONS Se Tis OUT A AGS I 2c
Pe EUS SMR BO oar Le yar rape clean Ga dcl iyte fae tel then peel

Section III—REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS
I MRM CUE Ei CoN at Sea EM acre aN SNe kon, aa
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Section IV—THE AQUARIUM

XXI GENERAL CARE TS Ce ADS ee ales AARNE
SE PMOUARIUIME SSE Oe le i ey ee ae
APPENDIX—THEORIES OF BREEDING. . . . . 353
MT HOr AMPGRENCE WORKS 00g ie Vlei wl QE

NO AE Ne GUNN a a I Wn OE aa MPI |

ix

ILLUSTRATIONS

European Wild Cat
Domestic Striped Tabby Cat §

Dingo.

Gray Wolf

Boston Terrier

Airedale Terrier

White Persian Cat .

Siamese Cat

English Rabbit

Dutch Rabbit .

Belgian Hare .

Lop-eared Rabbit . ;
Cream English Cavy and Vou:
Dutch-marked English Cavy
White Abyssinian Cavy

Agouti Abyssinian Cavy ;
White and Black-hooded Rats
Orange-hooded Rat

Waltzing Mice

White, Black, Silver and Red Mice
Rhesus Monkey

White-faced ce ins Monkey
Opossum .

Red Fox .

Woodchuck :

Albino Gray Squirrel

Soemmering Pheasant .

Vieillot Fire-back Pheasant .
Brown Eared Pheasant

Silver Pheasant

Indian Peahen and Chick rae
White Peacock Displaying . . . ,

Frontispiece

PAGE

ILLUSTRATIONS

Vulturine Guinea-fowl .
Javan-Indian Peacock Hybrid
Montezuma Quail .

Bleeding-heart Pigeon .

Common and Victoria Crowned Pes eauis
Crowned Crane

Paradise Crane

Whooping and Manchurian Cathe.
Demoiselle Cranes and Young
Mute and Trumpeter Swans
Cereopsis Geese and Goslings
Mallard Ducks

Mandarin Duck

Red-tailed Hawk

Iceland Gyrfalcon .

Snowy Owl .

Great Horned Owl

Green-winged Macaw

Lesser Sulphur-crested Cadainn:
Green-cheeked Amazon Parrot .
Gray Parrot

Song Thrush .

Nightingale

Dyal Thrush >.

Blue Solitaire .

Diamond Finch

Giant Whydah

European Jay .

Gray Java Sparrow

Wild Canary .

Yorkshire Canary .

Norwich Canary

Crested Canary

Rock Dove

Homing Pigeon Rae CA in
Flying Tippler per tata t oar SUR A

= 214

Xi
PAGE
106
106
106

114
122
122
122
122
132 .
132
138
138
148
148
148
148
158
158
166
166
184
184
184
184
194
194.
104
194
216
216
216
216
244
244
244

xii , ILLUSTRATIONS

Birmingham Roller Be A SI ie
Almond Short-faced Tumbler
Black Fan-tail .

Black Shield

Bluette :

Red Jungle-fowl

Black Cochin Bantams .
Silkie Fowls

King Snake

Green Snake ‘
Hog-nosed Snake .

Iguana

Variable Vinard

Leatherback Turtle

Bullfrog

Wood Frog

Common Tree Frog

Frog Tadpoles

Lined Salamander .

Spotted Salamander
Common Goldfish . :
Japanese Scaleless Veil-tailed Goldfish
Scaleless Telescope Goldfish .
Haplochilus cameroonensis .
Xiphophorus helleri

Alfaro cultratum

Paradise Fish .

Climbing Perch

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CHAPTER I
DOGS

Wuat shall we say of the dog? The close companion of
man almost from the beginning, his praises have been sung
in every tongue. The literature of the world contains
countless eulogies of his devotion and courage, so that little
now remains to be said. The savage wolf-dog of our almost
equally savage ancestors has become the pampered pet of
modern civilization; but the sterling characters which made
him indispensable in those old days have increased with
the passage of time. That the dog was of the utmost im-
portance to primitive man we may not doubt. His services
to men who lived chiefly on meat must have been incalculable,

and it is probable that to this fact the domestication of the

dog is due. Aboriginal men in all parts of the world
still have their packs of half-wild dogs, often obviously
descended, at least in part, from native feral species.

Just when the dog first became associated with man we do
not know. The facts are shrouded in the mysteries of the
origin of our race itself, but it must have occurred at a
very remote period, for the Romans had well-established
breeds, separated into groups, according to their ability in
hunting, running, fighting, flock-tending, etc.

The ancestry of the dog has been the occasion of much
controversy. Many naturalists have considered that it is
descended from a single ancestor, such as the common wolf
of Europe. The wonderful diversity in breeds of modern
dogs has been held to disprove this claim and point to a
number of foundation strains. But a consideration of the
equal variation among other domestic creatures, noticeably

3

4 MAMMALS

the fowl and the pigeon, known to have been derived from
a single wild species, lessens the forcé of the argument.

Darwin,* however, leans toward the theory of multipie
origin, and advances much convincing proof in support of
his belief. It is well known that many savage tribes have
dogs which appear to be simply half-tamed representatives
of the particular wild-dog-like animals inhabiting the same
regions. The dogs of the American Plains Indians closely
resemble the small prairie wolf or coyote; the husky of the
north country is plainly not far removed from the gray
wolf; the German sheep-dog and the Samoyede are strik-
ingly wolf-like in appearance. Whether our present dogs
are the result of crossing these many simple derivatives of
wolves and jackals among themselves, or whether there
was an original ancestral dog, now extinct, with which
the blood of other species has become mingled, we do not
know. Domestic dogs have been shown to be perfectly
fertile, for several generations, with various wild species.

According to Mivart,f the Dingo (Canis dingo) is the
only wild dog still existing which meets the requirements of
an ancestor of our modern breeds. This species is found
throughout Australia, and fossil bones which have been
found show its presence there, from very early times. There
is reason to believe, however, that, remote as the period
must have been, the Dingo was introduced by man and is
not indigenous to Australia. It is certain that the Dingo
lends itself to captivity and is frequently kept by the
natives, whose dogs bear evidence of free interbreeding with
the wild species. This is a feature of great interest, and
it may be that in the Dingo we have an animal representing
the foundation stock of the domestic dog.

* Darwin, Charles: Animals and Plants Under Domestication
(Westminster Edition), pp. 14-43.
t Mivart, St. George: A Monograph of the Canidae, 1800, p. 168.

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DOGS 5

General Care

In considering the care of the dog, the particular breed or
type of the individual is of prime importance. The large,
hardy sorts are better off for a certain amount of cold and
exposure, and if a snug kennel is provided, will do very
well without heat. The more delicate toys, to remain in
good health, must have warm, dry quarters.

If it is decided that the dog is to remain out of doors, a
well-ventilated, rain-proof, draughtless kennel, of sufficient
size, should be provided. Straw makes the best bedding and
should be changed frequently. If the dog can be given
regular daily exercise, he may at other times be chained to
the kennel. If this is not possible, a run of stout wire
should be built or a ring-and-wire trolley arranged so that
the animal may have some freedom. ‘To chain permanently
an active, healthy dog is an act of cruelty which is certain
to result in the bad temper which is usually characteristic
of “ watch-dogs.”

Dogs of medium size, which are suitable for house-dogs,
should be given a special sleeping-place, preferably in a little
heated part of the house. Most dogs are better if not
cuddled.

The tiny lap-dogs require more attention. It is best to
provide for them a special sleeping-basket, in which they
may be placed at bedtime and carefully covered. A night’s
exposure to the comparatively mild winter temperature of
the average home may very well prove fatal. Exercise is as
important for these little creatures as for their larger cousins,
and should be given at regular hours.

The dog should be bathed at frequent intervals, but should
have every facility for rapid drying, particularly during
cold weather. It is always best to confine the animal until
it has thoroughly dried, as otherwise the work may be

6 MAMMALS

undone, nothing pleasing a wet dog more than a chance to
roll in dirt. Dogs with long or fine hair should be brushed
regularly.

The matter of training is one of the greatest impor-
tance, a disobedient dog being second in unpleasantness only
to a child who has been similarly neglected. The dog wishes
to obey, and to please his master, but it is necessary to
impress thoroughly on his mind just what is wanted. There
is much difference of temperament among dogs, of course,
but most individuals are more easily governed by a sharp
word than by a blow. However, sentiment should not be
allowed to interfere with discipline, and if the animal seems
to require punishment, the corrective tap should not be
withheld. Dogs are wonderfully keen in learning the mean-
ing of gestures and even phrases, a faculty which adds
much to their charm. f

While dogs belong to a carnivorous family, they are
now omnivorous in feeding habits. If given plenty of. exer-
cise, it is possible for them to keep in excellent condition on
meat alone, but it is best to vary the constituents of the
diet. This is particularly true of the smaller breeds. The
food, then, should contain a certain percentage of meat,
preferably cooked. It is important to see that this is free
from small pieces or splinters of bone. To this may be
added various vegetables, bread, cooked cereals and milk,
in fact almost anything edible, provided it is clean and not
too greasy. Dog biscuits solve the question to a very
satisfactory extent, but the dog should not be compelled
to eat them continually, without variation. Large bones
should be given frequently, for gnawing keeps the animal
out of mischief and provides various physical benefits.
Over-feeding is the worst danger to which canine pets are
subjected. No more than will keep the animal in good
condition should ever be given, and sweets and starchy

DOGS 7

foods should be withheld. Fresh, cool water, of course,
should always be within reach.

The period of gestation in dogs is about sixty-three days.
The prospective mother should have a box or corner,
preferably in a darkened nook, where she will not be dis-
turbed. The puppies’ eyes are closed at birth and do not
open till about the tenth day. When about four or five
weeks old, the process of weaning may be commenced, by
teaching the puppies to lap milk, an art which they soon
acquire. This may be augmented with cereals, or bits of
bread. Later puppy biscuits may be added and soon the
diet includes everything given to the mother. The quantity
of meat given to puppies, however, should always be re-
stricted, until they are well grown, although they may have
bones to gnaw on. When six or seven weeks old, they
should be gradually removed from the mother.

Dogs are subject to few diseases, and when they do occur
a veterinary should be consulted. In most instances, it is as
useless for the amateur owner to attempt to treat a dog
as it would be in the case of a child.

We cannot leave the subject, however, without some
reference to rabies or hydrophobia, that dread and mys-
terious disease, to which dogs, in common with many other
animals, are subject. Many persons have held that hydro-
phobia is an illusion, but its existence has been too well
established to admit of further doubt. Hydrophobia in
dogs appears in several forms, with varied symptoms.
Sometimes the victim is extremely thirsty, while another
will not touch water. The frothing mouth which to the
popular mind is irrefutable evidence of rabies occurs also
in epilepsy. Sudden changes in disposition, snappiness,
manifestations of unfounded fear, in fact almost any un-
usual action, may be the first indication of the disease. A
suspected subject should be isolated at once, where it can

8 MAMMALS

be kept under control and the developments of symptoms
watched. Many dogs are killed as a result of epileptic
fits being wrongly diagnosed as rabies. A few hours of
rest and quiet usually are the only requisites for recovery
in the majority of such cases. Once the presence of rabies
has been established, however, the dog should be destroyed
at once.

Dogs frequently suffer from internal and external para-
sites, both of which are easily removed. Fleas are the
most frequent cause of annoyance. A bath in which one of
the many brands of antiseptic soap is used will quickly get
rid of them. It is of the greatest importance to keep the
dog’s living quarters clean, for fleas breed in the filth of
kennels.

Worms are frequently present and are a fertile cause of
trouble. A bulging abdomen and emaciated frame are
indications of the presence of parasites, but their passage
with the feces is the most certain evidence. Efficient
vermifuges are obtainable from all dealers and one or two
doses usually can be relied upon to rid the system of the
intruders.

Breeds

The attempt to enter fully into the points of the various
modern breeds of dogs would be a task without the scope
of this work. Moreover, literature on the subject is so
rich that such description here is unnecessary. We may,
however, briefly consider some of the types most suitable
for pets.

There are few dogs which lack some particular use or
purpose in their relation to man, and are not capable of
ably performing their functions. But, since here we are
considering pets, we must eliminate all the superb array
of breeds specialized for hunting, coursing, flock-tending,
and even guarding. Such dogs as the various hounds, the

Boston Terrier (above)

Airedale Terrier (below)

DOGS 9

Great Danes, Mastiffs, Sheep-dogs and many others, while
excellent in their own fields, may not properly be considered
as suitable pets. It is among the smaller spaniels and ter-
riers that we shall find house-dogs of dispositions and stat-
ure amenable to fondling, but often with courage to act
efficiently in defense, if necessary.

Of the terriers proper, it is probable that the Fox TERRIER
is the best known, for it seems to be more widely distributed
than any other small dog. Originally used in England for
unearthing foxes, which had been driven to cover by the
hounds, it still retains the courage and agility which are
necessary for the work. The Fox Terrier is a hardy, active
dog, small enough to be unobtrusive, but able under stress
to give a very good account of itself.

The various rough-coated terriers of British origin are
rapidly gaining in popularity on this side. The black-and-
tan AIREDALE is the largest, the similarly marked WELSH
TERRIER is the smallest, and the sandy-red IRIs TERRIER »
is between the two. All of these dogs are of pleasing, up-
standing outline, with the clean-cut heads of the terriers.
They are notable for their courage and tenacity.

The Scotcu TERRIER is longer-haired than the preceding,
and also differs in type, being prick-eared and grotesquely
short-legged. This rough-and-ready little dog has recently
enjoyed a wave of well-deserved popularity. Typical speci-
mens are usually black or blackish in color. The West
HiGHLAND WHITE TERRIER is really a white Scotch.

The Skye and YORKSHIRE TERRIERS, which represent
the extreme of the rough-coated type, are not now so popu-
lar as was once the case. This may perhaps be due, in a
measure, to dispositions not too sweet, but the over-develop-
ment of the coat, with the attendant troubles in grooming,
probably played its share. The two breeds are commonly
confused, for each is clothed in long, silky hair. The Skye

10 MAMMALS

Terrier, however, is as large as a small Cocker Spaniel, and
generally dark gray in color, while the Yorkshire is a tiny
creature, grayish-blue with tan markings.

The MALTESE TERRIER is one of the oldest of dog breeds,
and is believed to have been the favorite lap-dog of the
ancient Romans and Greeks. It is well known as a small
animal with long, silky hair, of the purest white, but per-
haps because of the care its coat requires it is not over
popular.

The Butt TERRIER, too commonly known as a “ bull-
dog,” possesses such qualities as to endear it to the heart

of any one who owns a responsive spark. No dog sur- .

passes this magnificent animal in staunch courage and genu-
ine unselfish affection. Ever ready to spring at the throat
of the intruder, it is equally willing to submit itself to the
maulings of children. It has one serious drawback, how-
ever, and that is its pugnacious instinct. Bred for years for
the brutal purpose of pit fighting, the habit is almost im-
possible to eradicate. The old-fashioned dogs usually were
brindle or pied, but the modern type is spotless white.

The Boston TERRIER is the only breed, with the possible
exception of the Chesapeake Bay Dog, which has been
originated in America. A result of crosses between the
English Bulldog and the White English Terrier, it retains
all of the good qualities of each ancestor, and few of the
undesirable ones. It has the even, affectionate temper of
the bulldog, without its awkwardness, and the active habits
of the terrier, with but little of its pugnacity. Of compara-
tively recent origin, the Boston Terrier has made rapid
strides from the chaotic state, and now breeds fairly true to
type.

The ENnGLisH BuLupoc, developed in the ancient sport
of bull-baiting, has fallen on evil times. Now bred solely
for exhibition purposes, this once hardy dog has become

a ee, a es a

DOGS 4

monstrously exaggerated and weakened in stamina. These
two facts are sufficient to account for its very evident decline
in favor, for although repulsive in appearance, it is one
of the most even-tempered and amiable of canines.

The FrencH BuLtpoe is often confused with the Boston
Terrier, in the development of which it undoubtedly was
concerned. They are easily distinguished, however, as the
French breed has the undershot jaw and wrinkled face of
the English Bulldog, points abhorred in the Boston Terrier.

The EnciisH Toy SpANIELS probably are diminutive
derivatives of the larger and more vigorous sporting
spaniels. They are essentially lap-dogs and as such have
been cultivated for centuries, their round heads, large eyes,
and long, wavy hair being particularly appealing. Toy
Spaniels occur in several colors; black-and-tan or King
Charles; black, tan and white, tricolor or Prince Charles;
ruby or red; and red and white or Blenheim.

The JAPANESE SPANIEL is similar to the English, but
differs in various minor points, particularly in the shorter
ears. It is perhaps more active and intelligent than the
English breeds, and seems to be more popular. Japanese
Spaniels generally are black and white in color. |

The PEKINESE is evidently closely related to the Japanese
Spaniel, but is usually solid in color, the most common be-
ing biscuit or fawn. Just now, this is perhaps the most
fashionable of toy dogs. It came originally from Pekin,
where it seems to have been the particular pet of the
imperial court.

The PoMERANIAN is the smallest of the wolf-type dogs
and is evidently derived from that group. It is essentially
a toy, and as such is very widely kept. The breed is hardier
and more active than most small dogs of the spaniel type,
but many specimens are characterized by a pronounced
disagreeable odor,

CHAPTER II
CATS

THE position of the domestic cat is curiously anomalous.
More universally the companion of man than any other
creature, with the possible exception of the dog, it neverthe-
less remains consistently aloof and impatient of restraint.
Amenable to caresses, even soliciting them, it still retains
perfect independence, and tooth and claw are ever ready to
resent the slightest infringement.

The origin of the domestic cat has been the source of
much controversy. It seems most probable, however, that
it is descended from one, or perhaps both, of two forms,
which still exist in the wild state—the Egyptian Wild Cat
(Felis ocreata) and the European Wild Cat (F. sylvestris).
These two creatures are practically indistinguishable from
domestic cats. Both are light gray in general, with narrow,
vertical bars of a darker shade on the sides of the body, and
horizontal bars on the upper parts of the four legs. The
tail is banded, and there are markings about the face. There
are minor differences in the markings and the European
Wild Cat is slightly larger, less distinctly striped and more
heavily furred than the southern species, otherwise they are
similar. This form of marking is duplicated in the narrow-
striped form of the modern tabby and undoubtedly repre-
sents the primitive type.

As is well known, mummified cats are commonly found
in the tombs of the ancient Egyptians, and their taming at
an early period is undoubted. It seems probable that these
cats were introduced into Europe, where they interbred with
the native form. The crossing of two species so similar

12

eS oe) 7a

CATS 13

in appearance does not account for the divergence of color
in domestic cats but this would follow naturally, as in most
animals under the control of man. Long-haired or Persian
cats, Manx, Siamese and other forms are simply variations
of this old stock.

General Care

Commonly kept as a check to the increase of rats and
mice, the cat has tolerated man and rendered service in
return for protection. Because of the detached and in-
scrutable habit of the animal, comparatively few become
“companions of the fireside.” Far too many are kept in
the verge of reversion to their natural wild condition. City
and country alike abound with half-wild creatures which
yield but partial or even no allegiance to man and secure
their food by foraging. Much of this unfortunate condi-
tion is attributable to irresponsible owners, who desert cats
with unfeeling carelessness, or so underfeed them that their
hunger is a menace to all small edible creatures. Cats of
this type are the most formidable enemies of the remnant
of our wild bird life, and the constantly increasing pressure
of conservationists certainly will soon bring legal relief
from the scourge. No feeling person would cast a cat upon
its own resources and no public-spirited citizen will allow
it to maintain itself by further depleting our valuable birds.

Properly cared for, the cat becomes quite a different
animal. Although commonly considered inferior in intel-
ligence to the dog, it is rather an unlikeness in tempera-
ment, the two creatures forming perfect antitheses. But
the very impenetrability of the cat is a charm which attracts
many persons, and certainly gives it a dignity which few
animals attain. Well fed and kept within reasonable bounds,
the cat can render full return to its owner, without infring-
ing on the rights of others,

14 MAMMALS

Cats are essentially carnivorous and it is natural that
much of their food should consist of meat, either raw or
cooked. It is not necessary that this be of the finest quality,
but neither should it be of the vile sort sold by butchers as
“cat meat.’’ Fish makes an acceptable variation. Many
sorts of vegetables and cereals, such as potatoes, rice, oat-
meal, etc., are relished by most cats, particularly if mixed
with meat broth or milk. Bread and milk is a staple and »
few cats refuse it. Milk, of course, is the proverbial bev-
erage, but cats should never be kept without water. Kittens
should be fed chiefly on milk and cereals, the amount of
meat in the diet being increased with advancing age. -

The cat is an uncommonly clean animal and easily trained
to make use of a box filled with some fine, dry material,
which should be changed frequently. Sand is much the
best for this purpose, as ashes and sawdust are easily blown
and tracked about. If a sleeping-box in a comfortable
corner is provided, the animal will quickly realize that this
is its allotted place. : |

The practice of turning the cat out of doors at night is
as cruel as itis unnecessary. No animal is fonder of warmth
and comfort, and the pet’s happiness certainly is not in-
creased by a night spent in cold and dampness. If as much
energy were exhausted in keeping the cat indoors as too
commonly is expended in putting her out, how great would
be. the boon to human nerves and unfortunate wild things!
All felines are normally nocturnal and it is at night, if ever,
that a curb on their activities is needed.

The device of hanging a bell on the neck, and that of
arranging a wire, on which slips a ring with pussy’s -
cord attached, will keep her out of mischief, especially
during the spring, when young birds are about.

The period of gestation in the cat is nine weeks. The
kittens’ eyes are closed at birth but open about the tenth

Lhoiograph by H. V. Furness
White Persian Cat

4A Gry Cs J

Photograph by H. V. Lurness
Siamese Cat

CATS 15

day. At this period, bright light is dangerous and may re-
sult in blindness. Unless the kittens are of a valuable breed,
or future homes have been arranged for them, all but one
or two should be destroyed at birth. When four or five
weeks old, the kittens will begin to seek their share of their
mother’s meals and soon will be quite independent.

Cats are sometimes troubled with fleas, but these are
easily removed by sprinkling the fur thoroughly with pyre-
thrum or Persian insect powder, obtainable from any drug-
store.

Breeds

In spite of the great numbers of cats, very little has been
done in the way of developing breeds, as compared with
other domestic animals. The well-known promiscuity of
the creature, coupled with the time-honored custom of giv-
ing the pet its liberty at night, doubtless accounts for this
lack. It is only during the last half-century or so that
distinct breeds have appeared.

The types of cats fall naturally into two chief groups: the
short-haired and the long-haired or Persian. The former,
of course, is simply the common cat, somewhat glorified by
selective breeding. The body is rather short, strong and
well filled out. The head is broad and round, with short,
deep muzzle. The legs are of medium length and well
muscled, while the tail must be tapering but not thin. The
coat is short, soft and glossy.

The Persian or Angora Cat appears really to have origi-
nated in Persia, contrary to the usual rule of geographic
names among domestic animals. ‘There is no reason to
suppose, however, that it originated in any other way than
as a mutation or “ sport” from the common short-haired
variety, as in the Angora rabbit and Peruvian cavy.

Persian,cats average larger than short-haired ones, and

16 MAMMALS

the difference is enhanced by the great length of hair.
. This is soft, dense and very profuse all over the body, includ-
ing a brush to rival that of the fox. The head is broad and

short: The shoulders and back are well developed and

the legs of moderate length. |

Both short-haired and Persian cats are found in many
colors. The eyes of most should be deep yellow or orange,
with the exception of whites, in which they are blue, or
sometimes one of each color. Blacks are perhaps the most
common and must be of deep lustrous color, entirely free
from white spots or ticks. Whites are attractive but all

too frequently those with the correct blue eyes are deaf...

In selecting specimens, this point should be observed.

Smokes have a rather unattractive sooty appearance, the
coat being lighter underneath than on the surface, while
the extremities approach black. In blues one finds the
familiar Maltese. The particular shade may vary but it
must be even throughout. Creams are an uncommon vari-
ety, of a soft, even shade suggested by the name. Chin-
chillas are perhaps the most beautiful of all, a soft, pale
gray, with darker shadings. The eyes are generally green.

We come now to the tabbies and it is here that we are
closest to the primitive. Although the narrow-striped type
of the wild cat is still to be seen, it is not the one most in
favor. The form admired by breeders is known as the
marbled or blotched tabby. It is characterized by three
parallel dark stripes along the back, from which radiate
heavy oblique bands of varying width. The two types of
markings are quite distinct. The origin of the blotched
tabby is obscure but it seems most probable that it repre-
sents a mutation from the striped form.*

Tabby-marked cats occur in several combinations. The

* Pocock, R. I.: “English Domestic Cats,’ Proceedings of the
Zoological Society of London, Vol. I., 1907, pp. 143-168.

CATS 17

silver tabby has a pale gray ground, with black markings,
The brown tabby is similar but the main color is dark brown
instead of gray. The red or orange tabby is pale yellow,
with stripes of deep orange. It is a curious fact that the
great majority of orange tabbies are males, females being
very uncommon.

The tortoise-shell is a mixture of black, orange and yel-
low patches, which should be approximately equal in size
and evenly placed. In this color, it is the males that are
rare; in fact, so uncommon that the occasional individual is
a curiosity. This is not a particularly pleasing variety, and
becomes much more attractive when white markings are
added.

The Siamese cat is a native of the country whose name it
bears, and certainly is still bred there. It is smaller and
more slender than the ordinary short-haired cat, and the
tail is frequently kinked. The fur is noticeably short and
soft, with a plush-like quality. The kittens are nearly white
when born, but when they become adult assume a body
color of pale grayish-fawn, with face, ears, legs and tail
approaching black. The eyes are blue.

The Manx cat is characterized by the entire absence of a
tail. This is a well-established character, which breeds true,
and such cats are not to be confused with those in which
the tail has been artificially docked. The hind legs of the
Manx cat are considerably lengthened, giving the animal a
curious, rabbit-like appearance.

CHAPTER III
DOMESTIC RABBITS *

It is not strange that the rabbit, as a pet, is almost ubiqui-
tous. It has all of the qualifications necessary to endear it
to the heart of childhood, and is large enough to be of
interest to the practically inclined adult. In Europe, the
rabbit is of much importance as a means of food supply.
Dear experience, however, has shown that America has not

yet reached the point where it can regard this creature in

any other light than that of a pet.

The attempt made a few years ago, to popularize the
Belgian Hare as a food animal, collapsed when the point
of marketing the surplus was reached. The boomers had
much to say concerning the great demand for the succulent
flesh of the rabbit, but the only persons impressed were
those who thought to court fortune by a short-cut. Tre-
mendous prices were paid for breeding animals, but once
all of the prospective breeders were supplied the Belgian
Hare became practically unsalable.

The chiéf reason for this failure, of course, was the
deeply rooted prejudice against eating rodents of any sort.
It is a foolish antipathy, and once it has been overcome
there is no doubt that the rabbit will become as popular as
a table animal as its former promoters hoped.

When the Belgian Hare craze was at its height the
most elaborate rabbitries were erected. Great buildings,
fitted with hutches for the accommodation of thousands
of animals, were frequently seen. Except in a few cases,

* Reprinted in part from Country Life in America, February,
1917. Courtesy Doubleday, Page & Co.

18

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DOMESTIC RABBITS 19

these structures are now devoted to other purposes, and
the needs of the fancier are met by a much simpler affair.

General Care

Rabbits do best when allowed plenty of fresh air. If
properly protected from draught and dampness they are
not affected by cold. Some few keepers of utility rabbits
advocate the use of large outdoor runs, after the fashion
of a warren. The success of such practice, however, is
doubtful, and it certainly savors too much of the hap-
hazard to commend itself to the careful breeder. |

Individual hutches, if a size commensurate with the needs
of the breed to be kept, will be found the most generally
satisfactory. An unheated shed or stable, well ventilated,
but free from draught and dampness, makes an excellent
shelter for the hutches.

Many styles of cages are in use for housing rabbits.
Almost anything will do, of course, so long as it gives the.
animals room to exercise and safely confines them. The
boy who keeps a pair of rabbits in his yard is indeed lack-
ing in ingenuity if he cannot devise, without specific direc-
tions, a suitable shelter for his pets.

But those who go in more seriously for sebbieesiae
must follow a well-established system. Most rabbitries
favor the stock cage, which permits the keeping of a larger
number of animals on a given amount of floor space.

Belgian Hares, because of their active habits, and Flemish
Giants, because of their great size, require larger hutches
than most other breeds. For these rabbits the hutch should
be at least four feet long by two feet wide and high. Cages
as short as two and a half feet wide will be found large
enough for the smaller breeds, such as Dutch Rabbits.

The material to form the sides of the hutches must de-

20 MAMMALS

pend on conditions. If the room is light and free from
draught, the cage may be covered with half-inch mesh wire.
On the other hand, if the position is exposed, all sides but
one should be tightly boxed in.

Hutches for breeding does must contain a snug box
in one corner, or at one side, where the family may have
perfect privacy. This is formed conveniently by the use
of a slide, running from front to back, as described for
cavies. A door of solid wood should be placed at the front
of the nest box, and another opening into the cage proper.

The floor of the hutch should at all times be well covered
with clean sawdust. A handful or two of Sanitas will be

found very efficient in keeping down the odor, although,

fortunately, rabbits are not particularly offensive in this
respect. The sawdust should be renewed at least two or
three times weekly.

During cold weather, hay or straw may be strewn over
the sawdust, as an added protection. Straw only should be
used for Angoras, as hay mats the hair. If a nesting box,
is in use, this also may be furnished with hay or straw.

Hay, oats and greens are the staple food of rabbits.
The hay should be soft, clean and free from mildew, that
containing a large percentage of clover being the most
relished. Carrots, beets, turnips and mangels are the vege-
tables most in favor, particularly during the winter months.
When obtainable, lettuce, celery, cauliflower, dandelion, plan-
tain, clover and fresh grass are much relished. Cabbage is
always to be had, and rabbits eat it readily enough. How-
ever, it is a coarse food, and should be avoided when sub-
stitutes can be secured. There need be no fear of giving
adult rabbits plenty of green food, when they are accustomed
to having it. Animals which for some time have been
deprived of this item may be attacked by colic if suddenly
allowed to gorge themselves. Green foods should be neither

DOMESTIC RABBITS 21

wet nor wilted, as either condition will cause dangerous
digestive disturbances.

Many breeders make use of mashes containing bran,
barley meal, middlings, oil meal, etc., and prepared meals
may be purchased from dealers. Such mashes, if used,
should always be thoroughly scalded and allowed to cool
before feeding.

Two meals per day are sufficient for adult rabbits under
ordinary circumstances. Fresh water should be in the
hutches at all times, although rabbits are among the unfortu-
nate animals which are popularly supposed to thrive best
without it. It is true that when green food is abundant
little water is consumed. But when the use of drier foods
is necessitated water is indispensable, and it is therefore
best kept in the hutches at all times.

Adult bucks and does usually are run in separate com-
partments, although non-breeding does may be kept together.
No animal should be used for breeding until well matured,
and at least six to eight months old. The usual precau-
tions, of course, should be taken to select for reproduction
only healthy individuals.

When a pair has been selected for breeding, the buck
may be introduced to the doe’s hutch, allowed to remain for
a few hours and then removed. The period of gestation
in rabbits is thirty days. During this period, the doe should
be kept as quiet as possible and provided with plenty of
nourishing food. Bread and milk should be given freely
throughout the nursing period, and water should always
be before the mother.

When the young are expected, the doe will arrange a
nest in the box, and line and cover it with soft fur plucked
from her own coat. The young are blind and nearly bare,
so the breeder does not feel that it is a great tribulation to
forego an inspection for the first few days.

22 MAMMALS

At the end of this period the litter may be examined. It
may be a very large one, perhaps as high as ten or twelve.
But so many babies are too much for the mother to care for,
and all but five or six should be removed. Of course the
weakest individuals should be selected for destruction.

When three or four weeks old, the young rabbits will
begin to appear outside the nest, and soon will be feeding
freely. If weaned at four weeks, the youngsters are able
to care for themselves, but if left until they are two months
old, or even a little longer, it will prove better for both
mother and offspring. When the young rabbits are three
months old, the sexes should be separated. Just after
weaning well-prepared mashes will be found of great use.

Breeds

As the Belgian Hare is now by far the most popular
breed, both in this country and in England, it may be con-
sidered first. It has, of course, no connection with any
hare. It is a simple derivative of the common European
rabbit (Lepus cuniculus), as are all of the other breeds
so far as known. When first introduced from Belgium to
England, it was confidently believed to be a cross between
hare and rabbit, a fallacy founded, no doubt, on the close
resemblance to the color of the former animal.

The Belgian Hare is essentially slim and racy. The
head and body are long, the back slightly arched. The fore-
legs are very slender and of good length, the feet small and
there should be no sign of a dewlap, or fleshy growth under
the chin. The ears should be straight, carried upright and
bordered near the tip with a narrow edge of black.

The desired shade of color is commonly described as
“rich rufous red.” The red is overcast with a plentiful

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DOMESTIC RABBITS 23

ticking of black hairs, which are desired to be of a wavy
appearance, rather than evenly sprinkled.

Both black and white varieties of the Belgian Hare have
been bred, but neither has ever become popular.

The Flemish Giant is the largest rabbit breed, and from
this fact has threatened to rival the Belgian Hare as a
market animal. However, it was not strong enough, nu-
merically, to become widely popular during the rabbit craze,
and since that time breeders have discovered that there are
various small deficiencies to balance its advantage in weight.
Its flesh is less delicate than that of the Belgian, it is some-
what less prolific and the young require a longer period to
reach maturity. Nevertheless, the Flemish Giant is second
only to the Belgian Hare in the numbers of its admirers.

The typical Giant is dark gray in color, wavily ticked
with black. This ticking extends over the entire body with
the exception of the under surface of the body, which is
pure white. As in the Belgian Hare, black, white and |
also light gray varieties are acquired. The former, at
least, has attained some favor, and now is rather extensively
bred.

In shape it is to the Belgian Hare as the draught horse
is to the thoroughbred. Its body is heavy, its legs thick
and strong. The head is rounded and full, and the dewlap
is well developed.

A well-grown Flemish Giant should weigh eleven or
twelve pounds. Occasional specimens are seen which scale
up to sixteen or even eighteen pounds.

To the color breeder, silvers are perhaps the most at-
tractive of rabbits. There are three varieties—Silver Gray,
Silver Brown and Silver Fawn—each presenting a com-
plicated and delicate color scheme. The Silvers are small,
cobby rabbits, seldom exceeding five or six pounds in weight.
The ears are small and narrow, and the coat short and crisp.

24 MAMMALS

The Silver Gray is really a bluish-black rabbit, evenly
ticked throughout with white hairs. The wavy ticking so
much sought for by breeders of Belgian Hares and Flemish
Giants is anathema in a Silver. Young Silver Grays are
black in the first coat, the silvering appearing later on.

The Silver Fawn has the ground color orange, with white
hairs evenly dispersed throughout. This is a really beau-
tiful animal and well worth cultivation.

The Silver Brown, said to be the result of a Silver Fawn-
Belgian Hare cross, is rather more complicated. The body
shade is chestnut which, when blown up, discloses a bluish
undercolor. Over this chestnut ground both black and
white hairs are evenly scattered, producing both silvering
and ticking. The Silver Brown is difficult to breed to per-
fection, and is perhaps less handsome than its congeners.

Black-and-Tan and Blue-and-Tan Rabbits are of the
same ground shape as the Silvers, with cobby bodies, neat
ears and short coats. In size they are even smaller, seldom
exceeding three or four pounds weight.

The ground color is-blue or black according to the variety.
In either case the tan markings are the same. It is most
interesting to note that the distribution of tan is much the
same in dogs, mice and rabbits. In the latter species there
is a triangle at the base of the neck, and the underparts,
chest and throat are solid tan. There is a ring around
each eye, a line along the jaw, a touch on the nostrils
and edgings on the ears. The front feet are tanned on
the toes only, but the hind feet have this color on the inside
as well.

The Polish is the smallest of rabbit breeds. In body it
is short and cobby, with small, narrow ears. The eyes
are large and prominent. The coat is very short and
smooth, requiring much grooming to keep it in condition.

As bred in America and in England, the Polish Rabbit is

DOMESTIC RABBITS 25

-invariably white. A few years ago, however, near Brussels,

the writer saw some excellent specimens of the breed of
the deepest black. . This color seems unknown among Eng-
lish-speaking breeders.

The Lop-eared Rabbit is one of the oldest breeds. As
with many other domestic animals, the over-development
of an abnormal character has caused its final downfall.
Once by far the most popular of all rabbits, its devotees now
are many times outnumbered by the followers of more nor-
mal breeds.

Ears are everything with the Lop-ear, other characters
being of small importance. It is a large rabbit, as indeed it
must be to carry the immense aural appendages. It occurs
in a great variety of self and pied colors, little attention
being given this point.

The ears are perfectly pendent, any tendency to upright-
ness being an unforgivable fault. An almost unbelievable
length has been produced and rabbits with ears measuring
twenty-seven inches long by seven inches broad have been
bred. 3

Lop-ears require heated quarters for the best results.
This fact, combined with the constant handling and manipu-
lation required to produce the finest specimens, have served
to discourage the tyro.

Broken-colored rabbits are found in three well-known
breeds, the most popular of which is the Dutch-marked.
This animal presents the usual Dutch-markings, which con-
sist of colored patches including cheeks, ears and eyes and
saddle of the same shade, extending backward from the
shoulders. The greatest importance is attached to even-
ness of marking, particularly in the face patches, and the
hind feet, which are white.

There is a great variety of colors, black, blue, gray and
tortoise-shell or shaded fawn being the most popular.

26 MAMMALS

Dutch-marked Rabbits are small and short in body, with
fine, straight ears and short coats. They are prolific and
easily reared, and reputed to be the gentlest of the rabbit
breeds.

The Himalayan Rabbit is an excellent example of the
tendency of fanciers to give to breeds of doubtful origin
names indicating importation from distant countries. The
Himalayan Rabbit was produced in England, an interesting
account of its appearance being furnished by Darwin.*

This is an albinistic breed, the eyes being pink. It is
mainly white, with nose, ears, feet and tail of a deep black.
The nose mark should be well developed, and cover the
jaw, as well as the face as far as the eyes, while the legs
should be colored well past the first joint. Much difficulty
is experienced in getting the black sufficiently dense, most
specimens being inclined to sootiness. Himalayas are white
at first, and require several months to attain the full mark-
ings.

The English, sometimes known as the Butterfly Rabbit,
is a most bizarre creature. It seems without the bounds
of possibility that any animal could be bred even to approxi-
mate the markings demanded, yet well-nigh perfect speci-
mens are seen.

The English is a rather large rabbit, averaging up to eight
pounds in weight. It is white in general, with curiously
distributed colored markings. The tail, ears, a ring about
each eye, a circular spot at each side of the nose, supposed
to represent the wings of a butterfly, and a line down the
middle of the back are colored—black, fawn, blue, etc.,
as the case may be. The remainder of the markings con-
sist of small, circular spots, placed as follows: a row along
the sides, each spot to be well separated from the others; a

* Animals and Plants Under Domestication (Westminster Edition),
Vol. I, p. 100.

DOMESTIC RABBITS 27

spot at the first joint of each leg; three along each side,
of the belly, and one in the center of each cheek. It is
important that the markings be clear, distinct and pure in
color.

The Angora is the most difficult of rabbits to keep in
good condition. Its fur, while not so long, in proportion to
its size, as that of the cavy, is much finer than that of the
latter animal. It is very prone to matting, and only the
most constant and careful brushing will keep the animal in
presentable condition.

Angoras are typically white, but colored varieties have
been produced and are growing in popularity. There is
no reason why the breed should be limited to white alone,
and no doubt colored animals will, in time, become as well
known as the albinos.

Because of their soft, almost woolly fur, Angoras should
not be bedded with hay, straw being much more desirable.
Plenty of hutch space and absolute cleanliness are essential
to the welfare of these rabbits.

CHAPTER IV
CAVIES OR GUINEA-PIGS *

THE cavy is typically a pet animal, and has no other excuse
for existence than the pleasure he gives those who appreci-
ate his good qualities. While not particularly intelligent, he
is far from stupid, and soon learns to greet his owner’s
approaching footstep with a welcoming whistle. He is
clean, with practically no offensive odor and no animal is
more harmless, for an individual that will bite is very
unusual.

Attempts have been made to popularize the cavy on the
ground that it is of great economic value, as an article of
food. But people who are not too keen on rabbits certainly
will not eat a guinea-pig, and aside from general advertising,
probably no gain ever was made from this claim.

But it is to the undeniable edibility of the cavy that we
owe the existence of our cheerful little squeaker of today.
The Incas of Peru long ago domesticated the wild ancestor
of the modern animals—a small, tailless, unicolored member
of the genus Cavia, the exact identity of which is a matter
of some doubt. These creatures were allowed to run freely
about the homes of their owners, whose object in breeding
them undoubtedly was for their food value. The time
which must have elapsed since this domestication was first
begun is evident from the entirely changed color of the
present-day cavy.

Just when the guinea-pig was taken to Europe seems to
be lost in obscurity. At any rate, it is certain that they

* Reprinted in part from Country Life in America, December, 1916.
Courtesy Doubleday, Page & Co.

28

CAVIES OR GUINEA-PIGS 29

were variegated with red, black and white, and that there
were. no solid colored ones among them. For years, these

- nondescripts were cultivated as pets, particularly in Eng-

land, and it was not until between 1880 and 1890 that solid
or self-colored ones appeared, the first of which were white.
About this time, a strain of gray and black ticked specimens
appeared, known as agoutis. Just how these were pro-
duced is not known, but the color certainly must be close
to that of the ancestral form, and it is not at all unlikely
that it was a case of reversion. At any rate, these agouti
individuals quickly produced self black and reds when
crossed with the old-fashioned pied animals, and from these
the creams were later developed.

The remarks above refer only to the smooth-haired or
English Cavies. Besides these, there are two other distinct
breeds the origin of which is obscure, although they are, of
course, the result of sports from the common guinea-pig,
improved by selection. Both have long been known, and
like many domestic breeds of uncertain derivation, have
been given foreign-sounding names, supposed to denote
their original habitat, but which, of course, have no founda-
tion or fact.

The Abyssinian Cavy is covered with stiff, wiry hair,
which should be short, and as harsh as possible. Its most
curious feature is that the coat is formed into numerous
rosettes or cowlicks, which cover the entire body.

The Peruvian, sometimes called the Angora, is covered
with very long, silky hair, which grows to a considerable
length. When properly cared for, a good specimen is a
very attractive creature.

Food and Housing

Cavies are hardy creatures and can endure a great deal
of cold without suffering, if provided with plenty of warm

30 MAMMALS

bedding. A hutch three feet long, two feet wide and
eighteen inches high will accommodate a male, or boar and
three females, or sows, as they are known among breeders.
Variants of these dimensions are, of course, just as satis-
factory, but the inmates should be given plenty of room.

Cavies are supposed by many persons to drive away
rats and mice simply by their presence, and are sometimes
kept for this absurd reason. Quite the contrary is the case,
for rats will make havoc in the caviary, killing the babies and
sometimes attacking the adults. Mice are less aggressive,
but also troublesome because they enter the hutches and
contaminate the food.

It is best, therefore, to cover the fronts of the cages with
half-inch mesh wire, which will exclude these undesirables.
Part of the front may be boarded up solidly and a slide,
perforated with suitable entrance holes, run through at right
angles, thus forming an inner sleeping-box. Or the entire
front may be wired,,and a movable box placed inside. At
any rate, this secluded portion is necessary.

If cavies are to be kept on a large scale, these hutches
may be constructed in tiers, one above the other, in some
convenient barn or outhouse. So long as there is protection
from wind and dampness, artificial heat is not necessary,
except in the case of the Peruvian, although of course it
may be used if desired.

The best bedding for the hutch is clean sawdust, free
from dirt and large bits of wood. This should be renewed
frequently, and if this be done conscientiously, the cavies
will remain clean and odorless.

Sweet, clean meadow or clover hay may be used inside
the sleeping-box. If it is quite full, the cavies will bur-
row underneath and keep warm and comfortable. Hay
is one of the chief items of the guinea-pig’s diet, and should
be at hand at all times.

CAVIES OR GUINEA-PIGS 31

Ordinarily, two meals per day will suffice for the cavy’s
wants. Good, clean, full oats and bran, dry or slightly
dampened, should be given, with some sort of fresh vege-
tables or green food. In winter, carrots and cabbage or let-
tuce are always obtainable, but during the summer months
as great a variety as possible should be given. Almost any-
thing green is appreciated, such as clover, dandelion, plan-
tain and even fresh grass.

When babies are expected, and for a while after their
birth, bread and milk should be supplied.

Fresh water should be in the hutches at all times. Cavies
are not great drinkers, and when green food is abundant
can get on without liquids. . For this reason, many persons
never give water, but this practice is reprehensible and
careless.

Cavies are uncommonly healthy creatures, and if reason-
able care is used in keeping their quarters clean, and in
providing correct food, there is little likelihood of trouble
caused by sickness.

If disease or injury does occur, the individual afflicted
should be isolated at once. Unless it is a particularly valu-
able specimen, or the trouble is trifling, it is better to despatch
it at once, rather than expose the entire stock to infection.

_ Breeding

This is the most interesting phase of pet-keeping and as
little or as much may be made of it as suits the individual.
There is much to be learned of the operation of natural
laws if one is inclined to observe. The breeding of cavies
to standard requirements is an art as complicated as that
which produces a Derby winner, and based on the same
principle.

The old haphazard method, by which a number of ani-

32 | MAMMALS

mals, adults and young, were allowed to run together indis-
‘criminately, can lead to no good result. It is comparable
to the flock of poultry or pigeons roaming unrestrained
and breeding in a haphazard way.

Line breeding, as outlined later in this work, is the only
means by which success in this field may be obtained, and
careful observation of its principles will result in rapid
gains by the breeder. If some particular breed or color has
been selected, with the idea of producing standard speci-
mens, the very best stock should be secured in the first
place, and rigid selection used in future matings. Only
strong, vigorous individuals should be chosen for the breed-
ing-pen.

In mating, two or three sows may be+run with a boar at
once, and after sufficient time has elapsed he should be re-
moved. While some boars are quiet enough to leave with
the young, many are not to be trusted. The period of gesta-
tion is about sixty-three days, but may vary considerably
with individuals. The advantage of this procedure is that
all of the young will appear at about the same time, and
as cavy mothers are not particular as to their young, all
will be sure of sufficient attention. If any are particularly
quarrelsome, they should be removed to separate hutches
before the birth of the young.

The common belief that cavies are extremely prolific is
entirely without foundation. The fact is quite the oppo-
site. Litters average in number from one to four, two
being perhaps the most usual. Five or six sometimes occur,
but this is very uncommon. Since at least two months must
separate the litters, it will be seen that the caviary will not
be flooded with youngsters for some time. This error in
regard to prolificacy is curiously persistent, and is con-
stantly appearing in the literature of the subject.

The young at birth are the most precocious of mammals,

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CAVIES OR GUINEA-PIGS 33

being perfectly furnished in every way, and able to run
about freely almost at once. After the first few days, they
will begin to nibble at the food provided, and soon are
caring for themselves. At the age of four or five weeks,
they should be taken from the mother, and the sexes sepa-
rated. The mother may now be returned to the company
of the boar.

Young cavies will breed at the age of eight or ten weeks,
but should be prevented from doing so until they are at
least five or six months old, when they will have reached
full development.

The English Cavy

The English or Smooth-haired Cavy is by far the most
abundant. The common pied specimens are very popular
as pets, and are much in demand for experimental purposes,
by colleges and other scientific institutions. Many breeders
devote a great deal of time and space to the production of
cavies for this purpose alone, and an industry of some
importance is being developed.

Common cavies are just as desirable for pets as their
better-bred cousins, and many prettily marked individuals
occur. But standard-bred specimens, of uniform color and
markings, are to be obtained for but little more, and as the
care in each case is identical, the better ones should be
secured if possible.

In conformation, the English Cavy should be short and
blocky, with large head and broad, Roman nose. The ears
should always droop somewhat, this character, with the
down-curved face, destroying the undesirable rat-like ap-
pearance of snipy specimens. ‘The coat should be short,
fine and smooth.

English Cavies are bred in a number of colors, which are

34 MAMMALS

included in four groups: solid, or self, agouti, broken and
Dutch-marked.

Selfs include black, white, red, chocolate and cream,
which must be even in shade and free from the slightest
spot of another color.

As stated before, whites were the first self-colored cavies
produced. Because of their color, they do not offer the —
problems of breeding met with in other varieties, but a
really good specimen is much more difficult to produce than
would be expected by the uninitiated. Like all albinos, the
white cavy has pink eyes. |

Blacks followed whites in order of appearance. For
years after, specimens pure in color were rarely seen, white
or reddish hairs frequently being present. This trouble
now has been largely eliminated, and blacks of rich, solid
color are produced. It is a fact well known among breeders
that crosses with red, red and white and black and white,
are often resorted to, and that cavies bred from such
crosses, even if slightly spotted, frequently are the most
consistent producers of solid blacks.

Reds are a beautiful variety, and perhaps the most popu-
lar of the selfs. In color they should be an even, bright

orange, withyno tendency to darkness on the ears. Good

reds are abundant, but crosses with broken-colored speci-
mens and golden agoutis are frequently used to maintain
brightness of color.

Creams, although very attractive, do not seem to be so

well liked as would be expected. The shade is very soft
and rich, and sound, even-colored specimens are not easily }
produced. Chocolates are a deep, rich brown, but good ones | :
are scarce. The variety is not commonly bred in this

country.
Agoutis occur in two shades, known as golden and silver. |
Both are thickly ticked with black, the silver having a

CAVIES OR GUINEA-PIGS 35

light grayish background, and the golden yellowish-brown.
Both are very handsome in color, and rather difficult to
produce. Silvers should be entirely free from creamy shad-
ing, clear-colored specimens being very uncommon. The
ticking in both varieties should be carried down over the
legs and on the belly. This point is not easily obtained, and
is improved by resorting to the black cross.

The broken-colored varieties are the tortoise-shell and the
tortoise-shell-and-white. The former has two colors only,
red and black, while in the latter white is added. In both
varieties, the patches must be well broken, small and distinct.
It is difficult, especially in the tortoise-shells, to prevent the
intermingling, in small patches, of the two colors. This
condition is known as brindling, and specimens free from
it are uncommon. No particular markings are required, as
long as the colors are distinct and evenly distributed.

The Dutch-marked is one of the most attractive of cavy
varieties. The markings are distinctive and clean-cut, the
contrasts are strong, and taken altogether a good Dutch-
marked is a very handsome little beast.

The most common colors are red and black, but there
are also creams and agoutis, in lesser numbers. The ani-
mal is particolored, with solid saddle and a patch at each
side of the head, including the eyes and ears. The white
markings consist of a blaze on the forehead, white collar
and shoulders, and white hind feet.

The markings must be clean-cut, the most difficult to
secure being the evenness of cut on the hind feet.

The Abyssinian Cavy

Next to the English, the Abyssinian is probably the most
popular of the Cavies. Contrary to common opinion, it is
not a long-haired breed, for the aim is to keep the coat
short. In quality it is exactly opposite to that of the English

36 MAMMALS

and Peruvian, being very harsh and wiry. Its most char-
acteristic feature is the separation of the hair into circular
rosettes, which should be as numerous as possible.

The coat needs more attention than is the case with the
smooth varieties, and in grooming the motion should be
toward the head, not the reverse. As the rosettes are very
definitely formed, not much can be done to improve them,
and advance in this point can be secured only by careful
selective breeding. A soft brush, however, may be used to
straighten out the hairs and keep them properly arranged.

Abyssinians are a hardy breed and will stand more ex-
posure than either the English or Peruvians. Cold seems
to improve the harshness of the coat, too much warmth
producing the opposite effect.

In breeding Abyssinians, the first considerations to be
looked to are coat and rosetting. Because of the impor-
tance of these points, little attention has been paid to color.
English cavies are often resorted to for strengthening this
point and shortening the coat. This cross also leads to
softness and loss of rosettes, but a very few generations
serve to make the return to true Abyssinian characters.

Abyssinians exist in ‘all of the recognized colors, and as
the material is at hand, it is to be hoped that more atten-
tion will come to be paid to this point at no distant date.

The Peruvian Cavy

This is the dandy of the cavy family, and as such re-
quires a great deal of care and pampering. ‘The hair is
extremely long, soft and silky, its length in a really good
specimen being so great as to entirely obscure the outlines of ~
the body. The hair should have no tendency to rosettes or _
curliness, but should lie flat and straight. 7

The Peruvian is larger than other cavies, and much i

CAVIES OR GUINEA-PIGS 37

broader-backed. It is rather delicate in constitution and

_ should not be exposed to cold or dampness. The long, soft

hair has a tendency to retain moisture, and if it is allowed
to remain in this condition, will have a serious effect on
the health of the specimen.

Because of the tendency to gnaw one another’s hair,
Peruvians cannot be kept together. For this reason, those
which are used in the breeding-pen should be at least partly
clipped.

So much care and attention are required to keep a high-
class exhibition specimen in show condition that few care
to undertake it, or are successful in the enterprise.

When born, the coat is comparatively short, and divided
into rosettes after the fashion of the Abyssinian, which
seems to indicate an origin from this breed. But the hair
is always soft and silky, and constantly increasing in length,
so that at about six months old it is fully developed.

To keep this wonderful coat free from snarls and curls
is the cause of much labor on the part of the owner. It
should be brushed daily with a soft brush, the stroking
beginning at the head. After all tangles have been smoothed
out, the long tresses, in the case of exhibition specimens, is
folded—not rolled—in papers, in such a way that it cannot
drag on the floor or be soiled in any way.

Peruvians should be bedded with straw cut in short
lengths, and hay furnished in a rack, as sawdust and seed-
heads do not get on well with silky hair.

As with the Abyssinians, color has been neglected, and
most Peruvians are decidedly nondescript in this respect.

| Good self whites are occasionally seen, however, and per-

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haps some time we may have more Peruvians of other
attractive colors.

CHAPTER V
DOMESTIC RATS AND MICE

WHEN one considers the proverbial feeling of dislike sup-
posed to be harbored, at least by persons of the gentler sex,
for rats and mice, it seems strange that they should be so
widely kept as pets. It is evident that this curious fear is
really superficial, for it quickly disappears once a closer
acquaintance with these little creatures is acquired. What
domestic animal is daintier or prettier than a white mouse?
The most prejudiced person is quickly won, if only he can
be brought to see these rodents as they really are, without
the cloak of traditional repulsion.

The only objection to rats and mice is the odor which is
characteristic of these creatures. It is especially noticeable
in mice, but if the cage is thoroughly cleaned and disinfected
at frequent intervals, the trouble can be almost entirely
overcome. It must be remembered that the animal itself is
not only odorless, but most fastidious as to cleanliness.
Rats are much less offensive than mice in this respect.

The keeping of rats and mice has always been popular in
this country, but in a rather sporadic fashion. In England,
this fancy, like many others, has been taken more seriously,
and an association, the National Mouse Club, has been
formed by interested persons. It is to their efforts that we
owe many of the varieties of both species that exist at
present.

In no domestic animal have so many color phases been
segregated as in the domestic mouse. For this reason, and
also because of their fecundity, mice are in great demand for
research in questions of heredity. |

38

tne a

DOMESTIC RATS AND MICE 39

It is in this fancy, too, that breeders, perhaps unwittingly,
make the greatest use of Mendelian principles. Crosses are
made, and brothers and sisters mated in expectation of the
appearance of desired colors, not visible in the first gen-
eration. Mouse fanciers do not prate of the evils of inbreed-
ing, but consistently practise this method of securing colors
not otherwise easily obtained.

It is of interest to note that while rats and mice, par-
ticularly the latter, have been produced in many color
varieties, no changes of form or coat have appeared. The
Waltzing Mouse is the only breed which shows other than
color variation. Rats, perhaps because less extensively bred
than mice, are seen in fewer color phases. The recent de-
velopment of yellow and cream rats will be mentioned
later on.

Fancy Mice

Mice, because of their smaller size and gentler nature, are
more desirable as pets than rats. If at all accustomed to
handling, as they should be, they rarely attempt to bite, and
quickly become tame and confiding.

In housing mice, it must be remembered that they are
sensitive to cold, draught and dampness, all of which must
be guarded against. It certainly is safest to keep mice in
heated quarters during cold weather. At any rate, some
warmth must be provided when the temperature drops to
the freezing-point. Draught is avoided by using cages open
on one side only.

The casual keeper of a pair of pet mice will find most
suitable a wooden case, say 12” x 8" x6". This should have
one side covered with one-quarter or one-eighth inch square-
meshed wire, which will keep the occupants in, and also
protect them from unwelcome relatives who may visit them.
This also permits easy inspection of the pets by their owner.

40 MAMMALS

A glass aquarium makes an excellent mouse cage. A wire
top can be provided, which will serve as a door and also
permit ventilation. It also has the added advantage of pro-
viding an unbounded view of the inmates.

Where mouse breeding is done on a large scale, cages
of a somewhat different type are used. These usually are
wired at the top, and are placed side by side on tiers of
shelves. In the cages used in the New York Zodlogical
Park, where great numbers of mice are produced yearly, the
entire top is removable. This simplifies construction and
makes care and cleaning an easy matter. These cages are

about 15" x 10” x 4", and accommodate from one to a dozen ~

mice each. ;

In any event, at the back of the cage should be a small box,
three or four inches in each dimension, with a small aper-
ture, large enough for the passage of a mouse. This box
should be removable to facilitate cleaning. Soft hay or
straw, with small bits of paper, make the best bedding ma-
terial for this secluded nest. Sawdust makes the best cov-
ering for the floor of the cage, as the absorbent qualities of
this material facilitate cleaning. If a medicated brand,
such as Sanitas Sawdust, is used, any odor of the mice is
overcome by the scent of pine.

The average householder knows too well that almost
anything in the way of food is acceptable to the common
house mouse. While this might be equally true of his
domesticated relatives, it will soon be found that an unre-
stricted diet does not agree with the captives.

Like all caged animals, mice must be fed with a cer-
tain amount of discretion. Seed forms the principal food.
Canary seed is the staple, but for a large number of pets is
rather expensive, and may be supplemented with oats and
millet. Sunflower, hemp and linseed are useful for nursing

A

i sp el

DOMESTIC RATS AND MICE 41

mothers, or mice which are out of condition, but are too
fattening for general use.

Bread and milk is an excellent food for mice, particularly
mothers and newly weaned youngsters. Boiled rice and
cereals are a welcome change, but must not be given too
freely because of their fattening qualities. Such foods are
best fed at night, when the mice are most active. All that
remains should be removed in the morning, as it quickly
sours. | |

Small pieces of raw or boiled potatoes, carrots and simi-
lar vegetables are relished by mice. Green food should
be supplied in the form of lettuce, chickweed, dandelion,
etc. Such food is of the greatest importance in keeping
mice in health.

Clean water should be in the cages at all times, even when
soft and green foods are being fed abundantly.

A pair of mice will do very well together, but many
breeders make a point of running two does with each buck.
When babies are expected, the does should be removed to
separate cages. Here they should be furnished a secluded
retreat, well provided with soft nesting material. A little
extra food at this time is very beneficial. The period of
gestation in mice is about twenty-one days.

When the young finally appear, they should not be dis-
turbed for a few days. Then they may be examined quietly.
If a few mice are being kept merely as pets, or if certain
lines of investigation are being followed, the entire litter
may be left. But if it is desired to improve the size and
stamina of the strain, not more than four or five babies
should be left with the mother. If the mice are of a marked
variety, the poorer specimens can be detected at an early
age and destroyed. Among selfs, the choice may be more
difficult, but there are always some faults, however small,
for which their possessor may be discarded. The little

42 MAMMALS

mother cannot do justice to a too numerous offspring, and
through her efforts may herself come to grief.

Young mice are born blind and naked, but are not long
before they are able to be out of the nest. They will soon
' begin feeding, and when four or five weeks old, the young
bucks and does must be separated.

The mother may now be returned to the buck, if she is
in good condition.

Mice are mature when about three months old, and should
not be used for breeding until they have reached that age.
They are short-lived creatures, and when they have passed
two years are of little use.

The caging of extra bucks is something of a problem. A
litter of youngsters reared together will generally agree,
although there is usually some quarreling. But adult bucks,
if placed together, will fight fiercely, often resulting in the
injury or even death of one of the combatants. The safest
method is to introduce several to a cage at one time, when
they will generally settle down, although the peace may
often be broken.

Adult does may be a bit quarrelsome on first acquaintance,
but generally become good friends in a short time.

Breeding mice is a diverting pursuit, and one who is in-
terested in heredity can gain much by this means. More

than thirty well-established varieties are known, and as the |

various characters which determine them seem easily segre-
gated, there is no doubt that from time to time others will
appear. ‘

All of these varieties are, of course, the descendants of
the common house mouse (Mus musculus). This creature
is very subject to variation, wild mice with spots on the
forehead or belly being of frequent occurrence. The writer
well remembers several handsome wild gray agouti mice
caught by him when a small boy. These mice were silvery

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DOMESTIC RATS AND MICE 43

white, strongly ticked with black, a color which breeders
seem to find very difficult to secure. These specimens were
taken in an isolated locality, where domesticated mice had
hardly been heard of, to say nothing of being kept, so there
can be no question of their wild ancestry.

It does not seem strange, therefore, that so many colors
should have appeared under domestication. The many
shades are inherent in the coats of wild mice, and only the
’ skill of the breeder is required to separate them from ob-
scuring influences.

White mice are the most abundant and commonly kept
variety, and probably represent the first important change
from the parent form. The white race must have been
established without much difficulty, and undoubtedly has
been in existence for a great many years. The crossing of
whites with wild grays has a tendency to separate the colors,
and the varieties which appeared have been fixed by selec-
tion.

Like all fancy mice, whites should be large, with short,
velvety coats. The color should be of the purest, with no
tendency toward yellowness. The usual white mice have
pink eyes, which should be very large.

Within recent years a black-eyed variety has been intro-
duced. These mice are not, of course, true albinos, but
are simply the extreme of spotted mice, bred lighter and
lighter until the pigment has been entirely eliminated, ex-
cept from the eyes. They do not breed perfectly true, a
large percentage of the young being more or less spotted.
Black-eyed whites are not as yet well known in this country,
but are becoming more popular. —

If the stamina of a strain of whites becomes effected, it
is easily rebuilt by a cross with a colored mouse, preferably
a black. The first young will no doubt be blacks, but if
these brothers and sisters are bred together, one white in

44 MAMMALS

every four youngsters may be expected. These are known
as extracted whites, and if mated with whites, will never
produce any other color.

Of the colored mice, blacks are probably the best known.
The color should be sound and dense throughout, and free
from rustiness. Light feet and tails are the most common
faults.

Blues are merely diluted blacks, of a dark slate color.
They should be free from brown shades, and in feet and
tails are subject to the same weakness as the blacks. These
two colors are commonly bred together, but once the strains
are firmly established, much better results, particularly with
blues, can be obtained by keeping the colors pure.

Yellow mice have been known variously as fawn, cinna-
mon and orange, and of late have come to be described as
- red. This seems decidedly misleading, as the color of these
mice is not at all the shade known as red in other animals,
markedly in cavies.

No matter what the name, the color certainly is one of
the most attractive found in mice. When seen at its best,
the red mouse is of a bright, rich orange-yellow, a shade
not easy to secure. Chocolates are most frequently used in
crossing with reds, the interchange of blood seeming to bene-
fit both varieties.

It is a curious fact that while all mice of advanced age
tend to become fat, reds seem more inclined than other
colors to take on flesh. The writer recently saw two red
does of such an unbelievable size that he could hardly be-
lieve they were mice at all. Careful dieting is necessary
to keep good specimens of this color in presentable con-
dition.

Chocolates should be of the dark color the name implies.
Much crossing with reds leads to the production of a lighter
shade, and recourse to black blood is necessary. Once the

DOMESTIC RATS AND MICE 45

dark color has been secured, it can be retained by close
breeding from mice of the desired shade.

Silvers are of a soft and pleasing shade, which at first
glance might almost pass for white. There are both pink-
eyed and black-eyed varieties. The latter seems to have
been the first to appear, and it-was not until after the pink-
eyed form was produced that the color was obtained as
wanted.

Silver-gray, silver-brown and silver-fawn mice have been
produced, but do not appear to have been introduced into
America. The silver-gray is really a blue-black mouse,
heavily ticked with white hairs. Similarly, the two other
varieties are brown and fawn, respectively, ticked as in
rabbits of the same colors. If these mice could be pro-
duced with any degree of certainty, they would be most
attractive.

Agoutis are bred in both golden and silver, or gray. The
former is a reddish-brown color, ticked with black, while
the gray should have a silvery ground. Agoutis have not
yet reached a state of perfection which would commend
them to the amateur. |

Sables vary from light to dark brown or nearly black
above, shading off into light brown or tan on the sides and
belly. The darker ones resemble black-and-tans, but do
not have the same density of color. Although an old
variety, they are not extensively bred and are not well
known here. :

Black-and-tan, blue-and-tan and chocolate-and-tan all are
prettily colored mice. The first is the most generally bred,
but all of the varieties are uncommon. These mice are
either black, blue or chocolate, with rich tan markings, as
seen in the Black-and-tan Rabbit. Sables are useful in
producing and strengthening the tan varieties.

Of colored-and-white mice there are several breeds. The

46 MAMMALS

Dutch-marked is the most sought for, and well-marked
specimens are not uncommon. As in other animals similarly
marked, there is a circular patch at each side of the head,
including the eye, ear and cheek. A larger mark begins
behind the shoulders and covers the rear portion of the
body, with the exception of the hind feet. The patches
must be very clear and distinct, evenly placed, and with no
intermixture of white or colored hairs. -Most of the colors
are seen, including sable, but black, chocolate and blue are
more usual than the others.

For some reason, the saddle patch of these mice is in-
variably so narrow that it seems almost in danger of slipping
off. Repeated attempts to increase the width of this mark-
ing have not been very successful, but perhaps some day we
shall see Dutch mice as well marked as Dutch rabbits.
Haphazard breeding from patched mice will never accom-
plish it.

Even-marked mice, at least in part, are usually based on
Dutch-marked. Their value consists in the even placing of
small, well-balanced patches on a white ground. Most of
those seen are simply Dutch, with one or more additional
spots, although there are other variations.

The broken-colored or patched mouse is white, with small,
round colored markings. There should be no approach to
the cheek patches and saddle of the Dutch. The spots must
be well separated and distinct, and as numerous as possible,
but there must be no brindling. In this country, this mouse
is sometimes known as a variegated, but this is a totally
distinct variety. In the true variegated mouse, the patches
consist of white and colored hairs thoroughly intermixed,
the very antithesis of what is wanted in the broken.

The waltzing mouse represents the only variation which
does not depend on color for its distinction. It is said to
have been brought from Japan, but its real origin is lost in

DOMESTIC RATS AND MICE 47

obscurity. The balancing apparatus of the inner ear of this
mouse is imperfect, causing the animal to turn constantly
in short circles. This defect is strongly fixed, and trans-
mitted with regularity to the young.

Waltzing mice generally are white with black spots, but
chocolate- and red-spotted ones are occasionally seen. There
is no doubt that other colors could be bred with little diffi-
culty. The writer has seen second generation young bred
from a cross with white mice that possessed the turning
character very strongly.

Waltzing mice, perhaps from long and indiscriminate
inbreeding, generally are weak and lacking in stamina.
They are not so easily bred as other varieties, but their care
in general is essentially the same.

Fancy Rats

For some obscure reason, domesticated rats appear to
be more widely distributed, as pets, than mice. During the
writer’s boyhood, white rats were common enough, but
white mice were unheard of. Although bred in great num-
bers, for experimental and other purposes, there is little
variety of color among rats. Until very recently, white,
black and gray were the only ones known. But within
the last two or three years two very attractive *colors—
yellow or orange, and cream—have been perfected. The
origin of these colors is of great interest, and will be con-
sidered later on.

The domestic varieties of rats are descendants of the
common brown or Norway rat (Mus norvegus).

No doubt the older colors developed in the same manner
as in mice, albinism being the first variation.

Rats do not have the strong odor of mice, and for this
reason, at least, are less objectionable. Also, they are less

48 MAMMALS

quarrelsome in general, and bucks of about the same age
may be run together in safety.

The housing may be the same in principle as for mice.
The cage should be larger, of course, say 12” x 12” x 18", as
a minimum for a pair of rats. The mesh of the wire may be
larger, either one-quarter or one-half inch. Sawdust is the
best floor covering, and hay or straw, with a few bits
of cloth or paper, the best bedding for the nest box.

Unless regularly handled and kept very tame, rats are
rather more inclined than mice to bite. For this reason,
unless known to be perfectly gentle, rats should be handled
by the tail only. |

Rats are somewhat coarser feeders than mice, but equal
care is required as to their diet. Table scraps or greasy
food should never, under any circumstances, be given. Oats
should be the standard grain, with occasionally a little wheat
and canary. Flax and hemp are useful during cold weather,
or as an aid to animals low in condition. Green food and
vegetables are a necessity. Mothers and youngsters should
have bread and milk, at least during the critical periods.
An occasional small, soft bone, free from grease, will fur-
nish young rats amusement and much-needed bone-building
material. Fresh water should always be at hand. 2

Whites, of course, far outnumber all other varieties.
They undoubtedly are the oldest form, and are well known
where others are unheard of. Young specimens usually
are pure white, but as they grow older the coat is likely
to take on a yellowish tinge, particularly in bucks. Some-
what darkened cages might be of service in avoiding this
condition.

Black rats are not so well known as whites. Just how
they originated is not known, but they are now well estab-
lished. The color is not dense, as in mice, but usually is
of a brownish cast. Also, the feet are almost invariably

DOMESTIC RATS AND MICE 49

white. Selective breeding, if persistently applied, un-
doubtedly could remedy these faults.

Only one type of broken-colored rat has been produced
as yet. In this variety the head, neck and a stripe down the
back are colored, the remainder of the body being white.
Rats so marked are known as hooded, or Japanese.

The hooded character is curiously persistent, and so far
all attempts to use it in producing spotted rats have failed.
No amount of crossing with white or self colors has resulted
in any important change.

For years the varieties mentioned were the only variants
known among rats. In spite of the close resemblance in
shade of the wild forms of rat and mouse, the color char-
acters of the former do not separate so readily as do those
of its smaller relative.

But about 1912 the rat fancy of England was electrified
by the appearance of two new colors—yellow or orange, and
cream, of both self and hooded types. These appear to
have arisen from two distinct sources, the basis of the new
strain being, in each case, a wild-caught rat of yellowish
tinge. These wild specimens seem not to have been of the
pure color of their descendants, but after a few generations
the shades were much improved.

Self yellows and creams both are handsome varieties,
but the hooded forms are really most attractive. A rich-
colored, well-marked yellow hooded rat will prove a revela-
tion to any one who doubts that beauty can exist in the

_ genus Mus.

CHAPTER VI
SMALL WILD ANIMALS

Except for the domesticated forms, mammals are not espe-
cially popular as pets in this country. In England, on the
other hand, interest in these creatures has spread to such
an extent that the Amateur Menagerie Club, devoted to fur-
thering the interests of this particular branch of pet-keeping,
has recently been organized. The reasons for this difference
in the public attitude are not easily set forth; but the fact
remains that, with the exception of the commoner monkeys
and a few others, small exotic mammals suitable for the
amateur are not at all freely imported here. Such as do
come are in demand among zoological gardens, and seldom
are obtainable by private persons.

Many of our own native animals, however, make engag-
ing pets, and there is no great difficulty in securing speci-

mens. It is generally best to obtain young creatures, which, a

if reared by hand, soon forget their native timidity and

become perfectly tame. Even if very young, most mammals s
are easily reared on the bottle, if reasonable attention be _

given them.

Mammals are more easily fed than birds, and since they ~
are less active, generally are happy in comparatively small —
quarters. On the other hand, their cages must be strongly —
built, and are not so readily kept clean as are those of birds. ©
No creature should be confined in a cage too small to allow
it sufficient exercise. Most of our native species are quite —

hardy, and out-of-door cages, with suitable shelters, should
be provided for them.
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SMALL WILD ANIMALS 51

Monkeys

Monkeys are practically the only small foreign animals
which reach our market in any numbers. Specimens of the
commoner sorts are always obtainable, but tame individuals,
suitable for pets, are not abundant. Young, hand-reared
monkeys are interesting and diverting creatures, but as they
grow older are very likely to become bad-tempered. Adult
males often are vicious, and are then very dangerous. The
writer well remembers a large male Geoffrey Spider Monkey
which was given him when collecting in Costa Rica. This
animal had been a family pet for several years, but re-
cently had become so ill-tempered that only the cook dared
go near him. A suitable box having been prepared for his
reception, his keeper was directed to lead him to our head-
quarters. A series of shrieks heralded the coming of the
“pet,” dragging on his chain, at the head of a procession
of curious natives. Getting him into the box was a problem,
for no one dared handle him and he threw off our light
net with the greatest ease. He was finally drawn into the
_ cage by running the free end of his chain through a hole
drilled in the back. Once inside, he became perfectly quiet,
and is still living in perfect contentment in the New York
Zoological Park. :

Most species of monkeys are natives of warm climates,
and cannot endure low temperatures. It is therefore neces-
_ sary to provide heated quarters, at least during cold weather.
If the animal is to be confined continually, the cage should
be not less than four feet in each dimension, and, if pos-
sible, should connect with an outside run for summer use.
If plenty of light can be obtained, it is best to make the
walls of the cage entirely tight, with only the front wired,
thus preventing draughts, which are fatal to monkeys. The
Wire and cage structure must be strong, for even small ani-

52 MAMMALS

mals will test it severely at times. If the monkey is par-
ticularly tame, so that it may frequently be allowed its
liberty, either under the supervision of its owner or con-
trolled by a light collar and chain, its cage need not be so
large.

Some individuals like a sleeping-box, placed near the top
of the cage. Strong branches and swings may be adjusted
according to conditions. The floor should be covered
with sawdust and a bunch of hay or straw placed in one
corner for a bed. |

When first received, monkeys are not infrequently trou- *
bled with various external parasites. They may be freed
from these by a bath in water containing creolin or some
similar substance, after which they must be thoroughly
dried. Insect powder sprinkled in the hair is also a good
remedy.

While the diet of monkeys in the wild state varies some-
what, according to species, most are omnivorous in cap-
tivity. Vegetables, raw or cooked, boiled rice, ripe fruit—
such as bananas, oranges, sweet apples, etc.—stale bread
and an occasional bit of well-cooked chicken will meet
the needs of all. The food should be as varied as possible,
and given two or three times daily. Over-feeding is to be
avoided here, as in other groups. Most monkeys will drink
fresh milk, to which a raw egg may be added now and then.
Clean water should be provided at all times.

The monkey which is most abundant in the American
market is the RuEsus (Pithecus rhesus). This species
belongs to the family Lastopycin#, which, according to
Elliot,* includes all of the Old World monkeys, with the
exception of the great man-like forms. It is the commonest
monkey of India, ranging from the hot plains to a com-
paratively high elevation in the Himalayan foothills. It is

* Elliot, D. G.: A Review of the Primates, 1912, Vol. II, p. 213.

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SMALL. WILD ANIMALS 53

a rather large animal, light brown in color and with a com-
paratively short tail. The males, which are very likely to
to become fierce as they mature, are larger than the females.
This is a hardy species, easily kept.

Of the New World monkeys, most of which are char-
acterized by the long, prehensile tail, the Capuchins or
Sapajous are the most common in captivity. They belong
to the family Cesip2, which includes all of the larger mon-
keys of the Western Hemisphere. The Capuchins are active
and easily kept, tame individuals being affectionate and
amusing. Monkeys of this genus are seen more frequently
than any others, in the possession of organ-grinders. One
of the best known species is the WHITE-THROATED CAPU-
CHIN, or “ RinctaiL” (Cebus hypoleucus). It is some-
what larger than a cat, its head and throat being nearly
white, the remainder grayish brown.

The Marmosets, which form the family CALLITRICHIDA,
are found only in tropical America. There are a large num-
ber of species, all characterized by their diminutive size
and squirrel-like habits. Marmosets make attractive pets,
but generally do not live long in captivity. It is essential
that they be kept warm and dry, as such conditions are
necessary if they are to remain in health. Ripe fruit, bread
and milk, biscuits, vegetables, insects and an occasional
young sparrow are the usual items of diet. The most freely
imported species is the Common Marmoset (Callithrix
jacchus), of Brazil. It is a tiny creature, light brown
above and blackish below. The head is black, with long,
white ear-tufts, while the tail is banded with black and
white.

The Opossum

The Vircin1a Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) belongs
to the order MARSUPIALIA, the members of which are char-

54 MAMMALS

acterized by the fact that the young are born at an incom- ©

pletely developed stage and finish their early growth in a
sac on the abdomen of the mother. When they finally
emerge, the young opossums clamber to their mother’s back,
holding themselves in position by wrapping their prehensile
tails firmly around that of the parent. Opossums are
typically tropical animals, South and Central America being
the home of a large number of species of very diverse size.
There is but one species in the United States, generally con-
fined to the south, but not uncommon in the vicinity of New
York.

The opossum is a hardy creature and lives well in cap-
tivity. It cannot be considered as a particularly desirable
pet, since it is nocturnal in habits and lacks intelligence and
friendliness of many other mammals. Its cage should in-
clude a sleeping-box and suitable branches for climbing,
at which it is very expert. The opossum’s jaws are power-
ful and it can administer a severe bite. It is an omnivorous
feeder, and will eat meat (which should be partly cooked),
chicken heads, sparrows, pigeons, bread and bananas and
berries. The diet which seems to suit it best is milk and
raw eggs, with a little chopped meat added.

Foxes

The recent craze for breeding foxes for their fur has
brought great popularity to the keeping of these animals in
captivity. The fox breeders of Prince Edward Island have
learned much concerning the needs of these animals, and
have developed a great deal of skill in handling them.

As a pet the fox does not shine. He is both smelly and
tricky, really tame individuals being most uncommon. On
the other hand, in a suitable enclosure, he lives well, and
under proper conditions will breed.

=

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SMALL WILD ANIMALS 55

A fox run should be of size sufficient to give the animal
plenty of space, and not merely a box with a wire front.
The wire must be strong and small in mesh. It must be
sunk in the ground to prevent digging under, and have an
overhang so that the occupant cannot climb over. A shelter
of some sort should be included. If it is found necessary to
confine the fox in small quarters, the cage must be cleaned
frequently or it will become unbearable.

Foxes are chiefly carnivorous, of course, and meat, pref-
erably partly cooked, should form the chief article of diet.
Small animals and birds, vegetables and bread, complete the
menu.

The foxes belong to the family Canipz, of the order
CARNIVORES, or meat-eaters. A great many species are
found in various parts of the world, but only two are known
in eastern North America.

The most common species of the East is the Rep Fox
(Vulpes fulvus). The typical specimen is reddish-yellow,
the tip of the tail and the underparts being white and the
ears and feet marked with black. The Cross, Black and
Silver Foxes are simply melanistic phases of the common
form, and not, as commonly supposed, distinct species.

The Raccoon

Of North American mammals the raccoon is one of the
most suitable for a pet. Wild-caught specimens are diffi-
cult to tame, and are hardly worth while. But if taken
while very young and carefully reared, the raccoon remains
as gentle as a kitten. It is best confined by means of a
collar and light chain, and should be kept well away from
poultry, for which it has an insatiable appetite. If it is
found necessary to confine the creature, the cage should be
as large as possible and strongly constructed. If an out-

56 MAMMALS

door run is planned, the wire should be sunk in the ground,
either carried entirely over the top or an overhang ar-
ranged. If a dead tree or branch can be included, the cap-
tive will spend much of the daylight hours curléd up in
sleep among the limbs.

The raccoon in captivity eats meat, fish, bread and vari-
ous vegetables, which should not be excessive in quantity.
Plenty of clean water should always be available, for the
creature has a curious habit of washing all of its food be-
fore eating.

The Raccoon (Procyon lotor) belongs to the family
PRocyoNniID&, and is closely allied to the bears. The hind.
feet are of the type known as plantigrade, since the entire
foot, and not merely the toes, is used in walking, as in the
bears. The typical species ranges over the eastern United
States, as far west as Arizona and Montana.

The Skunk

Like the fox, the skunk is now being bred in some num-
bers for its fur. The experimental stage, however, has still
to be passed, and skunk farmers do not appear to have ob-
tained the success of fox breeders. Although generally
held in bad repute because of the undoubted efficiency of the
liquid musk secreted by glands near the tail, the skunk
nevertheless makes an interesting pet. Young individuals
become very tame and docile, and seldom make use of their
natural defense. It is always safest, however, to render the
apparatus innocuous by cutting the ducts of the glands, thus
making their discharge impossible.

Skunks are not great climbers, but are powerful diggers; ~

» so if they are kept in an open enclosure, the fence must be
run well into the ground, with an inward turn at the bot- a
‘tom. The wire must be strong and the mesh small. The

We
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Woodchuck

al se ve ait hi i i xe
Photograph by E. R, Sanborn Courtesy N

ow York Zoological Society
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SMALL WILD ANIMALS 57

skunk naturally sleeps in an underground burrow, and if a
barrel, with a wooden shute attached, be sunk in the ground,
it will take advantage of the retreat. Skunks are chiefly in-
sectivorous, but in captivity will eat meat of all sorts, birds —
and small animals, frogs, fish, cereals, dog biscuit and vari-
ous fruits and vegetables.

The skunks belong to the family MusteLtip%, which in-
cludes the weasels, mink, wolverine, etc. Numerous species
and subspecies are distributed throughout North and Central
America. The form found in the northeastern United
States is the COMMON SKUNK (Mephitis mephitis putida).
There is much variability in the relation between black and
white in the fur, those with full white dorsal stripes being
of much less commercial value than those which are almost
entirely black. There is no doubt of the possibility of
establishing, by selection and careful breeding, a strain of
skunks with the markings much reduced.

The Woodchuck

Although the woodchuck is one of our commonest mam-
mals, it is seldom kept asa pet. The reason for this neglect
_ 1s obscure, for, if caught when young, it has many endear-
ing qualities. Adults when first captured are wild and
vicious, and since they can bite severely, are not suited for
pets. |

If the woodchuck is tame enough to be allowed its freedom
at least part of the time, its cage need not be of large size.
It is generally best, however, to arrange an outdoor run, in
which the animal can live in comfort. It will be necessary
either to cover the top or arrange an overhang and to run
the wire well into the ground, with an inward twist at
the bottom. A barrel should be sunk, with a drain pipe or
wooden runway, to serve asa nest. Hay or other material *

ST ea oe

ea ROT I TOTS

58 MAMMALS

should be furnished for lining. During the winter months,
the woodchuck will hibernate in its underground chamber,
emerging quite unconcernedly in the spring. Woodchucks
are vegetable feeders, and will thrive on a diet of fresh
grass, clover, cabbage, lettuce, vegetables of all sorts and
dry bread. Very young specimens may be fed at first on
milk and boiled cereal. .

The WoopcHuuck (Marmota monax) belongs to the
Marmot family (Scrurtipz), of the order of Rodents or
Gnawers. It is found throughout the eastern United States
as far west as Kansas, and is represented in other portions
of the continent by various allied forms. Cases of melanism
are not rare, and pure albinos are occasionally seen.

Squirrels

Squirrels are kept as pets more frequently than any other
of our mammals, the combination of attractiveness and
propinquity no doubt accounting for their popularity.
Gray Squirrels, even when caught adult, sometimes become
tame, but Red Squirrels and Chipmunks practically never
do. With all species, it is much better to secure them when
very young. Baby squirrels are not at all difficult to rear,
and will take milk from a bottle with little urging.

The usual wire cages, with wheels attached, are quite
unsuited for such active creatures, giving them insufficient
room for exercise. A much better plan is to build a large
outdoor cage, similar to an aviary, of wire not more than
half-inch mesh. This can be fitted up with branches and
nesting logs, and will make an ideal home for a pair of
squirrels. Gray and Flying Squirrels frequently breed in
captivity, but Red Squirrels do so less often.

Squirrels are chiefly vegetarian, but often stray from
the narrow path, and indulge in eggs and young birds. In

SMALL WILD ANIMALS 59

captivity the diet should consist of grain, nuts, vegetables,
dry bread and an occasional bone with a little meat at-
tached, or a raw egg.

Before attempting to keep squirrels, one should become »
thoroughly familiar with the local game laws, since certain
species are protected in many states.

_ The squirrels belong to the same family (ScruriIp#) as
the woodchuck. A great many species are known, but only
three are common in captivity. The one most frequently
kept as a pet is the Gray SQuIRREL (Sciurus carolinensis),
which ranges throughout eastern North America, from
southern Canada to Florida. The typical form is gray
above and white or brownish below. Black specimens are
common in many parts of the country, and pure white ones
are sometimes seen. These are simply melanistic and
albinistic phases, of course, and not distinct species.

The Rep SgutRREL (Sciurus hudsonicus), divided into
numerous subspecies, inhabits most of the northern part of
North America. It is the smallest of the true squirrels and
always recognizable by its reddish upper parts and white
breast. Young Red Squirrels make excellent pets and will
retain their attractive ways when they become adult. Older
specimens, however, seldom if ever lose their wildness, and
are better let alone. The diet of the Red Squirrel should
contain more animal food than that of most other
species.

The NorTHERN FLyInc SquirrEL (Sciurus subrinus)
is found, in some of its races, through northern North
America. In the southern states two other distinct species
occur, but all are essentially Flying Squirrels. Of all the
squirrels, these are by far the most attractive, their soft
fur, large, dark eyes and gentle manner setting them apart
from the others. Their only drawback, however, is the
fact that they are nocturnal in habit, spending most of the

60 MAMMALS

daylight hours curled up asleep in their nests. At night
they are very active, scrambling about the cage like mice.
Perhaps, more than with other squirrels, it is very necessary
to provide a hollow log or other cavity for its nest. It is
not unusual for the Flying Squirrel to breed in captivity and
to rear its young successfully. This animal does not really
fly, of course, but makes prodigious leaps, volplaning to
safety by spreading the large flaps of skin which join the
limbs on each side of the body.

The EAsTeERN CHIPMUNK (Tamias striatus), divided
into several subspecies, is found in the eastern United States
and southern Canada. It is essentially a ground-dweller
and generally ascends trees only when hard pressed by an
enemy. If exposed to-cold during the winter, this species
immediately begins hibernation, from which it does not
emerge until the approach of ‘spring. If kept in a heated
room, however, it remains active throughout the year. Baby
chipmunks make engaging pets, but if caught adult they
seldom overcome their natural timidity. Throughout the
western states there are a great number of species of
chipmunks, many more beautiful than our eastern species,
and just as desirable as pets.

Wild Rabbits and Hares

For some reason, most wild rabbits do not thrive in close
confinement. Whether this is due to improper feeding or
to some other cause is unknown. On the other hand, occa-
sional individuals thrive exceedingly, so there is reason to —
believe that further investigation will bring better results.

The wild rabbit or hare should be given as much space
as possible, preferably out of doors. They do not climb,
but dogs and cats are likely to enter, so it is safer to cover
the entire top with wire netting. Hares do not burrow, so

SMALL. WILD ANIMALS 61

are not likely to escape in that manner, but for rabbits
it is necessary to run the wire into the ground, or even cover
the entire bottom of the cage. Our native species are indif-
ferent to cold, but cannot endure damp quarters. Hares do
not nest in holes, and so should be supplied with a shelter
on the surface. Rabbits dwell in burrows, and a box or
barrel may be sunk for them. ‘The food should be of a
vegetable nature, such as fresh grass, clover, cabbage,
vegetables and bread. Water should be provided at all
times. 7 : :
The rabbits and hares belong to the family Leporip2, of
the same order as the woodchuck and the squirrel (GuiIREs).
The two groups are distinguished by the fact that hares have
long ears and spend their lives above ground, while rab-
bits have short ears and make their homes in burrows.
The Varyinec Hare or SNowSHOE Rassit (Lepus amer-
icanicus), of the extreme northeastern United States and
Canada, is a typical hare, well known to the sportsman for
its excellent running qualities. This hare is brown during

the summer months, but at the aproach of winter assumes a

white coat, presumably for protective reasons. Captivity
does not seem to suit it, although there appears to be no
good reason why it should not live.

The Jack Rassit (Lepus texianus) is, of course, really
a hare, and not a rabbit. Several closely allied species are
found in various parts of western North America. The
Jack Rabbit is characterized by a slim body and immense
ears. If given proper treatment, this species does well in
captivity, but some individuals appear to be less hardy than
others.

The Cotton-TaiL or Gray Rassit (Lepus sylvaticus)
is a true rabbit, nesting in burrows. It ranges from the
northern portion of the United States to Central America.

_ The Cotton-tail is readily distinguished by its small size,

62 MAMMALS

short ears and white fluffy tail. Under suitable conditions,
it does well in confinement and can be kept with little diffi-
culty. No wild rabbit, however, even approximates the
hardiness of domesticated forms, and if a pet is all that is
desired, the latter certainly should be chosen.

CHAPTER VII
GENERAL CARE

Most mammals, with the exception of the smaller sorts,
are cultivated because of their economic value. Birds, on
the other hand, usually are kept for their zsthetic worth
alone. It is true, of course, that the various domestic
fowls form an important source of our food supply, but,
aside from them, there is little reason for keeping birds but
for the pleasure they bring. The song of the canary insures
its constant existence in thousands of homes the world over;
the imitative ability and quaint habits of the parrot make
certain its continued popularity. Those birds which cannot
divert us with their songs invariably possess decorative
value, since all birds are beautiful.

Birds in general are clean, free from offensive odors,
gentle and easily housed. Properly cared for, most species -
will live in captivity for many years. The adverse condi-
tions under which canaries frequently are kept, and their
usually thriving appearance, attest the hardiness of the bird

when its needs are even partially understood. The canary,

to be sure, has been cage-bred for generations, and its re-
quirements are of the simplest, but the great majority of
wild birds become equally happy in captivity when their
wants are fully grasped.

There is some feeling among persons of supersensitive
or sentimental temperament against the caging of wild

birds. That it is wrong for certain of the most delicate

species to be kept by the indiscriminating there can be no
doubt. Some birds require care which every one has not
hy.

66 BIRDS

the knowledge or ability to provide, and under such cir-
cumstances bird-keeping is not to be encouraged.

But to maintain that every caged bird is unhappy is a
contention which cannot be supported. The brain of a bird
is not developed to the point which has been reached by the
higher mammals. Even they become perfectly contented in
captivity when properly housed, so why should not the bird?
There are no grounds for believing that the avian mind is
concerned with matters other than those of its daily exist-
ence. No one who has had personal experience with
properly fed, correctly caged wild birds can doubt their
contentment. Relieved from the problems of securing daily
food, freed from the ever-present dangers which throng
their feral lives, their lot certainly is not that of the
oppressed.

Such results, however, are dependent on the bird-keeper
himself. No person should take upon himself the respon-
sibility of caring for any living creature, unless he is thor-
oughly familiar with the conditions which are necessary for
its well-being. This rule applies to the keeping of horses
and dogs, as well as to that of the most delicate birds, and
its infractions are even more likely to be found in the first
field than in the latter.

Because of the alarming decrease in numbers of native.
American birds, laws prohibiting their capture became neces-
sary. There can be no question of the justice of these
restrictions, but to their passage must be attributed the lack
of interest in avicultural matters, general in this country. _
The English, notable for their love of pets and the thor-

oughness with which they pursue their hobby, support two _

societies and three periodicals exclusively devoted to the —
study of wild birds in captivity. A great volume of facts
concerning nesting and other habits of-birds has become
known through the efforts of these enthusiasts, not to

> Se — En —_—

GENERAL CARE 67

mention the wonderful advances made in the technic of
bird-keeping. |

This sort of thing is almost unknown and but little
understood in America. The great field of scientific re-
search and the simpler pleasures afforded by the com-
panionship of birds are rendered inaccessible and difficult by
lack of knowledge. That such conditions may not always
exist is the earnest hope of the writer.

_ Through extension of knowledge of practical bird-keep-
ing, many species threatened with extinction may be saved.
One very notable instance is that of the Wood Duck. This
bird has long been known in Europe as an ornamental addi-
tion to lakes and ponds. It is now bred in large numbers
in Holland and Germany, and three-quarters of the captive
Wood Ducks seen in America were reared in Europe. This
is now one of the rarest of our native ducks, but propaga-
tion of captive birds will save it from extinction.

Work of this sort is now beginning to be done extensively
in America, though principally with game birds. Sys-
tematic attempts are being made to save the Ruffed Grouse
and the Bobwhite. In the New York Zodlogical Park,
Mourning Doves are now being reared in considerable
numbers, and liberation of surplus birds has already taken
place.

In the following pages none but the commoner of the
many species of cage birds is considered. Only those
sorts which are readily obtainable in America, and which
are hardy and easily kept in captivity, are mentioned.
Space does not permit the detail necessary to fully describe
the care of more unusual forms. Moreover, the keeping of
the rarer birds, most of which are uncommon in captivity
simply because they are difficult to cater to, should never
be undertaken except by persons made competent by experi-

ence,

68 BIRDS

Few North American birds, for obvious reasons, are
included. Every one should thoroughly familiarize himself
with the bird laws of his own state, and regard them re-
ligiously. In cases where state permits have been granted
for the carrying on of special work with native species their |
care may easily be deduced from that described for closely
related foreign forms.

_ Cages and Aviaries

Two methods of housing birds, the aviary and the indi-
vidual cage, are in general use. The former is usually
chosen by those who go in for collections, but the smaller
cage is necessary for special cases, and is of course most
commonly used by persons who keep only a bird or two.

In the aviary birds may be expected to live and breed as
well. Conditions may be made to approximate very closely
those under which the bird lives in the wild state, and a
really well-planned aviary leaves little to be desired as a
bird home. ,

The aviary may be of any dimensions, from the larger
buildings and flying-cages which house large collections to
single enclosures of wire netting. There are in America
a growing number of private collections, some of which
are magnificently housed. In such cases, the bird house
should be well built of wood, brick or concrete, with the
light supplied from ample skylights. These should be
made to rise, thus furnishing the ventilation needed in hot _
weather. Ample walking space should be left for the at- _

tendant and for visitors, and the remainder divided into il
as many large flight-cages as permissible. These cages

should be fitted with numerous branches, to serve as perches
and hiding-places, and a few nest boxes as well, although —
much breeding seldom is done under such conditions. If _

GENERAL CARE 69

delicate birds are to be kept, provision must be made for
artificial heat. :

Each cage must, of course, have arrangements for food
and water. The former may be supplied in small dishes,
which are removed and thoroughly cleaned daily. Many of
the larger houses have a system of running water in each
cage; but if this is not convenient, any shallow receptacle,
sufficiently wide and preferably of enamel or agateware,
will answer. :

For the bottom of the cage sand is the best covering.

Each indoor cage should connect with an outdoor flight, |
the dimensions of which may be as liberal as space will
allow. If the installation is of a permanent character, con-
crete bases and angle iron are the most lasting. Otherwise
wooden posts, covered with one of the many preservative
fluids now on the market, will last for years. For the
smaller birds all wire used should be of half-inch mesh.
There are many types—diamond, hexagonal and square—
the first-mentioned being the most desirable so far as shape
of mesh is concerned.. Larger birds, of course, are easily
confined with wire of larger mesh, but rats, half grown,
can easily pass through a space one inch square. It is much
better, therefore, to use the finer netting throughout, and
exclude rats as well as sparrows. Nothing larger than
three-eighths inch will keep out mice, and these pests are
the ever-present bane of the bird-keeper. Wire or concrete
should be run well into the ground, to prevent rats and other
marauders from digging under. If concrete bases are
used, they should be run up for at least a foot above. the
ground. Otherwise, boarding should cover the lower part
of the outer walls, at least to prevent dogs and other in-
truders from alarming the inmates.

The flights should contain as much natural vegetation as
_ possible, and more may be added as occasion requires. The

70 BIRDS

ground should be well sodded, and it may be well to make
gravel zones along the walls, to prevent the formation of
unsightly bare spaces.

Evergreens, mountain laurels and rhododendrons make
excellent cover. Privet and similar shrubs are hardy and
grow well, while the many species of Spirza add a touch
of color early in the spring. Pampas grass, if there is room
for it, is wonderfully decorative, and affords the best of
shelter.

For aviculture on a smaller scale, aviaries of almost any
sort, so long as they are properly constructed, will do.
Many birds are sufficiently hardy to winter out of doors.
without heat. It is always best, however, to attach to each
flight a shelter of some sort, into which the birds may be
driven in case of cold weather. Many bird-keepers make
use of such cages during the summer months only, and re-
move their pets to warmer quarters during the winter.

Aviaries of the sorts described are suitable for birds of
many kinds, including all of the small perching birds, par-
rakeets, doves, quail, etc. The selection of cage-mates is a
matter for careful consideration. If the aviaries are large,
many species which will not agree in small quarters will
live in happiness. Most of the smaller birds may be asso-
ciated with safety, but many of the weavers are quarrel-
some and not to be trusted with weaker species. When it
comes to the larger forms, it is always best to be certain
of the characteristics of the species and the temper of the
individual before introducing it to mixed groups. Birds
which are so quarrelsome or delicate that they are best kept
alone will be noted in the following pages.

If breeding is especially desired, seclusion is the keynote.
The safest way is to let each pair have a separate aviary to
itself. As this is often difficult, several pairs of different
species may be kept together, if the flight is large enough to

GENERAL CARE 71

furnish plenty of space for each. Plenty of thick cover
should afford snuggeries for timid birds, and nest boxes
should be hung about in likely positions. Nesting material,
such as soft hay, horse hair, moss, leaves, feathers, etc.,
should be available. String and cotton are dangerous for
such purposes, as the feet of parents or young may become
entangled.

When birds are expected to breed, the aviary should be
entered as little as possible, and then by one person only.
Dogs and cats must be prevented from alarming the inmates
of the aviary, as a fright at this time may upset breeding
plans for the season.

Cages are the usual homes of pet birds, space and con-
ditions making their use necessary in most cases. While
many birds undoubtedly do better at liberty in aviaries, it is
equally true that a good number are much better off in
smaller quarters. There are species whose food habits make
them difficult to cater to, or which are uncommonly delicate
as regards draught and dampness.

There are all kinds of cages, and the selection of a suit-
able one is not the simple matter it is commonly supposed
to be. The open brass cages commonly sold are an abomi-
nation from many points of view. They offer the inmate
no protection from draught and fright, the brass is likely
to become coated with poisonous verdigris, and artistically
they are outrageous. It is unfortunate that the brass cage
has become so popular in America, for it will be displaced
with difficulty. ‘

Handsome wicker cages are now being offered by some of
the more advanced shops, but the prices asked generally are
excessive. While these cages are dangerously open, they
excel the brass contraption in at least two points.

The ideal bird-cage is of the box type. Such a cage is
entirely enclosed, except on one side, which is furnished with

72 BIRDS

wire bars. It may be handsomely enameled and delicately
ornamented, or it may be the more plainly finished but
serviceable sort known as a breeding-cage. The better
grades of box-cages are difficult to obtain in America, al-
though in Europe they are in common use. But the breed-
ing-cage is ubiquitous, and is to be recommended when a
more decorative one is not available.

The box-cage is almost essential for the well-being of
small cage birds, few but the canary becoming so inured to
cage life that they can endure the open type. Delicate
specimens are protected from the dangers of draughts, and

troublesome nightly covering with a cloth is avoided. Two

feet long by fifteen inches deep and high are the usual
dimensions of the breeding-cage. It is roomy enough for
one bird of fairly large size, such as a thrush, for a pair
of canaries or similar birds, or for a mixed group of a
half dozen or so small finches. Overcrowding is fatal and
a frequent mistake with beginners.

The perches should be small enough for the bird to grasp
easily, and so placed as to allow room for flight. Excellent
perches may be made of natural twigs, with the bark left
on. These afford a grip for the bird’s feet and may save
many a case of foot trouble. }

Sand is the proper covering for the cage bottom. White,
clean sea-sand is the best sort. Shells and gravel are likely
to injure the feet, and the common brown sand contains
much clay, which soon dries and becomes pulverized to
dust. This sand should be changed or at least brushed over
daily, as it is important that the bottom of the cage be dry
and clean.

Foods

According to the food they eat, the smaller cage birds are
divided by aviculturists into two large groups—* soft-

ee

GENERAL CARE 73

| bills” and “hard-bills.” Soft-bills are those of insectivor-
ous or frugivorous habits, while hard-bills are the seed-
eaters.

The latter division includes the great tribe of finches,
grosbeaks and buntings, the weavers, waxbills and grass
finches and a few others. The feeding of these birds is of
the simplest order. Canary seed is the chief item, with
white and yellow millet of nearly equal importance. The
former is eaten by every seed-eating bird and is the most
valuable of foods, although it has a tendency to induce fat-
ness. Millet is better adapted for the small waxbills and
grass finches, which may have some difficulty in cracking
harder seeds. Rape seed is an excellent addition, and is
greatly in favor among the Germans.

All seed-eaters will be benefited by the addition of small
weed and grass seeds, an excellent grade of which is now
on the market. Hemp and sunflower are eaten eagerly by
grosbeaks and cardinals, but are rich in oils and must be
given sparingly. Flax has no superior for weak or run-
down birds, and oats are useful for such birds as are able
to eat them.

Parrots, of course, live chiefly on seeds. Sunflower, oats
and a little canary will be found a very satisfactory mixture,
although a few hemp seeds may be added now and then.
The feeding of parrots will be discussed at more length
later on.

The soft-billed birds offer far greater problems, and it
is here that the skill of the aviculturist receives its severest
test. A compound of various ingredients, known as in-
sectile mixture, mocking-bird food or simply soft food, is
the principal item. This may be mixed as needed, or pur-
chased in ready-to-use packages. The former course is
recommended. The base is usually unsweetened biscuit or
zweiback, known to be free from baking powder and other

74 BIRDS

harmful ingredients. Many bird-keepers bake their own
biscuit, but where large numbers of birds are kept this
involves an amount of labor which generally is prohibitive.

To the base is added egg, either preserved or freshly
boiled. Many authorities are opposed to the use of free
egg, feeling that its tendency to rapid decomposition and
production of harmful bacteria is too dangerous. A large
number of boiled eggs are used daily for the bird collections
in the New York Zoological Park, and no evil effects have
ever been noted. If strict cleanliness is observed, there is
little fear of trouble. However, preserved egg in tins is
to be obtained, or if biscuit is baked, egg can be included in
mixing.

A good quality of dried ox-heart or crissel, well scalded,
may be added in the proportion of one part of meat to four
parts of meal. Dried ants’ “eggs” and dried “ flies,” also
scalded, should be mixed in, the quantity depending on the
habits of the birds to be fed. Carrot, either grated raw or
boiled, and put through a food-chopper, furnishes a desirable
element. Cottage or pot cheese, made from sour milk, is
undoubtedly a valuable food for all birds that will eat it. It
is rich in proteids, and very helpful in the feeding of deli-
cate, insectivorous species.

Small bits of scraped beef, free from fat, are relished by
many birds. Immersion for a few seconds in boiling water
will be found greatly to reduce the laxative effect. It should
never be given to small species, but larger birds will not
be harmed by occasional treats, and for some it is a neces-
sity. Raw meat is used too freely by many bird-keepers,
whose troubles may often be traced to this source. Various
dried fruits, preserved almonds, etc., are sometimes included
in soft foods, but, after all, the system just described will
meet the needs of most birds.

Living insect food in some form is relished by many

Courtesy Advanced Agricultural Publishing Co,

Soemmering Pheasant

Vieillot Fire-back Pheasant

GENERAL CARE 73.

birds of both groups, although a ceftain few will touch
nothing of the sort. Meal worms are the most common and
convenient form. They are supplied by dealers, or are
easily reared, if one has space to devote to their culture.

Meal worms require dark but well-ventilated quarters,
and an even temperature of 65° or 70. A metal ash-can
set away in an out-of-the-way corner will produce enough
for a small aviary, but larger establishments find broad,
low trays or boxes more convenient. The boxes should
be half filled with fine meal, such as flour, middlings and a
little bran, whole wheat finely ground being perhaps the best.
With this should be mixed a quantity of rags and paper,
to relieve the pressure of the meal. A quantity of meal
worms must be secured and placed in the boxes. If they
are regularly fed on dampened bread (soaked in stale beer,
by preference), green foods and fresh vegetables, in due
time the larvze will metamorphose to sluggish black beetles.
This usually occurs early in spring, but varying conditions
may have a retarding effect. Care must be taken to remove
surplus food before it can decompose, and to keep the boxes
free from excessive heat or dampness. A short time after
the beetles appear they deposit their eggs and promptly
die. If all goes well, however, a myriad of tiny wriggling
meal worms soon will be found in the meal. They must
be well fed and will grow rapidly. When they are required
for feeding, they are easily removed by running the meal
through a small sieve. Of course, a few must be allowed
to mature for a renewal of the supply.

Other insects are equally valuable, but more difficult to
obtain. Nothing is superior to the huge Oriental roach,
which has gained a foothold in many places. Flies, spiders
and certain caterpillars are eaten greedily, if they can be
secured. Maggots or gentles are popular with some bird-
keepers. If allowed to scour in bran or sand for at least

76 BIRDS

two days, and then used in moderation, there is no reason
why their feeding should be other than beneficial. If al-
lowed to remain another day or two, they will turn into
chrysalids, when they make a very good food.

Fruit is the principal article of diet of many birds, such
as tanagers, orioles and certain thrushes. Banana is the
best and fortunately the cheapest. It should be ripe but
firm and free from over-softness. In some cases it is best
to cut it into small cubes, which may be swallowed entire,
the only objection being that it quickly decomposes when in
this condition. Other birds prefer the entire fruit, but some
will get badly smeared about the head if it is given in this
form.

Oranges are good, but tangarines are better, as they are
less acid. Grapes, especially the white sort, are very useful,
and should be cut for most birds. Pears are excellent but
laxative, and dried raisins and currants are eaten freely,
but are likely to contain harmful: preservatives. Native
berries should be given when in season, but it must be borne
in mind that they are strongly laxative in action.

Green food is necessary for all birds that will eat it,
and most will do so freely. Chickweed, watercress, dande-
lion and flowering grasses all are good. In the winter
months lettuce is generally obtainable, and will serve to tide
the birds over until other greens are again available.

Cuttlefish bone should be furnished all seed-eaters, and
a lump of rock salt will be relished by many.

The foregoing directions will serve for most species of
the cage-bird group. Those whose care differs, or which
need special attention, will be noted in due order.

Diseases

When properly kept or cared for, birds in captivity suffer
from few diseases. It is only when they become run down

GENERAL CARE 1 i

from neglect, or during the molting season, that they are
likely to be attacked.

_ Birds respond readily to treatment, and slight ailments
may frequently be relieved. On the other hand, when really
seriously ill, medicines are of little avail. There is much
charlatanry practised in such matters, many persons secur-
ing their livelihood by claiming to be able to cure dis-
eased birds, or by the sale of so-called curative preparations
which are not of the slightest value.

In treating a sick bird, a most important ally is heat.
Sustained, even warmth, with entire protection from
draught, will save many an ailing specimen.

For the mild colds and diarrhceas to which cage birds
are prone, nothing is better than a few drops of blackberry
brandy in the drinking water. In cases of known constipa-
tion, a mild dose of Epsom salts in the water, or a drop or
two of castor oil, carefully administered, will bring relief.
These are the standard remedies of the bird room, and
when their use is no longer of avail the aviculturist may
be prepared for trouble.

Incorrect feeding is at the bottom of many cases of ill-
ness. Seed-eaters are likely to become over-fat and soft-
bills frequently become run down from lack of sufficient
insect food. A reduction of food and a drop of oil in the
first instance, and a few good meals of living insects in Hg
latter, will work wonders.

Many birds, canaries in particular, become affected with
chronic asthma. Over-fat birds sometimes exhibit symp-
toms simulating those of asthma, but these quickly dis-
appear when treated as described above. True asthma is
incurable by any means so far devised, though no avian
affliction is more profitable to hucksters of cure-alls. Two
or three drops of glycerine in the drinking water, for sev-
eral days in succession, followed by an upbuilding of the

78 BIRDS

bird’s general condition, will cause temporary relief. Four
or five drops of tincture of gentian in the drinking water
make an excellent tonic for such purposes.

Roup is a disease to which almost all birds are subject.
It certainly is not common in cage birds, but game birds,
doves and pigeons, hawks and owls are especially subject
to it. The symptoms are the running of mucus from eyes
and nostrils, frequently accompanied by swollen face and
offensive odor. It is highly infectious, and unless affected
specimens are especially valuable it is far better to destroy
them at once and disinfect thoroughly. If an attempt is
made to cure the bird, it should be removed to warm quar-
ters and given the best of food. Eyes, nostrils and throat
should be cleared frequently with creolin, potassium per-
manganate, or lysol. If the face is swollen, the tip of a
soft rubber ear syringe, filled with a weak solution of zinc
sulphate or potassium permanganate, may be introduced
into the cleft in the roof of the mouth or palate. If the
syringe is directed forward, on alternate sides, and gently
squeezed, the mucus obstructing the passages of eyes and
nostrilswmay be forced out. Pills of quinine and capsicum
are of excellent service in such cases. Many proprietary
products, claimed to be very efficient, are in the market.

Parrots are subject to colds, which affect the voice and
sometimes cause discharge from eyes and nostrils. An ex-
- cellent remedy is to cover the cage carefully with a cloth
and then introduce at the bottom a hot iron plate or coal
shovel, on which two or three drops of carbolic acid have
been placed. The bird should be allowed to inhale the fumes
for three minutes, when the cloth may be removed. Two
or three repetitions of this treatment will be found to have
a most salutary effect.

Tuberculosis is the bane of the pheasants and doves, and
sometimes occurs in parrots and other groups. It has yet

GENERAL CARE "9

to be identified in cage birds, so-called cases of tuberculosis
generally being referable to bird fever. There is no cure
known for this disease, and since it is highly contagious
scrupulous care should be taken to prevent the introduction
of infected birds.

Bird fever and septic fever are responsible for the tre-
mendous number of deaths which sometimes occur among
freshly imported cage birds, particularly canaries. Two or
three years ago the bird importers of New York suffered
severe losses from an epidemic of this disease, which was
rife among canaries. [Each disease is caused by a specific
bacillus. The symptoms in each case are similar—dullness,
roughness of plumage and refusal of food—death usually
resulting in about a week. Post-mortem examination re-
veals the presence of whitish nodules in the greatly enlarged
liver and spleen in the case of bird fever, but not in septic
fever. Both diseases are highly infectious, almost uniformly” -
fatal, and suspected of being communicable to man. As no
efficient treatment is known, affected birds should be de-
stroyed and the most rigorous disinfection of the entire
premises “employed.

Psittacosis is a bacterial disease peculiar to parrots. It
is of common occurrence among freshly imported specimens,
and accounts, in many cases, for the very high mortality
sometimes experienced. Its presence is indicated by dull-
ness, loss of appetite and a greenish diarrhcea. It is ex-
tremely contagious and generally fatal. A few cases are
on record of its communication to man, a well-authenticated
‘instance having been brought to the notice of the writer
within the last few months. Little is to be done for the
infected birds, and the most vigilant care in isolating freshly
received specimens is the only safeguard against its intro-
duction.

Feather-plucking is hardly to be classed as a disease, but

80 . BIRDS

it resembles the most serious of the list in its obstinacy.
The habit may be formed in a variety of ways, faulty feed-
ing and overcrowding being responsible in the majority
of cases. It is most noticeable among pheasants and
their allies, certain jay-thrushes and the smaller finches.
These birds generally practise on the plumage of their
neighbors, and the only remedy is to remove the chief
offenders.

Parrots, however, more frequently destroy their own
feathers, some individuals carrying the practice so far as
to denude themselves of almost every feather, excepting
those on their heads. The habit is difficult to eradicate,
and only the most painstaking care can accomplish any
good. Birds which have been fed meat, tea, coffee, candy,
etc., are the most frequent offenders. A correction of
the diet is the first step, and a few drops of fluid mag-
nesia may be added to the water as an alterative. Spraying
of the feathers with quassia has a deterrent effect in some
cases. The bird should be given as much attention as pos-
sible, and a companion secured for it, if possible. A piece

of soft wood to play with may serve to divert its mind. If | |

a cure is finally effected, the owner may consider himself
fortunate, indeed, as such cases are few.

Baldness is very prevalent among small birds, more par-
ticularly canaries and waxbills. Many causes may con-
tribute to this condition, generally faulty molting in the
case of canaries and frequently persistent plucking among
the waxbills. The following treatment has been found very
efficacious by the writer: Supply the invalid with plenty of
green food, and see that its seed is of a nourishing char-
acter; linseed is excellent in such cases. Cover a five-cent
piece with Epsom salts, dissolve it in a cup of water, and
fill the drinker with this solution daily for a week. Then
discontinue and add, instead, ten or twelve drops of lemon

GENERAL CARE 81

juice for a few days in succession. This course will very
often induce a healthy renewal of the plumage.

Egg-binding is a very frequent source of trouble. It may
be caused by an over-fat condition of the bird, absence of
shell-forming grit or, in the case of birds in unheated quar-
ters, by a sudden cold snap. Removal to a warm cage and
the anointing of the vent with warm olive oil will generally
cause oviposition. If it does not, careful exposure of the
vent to steam will almost certainly bring about relief, but
the bird must be protected from scalding.

Sore feet are a common complaint. Dirty or unsuitable
perches will often bring about such a condition, but many
birds, no matter how well cared for, are troubled as old age
comes on. The feet should be washed carefully in warm
water, well dried and anointed with vaseline or some simi-
lar dressing.

Scaly leg, which is prevalent among game birds, is much
more difficult to treat. Many prefer heroic measures, such
as dipping the feet in kerosene, and good results are not *
uncommon. Five parts of white vaseline to one part of
caraway oil, as recommended by the Maine Agricultural
Experiment Station, is the best remedy known to the writer.
Its persistent application with a stiff toothbrush will eventu-
ally reach and destroy the parasites which cause the incrus-
tation.

Lice are seldom present in a well-ordered collection, and
if new birds are isolated for a time there will be little
trouble. The habit of covering cages with cloths at night
is an excellent means for breeding lice, which find a lodging
in the folds of the cloth. When their presence is suspected
the occupants of the cage should be removed and thoroughly
dusted with Persian insect powder. The cage should be
washed with hot water containing some disinfectant, such
as creolin; or if this is not practicable, it should be sprayed

82 - BIRDS

with one of the commercial insecticides. The perches
should be wiped off with a rag dampened with kerosene
oil. If this treatment is repeated once or twice, at intervals
of a week, the pests will cease to trouble.

Selecting Specimens

In choosing birds many points are to be considered. A
person of small experience who desires a bird simply for
its song cannot do better than to decide on a Canary. Its
needs are simple and little knowledge is required to meet
them. If he is slightly more ambitious, one of the com-
moner European finches—a Goldfinch, Linnet or Siskin—
might be tried. They are the first step beyond the Canary.
The Bullfinch is a delightful pet and easily kept if properly
cared for. The small waxbills and grass finches have little
song, and some are inclined to be delicate, but their beauty
will compensate for the little trouble they make.

The soft-billed birds entail somewhat more effort, but
many are almost as hardy as the finches. The Red-billed
Hill-tit (or ‘“ Japanese Robin”), the Shama Thrush, the
Song Thrush and the European Blackbird all are easily
kept, although the two latter are inclined to wildness unless
thoroughly tamed.

More ambitious collections should not be attempted until
one has had some experience with a bird or two. If birds
are to be grouped, the greatest care must be exercised in
selecting the specimens to be kept together. The larger
weavers, troupials, certain thrushes and all parrots and
parrakeets are not to be trusted with smaller birds. Some
birds are notorious murderers and these will be mentioned
farther on. Ordinarily, experience must be the guide, for
individuals of ordinarily quiet species are sometimes the
worst offenders, It goes without saying that many birds

GENERAL CARE $3

that will get on perfectly in a large aviary will fight to the
death in close quarters.

Some aviculturists have had a prejudice against associat-
ing seed-eaters and soft-bills in a single aviary. It is true
that in a small cage this may be dangerous, as finches will
often eat soft food and become unbelievably fat. But in
ample quarters this trouble is not so prevalent, and the mem-
bers of a mixed collection may generally be relied upon to
choose their own food.

Most of the bird and animal importing trade of this coun-
try, exclusive of game birds, is in the hands of two or three
New York firms with German connections. It is a much
more serious undertaking than might be supposed, a well-
organized force of travelers, collectors and caretakers being
necessary, and prohibiting the participation of smaller con-
cerns. During good weather and under favorable condi-
tions large shipments are received weekly. These arrivals,
_ chief of which, of course, are canaries, are displayed at
the establishments of the importers and then selected by
the smaller retail dealers. The prices at which these birds
are sold are fairly uniform and well established, but those
asked by the retailers who distribute them to the public
are extremely variable. For instance, piping Bullfinches
are wholesaled uniformly at $15 each and usually are
bought by dealers simply on the word of the wholesaler, as
these birds generally will not perform until they feel at
home. After each has displayed his own particular degree
of proficiency, the price is set at from $25 for the bird that
knows but a single tune to as much as $200 for one which
‘can deliver three or more. The higher prices, of course,
are what might be termed “ fancy” and few care to pay
them. The tyro should be on his guard, and should never
pay what seems an exorbitant price until he has assured
himself that he is not being fleeced.

84 BIRDS

No bird should be purchased unless it seems to be in

good condition. A few feathers missing or a slightly be-
draggled appearance is of small moment, as if the bird is
really in good health these defects are soon remedied. A
thin, dull-eyed bird, no matter how fine its plumage, should
never be taken.

The determination of sex in some species is difficult. In
many, of course, the male and female differ entirely in
color, and in such cases any reliable dealer will assist the
novice in making selections. In others there may be some
insignificant distinguishing mark, and some are easily known
by size. A few, however, are to be known only by the size
and shape of the head and beak, an excellent character
for making sure of the sex of difficult species.

All newly purchased birds, no matter how healthy they
may appear, should be isolated for a period ranging from
a week to a month or more, until it is certain that they
are free from disease and well accustomed to the feeding
régime. Fresh birds, turned into a mixed collection without
an opportunity to rest and become familiar with new foods,
are very likely to perish miserably before getting properly
oriented. Every aviary or bird room should have its regular
quarantine room, where arrivals may be received and pre-
pared for introduction to the collection.

CHAPTER VIII
PHEASANTS

Tue birds of this order (GALLIFORMES) are of the greatest
value to man, from an economic point of view. The domes-
tic fowl, the guinea-fowl, the turkey, the pheasants and pea-
fowl, the grouse, quail and partridges, all are included.
Each holds an important place in our economy, and farmer,
gourmand and sportsman are indebted to them for much.
Many of the groups are pre-eminent as pets, or at least for
ornamental purposes, while others, such as the grouse, do
not thrive in captivity, except under special conditions.
Only the hardier families will be considered here.

Pheasants

Pheasants * are known to every one—to milady, perhaps,
by the drooping tail feathers with which she was once wont
to adorn her hat; to the sportsman and farmer as the
splendid game birds which are increasing so rapidly in our
depleted coverts. In spite of this widespread general ac-
quaintance, however, it is remarkable that comparatively
few people are aware of the fact that there are nearly one
hundred species of pheasants, most of which thrive in cap-
tivity with but little more attention than is required for
domestic fowls. Even among many of those to whom some
knowledge of these birds has brought the realization that
there are other pheasants than the Ring-neck the idea is

* Reprinted in part from an article by the author, published in The

Field Illustrated, August 2, 1913. By permission of the Advanced
Agricultural Pub. Co., Inc.

85

86 BIRDS —

prevalent that they are unduly delicate and difficult to keep :

in confinement. It is the writer’s hope that the following
pages may serve in some degree to dispel this fallacy.

In the care of pheasants in captivity, it is first necessary
to note that there are two distinct methods of treatment.
One of these, the rearing of game pheasants for stocking
purposes, and also of certain of the more common of the
so-called fancy species, is beginning to be pursued on a large
scale in this country. This system requires almost unlimited
space, which is the basis on which rests all hope of success in
producing large numbers of any game bird. It is a subject
of great interest and is now receiving the earnest attention
of many able men.

On the other hand, the very fact of its bigness excludes
it from the field of this work. The bird-lover who keeps
a pair of pheasants, or even a series of the more attractive
species, cannot be entirely guided by the methods of game
farmers on a large scale. His field forms another branch of
aviculture, and to an attempt to aid him in this more in-
tensive system the writer will confine himself.

Housing and Feeding

With a very few exceptions, the pheasants are extremely 4
hardy and require no housing beyond shelter from the ©

cold winds of winter and the beating sun of the summer
months. For the first purpose, a low, simple shed, pref-

erably of southern exposure and provided with suitable —
perches, is quite sufficient. So long as the biting wind ©

and, more especially, dampness are carefully excluded, —

no artificial heat is required, for these birds are able to ©

endure very low temperatures without discomfort.

A large, well-drained run should be provided, well fur- |

nished with shrubs and bushes, a grassy portion being

ng Co.

Courtesy Advanced Agricultural Publishi

Brown Eared Pheasant

Silver Pheasant

»

he

nr)

PHEASANTS 87

reserved to provide green food for the inmates. The top
must be covered, of course, for pheasants are strong fliers
and it is best not to clip their wings if propagation is de-
sired. Care must be taken not to alarm the birds, especially
at night, for they are exceedingly nervous and are apt to
dart upward, only to wound themselves severely against the
netting at the top of their aviary. For this reason, it is far
safer to stretch a twine net about a foot below the wire, thus
saving the pheasants from possibility of injury.

The staple food of the adults should consist of the best
of grain: wheat, buckwheat, barley, kaffr corn and a very .
little cracked corn. It may be noted, at this point, that
Indian corn, doubtless because of its cheapness, is a staple
food in this country. For generations farmers have used it
for their poultry with apparent success, and the keepers of
more delicate birds have very naturally adopted it. There
can be no doubt that for sensitive species in confinement,
unless very carefully handled, it is a pernicious article of
diet. Its constant and unlimited use leads to the accumula-
tion of unhealthy fat, and to enlarged livers, than which
there can be no greater evil. Birds on free range, and even
those more restricted, during the winter months, may endure
or even benefit by a certain amount of this food, but its
dangerous tendencies should be borne in mind when a feed-
ing system is being devised.

Breeding

During the laying season, and just before it, the birds
may have a mash composed of one of the numerous pheas-
ant meals advertised, mixed with fine alfalfa meal and a
small quantity of crissel or meat scrap. The whole mass
should be dampened with scalding water sufficient to make
it crumbly. Unless insects are abundant, chopped cooked

88 BIRDS

meat should be given two or three times weekly throughout
the year. Green food must be supplied regularly. Chick-
weed, which is found universally, is the best for this pur-
pose, but lettuce is an efficient substitute. If grass is given,
it must be chopped into very short lengths, as long blades
are likely to form an impaction after being swallowed. Of
course, if the run is well grassed, this item may be omitted
during the summer. Grit is essential, and the drinking
water must be fresh and protected from the direct rays of
the sun.
_ Each species must be kept in a separate run, as the males
are fierce fighters when confined together, at least when
females are present. A number of males of the less pug-
nacious species will live together in perfect harmony, but
if hens are introduced during the mating season disaster
is certain to follow. The birds are generally sold in pairs,
but with many species it is safer to secure at least two
females, as the males are very keen on persecuting their
mates, often pursuing them viciously, and if more hens
than one are present these attentions are likely to be divided.
For the same reason, cock and hen should never be confined
together in a small space. During shipment, each bird
should be placed in a separate compartment, the top of
which has been carefully padded. Although in the wild
state, it is probable that most of the pheasants are monog-
amous, in the case of the true pheasants of the Ring-neck
group, and also the Golden and the Lady Amherst, the
cocks will mate with from two to four hens. With most
other species, including even the Silver, while several hens
may be run with the cock, it will generally be found that
but one will lay fertile eggs, although, of course, exceptions
will occur.

Most of the pheasants lay between late March and the
middle of June, the exact dates. varying with species, indi-

;
h

PHEASANTS 89

viduals and climate. If plenty of low bushes are provided,
the nest will generally be made in their shelter. Often,
however, the eggs will be deposited promiscuously about
the run and must be picked up at once, as many birds are
confirmed egg-eaters. If the female will incubate, she can-
not be excelled for rearing the young, but in most cases she
refuses to perform this function. It is customary, therefore,
to remove the eggs and place them under a domestic hen.
For this purpose a small bird should be chosen, preferably
a Silkie, or a gentle bantam, as large hens will crush the
fragile shells and trample under foot the tiny chicks.

There is a very considerable difference in the incubation
periods of pheasants, and this fact must be considered when
mixed clutches are being set. Moreover, some variation in
a single species is to be expected, broods of chicks of the
same sort sometimes requiring two or three days to com-
plete hatching. The following list gives the approximate
time required :

CMBR Couey ok bk eaiu 45:55 alee ea ee ake 21 to 22 days
REY, PASIAN o's 6c 'o twain 0 4h eames bie 22 to 23 days
Ring-neck, Formosan, Japanese, etc. 22 to 24 days
Reeves
ieee t REM Ko Mea kObubcae ed 24 to 25 days
eat

oo EEL LEONE ATE ERG ER
Swinhoe Po eee 25 to 26 days
Fireback
Tragopans) _.....
at t Slama ake } 27 to 28 days
BE hoi why a wv ai} La ae toca h LN dow 28 to 30 days

When the chicks have hatched they may be placed with
the hen in a small coop, just as domestic chicks are, with
the exception that a small covered run of fine-meshed wire
should be placed around it. This should be about two feet
Square for the first few days, for young pheasants are very
wild and must become accustomed to the call notes of the

Bee ;
4 fi ee”)
a bal NY
han
o, ecu
*s * hm
ba)

90 BIRDS

foster-mother before they are to be trusted in a larger en-
closure. It is an advantage, during this period, to place
boards at the sides of the runs. If the chicks cannot see be-
yond their little world, they have less desire to wander and
soon become accustomed to confinement.

If the birds are of the more valuable species, it is best to
keep them always in a covered run, where their possible
escape may be prevented. ‘This is entirely against the pre-
cepts of the modern game farmers, many of whom go so
far as to say that pheasants cannot be reared in small quar-
ters. This statement is not entirely true, for pheasants are
reared yearly in the New York Zoological Park, under the
supervision of the writer, in the most cramped runs imagin-
able. The losses are almost nil, and stronger, healthier
birds could not be reared in a ten-acre field. The important
point with this method is that the runs must be portable,
so that they may be removed frequently to fresh ground.
If this rule be given faithful attention, and perfect cleanli-
ness maintained, there is no reason why the backyard
farmer should not be just as successful on a small scale as
the game breeder who operates more extensively.

Pheasant chicks have many enemies and protection from
them must be carefully looked after. Cats are the worst of
these, but are excluded by the wire, as are hawks and crows.
Rats come next, and are best guarded against by fastening
the chicks in the coop at night,.a practice which is perfectly
feasible when only a few broods are being reared in movable
runs. If the birds are kept in permanent quarters, rats may
be guarded against by having the mesh of the wire so small
as to prevent their passage, and sinking it in the ground
for eighteen inches, with an outward twist at the bottom.

The food of the young birds is more largely of an animal
nature than that of young domestic chicks. The base may
consist of any good pheasant meal, of which a number of

os ee

PHEASANTS gI

sorts are on the market. With this may be chopped boiled
egg, fine crissel or meat meal and finely minced green food,
such as chickweed, lettuce, watercress or chives. If none of
these is available, fine alfalfa meal may be substituted. The
whole mass should be dampened with scalding water until it
will just hold together when squeezed in the hand. Insect
food is very necessary for the more delicate species, and
is supplied in the form of ants’ cocoons, commonly known as
“egos,” and maggots which have been cleaned in dry meal or
sand for at least forty-eight hours. Recently there has been
an outcry against the use of maggots for young pheasants,
| chiefly on the grounds that their production is offensive and
that they are not essential to the growth of the chicks. This
is no doubt true for pheasants on range, which are able to
secure all the insect food they require But birds reared
in confinement have no such opportunities and insect food
of some sort must be provided. If maggots are reared in
clean meat, carefully cleaned in bran for forty-eight hours,
and scalded before being fed, there is no doubt that their
moderate use is of the greatest assistance in rearing the
young birds. On the other hand, maggots that have not been
properly cleaned are dangerous, and may very probably
prove fatal to the chicks which eat them.

When the chicks are about six weeks old, a few small
grains, such as millet and canary seed, may be added gradu-
ally to their diet and slowly increased until the young birds,
fully fledged, are fed practically as are the adults. The
chicks should be fed, at first, at intervals of from two to
three hours, all food uneaten being removed as soon as the
birds stop feeding. The periods are lengthened slowly until
grain fed twice daily is found quite sufficient.

Shade is very essential to the young birds and is best pro-
vided in the form of natural shrubbery. If this is not avail-
able, small A-shaped shelters may be made of boards or

92 BIRDS

burlap tents erected wherever convenient. The water must
be fresh and always in the shade. This point is of great
importance, and to its neglect may be traced many of the
troubles of pheasant breeders. Many English game-keepers
give their chicks no water at all, from their belief that its use
would be fatal. This doubtful practice probably originated
from unhappy experiences with sun-heated water, and is
evidence of the necessity for avoiding such a condition. In
any case, the water should be changed at frequent intervals,
and if it is not certain that the receptacle will remain shaded,
it is safer to remove it after the chicks have drunk.

The Species of Pheasants

The pheasant family (PHASIANIDZ#) is a very large one,
including the Old World quail and partridges, the pheasants
proper, the peafowl and the jungle fowl, from which our
domestic birds are derived. Although the distinction is
purely arbitrary, only those birds which are commonly
known as pheasants will be treated here.

About ninety species of pheasants have been described,
some thirty of which are more or less common in captivity ;
most of these are generally to be seen in the New York
Zoological Park. Many are to be obtained at comparatively
low prices, ranging from six dollars per pair for the Eng-
lish Ring-neck to fifty dollars each for the Impeyan.

The best birds for the novice are those of the Ring-neck
group (Phasianus), which includes about twenty forms.
'Most common of all pheasants in captivity is the English
Ring-neck, the bird which has been used so extensively in
game propagation work in the eastern United States. These
pheasants are hybrids between the so-called ENGLISH or
BLACK-NECKED PHEASANT (P. colchicus), which was
brought from Asia Minor at a very early date and preserved

Se OE ee —

i

PHEASANTS 93

on European estates, and the CHINESE RING-NECK (P.
torquatus), introduced within comparatively recent times.
These two have interbred so freely in game preserves as
to eliminate completely pure-blooded birds of both forms.
The pure English Pheasant, the male of which is character-
ized by maroon rump and the black neck lacking a white
collar, is now exceedingly rare, even in its eastern habitat.

The Chinese Ring-neck, commonly confused with the very
distinct Mongolian, is still abundant in China, and is fre-
quently seen in captivity. In color it is lighter than the
English Ring-neck and the white collar is usually much
wider. This species has been introduced with great success
in the Pacific states and has proven hardier than the hybrid.

The male Moncotian PuHEAsANtT (P. mongolicus) is
very dark in general coloration, somewhat resembling the
English Pheasant, except that it has a white collar and white
wing coverts. The female, on the contrary, is very pale,
but is readily distinguished by her white eyes.

A rather uncommon bird is the Formosan PHEASANT
(P. formosanus), found only on the island from which
it takes its name. This bird resembles the Chinese Ring-
neck in general coloration but is still paler.

The smallest species of the group is the JAPANESE or
VERSICOLOR PHEASANT (P. versicolor). The general tone
of the upper portion of the plumage is light slate, the entire
breast being a brilliant green. The hen is much the darkest
of the group. The Japanese Pheasant has been tried on
English preserves, where it has crossed freely with the
already mongrel stock.

The only other pheasant found in Japan is the Sorm-
MERING or CopPpER PHEASANT (P. semmeringii), which
has been divided into three subforms, depending upon the
amount of white in the lower back. This handsome bird is

very uncommon in captivity, and generally commands a

94 ' BIRDS

rather high price. Usually it is wild and intractable, but

docile specimens are sometimes seen. It is of a different

type of coloration from the other species of Phasianus, the
feathers of the male being of a reddish cast, those of the
upper parts being bordered with a brilliant band of copper
and white.

With the exception of the last named, the pheasants of
the genus Phasianus interbreed promiscuously, and the ama-
teur is not always certain as to the derivation of birds fur-
nished by dealers. Most of the pheasants offered for sale
in America are bred in captivity, often by men who them-
selves are not entirely sure of the purity of their breeding
stock. Therefore, the greatest care should be taken to in-
vestigate the origin of newly purchased birds, to avoid the
possibility of producing a flock of undesirable hybrids.

By early systematists, the REEVES PHEASANT was in-
cluded in the Ring-neck group, but later authors have given
it a new name, Syrmaticus reevesi. The cock is a rather
large bird, its general ,color being gold laced with black.
Its tail, however, is its most remarkable feature. This ap-
pendage grows to a great length, often reaching more than
five feet. For this reason, roomy quarters are required to
keep it in good condition. This species crosses readily with
the Ring-neck and produces most handsome hybrids, which
seem invariably sterile. The Reeves has been tried on Eng-
lish shooting preserves, where it is much prized for its
superb rocketing powers. Unfortunately, it is so pug-
nacious in habit that it will not live amicably with the more
docile Ring-necks, and this fact, with the sterility of the
hybrids, has much reduced its former popularity in this
respect.

The GoLtpEN (Chrysolophus pictus) and the Lapy Am-
HERST PHEASANTS (C. amherstie) are among the most

brilliant of known pheasants. The Golden is the more ~

eit

Seas

—_

PHEASANTS 95

gorgeous, the cock being characterized by bright yellow
crest, flowing orange and black cape, green back and yellow
rump, set off with a breast of dazzling red. He is an active

“bird, constantly spreading his scintillating ruff in display

as he darts about. Unfortunately, it is next to impossible
to secure birds without an infusion of Amherst blood, so
readily do the species cross. The females are particularly
confusing, even the pure ones being much alike. The legs
of the Amherst, however, are dark greenish, while those
of the Golden are yellow, and the eyes of the former are
surrounded by a bare patch which is almost entirely absent
in the Golden.

The Lady Amherst cock is somewhat larger than the
Golden, with a much longer tail, and his coloring, while
of the same general pattern, is more subdued in tone. Most
of the upper parts are metallic green edged with black. The
crest is dark red, the spreading cape white tipped with black
and the lower back pale yellow. The upper breast is green
also, while the abdomen is white. Lady Amherst and
Golden males do not assume the full adult plumage until the
second summer.

The male hybrids between these two birds are most gor-
geous creatures, showing every possible combination of the
colors of the parent species. They are quite fertile and all
degrees of blood may be obtained.

Both of these species are desirable aviary birds and
become very tame and confiding, and, in spite of their active

habits, endure close confinement perhaps better than any

other pheasants. The Goldens are particularly docile. Both
are hardy and easily kept. Next to the Ring-neck, the
Golden is the most common pheasant in captivity and is to be
obtained at a comparatively low price. The Amherst, for
some reason, is never so abundant, and its value is con-
siderably greater.

96 BIRDS

The Silver and Kalij Pheasants form a genus (Genneus)
which includes a large number of handsome birds, many

of them so closely allied as to make their identity difficult —

for the novice to determine. Of these birds, the most
abundant in confinement is the SILVER (G. nycthemerus).
After the Ring-neck and the Golden, this is the species most
commonly seen in collections. The cock is a conspicuous
bird, snowy white above, with black vermiculations and the
crest and lower parts glossy blue-black. It breeds freely,
the chicks are easily reared, and altogether it is a most satis-
factory bird. Individuals often become exceedingly tame
» and may be allowed to run about the grounds. Unlike some
smaller species, they are quite able to defend themselves
against prowling cats, and no danger is to be apprehended
from this source.

Closely ullied to the Silver is the LINEATED PHEASANT
(G. lineatus). It is an uncommon bird, but occasionally to
be had from dealers. It differs from the Silver in its
somewhat smaller size, and in the relation of dark and light
vermiculations in the upper parts, the result making it a
much darker bird than its relative.

The Kalij Pheasant cocks are black in general coloration,
the species being differentiated by the distribution of white
markings. The hens are all very much alike and only dis-
tinguishable by careful comparison.

The most common is the BLAcK-crEsteD Katty (G. leu-

comelanus). The male is black throughout, the feathers of
the lower back broadly tipped with white and those of the

wipes tinged with ashy. This pheasant is commonly sold 1

** Melanotus.”
ee MELANOTUS or Since mace Katiy (G. melano-

tus) is a much rarer bird and lacks the white tips on the 4

back. These two species are very commonly confused and
much interbred, so that pure birds are difficult to obtain.

Photograph by Barbara Baron

White Peacock Displaying
(Property of Mr. Kenyon V. Painter)

PHEASANTS 97

The handsomest of the Kalijes is the WHITE-CRESTED
(G. albocristatus). The crest of the cock is very long and
flowing, and pure white in color. He possesses, also, the
white-tipped back and ashy breast. This is an uncommon
bird, very seldom seen in collections.

HorsFIELpD’s or the BLACK-BREASTED Katij (G. hors-
fieldi) is the darkest in color, and probably the rarest of
those which have reached civilization alive. The cock is
glossy blue-black, the only white markings being those of
the lower back.

The SWINHOE PHEASANT (G. swinhoei) seems to fall in
this group, but is quite distinct from its congeners. It is
not rare in confinement and is a most brilliant and
pleasing bird. The general color of the cock is a metallic

_ blackish-blue, with white crest and central tail feathers.

The upper back is white also, with a bright patch of ma-
roon at each side. The hen is mottled black and buff,
with bare, red face, and is easily distinguished from all
others.

The Exrtiot Pueasant (Calophasis ellioti) is a Chinese
species, which is always obtainable from dealers.. The cock
is strikingly marked, the general coloration being rich,
golden-brown, set off by white underparts and wing bars,
and grayish-white neck. This bird does not seem as hardy
as most others and is rather difficult to acclimatize, but once
established is as long-lived as any.

Curious little birds with superficial resemblances to the
peacock are the PEAcock PueEasants (Polyplectron). Al-
though six species are known, but two have ever reached
America alive, and only one of these, the Common (P. chin-
quis), is usually to be had. The cock and hen are much
alike, dark grayish in color, the feathers of the lower back,
wing coverts and tail being ornamented with round ocelli or

“eyes.” In the male these eyes are a brilliant green, but in

98 BIRDS

the hen they are simply dark spots without iridescence. This
is a rare species, but very long-lived once it is well estab-
lished. It is much more difficult to breed than some others,
but success has been attained by at least one American avicul-
turist. The normal clutch consists of two eggs, but these
are usually followed, after a short interval, by a second
pair. |

The only pheasants in which the plumage of the male does
not differ from that of the female are the Eared Pheasants
(Crossoptilon). But one species of this genus, the BRown
EARED PHEASANT (C. manchuricum), has ever been alive
in private hands. Both sexes are dark brown in color, with
flowing white ear-tufts, the arched tail whitish tipped with
black. Male and female may be distinguished by the spurs
of the former. This species is generally to be obtained
from dealers, but of late years it has become rather uncom-
mon. Although the Manchurian is of a most quiet disposi-
tion and thrives well in captivity, it is a difficult species to
breed. A curious characteristic of birds of this species is
a tendency to nibble at the tail feathers of their mates. A
pair of birds kept in close confinement, without the variety
offered by more free range, almost invariably develop this
habit, which adds nothing to their good appearance.

The FirE-BACK PHEASANTS are a compact group of eight
species, found only in the Malay Peninsula and neighboring
islands. As is indicated by their habitat, these birds require
artificial. heat if they are to do well during the winter.

Moreover, all are high-priced and rare, so that, although ©

of great beauty, they are not suitable birds for the novice.
The most common species is the SIAMESE FIRE-BACK (Diar-

digallus diardi), followed by the BoRNEAN and VIEILLOT’s |

Frre-BACKS (Lophura).

The Tracopans (Tragopan) are a group of pheasants — .
distinguishable at a glance from the others. They have no —

ms SRE ee 2 es See ae -

ur |

PHEASANTS 99

ornamental plumage developments, even the tail being short
and rounded. The face is bare and highly colored in the
males of most of the species, and all have fleshy horns and
a brilliant dewlap, which are exposed only during display
before the female. The general color of the males is red or
brown, interspersed with spots and mottlings of various
shades, and reticulated with black. The females are all
very much alike and difficult to distinguish.

There are five species of Tragopans, three of which are
not uncommon in captivity, although the price asked is al-

_-ways high. These are Cabot, Temminck, and Satyr or

Crimson, relatively abundant in the order named. Blyth’s
and Black-headed Tragopans are seen very rarely, the latter
never having been brought alive to America.

All of these birds live well in confinement, requiring no
artificial heat. They are largely fruit- and plant-eaters, and _
their diet in captivity should include soft fruits and berries,
plenty of green food and occasional meals of boiled rice.
They also differ from other pheasants in their selection of a
site for the nest, which usually is built upon a deserted
bird’s nest, at some distance from the ground.

The male ImprYAN PHEASANT (Lophophorus impe-
yanus) is among the most wonderfully colored of living
birds. The surface of the upper body feathers is provided
with microscopical prisms, which reflect the light in a flood
of iridescence that is difficult to describe. The head and
spatulate crest are green, the neck bronze and the rest of
the upper surface purple, with the exception of a white
patch on the lower back, hidden by the folded wings. All
of these colors have the brilliance of molten metal, scin-
tillating with every movement of the bird. The hen is
clothed modestly in mottled brown and black.

Impeyans are hardy birds and easily catered for, but
although generally to be obtained they are always expen-

% Ny a
100 , BIRDS ‘S:
im 4
Py

sive. They are very quiet, but, like the Manchurian, diffi- —
cult to breed, although young have been hatched repeatedly —
in this country and occasionally reared. The beak is strong
and powerful and in constant use for digging in the soil of

the enclosure.

aS:

CHAPTER IX
PEAFOWL, GUINEA-FOWL AND QUAIL

Peafowl

THE peafowl belong to the same family (PHASIANIDZ) as
the pheasants, from which they differ in no important char-
acters. Their most striking feature is the long train, which,
by the way, is formed by the upper tail coverts and not by
the tail proper.

There are two species, the most common of which is the
INDIAN PEAFOWL (Pavo cristatus). This bird is a native
of India and Ceylon. Although accustomed to a tropical
climate, its hardiness is truly remarkable, for no degree of
cold seems to affect it. The writer has repeatedly seen
birds, after a frosty night spent on a lofty bough, shake
the heavy snow from their backs and scale smoothly to the
ground, with as little concern as though the scene were the
forests of Ceylon. ’

Little provision, then, is necessary for the housing of pea-
fowl. If they must be kept confined, the run should be as
large as possible and well grassed, for these birds will not
thrive in small quarters. Under such circumstances, it is
better to have a shelter of some sort to cover the bird’s
roosting-place.

Peafowl are much better at liberty, and if possible should
be allowed to enjoy it. If kept confined for a few days in
a wire pen, a newly acquired pair may be let go, with rea-
sonable assurance that they will not stray. Some individ-
uals, however, are peculiarly persistent in this respect, and
it may be necessary to let only the cock go at first, keep-

Tol

102 BIRDS

ing the hen where he can see her, until he is satisfied with
his surroundings.

Dogs are the worst enemies of peafowl at large, and
strange as it may seem they have little difficulty in approach-
ing the birds. Stray dogs should be kept from grounds in
which peafowl are at liberty.

The loftiest bough or ridge-pole is not too high for these
birds of Pan, and some such location will form the nightly
perch. The peacock is very prone to the utterance of loud
and unearthly shrieks, particularly at night, and for that
reason should be encouraged to roost as far as possible from
dwellings.

The feeding described for pheasants is equally suitable
- for peafowl. A mixture of sound grains is the chief item,
supplemented by occasional feeds of game food or mash.
Chopped vegetables and abundant green food must be fur-
nished when grass is not accessible to the birds. Table
scraps are not suitable for any birds, with the possible ex-
ception of barnyard chickens.

The peafowl is polygamous and one cock may be kept
with two or three hens. The birds do equally well in larger
flocks, including several males, if there is room enough
for the weaker birds to avoid the more pugnacious indi-
viduals. The battles of peacocks are seldom sanguinary or
of long duration, but the victor will cruelly persecute the
vanquished if he has no means of escape. Peacocks must
not be allowed access to poultry yards, for some are mur-
derously inclined, and will play havoc among young chicks.

Peahens usually lay in the early summer, the clutch
varying from two eggs to six. Females do not breed until
two years old. The period of incubation is about twenty-
eight days. It is by far the best to let the mother rear her
own brood. Domestic hens will not range far enough to
allow the chicks to find the great number of insects they

PEAFOWL, GUINEA-FOWL AND QUAIL 103

require, and will cease to hover them when they are a few
weeks old. Peachicks require the mother’s warmth much
longer than domestic chicks, and only the peahen is willing
to provide it. If a substitute must be found, a quiet turkey
is the most suitable.

The hen and chicks should be allowed full liberty, con-
finement being fatal. They may be tried with the foods
recommended for young pheasants, but it will be found that
insects they find for themselves attract them much more
strongly than meal.

The wings of peachicks are well developed when they
leave the shell and they are very soon able to fly. They
feather rapidly and the cocks may soon be distinguished
from the hens by their larger size, longer crests and bluer
necks. An advance toward the wonderful adornment of
the adult male is made in each successive year, but it is not
until the bird is three years old that the full plumage is at-
tained. The young female shows little change, although the
neck becomes somewhat greener. The feathers of the train
are dropped late in June or early in July, and although their
renewal commences at once, the growth is not complete
until December or January.

Several variations from the normal plumage of the Indian
Peafowl have been established. The most attractive is the
White, and when clean and in good condition no bird is
more beautiful. It requires ample space, however, to keep
itself presentable, and even under the best of conditions is
very likely to be more or less soiled. White Peafowl, like
all albinos, breed true when mated together, but the young
are not so easily reared as are those of colored birds. |

The Pirp PEAFowL is easily produced by crossing white
and colored specimens. The most usual pattern is normal
body and train, with white wings and particolored heads
and neck. The females are frequently nearly white.

104 BIRDS

The BLACK-wINGED or JAPAN PEAFOWL is now well
known to represent a mutation from the common stock and
not a distinct species. The cock differs from the typical
bird in having the wing coverts iridescent black, instead of
barred with white. The chicks are white when hatched.
The cocks gradually become colored, but the females re-
main mostly white.

The JAVAN or GREEN PEAFOWL (Pavo muticus) is found
in Burma, the Malay Peninsula and Java. In most re-
spects it closely resembles the Indian Peafowl, but is easily
distinguished by the green, scaled feathers of the neck, black
wings and long, constricted crest, as contrasted with the
~ fan-shaped ornament of its congener. The hen equals her
lord in beauty, but lacks the train. Hens of this species are
curiously rare, two cocks all too frequently being sold for
a pair.

This bird is less hardy than the Indian species, and can-
not endure our winters without shelter. Otherwise its treat-
ment does not differ from that of the common bird.

The cocks are uniformly pugnacious, and may become
really dangerous.

Hybrids between the two species are not uncommon and
usually share the characters of each parent.

Guinea-fowl

While the guinea-fowl are closely related to the pheasants
and peafowl, and belong to the same order, they form a

distinct family (Numipip#). About twenty-three species 4 |
have been described, but only one, the ComMMON or PEARL

GUINEA-FOWL (Numida meleagris), has become thoroughly —
domesticated. All are natives of Africa, and are much pur-
sued as game birds. E

In color and appearance the common sort are identical —

PEAFOWL, GUINEA-FOWL AND QUAIL _ 105

with the wild birds still to be found in Africa. No changes
in form have occurred, but at least two color-varieties have
appeared. The white is the best known and has long been
established, although it is not abundant. The lavender is
of more recent occurrence. It is a light gray in color, and
as it is rather attractive, seems to be enjoying some popu-
larity.

Although believed to have been domesticated since very
early times, the guinea-fowl still retains much of its native
character and never has become so thoroughly satisfied with
changed conditions as has the domestic fowl.

If given its freedom, it will range far, with as little re-
gard for domestic conventions as shown by the peafowl.
Under such conditions, it is uncommonly hardy. In the
New York Zoological Park, the guinea-fowl roost in the
tallest trees the year round, and are undismayed even by
the severest weather.

They seem to do best when kept in small flocks, in which
the sexes are about even. There may be some quarrel-
ing among the cocks, but this is of little consequence.
The hens steal away in the early summer and make their
nests in secluded spots, where they are found with difficulty.
Frequently several females combine their interests in a
single nest, which may contain a great number of eggs.
Under such circumstances incubation is very much a mat-
ter of chance, although the chicks which are hatched are
certain of good care, for the entire flock unites in looking
after their welfare. The period of incubation is twenty-
eight days. |

As the chicks are easily reared by a domestic hen or in
a brooder, it is best to collect the eggs as soon as the clutch
seems completed. The young birds may be treated as

pheasant chicks, and are equally or perhaps even more
hardy.

106 BIRDS

Since the recent prohibitions of the sale of game have
come into effect, there has been an increasing demand for
young guinea-fowl. These birds are well-flavored and
gamey, and there is no doubt that a profitable business
can be developed to supply this demand.

Of the guinea-fowls closely related to the common species,

the Mitrep (N. mitrata) and the Apysstntan (N. ptilor-
hyncha) are the only ones usually seen in captivity. No
serious attempt has been made to domesticate either, for
although they live well, they are less hardy than their con-
gener. The chief differences lie in the shape and color of
the head appendages, the body color being very similar
in all.

The CrestED GUINEA-FOWL (Guttera) has the head orna-
mented with a full crest of soft, curling feathers, instead
of a horny helmet. The best known species are the Black-
collared (G. cristata) and the Curly-crested (G. pucherani).
These birds seldom live for more than a few years under
the conditions of confinement. They require a large amount
of insect food, as well as fruit, and must be provided with
heat during cold weather. As aviary birds, they are orna-
mental and attractive.

The handsomest of all the guinea-fowls is the VULTURINE
(Acryllium vulturinum). This bird is somewhat larger than
the other species. It has the head and upper neck entirely
free of feathers and appendages, except for a small patch
on the nape. The feathers of the neck and breast are
elongated and pointed, with white centers and black and
cobalt edgings. Those of the lower breast and abdomen are
cobalt with black centers, and the sides have a shade of
purple. Otherwise the plumage is much like that of the other
guinea-fowl. While the Vulturine requires warmth in win-
ter, it is much easier to care for than the crested species.
It seems quite satisfied with grain and an occasional

—~.

Montezuma Quail

PEAFOWL, GUINEA-FOWL AND QUAIL 107

tidbit, and is the most satisfactory of the rarer guinea-
fowl.

Quail

The American quail are quite distinct from those of the
Old World, and from their own family (ODoNTOPHORIDZ).
Most of the species are easily tamed and quite suitable for
pets. As game birds they are much persecuted, and such
as are accessible to gunners are yearly becoming less abun-
dant. Their culture is now receiving the attention of game
propagators, and as the work is still in the experimental
stage the experience of the casual amateur may prove to
be of the greatest value.

Before attempting to keep quail of any species, one should
become thoroughly familiar with the laws controlling such
matters in the state in which one lives. If captive quail
are not permitted, it is generally possible to secure special
permission, provided the work to be undertaken is of a seri-
ous nature.

More than sixty species and subspecies are known, and the
care of all is similar, the only difference being in hardiness.
The various forms of the Bobwhite and the California,
Mountain and Gambel Quails are hardier than those which
range farther south, these latter being unable to endure our
winters without artificial heat.

All feed chiefly on grain, such as wheat, buckwheat, bar-
ley, kaffir corn, millet and canary seed. Cracked corn is no
more desirable for these birds than for others. This grain
food must be supplemented with a mash of some sort.
The soft food described for small birds is excellent, and
many of the commercial pheasant meals are quite satis-
factory. Insects should be given when obtainable, and
green food and grit should be ere as described for
pheasants.

108 : BIRDS

Although apparently the quietest and most peaceful of
birds, quail become murderous at times. During the breed-
ing season, the little cocks will fight fiercely if closely con-
fined. At any time, a new individual added to a group is
very likely to be maimed or killed, especially in small quar-
ters. The writer has known two hen Bobwhites, one a
cripple, to kill at once a cock introduced to their company.
A number of birds placed together in new quarters will sel-
dom quarrel, and young birds reared together will agree
perfectly until spring approaches.

At this time breeding birds should be separated into pairs,
each of which has a small compartment to itself. Such
pens may be 3’ x 6, or any other convenient size of similar
dimensions. The mesh of the wire should be three-quarters
inch or less, as sparrows are able to squeeze through any-
thing larger. A board around the bottom adds to the seclu-
sion of the birds. The run should cover ground well grown
with grass and weeds, and in one corner should be placed a
pile of brush, preferably evergreens. No shelter is neces-
sary, the birds preferring to sleep on the ground. The
greatest care must be taken not to disturb them at this
time.

Captive quail lay in early summer, or often when the
season is well advanced. If not disturbed the hen will form
a nest in the grass under the brush pile. In other cases
the eggs may be deposited promiscuously about the en-
closure. At any rate, they should be collected frequently,
as production is thus stimulated. The greatest care must
be observed not to alarm the birds when removing eggs.
As many as one hundred eggs have been laid in one season
by a hen Bobwhite, but thirty to forty eggs is the normal
product. These birds seldom incubate their own eggs, but
other species are less remiss on this point. Plumed, Curagao,
Crested and California Quail have been reared by the

PEAFOWL, GUINEA-FOWL AND QUAIL — 109

parents, in the New York Zoological Park, in very small
quarters, and several others are also on record.
Unless extreme egg production is desired, it is better to
let the mother rear her own chicks, if she will. Where
breeding is being undertaken on a larger scale, the eggs
- should be placed under bantams, preferably silkies or cochins
with light leg feathering. Others are more quarrelsome and
are likely to kill stray chicks of other broods.
Bobwhite eggs hatch in twenty-three or twenty-four days
_and other species require about the same time. The chicks
-are exceedingly small and wild when first hatched, and all
crevices through which they might escape must be carefully
closed. After a day in the nest the brood may be removed
to such a coop and run as described for young pheas-
ants, but the wire mesh must not be larger than one-half

‘inch.

Quail may be reared entirely in such a run, if the brood is
small and the coop is moved frequently. But large game
breeders prefer the field method as used for pheasants, the
chicks being allowed their liberty, while the foster-mother is
kept confined.

The feeding of young quail does not differ from that
of young pheasants. The chicks are more delicate and re-
quire somewhat more of animal food.

Great difficulty was experienced by early experimenters,
when the chicks were about half grown. At this time great
numbers died, entire flocks being wiped out in a few days.
_ This trouble now is well known to be due to overcrowding.
If there is plenty of room, quail will thrive as well as
_ pheasants, but overcrowding is fatal.

The Eastern Bospwuite (Colinus virginianus virgin-
| tanus) is the species most frequently seen in captivity. It
covers the eastern half of the United States and has been
introduced in many of the western states, where it has done

110 BIRDS

very well. In Florida it is represented by a smaller, darker
subspecies (C. v. foridanus). The Texan Boswuirte (C,
v. texanus) is paler than the eastern bird, and less boldly
marked with black and white. It is found from western
Kansas to northern Mexico. Although the Texan Bob- —
white was freely used in the earlier experiments, better re-
sults now are being obtained with the hardier northern —
birds. At
The Mountain Quatt (Oreortyx pictus) is easily dis-
tinguished from all others by the crest of long, straight

plumes. They are rather difficult to sex, but the female has |

a shorter crest than her mate.

The Carirornia Quait (Lophortyx californicus) hasa
short, recurved crest, which inclines forward toward the © i
beak. It resembles the GaMBEL Quai (L. gambeli), but
the latter may be known by the absence of the scales at the

side of the breast. The California Quail is a particularly
easy species to breed, the hens being the best of mothers.
This species has long been kept and bred in England as an
aviary bird. a

Of the less hardy southern species, the MonTEzUMA

QuaiL (Cyrtonyx montezume), of Mexico, is one of the
most attractive. It is larger than the Bobwhite. The male
is a dark, mottled brown above, the sides of the breast being 4 |
black, with numerous round, white spots. The head is

strikingly marked with bold bands of black and white, with .

a broad, full crest of a tawny cast at the back. The female

lacks the handsome markings of the male, and is dull colored
throughout. |

Montezuma Quail are inclined to be quarrelsome after |

they become accustomed to their quarters, and it is seldom
that more than a single pair can be kept together. They are
not hardy, and require artificial heat in winter. Me

The ScaLep Quan (Callipepla squamata) is light slate

PEAFOWL, GUINEA-FOWL AND QUAIL 9111

color above and paler beneath, and the feathers of the neck_

and breast are narrowly edged with black, giving a scaled

appearance. Both sexes carry a short, full crest of a

_ lighter color, this ornament being better developed in the
male. This bird has been the subject of several attempts at
_ acclimatization in the north. Naturally these have been
_ uniform failures, as this species is not hardy. It is quiet
_ in disposition, and breeds freely in confinement.

With the great host of modified Bobwhites, Crested Quails
and Tree Partridges found through Mexico, and Central

_ and South America, the novice is likely to have little experi-
_ence. These birds are seldom to be had, and even public
_ institutions find difficulty in obtaining specimens.

CHAPTER X
WILD PIGEONS AND DOVES

THE wild pigeons and doves (CoLuMBIFoRMES), of which ©
in the world there are more than six hundred and fifty ©
' species, take kindly to captivity. The majority are grain- —
eaters, and there is no difficulty in meeting their wants, the ©
Old World Fruit Pigeons offering the only exception. The —
present interest in game propagation has been concerned —
chiefly with the gallinaceous birds, but the Columbiformes —
are worthy of attention. The Passenger Pigeon, now lost ©
forever, throve in captivity, and at least one experimenter, 7
Prof. O. C. Whitman, bred it freely. Had a more seri- ~
ous effort been made, there is no reason to doubt that this ©
magnificent species could have been preserved. .

Doves do best in aviaries of good size, properly stocked

with plants and shrubs. Under such conditions they will |

live for many years and most species will breed freely. Con-

trary to the commonly accepted belief, most doves are very

quarrelsome, and a mixed collection is constantly in a state ql
of turmoil. Individual cocks become exceedingly aggres- i
sive, so that it may be impossible to keep with them other
birds of the same sex. This is not true of all species, of ”
course, the Mourning Dove, for instance, being extremely
friendly. : Hi

Many species are very hardy, others require warmth in j |
winter. The amateur may easily decide for himself on this

point by merely determining the range of new acquisitions.
The native North American species, as the Mourning Dove

and Band-tailed Pigeon, are impervious to cold. Most of —
the Australian species are equally hardy. Those from ’
112 i

Sa ee er

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SS aT

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ST re
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ha

WILD PIGEONS AND DOVES 113

Mexico and South America cannot endure cold, except those
from Argentina and farther south, which are as immune as
those of the north. Practically all of the African species
require heat, as do most of the Asiatic ones, but those from
mountainous regions are less sensitive.

The best food for doves is small grains, such as wheat,
barley, kaffir corn, millet and canary. Hemp and flax are
eaten greedily, but because of their heating and fattening
qualities should be given only occasionally as a treat. Small,
sharp grit is essential and green food must be furnished
frequently. Doves like to bathe, and it is therefore best
to furnish their drinking water in a small fountain, pro-

' viding for frequent baths in a larger, open vessel. All are

fond of salt, and a piece of rock salt should be placed in the
aviary.
All of the doves are strictly monogamous. The nests of

_ most species are flimsy affairs, built of a few small twigs

laid loosely together. Generally they will take advantage
of small, open boxes if placed in secluded spots in the aviary.

It is best, if possible, to place a shelter-board over the box,

but some birds will not enter a nest with covered top.
Doves and pigeons usually lay two eggs, the larger species

sometimes but one. Cock and hen alternate in incubation,
| which lasts in most cases two weeks or a little longer. The
-young are fed entirely by the parents, with well-digested

food at first, later with freshly eaten grain. The squabs

are remarkably precocious, and are out of the nest and about
before young domestic pigeons are properly feathered.

_Tame Barbary Turtle Doves are invaluable as foster-parents

|

for rarer species, and even domestic pigeons may be utilized.
The native species are of the greatest interest to American
aviculturists. It should be borne in mind, however, that in

-|most states the keeping of these birds in captivity is pro-
_ |hibited by law. The facts must be ascertained and abided by.

114 BIRDS

The Mournine Dove (Zenaida macroura carolinensis )
is the most abundant species of the East. It is half the size
of a common domestic pigeon, with long, pointed tail. It
is a warm brown above and paler below, with two black
spots on the cheeks, several small ones on the wings and a
beautiful iridescence on the neck. Males are readily dis-
tinguished by the more reddish cast of neck and chest and
their considerably larger size.

This dove is rapidly decreasing in numbers, only its soli-
tary habits saving it from the fate of the Passenger Pigeon.
It breeds freely in captivity, and efforts are being made to
preserve it by this means. The New York Zoological So-
ciety possesses a good-sized flock, a number of young being
reared yearly.

The BAND-TAILED PiGEoN (Columba fasciata) and the
RED-BILLED PIGEON (C. flavirostris) are the only large ©
pigeons now found on our mainland. The former ranges
through much of western North America, while the latter
is found only from,the Rio Grande Valley to Central
America. The Band-tailed is a superb bird, one of the
finest of all pigeons. It does well in confinement, and a |
cock bird which lived for many years in the New York Zo- |
ological Park reared numerous hybrids with various domes-
tic pigeons. There is no reason why it should not be bred
without difficulty.

The Red-billed Pigeon is a favorite with the Mexicans, —
and the young are frequently hand-reared for pets. Such
birds are extraordinarily tame and confiding. A pair in }
the possession of Mr. Kenyon V. Painter successfully reared ;
a number of young, and no doubt the species could easily be }
propagated. ; |

The WHITE-wWINGED Dove (Melopelia asiatica) ranges”
from our southwestern states to Florida and West Indies. |
It is pale brown above, with white wing edges and pale }

Common and Victoria Crowned Pigeons

WILD PIGEONS AND DOVES 115

blue skin about the eyes. It is sensitive to cold, but if kept
warm in winter lives very well. Young were reared in the
New York Zoological Park in 1914.

The GrounpD DoveE (Chemepelia passerina terrestris) is
the smallest of our doves. It is a familiar bird in the south-
| ern states, where it is abundant among the grain fields and
stubble. It is long-lived but exceedingly quarrelsome in cap-
tivity. There are records of its having bred in captivity
in this country, and the feat has many times been accom-
plished in European aviaries.

Of South American species, the Quail Doves are the
most interesting, although they are seldom to be obtained.
The only species which is at all common is the Ruppy or
| Mountain (Geotrygon montana), which has a very wide
distribution in Mexico, South America and the West In-
| dies. It is gentle and quiet by nature, and is likely to be
| bullied by more active birds. It is almost entirely terrestrial
in habit, seldom leaving the ground. This is one of the
few birds of the order in which the sexes are differently
colored, the cock being a rich light chestnut, while the hen
is dull brown. |

The most striking of the Old World species is the BLEED-
-ING-HEART PicEon (Phlogenas luzonica), from the island
of Luzon, in the Philippines. It is a bird of medium size,
with well-developed legs, suited to its ground-haunting
habits. Above it is bluish, with dark wing bars. The breast
is white, and bears in its center the deep crimson patch
from which it takes its name. The center of this stain is
_ of a darker shade, and the feathers here are thick and stiff,
_ perfecting one of the most remarkable effects known among
birds.

_ The Bleeding-heart Pigeon lives well in captivity, being
_ bright and active. It is inclined to be aggressive, two cocks
_ seldom agreeing. It has been bred on many occasions,

116 | BIRDS

Australia boasts a great series of desirable aviary doves. —
Chief among these are the AUSTRALIAN CRESTED Doves
(Ocyphaps lophotes) and the BRoNzE-wINGED PIGEON —
(Phaps chalcoptera). Both are handsome birds, with bril-
liantly iridescent wing coverts. The Crested Dove is fur-
ther decorated with a long, pointed tuft of feathers on the
head. Both species are very easily bred, and are hardy
enough to endure our winters without heat, if properly
sheltered. e

The Diamonp Dove (Geopelia cuneata) is the smallest of
the Australian species, being about the size of our own i
Ground Dove. It is a soft gray in general color, with tiny \
round, white spots on the wing coverts. It breeds freely” i
and is a most attractive bird for the aviary. i

Of the African species, the S—eneGAL Dove (S$ tigmatox ¥
pelia senegalensis) is the most common in captivity. It is ~
a soft vinous-gray in general color, with a broken, black- : 4
ish collar about the neck. Curiously enough, while thi .
bird is well known to be perfectly hardy in England, in
this country it seems to be unable to endure the slightest
cold. ;
The only dove, with the notable exception of the Re c i
Dove, which has become domesticated is the BARBARY
TurTLE or R1nG Dove (Streptopelia risoria). ‘This is the i ji
commonest dove in captivity, and is well known as a creamy- _
brown bird, with a black nuchal collar. It has been so long a
in captivity that its ancestry has been lost,* but it has pre- |
sented none of the variations peculiar to domestic creatures, 4
with the exception of the albinistic form. e

It is the most suitable of all doves for the tyro and make 5

y |
*Dr. Ernst Hartert (Novitates Zoologice, Vol. XXIII, No. f |

1916, p. 78) advances evidence to prove that S. voseogrisea of no -

eastern Africa and Arabia is the species from which the Barbary

Blond Turtle Dove was originated.

CBSE

Se

—

WILD PIGEONS AND DOVES 117

a perfect pet. If gently treated, it becomes absolutely tame,
allowing itself to be fondled with the utmost abandon. It
breeds readily in the smallest of cages, rearing an all-too-
numerous progeny. A kind-hearted woman recently un-
burdened herself by presenting to the New York Zoological
Park seventeen young Barbary Doves, the offspring of a
single pair of pet birds!

This species is indifferent to cold, and will live out of
doors in winter. It may be given its liberty under proper
conditions and will return nightly to its home, or establish
itself in the grounds.

The Barbary Dove has numerous wild relatives in Africa
and Asia. Many closely resemble the domestic bird, but
all are considerably darker in color.

The Crowned Pigeons are the giants of the family. Eight
species, all from New Guinea, are known, but only two, the
GREAT CROWNED PIGEON (Goura coronata) and the Vic-
TORIA (G. victoria), are generally seen in captivity. Both
are large birds, the size of a small turkey, and bluish-drab

_ in general color. The Great has purplish-brown across the

back and wing coverts, and the Victoria has the same shade
on the fore neck and throat. All of the species are orna-
mented with a long, vertical crest, which is full-webbed in
the Great and has spatulate tips in the Victoria. These
feathers were the “ Gouras” of milliners, until a merciful
law stopped the traffic.

Crowned Pigeons are long-lived birds in captivity. Their
food consists of the smaller grains, with an occasional meal
of game food or soft food. They are fond of bananas and
also meal worms. Although they are perfectly contented in
small quarters, they are naturally at their best in a large
aviary, but require heated quarters in winter.

The Great Crowned Pigeon has been bred in England on
several occasions, but not, as yet, in America. Both species,

119 Ol ES

while gentle and quiet in surroundings to which they are 1
accustomed, are likely to be nervous and panicky if moved. |
‘They are difficult birds to handle, and must be caught with ;

the greatest care.

CHAPTER XI
CRANES *

Amonc the many groups of birds possessing ornate quali-
ties, few are so hardy in captivity, or thrive with such meager
care, as that formed by the cranes. It is true that the orna-
mental value of these birds is not, as yet, fully recognized
in America, although they are kept extensively on European
estates; still, large numbers of cranes are brought to this
country annually, and there is no doubt that their popularity
is steadily increasing.

Captive cranes are, perhaps, of greatest interest when
enjoying their liberty on an extensive range; but the avi-
culturist who is truly interested in them may wish to con-
fine his specimens where they can be kept under closer
observation. For this purpose a plot of ground of good
size should be selected, and enclosed by a fence which need
not exceed five feet in height. The Crane Paddock in the
New York Zoological Park is so nearly an ideal home for
most of the members of the Society’s excellent collection,
that a description of it may be of interest.

The paddock is about 150 feet square, and is surrounded
by an ornamental fence, averaging four feet in height.
While most of the inmates are pinioned, they can leap this ,
fence easily when alarmed, although they never attempt to
do so under ordinary circumstances. The enclosure is well
carpeted with grass, which is kept closely cropped during
the summer months. A number of large shade trees are
included within its limits, besides several clumps of shrubs,

* Reproduced from the Zodlogical Society Bulletin, No. 43, January,
1911, By permission of the New York Zodlogical Society.

119

120 BIRDS

which afford seclusion to any birds which desire it. One
of the most valuable features, however, is a little stream that
traverses the entire length of the paddock. The birds derive
an infinite amount of pleasure from wading and probing
about in the little pools, and the effect produced is certainly
most pleasing to onlookers. A small shed is provided for
use during severe weather, although it is seldom entered.

Few birds require so little attention as the cranes. Their
chief food is grain, but occasional mice, frogs, fish or
chopped meat are always appreciated and become a necessity
during cold weather. Most of the species are perfectly
hardy, provided healthy specimens are secured. If acquired
in the spring and given an opportunity for becoming ac-
climated, they will live in the open through the winter,
happily and well, requiring only that they receive their
food and water regularly. Some protection from wind
should be provided, of course; and it is well to place within
the enclosure a small shed, although it is safe to say that
the birds will use it rarely, unless driven in. 7)

A surprising assiduity in the search for worms and tender i i
roots is a failing which may become serious, and result, a

especially after rain, in the uprooting of patches of turf. a
Generally this can be checked effectively either by confining
the birds for a short time following showers, or by cover-

ing their favorite feeding-grounds with small branches.

The greatest difficulty in the maintenance of a large col- 4 |
lection of cranes is found in the erratic disposition of the

birds. A number may live together for months in perfect i) |

harmony; but just as the collector begins to congratulate
himself on their good behavior, one may be found with an

eye missing or with its skull pierced! It really is not safe :
to associate the larger and smaller species in a permanent —

group, unless the enclosure be very large or the number of

birds very small. Great care must be taken in introducing

CRANES 121

strange birds to a flock already well settled. The new-
comers are certain to be subjected to a more or less harrow-
ing inspection by the original inmates, who consider them
as nothing more than intruders. The strangers will be
persistently driven from pillar to post for some days, and
will be fortunate indeed if they escape without some injury.
The safest way to establish a crane family is to place all
the intended members in the enclosure at the same time;
then none can use the prestige of previous occupancy as an
excuse for tyranny. Brought together in this abrupt man-
ner, the birds will soon learn to tolerate each other.

The order GrutForMEs includes, besides the true cranes,
six groups of remarkable birds, such as the sun-bittern, the
kagu and the seriema, which have been assigned to this
order in lieu of a better place. Their structures are con-
fusing, and their relationships obscure. The birds with
which we are to deal here are divided into nineteen species,
which form the suborder Grues, and are cosmopolitan, with
the exception that none is found in South America. Asia
is particularly fortunate in being the home of seven species.
Some of these birds are fairly easy to obtain alive ; but most
of them are far from common in captivity, and a few are
seen rarely, if ever.

The SANDHILL CRANE (G. mexicana) still is fairly com-
mon on the plains of western North America, where there
‘is little cover to shelter skulking enemies. This is the most
numerous of our cranes and therefore the best known. It
is rather small, as compared with most of its relatives, its
length being about forty-six inches; its color is a uniform
slaty gray, with the bare skin of the crown reddish. In
captivity this crane becomes delightfully tame, and is very
hardy and long-lived. This species nested in the New York
Zoological Park in 1904 and 1905, but the eggs proved in-

fertile on both occasions.

122 BIRDS

The Little Brown CRANE (G. canadensis) is a very
close relative of the Sandhill, and is distinguished by its
smaller size and shorter tarsus: It breeds through Arctic
America and Siberia, migrating to the western United States
and Mexico for the winter. The inaccessibility of its habitat
explains its long confusion with the Sandhill, and also ac-
counts for its scarcity in captivity.

The third and rarest of the American Grues is the beauti-
ful WHooPiING CRANE (G. americana). It is pure white in
general color, but the primaries are black and the bare por-
tions of the head are reddish, bordered posteriorly by a patch
of blackish feathers. The secondaries are curved downward
and arch gracefully over the tail. No doubt the great
scarcity of this bird is due, in part, to reckless shooting, but
it seems probable that the invasion of settlers into its breed-
ing-grounds in the great middle territories of Canada, and
the increasing cultivation along its migration route through
the Mississippi Valley, are hastening the inevitable extermi-
nation of this finest of American birds. The numerical con-
dition of a species in the wild state generally bears an exact
ratio to the frequency with which it is met in confinement;
it is probable that the number of Whoopers in captivity
could be counted on the fingers of one hand. It is unfortu-
nate that this splendid crane cannot be induced to follow
the example of the wood duck, which is willing to save itself
from extermination by breeding freely in captivity.

The MANCHURIAN CRANE (G. japonensis) is one of the
most strikingly handsome of all the group. It is very un-
common in captivity. Its general color is white, as in the
Whooper, but in this case the arched and pointed secondaries
are black and the primaries white. A slaty-black band
extends down each side of the neck, the two joining on the
nape. The bird measures about fifty inches from tip to
tip when fully extended. It ranges from eastern Siberia to

Sm

Photograph by Wiles

Demoiselle Cranes and Young
(Property of Mr. Percy Warner)

CRANES 123

Corea and Japan; in the last-named island it was formerly
held sacred and was allowed to be hawked by the nobles
only. The cranes depicted on Japanese screens are usually
of this species.

Next in systematic order comes the Asiatic White Crane
(Sarcogeranus leucogeranus). It is considerably smaller
than the foregoing, and is found from southeastern Europe
to China and Japan. It is white, the primaries black and
the head bare and reddish in color. The immature birds of
this species, as well as those of the Whooper, have the white
plumage infused with cinnamon-buff, giving them a remark-
able appearance. This is one of those species more easily
obtained alive, and is brought to this country in some
numbers. It is quite hardy and easily tamable.

Of the larger cranes, the SArus (Antigone antigone), an
Indian species, is most commonly seen in collections. It is
the tallest of the order, sometimes attaining a length of
sixty inches. Its color isa handsome French gray, the over-
hanging secondaries closely approaching white; the head
and the upper part of the neck are bare and reddish, the
gray feathers of the lower neck being bordered above by a
band of white. The Sarus is a most vigorous bird and
inclined to be dangerous when associated with smaller and
weaker species; its height, strength and uncertain temper
make it a companion to be feared.

One of the rarities of the order is the WHITE-NECKED
CRANE (Pseudogeranus leucauchen). This is a medium-
sized bird, of a beautiful shade of gray, with the throat
and the posterior portions of the head and neck white, the
gray of the shoulders commencing at a sharp line. The
anterior part of the crown is bare and reddish. The long
and falcate secondaries, which are very light in color, are
curved less abruptly and hence more gracefully than in
some other species. It is found in eastern Siberia, Corea

124 BIRDS

and Japan and is very seldom imported alive. In captivity
it is quiet and docile, showing a most pleasing absence of
the pugnacity so frequent among its congeners. ;

A crane of unusual and handsome appearance is the
STANLEY or PARADISE (Tetrapteryx paradisea). It is a
bird of fair size, ranging throughout the southern portions
of Africa, where it is fairly common. In color it is a uni-
form slate, becoming practically white on the head, the
feathers of which are so lengthened as to give it a strangely
swollen effect. The drooping secondaries reach the height
of their development and beauty in this species. The Para-
dise is a very desirable bird for the aviculturist, for both its
docility and beauty; it is imported very infrequently. Al-
though reputed to be hardy in England, it certainly is not
so in New York. Here it requires some artificial heat
during the winter.

In captivity, the crane most frequently seen is the dainty
DEMOISELLE (Anthropoides virgo). It is the smallest of
the family, as well as the most widely distributed, since it
breeds in southern Europe and central Asia and spends the
winters in southern Asia and northern Africa. Its general
color is gray, set off by the elongated black feathers of the
_ breast, those over the eyes being drawn out into lateral tufts
of silky white. The Demoiselle is brought to the United
States each year in scores, for the demand for it is great.
Its small size reduces its capacity for mischief, even if its
usually even temper should allow it to fall from grace; its
engaging ways excite the admiration of all who have oppor-
tunity to observe them. This crane is quite willing to breed
in confinement, and has done so in this country on several
occasions. | i8.

The CRowNED CRANE (Balearica pavonina), of western
Africa, differs from all the others in the possession of an

occipital patch of straw-like plumes, from which it derives :

ea ae

ce eee
=
=

CRANES 125

its name. It is a handsome bird, the blackish-slate of its
body plumage being contrasted by white wing coverts and
chestnut secondaries. The sides of the head are bare and
colored white above and pink below; there are two small,
pinkish wattles on the throat. This crane is uncommon in
America, very few having been imported. It is long-lived
and attractive, and not so determined a root digger as most
others. This is another species which cannot pass our win-
ters out of doors, but must be removed to heated quarters
as the cold months approach.

All of the cranes nest on the ground, usually in marshes
or on open plains, forming their nests of grass and rushes.
The eggs are generally whitish or buff in color, double-
spotted with yellow or brown blotches, and commonly two
in number.

Young cranes are most precocious, being able to run about
quite freely soon after hatching. For a few days before
the youngsters commence to forage for themselves their
food consists mainly of insects brought to them by the old
birds. When three or four days old, they will eat soft
materials. Spratt’s Game Food, soaked in hot water, is
excellent. The parent birds are very devoted to their off-
spring, caring for them with great solicitude and guarding
them valiantly against intruders. If an attempt to breed
cranes in captivity is to be made, a large, grassy run should
be provided for the exclusive use of the family, as anxiety
for the welfare and safety of the chicks is apt to make the
parents over-zealous in the treatment of the others in the
same corral. An adult crane is a formidable antagonist,
not to be despised even by a man.

An interesting characteristic of cranes is their habit of
indulging at frequent intervals in grotesque dances, which
may be performed by an individual, or by a group in grace-
ful unison. The leader starts off leaping and bowing, with

broad wings widely expanded; now seizing a leaf or bit of
stick, now tossing it aside in capricious disdain. The spirit
of the dance is infectious, and instantly the enclosure is
a turmoil of leaping, bobbing birds, each striving to outdo
the others in extravagance of gesture and motion.

Most of the species are provided with lusty voices, which
they delight to use with great freedom. However, the
tones, which are clear and trumpet-like, are far from dis-
agreeable, and detract nothing from the performer’s eligi-
bility to a favored place in the list of captives.

126 BIRDS |
:
|

Bee Ye an ee

en ee)

Se a Si : Sai i ihe Se ee
pe eee! Pet ar eee supa tose t = ——

CHAPTER XII
WATER-FOWL

AFTER the gallinaceous birds the water-fowl are next in
economic importance. Over their more prolific rivals they
have the advantage of extreme hardiness and general free-
dom from sickness. Both ducks and geese have long been
thoroughly domesticated, as is evidenced by the many well-
differentiated breeds. Swans, too, have become well ac-
customed to captivity, but have shown no tendency to varia-
tion. Only the wild species will be considered here.

In common with other game birds, the water-fowl now
are receiving a large share of the attention of the propa-
gator. Much has been learned concerning their care and
management, but the problem of breeding many species is
still unsolved. This being the case, the amateur has an
extra incentive, for he is as likely to reach the solution as is
the worker on a larger scale.

As in pheasant-keeping, water-fowl culture is divided into
two groups. While the treatment of: the birds in large
preserves is essentially the same as that practised by the
veriest amateur, the details necessarily vary. We shall con-
fine ourselves here to the management of the smaller enter-
prise.

Of the water-fowl (ANSERIFORMES), there are about two
hundred and seventy-five species, which may be divided
roughly into the ducks, geese and swans. Practically all of
the forms may be kept in captivity with a considerable degree
of success. Most are perfectly hardy, but a few, such as
the Tree Ducks, require warmth in winter.

127

128 BIRDS

Wild Ducks

When the hardiness, simple wants and surpassing beauty
of many ducks are considered, one is not surprised at their
increasing popularity, but rather that their keeping has not
become more general.

For most species water is a necessity. The pond need
not necessarily be large, but it is of the greatest importance
that the water be fresh and clean. If a running stream
or natural pond is available, only some slight adapta-
tion is necessary. If neither is to be had, the construc-
tion of a small, concrete pool is a matter of no great
difficulty. |

At any rate, means for securing a constant supply of
water must be secured, and if it is possible to arrange for
complete drainage of the pond, so much the better. It is a
great advantage to be able to remove all of the water on
occasion.

If the sides of the pool are of soil, it will be necessary

to build them up firmly with stone and gravel. Ducks have a

a habit of working at the banks with their beaks, and their

feet also rapidly wear down the soil as they enter or leave Ff

the water.
The planting of various edible aquatic plants, such as wild

celery (Vallisneria), wild rice (Zizania), etc., is desirable,

but not practicable in a small pond, as they will be destroyed
quickly by the ducks. In large bodies of water, on which

a small number of birds are quartered, such cultivation is — a

perfectly possible.

The pond and as much adjoining land as is available ©

should be surrounded by a wire fence. A three-foot fence
will restrain most pinioned water-fowl, but a greater height

is recommended to exclude dogs, foxes, etc. If attacks of - |

rats, cats and other marauders are feared, precautions in

ii
Lt

WATER-FOWL 129

fence-building should be taken, as recommended in the chap-
ter on pheasants.

The enclosure should support a good supply of grass and
a portion, at least, must be thickly planted with hardy
shrubs. Rhododendrons, mountain laurels, willows, etc.,
are excellent. Bottomless boxes, with holes large enough to
admit a duck, may be placed here and there on the ground
in the shrubbery, for it is here that the birds will choose to

| \ lay their eggs. Most ducks, however, will make their nests

|
|
|

'
|

in the shelter of the leaves, rather than in boxes.

For Wood and Mandarin Ducks, which in the wild state
lay their eggs in hollow trees or in similar positions, special
nests are best. In the New York Zoological Park, we have
had excellent results with boxes placed about three feet
above the water, a few feet from the shore. These boxes
are about eighteen inches in each dimension, with a hole
four inches in diameter, which is large enough to admit a
Wood Duck, but not an intrusive Mallard. It is necessary
to provide a runway for the bird and nesting material of
some sort, as of course the duck will not carry any. .

At the latitude and altitude of New York City, the hardier
ducks do not require shelter in winter. During very severe
weather, it may sometimes be necessary to erect a windbreak
of straw or brush, attached to a wooden frame. It is very
difficult to persuade water-fowl to enter a covered building
or shelter. In localities where the cold becomes extreme,
protection of some sort may be needed, and is best pro-
vided by means of low brush fences, floored with leaves or
straw. Constant feeding will accustom the birds to the
place, and soon they will learn to use it regularly. If the
pond is small, or the birds can be withdrawn into a smaller
portion, it is not difficult to drive them into an unheated
shed, where the nights can be passed. But it should be
borne in mind that any driving of diving ducks when the

130 BIRDS

pond is frozen over is fraught with danger, as the birds ©
may dive under the ice and fail to reappear.

The usual grains—wheat, barley, kaffir corn, etc-—form
the staple food of adult ducks. Cracked corn is much used
in America, and it must be admitted that this grain does
not seem to exercise the adverse effect on ducks that it does
on most other birds. Many breeders give their birds occa-
sional mashes of duck meal. Spratt’s Patent Game Food,
dry, thrown on the water two or three times weekly, will
be found to benefit the birds. Dry bread crusts are always
relished. Green food is very necessary, all of the usual
kinds being eaten greedily. Ducks are especially fond of
water hyacinth, duckweed and watercress. Fresh grass, cut
in short lengths, and thrown in small quantities into the
water, is excellent.

The above items will be found sufficient for surface-
feeding species. The diving ducks, such as Canvasbacks,
Scaup, etc., are no more difficult to keep in health, once
they have become accustomed to captivity. When first re-
ceived from the trapper, it is necessary to confine such birds
in small, dry quarters, well secluded, until they are feeding
satisfactorily. When finally well on grain, they will thrive
in common with the other birds, but will benefit by a bit |
of chopped fish or a few minnows, once or twice weekly.

Unless a covered aviary is provided, or there are unusual
facilities for catching the birds easily at intervals and
clipping their wings, it is best to pinion them permanently.
The operation is easily performed. A point just beyond
the bastard wing or thumb should be selected. One or two
of the primaries should be drawn and a tight ligature of
stout, uncolored twine applied. The bone is then severed
with a pair of strong pruning-shears. If the tie has been
properly made, there will be no blood. If the weather is
warm, an antiseptic powder may be applied, but if the birds

WATER-FOWL 131

are returned at once to the water this generally is not
necessary. The birds need not be caught again, as the twine
will slough off as the wing heals.

Most water-fowl breed early, in April or May, or even in
March if the sedson is moderate. At this time the greatest
care must be taken to avoid disturbance of the birds. Espe-
cially quarrelsome sorts, such as Egyptian Geese and Shel-
drakes, should be watched and prevented from persecuting
or even killing their companions. Most species are monog-
amous, and follow their instincts closely. The Mallard is
a notable exception, one drake to two or three ducks being
a suitable proportion to insure the best results.

Ducks are very shy about laying, and if alarmed while
nesting are very likely never to return. If the eggs are to
be removed, the safest method is to watch until the full
clutch has been deposited. Under exceptional conditions
good results in rearing young may sometimes be attained
by allowing the duck to perform her natural.functions. But
ordinarily it is far safer to entrust the eggs to a bantam or
other small fowl.

When the hen comes off to feed, the eggs should be cov-
ered with a soft cloth, in emulation of the habit of ducks.
It is necessary also to dampen the eggs frequently with
tepid water, particularly as incubation becomes well ad-
vanced.

The eggs of most ducks hatch in four weeks. Young
divers frequently appear several days sooner and Teal re-
quire but three weeks. The ducklings will not require food
for the first twenty-four hours and should remain undis-
turbed in the nest with the foster-mother. At the end of
this period they should be removed to a small coop and
run, as described for pheasants. |

The treatment of ducklings is very similar to that of
young game birds. They should not be allowed to enter

132 BIRDS

water, and that provided for drinking must be in a shallow
receptacle. Young ducks are easily soaked, often with
fatal results.

Their first food may be boiled egg and biscuit crumbs,

eS

dampened. It is also advisable to float ants’ cocoons and —

duckweed on the water. The young of many species do not
readily learn to feed and it is here that the greatest difficulty
lies. Slowly moving insects, such as newly hatched or
drenched flies, will often attract the ducklings’ attention
and form the first meal.

When the young birds are feeding well, they may be
given one of the standard duck meals or the mixture recom-
mended for pheasants. Boiled egg may be continued for
a time, and green food, preferably duckweed, furnished
liberally. arthworms are an excellent food for all duck-
lings large enough to eat them.

As the youngsters progress, small grain should be intro-
duced gradually into their diet. When six or eight weeks
old, they may be allowed to enter the water and may be
considered out of danger.

Dampness and hot sun are fatal to ducklings, as well as

pheasants, and must be avoided.

When the young birds are about one week old, the last
joint of one wing, just beyond the thumb, should be re-
moved with a sharp pair of scissors. As the wing is still

cartilaginous, there, is no resistance and no bleeding. Itis

ee at

therefore not necessary to make a ligature, but it is well to —

apply a bit of antiseptic powder, such as iodoform or
xeroform. ‘This’ will prevent infection and blowing by

flies—a not uncommon trouble.

Of the many species of wild ducks commonly kept in .

Sn ae ee ee

confinement the MALLARD (Auas platyrhynchos) is the most

abundant. Its ready acceptance of captivity led to its domes-
tication at a very remote period, and the many domestic

>

Saupe Sar Fy

Photograph by E. R. Sanborn Courtesy New York Zoological Society

Mute and Trumpeter Swans

es a!
*
”

“s ‘ $ * 4
a we
d . o * ‘ 4

Photograph by E. R. Sanborn

‘

York Zoological Society

, ge

Courtesy New Y

Cereopsis Geese and Goslings

WATER-FOWL 133

breeds we now possess have been developed. The Mal-

lard is much the easiest of all wild ducks to manage and

rear. Its propagation is carried on extensively on game

preserves and great numbers are reared yearly. An excel-

lent field awaits the producer of these birds for market, as
the demand is heavy and but a small portion has so far been
met.

The Brack Duck (Anas rubripes), although closely
allied to the Mallard, does not share its domestic tendencies.
| It is shy and secretive, and although many attempts have
| been made to rear it on a large scale, there has as yet been
| no notable success.
| The Prntatx (Dafila acuta), BaLDPATE (Mareca amer-
| icana) and SHOVELLER (Spatula clypeata) are other native
American species (the first and last are found in the. Old
- World as well) which are attractive for their ornamental
value. All are hardy and easily kept, and all have been
_ bred in captivity on occasion.
| Of the three North American Teal, the GREEN-wING
_ (Nettion carolinense) is the smallest, and likewise the hardi-
| _ est. The BLuE-winG (Querquedula discors) and CINNA-
Mon (Q. cyanoptera) are well enough during warm
_ weather, but in New York at least cannot endure the severe
winters we sometimes experience. The Gapwati (Chau-
lelasmus strepera) is another which does not like cold
_ weather, although thoroughly acclimatized specimens get on
well enough.

Of foreign species, South America offers some most
attractive forms. The Cumian Pintart (Dafila spini-
cauda) and the Cuiti1an Winceon (Mareca sibilatrix)
are both hardy and handsome, requiring no artificial heat
during the winter. In both species the sexes are alike in
color. The many beautiful South American Teal—the
Brazivian (Nettion brasiliense), the BLACK-CAPPED or

134 BIRDS

VERSICOLOR (Querquedula versicolor), the CHmL1aAN (Net- —
tion flavirostre) and the lovely and most recently imported _
Rincep (N. torquatum)—are most engaging. Some, and
perhaps all, no doubt are hardy, but their rarity impels the
furnishing of heated quarters during the winter. 2
The best known Australian species is the AUSTRALIAN _
Gray Duck (Anas superciliaris), a sturdy bird resembling —
our Black Duck. ;
Our own Woop Duck (Aix sponsa) and the MANDARIN _
(A. galericulata), of eastern Asia, are easily the most beau- —
tiful of all ducks. Although the males are totally different
in their wonderful coloring and patterns, the females are
strikingly alike and not easily distinguished by the novice.
But a comparison of the wide, white eye-ring of the Wood —
Duck with the much smaller marking of the Mandarin '
furnishes a ready key. ‘ t
Both species are among the hardiest and most easily kena i
of ducks. A pair will thrive in summer in the smallest of —
enclosures, if properly planted, and with a washtub for a 1
pool. In winter, if open water cannot be kept, they will
be perfectly happy in a shed or box stall. At liberty on 4 i
larger pond, nothing could be more attractive than a mixed —
flock of both species. ¥ }
The Wood Duck is a very free breeder, if provided with
a nest as already described. The Mandarin is much shyer, 4
but is not at all difficult to breed. Broods of both specicgs %
are reared yearly in the New York Zodlogical Park. The
young birds are exceedingly wild and active. They a 2
able to squeeze through the tiniest hole and can climb like !
mice. It is therefore necessary to confine them tightly for
the first few days, until they become thoroughly familiar
with their surroundings and foster-mother. q
The Tree Ducks, of which there are a number of species, —
mainly tropical, live well in captivity, but cannot adit

WATER-FOWL 135

severe winters out of doors. All are fairly large birds,
- with long, well-developed legs. They perch freely, and lay
their eggs in hollow trees. The best known species are the
Futvous (Dendrocygna fulva), the WHITE-FACED (D.
viduata) and the RED-BILLED or BLACK-BELLIED (D. au-
tumnalis).

In South America the writer has seen Tree Ducks perched
upon a large, dead tree in such countless numbers that at a
distance it appeared once more to be clothed with leaves.
But a closer approach caused the birds to arise in clouds,
as though a hurricane had again robbed the veteran of its
foliage.

Of the Diving or Sea Ducks, North America boasts some
superb species. The CanvasBack (WMarila valisneria), the
REDHEAD (MM. americana), the ScAup (M. marila) and the
Lesser Scaup (WM. affinis) are the best known. All are
easily kept if treated as already described. The Redhead
has been bred several times; the Canvasback was success-
fully reared for the first time on the estate of William
Rockefeller in 1915, but neither Scaup has yet nested in
captivity in this country.

Of the European divers, the Pocuarp (M. ferina), which
is intermediate in appearance between the Canvasback and
the Redhead, is the most common in captivity. The Turrep
Duck (WM. fuligula) is much like a Scaup, but entirely
black above and white below, with a well-developed, pendent
crest. The Wuite-EvE (M. nyroca) is one of the smallest
_ of divers, rich mahogany in color, the irides of the male
being pure white. This bird was bred in the New York
_ Zoodlogical Park in 1915 for the first time in America.

The Rosy-Bittep Duck (Metopiana peposaca), of south-
_ ern South America, is one of the handsomest of the divers.
The male is blackish above and gray and white below, in
_ Strong contrast to which is the brilliant pink beak. The

136 BIRDS

female is a somber brown, with dark beak. This bird is
indifferent to cold and lives well in confinement.

The Sheldrakes, as a group, are intermediate between
ducks and geese. They are birds of comparatively large
size, and spend much time in grazing, after the fashion of
geese. All of the species are exceedingly quarrelsome dur-
ing the breeding season, and must be watched closely to
prevent their killing weaker birds.

The Ruppy SHELDRAKE (Casarca casarca) is the best
known species. Both sexes are bright rufous in general
color, the male usually being distinguishable by his larger
size and a black ring about the neck. It is a hardy species
and not affected by cold. It has been bred frequently in
America.

The PARADISE or VARIEGATED SHELDRAKE (Casarca
variegata), of New Zealand, is not common in captivity in
this country. The male is handsomely colored, with black
head and neck, gray back, black tail, chestnut breast and
white wing coverts. The female is somewhat similar, but
has the head and neck pure white. This species breeds
freely in European collections, but is exceedingly pug-
nacious.

The ComMon EuroPEAN SHELDRAKE (Tadorna tadorna)
is a strikingly handsome bird, the sexes being marked alike
with contrasting patches of green, chestnut and white. Un-
_ fortunately, it is an exceedingly difficult bird to establish
in captivity, and cannot be induced to live for long in this
country.

Geese

The geese in general are even easier than ducks to keep
in health. Water is less essential for their needs, the chief
requirement being grazing ground. Geese of most species
spend more time on land than afloat, and in summer will

WATER-FOWL 137

nearly support themselves by eating grass. The same grain
supplied for ducks will satisfy geese, and a good supply of
green food during the winter months is a necessity.

Most of the species are very hardy and require no pro-
tection during the winter. Although living for years in
captivity, and keeping always in the best of condition, few
species, with the exception of the Canada Goose, breed well.

Geese are quite safe in mixed collections, unless inclined
to pair in the spring, when they may become dangerous to
their smaller neighbors.

The Canapa Goose (Branta canadensis) is the American
species most commonly seen in collections. It is one of the
few geese which breed well in captivity, and there is no
reason why it should not eventually become thoroughly
domesticated. It is much in vogue among propagators,
and large numbers are reared annually for stocking pur-
poses.

Like all wild geese, the Canada is strictly monogamous,
pairs remaining mated for many years. Nesting takes place
late in March or in April, according to weather conditions.
Three to seven eggs are laid, incubation lasting twenty-
eight to thirty days. The young are dirty yellowish when
hatched. If grazing is available, no food for the young
birds is necessary, as grass is all that is required for their
sustenance. Unlike ducks, geese are the best of parents, and
care for the young with the greatest solicitude. When
conditions are at all favorable, young Canada Geese, if
allowed to remain full-winged, will seldom permanently
leave their home.

Canada Geese are exceedingly quarrelsome during the
mating season. Pairs not only will refuse to allow others
to nest in their vicinity, but are most vindictive in the
destruction of the nests and sometimes also the nests of

birds of other species. This pugnacity may take curious

138 BIRDS

turns, a pair of birds in the New York Zodlogical Park
once having kidnapped the young of other pairs until they
had accumulated no less than eighteen goslings, all of
which they triumphantly reared!

Hutcuins Goose (B. canadensis hutchinsi) is a small
edition of the Canada Goose, and the CacKLING GoosE
(B. c. minima) is similar but still more diminutive.
Strangely enough, although obviously very closely allied to
the Canada Goose, neither of these birds has been bred
in captivity in America, although ne Hutchin, at least, has
reared young in Europe.

The various forms of the Brant (Branta bernicla) fall in
the same category. Three birds of the eastern subspecies,
all full-winged, have lived in the New York Zodlogical
Park for nearly fifteen years, but have never shown any
inclination to breed. The European Brant does not seem
difficult to breed in captivity on its native continent.

The three SNow GEEsE, the GREATER (Chen hyperborea
nivalis), the Lesser (C. h. hyperborea) and the Ross (C.
rossi), are pure white in color, with black primaries. They
differ from one another chiefly in size and other minor par-
ticulars. None of the forms has ever reared young in cap-
tivity in America, although there seems to be no great diffi-
culty about it in Europe. In 1912 the writer saw a pair of
Snow Geese, with three well-grown young, which they had
reared in a tiny paddock in the Zodlogical Gardens of
London.

The genus Auser includes the ancestors of our domestic
breeds, the Gray Lac Goose (Anser anser). This Euro-
pean species, although domesticated in remote ages, is a very
shy breeder in captivity. It has been bred at least once in
America, the eggs being rescued from the water, where they
had been dropped, and two goslings hatched and reared
by a hen.

Sp aS & oe

“ fie’ ‘3S

Photojraph by E. R Courtesy New York Zoological Society

Mallard Ducks

Photograph by E. R. Sanborn Courtesy New York Zoological Society

Mandarin Duck

WATER-FOWL 139

There are numerous other European species of Anser, the
most common being the BEAN Goose (A. fabilis) and the
PINK-FOOTED (A. brachyrhynchus). These birds are some-
what alike but easily distinguished by the yellow feet and
bill markings of the first-named, compared with pale pink
in the latter.

America has one representative of the group, the AMER-
ICAN WHITE-FRONTED Goose (A. albifrons gambeli). A
large flock of these birds has lived almost at liberty for a
number of years in the New York Zoological Park, but its
members have never shown any tendency to pair.

The UpLtanp GEEsE (Chloéphaga) are natives of south-
ern South America. Once fully acclimatized, they are
able to resist our coldest winters. All are handsome birds,
the best known species being the MAGELLAN (C. magel-

lanica), of which the male is white, with back pearl-gray

barred with black, as are the sides of the body. The female
is similarly marked, but with the ground color bright chest-
nut. This species is bred in some numbers in Europe.
The Crerropsis Goose (Cereopsis nove-hollandie), of
southern Australia and Tasmania, is becoming so rare that
collectors have to depend upon captivity-bred birds. It is
dark gray in color, with a few large, brownish spots. The
base of the short black beak is covered with a greenish cere.
The legs are red but the feet are black, giving the bird the
appearance of having recently walked in mud. This goose
is distinctly a grazing species, never entering the water if it
can be avoided. It is not sensitive to cold, but during the
winter must be well provided with green food, which forms
its chief sustenance. During the breeding season the male
is exceedingly pugnacious and powerful enough to kill a
Sandhill Crane. A pair in the New York Zoological Park
have reared young each year since 1910. The goslings are
prettily striped with black and white, and although they

140 BIRDS

feed mostly on grass, they can be taught to eat the food
recommended for ducklings.

The CHINESE GoosE (Cygnopsis cygnoides) has become
fully domesticated, and has given rise to distinct varieties,
one of which is pure white. The typical form is grayish-
brown in color, with a dark stripe down the back of the
neck. The beak is black, with a large, round knob at the
base, which is more conspicuous in the male. It is a
large bird and exceedingly noisy.

The Ecyptian Goose (Alopochen egyptiacus) is very
common in captivity, and breeds so readily that it may al-
most be said to have become domesticated. It is a hardy
and handsome bird, being in general reddish-chestnut above
and fawn below, with a chestnut patch on the abdomen, the
whole set off by the metallic black of wings and tail. Its
disposition, however, is so fierce and vindictive that it is
not safe in a mixed collection. The writer has known a
particularly savage male to kill an incubating Canada Goose
and a Black Swan, almost while the attendant’s back was
turned.

The Muscovy Duck (Cairina moschata) is in reality a
goose, and forms, with several allied species, one of the
suborders of that group. It has become perfectly domesti-
cated, and several color-varieties have arisen—pied, white
and lavender. — “

The typical wild bird which is found throughout tropical
America is very uncommon in captivity. It is pure black
in color, with the exception of the upper and under wing
coverts and axillaries, which are white. A pair of these
- birds, secured in Colombia, have bred in the New York
Zoological Park, the young being colored like their parents.

The Muscovy drake is much larger than his mate, often
doubling her weight. He is often savagely inclined, and
not always safe in mixed collections. Muscovies hybridize

WATER-FOWL 141

freely with domestic ducks, the offspring being invariably
sterile.

Swans

Because of their large size and undoubted grace, swans
have long held a premier position in the estimation of keep-
ers of water-fowl. All of the species are hardy, so far as
temperature is concerned, and easily kept. Almost more
than any other anserine bird, water is essential for the well-
being of swans. Perfectly at ease in their natural element,
few birds are more awkward or unlovely than a swan
- ashore.

Swans do best in a large body of water, well supplied
with aquatic plants. When these are not available, the birds
may condescend to go ashore and graze a bit, but are evi-
dently not happy while doing so. Adult birds may be fed
on the same grain provided for ducks, and will relish bread
crusts and Game Food, if thrown on the water. Green food
in some form must be provided in winter.

In many places where the severity of winter makes the
care of the birds difficult, it is customary to make temporary
enclosures of wire netting, by means of which the swans
may be confined to the most sheltered position. At this
season the males are less quarrelsome than during the spring,
and may be gathered together with safety.

Seven species of true swans are recognized, of which
five are white in color. The most abundant in captivity is
the Mute Swan (Olor olor). This is the common swan of
Europe, where it has been kept and bred in a semidomestic
condition for centuries. In England the feudal laws con-
cerning the ownership and rearing of these birds are still
observed to some extent.

The Mute Swan is a large bird, readily distinguished by
the reddish beak and black tubercle at the base. The male

142 BIRDS

is larger than the female, and generally has the tubercle
better developed. The feet of the common form are black,
but in a variety known as the Polish Swan, which appears
to have arisen by mutation, the feet are leaden gray. The
young of this bird are white when hatched, while those of
the typical Mute Swan are sooty gray.

These birds are bred in Europe with the greatest facility,
but it is only of very recent years that much success has been
attained in this country. Many have explained the failure
by the belief that the males were rendered sterile before
leaving Europe. Whatever the difficulty, it seems to have
been overcome, and Mute Swans are now being bred here
in some numbers.

At Belmar, New Jersey, a flock of nine birds has been
bred up to more than fifty in the last five years. The birds
are kept on a large lake in the center of the town. This
lake is well supplied with Anacharis, an aquatic plant of
rank growth. The original intention was that the swans
should prevent the overgrowth of this plant, which they
appear to be doing with great success. The birds nest
about the shores of the lake, not far removed from public
highways and entirely without shelter. The scene during
the breeding season is one calculated to stir the enthusiasm
of the most phlegmatic nature-lover.

Male swans are exceedingly pugnacious, particularly dur-
ing nesting time, and will not tolerate the presence of a
rival or another pair in the immediate vicinity. Even a
man must be on his guard when near the nest, for a blow
of the wing of a swan is not to be taken lightly.

The nest is built of sticks and rubbish and is a structure
of considerable size. The eggs number from three to seven,
and are greenish-white in color. Incubation occupies six
weeks, and the young of the typical form, as already men-
tioned, are sooty gray. If plenty of green food is avail-

WATER-FOWL 143

able, the young will be reared by the parents with little
difficulty. The ration may be eked out with bread crusts
and game food.

The sooty cygnets are of a similar color when feathers
are assumed, but the young of the Polish form are white in
the first plumage, as in the down. They are ready for
breeding when two years old.

America has two fine native species of swans, the
WuistLine (O. columbianus) and the TRUMPETER (JB.
buccinator). Both are distinguished from all other white
swans by their black beaks, and from each other chiefly by
the larger size of the Trumpeter and a yellow spot at the
base of the beak of the Whistler. The Trumpeter, unfortu-
nately, now is nearly extinct, and probably is so far reduced
that it cannot be resuscitated by propagation in confinement.
Both species have been bred in captivity. |

The Bewick Swan (O. bewicki) and the WHOOPING |
SWAN (O. cygnus) are European species. They are very
similar in appearance, the latter being distinguished by its
considerably larger size and the greater extent of the yellow
at the base of the bill, which runs down past the nostrils in
this species, but stops short of them in the Bewick. Both
species are occasionally offered for sale. They are hardy
and desirable, but are difficult to breed.

The BLACK-NECKED SWAN (0. melanocorphus ), of south-
ern South America, is the only species which appears to be
delicate in captivity. In Europe it presents no particular
difficulties and breeds readily and frequently. In America,
however, it is very difficult to establish. Once acclima-
tized, it is as resistant as any other, and lives well enough.
An abundance of green food is absolutely essential for
keeping this species in health. With its snowy body, black
neck and red beak, it is the handsomest of the swans, and it is
regrettable that it is not more easily kept.

144 BIRDS

In color, at least, the BLack Swan (Chenopsis atrata)
is contrary to all tradition, and its discovery in Australia,
in 1697, must have been a sad blow to lovers of proverbs.
Its somber, brownish-black plumage, set off with a coral
beak, is attractive, and in grace it far excels any of the
other species. The primary feathers are white and the
wing coverts are curiously curled.

This swan is a very free breeder, the greatest trouble
lying in the fact that the birds fail to change their calendar
when introduced into the Northern Hemisphere, and are
as likely to nest in January as any other time. They are
the best of parents, however, and frequently rear the cygnets
in spite of the greatest difficulties.

CHAPTER XIII
HAWKS AND OWLS

ALTHouGH the two groups are in no way related, the few
members of the great orders which include the Vultures,
Eagles and Hawks (AcCIPITRIFORMES) and the Owls
(STRIGIFORMES), that come within our field, are most con-
veniently treated together. Their feeding habits are similar
and their general treatment differs in no important points.
Both hawks.and owls, under suitable conditions, are inter-
esting and hardy in captivity. Their food, which is entirely
of an animal nature, is not complicated or difficult to pro-
cure. If kept in well-ventilated cages and conscientiously
cleaned, there is little or no odor, although, if neglected, this
factor may become very objectionable.

It may be noted here that in New York State, at least,
while all hawks are without the pale of the law, Horned
and Snowy Owls are the only members of their group which
legally may be kept in captivity.

Of the accipitrine birds, sg the hawks are commonly
kept by amateurs.

Hawks

Since the passing of the once popular sport of hawking,
which was practised in the most remote antiquity and is
still pursued in some localities, the attention of aviculturists
has been centered on other groups. Few make a point of
obtaining hawks, and such as are kept are only those which
have been secured by chance. Still, most of the species make
engaging pets and are easily kept if properly cared for.

Although one is likely to think of hawks as birds of the

145

146 , BIRDS

air, passing their time in describing lazy spirals, this im-
pression does not typify the general habit of most species.
Hawks, in reality, are mostly sedentary birds, passing more
time at rest than on the wing. In captivity the same rule
_ applies. A great space for flying is not required, and if it
is provided, will not be used to the extent imagined by the
fond owner. What is most essential to the well-being of
hawks is protection from draught and dampness, even if the
size of the enclosure be small.

The writer has seen hawks kept for many years in superb
condition in large open aviaries with no shelter whatever.
This, however, was in a mountainous district, where the
air, while very cold in winter, was perfectly dry. In humid
localities hawks do much better if kept in cages of moderate
size, tightly enclosed on all sides but the front. This in-
sures perfect safety from dampness and draught, which no
hawk can endure for long. It also induces steadiness, and
the bird is less likely to thrash about and injure itself than
when enclosed in an open cage.

As to feeding, one cannot go wrong if a natural diet is
followed. All hawks will eat small chickens and pigeons,
sparrows, rabbits, rats and mice. _It is seldom that a con-
stant supply of such food can be obtained, and resort to
meat must be had. In this case fresh, lean beef is prefer-
able. It should never be tainted or infiltrated with fat.
If it cannot be alternated with ‘fur and feather,” it should
be rolled in feathers or chopped tow, to provide material for
the pellet which is normally formed by birds of prey. Meat
should not be chopped, but given in a solid lump, which
the bird will tear for itself. Chicken heads, if fresh, are
an excellefit food, as is heart. Liver is a natural regulator
and is of value in cases of constipation or over-fatness,
conditions not rare in this group.

The great point to be observed in feeding birds of prey

HAWKS AND OWLS 147

is the avoidance of over-supply. To remain in good health
and condition, hawks must be keen at meal-time. ‘To insure
this, the food should be limited to just what the bird will
take readily at one feeding. At least once weekly a fast
should be observed, and no food whatever given. This,
of course, is in accordance with the natural habits of rap-
torial birds.

Hawks seldom drink, but occasionally do so. Many
species, however, are fond of bathing, and fresh, clean
water, in a receptacle of sufficient size for the ablutions of
the birds, should always be at hand.

Few hawks besides the native forms are to be had in this -
country. The genus Buteo, the members of which are
known collectively as “ hen-hawks,”’ offers the greatest num-
ber of species. The Rep-tTaiLep (B. borealis), the REp-
SHOULDERED (B. lineatus) and the Broap-wincep (B.
platypterus) are the best known. These birds feed chiefly
on small rodents, and their great economic value should
save them from the persecution to which they are commonly
subjected. In captivity they are uniformly quiet and docile,
and are easily tamed. They live longer than most other
hawks, but are especially susceptible to the effects of damp-
ness.

The Marso Hawk (Circus hudsonicus) belongs to the
great group of Harriers, which occupies an important posi-
tion in the fauna of the Old World. Wild-caught adults
are timid and nervous and seldom thrive. Hand-reared
young birds, however, become very tame, and if suitably
housed live very well.

Even more difficult are the bird-killing SHarp-sHIN (Ac-
cipiter velox) and Cooper Hawk (A. cooperi). These
birds are essentially wild and intractable, and the writer has
never known one of these, or their Old World allies, to live
in captivity for more than a short time. They are not keen

148 BIRDS

for rodents or meat, and can hardly be induced to take other
food than sparrows or small chickens.

Of all the hawks, the Fatcons (Falco) are the most
attractive. Naturally bold and fearless, their very courage
is the factor which brings them to accept readily the condi-
tions of captivity. The Duck Hawk (F. peregrinus
anatum) is the American representative of the European
Peregrine Falcon, the favorite of countless generations of
Old World hawkers. Courageous and powerful, it does not
fear its captor, and quickly becomes tame and gentle. It is
not to be trusted with weaker species, and should be given
quarters by itself. Natural food should be given as much
as possible.

The beautiful Waire or GREENLAND GyRFALCON (F.
candicans) is a rare visitor from the North, which we occa-
sionally see during severe winters. In temperament it
duplicates the Duck Hawk, but its snowy plumage and
greater size set it above its smaller rival. In the ancient
days of hawking, the various forms of Gyrfalcon occupied
the highest rank, great prices being paid for well-trained
birds. |

The AMERICAN SPARROW Hawk (F. sparverius) is the
pet of the group. Its handsome coloring and the perfect
tameness which it quickly acquires endear the bird to all
who have the opportunity to become its intimates. The
most desirable specimens are those taken from the nest and
hand-reared, but wild-caught adults are not long in assum-
ing an attractive friendliness. Sparrow Hawks are easily
taught to come to the hand and take meal worms from the
fingers. Their food should be well varied, and small birds,
mice and insects should form the greater part of it. Spar-
row hawks like a small box provided with a perch and
placed in a secluded corner, where they may retire when so
disposed. |

4
=
i)

a0

ao
=

3

~

Red

Snowy Owl

Iceland Gyrfalcon

HAWKS AND OWLS 49

Owls

While even less active than hawks, owls are rather more
satisfactory as captives, since most species are hardier and
have a much higher average longevity. While apparently
not so receptive of learning as the hawks, the apparent
defect is probably due to difference in habit rather than to
inferiority in intelligence. Although some of the larger
species are almost intractable, many become exceedingly ,
tame and make most charming pets.

The once common belief that owls are unable to see by
daylight has now become less general. Some species, such
as the Snowy Owl, habitually hunt by day and all are able
to make at least some use of their powers of vision, even
in bright sunlight. Owls are at their best during evening
and morning twilight, and it is then that they are most
active. !

Owls do well in enclosed cages, as described for hawks,
but as they are less inclined than hawks to dash about when
the cage is entered by the attendant, more open wirework is
permissible. Most owls like a retiring box provided with a
perch, though some species, as the Snowy Owl, will not
enter. This box should be provided with sawdust or
wood-pulp, if occupied by a pair of birds, as owls not infre-
quently breed in captivity. It is worth noting that a mated
pair, or an uncommonly savage individual, may destroy
cage-mates. Such birds should be watched for and
removed.

The feeding of owls is similar to that of hawks, with the
exception that it is best done in the evening, so that the birds
will eat before the food has been too long in the cage. Owls
should be dieted and fasted as advised for hawks.

The owls most usually seen in captivity in the United
States are specimens of the various forms of the ScREECH

150 BIRDS

Ow. (Otus). The eastern bird (O. asio asio) is very
abundant, even within the limits of great cities. The two-
color phases—red and gray—are not uncommon among
owls, and have no connection with age or sex. Screech
owls are vigorous little creatures, indifferent to cold if shel-
tered, and under suitable conditions will live in captivity
for long periods.

The BarrepD OwL (Strix varia) is found throughout
eastern North America, with the exception of the extreme
southeast portion. It is the commonest of the large owls,
and is abundant even near New York City. It is docile
and long-lived in confinement, and a number of specimens
may be kept together with perfect safety.

The Snowy Ow t (Nyctea nyctea) is at home in the tree-
less regions of the Arctics, where it feeds on ptarmigan,
water-fowl and rodents. It descends to the United States
periodically, usually during severe winters. Females and
young are generally heavily marked with black, but males
are lighter, some specimens being nearly pure white. This
owl does not perch, preferring to sit on the ground, or on a
flat stone. It is a very satisfactory species in captivity,
but must be protected from severe heat during the sum-
mer months.

The most difficult of owls to keep in captivity are the
LONG-EARED (Asio wilsonianus) and the SHORT-EARED (A.
flammeus). The former, especially, is very delicate. These
owls must have an abundance of natural food if there is to
be any hope of keeping them.

The Hornep or EacLte Owns (Bubo) are represented
in America by the numerous forms of B. virginianus. The
Great Horned Owl of the eastern states is too well known
as a raider of poultry roosts to need any description. It
seldom becomes tame in captivity, but lives well, as do most
of the members of its genus. It is exceedingly fierce in

HAWKS AND OWLS 151

disposition, and may not safely be associated with smaller
species.

The Barn Ow. (Aluco pratincola) is typically a bird of
warm climates, ranging from central New York southward
to Mexico. It is not a common species in the northern por-
tion of its range, and its discovery or capture always excites
the curiosity of the neighborhood. Its curious facial ap-
pearance has given rise to the name “ Monkey-faced Owl.”
It does well in captivity, but must have fairly warm quar-
ters in winter.

CHAPTER XIV;
PARROTS

AFTER the canary, the members of the various groups of
the order of parrots (PsITTACIFORMES) are kept as pets
more frequently than any other birds. The faculty of
imitating the human voice, which most parrots possess in
some degree, exercises a fascination which few can resist.
That they are, in the main, extraordinarily hardy birds is
evidenced by the frequency with which, in spite of all man-
ner of dietary abuse, they are seen in captivity. There are
records of parrots living in confinement for periods up to
ninety-odd years. Twenty-five to thirty-five years may be
considered as a fair average longevity.

Three families are represented by the species which may
be considered as suitable for cage birds: Lories (Lortm2z),
Cockatoos (CacaTuip#@) and that which includes the
Macaws, Parrakeets; Amazon and Gray Parrots and Love-
birds (Psitracip#). As food and treatment vary con-
siderably in each case, each group will be considered sepa-
rately.

Lories and Lorikeets

These birds, while the loveliest of parrots, are, unfortu-
nately, likewise the most delicate. Their tongues are finely
divided and brush-like at the tip, as an adaptation to their
habit of feeding on the pollen of flowers. Their beaks,
while less powerful than those of other parrots, are still
strong enough to crush small seeds, or, if necessary, to
inflict very severe bites.

Lories quickly become delightfully tame, and are ex-

152

PARROTS | 153

ceedingly playful, performing antics much like those of a
happy kitten. They will live in an ordinary parrot cage, but
do best in a roomy aviary where their sportive instincts may
be given full play. Like most parrots, they nest in hollow
trees, and if suitable boxes and logs are provided, may
occasionally lay eggs and rear their young, but success is
not common. Although all of the species come from the
East Indies, Australia or New Guinea, many are able to
live through the coldest winters in unheated aviaries.

Lories occasionally learn to speak a few simple words,
but cannot be considered good talkers.

One of the greatest drawbacks to the keeping of lories
is the fact that dealers almost invariably feed them on seed
only. Many species will thrive for a time on this ill-
considered diet, but death from fits is certain to follow,
sooner or later. When birds thus fed are received, they
must be brought gradually to eat suitable food, for after
having had seed for a long period, they frequently are
reluctant to change.

The staple food of lories and lorikeets should be one of
the various forms of “milksop.” The mixture is best
made with sweetened condensed milk, diluted with boiling
water, as the keeping qualities of this preparation excel
those of fresh milk. The milk, while hot, should be poured
over biscuit or sponge-cake known to be free from harm-
ful ingredients. In the New York Zodlogical Park, whole-
wheat zweiback is used with very satisfactory results. Soft,
ripe fruit, such as bananas, pears and grapes, as well as
stewed apples and pears, should be furnished daily, as well
as fresh green food when obtainable. Most species will eat
a small amount of seed, preferably canary, millet or oats.
Lories enjoy bathing, and water should always be avail-
able.

The tails of the lories proper are comparatively broad and

154 BIRDS

rounded at the ends; those of the lorikeets are long and .
sharp-pointed. Of the former, the CuatTTErinGc Lory
(Lorius garrulus) and the YELLow-BACKED (L. flavopal-
liatus) are most commonly seen. Both are, in the main,
deep red with green wings. The latter has a yellow patch
in the center of the back. The PurPLEe-caprep Lory (L.
domicella) is somewhat similar, but has the head black,
shading to purple on the nape, and a yellow pectoral band.

The lorikeet most abundant in captivity is the BLUE
MountTAIN or Swainson’s (Trichoglossus nove-hol-
landieé), which frequently reaches this country in large lots.
The birds invariably arrive in perfect condition, but drop
off alarmingly if kept on the seed diet. It is a beautiful
species, green above, with head and abdomen blue, a yellow
band on the nape and a wide zone of reddish-orange across
the breast. There are a number of similar, closely related
birds, the best known of which is the REp-coLLARED LoRI-
KEET (T. rubritorques), easily distinguished by the deep
orange nuchal band.

The SCALY-BREASTED LoRIKEET (Psitieuteles chlorolepi-
dotus) is one of the most satisfactory species in captivity.
It will live for a long time on seed and fruit alone, although,
of course, a liquid diet suits it much better. It is less ornate
than most, being green above, with the breast feathers yel-
low edged with green; the under wing coverts are red.

Cockatoos

The cockatoos are a fairly homogenous group, easily dis-
tinguished at a glance from other parrots. All of the
species are crested, and the beak is usually thick and deep.
White plumage is very prevalent among them, and solid
black, an unusual color among parrots, is found as well.

Their range is much the same as that of the lories.

PARROTS 155

Many of the species are absolutely hardy and can with-
stand the lowest temperatures with little or no shelter. This
is especially true of the Sulphur-crested, Roseate, Slender-
billed and Bare-eyed Cockatoos, and the Cockateel.

Hand-reared cockatoos make excellent pets, but usually
have a most annoying habit of screaming loudly and harshly.
They often pick up a few words, and'some individuals make
very fair talkers. It is of interest to note that the sexes
of many species of cockatoos may be distinguished by
the color of the iris, which is dark in males and light reddish
in females.

Although, being short-tailed, cockatoos will keep in very
good condition in a roomy cage, the larger species are much
better off on stands. If given the privilege of space, they
will derive much benefit, and occasion some amusement to
the owner as well, by their clownish antics—throwing
up the crest, spreading the wings and swinging inverted
from the perch.

Cockatoos should be given a mixture of sunflower and
hemp seeds, oats, wheat, dari and a little canary, the in-
gredients being varied as opportunity permits. Peanuts are
welcome and beneficial, as well as ripe fruit, green food,
peas in the pod, green corn and an occasional dry biscuit.
Thoroughly boiled whole corn is relished by all parrots as
a tidbit and is an excellent diet for a bird that is out of
sorts. It must not be used too extensively for healthy
adult birds, as it is very fattening in character. Pure water
only should be provided for drinking and bathing. Aside
from these items, nothing should be given to cockatoos or
parrots. Meat, bones, tea, coffee, candy, cake, etc., should
be especially avoided. Indulgence in such matters is the
basis for most of the troubles to which captive parrots are
subject.

The SuLPHuUR-cCRESTED Cockatoo (Cacatua galerita), of

156 BIRDS

Australia and Tasmania, is the best known species. It is
white in plumage, with a long, narrow, yellow crest, and
a tinge of the same shade in the tail feathers. Great quan-
tities of adult birds are netted in Australia, and these form
the bulk of the shipments which reach this country. Such
birds are exceedingly wild and intractable, and become tame
only after the most persistent efforts on the part of the
owner. Young, hand-reared birds occasionally are seen,
and such specimens should be sought for.

The Rep-cresteD Cockatoo (C. moluccensis), of Ceram,
is the finest of all. It is a large bird, rose-tinted white in
color, with the longer feathers of the full crest bright
vermilion. It is not common in captivity, but the few speci-
mens seen. are invariably hand-reared and enchantingly
tame.

The Great Waite Cockatoo (C. alba) is similar to the
foregoing, but is slightly smaller and white in color, with
the exception of an infusion of yellow in the wings and
tail. The crest is longer than in the Red-crested. It is a
native of the Molucca Islands.

The LEADBEATER Cockatoo (C. leadbeateri) is an Aus-
tralian bird. It is exceedingly handsome, being white above,
with the head, neck and underparts strongly suffused with
rosy pink. The crest is white at the tip and reddish at the
base, with an intermediate band of yellow. When thrown
up in display, the effect is very attractive.

The RosEaTeE or “ Rosa” Cockatoo (C. roseicapilla) is
the only common species which is not white in the main. It
is a really lovely bird, pale gray above with the crown pink-
ish-white, while the neck, breast and underparts are deep
rose. It is very abundant in Australia, where it is known
as the Galah, and is shipped in large numbers by the catch-
ers. Specimens offered by dealers are invariably very wild
and are difficult to tame. Although it is one of the poorest

PARROTS | 157

speakers among the cockatoos, it is sometimes sold by the
unscrupulous as a “ gray parrot.”

The CocKATEEL (Calopsititacus nove-hollandie) is to the
cockatoos as the parrakeets are to the parrots proper. Both
sexes are ashy gray above, with white wing patch. The
cock has the crest and face bright yellow, with an orange
cheek patch; these markings are much duller in the female.
It is a pretty, hardy bird, and individuals reared from
the nest occasionally learn to speak a few words. It breeds
freely if given its liberty in an aviary, nesting in prepared
logs or other artificial receptacles.

Macaws

The macaws are the largest, and perhaps the gaudiest of
the parrot tribe. Certainly they are the noisiest, the softest
sound of which they are capable being a harsh rumble, and
their loudest terrific beyond description. The writer has
seen wild macaws on early tropic mornings, with their bril-
liant plumage reflecting the first rays of the sun across the
treetops. Under such conditions, as they flew along the
silent waterways, their notes had decided charm. But
within the confines of a room the shriek of a macaw is not
a pleasant sound.

Because of their long tails and their incurable habit of
climbing wires, macaws are best kept on stands or on swing-
ing perches. A light, strong steel band around one leg with
a short chain, attached to a swivel and a sliding ring, are
all that need confine the bird. These attachments, as well
as the receptacles for food and water, must be strong and
securely fastened, to withstand the persistent attacks of the
powerful beak.

Macaws should be fed as recommended for cockatoos.

Most of the macaws which reach us have been reared

158 BIRDS

from the nest by natives. These birds are reasonably tame,
and often make fair talkers. Macaws are seldom to be
trusted, however, and their strong, heavy beaks are dan-
gerous weapons.

There are about twenty species of macaws, of which only
a few are generally seen in captivity.

The Rep AND BLUE Macaw (Ara macao) and the BLUE
AND YELLOW (A. ararauna) are the most common. The
former is bright red in color, with green-tipped, yellow
wing coverts and blue primaries. The latter is deep blue
above, with bright yellow underparts. Both species are
found from Central America to northern South America.

The GREEN-WINGED Macaw (A. chloroptera) somewhat
resembles the Red and Blue, but is considerably larger,
with a heavier beak. It is a darker red, and has no yellow
in the wing coverts, which are mostly green. Its range
approximates that of the preceding.

The Minitary Macaw (A. militaris) is mostly bright
green, with a red frontal patch. It is somewhat smaller
than those already mentioned and is less common. It is
found from Mexico to Peru.

The most charming of all macaws are the blue species,
of the genus Anodorhynchus. ‘There are three forms, of
which the least uncommon, as well as the finest, is the
HYACINTHINE (A. hyacinthinus). This is a huge creature,
nearly three feet in length, with a great hooked beak and of
a deep cobalt blue, with the base of the lower mandible as
well as the eye-rings yellow. This is an intelligent bird,
very tame and confiding with those it knows and trusts, but
decidedly averse to strangers. All of the species have
rather obscure origins in central Brazil, and consequently
are always rare and high in price.

Green-winged Macaw (above)
Lesser Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (below)

PARROTS : Se

Parrots

Of the parrots proper, there are something over one
hundred species, found in Mexico, Central and South
America, the United States, Africa and Madagascar. Al-
though brilliant coloration is not the rule, it is among these
birds that the finest talkers occur. |

Parrots are usually kept caged, close confinement ap-
parently not in the least affecting their health. The cage
should be roomy enough to permit some exercise. The
largest and strongest cages are usually those made of brass,
but the danger of poisoning from corrosion is always pres-
ent. For this reason, if for no other, tinned or galvanized
wire is preferable. As many perches as the size of the cage
will permit may be used. Many birds have a habit of
chewing the perches, which may be lessened to some extent
by providing bits of soft wood for the working off of
energy.

Food and water receptacles generally are made removable
from without, a fortunate provision when the inmate must
be cared for by a timid or unfamiliar person.

A removable tray, which should be kept covered with clean
sand or fine gravel, facilitates the removal of refuse. Par-
rots swallow a considerable number of small stones, which
are required for proper digestion of the food. ©

The food of adult parrots should be much the same as
that recommended for cockatoos. It is customary in this
country to feed parrots very heavily on sunflower and
hemp. It should be borne in mind, however, that both these
seeds, particularly the latter, have a very heating and fat-
tening effect. They should by all means be strongly diluted
with oats, dari and canary seeds. Nuts, ripe fruits and
green food may be supplied freely. As already stated, tea,
coffee, meat, sweets, etc., must never be given.

160 BIRDS

Few parrots will bathe, but should be allowed to if they
will. Otherwise the plumage should occasionally be sprayed
with tepid water.

There is a curious superstition existent among parrot-
keepers, to the effect that these birds not only require no
water, but are better off without it. The foundation for
this absurd belief is not hard to find. When parrots, par-
ticularly young birds, are being brought from the tropics,
they are customarily fed on boiled corn or bread and milk.
What moisture they require is obtained from the food. If
such birds are suddenly given access to unlimited water, the
effect on the digestive organs is dangerous, and may result
in the death of the bird. On the other hand, if the parrot
be given a drink daily, and then the water be removed for
a short period, the bird will gradually become accustomed
to it. Once this is accomplished, there is nothing to fear
from clean water.

Parrots of two types of disposition are seen in the New
York bird market. There are wild, vicious individuals,
caught while adult and almost untamable. Such birds should
be avoided, no matter how low the price may be. The ma-
jority of arrivals, however, are young, tame, hand-reared
birds, very gentle and affectionate. A bird of this sort
makes an interesting, clever pet, and if it is of one of the
better-talking species, will learn quickly.

These young parrots, as already stated, generally are
brought to New York on softened food. It is necessary,
therefore, to continue this diet for a time, bringing the bird
to hard seed little by little. The same course is necessary
with the drinking water.

Teaching a parrot to talk is not the difficult matter it com-
monly is supposed to be. If the bird is young and tame, it
will learn very quickly. It should be confined by itself,
beyond the sight and sound of others, and its cage some-

PARROTS 161

what darkened. Under such conditions, it will not be long
in learning oft-repeated sounds. Short, simple words should
be taken first, and the same one reiterated, until it has been
thoroughly mastered by the bird, before another is taken
up. The art of learning is acquired as the parrot grows
older, so that accomplished birds are able to repeat fairly
long sentences with very little instruction. In training a
parrot one must not forget that one will have to endure the
constant repetition of whatever the bird is taught. Reflec-
tion on this point may have some effect on the selection of
phrases, and the usual banal remarks of parrots may be
avoided.

While it is not at all uncommon for a cherished family
pet suddenly to astound its owners by producing an egg, it is
most unusual for these birds to breed in captivity. In fact,
while the Gray Parrot has been bred, there seems to be no
record of this event in the case of any Amazon. Parrots
nest normally in hollow logs, and there is no reason to doubt
that, in a large aviary suitably fitted up, the feat Ae be
accomplished.

The Gray Parrot (Psittacus erythacus), of western and
central Africa, is the parrot par excellence. It is attractively
colored—soft gray with red tail—and quickly becomes an
accomplished talker. It is also a clever mimic, and excels
other parrots as a whistler.

Individuals with red feathers scattered through the
plumage occasionally are seen. Such birds are known as
“kings ” and are credited with a superior degree of in-
telligence which is, of course, purely mythical. It appears
to be less hardy than Amazons when it comes to enduring
dietary abuse, and wrong feeding will quickly upset it.
Although it is imported in considerable numbers, the mor-
tality is generally very high among freshly arrived birds,
many being infected with psittacosis. Severe losses are be-

162 BIRDS

ginning to discourage dealers, so that importations of these
birds are yearly becoming less.

Unlike most parrots, the Gray is not difficult to sex. The
female i$ generally smaller than the male, and the bare
patch around the eye is rounded posteriorly in the former,
but ends in a point in the sterner sex.

Of the green Amazon Parrots, there are about forty-five
known forms, but few of which are usually to be had
from dealers. All of the common species are mostly green,
with wings and tails variously marked with red, blue and
yellow. It is the markings of the head, however, that are
most characteristic, and as the following descriptions are
for the purpose of identification only, we shall confine them
to those parts.

The YELLOW-HEADED AMAZON, or “ DouBLE YELLOW-
HEAD” (Amazona oratrix), of Mexico, is the most popu-
lar species. As implied by the name, the green plumage is
enlivened by a head of pale yellow. The beak is white. The
yellow is less extensive in young birds, covering a greater
expanse as the parrot becomes adult. Parrots of this species
become excellent talkers and also learn songs, their voices
being particularly adapted to this form of vocal expression.

The YELLOW-FRONTED AMAZON, or “ SINGLE YELLOW-
HEAD” (A. ochrocephala), is somewhat smaller than the
preceding, and has the yellow confined to the forehead only.
The bill is blackish when adult, with base of the upper
mandible fleshy-colored. It is found in northern South
America. It is commonly imported, and makes a very
good talker. The PANAMA AMAZON (A. panamensis) is
very similar, but has the bill white throughout. These
species often are not distinguished in the trade.

The GOLDEN-NAPED AMAZON (A. auripalliata) ranges
from western Mexico to Costa Rica. It is a large bird,
with a yellow patch on the nape, which is wanting in im-

aks ees

PARROTS 163

mature specimens. The Golden-nape is a clever pupil, and
pushes the Yellow-head closely in the question of superior-
ity. This species is now imported more frequently than
in former years.

The BLUE-FRONTED AMAZON (A. @stiva) is green, like
its congeners, with blue forehead and yellow face and throat,
while the wings and tail are further diversified with red
and blue. It is found from central Brazil to Argentina.
This is a handsome, hardy species, very abundant in the
New York market, but as a linguist not supposed to rank
with the foregoing forms. |

The WHITE-FRONTED or CuBAN Amazon (A. leuco-
cephala) was at one time the commonest parrot among
dealers. Recently, however, its exportation from Cuba has
been prohibited, so that is becoming uncommon. Some
individuals make fairly good speakers, but the species can-
not be considered as one of the best. Like most Amazons,
it is green in general, with a white forehead, bordered on
the crown with red, which extends to the cheeks and
throat.

The GREEN-CHEEKED AMAZON (A. viridigena), a Mexi-
can species, was once so uncommon here as to be a rarity.
Of late, however, it has been imported more freely, at times
being the most abundant parrot in the market. Linguisti-
cally, it is one of the least gifted, and has not become popu-
lar. It is smaller than most Amazons and mostly green in
color, with the cheeks of a brighter shade and the forepart of
the head red.

Parrakeets and Love-birds
a
T: \vrakeets are included in a number of subfamilies,
diffe , \9om each other sufficiently for a bird to be as-

signe . (it, even though its species may not be recog-

164 BIRDS

nized. There are three important groups: the Broad-tails
and Grass Parrakeets of the Australian region, the Ring-
necks and allied species and the American forms. The
characters which distinguish parrakeets from parrots are
more or less arbitrary, but the possession of a long tail,
whether pointed or rounded, is the most prominent char-
acter.

The American Conures and Parrakeets (CoNuURINZz)
make good cage birds, as most of the specimens which reach
us are hand-reared and tame. It isnot uncommon for them
to learn to speak a few words.

The cage should be of metal and large enough to provide
room for the inmates. A number of the species have reared
their young in captivity, but they must have the run of an
aviary for this purpose. They nest in hollow logs, as do
other birds of this order.

The food should consist principally of oats, canary and
millet, with the addition of a small quantity of sunflower
and hemp. Green food and fruit should be furnished, as
well as water for drinking and bathing, a privilege of which
many parrakeets will avail themselves.

The best known species are the Conures (Conurus), of
which about thirty forms are known. All are characterized
by the possession of long, pointed tails. Many are uncom-
mon or rare, only a very few being abundant in the market
here.

Three closely allied species are seen in about equal por-
tions, and divide the honors of popularity. These are the
Aztec ConureE (C. azteca), of Central America, the Cac-
tus ConurE (C. cactorum), of southeast Brazil, and the
BROWN-THROATED CoNuRE (C. @ruginosus), of orthern
South America. All are green above, with br’ n faces
and throats. The Aztec and Brown-throated ar ry simi-
lar, but easily distinguished by the yellow rin und the

PARROTS 165

eye of the latter. The Cactus has the brown throat of a
paler and softer shade and the underparts pale yellow.
These are among the smallest of the conures, measuring
about eight or nine inches. All make ideal pets, being hardy,
tame, affectionate and amusing.

The GoLDEN-CROWNED ConurRE (C. aureus), of South
America, is occasionally imported in some numbers. It isa
larger bird than the foregoing, green, with forehead and eye-
ring orange and the breast olive. It is a handsome species
and lives well, but most of those seen here are wild-caught
and do not readily become tame.

The BLACK-HEADED CoNvuRE (C. nanday), of Paraguay,
has always been a rare bird in this country. During the past
two or three years, however, there have been heavier im-
portations of this species, so that it is now more often to be
obtained. It is a large bird, reaching a length of twelve
inches. It is green above, with brownish-black head. The
lower throat and much of the wing is blue, while the thighs
are red. Most of the birds offered here are wild-caught
adults, but tame individuals are sometimes seen, which make
charming pets.

There are many other handsome members of this group,
but none is obtainable with a frequency sufficient to war-
rant its inclusion here.

The Tovi ParrAKEET or “ BEEBEE” (Brotogerys jugu-
laris), of Mexico and Central America, is imported in
greater numbers than is any other American parrakeet. It
is a small bird, not much over six inches in length, mostly
dark green, with a small orange spot on the chin. When
thoroughly tame, as most specimens quickly become, it is a
delightful pet. Although a pair will live together in friendly
fashion, and evince every evidence of willingness to breed,
there is no authentic record of this feat having been accom-

plished,

166 BIRDS

The BLUE-WINGED or PASSERINE PaRROTLET (Psittacula *
passerina), a native of Brazil, is among the smallest of the
parrot family, not exceeding five inches in length, including
the stumpy tail. The male is bright green, with the rump
and much of the wing bright blue, the latter color being
lacking in the female. Because of the affectionate nature
of mated pairs, this bird has come to be known as a love-
bird, although it is not closely related to those birds, which
occur only in Africa, and have rounded instead of pointed
tail feathers. These tiny creatures frequently become very
tame, and are not at all difficult to breed, even in a small
cage, if a suitable box or husk is provided. The chief food
should be canary, millet and oats.

The GRAY-BREASTED Or QUAKER PARRAKEET (Myopsit-
tacus monachus), of southern South America, is the only
bird of the parrot tribe which actually constructs its own
nest. The true love-birds carry bits of bark and other soft
material for lining their chosen cavity, but the Gray-
breasted builds itself a huge, strongly constructed domed
nest, of stout twigs, carefully interwoven. This bird is
about a foot in length and light green in color, with the face
and breast soft gray. It is often to be had, and has been
bred in this country by at least one aviculturist.

The Ring-necked Parrakeets and their allies (PALZor-
NITHIDZ) are confined to the Old World. As a group
they are not noted for their talking abilities, but the true
Ring-necks often are talented speakers, and have a special
bent for performing tricks. These birds are freer breeders
than conures, and many species have been bred in captivity.
Their feeding and general care do not differ from that
described for the preceding group.

The Ring-necked Parrakeets (Palgornis) include about
twenty-five species, their center of distribution lying in
southern Asia. The best known species is the INDIAN _

Gray Parrot

4 A
awe
7 A ie: ty
j
J x x3
lie

PARROTS | 167

RING-NECKED PARRAKEET (P. torquata). It is about six-
teen inches long, including the narrow, tapering tail. The
male is green in general, with a rosy collar on the hind neck,
each extremity meeting a black band which passes backward
from the base of the lower mandible. A second black band
joins the eye and nostril. The female is somewhat smaller
and lacks the head markings. This is a freely imported
species, and frequently learns to speak. It is easily bred, if
given an aviary of good size.

The InNpIAN RING or ALEXANDRINE PARRAKEET (P.
nepalensis) is the giant of the genus, measuring about
twenty inches. Its markings are very similar to those of
the preceding species, with the addition of a large, rosy
patch on the wing coverts. This, or one of three other
closely allied forms, is believed to be the bird brought to
Europe by Alexander the Great, in the third century, B.c.

The BANDED PARRAKEET (P. fasciata) has a wide range
in southern and central Asia. It is mostly green, with gray
head, vinaceous chest and yellowish-green wing patches. It
has the black cheek and face stripes of the foregoing species,
but the nuchal collar is green instead*of rosy in the male.
The upper mandible is red and the lower black, but the
entire beak is black in the female. This bird is commonly
confused with the very similar JAVAN PARRAKEET (P. alex-
andri), which is distinguished by having both mandibles
red, in both male and female.

Neither of these birds is active or intelligent in captivity,
and in this country both seem difficult to acclimatize.

The BLossoM-HEADED PARRAKEET (P. cyanocephala) is
found in India and Ceylon. The male is of the usual green
shade, with black mandibular stripes. The entire head is
* a rich plum red, and there is a small red mark on the wing
coverts. The female is smaller and duller and lacks the
red wing patch. Although not imported as frequently as

168 BIRDS

some, this bird is not uncommon here. Like most of its
congeners, it is hardy and long-lived.

The Kine ParRAKEET (Aprosmictus cyanopygius), of
Australia, although not at all a common bird, still is to be
had occasionally. For dazzling beauty, coupled with ex-
treme longevity, it has hardly an equal among parrakeets.
The adult male has the upper parts green, with the wings
deep blue, while the entire head, neck and underparts are
brilliant scarlet. The female has the red confined to the
abdomen and sides. This is a quiet, phlegmatic bird, much
given to sedentary habits. In spite of the lack of exercise,
however, it has a never-failing appetite, the gratification of
which does not seem to have the ill effect on the digestive
system common to inactive birds.

Of the true love-birds (Agapornis), there are ten known
species, all found in Africa or the neighboring islands. Be-
cause of the inaccessibility of the habitat of most of the
forms, only five species have reached the hands of avicul-
turists, and one, the Abyssinian (A. taranta), is so rare
as to be negligible. A short, black-banded tail, consisting
of feathers with rounded tips, characterizes all of the species.
They are thus easily distinguished from the New World
Parrotlets and the Australian Grass Parrakeets or Budgeri-
gars, which are commonly miscalled love-birds.

Mated birds exhibit the strongest affection for each other,
which has given rise to their popular name. It is not true,
of course, that in case of the death of one the mate will pine
and die. But this legend is often given strength by the
fact that the cause which brought about the death of one
bird is very likely to have a similar effect on the survivor.

Love-birds are commonly kept as cage birds, and once
acclimated, most species live very well. In an aviary, how-
ever, they are at their best, since most individuals are too
wild for cage life.

PARROTS — 169

The Gray-headed and Black-cheeked, at least, are free
breeders, the best receptacle being a box about 6” x 8", with
a suitable entrance hole. Besides the Gray-breasted Par-
rakeet, the love-birds are the only parrots known to carry
nesting material. In this case the lining only is provided.
The favorite material is the bark of fresh twigs, which is
shredded off and carried to the nest, tucked among the upper
tail coverts.

Love-birds may be fed on the usual small seeds, with
plenty of green food.

The Gray-headed and Black-cheeked are perfectly hardy,
and entirely unaffected by cold, if given shelter from wind
and storms.

The commonest species is the GRAY-HEADED or MADAGAS-
CAR LovE-BIRD (A. cana). This bird is a native of Mada-
gascar, but has been introduced to neighboring islands. The
cock is green, with gray head, the latter color being lacking
in his mate. This bird is imported in considerable num-
bers and is one of the commonest of cage birds.

Before April, 1908, the BLACK-CHEEKED LovE-BIRD (A.
nigrigenis) was unknown in captivity, and the five birds
which arrived then ‘caused a sensation. The situation, how-
ever, was quickly altered, for in January, 1909, great quan-
tities were received in London. Since then this bird has
become very popular because of its handsome appearance
and the readiness with which it breeds. It is green in the
main, with brown crown, brownish-black cheeks, orange
throat and red bill. There seems to be no reliable index of
the sexes.

The Rep-racep Love-sirp (A. pullaria), of West
Africa, although once a very common cage bird, is now
seen with increasing infrequency. It is less hardy than the

other species, inclined to be nervous if closely caged, and
is a very shy breeder.

170 BIRDS

The PeAcH- or Rosy-FAceD Love-Birp (A. roseicollis),
of South Africa, is considerably larger than the foregoing.
It has never been a common bird, but quite recently there
have been fairly numerous arrivals. It is a beautiful bird,
soft green above, with red forehead and rosy cheeks and
breast. The rump is bright blue and the tail variegated with
red, green, black and blue. In the female the color on the
breast is less extended.

The Broad-tailed Parrakeets and their allies (PLATYCER-
CIN@) include many beautiful species, the majority of
which, although common enough in Europe, are seldom
seen here. The subfamily is confined to the Australian
region. ‘4
_ Although most of these birds will become tame if caged,
and some even make very good pets, they are much better
off in a capacious aviary, where their active habits may be
given full sway. Under such conditions, many of the
species are free breeders, but each pair must be separately
confined. Nesting logs or boxes of good size should be
provided. Most Broad-tails are absolutely hardy, being
able to endure the coldest weather if provided with some
shelter. Their feeding does not differ from that of other
parrakeets.

The Broad-tails proper form the. genus Platycercus, in-
cluding some sixteen species, all found in Australia. They
are characterized by having the feathers of the back black-
centered, giving a scaly appearance, and all have a long,
wide tail.

The RosELLA PARRAKEET (P. eximius) is the best known
species. The head and breast are red, with white cheek
patches; the black back feathers have broad, yellow-green
borders, while the wing coverts are blue. The tail feathers
are blue, green and white. As in its congeners, the sexes
are similar, but distinguishable by the smaller head and

a “>
Sa

PARROTS 171

beak of the female. This bird is imported freely, and, once
established, is very long-lived.

The PALE-HEADED or MEAty Rosetta (P. pallidiceps)
has much the same pattern as the preceding, but the red
of the head and breast is replaced by yellow, which color
also borders the feathers of the back. It is not so commonly
seen as its relatives, but is often to be had.

The PENNANT PARRAKEET (P. elegans) is a really lovely
bird. It is bright red in general, with blue cheek patches
and wing coverts; the feathers of the back are black with
crimson edges and the tail is blue. The plumage of the
young birds is greenish, with the blue cheeks and wing
coverts, the red appearing in patches. This beautiful species
is perfectly hardy, and indifferent to cold once established.
Unfortunately, a great percentage of the birds received here
are infected with psittacosis, or badly infested with worms
in the digestive tract, which makes their acclimatization a
difficult matter.

The only remaining member of this subfamily which
reaches us in sufficient numbers to be regularly obtainable
is the UNDULATED GRASS PARRAKEET, or BUDGERIGAR
(Melopsittacus undulatus), the “ Shell Parrakeet ’’ of deal-
ers. This little bird has become thoroughly domesticated
and is bred in great numbers. It is one of the most common
of cage birds and frequently is miscalled love-bird.

The typical form is green, the feathers of the upper parts
being narrowly tipped with black. The forehead, cheeks
and throat are yellow, with a short band of blue and three
round, black dots on each cheek. The tail is long and nar-
row and blue in color. The sexes are similar, but may be
known by the blue nostril and ceres of the male, as com-
pared with the brown ones of the female. Continued breed-
ing in captivity has produced a yellow variety which, when
properly colored, is a very handsome bird. It is now almost

172 BIRDS

as common as the green form. Some twenty-five or thirty
years ago a blue variety appeared, but quickly died out. In
November, 1910, three birds of this color were exhibited at
a bird show in London by a Belgian aviculturist, who is
stated to have secured them in France. For a few years
following the reappearance of the lost variety a great effort
was made to perpetuate it. Despite all, however, it has
gradually decreased in numbers, and seems to be about to
disappear for the second time.

The three color phases of the Grass Parrakeet are par-
ticularly interesting because of the splitting up of the typical
green into its components, blue and yellow.

The Grass Parrakeet is a hardy species, being indifferent
to cold if well sheltered. It breeds freely, often in the con-
fines of a cage. If turned into a fair-sized aviary, young
birds in considerable numbers may be expected. Several
pairs will breed together in perfect equanimity, if there
are a sufficient number of nesting boxes. There should be
about six inches in each dimension, with an entrance hole
about one and one-half inches in diameter in one side, near
the top. A perch should be attached outside, and the bottom
of the box must be slightly scooped out, to keep the eggs
together, as these birds carry no nesting material.

The food of Grass Parrakeets should be simple. Oats,
canary and millet are best, and should be supplemented with
plenty of green food, particularly when young are in the
nests.

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CHAPTER XV
CAGE BIRDS

Most of the families of the order of perching or passerine
birds (PASSERIFORMES) include some species which are
suitable for cage or aviary, and it is here that the majority
of the desirable ones are found. The great majority belong
to the Finches, Weavers and Waxbills, Thrushes, Tanagers,
Mynas or Jays, but there are few groups which are not
represented. The families mentioned combine propinquity
and hardiness, these two factors easily accounting for their
popularity. Numerous others would rank with them if
the habitats of their members were more accessible, for
many birds which live well in captivity are very difficult to
obtain. A notable example is that of the Larks. The Sky-
lark and the Wood-lark are the only species common in
captivity in this country, although there are a great many
species which, if they could be obtained, no doubt would be
equally long-lived. The progress of avicultural methods
is rapidly developing methods of treatment which permit
the keeping of many birds formerly considered impossible,
and new species are being introduced yearly.

In the following pages space will permit the considera-
tion of the most usual cage birds only. If others should,
by chance, come into the hands of the amateur, their care
usually may be deduced from that recommended for similar
species.

Bulbuls

The Bulbuls (Pycnontip#) are active, noisy birds, with
some powers of song. There are nearly three hundred
173

174 BIRDS

species, widely distributed in Asia, the East Indies and
Africa. In captivity they are uncommonly hardy and long-
lived. If kept in individual cages these should be roomy
and must be cleaned frequently. As already stated, the box-
type cage is most suitable for the bulbuls, as well as for
other cage birds. These birds thrive best in an aviary of
good size, but are not to be trusted with smaller or weaker
species. Mated pairs are especially likely to be quarrelsome.
Bulbuls belong to the “ soft-bill”” group, and should be fed
on soft food and fruit, which must be supplied daily. Most
species are fond of live food and should have a few ‘meal
worms or other insects daily.

A comparatively small number of the known species are
common in captivity. The one most frequently seen is the
WHITE-EARED BuLBuL (Otocompsa leucotis), of Persia
and India. It is earthy-brown above, with black head and
white cheeks and ears, the lower parts are whitish and the
under tail coverts yellow. This is said to be the bulbul
of poetry, and some individuals are excellent singers,
though many confine their vocal efforts to an oft-repeated
call-note.

The REp-EARED BULBUL (O. jocosa) ranges from north-
eastern India to China. It is somewhat similar to the pre-
ceding, but has a pronounced crest. The white ear-patches
are smaller and bordered above by a narrow tuft of red.
It is thus a considerably handsomer bird than the White-
eared, but its powers of song are not great.

The Green Bulbuls (Chloropsis) differ greatly from the
more typical species in both habits and appearance. From
their feeding methods, they are frequently known as fruit-
suckers. They are lovely birds, in every way suited for
cage life, being brightly colored, gracefully shaped and
gifted with some powers of song and vocal imitation. They
live well and quickly become very tame and confiding. Their

CAGE BIRDS 175

only unhappy trait is quarrelsomeness. They are usually
quite safe, however, in a mixed lot of birds of their own size,
toward which they seldom exhibit pugnacity. Two cacks,
however, and sometimes even a pair, cannot be placed to-
gether, as they will fight to the death.

Green Bulbuls are chiefly frugivorous in habit and should
be fed on soft food, with an abundant supply of such fruit
as bananas, oranges, grapes, pears, etc. Insects should be
furnished as freely as possible.

The only species generally obtainable is the GoLDEN-
FRONTED GREEN BuLBut (Chloropsis aurifrons), of the
sub-Himalayan region. It is bright green in color, with
blue shoulders. The forehead is rich orange and the cheeks
and throat are covered by a black patch centered with blue,
which extends to the beak.

Babblers

The Babblers and Jay-thrushes (TimELmD#) form a
heterogeneous family of more than six hundred species,
found chiefly in Asia and more sparsely in Africa and the
Australian region. The members of this group are exceed-
ingly diverse in appearance, but have at least one trait in
common—great longevity in captivity. The number of
species regularly kept by dealers is limited, although some
are very common.

The Jay-thrushes, or Laughing Jays, are large birds, and
some are very handsomely marked. Many are hardy and
able to endure low temperatures if well sheltered. They
are too active for cage life, and should be kept in a roomy
aviary. Although not inclined to pugnacity among them-
selves, they may not safely be kept with smaller species.
There is a curious habit of tickling among most of the birds
of this group, two birds, often of the same sex, sitting side

176 BIRDS

by side and preening the feathers of the head and neck, to
the evident enjoyment of the recipient of the attention.
This habit is very manifest among the Jay-thrushes and
often takes a pernicious form, many birds becoming habitual
feather-pullers, and keeping the necks of their cage-mates
bare of feathers.

Jay-thrushes are almost omnivorous, and thrive on soft
food, fruit, insects and chopped meat. The larger species
will relish a mouse or young sparrow.

The WHITE-HEADED JAY-THRUSH (Garrulax leuco-
cephalus), a native of the Himalayas, is the handsomest
species, as well as one of the best known. It is dark brown
in general, with a head, neck and full crest pure white, with
the exception of a black band through the eye. It reaches
a length of nine or ten inches.

The WHITE-THROATED JAY-THRUSH (G. albogularis),
also of the Himalayas, is more abundant in the market than
the foregoing. It is somewhat smaller, has only the throat
white and lacks the crest. This is one of the most persistent
of feather-pullers, and it is almost impossible to keep two
birds together, unless in a large, well-planted aviary, where
there is much to distract the bird’s attention.

The MeEtopious JAy-THRUSH (Trochalopterum can-
orum), otherwise known as the Spectacled Thrush and
Chinese Thrush or Mocking-bird, is a native of China. It
is brown in general, with a white eye-ring, extended back-
ward in a short streak. This bird is an uncommonly fine
singer, its notes being rich and sweet. Like its relatives, it
is long-lived in captivity, but differs from them in its more
gentle disposition.

One of the most common of “ soft-billed ” cage birds is
the Rep-sittep Hiri-tir (Liothrix luteus), variously
known to dealers as Japanese Robin, Pekin Robin and
Chinese Nightingale. None of these names is correct, of

CAGE BIRDS 177

course, at least as to the relationships of the bird, as it is
not a thrush or nightingale. It inhabits the Himalayas, ex-
tending into southwest China. It is a small bird, not much
larger than an English Sparrow, but gorgeously colored.
It may be roughly described as olive green above, with yel-
lowish forehead. The secondaries are bluish-black, with
a yellow patch at the base. There is a yellow circle around
the eye, running into gray on the ear coverts. The throat
is rich yellow, which gradually grows fainter, the abdomen
being whitish. The bill is red, sometimes with a blackish
base. Males generally are brighter than females, particu-
larly on the crown; however, this is not a constant character.
A better one is the notes. These are a mere series of
monotonous calls in the female, easily distinguished from
the warbling song of the male, which ranks among the
very best of songsters, the voice being loud, clear and
varied. This species is very hardy in captivity, thus com-
bining three attributes of the ideal cage bird—beauty,
hardiness and a sweet song. It should be given soft food,
fruit and insects, and if it is a mixed company it will often
treat itself to a few seeds. It should not be associated in
an aviary with breeding birds, as it has a bad reputation
for interfering. The Hill-tit frequently builds its cup-
shaped nests in captivity, but it is not often that young are
reared.

Thrushes

The Thrushes (Turpip#) include not only the typical
birds of this name, but a number of other forms closely
allied to them. Many of our finest songsters are found
here, and as most of the species thrive in captivity, it is not
surprising that they are popular as cage birds. Of the more
than seven hundred and fifty species, it is not possible to
mention here more than a few of the best known.

178 BIRDS

The Sone TurusH (Turdus musicus), which is found
throughout northern Europe, is the only spotted-breasted
thrush which is common in captivity with us. It is a large
bird, not much smaller than our Robin. It is olive brown
above and pale buff below, the chest being heavily marked
with large, triangular spots of blackish-brown. The Song
Thrush is always to be obtained from dealers, but unfortu-
nately these birds are almost invariably wild-caught adults,
which are extremely nervous and difficult to tame. Hand-
reared birds are much steadier and become quite fearless.
The Song Thrush is an excellent singer, its notes being very
loud and clear. The cage should be of good size and not
less than two feet in length. If the bird is unsteady, a cloth
top is a wise precaution. The usual soft food, fruit, insects
and an occasional bit of meat will meet all its dietary needs.

The European Briacxpirp (Turdus merula) is dis-
tinguished from other Old World thrushes by the black
plumage and yellow beak of the male, although there are
several American forms which resemble it very closely.
The female is a warm brown, with the breast slightly
mottled. The Blackbird is a famous songster, its notes
closely resembling those of our Robin. In captivity it is
more philosophic than the Song Thrush, and altogether is
a much more satisfactory cage bird. Its feeding habits are
similar to those of the preceding species.

The Biue Souitrarre or “Criarino” (Myadestes uni-
color) reaches New York from Mexico in considerable
numbers. It is a dark-gray bird of medium size, with a
white eye-ring, the plumage being very soft and thick.
The Solitaire is a superb singer, perhaps the finest among
birds. Its notes are clear, liquid and sustained, having a
marked resemblance to silver chimes. It lives well in cap-
tivity, but of course must be protected from draughts and
cold. It is of exceedingly greedy habits, and will become

|

CAGE BIRDS 179

monstrously fat if its diet is not carefully regulated. Soft
food forms the base, but fruit is the main item, and a liberal
allowance must be furnished daily if the bird is to thrive.

The SHAMA THRUSH (Cittocincla tricolor) is found in
India and Ceylon. It is a slender, graceful bird, with a
rather small body but a long tail, which makes it appear
larger. The male is shiny black above and on the chest, the
rump and the tips of the outer tail feathers being white.
The underparts are chestnut. The female, which is uncom-
mon in captivity, is similar, but has the black replaced by
ashy. It is an excellent singer, its song being a series of
greatly varied phrases. It has also some powers of imita-
tion. Although it is an exceedingly nervous bird, and sub-
ject to sudden panics if alarmed, it quickly becomes tame
and confiding, once it has become accustomed to its sur-
roundings. Two birds of the same sex cannot be confined
together, for they are very pugnacious. Soft food, with
dried flies and ants’ eggs, and a good supply of meal worms,
will keep the Shama in health. Some individuals will eat
fruit, while others will not touch it.

The NIGHTINGALE (Luscinia megarhyncha) is found
throughout Europe and in Asia Minor. As a songster it
needs no eulogy, but the bird itself is unknown to many. It
is a delicate, slender creature, somewhat larger than the
English Sparrow, rich rufus above, and the breast grayish-
white, sometimes tinged with brownish.

Most of the few Nightingales which reach the New York
market are wild birds, caught in the autumn. Such birds
rarely sing. Very occasionally hand-reared birds are of-
fered. Such specimens are generally tame and likely to
live well, but they seldom attain the full song of their
species, if they sing at all. The best birds are spring
migrants, caught in full song, and before mating is much
progressed. They will resume their song very soon after

180 BIRDS

capture, and will continue to sing throughout several months
of each year. It must be admitted, however, that a singing
Nightingale is a rarity, and may be valued as such. The
Nightingale is frequently troubled with sore feet. Much of
this difficulty may be avoided by furnishing the cage, which
should always be of the box type, with natural twigs cov-
ered with bark, rather than the usual ones of hard wood.
The food must be highly insectivorous and contain an abun-
dance of dried flies, ants’ eggs, etc. Meal worms and other
insects must be supplied constantly. If the bird will eat
fruit, it should be furnished freely.

Warblers

The Old World Warblers (SyLviip#) are a numerous
tribe, but the only species which is common as a cage bird
on this side is the BLAcK-caP WARBLER (Sylvia atricapilla).
This is a small bird, slightly less than the English Sparrow.
It is gray above and below, with the crown black in the
male and rufous in the female. The male is a beautiful
songster, held by many to compare favorably with the
Nightingale. As a cage bird it certainly is superior to that
species, for it is much easier to keep and is more likely to
sing. Black-caps thrive on the usual soft food, rich in in-
sects, with a daily allowance of meal worms. Fruit and
berries are relished as well. Black-caps are inclined to
over-eat, and their diet must be restricted.

Piping Crows

The Piping Crows (Gymnorhina) are commonly as-
signed to the Shrike family (Lanup#). Two species, both
Australian, are known, the WHITE-BACKED (G. hypoleuca)
and the BLack-BackeED (G. tibicen), each being divided

CAGE BIRDS 181

into several subspecies. The White-backed Piping Crow is
about the size of the American Crow. It is chiefly black,
with the nape, back, wing coverts and base of the tail white.
The bill is long, pointed and bluish-gray in color. The
Black-backed is somewhat smaller, and differs in having the
back black instead of white. These birds are charming
whistlers, their notes having a curious, instrumental quality.
Besides the natural song, they easily learn to imitate other
musical sounds, and may be taught to whistle tunes. Some
individuals learn to repeat simple words. Both species are
perfectly hardy and require no artificial heat in winter,
so long as they are properly sheltered. While some speci-
mens will tolerate other birds in their cage, most are less
liberal, and promptly attack any bird which may be intro- ©
duced. Soft food, chopped meat, insects, mice and spar-
rows make a suitable diet for these birds.

Larks

Although the Larks (ALaupID2) include more than two
hundred species, only two may be considered common in
captivity in this country. The SkyiarK (Alauda arvensis)
is the best known. It is one of the commonest cage birds
and needs no description, its mottled sandy-brown plumage
and long-clawed hind toe making it easily recognized. The
Skylark sings freely when caged, but it must be said that
its notes are not particularly pleasing under such condi-
tions, the more natural surroundings of distance and blue
sky being accountable for much of the bird’s charm. Sky-
larks do not perch, so such furnishings are not needed in
the cage. This should be of the box type with a canvas top,
to prevent injury to the lark’s head in case it leaps upward.
Lark cages usually are made with a semicircular projection
at the front, to be floored with a piece of green sod, which

182 BIRDS

the bird enjoys picking at, and where he often stands while
singing. Larks may be fed on soft food, insects, greens
and an occasional pinch of seed.

The Woop-Lark (Lullula arborea) is smaller than the
Skylark, stands higher from the ground, and has distinct
chestnut ear-patches which form a ready key to identifica-
tion. The Wood-lark is less common in captivity than the
Skylark, but still is often to be had. Unlike its terrestrial
relative, the Wood-lark frequently perches, and its cage
should be equipped for this purpose. This species is an
excellent songster, but does not sing so freely in captivity
as does the Skylark. The food of the two species is similar.

Finches

Of the true Finches (FRINGILLIDZ) more than one thou-
sand species are known. Although a great diversity of
form and plumage is seen among them, all possess a beak
strong enough for cracking seeds, a characteristic of the
broad group of “hard-bills.” These birds are well suited
for the attention of the budding aviculturist, as their food
needs are easily supplied, no messy mixtures being re-
quired. Bright plumage and cheerful songs are also in-
cluded among their charms. All things considered, it is not
remarkable that by far the greater part of our cage birds
belong either to this family or to the Weavers (PLocEmDz).

The food of all these birds is much the same. The base
should consist of canary seed, to which may be added rape,
millet, wild weed seeds, and oats, sunflower, hemp, flax’
and poppy or maw seed, as may seem advisable. German
aviculturists commonly feed seed-eaters on a large propor-
tion of rape, to avoid the fattening tendency of canary.
However, the policy of English bird-keepers, who offer a
variety of seed to offset the canary, seems more conducive

|

’

CAGE BIRDS 183

to the health and condition of the captive. A few species
are better for a little soft food, and many relish insects,
fruit and berries. All require green food, which should be
given freely, so long as it is fresh and crisp.

Occasional specimens of many species are offered by
our dealers at various times, but it is impossible to include
all of them here. Nor is it feasible to attempt to enumerate
them in their proper systematic order. For purposes of ex-
pediency, therefore, it seems best to consider them, for once,
in the groups to which the “trade” assigns them.

As most of our birds reach us from Europe, it is not
strange that the finches of that country should be imported
in large numbers. Of these, the Gotprincy (Carduelis
carduelis) certainly is the most brilliantly colored. It is
brownish above, with bright red face and black nape, a white
half collar dividing the two colors. The greater coverts
and the bases of the black white-tipped flights are yellow.
The tail is black and the underparts whitish tinged with
brown. The female is usually smaller and duller, and has
the red blaze much restricted. The Goldfinch has a wild,
sweet song, which it gives freely once it has become accus-
tomed to cage life. When first caged, it is inclined to be
very wild and nervous, but quickly becomes tame. Gold-
finches require a liberal supply of thistle, poppy and similar
seeds, in addition to their regular diet.

The Linnet (Acanthis cannabina) is probably the finest
singer among the European finches, its notes being particu-
larly rich and well modulated. The adult bird is a rich
brown, heavily striped with a darker shade. In the male the
crown and breast are tinged with crimson, which disappears
at the first molt in captivity. Young birds, which are some-
what more grayish and lack the crimson, are known as
Gray Linnets. The Linnet is generally steadier as a cage
bird than the Goldfinch, quickly becoming very tame, It is

184 BIRDS

particularly fond of hemp which must be fed very spar-
‘ingly.

The BuLiFincyH (Pyrrhula pyrrhula) is one of the most
enchanting of cage birds. It is a soft gray above, with
shining black cap, wings and tail. There is a white band
over the lower back. In the male the breast is a rich rose
color, replaced by gray in the female. The Bullfinch is a
thick-bodied, full-breasted bird, with long, soft feathers,
which enhance the appearance of plumpness. Even wild-
caught adults take kindly to captivity, but the most at-
tractive ones are those which have been reared by hand.
These birds are exceedingly tame, and have many quaint
habits which endear them to their owner. The Bullfinch’s
only notes in the wild state are a clear, piping call and a
curious little squeaky song, which it delivers with much
gusto. It is a clever imitator, however, and young birds
are easily taught to whistle simple tunes. Training Bull-
finches has received much attention from the Germans, who
have acquired supremacy in the art. These trained birds
reach New York in some numbers each autumn and are
quickly snapped up by dealers, as has already been described.
In Germany they are usually fed on clear rape seed, but as
they derive no harm and much pleasure from a mixed diet,
it seems a pity to deprive them of it. They are fond of
sunflower seed and have a mania for hemp, which must
be given sparingly. All sorts of fruit and berries are rel-
ished and fresh green food should be supplied freely.

The European SIsKIN (Spinus spinus) is a perky little
bird with a rather weak and not particularly pleasant song.
Its body is yellowish-green streaked with black. The cap
and chin are black and the breast is yellow in the male, the
general color being duller and the cap missing in the female.
The Siskin becomes very tame in a cage, and will learn to
take dainties from its owner’s fingers. Like the Goldfinch,

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CAGE BIRDS. 185

it is fond of weed seeds, and these should predominate in the
diet.

The GREENFINCH (Chloris chloris) is known to Amer-
ican dealers as the “ Green Linnet.” The origin of this title
is obscure, for the Greenfinch in no way resembles the Lin-
net. The male is somewhat larger than the English Spar- ©
row, of a general, rich olive tint, with bright yellow on the
forehead, wing, tail and breast. The female is smaller and
more inclined to gray than olive. The song is an insignifi-
cant affair of three syllables. The Greenfinch should have
the usual seed diet, with the addition of occasional live food.

The CHAFFINCH (Fringilla celebs) is among the com-.
monest of winter birds about the farms of northern Europe,
and is freely imported here. The male is vinous brown in
general, with gray head and nape and the wing coverts
barred with black and white. The female is similar, but
grayish instead of vinous in general tone. It is quiet and
confident in captivity, to which it quickly becomes accus-
tomed. The song is a cheerful but rather monotonous
repetition of several notes. In addition to the usual seeds,
the Chaffinch should have a pinch of soft food and occa-
sional insects.

The BramBiine (Fringilla montifringilla), also known
as the Mountain or Bramble Finch, is closely allied to the
preceding and resembles it in shape. The male has a rich
chestnut breast, and the upper parts are black, each feather
slightly edged with chestnut. The female is much duller
incolor. The Brambling has little song, but is an attractive
and handsome bird. Its feeding habits are those of the
Chaffinch.

The YELLOWHAMMER or YELLOW BuntTiINnG (Emberiza
citrinella) is the best known representative of a genus which
contains a great number of species that make desirable
cage birds when they are to be obtained. The upper parts,

186 BIRDS

flanks and abdomen are rich brown with dark streaks, the
head and upper chest being yellow. The head is somewhat
variegated with dark stripes and mottlings. The female is
slightly duller than the male. It thrives on a diet of seeds,
but is better for a little soft food and a few insects.

The Singing Finches are a compact group, mostly African
in distribution. They are closely allied to the canary, and
frequently bear names which suggest this relationship.

The GREEN SINGING FiIncH (Serinus icterus), known
among dealers as “ African Siskin,” is considerably smaller
than the common canary, but resembles it in shape. It is
yellow-green above, with darker streaks, while the forehead,
superciliaries, cheeks and underparts are bright yellow.
There is a black mustachial streak and another through the
eye. The female is smaller and less brilliantly colored.
This little bird is a free singer, its notes bearing a faint
resemblance to those of the canary. It breeds well in an
aviary, but the cocks are very pugnacious, and will persecute
other Serins if confined with them.

The Gray Sincine Fincu, or “ Epetstncer”’ (Polio-
spiza leucopygia), is ashy-brown, slightly mottled above
and whitish below. It is slightly smaller than the preceding
and the same sexual differences exist. It is one of the finest
singers among the smaller finches and is less pugnacious than
the Green Singing Finch. Both species are hardy in cap-
tivity, and will live for many years under proper conditions.
Their food consists of a mixture of canary, rape, millet and
wild seeds, with plenty of greens.

The Sarrron Fincy (Sycalis faveola) is the only repre-
sentative of its genus well known in this country. It is very
canary-like, greenish-yellow above, streaked with blackish.
The forehead is bright orange and the underparts are yel-
low. The female is somewhat duller than the male, but

otherwise is similar. The Saffron Finch is now being im-
¥ 3

CAGE BIRDS 187

ported from northern South America in some numbers. It
is very easily kept, and breeds readily in an aviary. It is not
a safe companion, however, for species smaller than itself.

The Grassguits (Tiaris) are tiny birds, found chiefly,
though not exclusively, in the West Indies. The most fa-
miliar species is the MELopious Grassguit (T. canora), of
Cuba, known in England as the Cuban Finch, and among
American dealers by the native name Tomogina. The male
is green above, with the head, throat and chest black. A
broad crescent of bright yellow passes across the throat,
from eye to eye. The female has the black on the throat
replaced by chestnut, and the yellow collar is less distinct
and the breast is gray.

The YELLOW-FACED GrRaAssguit (T. olivacea olivacea),
also of Cuba, is similar to the preceding species, but lacks
the yellow crescent, this color being confined to a streak
through the eye and a patch on the throat. The Mexican
form (T. 0. pusilla) is distinguished by the extension of the
black from the chest over the abdomen.

When first imported, the Grassquits are exceedingly deli-
cate, but once established are very hardy. They are harm-
less but active little birds, and the pleasant song of the
male is an added attraction. Grassquits breed freely in
avaries, building a domed nest after the fashion of Wax-
bills, or taking advantage of an artificial receptacle.

The Cardinals are large, vigorous birds, many of which
are brightly colored. The commonest species in captivity
with us is the RED-cRESTED CARDINAL (Paroaria cucullata),
of southern South America. This is dark gray above and
white below. The strongly crested head, as well as the
cheeks and throat, are bright red. It makes an engaging
cage bird, as it lives well and becomes fairly tame. The
song is not especially pleasing, but at least is cheerful. It
has rather a bad reputation for spitefulness, and should

188 BIRDS

not be trusted in the company of smaller or weaker species.
The usual seeds form its diet, but as it is inclined to obesity,
it must not be fed too liberally.

The RED-HEADED CARDINAL (Paroaria larvata) is a na-
tive of Brazil. It is gray above, the feathers edged with
black. The head and throat are red and the underparts
white. The head is not crested, as in the preceding species.
This bird is somewhat less quarrelsome than the Red-
crested and a slightly better singer, otherwise there is not
much choice between them.

Tanagers.

The Tanagers (TANAGRID#) are exclusively South Am-
erican. Among their numbers they include many beautiful
species which make excellent cage birds. Unfortunately,
however, none of them is at all common in the market
here, and it is only on very rare occasions that any species
is obtainable. But since exceptions do sometimes occur,
a few words concerning them may not be amiss. The
Tanagers which occasionally reach us fall naturally into
three groups: the Euphonias ( Tanagra), the Callistes (Tan-
gara) and the larger species (Thraupis and allies). The
Euphonias are mostly little bluish-black fellows, with yel-
low crown and underparts. The Callistes are about the size
of the English Sparrow and remarkable for the great variety
of their brilliant plumage. The larger Tanagers include the
SILVER-BEAKS (Ramphocelus) and the BLuE (Thraupis
cana) and the Patm TaANnaGceER (T. palmarum), the latter
two being offered less infrequently than most of the others.
The Tanagers are chiefly fruit-eaters, and their diet must
include a generous quantity of ripe fruits, such as bananas,
oranges, soft pears, grapes, etc. It is best to sprinkle the
fruit with soft food, as otherwise many will never touch the

_— =

—s

CAGE BIRDS 189

latter, and an exclusive fruit diet is not sufficient to keep ©
them in health. A few will eat meal worms, which should be
given to such as will take them. Tanagers are sensitive to
cold and draught, but if kept in tight box cages and well
cared for they live for long periods.

Weavers

The Weavers (PLocEID#) contain a great number of
species which are freely imported, their brilliant plumage
and hardiness in captivity making them popular as cage
birds. For ease in presentation, they are best taken in the
sub-groups into which they naturally fall, the Whydahs,
the typical Weavers, the Waxbills and the Mannikins and
Grassfinches.

Among the Whydahs, all of which are African, the males
generally are chiefly black with long, flowing tails in most
species, which make them wonderfully graceful when on the
wing. The females are brown and sparrow-like in appear-
ance, the males assuming a similar plumage during the
winter months. Whydahs make good cage birds, but are at
their best in an aviary, where their beautiful flight is seen
to the best advantage. A few species have been bred in cap-
tivity, the nest being dome-shaped and usually close to the
ground. Whydahs may be fed with the usual seed, white
millet being a particular favorite. A little soft food and a
few meal worms are useful, particularly during the molt.

The ParapisE WuypDAH (Steganura paradisea) is the
best known species. The male is black in general, with a
nuchal collar and the upper breast chestnut, fading to whit-
ish on the abdomen. The lower back is white. The hen is
of the usual inconspicuous, brownish color. The tail of
the male is long and full, sometimes reaching a length of a
foot, although the bird itself is no larger than a sparrow.

190 BIRDS

Most individuals are quiet and harmless, and may safely be
associated with smaller species.

The GIANT WuHyYDAH (Diatropura progne) is the largest
of the group. It is a superb bird, almost entirely black,
with an orange patch on the wings, the feathers of which
are edged with buff. The tail feathers are narrow and
pointed, and reach a length of eighteen inches. The species
is very striking when in flight. Unfortunately, it is very
seldom obtainable.

The PIN-TAILED WHyYDAH (Vidua serena) is much
smaller than either of the preceding. When in color, the
male is black above, with a collar around the neck and the
- underparts white. The beak is bright red. The elongated
tail feathers, which usually are four in number, are straight
and narrow, often reaching a length of ten inches, giving
a curious appearance to the tiny bird. Most Pin-tails are
well disposed toward their cage-mates, but occasional indi-
viduals are met with which temperamentally are quite the
reverse.

The Comsasou (Hypochera chalybeata) is commonly
included among the Grassfinches, but it seems best to treat
it among the Whydahs. It lacks the long tail of these
birds, but it has the eclipse plumage, which is not seen among
the Grassfinches. The male, in color, is black with bluish
iridescence, the bill being white and the legs pink. The
female is the usual brownish. Several closely allied species
are not distinguished by dealers. It is a quiet little bird, not
inclined to be quarrelsome, and usually is long-lived in
captivity.

The typical Weavers, of which all of the common species
are confined to Africa, give second place to none in point
of beauty and hardiness. Song they cannot boast of and
their dispositions are not of the sweetest, but brilliant plum-
age they undeniably possess. As in the Whydah, the males

CAGE BIRDS 191

assume during the winter the dull brownish plumage of the
female.

The nests of Weavers are wonderful affairs, usually
pendulous, finely and intricately woven of soft materials,
such as grass, hay, bark fiber, etc. Like the Whydahs, these
birds live well enough in a cage, but are much better in an
aviary, where they may have more room to flit about.
Several males in such an enclosure will decorate the branches
with innumerable nests, at which they work incessantly. For
nesting materials, there is nothing superior to raffia or bast,
sold by all dealers in florists’ supplies, at about twenty-five
cents per pound. In spite of this nest-building propensity,
it is seldom indeed that Weavers are successfully bred in
captivity.

Weavers are notorious for their habits of persecuting
smaller birds, and should never be caged with them. A
diet of seeds, with a little soft food and a few insects dur-
ing the molt, will keep them in health.

Of the orange and black species, three are well known in
confinement. The GRENADIER WEAVER (Pyromelana orix)
is the largest. The male is reddish-orange in general, with
the head and throat black, as is the abdomen. The tail and
wings are blackish. The CRIMSON-CROWNED WEAVER (P.
fammiceps) is similar, but has the crown orange instead
of black, the latter color being confined to a patch surround-
ing the eye and covering the cheek and another on the throat.
The OraNnGE WEAVER (P. franciscana) is the smallest of
the three. It has the crown and cheeks black, but the chin
and throat are orange. These three species are not dis-
tinguished by dealers, and are sold indiscriminately as
“Orange Bishops.”

Two yellow and black species are equally common. The
male NapoLeon WEAVER (P. afra) is chiefly bright yellow,
with cheeks, throat and lower abdomen black. The wings

192 - BIRDS

and tail are brownish. The TAHA WEAVER (P. taha) once
was rare in captivity, but during recent years has become
even more abundant with us than the Napoleon. This.
species differs from its congener in having the entire under-
parts black, not divided by a yellow pectoral band.

The REep-BILLED WEAVER (Quelea quelea) is a commonly
imported species. The head of the male, with the excep-
tion of the black cheeks and throat, is rosy pink, which
extends to the chest and abdomen. The back, wings and
tail are brownish, and the bill is bright red. Russ’ WEAVER
(Q. russi) is similar, but has the facial mark whitish instead
of black. This bird is considered by many to be merely a
variation of the typical form.

The Mapacascar WEAVER (Foudia madagascariensis)
is black above in the male, the feathers of the back being
edged with bright scarlet and the head, neck and breast
entirely of this hue. When in full color it is one of the
handsomest of the weavers. It exceeds the others, if pos-
sible, in pugnacity, and cannot be caged with smaller birds.

The Maskep WEAVERS (Hyphantornis and Sitagra) are
yellow or olive in general, with black markings about the
head and throat. There are a number of species, none of
which is abundant here. As they are less handsome than
most of the weavers, and no better natured, they are not
particularly popular among bird-keepers.

The Waxbills include some of the smallest and most beau-
tifully colored of cage birds. Their songs, which are almost
negligible, nevertheless are delivered with a will, and their
dainty manners and soft, harmonious shades endear them
to all. With the exception of the Strawberry Finch, which
comes from India, all of the common species are African.

Unlike the Whydahs and Weavers, the Waxbills do not
have an eclipse plumage, retaining the same colors through-
out the year, the Strawberry Finch being the single excep-

Ta an ee ne eg med

CAGE BIRDS ie 193

tion. In some species male and female are easily distin-
guished, in others sexual distinctions are difficult.

Waxbills will thrive at liberty in an aviary, once they
have become acclimatized, but of course must have heat
during the winter months. They are seldom quarrelsome
and many bird-keepers make a practice of grouping them in
large brass cages of the usual open type, where, if not over-
crowded, they seem to do very well. If too many are placed
together, they very often form the habit of plucking the
feathers from each other’s heads, so that they make a for-
lorn appearance. It is much safer, however, to have the
cage partly enclosed, even if in a well-heated room, as
draughts are always likely to occur. If only a single pair
or so are kept, they will be better in a box cage, where they
will have ample protection.

Many Waxbills will nest in aviaries or even in cages.
For the purpose small boxes or other receptacles, enclosed
on all sides and with a small entrance hole, may be provided.
These the little creatures will fill with nesting material, such
as hay, feathers, cotton, hair, etc. Twine is not desirable,
as the birds’ legs are likely to become entangled. When
completed, the nest may be used not only for its legitimate
purpose, but as a sleeping-chamber as well. Incubation with
most species requires about twelve days, and the young are
fed by the parents, chiefly by regurgitation from the crop.
Plenty of green food should be provided at that time, also
seeding grasses, small insects and a little soft food, which
most species will take.

When first received Waxbills are very likely to be deli-
cate. They must be kept carefully enclosed in cages, and
watched closely for some time, until their owner is assured
that they are in good condition. It is of great importance
that the supply of sand to newly imported Waxbills and
other small finches as well be restricted. Such birds are

shipped and kept by dealers, ordinarily without sand, and
if given sudden access to an unlimited supply will fill their
tiny gizzards to the bursting point, with fatal results. Sand
should be introduced in pinches for the first few days until
the craving for grit has been assuaged.

The staple food of Waxbills is white millet, to which may
be added yellow millet, canary and wild seeds. Spray millet
and seeding grasses are greatly appreciated and green food
should always be furnished. Many species will eat insects,
and a small quantity of soft food is beneficial to most.

The male Fire Fincu (Lagonosticta minima) is a beau-
tiful atom, mostly rosy crimson, the back washed with
brown and the tail black. The sides of the breast have a
few tiny spots of white. The female is more brown, tinged
here and there with crimson. This little bird is one of the
most delicate in captivity, being very hard to establish.
Even then the greatest care is required to keep it in
health.

The LAVENDER WAxBILL (Lagonosticta cerulescens) is
known to dealers as the “ Gray-blue Finch.”’ The sexes are
similar, the color being a soft gray, with black tail, abdomen
and facial band. The upper tail coverts and the two middle
tail feathers are red. This lovely little bird has almost as
bad a reputation as the Fire Finch for delicacy, but once
acclimatized it lives fairly well.

The STRAWBERRY FincH or “ AVADAVATE”’ (Sporegin-
thus amandava) is found in India and Cochin-China. It is
an exceedingly common bird in the market and is deservedly
popular. The male is orange-red, with wings and tail black.
The wing coverts and underparts are spotted with white.
The female is brown above and pale buff below, with simi-
lar white spots. The male certainly assumes partial or
full female plumage at times, but whether or not this takes
place at stated seasons has not been worked out. Although

¥
-

Diamond Finch European Jay

Giant Whydah Gray Java Sparrow

CAGE BIRDS 195 _.

one of the smallest of Waxbills, this bird is extremely hardy
and lives in confinement for long periods.

The ORANGE-CHEEKED WAXBILL (Sporeginthus mel-
podus) has been introduced into Porto Rico, where it is
found in some numbers. It is brownish-gray above and pale
gray below. The cheeks are orange, and a small space in
front of the eye and also the upper tail coverts are crimson.
The female is slightly smaller and duller than the male.
This species is not so hardy as some, but lives well under
proper conditions.

The GOLDEN-BREASTED or ZEBRA WAXBILL (Sporegin--
thus subflavus )is one of the smallest of the group. The male
is brownish above, with the underparts yellow, with a tinge
of orange on the breast. The flanks are gray. with white
bars, and a stripe through the eye and also the beak are
scarlet. The female is smaller and much less brightly
colored. This is one of the hardier species, and once
acclimatized will live for several years.

The Corpon BLEv or CRIMSON-EARED W AXBILL ( Estrilda
phenicotis) is one of the most lovely of the Waxbills, but
when first imported must be ranked among the more delicate.
It is a soft grayish-brown, with the lower back, tail, cheeks
and breast pale blue. The male has a crimson patch on the
ears, which is wanting in his mate. The BLUE-BREASTED
WaxsiLt (E. angolensis) is similar, but the male lacks the
crimson near-patch, and the blue is slightly brighter.

The Common Waxsiii (Estrilda cinerea) is a pale
brownish-gray throughout, the feathers with almost indis-
tinguishable dark bars. There is a red streak through the
eye, and a patch of this color on the abdomen. The Sr.
Herena Waxsitt (E. astrilda) is similar, but slightly
larger, and the dark bars are easily discernible. Like most
of the Waxbills, these species are delicate at first, but are
not difficult to keep once they are acclimatized.

196 BIRDS

The Mannikins and Grassfinches are larger, stouter
birds than the Waxbills, and as a rule have heavier beaks.
The same general rules for care and treatment apply to
both groups, but the present birds average much hardier
than the more delicate Waxbills.

The BronzE MANNIKIN (Spermestes cucullata) is one
of the smallest of the group. It is brown above, blacker
on the head, but fading to white, with dark bars on the
lower back. The wings and tail are blackish and there is
a metallic green band on the wing coverts. The cheeks,
throat and chest are bronzy, and the abdomen is white,
barred at the side with black. The female is usually
smaller and duller. This is a long-lived and even-tempered
bird, but frequently is addicted to feather-plucking.

The MaAcprreE MANNIKIN (Amauresthes fringilloides) is
very similar to the preceding, differing in a few minor
points of color. It is almost twice as large, however, and
has a much heavier beak. Both species are African. Some
individual Magpie Mannikins are pugnacious and are un-
safe with small Waxbills, etc.

The Cut-THroat Fincu (Amadina fasciata) is a well-
known and popular cage bird. It is of a brownish cast, the
feathers barred with black. There are a few white spots
on the lower breast and abdomen. The cock is distin-
guished by a red band across the throat. The name has

a bloodthirsty sound, which is not entirely deserved, al-—

though the bird is not really safe with smaller species.

The ReD-HEADED FincH (Amadina erythrocephala) is —
known to American dealers as the “ Amadine Finch.” It —
is a larger bird than the preceding, and, like it, comes from
Africa. It is brown above and paler below, where the —

feathers have darker bars. The male has the head dark
red, which distinguishes him from his mate.

The Diamonp or SPOTTED-SIDED Fincy (S$ teganoplewra |

= ’

eRe ne

on ene

a

———

es ee

CAGE BIRDS 197,

guttata), of Australia, is a pretty and attractive species. It
is pale gray above, with the tail black and lower back
bright red. The underparts are pure white, with a narrow
black band across the chest. This band extends backward
along the flanks, where it is heavily spotted with white.
The bird is imported only occasionally, but is sometimes
to be had. It is harmless and hardy.

The ZEBRA Fincu (Teniopygia castanotis) is the most
common of the Australian finches in captivity. The male
is gray above, shading to white on the upper tail coverts,
which are barred with black. The tail is of the latter color.
There is a large chestnut patch on each ear. The throat and
chest are gray, banded with black. The center of the
abdomen is white, while the flanks are chestnut with white
spots. The female lacks the ear-patches, the bars on the
chest and the chestnut flanks. The species is easily bred in
cage or aviary, and as it is very docile and easily kept,
it is an excellent subject for the experiments of the tyro.

The JAvA Sparrow (Munia orizivora) apparently is a
native of Java, Sumatra and Malacca, but has been widely
introduced elsewhere. It is a large, powerful bird about
the size of the English Sparrow. It is gray in general, with
a vinous tinge on the underparts. The tail, head and chin

are black, and there is a large, white spot on each cheek.
_ The heavy bill is rose pink. The female is somewhat
smaller in body and beak than the male. A white form,
said to have been produced by the Japanese, is bred in cap-
tivity. The song of the Java Sparrow is rather pleasing,
and no bird could be kept in good condition with less
trouble. It breeds readily in confinement, in either cage
or aviary, provided captivity-bred birds are used. It is
best kept with birds of its own size and strength, as it is
not trustworthy with smaller species. Oats are a valuable
addition to the diet.

198 BIRDS

The THREE-COLORED MANNIKIN (Munia_ malacca)
comes from southern India and Ceylon. The upper parts
are chestnut, the head, breast and center of the abdomen
are black, and the remainder of the underparts are white.
The BLacK-HEADED MANNIKIN (UM. atricapilla) is simi-
lar, but lacks the white.

The WHITE-HEADED MANNIKIN (Munia maja), of the -

Sunda Islands, has the head white, shading to buff and
then to chestnut, which covers most of the upper parts.
The central tail feathers are rufous and the abdomen black.

The SpicE MANNIKIN (Munia punctulata) is another
Indian species. It is chocolate above and on the chest, the
abdomen being white with black edgings.

All of the Mannikins, which are known among dealers
as “Nuns,” are hardy and easily kept in captivity. They
are always in good condition, the only trouble being with
the claws, which require frequent trimming. The sexes
are usually difficult to distinguish, but if two birds are
carefully compared, the shape and size of the beak will
often furnish a clue, that of the male being heavier than
that of his mate.

The AFRICAN SILVER-BILL (Aidemosyne cantans) is
light brown above and slightly paler below, the wings and
tail being black and the abdomen white. The INDIAN
SILVER-BILL (A. malabarica) is pale brown above and
nearly white below. The lower back is white, furnishing
a good distinguishing mark, and the wings and tail are
black. The females of both species are somewhat smaller
and duller than the males. The Silver-bills are dull-colored
little birds, but they have rather pleasing songs. They
are quiet in demeanor and easily kept.

The BENGALEE or “ JAPANESE NuN ” is a domesticated
breed, produced by crossing the species of Uroloncha, but
just which is veiled in mystery. The Japanese are given

Seager <a a pase Sapte are 2

oe

CAGE BIRDS 199

credit for developing the three forms in which they occur:
dark brown and white, fawn and white and pure white.
Being entirely cage-bred, the Bengalees are eminently
happy under such conditions. The cock has a squeaky
song, which he delivers with ludicrous ostentation. Ben-
galees are easily bred in a cage. If a nest is provided, the
birds will generally sleep in it at night, instead of perch-
ing after the usual fashion.

The Rep-TAILED FINcH or STAR Fincn (Bathilda rufi-
cauda), like most other Australian species, is a very pretty
little bird. It is olive above, the tail dull red and the fore-
head, cheeks, chin and beak crimson. The under surface
is slightly paler and thickly spotted with white. The fe-
male is somewhat duller than her mate. The species lives
well, and is not difficult to breed in an aviary.

The Grassfinches (Poephila) include three species, all
Australian, which are common in captivity here. The
CoMMON GRASSFINCH or Parson Fincu (P. cincta) is
brownish above, slightly paler below. The head is gray,
while the beak, tail, a band on the flanks and a large round
spot on the throat are black. The LoNG-TAILED Grass-
FINCH (P. acuticauda) is similar, but has the middle tail
feathers lengthened and terminating in a pointed filament.
The beak in this species is yellow. The sexes in these two
forms are sometimes distinguishable by the size of the black
throat patch, which generally is larger in the male. The
MASKED GRASSFINCH (P. personata) has the beak yellow,
as in the Long-tailed Grassfinch, but lacks the long fila-
ments of the tail. The head is brown like the back, and the
black about the head is restricted to the base of the beak.
These attractive little birds are easily kept, and seem al-
ways to be in good condition, their plumage having a soft,
silky appearance. They are not difficult to breed, but are
inclined to be quarrelsome.

200 | BIRDS

The Gouldian Finches, which also belong to Poephila,
are among the most brilliantly colored of cage birds. The
bright hues of their plumage have made them in great de-
mand among aviculturists since their introduction» from
Australia, which appears to have occurred about 1885.
The BLACK-FACED GOULDIAN Fincu (P. gouldie) is green
above, with the lower back pale blue and the tail black.
The head and throat are black, the breast is purple and the
abdomen is yellow. The Rep-FAcED GouLDIAN FincuH (P.
mirabilis) is similar to the preceding, but has the head
bright red. The middle tail feathers are lengthened and
tapering. The females of both forms are distinguished by
the much paler shade of purple on the breast. The female
Red-faced seldom has the head clear red, much black gen-
erally being intermixed. It seems probable that these two
birds are simply phases of the same species, as they inter-
breed freely both in the wild state and in captivity. There
is also a yellow-faced form, which is so rare as to be seen
but seldom.

Gouldian Finches are exceedingly delicate when first im-
ported. Like all small finches, they must be given little
grit at first, and protected from cold and draught. As
they become acclimatized, they increase in hardiness, but
even then cannot be considered as entirely safe. Under
ordinary circumstances, Gouldian Finches live best in box
cages, where they may receive individual attention. Thor-
oughly hardened birds will thrive in an outdoor aviary
during the summer. Under such conditions, they have
been bred freely in England, but no one on this side ap-
pears to have been successful with them, although at least
one aviculturist has had young hatched.

CAGE BIRDS — 201

Troupials

The family of American Orioles and Troupials (Ic-
TERIDZ) includes a number of native North American
birds, such as the Baltimore and Orchard Orioles, the Bob-
olink, Cowbird and Redwing. The keeping of these
species, however, is prohibited by law, and the only exotic
form which is freely imported is the common TROUPIAL
(Icterus icterus), of Colombia and Venezuela. It is orange
_ in general, with the head and neck, middle of the back,
wings and tail black. The lesser coverts are yellow, and the
middle coverts and edges of the secondaries are white, form-
ing a large patch. The sexes are similar, but the female
is slightly the smaller. At the first molt in captivity,
the orange is replaced by lemon-yellow. The BRAZILIAN
TrouPIAL (J. jamacaii) is similar to the preceding, but
has the wing coverts black instead of white.

The Troupial is an ideal cage bird, becoming very tame
and learning to deliver its clear, whistling notes at com-
mand. It is not safe, however, with small birds, and
most individuals will promptly kill anything weaker than
themselves. Troupials should be kept in large, roomy
cages of the box type, and fed on soft food, with an abun-
dance of ripe fruit, such as bananas, oranges and pears,
and occasional meal worms.

. Starlings

The Starlings and Starling-like Mynas (Sturnip#) are
practically confined to Europe, Asia and the East Indies,
a single species being known from Africa. There are about
sixty forms, of which comparatively few are common in
captivity in this country. No group of birds is hardier
in captivity than this, many individuals living for a great
number of years. Although not so gifted as the HiLu

202 BIRDS

Mynas (Eulabes), some members of this family make good
talkers. Starlings will live in cages, but as they are exceed-
ingly dirty under such conditions, their quarters should be as
roomy as possible. Most of the species cannot be trusted
with weaker cage-mates. Starlings are almost omnivorous
in feeding habits, and will thrive on soft food, fruit of
all sorts, insects and an occasional scrap of meat.

The EurRopEAN STARLING (Sturnus vulgaris) is, of
course, only too well known in this country. Introduced in
New York in 1890, the bird has spread amazingly, and
forms a serious menace to our already decreasing native
frugivorous and insectivorous species. Because of this fact,
many states which formerly protected the starling now have
added it to the list of renegades which are outside the pale.
This change brings a modicum of comfort to the bird-
keeper, for the starling, villain as he is, is a most interest-
ing pet. His speckled plumage, glossed with violet and
green, must be seen at close quarters to be appreciated, and
his confiding tameness is engaging. Hand-reared birds
sometimes learn to repeat simple words.

Of the numerous starling-like Mynas stray specimens of
several species are occasionally seen, but the only one which
As really well known is the Common Myna (Acridotheres
tristis), of India and Burma. It is about double the size of
the starling, dark brown above, with the head, neck and
breast black. The base of the primaries and their coverts,
as well as the tips of the outer tail feathers, are white. The
beak and a bare space behind the eye are yellow. Young
specimens of this species often learn to speak very well.

Hill Mynas

The family of Glossy Starlings (EULABETIDz) is well
distributed in the Old World, Asia, Africa, Australia and

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Pe Ln a eee

CAGE BIRDS 203

the East Indies all possessing representatives. Of the Glossy
Starlings proper, no species is sufficiently common in the
market to warrant its inclusion here. But the Hitt Mynas
(Eulabes), commonly miscalled “ Minors,” are well-known
cage birds, and a few words concerning them will not be
amiss. Eleven forms of this. genus are recognized, of which
three are about equally well known here. All are glossy
black in color, with a white patch on the primary feathers
of the wing. The heavy bill is orange-yellow. On the nape,
at each side, is a horseshoe-shaped flap of skin, yellow in
color, with the ends pointing forward. The outer extremity
of each flap joins a bare space behind the eye.

The Lesser Hitt Myna (E. religiosa), of southern India
and Ceylon, is little larger than the European Blackbird.
The lappets are well developed and crinkly, and the bill is
comparatively slender. The GREATER Hitt Myna (E. in-
termedia), which ranges from central India to Cochin-
China, is larger than the preceding, but does not reach such
large proportions as does the JAavAN Hitt Myna (E. java-
nensis), of Burma and the Sunda Islands. The best point
of distinction between the latter two species lies in the lap-
pets, which form something like a right angle with the
ear-patches on each side. The third side of this angle is
closed with bare skin in the Greater Hill Myna and open
in the Javan. These three species, which are readily sepa-
rated, are seldom distinguished by dealers.

All of the Hill Mynas are gifted mimics and young birds
often make excellent talkers, enunciating as distinctly as
the best parrots. They are not cleanly birds, and the cage
should be as large as possible. It is unnecessary to say that
they cannot be kept with small birds. Hill Mynas are notori-
ous gluttons and their food, which consists of a soft mixture,
fruit, berries and insects, must be given in limited quantities.

204 BIRDS

Crows, Jays and Magpies

The Crow Family (Corvip#) is one in which the Amer-
_ icas are particularly rich. Unfortunately, most of our own
species may not legally be kept in captivity, while tropical
forms are seldom available. The Old World also contains
a great number of corvine birds, many of which are seen
on occasion, but only a very few are imported so frequently
as to be readily obtainable.

None of the birds of this group is really suitable for
cage life. They should be given the run of a good-sized
aviary, where they can have sufficient space to keep them in
good condition. Hand-reared specimens remain very tame
and often learn to speak a few words. The practice, which
once prevailed, of slitting the tongue, with the idea of
facilitating speech, is as inefficient as it is barbaric. Crows
and Jays are especially subject to colds and roup, and al-
though the northern species can endure unlimited cold, con-
tinued exposure to dampness is certain eventually to prove
fatal. No bird of this family should ever be trusted with
anything smaller or weaker than itself. Crows and Jays
are not very particular as to what they eat, hardly any-
thing edible being amiss. Some sort of coarse, soft food,
with rice, bread, biscuit, raw or slightly cooked meat, in-
sects and occasional young birds and mice, will provide a
well-varied menu.

The AMERICAN Crow (Corvus brachyrhynchus) and its
various forms are the pets of boyhood wherever they are
found. Unfortunate, indeed, is the child whose environ-
ment has never included a young crow! Easily obtained
and almost as easily reared, no bird could better meet the
demands of the youthful pet-lover. If taken from the nest
when half grown, crows are easily brought up on meat
(preferably partly cooked), bread or biscuit crumbs, eggs,

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CAGE BIRDS 205

earthworms, etc. If it is not desired to cage the pet, it may
be given its liberty, full-winged or clipped, and it will sel-
dom stray. Crows not infrequently croak a word or two,
but they seldom do more.

The Jackpaw (Coloeus monedula) is the only European
Crow-like bird which is commonly imported here. It is
smaller than the American crow, black in color, with gray
nape and white eyes. Pure albinos, most of which come
from Austria, are imported in some numbers each autumn,
and are very attractive when given space enough to keep
themselves clean.

The European Macpie (Pica pica pica) differs from the
American bird (P. p. hudsonica), chiefly in its smaller size,
and is too well known to require description. With its
striking black and white plumage and long tail, it is a grace-
ful and ornamental species. Young birds readily learn to
speak a little and gifted individuals often are able to repeat
sentences of several words. |

The European JAy (Garrulus glandarius) is consider-
ably larger than our Blue Jay. It is gray, tinged with
vinous, in general color, with the forehead white, streaked
with black. There is a mustache of black, the tail and
wings being mostly of the same color. Many of the wing
coverts are beautifully barred with cobalt and black. The
Jay is a handsome, active bird, and frequently more than
an indifferent talker.

CHAPTER XVI
CANARIES

WHEN the first little dull-colored wild canaries were taken
to Europe from the Canary Islands, who could have fore-
told that their descendants would brighten the homes of the
world? Who can say why this bird, instead of other Euro-
pean finches, was cultivated and developed to fit it for the
place it now occupies in the hearts of men? The Goldfinch
and the Linnet both are better singers than the wild canary.
The Serin Finch which inhabits southern Europe and even
Germany sings at least as well as its island relative, and
was much more readily obtained by early breeders. The
charm of the exotic may have something to do with it, but
perhaps the little olive bird, like the Jungle Fowl and the
Mallard Duck, had the happy faculty of thriving in cap-
tivity, only waiting for the opportunity to arrive. At any
rate the canary, more than any other small bird, has been
bred and modified in captivity, almost out of all resemblance
to its original self.

The Wild Canary (Serinus canarius) is smaller than the
ordinary domestic bird. It is ashy-olive above, the feathers
with dark central streaks. The forehead, breast and rump

are greenish-yellow, and wings and tail are washed with

the same color. The sides of the breast are gray with dark
stripes, while the abdomen is white. The female is slightly
duller than the male. The Serin Finch (Serinus serinus),
which is often miscalled the Wild Canary, is considerably
smaller, and has the yellow of the breast much brighter
and more thickly streaked with black. It has been suggested
that the modern canary might have originated from a cross
206

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CANARIES 207

between these two species, but there is no evidence to sup-
port the claim.

The Wild Canary is still abundant in its habitat, the
Canaries, the Azores and Madeira, isolated islands in the
eastern Atlantic. They are caught and kept as cage birds
by the inhabitants, but seldom reach the outside market.

Some time during the sixteenth century,* Wild Canaries
appear to have been taken to Europe with cargoes of sugar,
the sweetness of their song and their foreign derivation
bringing them great popularity. It is probable that serious
breeding did not commence for some time, but that it did
finally take place we have the best possible proof. It must
have been many years before any great change in song was
noticeable; it is probable that color varieties were more
easily obtained. As suggested by Dr. A. R. Galloway,t
cinnamon mutants, or “ sports,” which are of frequent oc-
currence among most European finches in the wild state, no
doubt appeared among the caged canaries. Inbreeding
would quickly establish the new color, and once firmly fixed,
this might readily lead to the occurrence of yellow.

Song, however, was the main attraction for the Ger-
mans, who seem to have been the first breeders of canaries,
and it was not until the birds reached England that the
great possibilities of variation in form and color were made
the most of. To this day, English birds excel in these char-
acters, while the German birds are unrivaled singers.

Every one knows that the canary is almost ubiquitous in
America, but its derivation is not a matter of common
knowledge. Practically all of the birds offered for sale in
the bird stores throughout the country are reared by the
peasants of Germany. The great majority come from the
Hartz Mountains, where canary breeding is a leading indus-

* Willoughby’s Ornithology, 1676.
t Canaries, Hybrids and British Birds, p. 20.

208 BIRDS

try. The village of St. Andreasburg has become famous as
the original home of the sweet-voiced Roller, but now
both this specialized bird and the common one are bred
throughout this region.

The handling of the birds is a business of considerable
magnitude. Most of it is controlled by two or three New
York firms, the largest of which handles, under normal
conditions, about two hundred and fifty thousand canaries
yearly. At the close of the breeding season in Germany,
expert buyers go about among the peasants and secure
the birds, many being contracted for in advance. They are
concentrated at suitable points and shipped to New York,
in lots of thousands, in charge of experienced men, who
spend their entire lives in this branch of the work.

Each bird is placed in a small wooden cage, measuring
about five inches wide by six inches long and high. Seven
cages are strung on a narrow strip of wood, each unit of
seven being known as a “ stick,” or “row.” The cages are
placed in large frames with wooden back and bottom, and
tightly wrapped in canvas during transshipment.

When the canaries reach New York, the cages are placed
one above the other in great tiers, and the birds graded ac-
cording to song. They are then ready for shipment to
the thousands of retail dealers who sell them to their final
owners.

General Care

The canary is a hardy bird, inured to captivity and able
to endure a great deal. If this were otherwise, it would

be less numerous, for no bird is regularly subjected to worse —

mistreatment. But its ability to exist under the most ad-
verse conditions should not be imposed upon, for endurance
has its limits. The canary thrives in an open brass cage,

and is commonly so kept in this country. The box cage ©

es ae ee

—

CANARIES 209

is infinitely better, but the brass canary cage is an American
institution, which is too firmly established to be uprooted.

If the open cage is used, some precautions must be taken
as to its position. Sunlight and fresh air are necessary to
the health of the bird, but draughts must be avoided, so the
cage must not be placed in an open window. Many persons
cover the cage at night with a cloth. If the room is

* draughty, this is really necessary, but ordinarily the bird will
be healthier and freer from colds if it is not coddled in this
way.

Canaries are bred in small cages and room for flight
is not necessary for their happiness. The individual cage,
however, should not be less than twelve inches in each dimen-
sion, if the bird is to have space for ordinary exercise.

The perches should be round and thin to allow the bird to
clasp them firmly. Perches of varying thickness offer a
welcome change. Perches oval in section are sometimes
used, but as a bird’s foot is fashioned for automatically
grasping a round stick this shape is best suited to its needs.

The bottom of the cage should be kept sprinkled with
clean sand or bird gravel, which may be renewed frequently.
Graveled paper is to be had from dealers, but it seems un-
,fair to provoke the bird with needed grit which it can
‘secure only after a struggle. A healthy canary will never
eat more gravel than its welfare demands.

German birds are fed chiefly on rape seed, with a small
admixture of canary. English breeders use canary seed as
the base, and add small portions of millet, rape, poppy, etc.
Both systems seem to have their merits and can be blended
to meet the requirements of canaries of any derivation.
In feeding it is important to make certain that the seed is
free from dust, and to give a restricted quantity. The great
majority of canary ills are the result of over-feeding.

During the molt, which normally occurs during the late

~

210 BIRDS

summer, when the bird loses its feathers and its voice as
well, extra nourishment is required. This is supplied in
the form of “song restorer” obtainable from all dealers.
These mixtures usually consist of egg cake or zwieback,
poppy and flax seeds, and cayenne pepper. They can easily
be prepared by any one who cares to take the trouble.
Green food should be supplied freely, and so long as it is
fresh will benefit the bird. Frost-bitten or even wet greens
should never be used. Chickweed, lettuce and watercress

are the plants best adapted for the purpose. Sweet apple is ©

_ always relished by canaries.

Water should always be cool and fresh, and should not
be allowed to become heated by the sun. It is important to
clean the receptacle daily, to remove the growth of slime
which gathers on the inner surface.

Canaries, like most small birds, should bathe frequently.
Some will do so daily without any difficulty. Others will
consistently refuse. Most birds will use any small, shal-
low receptacle, which may be placed in the cage. The out-
side ‘bath attachment, procurable from any dealer, is a
convenient means, and the bird will soon learn to use it.
Birds which cannot be induced to bathe should be sprayed
frequently with tepid water in an atomizer.

Breeding

As already stated, practically all of the canaries for the

American trade are produced in Germany. England fur-
nishes a few Norwich and Yorkshires, but their numbers
are almost negligible. Canary breeding on a large scale,
_for some obscure reason, appears never to have been at-
tempted in this country. A few Rollers, Norwich, York-
shires and Belgians are bred for exhibition purposes, but
the purely commercial side is entirely undeveloped. Rollers

CANARIES 211

require skilled handling, and the demand for purely fancy
breeds is not great, but common singing canaries can be bred
by any one possessed of time and patience. Canary breed-
ing is an ideal occupation for invalids and other sedentary
persons, and could be made remunerative if carried out on
a scale sufficiently large. )

There are two systems by which canaries may be bred.
One is the bird room, or aviary, in which the birds are
given full liberty, and allowed to seek such mates as please
them. The other is the more systematic method of the
careful breeder, who pairs his birds with discrimination,
and keeps them in separate cages.

A disused room, or a detached structure, with or without
open-air flights attached, may be adapted to the purpose.
It must be mouse-proof, and of course impervious to rain
and wind. Canaries will become hardy and can be kept
without heat if well protected, but few breeders care to
risk keeping their birds in winter without some artificial
warmth. The room should be fitted up with perches, the
most suitable being natural branches. Wire nests, wooden
traveling cages, small boxes, etc., should be placed in sites
suitable for nests, and the usual nesting material—hair, cot-
ton, soft hay, etc.—supplied. An equal number of each sex,
liberated in such a room, may be expected to turn out a good
number of young, although there is likely to be more or less
quarreling. Such a method might well be used by persons
engaged in producing common canaries on a large scale,
but of course selective breeding under these conditions is
impossible.

The most satisfactory system is that by which each pair
is kept in a separate cage. This is the only means for con-
trolling the suitable mating of the birds and making certain
of the parentage of the offspring. The best cage is of the
box type, with all sides except the front tightly closed. The

212 BIRDS

front is wired, and furnished with a door and apertures
for food and water receptacles. Twenty to twenty-four
inches long, by ten deep and fifteen high, are good average
dimensions. Each cage should be furnished with a slide
bottom, which should be kept covered with clean sand or
gravel. Such cages may be placed in “stack” form, on
shelves about the walls of a room, and a great many pairs of
breeding canaries accommodated with a small floor space.
Uniform cages, well made and finished, can be so arranged as
to give the breeding room a neat and attractive appearance.

The perches should be so placed as to give easy access to
the food and water dishes. These last are obtainable in
many shapes, the only essential features being that they
‘ allow the birds to feed readily, and are themselves easily
cleaned. It must be remembered that the birds naturally

require more food when rearing young and the food holder _

must be large enough to contain an abundant supply.

In England, the little wooden nest boxes once generally
used have been largely replaced by others of tin and earthen-
ware. Canaries will use almost any receptacle that strikes
their fancy, but metal or earthenware pans do not offer the
hiding-places for insects that wooden ones do. Breeders
in this country commonly use round baskets of wirework,
which are furnished with an attachment for fastening them
to the cage. These nests are obtainable from all dealers.
They are usually lined with soft cloth, to make a founda-
tion for the nest, and placed at the back of the cage, near
the top. Hair nesting material can be had from all bird
stores. This, with bits of cotton, soft grass, etc., should
be placed in the cage, and with it the birds will construct
a nest to please themselves.

Healthy canaries will begin to think of pairing shortly
after the first of the year, but it is best to hold them back
until late February, or even March. A bad start may result

CANARIES 213

in a ruined season, whereas if mating is delayed until the
weather is more seasonable results are certain to be more
satisfactory. )

Canaries are naturally monogamous, and ordinarily
breed in pairs, although under the conditions of an aviary
this rule is not always adhered to. Some breeders, for one
reason or another, make a practice of mating a cock with
two hens. This can be accomplished, but some skill in
handling is necessary, as in most cases the hens must be kept
separate.

Cocks and hens should, of course, be kept apart until
the breeding season begins. When it has been decided to
pair them, the cock and hen to be matched should be intro-
duced to the breeding cage. There is generally some little
quarreling at first, but this is soon over and the birds quickly
settle down to the business of life. Very occasionally indi-
viduals will be found which will not agree, and in such
cases the cage may be divided with a wire partition until
they have changed their minds. Ordinarily this partition
is not necessary.

At this time egg food, which consists of about equal parts
of grated hard-boiled egg and biscuit, bread or zwieback
crumbled together, should be given daily in small quantities,
with an occasional pinch of poppy or maw seed. Of course
the usual seed must also be continued.

Building will soon begin, and as soon as the nest is com-
plete the first egg may be looked for. The hen usually ap-
pears very ill and rough in plumage just before laying, but
this need not occasion alarm. However, if the egg is not
deposited by the following day, help must be given quickly.
A few drops of warm olive oil, inserted in the vent with a
medicine dropper, often will bring relief. If this fails,
holding the bird over steam, of course being careful to
avoid scalding, will almost invariably produce the desired

214 BIRDS ©

effect. As a last resort, wrap the bird carefully in a soft
cloth and place it in a position where a uniformly high tem-
perature is maintained. This method is applicable to all
birds in cases of egg binding.

An egg generally is laid each successive day, until from
three to six have been deposited, four being the most usual
number. Most breeders remove the eggs, as laid, using a
spoon for the purpose. If this is not done they not only
serve as a temptation to cocks inclined to egg-eating, but
are more or less incubated as each successive addition is
made. The consequence is that some hatch several days
before the others, the first young birds being so much larger
than the later ones that the little fellows have a poor chance
of survival. The hen will indicate the completion of her
clutch by sitting tightly when the last egg is laid and then
the others may be returned to the nest. At this time the egg
food should be given only occasionally, as during incuba-
tion the food should not be too stimulating. The hen will
leave the nest now and then to take a bite or two and take a
bit of exercise, but most of her food is supplied by the cock,
which feeds her constantly while she is sitting.

In case it is necessary, for any reason, to remove the male,
the female may generally be relied upon to hatch and rear
the young unassisted.

Incubation lasts for thirteen days, and if the eggs have
been removed as laid the chicks all should emerge at about
the same time. After two or three days the nest should be
examined, and any eggs which have failed to hatch removed.

Egg food with a little poppy seed must now be furnished
constantly, and the seed and water dishes kept well supplied.

Canaries feed the young by regurgitation, both seed and
egg food being given. In all cases it is imperative that
the food be clean and untainted. Green food, if fresh,
should be given in moderate quantity daily.

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CANARIES ‘are

During the first few days the hen sits closely on the
young, being fed by the cock and in turn passing it on to the
chicks. It is at this time that.one of the most common ail-
ments of young canaries occurs. This is known as “ sweat-
ing,” and is easily recognized by the sticky and bedraggled
condition of the chicks. It is not, of course, actually caused
by “ sweating,” but by looseness of the bowels of the chicks,
causing the excrement to be of a watery nature, and hence
not removable by the hen which normally performs this
function. The nest quickly becomes foul and the chicks
as well. It is customary to remove the cocks under such
conditions, thus causing the hen to leave the nest in order
to feed. The best remedy is to clean the nest and attempt
to check the diarrhoea. If this can be accomplished the
trouble will cease.

If all goes well, the chicks grow rapidly, and when barely
three weeks old are ready to leave the nest. At this time
the hen is likely to be thinking of laying again. If nesting
material is not abundant, she may pluck the young birds to
line her new nest, and as she may decide to lay in the old
one, the best plan is to remove the young birds. If a par-
tition can be placed in the cage, they may be separated from
their parents in this way. If this is not practicable, they
can be placed in a small cage, so arranged that the parents,
or at least the cock, can continue feeding the offspring,

through the bars. This they will do until the little birds

are able to feed for themselves. |
From the first the youngsters must be furnished with egg
food and canary, rape and a little crushed hemp. They will
soon begin to pick at it; and when four or five weeks old
will be able to feed themselves. As soon as this is seen to
be the case, they may be separated entirely from the parents
and placed in a larger cage. If there are several broods of
approximately the same age, they may be placed together,

216 BIRDS

It is necessary to watch for feather-pulling, a common vice
among young birds. Any offenders should be promptly
removed, as the habit is contagious and difficult to eradicate.

As the birds progress, the egg food is gradually elimi-
nated, and the youngsters fed in the usual manner for adults.
When four or five weeks old, the young cocks will begin to
twitter and can thus be distinguished from the hens. At six
or eight weeks they begin to molt, only the body feathers
being renewed. The flights and tail feathers are not dropped
until the following year.

The breeding birds will commence to molt in July or early
August and should then be separated for the season.

Breeds

As already stated, the German Canaries are of but two
sorts, the Common and the Roller, alike in color and appear-
ance, and distinguished only by their song. On the other
hand, the English birds are much varied in form and not
particularly ‘brilliant as songsters. The Belgian Canary
offers still another differentiation in shape.

The Common Canary, the familiar bird of our homes, is
simply the wild bird more or less modified in color and song.
It occurs in green, yellow and cinnamon, both clear or self,
and mottled. Little attention is paid to color by breeders,
the only requirement being a loud, full song. This is the
usual Canary of commerce, and the one which offers the best
investment for the prospective producer for the market. It
furnishes the great bulk of the birds which reach us from
Germany, and now is being bred here in some numbers.

The ROLLER averages somewhat smaller than the Com-
mon Canary, and generally is self-green or heavily varie-
gated, although clear yellows occasionally are seen. The
charm of the bird lies in its wonderful song, quite unlike

Yorkshire Canary Norwich Canary

Crested Canary

CANARIES 217:

that of its noisier relative. It consists of a series of soft,
sweet trills known as “tours,” to each of which has been
given a name, such as “ hollow-flute,” “ bell-roll,” “ water-
roll,” etc. This little bird’s voice really is indescribably
charming, and no one who has heard it would ever again
value the song of another canary.

Rollers are bred, trained and selected with the greatest
care. As soon as the young cocks have completed the
molt, and commenced twittering, each is placed in a sepa-
rate cage, in a partially darkened room. An old cock,
known as a “ schoolmaster,” selected for his perfection of
song, is now introduced, and from him the young birds learn
the most desirable trills. Should one develop a false or
harsh note, he is removed at once, lest he ruin his neigh-
bors. The schoolmaster is often assisted by the bird organ,
an instrument on which it is possible to produce many of
the runs.

The best Rollers still are bred in Germany, in the vicinity
of St. Andreasburg. English and American breeders have
taken up breeding rather extensively, but the best school-
masters are difficult to obtain, as they are highly prized in
Germany.

Rollers are exhibited at most cage-bird shows, their judg-
ing being a matter of considerable interest. Each bird is
kept in a small cage, enclosed in a decorative wooden box,
the doors of which are kept tightly shut. When the time
for judging arrives, the contestants are removed to a quiet
corner, where no sound will interfere with accurate hearing.
The doors are then opened, one at a time, and the occu-
pant, if well trained, at once bursts into song. The adjudi-
cator, with the greatest care, listens to the performance,
marking each bird according to its ability, and deducting for
faults. It may well be believed that only a most experienced
person may qualify as a judge of Rollers.

218 BIRDS

The Beician Canary is one of the group which includes
the ‘“ birds of position.” It was produced in Belgium, but
now is widely bred on the continent, and also in England
and America. It is purely a “ fancy” bird, and is bred for
shape and position alone, song and color being negligible.
This bird represents the curious tendency of breeders the
world over to develop grotesque variations. There is noth-
ing lovely about the Belgian Canary, and only the initiated
can appreciate the care and skill required to produce the
strange form so much desired by admirers of the breed.

The Belgian Canary is essentially long and slender. The
body is slim and the back and tail straight, forming a right
angle with the perch, when the bird is in position. The legs
- must be long and straight, allowing the bird to stand well
up. The wings must be held tightly, and meet evenly over
the back, the points not overlapping. The most striking
singularity is the neck, which is extremely long and narrow.
When the bird is fully extended, the neck extends forward
and downward from the body, at an angle approximating
45 degrees, the beak being pointed straight down. Well-
bred young birds always assume this position when ex-
cited, and the habit is fastened in exhibition birds by con-
stant training. It is the aim of breeders to preserve tight-
~ ness of plumage, but the shoulders must be well rounded,
and not made to appear uneven by projecting wing butts.
The Belgian Canary is an exceedingly nervous bird and
should never be handled if avoidable.

There is one other Continental breed to which we may
briefly refer—the Dutcu or FrencH FrILtLtep CANARY.
This is a long, slender bird, somewhat on the style of the
Belgian but without the exaggerated pose. Its most strik-
‘ing character lies in the plumage, which is unusually long
and wavy and recurved at certain points: the chest, the
region of the thighs, the back, the base of the tail and occa-

CANARIES 219

sionally the nape. This canary is still largely bred in Hol-
land and in France, but is seldom seen to perfection else-
where.

We come now to the English and Scotch breeds. Since
much attention is given to color as well as type in these
birds, a few words devoted to this phase will serve for all.
_ Canaries usually occur in three main colors—yellow, green
and cinnamon—either clear or marked. The experienced
breeder subdivides the yellow birds into two groups. Those
in which the color is deep and clear with no shading of
white he calls yellows. When the color is pale and with a
frosting of white he calls the bird, rather curiously, a buff.
Closely allied as these two shades are, each seems to retain
its purity when crossed. Strangely enough, the buff birds
have the plumage much denser and heavier than the yellows,
which excel in fineness of texture. It is customary, there-
fore, when mating pairs for breeding, to pair a buff and a
yellow, with the object of securing all of the desirable quali-
ties in the young. In case density, on the one hand, or
silkiness, on the other, is to be intensified, it may be done
by pairing two buffs or two yellows, which is known as
“doubling.” A cross with greens is useful in keeping yel-
lows and buffs at their best.

Green Canaries are a dark olive green in general, the
back and sides of the breast being streaked with black.
The flights and tail are black, edged with green. Breeders
endeavor to get the striping as narrow as possible, thus
getting a clearer shade of green. Greens occur in two
phases, as do yellows: a dark one, known as yellow-green,
and a paler shade, called buff-green. The two forms are
mated together, as are yellows and buffs, the typical
characters of strength and texture of plumage holding
good.

The Cinnamon is a rich cinnamon-buff, the color being

220 BIRDS

purest on the breast and variegated on the back with stripes
of a darker tone. The usual distinction of yellow and
buff is made between birds of dark and lighter shade. All
self-colored and variegated cinnamons, and even clear yel-
lows, cinnamon-bred, have pink eyes, a never-failing indica-
tion of ancestry. Cinnamons are recessives in the Mendelian
sense, and two birds of this color mated together never
will breed anything but cinnamons. The character is also
sex-limited in a curious fashion. A cinnamon hen, bred to
a cock containing no cinnamon blood, will produce no birds
of this color. A cinnamon cock, with a hen not cinnamon
bred, will breed some cinnamons, but all of this color will
be hens. On the other hand, cinnamon cocks or hens bred
to non-cinnamon birds containing cinnamon blood will pro-
duce both sexes of this color.

Cinnamons, as well as greens, were cultivated for years as
separate varieties, color being the cardinal point. Recently,
however, these colors have been bred into the principal
types of Canaries, so that they are now found among most
breeds, such as the Yorkshire, Norwich and Border Fancy.
Cinnamons, however, are still given separate classes at the
larger English shows.

There is still another color which should not be over-
looked—pure white. Records of White Canaries are of
frequent occurrence in the history of the bird, but not until
recently have they become well established.

At the Crystal Palace Show, held in London, February
5-9, 1909, the first White Canary was exhibited.* ‘This
bird was bred in England by a Mr. Kiesel, and was, in its
turn, the sire of six white young. At about the same time,
a Mrs. Marten, of New Zealand, bred some white birds, a
few of which were later sent to England. The first birds

*For much information concerning the White Canary, I am in-
debted to Mr. F. Carl, editor of Cage Birds, London.

—_—— <_—

eS a ee ~-

i ee | a ee ee

CANARIES 221

seem to have occurred from closely related parents which
had been mated for “ double buffing,” but whether or not
this combination of inbreeding and pale color caused the
appearance of an albino is problematical.

As first produced, the whites were of the common type,
and the only object of breeders was to secure purity of color.
Now, however, they are being adapted to the standards of
various recognized breeds, such as Yorkshires, Norwich and
Border Fancies.

At the exhibition of the London Cage Bird Association,
held at the Royal Horticultural Hall, London, in December,
1912, the writer inspected eight lovely White Canaries, the
cheapest of which was valued at £10. No specimens of this
color have appeared in America at this writing.

All of the foregoing descriptions refer to birds of solid
color: yellows and buffs being known as “clears” and
greens and cinnamons as “ selfs.’ Besides these there are
various forms of pied birds, which fall into several groups.
The ground color of these birds is yellow or buff, with
markings of green or cinnamon. A bird which is entirely
clear, except for a single small patch, is known as “ ticked.”
A further admixture of light and dark feathers makes what
is called a “variegated.” The most highly developed of
these birds is called the “ even-marked.” These markings
occur in three sections on each side—the eye, wing and tail.
The eye mark should be even and rounded in front, just
wide enough to encircle the eye, tapering to a point behind.
The wing marks are formed by the secondaries, a varying
number of which may be colored, so long as no light feathers
are interspersed and the two sides are even. The tail marks
consist of from one to three dark feathers at the sides of
the tail. These last are not of so much importance as the
two former, birds with eye and wing marks only being
equally popular. Evenly marked Canaries are difficult to

222 BIRDS

produce, and no attempt seems to have been made to popu-
larize them, in any breed, on this side.

While on the subject of color, we may consider the ques-
tion of color feeding. This operation is performed during
the molt, the new plumage of the bird coming in a bright
orange color of a most attractive shade. The method was
discovered about 1870, and the first color-fed birds ex-
hibited created a great sensation among breeders. The
secret was carefully guarded for a few years, but finally
was given out. When it was found that the birds which
had been sweeping the boards at the classic shows owed
their success to the humble red pepper, joy and chagrin must
have struggled for supremacy. At first cayenne pepper was
used, but later experiments showed the sweet red peppers to
be equally efficient and less trying for the birds. These are
dried and ground and mixed with egg food in the propor-
tion of one part pepper to two of food. Some breeders add
a small quantity of sweet oil and sugar to the food.
Whether or not these ingredients are to be used is a mat-
ter of personal choice and experience. A few weeks before
the birds commence molting the use of the food is begun,
and it is continued until all of the feathers have been re-
newed. About a teaspoonful per day is enough for a bird,
which of course should have the regular seed in addition.
If the color food is not taken readily, the seed may be
withheld for a time. Few birds ultimately refuse the food,
and most will eat it greedily. When the molt has been com-
pleted the food may gradually be discontinued. Contrary
to the belief of many, it is not the stimulating character of
the pepper that causes the color, but its chemical constituents.
Just what the action is we do not know, but the final result
is indisputable.

Of the English Canaries, one of the oldest and most popu-
lar is the Norwicu. It is a large, full-bodied bird, with

ESE eee

CANARIES 223

short, round head. The plumage should be soft and fine,
but still must be smooth. The wings, as in most canary
breeds, lie close and meet in a straight line on the back. The
Norwich, which occurs in all of the clear, self and marked
varieties, excels in richness of color, and is the bird in which
color feeding produces the best results.

The modern CrESTED CANARY appears to have been de-
veloped by various crossings of breeds, prominent among
which are the Norwich and the Lancashire Coppy, the aim
of breeders being to get a bird of the large, thick-set,
Norwich type. The crest is the most important point in this
bird. This should be formed of large, flat feathers, radiating
from a point in the center of the crown. It should be cir-
cular in shape, free from upstanding feathers, and should
cover both beak and eyes. The back of the crest is a weak
spot, many birds having a tendency to exhibit faults at
this point. The most popular color is a clear body with dark
crest, followed closely by the even marks. The entirely
clear bird is considered the least desirable.

In breeding Crests, crestless birds, known as Crest-breds,
occur. These birds are of the same type as the typical
Crests, but are plain-headed, the only indication of their
ancestry being a curling or rising of the feathers over the
eye, known as “ browing.’”’ In pairing, it is customary to
mate a Crest with a Crest-bred, a method which seems to
produce the best results. Crests of very good quality are
imported from England yearly, and offered for sale by
dealers, but the breed does not appear to be kept extensively
here.

The LANCASHIRE Coppy is the largest of the Canary
breeds, its stature being considerably greater than that of
the Crest. The name refers to the crest which adorns the
head. In this bird the feathers of the crown radiate from
the center toward the front and sides only, and not toward

224 BIRDS

the back, where the feathers merge with those of the nape.
Plain-headed birds occur here as in the true Crested Canary,
and show the same heavy browing. Asin Crests, it is com-
mon practice to pair Coppies with Plainheads. The Coppy
is not bred now so generally as it once was, its popularity
having been weakened by the advent of the modern Crest.
Coppies are found only in clear and ticked Yellows and
Buffs.

The BorpEr FANcy is really a glorified Common Canary.
It is kept in some numbers on both sides of the Scottish
border, and is now bred to a recognized standard. It is a
small bird, rather slimmer than the German Common Ca-
nary, and close and tight in feathering. The head is small
and rounded, the back full and straight and the wings meet-
ing evenly with no crossing. The Border Fancy is bred in
all of the known colors.

The YorkKsuHIRE, while the most recently perfected of
Canary breeds, certainly is the dandy of the tribe, and
shares with the Norwich the palm of popularity.

It is long, slender and graceful, without the unpleasantly
exaggerated pose of the Belgian. It is quiet and steady, as
good a singer as any English bird, and a prolific breeder.
The original Yorkshire has long been established in its
native county, but modern breeders have introduced alien
blood of many sorts to bring it to its present perfection.

The Yorkshire is essentially a slim bird and rather long,
exhibition cocks being just under seven inches and hens
somewhat smaller. The head is small and narrow, while
neck and body are symmetrically slender. The whole bird,
from tip to tip, should be straight, with no tendency to
angles. Well-fitted wings and straight, closed tail are
important features. The plumage must be tight and smooth
in all parts. Yorkshires are bred in all colors, and are

kept in considerable numbers in this country.

CANARIES 225

The ScotcH Fancy is similar to the Belgian Canary,
with the body strongly curved instead of straight. The
tail follows the curve of the body, so that when the bird is
in position the extended head and the tip of the tail are not
far out of the same vertical line. The legs appear to grasp
the perch from behind, rather than from above, giving the
bird a curious air of determination to hang on in spite
of attempts to push him off. Scotch Fancies are still very
popular in Scotland, and a few are bred here. Color is not ©
sought so eagerly in this breed as in some others.

We now come to the two canary breeds in which color is
of paramount importance—the Lizard and the London
Fancy. These two breeds undoubtedly are closely allied,
and when in nest plumage resemble each other almost ex-
actly. After the molt, however, they are very distinct.
Both are of the Common Canary type in body.

The Lizarp CANARY occurs in two forms: the Gold, cor-
responding to yellow, and the Silver, bearing the same rela-
tion to buff. In the Gold Lizard the ground color above
is a soft brown, each feather having a black center and

-yellow margin. The spangles thus formed must be clear

and distinct, and cover the bird’s back in straight lines. The
flights and tail are black, edged with yellow. The crown,
to a line through the center of the eye, is clear yellow, the
upper lid remaining dark. This cap must be evenly cut,
any wandering of light or dark feathers being considered
a serious blemish. The underparts are rich yellow, with
an indication of spangling at the sides.

The Silver Lizard is similar in pattern, but the ground
color is gray, not brown, the edgings are white, and the _
cap is pale buff. The legs and beak in each variety are dark.
It is common practice to color feed Lizards, the richness of
their plumage being much enhanced.

In breeding Lizards, it is customary to pair Gold with

226 BIRDS

Silver, as yellow with buff. The young are green with
yellow cap, showing little resemblance to their parents. At
the first molt the spangling appears. As the flights and tail
are not shed at this time, they retain their original black
color. It is in this plumage that the Lizard is at its best.
At the next molt the feathers lose much of their brilliancy
and the sharpness of the spangling is destroyed. The flight
and tail feathers also become tipped with white. It is of
great interest to note that if any of the flights or tail
feathers are removed before their normal time, they are
replaced by others with white tips.

The Lonpon Fancy, when in the nest plumage, is indis-
tinguishable from a young Lizard. At the first molt, how-
ever, the dark body feathers are replaced by deep yellow or
buff, as the case may be, while the flights and tail remain
pure black. This plumage lasts for a year only, the black
flights being displaced by grizzled, yellow ones at the
first adult molt. The London Fancy, for some reason, is
now very little bred, and must soon disappear if not speedily
revived.

Canary Hybrids

The production of hybrids, known as “mules,” from
crosses of canaries with various other finches, is a pursuit
which has long fascinated keepers of cage birds. The birds
so produced are invariably sterile, and although they will ©
often pair and lay, no proof of their having produced young —
has ever been set forth. The cocks are often handsomely ~
colored, and are exceptionally fine singers, combining the
wild notes of one parent with the free delivery of the other. —

The great ambition of mule breeders is to secure clear, —
evenly marked or ticked birds. These have been produced ~
in small numbers in Goldfinch, Linnet and Siskin hybrids,
but such birds are practically unknown on this side. An ©

CANARIES 227

occasional heavily variegated bird is seen, but most are dark
selfs, which are to be preferred to the former.

In breeding most sorts of mules, it is customary to run
a cock finch with a hen canary, chiefly because of the tracta-
bility of the latter, as compared with most wild females, and
the certainty with which she will rear the young. Hens
that will throw light or clear hybrids are greatly valued,
and the establishment of a strain of such hens has often
been attempted. English fancy papers are filled with ad-
vertisements of “ pink-eyed yellow sib-bred hens” for mul-
ing purposes, the idea being that “ sib” or inbred birds are
most likely to breed light mules. Whether or not this be
true, it seems certain that hens with pink eyes (denoting
cinnamon blood, with its “ sporting ’”’ tendencies), carefully
yellow-bred for several generations, are more likely to pro-
duce clear birds than females of mixed ancestry. In spite of
all precautions, however, the tendency of the great majority
of hens is to throw dark or heavily variegated mules. At
any rate, she should be yellow, not buff, in color, as buff
hybrids lack the richness of yellows. She should be of the
Norwich rather than of the Yorkshire type, since the off-
spring of the latter are too slender and upright.

Most hen canaries will mate freely with cocks of other
species, although some are difficult to reconcile. An im-
portant point is to wait until the normal nesting time of the
wild bird, since it will not be in breeding condition until
then. If introduced too soon, fighting is likely to occur,
with disastrous results. The cock finch should be tame,
weli accustomed to cage life and of course as large and
brightly colored as possible.

Pairing, building and laying are much the same with
cross-mated pairs as with straight Canaries. It is always
best to remove the eggs as laid because of the tendency of
many cock finches to destroy them. As soon as the hen is

228 BIRDS

sitting well, it is customary to remove the cock and allow
her to perform her maternal duties unattended. The
young birds at all stages are fed and treated as are young
canaries.

The most popular hybrid is the GoLpFINCH-CANARY
Mute. As already stated, clear or lightly ticked birds are
the most valuable and are correspondingly rare. Such
specimens are often of the deepest yellow, but always re-
tain a deeper flush corresponding to the crimson face of the
male parent, and also the sharp, tapering beak. Hand-
-somely marked variegated birds are common, but as ex-
hibition specimens rank below sound-colored selfs, which
are now given more attention than was once the case. Such
birds are of a rich brownish hue in general, with a tinge of
yellow below. The Goldfinch characters are seen in the
wings and tail, and in the orange blaze on the face. Self
mules should be as rich and deep in color as possible, and
must be free from light feathers throughout. The nape
is a particularly weak spot, a great many birds showing
a few small, light feathers here.

The Linnet-Canary MULE is another hybrid which has
received some attention on this side. Clear or even light
birds are still more rare in this cross, the great majority

being dark selfs. These latter resemble closely the Linnet —

father, but of course never show the red in cap or breast,
which this bird has before a molt in captivity.

.
q

The CaNaRy-BULLFINCH MULE is the only one which is —

commonly bred by pairing a cock Canary with a hen Bull-

finch. There is little difficulty in getting the birds to mate —

and lay, but the eggs had best be transferred to a canary.
Fertile eggs are the exception rather than the rule, and such —
hybrids are not common.

Many other canary hybrids have been produced, chiefly - |
in Europe, but interest in their breeding is not great in ©

CANARIES 229

this country. Mr. Wesley T. Page * gives a list of twenty-
five mule hybrids with various finches, including the
American Goldfinch, Purple Finch and Indigo Bunting.
The first two of these, at least, were not uncommon in the
days when native birds were kept in this country, and a
few are still being bred here by holders of special permits.

A great variety of hybrids between wild European finches
have been produced in England, almost every conceivable
cross having been made. Very little work of this sort ap-
pears to have been done in this country.

* Species Which Have Reared Young and Hybrids Which Have
Been Bred in Captivity in Great Britain, p. 45.

CHAPTER XVII
DOMESTIC PIGEONS

No group of domestic birds or animals shows such diversity
of form, color and markings as do the pigeons. The mold-
ing of the many curious variations must have commenced in
very early times; Darwin * states that the first record of
pigeons in captivity occurs in the fifth Egyptian dynasty,
about 3000 B.C.

That the ancestor of these remarkably diverse forms still
exists in the Rock Dove (Columba livia) is no longer open
to doubt. This bird is found more or less abundantly in
Europe, Turkestan and central Asia, to China. Its color
is exactly that of blue varieties of domesticated birds. It is
pale gray above, darker on the head, breast and upper tail
coverts. The neck is beautifully iridescent, showing reflec-
tions of green and purple. The rump is white, while the
tail is slaty, with a black band near the tip. The basal por-
tions of the outer edges of the outer tail feathers are edged
with white. Each wing is crossed by two distinct black
bars, one formed by the secondaries, the other by the greater
coverts. Its legs are smooth and bare and the bill rather
slender, with small, compact wattle. This description would
serve for blue varieties throughout the group except for the
white rump, which is disliked in most fancy breeds.

The Rock Dove is a dweller in cliffs and similar locali-

ties, roosting and nesting on the bare ledges. In India
immense flocks, half tamed, inhabit the mosques, and for
centuries, in various parts of England, partly domesticated

* Animals and Plants Under Domestication (Westminster Edition),
p. 511.
230

:
:
:

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 231

birds have lived in the dovecotes. These dovecote birds
are not all of the barred type, many showing chequering
on the wing coverts, the first variation the Rock Dove shows
in captivity. It is this innate tendency to variation that has
given us our wonderful array of modern breeds. Once
the bounds of normal plumage have been passed, almost
anything is possible. Albinos must have occurred among
these birds, as among others, and their appearance would
quickly lead to pied forms. Other colors appeared, either
as distinct mutations or as slight differences which were
quickly seized upon by the breeders. The slightest tendency
to crests, feathered legs, frills or other abnormalities was
fixed and improved with a zeal which now seems nothing
short of amazing. But the chief types of pigeons undoubt-
edly are very old, a legacy from forgotten centuries.

Of the actual breeds of those old times we know little;
it is probable that. they would not be recognized today as
the ancestors of our modern kinds. But the eastern coun-
tries became the birthplace of many types now well known—
the Fantail, the Owls, the Oriental Frills, certain types of
Tumblers and probably others. Most of these birds have
been developed and greatly improved since their introduc-
tion to western Europe, where many new varieties were
created. On the other hand, in some groups the East has
more than held its own; Smyrna is still famous for the
wonderful Oriental Frills produced there.

General Care

Pigeon-keepers may be divided into three groups: those
whose birds live in a state of semi-liberty breeding entirely
without control and receiving little or no attention; those
who breed squabs on a commercial basis, and have no inter-
est in their birds beyond the weight of edible flesh they can

232 BIRDS

produce; and those who keep pigeons because they like
them, and so give them the care and attention they should
have, without too close an eye on the account book. It is
to the last group only that we shall devote space here.

Although fancy pigeon breeding is now a well-developed
art in this country, the tyro who ventures into higher circles
will soon find himself confused by the intricate mysteries of
breeding and selection, not too well understood by the élite
themselves. Because of their remarkable variations and
. rapidity of reproduction, pigeons offer an excellent field for
the study of these questions, and the thoughtful person,
whatever his motive, will find much to repay his efforts.

Pigeons are hardy creatures, and all but the most deli-
cate breeds can endure much privation. The flocks which
live untrammeled in our cities, spending their days in the
streets and their nights among the cornices of buildings, are
a familiar example. In spite of this fact, however, pigeons
of all sorts are better for suitable housing, and with the
finer breeds real protection is a matter of necessity.

In building or arranging a pigeon loft, much depends on
the nature of the birds to be kept. Flying birds, such as
Tipplers, Rollers and Homers, naturally do not require the
loft space necessary for those which are always kept in
confinement. In all events, the loft must be light, dry
and tight enough to preclude danger of draughts. Artificial
warmth is unnecessary except in very unusual cases. It is of
the greatest importance that the loft be made, as nearly as
possible, rat and mouse proof. The former, especially, are

a menace, and their inroads are certain to be serious, if they

gain access. Individual perches, of the A or other similar
type, should be placed about the walls, thus preventing much
quarreling, causing the accumulation of droppings at cer-
tain points and avoiding the obstruction of the central

space. As the feet of pigeons are adapted for sitting on

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 233

flat surfaces, rather than for clasping round objects, perches
should be arranged in accordance.

Every loft has its own particular arrangement of nest
boxes, which are built to suit conditions. There are a few
points, however, in which all should agree. As pigeons,
when in proper breeding condition, usually have well-grown
young in one nest and eggs in another, it is necessary that
each pair be provided with two sites. This is best accom-
plished by dividing the available space into compartments,
say three feet long. Each compartment is then subdivided,
forming two smaller inner chambers. Here may be placed
shallow earthenware pans, obtainable from all dealers, or
small wooden boxes, in which the birds will build their
nests. The partition dividing the compartments should be
high enough to prevent the young in one nest from disturb-
ing the parent engaged in incubation in the other. If con-
ditions are suitable, it is best to build nesting compartments
on the floor, thus avoiding the danger of injury to the young
birds by falling from the nest. Where this is not feasible,
they can be erected in tiers along the walls. Each pair will
select and hold its own domain, jealously defending it
against all comers.

It is an excellent plan to arrange the compartments so
that they can be closed temporarily with wire netting. They
are then useful for confining the pairs at mating time.

Sea sand, clean and free from clay, is the best material
for covering the floor. Sawdust is used by some, but it
blows about, especially if thinly spread, and is likely to be
picked up, with injurious effect, by young birds. If the
sand is gone over with a very fine rake and worked through
a sieve, once a week or so, the loft will always be clean.

If a flight is to be attached, this may be made of any
size desired, but equal care must be taken to make it vermin
proof, unless the birds are to be fed inside and can be

234 BIRDS

fastened in at night. In this case two-inch mesh poultry
netting is sufficient to restrain them. The flight should be
fitted with perches, so placed as to induce the inmates to
take as much exercise as possible.

Whether the birds are to be confined or are to have their
liberty, it is best to accustom them to the use of bob-wires.
This is done by placing a wire of medium weight, bent in the
form of an inverted U, over the inner side of the hole through
which they pass. The wire is fastened at the top with
staples, so that it swings easily. A strip of wood is placed
at the bottom, so that when pushed against from without
the “bob” yields freely but prevents passage in the oppo-
site direction. These wires can be raised when the birds are
permitted to pass in and out, but when it is desired to con-
fine them to the loft they have only to be dropped, when all
that enter must remain within.

Pigeons flying at liberty, if well fed, will seldom leave,
the greatest difficulty being in getting them settled. This is
best accomplished when the birds have eggs or young, since
they will hardly stray at this time. If the hen of a mated
pair be confined where the cock can see her, he is not likely
to leave the vicinity. If much apprehension is felt, it is a
good plan to confine one wing in a sling, in such a manner
that it cannot be fully used for flight. After a bird has been
on the loft roof for a few days, thus hampered, it may
safely be given its liberty. Pigeons of flying breeds, if fully
adult, are very difficult to settle, and it is best to keep them
confined and liberate only the young.

The staple food of pigeons consists of various grains.
Canada and maple peas, dari, wheat, buckwheat and barley
are excellent. Cracked corn is used by many, but it is espe-
cially dangerous for pigeons, not only for its fattening
qualities, but because it is often unsound before cracking
and once broken molds:very quickly, The small, hard, flint

EE EE EEE a

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 235

corn is excellent, if used in moderation, but is not always
obtainable. Tares, or bird vetch, is one of the very best
pigeon foods, but is rather expensive. Canary seed and
hemp are eaten with eagerness, but should be used as an
occasional treat, not as a regular item of diet.

Two methods of feeding, apparently with an equal num-
ber of adherents, are in vogue. Some feed once or twice
daily, giving just what the birds will pick up and no more.

Others supply grain in hoppers, always accessible to the

pigeons. The first system, in spite of the rather unnatural
stuffing of the crop, will keep the birds fit and free from the
many disorders of the digestive tract which follow over-
feeding. It is very necessary, however, when squabs are in
the nest, that food be available at all times, so it would
seem best to accommodate the mode of feeding to the
seasons.

Green food is an article which many pigeon-keepers neg-
lect to give their birds, but which, nevertheless, is of im-
portance in the maintenance of health. Clover, lettuce,
cress, sprouted oats, etc., are among the best.

Small grit, in the form of oyster shell, or some of the
many prepared articles, should always be accessible. The
quantity which pigeons consume, in the breeding season and
out, is astonishing, and trouble will follow if the supply is
not kept up.

Pigeons are well known to be very fond of salt, and will
seek it in the most unusual places. Most breeders keep a
lump of rock salt in the loft, at which the birds work with
great perseverance but small result.

When well accustomed to it there certainly is no danger,
but pigeons which have been deprived of salt for some time
may suffer from diarrhoea if suddenly given free access
to a lump, particularly if the atmosphere is damp.

Pigeons are inveterate bathers, and for this reason drink-

236 BIRDS

ing water should always be supplied in fountains, which
may readily be cleaned. This insures the purity of the
contents. A bath should be furnished daily in summer and
in mild days in winter. The receptacle should be wide and
shallow, for the birds will crowd it to its utmost capacity.
As soon as all have become properly soaked, and are
stretched out in the various ludicrous attitudes assumed in
drying, the bath should be removed, to prevent the dirty
water being drunk.

Breeding

Pigeons mate in pairs, and normally are strictly monog-
amous. Under the conditions imposed by close confine-
ment, however, the rule is often violated; more often, per-
haps, than most breeders realize. Because of this fact it
has lately become the practice of the more advanced keep-
ers of pigeons to use the single-mating compartment system,
by which each pair is confined separately. Such a compart-
ment should not be less than three feet in each dimension,
even for the smaller breeds. The writer recently inspected
a well-known stud of Runts, kept on the single-mating plan.
Many of the birds had not been out of a small pen in sev-
eral years, yet all were in perfect condition. With more
active breeds, however, it is best to give each pair, on suc-
cessive days, the use of a common flying space.

If the general practice, still in vogue with the great
majority, of placing all the breeding pairs together in the
loft, is to be followed, occasional mésalliances, accidental or
otherwise, are to be expected. These are more frequent at.
the beginning of the season, when the birds naturally are in
an over-excited condition. Later on the danger of such
happenings is very much reduced. Properly mated pairs
will generally prove faithful, except in the case of illness of

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 237

one individual, when the other is very likely to seek diver-
sion elsewhere. :

Pigeons which have been separated, as to sex are ready
for breeding at almost any time after the autumn molt has
been completed. The time for pairing varies according to
climate and the warmth of the loft. Many breeders start
their birds in January, but it is better, in most cases, to
wait until well along in February. The weather is then
likely to be milder, and by the time squabs are about the
days are longer, giving the parents a more extended feeding
period.

When it has been decided to start the birds, the pairs,
which of course have been carefully selected beforehand,
should be placed in the nesting compartments which it is
desired they shall occupy. Having been supplied with food
and water, they may be left for three or four days—longer,
if necessary—until they are seen to be mated properly. If
in good breeding condition, almost any cock and hen will
accept each other at once, but they may not safely be liber-
ated in the loft for several days. Very rarely individuals
are found which do not take kindly to the mates selected
for them, but such prejudices will invariably succumb in
time. Some cocks are inclined to be savage and very hard
drivers, and such birds must be watched lest they injure the
hen when first introduced. It is best to start all of the birds —
at one time, as there will be less fighting in the loft, and the
young birds will be hatched together.

When all of the pairs are believed to be safely mated they
may be let out of the pens. There will be a great deal of
quarreling at first, but this will soon give way to the work of
nest-building, each pair keeping its own quarters. Aggres-
sive cocks may be curbed, and timid ones assisted, by various

arrangements of barriers, which will suggest themselves
to the owner.

238 BIRDS

Nesting material must now be supplied, of which the
birds will build their nests. The carrying is generally done
by the cock, the hen arranging his contributions as he brings
them. Straw is used by many, but it is such a perfect haven
for lice that its use certainly is not to be commended. Eng-
lish breeders still use it freely, but in this country thin Cuban
tobacco stems are most popular. Very long, soft, pine
needles have recently appeared on the market, and seem to
furnish an ideal material.

After about a week of tender billing and very strenuous
driving on the part of the cock the first egg should appear,
generally late in the afternoon. This egg is incubated more
or less closely, until early in the afternoon of the second
day following, when another should be added. Young or
weak hens frequently lay but one egg, and there are cases,
well authenticated, in which three have been laid.

Many breeders make it a practice of removing the first
egg as soon as laid, substituting a dummy, and returning the
original when the second is laid. This is because some birds,
particularly in cold weather, sit closely on the first egg,
causing it to hatch a day or so before the other, thus giv- |
ing the chick an advantage which its nest-mate is never able
to overcome. Others seem to be able to furnish just enough
warmth to keep the germ alive, so that incubation does not
progress much until the second egg is added, thus allowing
both to hatch at about the same time. |

It is usual for cocks to sit during the day, from nine or
ten in the morning until late in the afternoon, the hen doing
duty during the remainder of the twenty-four hours. The
precision with which hours are kept, and the affectionate
bowings and billings with which the change is made, form
an interesting study in domestic relations.

If all goes well, the eggs should chip on the eighteenth
day after the first was laid, and the young birds should

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 239

emerge a few hours later. If the parents are known to be
steady, it is a good plan to examine the nest at hatching
time, as squabs often get into difficulties which are easily
remedied. If one appears to be having trouble in extracting
itself, it may be gently assisted, but should never be taken
entirely from the shell. If the smaller portion can be
removed without causing the lining membrane to bleed, this
may be done, but the part containing the remainder of the
yolk sac should be left.

For several days after hatching the squabs are fed on
soft, thoroughly digested food, known as “ pigeon milk.”
This is formed in the crop of each parent, and is present a
day or two before the hatching is due. The chick is fed by
regurgitation,.as soon as it emerges, the act being performed
by whichever parent happens to be on duty at the moment.
After three or four days have passed small grains are mixed
with the “ milk,” and at a week old the squab is fed entirely
on grain.

Most breeders who keep and mate their birds systemati-
cally ring each squab with a seamless band, bearing year
and date. This is placed on the leg when the squab is four
or five days old, by pressing together the three forward toes
and passing the band over them and up the leg far enough
to clear the hind toe. Once in position, it never can be
removed except by cutting, and serves to identify the bird
throughout its life. 2

Pin feathers begin to appear at five or six days old and
soon the squab is covered with growing plumes. It is at
this time that the most insidious enemy of the young pigeon
—canker—appears. Canker is a mixed infection, of rather
mysterious origin, but probably is formed by a vegetable
parasite. It is laid to various causes—dampness, inbreed-
ing, heredity, etc——but moldy grain no doubt is the true
source of the trouble. At any rate, when the young bird

240 - BIRDS

is seen to be breathing and swallowing with difficulty, an
examination very often will show a lump of yellow, cheesy
matter adhering to the walls of the throat. If this growth
can be removed without causing bleeding, and the spot
treated with iodine, a cure is often possible. But most
cases are hopeless from the beginning and not many birds
are saved.

When the squabs reach the age of about two weeks, the
parents, if in good condition, will begin to think of another
nest. They should be discouraged from laying too soon, as
a second pair of young may appear before the first are able
to care for themselves. When the eggs have been laid, most
of the care of the young is taken over by the cock, although
the hen freely assists.

The squabs will leave the nest and begin to explore the
loft in the vicinity at four or five weeks old. They must
be watched carefully at this period, to prevent their persecu-
tion by the cocks, and to see that they have enough food.
By six weeks they should be feeding for themselves, and it
is best to remove them to a separate loft, where they can
have better attention and avoid overcrowding of the breed-
ing quarters.

At about three months molting commences, the first indi-
cation being the dropping of the inner primary. This molt
progresses slowly in early hatched birds, some of which will
finish and molt again in the autumn.

Precocious birds show sex at a very early age, and for-
ward cocks will mate at three and one-half or four months.
Such activities should be discouraged, of course, and it is
always best to separate the sexes as soon as they can be
distinguished. |

About the middle of July, or perhaps a little later, the
stock birds will commence molting and then are best sepa-
rated for the season. To continue breeding during this —

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 241

period is certain to result in various troubles, and the few
young reared seldom compensate for the injury to the over-
worked breeders.

Cocks and hens should be placed in separate quarters and
allowed to renew their plumage without thought of the
cares and burdens of matrimony. The strain of the repro-
ductive season is very severe, especially on the hens, and
this period of recuperation is a necessity for well-bred birds.
They should be kept in this restful condition until mating
time again appears.

With all short-beaked breeds, such as Owls, Oriental
Frills and Short-faced Tumblers, as well as some others, it
is customary to make use of feeders. These are birds of
known diligence and steadiness, which may be depended
upon to rear the young, if care will do it. Common pigeons,
Homers and Long-faced Tumblers are well suited for the
purpose.

In large studs two or three pairs of feeders are kept to
each pair of stock birds, thus insuring the proximity of lay- .
ing time. The feeders must lay within a day or two, at
the most, of the pair whose eggs they are to hatch. The
eggs are transferred as soon as laid, and the stock birds are
usually allowed to hatch and feed the feeder’s young for a
few days, at least until the “ milk” no longer is formed.

Although some birds are very particular as to the young
they feed, and will not accept strangers large enough to be
recognized, others will take any that will acquiesce. Such
birds are invaluable in a loft of feeders, and should be
retained as long as they are able to perform their
duties.

It often happens that, from one cause or another, a young
bird will be without an adequate food supply before it is
old enough to care for itself. In such cases one must re-
sort to hand feeding. If the squab has reached the grain

242 BIRDS

stage, this can be accomplished, very laboriously, by passing
food down the throat with the fingers, until the crop is rea-
sonably full. Grain to be used for such purpose should first
be soaked in water. It is much easier, and not really so
repulsive as it sounds, to feed the little bird by mouth. By
taking a mouthful of clean grain, and holding open the
squab’s beak with the thumb and finger of one hand, its
crop can be filled to a satisfying degree in a very few
minutes. Even tiny squabs, still being fed on “ milk,” can
be reared with Mellin’s Food and yolk of egg, given with
a medicine dropper. This is a difficult matter, however, as
the tiny chick must be kept warm and fed often, so few but
experts would care to attempt it.

Colors of Pigeons

Before describing the various breeds, it is best to con-
sider the typical colors, which run through the group.
Five solid colors are commonly recognized, known, when
unmixed, as self: white, black, dun, red and yellow. Of
these dun and yellow are dilute forms of black and red,
respectively. That is, the pigment is identical, but in the
dilute forms the particles are separated by colorless spaces,
thus giving a paler shade. These dilute colors, as well as
others to be described, are recessives in the Mendelian sense,
and sex limited as well, so that chance birds which occur are
almost invariably hens. It is only in the breeds in which
these colors are well established that cocks are common.

Of white there is nothing to say, except that the color
must be pure throughout, with a soft iridescence on the neck.
' The beak and toe-nails usually are white as well. Most
breeders pay little attention to color in white birds, but
there is no doubt that strains could be established which
soil less easily than others. This has been demonstrated in

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 243

white Fan-tails. White birds generally have dark or
“ bull” eyes, except in breeds in which a white or “ pearl ”
iris is demanded, such as the Tumblers, Cumulets and
Jacobins.

Black is a beautiful color when seen at its best, the iri-
descence extending from the neck well down over the back.
There should be no tendency to bluishness or bars on wing
or tail. |

Birds with bronze on wings and tail are known as kites,
and are frequently crossed with blacks to improve the color

| of the latter. Blacks are commonly bred with duns and
| reds, which intensifies the black. Young birds of this color
generally may be known as soon as hatched by a black ring
| around the beak and very heavy down.
| Dun is a wood-brown color, although the variation in
shades is great, the flights generally being lighter. Light
duns frequently have dun bars on wings and tail, but the
darker birds are usually free from this. Duns should be
clear in color, with no tendency to yellowness, particularly
on the breast. Duns generally are hatched with a brown ring
on the beak and with little down, although the latter is not
always the case.
Red is a bright chestnut color, not easily described.
“ There are many shades and as many opinions as to which is
most desirable. At any rate it should be sound throughout,
with no tendency to grizzling in flights and tail, or pluminess
on abdomen and rump. The neck should be free from green
iridescence. While reds and blacks are often mated, with
advantage to the blacks, such birds must be used with care
in red breeding, because of the tendency to produce a dark
shade in the tail. Yellows are the safest cross with reds, but
there is always a tendency to weaken the color. Reds gen-
erally are hatched with a red beak-ring.
Yellow is a soft cinnamon color, with the usual brilliant

244 BIRDS

neck, which should not be tinged with greenish. Yellows
are prone to the same weaknesses as reds—pale flights and
tail, and plumy or grizzly rump and underparts. The shade
most desired is rich and deep, in contrast to the pale, flat
cast which is often seen. Yellows are benefited by the red
cross. Birds of this color may generally be known from the
first by the yellow beak-ring and very scanty down.

Reds, yellows and duns, particularly the two latter, if
intended for show purposes, must be protected from sun and
rain, which have a very detrimental effect on the plumage.

Of the barred varieties there are four recognized types—
blue, silver, mealy and cream. As in the selfs, we find that
two of these colors are dilute forms of the others, silver
bearing that relation to blue and cream to mealy. As in the
case of yellow and dun, silver and cream are sex-limited
recessives, which accounts for the scarcity of males in these
colors.

Blue has already been described for the Rock Dove, and
nothing further is needed, except to say that the wing bars
must be round, broad and distinct. White rump and thighs,
as seen in the wild bird, are replaced by blue, as far as pos-
sible. The lighter shades of blue, if not inclined to be griz-
zled, are very attractive, as they form a sharper contrast with
the bars.

Silver is an even, pale shade, closely bordering on white.
The wing and tail bars should be black, but this is seldom
attained, most birds being dun or kitey. The tips of the
flights approach dun, while the tail, neck and breast are of a
dark ashy cast. The ground color should not be creamy,
and the breast should be free from yellow.

In the mealy the ground color is also close to white, but —
has a somewhat harder appearance than silver, difficult to —
describe. It is easily distinguished, however, by the reddish —
wing bars, neck and breast. There is much confusion over —

!

Rock Dove
Homing Pigeon

Flying Tippler

Birmingham Roller

q t
rie ‘ane
x e794 ant
—. .

DOMESTIC PIGEONS —__ 245

these two colors in different breeds. The best silvers are
seen in Owls and Muffed Tumblers. Among Homer breed-
ers and some others, however, mealies have always been
known as silvers, a practice which seems to be as ineradicable
as itis incorrect. Mealies, which also are sometimes known
as silver duns, are of many shades, some of which closely
approach dun, with dun bars. If the term silver dun could
be confined to these dark birds, as is done in the American
High-flyer, the clouds of color nomenclature would be con-
siderably cleared.

The general cast of the cream is very pale, with a slight
creamy tint. The bars, neck and breast are a soft yellow,
forming one of the most beautiful color schemes found
among pigeons. Curiously enough, creams are considered
“off colors” and hence not particularly desirable, so that
they are not common in any breed.

Chequers have, in addition to the wing bars, markings
of the same color on the wing coverts and sometimes the
rump. In all cases the chequering should be even and dis-
tinct. In the blue chequer the markings are of black, about
evenly divided with blue. The black chequer is in reality
simply a very dark blue chequer, in which the blue is all
but obliterated. The silver chequer has dapplings of black
or deep dun, according to its wing bars. The red chequer
is to all intents and purposes a dark mealy, with marked
wings. Dun chequer is a pretty and usual color, the wings
being set off in two shades of dun. The yellow chequer is
actually a chequered cream, not a yellow.

Blue, black and red chequers are recognized as standard
colors in many breeds, while the pretty silver, dun and
yellow chequers are frowned down as off colors.

There still remain two colors, not generally recognized as
“standard.” One of these is lavender. This is a soft,
ashy shade, with a real suggestion of lavender, and generally

246 BIRDS.

is not accompanied with bars. It is found chiefly among
Owls and Carriers.

Grizzle is a mixture of blue and white, with the former
predominating, thus giving the effect of a blue bird which has
become deeply impregnated with white. The wings should
be evenly powdered with blue and white, while neck, wing
bars and tail are as dark as possible. Grizzles are best
crossed with blues, in fact this is quite necessary to keep the
color as it should be. Grizzles are found chiefly among
Dragoons, but an attempt is being made in England to pro-
duce Show Homers of this color.

Pigeon Breeds

The origin and derivation of the many pigeon breeds are ©

so obscure, and so much confused by crossing, that to at-
tempt a systematic classification would necessitate discus-
sions and digressions that would exceed the bounds of this
work. We shall content ourselves, therefore, with present-
ing the best known breeds in an order chosen as much from
convenience as from affinity.

Fifty, or even twenty-five years ago, no writer on pigeons

Se ee a ee

lo

would have thought of beginning his treatise without con- —
sidering at first the four “ high-class ’’ breeds—the Carrier, —
the Barb, the Pouter and the Short-faced Tumbler. Of —

late years, however, the fact that over-specialization is as _

fatal under artificial selection as under natural selection has —

- been demonstrated. The exaggeration of special characters,

which led to the extinction of prehistoric monsters, may

prove equally fatal in the case of domesticated creatures.

Accentuation of abnormal features, for themselves alone,
without regard to the symmetry of the whole, has turned

away the followers of these four breeds, so that now their

very existence seems threatened. Attempts to revive them

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 247

are made periodically, but concessions to the laws of beauty
must come before advance toward the old status can begin.

Most fancy pigeons bear little practical value; their only
excuse for being must be an appeal to the esthetic sense. In
such an aspect their cultivation is desirable and beneficial.
As soon as ugly abnormalities become uppermost in the
standards of a breed, so that only the expert can see its
points, its doom is sealed. This fact is evident in every
group of domestic animals, and should not be lost sight of
by those who cherish them.

The Homers

Of all our modern breeds, the Flying Homer is probably
the closest to the Rock Dove. In appearance the chief
modification is in the head, which generally presents a
straight, well-filled line from crown to tip of beak, with
fairly large wattle. There is generally more increase in
the size of the eye-cere. In the true flying bird, however,
which is bred for strength and speed, appearance is of little
importance. It is strong and light-feathered, with thick,
rounded shoulders and tapering body. In attitude it is
always bright and alert, giving the impression of a race-
horse awaiting the word to start.

Flying Homers are bred chiefly in blue, black and red
chequers, and all of these colors pied with white. Self
blacks and whites are sometimes seen, but color is given
little attention among these birds.

Pigeons have been used as messengers, from remote an-
tiquity. The present homing race was perfected in Belgium,
by just what crosses is something of a mystery. It is sup-
posed, however, that the Owl and the Cumulet, and probably
others were concerned. The formation of the head and the
frequent appearance of a frill suggest the former, and the
high-flying tendency the latter. Speed, endurance and the

248 BIRDS

homing instinct were the only characters which interested
the originators of the breed, and these standards still remain
among followers of the Homer.

The instinct which makes the Homer return to its own
loft has been and still is the subject of much discussion.
The best explanation seems to be that it really is instinct,
aided by careful training, and not merely sight and train-
ing alone, as supposed by many. The experiments of Prof.
John B. Watson * throw much light on the subject. Two
Sooty Terns (Sterna fuliginosa) were taken from their
nests on Bird Key, Tortugas, to a point at sea, off Cape
Hatteras, and there liberated. This is outside the normal
range of the species, and it is reasonable to suppose that
neither bird had ever before been in the locality. Both re-
turned safely to their nests, the distance of 1,081 miles
being covered in five days.

It thus becomes perfectly evident that the homing instinct
is very strong in birds, and that it asserts itself under the
most trying circumstances. Domestic pigeons, having been
in captivity for centuries, naturally have lost much of this

Os pp Se

a"

instinct. In the Flying Homer, however, it has been

fostered and preserved to a very considerable extent, al-
though probably it is not as well developed as in many wild
birds.

While a young Homer usually will return to its loft from

a distance of five or ten miles, or even more, in any direc-

tion, for greater distances an elaborate system of training is
necessary. This training is begun as soon as the youngsters

have become strong on the wing and are well acquainted

with the immediate neighborhood. They are then sent ina
basket, to a distance of a half-mile or so, and there liberated.
This operation is repeated frequently, the length being in-

creased to a mile, then five, ten, and so on, up to fifty, with ©

* Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication No. 103, 1907.

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 249

an increase of about ten miles. The steps may then be
increased more rapidly. All this liberation should be in one
direction, an ample demonstration of the fact that instinct
alone is not sufficient to take the birds home. After the 100-
mile point has been reached, quality begins to assert itself,
and the individuals which remain when the final 600 or 700
flies are made will represent the very cream of the flock.
Beyond this distance competition flies are not customary,
but considerably longer ones, some well authenticated, have
been recorded for single birds. Mr. John Fischer, National
Race Secretary of the International Federation of American
Homing Pigeon Fanciers, informs the writer that a Homer
belonging to a Mr. Brouillette in 1916 flew from Denver,
Colorado, to Springfield, Massachusetts, a distance of
1,689.44 miles. Twenty-two days and three hours were
required to accomplish this feat.

The velocity at which Homers fly is of much interest, as
it throws some light on the question of how fast birds in
general travel, particularly during migration. Mr. Fischer

is authority for the statement that in 1900 a Homing

Pigeon owned by Mr. William J. Lantz flew 100 miles at

the rate of 2,511.87 yards, or nearly one and one-half miles,

per minute. This is considerably faster than the more recent
estimates of the speed at which most wild birds fly, at least
for similar distances.

A great number of societies are devoted to the culture
of the Flying Homer, training and competition flies being
held in unison. Of recent years birds which have flown
specified distances are exhibited at shows, divided into
classes which accord with achievements on the wing.

When a message is to be carried, it is written on very
thin paper and inserted in a small metal tube, which is
attached to a leg or a central tail feather of the bird. In
the days which preceded the appearance of modern methods

250 BIRDS

of communication, the “ Pigeon Post” was of the greatest
value. Even now Homers are frequently used as messengers
when other means are not available.

The practice of exhibiting Flying Homers has led to the
formation of several derivatives, which are valued purely
,as show birds, and are not used for flying. The oldest and
best known of these is the Show Homer. This is the largest
of the Homer breeds, and undoubtedly contains generous
infusions of Scandaroon, Antwerp and perhaps other blood.
Its chief characteristic is the head, which is very long and
presents in profile a perfect curve from the crown to the tip
of the beak. The latter is stout, straightly set and black
in color. The wattle is smooth and neat, conforming to
the curve of the head. The eye is white or pearl, sur-
rounded by a small, fine cere of dark shade.

An intermediate type is known in America as the Ex-
hibition Homer. It is smaller than the Show Homer, with
cobby body and short flights, while the head from crown to
tip of beak is flat and straight in profile, instead of full
and curved. Its other points are similar. In England,

where these breeds originated, a rather absurd situation has —

arisen, through dissension among their various followers.
It thus happens that the bird just described is known there
as the Exhibition Flying Homer, while a very similar breed,
with less exaggerated head points, is known as the Genuine
Flying Homer. Since the two sorts are almost identical,
and neither, in spite of reassuring titles, may in any sense
be considered a true flying bird, the American solution seems
the only way out of the difficulty.

The Antwerp

Another descendant of the Flying Homer is the modern

Antwerp. It should not be confused with the Flying Homer, —

2 ae ee aS Ree oe

——

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 251

although the latter bird was formerly known in this coun-
try as the Antwerp. The breed to which the name properly
belongs was developed from the old flying birds, various
crosses undoubtedly being used. It is typically large and
massive, in size perhaps second only to the Runt. Its chief
characteristics are the head points. There are three types,
known respectively as short, medium and long-faced. In
the short-faced the beak is short and heavy, presenting,
with the wattle and skull, a curve approaching a circle. The
long-faced type has the bill much longer and naturally less
massive, the curve being more gradual from tip of beak to
crown. The medium-faced lies between the two extremes.
The beak wattle should be smooth and neat and just large
enough to give the required fullness of face. Eye-cere
should be small, fine and dark in color. The iris is deep red.

Antwerps are found chiefly in blue, mealy and silver dun,
and blue, black and red chequers. Of late years they have
decreased in popularity, and in this country are kept very
little.

The Dragoon

The origin of this bird is somewhat obscure, but it is an
old breed, probably a branch of the same stock which pro-
duced the ancient Horseman and the modern Carrier. Its
close relation to the latter is undoubted, as shown by the
tendency of many birds to become very heavily wattled as
they progress in years.

The Dragoon no doubt was at one time used as a mes-
senger, but now is a fancy bird, pure and simple. It is of
good size, stout in body with short tail and wings. The neck
is of moderate length, with no hint of the elongation seen in
the Carrier. The head is the point of greatest importance.
The skull is broad and wedge-shaped, while the bill is straight
and stout. The wattle is rather large, but should be as

252 BIRDS

smooth and fine as possible. It should be of such size and
shape as to complete a nearly straight line from tip of man-
dible to crown, above which it should not project. The
eye-cere should be narrow and dark in color. The eye is
bright red, except in whites, which are dark-eyed.

Dragoons are one of the most popular breeds just now
on both sides of the Atlantic, and are extensively bred.
They occur in many colors.

The Carrier

Whatever the origin and the former uses of the Carrier
may have been, it stands today as a breed which once was
known as the “ King of Pigeons,” but now has greatly de-
clined in popularity. It is probable that the ancestors of
the Carrier and the Dragoon were identical, and both
breeds may have been used for flying in the early days.
However this may be, the Carrier was soon evolved into an
exhibition bird, with neither the ability nor inclination for
flying.

The Carrier is of large size, and strong but slender
build. The legs and neck are considerably elongated, giv-
ing the bird a high station. The skull is flat and narrow,
and the beak long and stout. The chief points are in the
enormously enlarged, flesh-colored beak wattle and eye-
ceres. In adult specimens the former extends to the end of
the beak on both mandibles, and should be spherical in form.
The eye-cere should be circular and reach nearly, if not

quite, to the base of the wattle. These growths are but little
developed in the young birds, increasing gradually until, at —

the age of three or four years, they are at their best.

As already remarked, the accentuation of the abnormal |

wattling, which cannot be called attractive, has reduced the
numbers of followers of the Carrier. Those who remain

ae en eee oe

I ae ee

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SBE de OPES, ee ee Pe

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DOMESTIC PIGEONS 253

are endeavoring to increase the slim, upstanding character
and at the same time reduce the extreme wattling. This
seems to be the only hope of what is really a noble breed.

Carriers are found chiefly in black, dun, blue, lavender,
white and pied. The iris is red, except in whites, where it
is dark.

The Barb

This bird appears to have been brought to England in
much the same form as it exists today, from Mediterranean
ports of North Africa. Almost throughout, except for eye-
cere, it is the perfect antithesis of the Carrier, its body
being cobby and its neck and legs short. The skull is usu-
ally described as “ square,” being short and broad. The beak
is short and stout, conforming to the blunt lines of the head.
What there is of it is heavily wattled. The cere is the only
point in which this breed agrees with the Carrier. It is
broad, flat and circular, and bright red in color. Barbs
occur in black, dun, red and yellow, the eye being pearl in
each case. The Barb is another once fashionable breed,
which has fallen on such evil days that a good bird is now a
rarity.

The Owls

Of all the round-headed, short-billed breeds, the Owl is
the least specialized, and has been thought to represent the
ancestral strain of the Turbits and the Oriental Frills. The
records aré lost in antiquity, but at any rate it is certain
that all are closely related, and had a common origin in
northern Africa and Asia Minor.

All of the Owls are short-bodied, cobby birds, full-
breasted and sturdy. The beak is very short and decurved,
forming, with the skull and wattle, a perfect circle. The
gullet, or fold of skin under the lower mandible, is well

254 BIRDS

developed, and on the breast there is a row of inverted
feathers, known as the frill. The ENGLIsH Owt1 is a large
bird, developed in England from the original importations.
It has been greatly coarsened in recent years by crossing
with Antwerps. The breed never has been popular on this
side, and appears to be losing favor in England. The Eng-
lish Owl is found chiefly in blue, silver and dun.

The AFrIcAN Owl is a very small and dainty breed. It
lacks the coarse clumsiness of its larger relative, with which
otherwise it is identical. It is bred extensively both in this
country and in England. There is a wide range of colors,
black, dun, white, blue and silver being the most common.
Blacks and duns pied with white are often seen, and
whites with black, blue or dun tails, known as “ tailed,” are
not rare. Reds and yellows have never been brought to the
state of perfection they deserve.

The CHINESE or WHISKERED OWL is similar to the A fri-
can, but has the frill considerably more developed and ex-
tending around the sides of the neck. It is an exceedingly
pretty bird and is kept here in some numbers. In England,
however, it is not popular and is almost unknown.

Owls, like all short-headed breeds, require feeders for
rearing the young. Birds of moderate quality may have
some success in feeding, but for really good ones the task
is hopeless. The handling of feeders has already been
described.

The Turbit

Like the Owl, the Tursirt is a short, full-breasted bird,
of cobby build. It is small in size and also has a frilled
breast. The beak is short and stout, but less down-turned
than that of the Owl. The skull rises prominently in front,
falling off gradually toward the rear, where it is set off by
a well-peaked crest. This crest rises from a mane which

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 255

extends up the back of the neck. The gullet is well de-
veloped. The eye in all colors is large and dark, with ceres
and wattle small and fine. )

In color the Turbit is pure white, with only the wings
colored, leaving ten flights white on each side. The colors
are black, dun, blue, silver, red, yellow and various
chequers. So much interbreeding has been done that many
Turbits are very deficient in this respect. Most breeders
make use of feeders for the young.

The Oriental Frills

In the Oriental Frills the round-headed type has been
brought to its greatest perfection. They have not only
frills and crests, but complicated colors and patterns, and
sometimes feathered legs as well. Asia Minor is undoubt-
edly the home of these breeds, many of the best birds hay-
ing been imported from Smyrna. Since their first appear-

‘ance, which is within the memory of many persons still

living, they have enjoyed great popularity, and are now
kept in this country in very considerable numbers.

The many varieties are much alike in structure, the chief
differences being in the markings. All are of small size,
with short, stout beaks, round heads and cobby bodies.
Feathered legs and peak crests are found in some.

The SATINETTE is white, with tail and wings, except the
primaries, colored. The ground color of the wings is a
very pale pink, edged with a narrow band of blackish shade.
These markings must be sharp and even. The tail is dark
blue, each feather having a round, white spot near its ex-
tremity. The Satinette has feathered legs and a peak crest,
although plain-headed birds are sometimes seen.

The Brunette is similar, with grayish background and
reddish lacing. The BLUETTE and SILVERETTE are clear

256 BIRDS

blue or silver, respectively, on the wings, with two white
bars.

The BLONDINETTES are colored throughout, not merely
in wings and tail, as are the varieties of the Satinette.
They possess the full crest and boots, but have the eye red-
dish instead of dark. They are of many colors, such as
black, dun, red and yellow, darker on the neck and paler on
- the wings, where each feather is marked or laced with the
darker shade.

The tail feathers carry the round, white spots, while the
flight feathers have an elongated, white mark, with darker
edge. There are also blues and silvers, with white bars,
edged with black.

The TuRBITEEN is nearly white, the wings, except the
primaries, being colored, as well as three circular marks on
the head. The spots should be of equal size, one on the fore-
head and another on each cheek. It is found in most colors.
The Turbiteen has the frill and boots, but lacks the crest.

The ORIENTAL TurRBIT is very Owl-like, being clear-
legged and plain-headed. It is remarkable for its strong
head points, and for this reason is frequently crossed with
most other similar birds. It is white, with wing marks like
those of the English Turbit, but usually has the tail colored
as well. It is found in all colors.

The Fan-tail

The FAN-TAIL is one of the most popular and widely dis-
tributed of fancy breeds, and is well known to every one.
It undoubtedly is of Indian origin, and is always to be seen
in numbers in the public markets of Calcutta. It has been
bred in Great Britain for many years, the Scotch devoting
their energies to producing a small, round “nervy” bird
with deficient tail, while the English developed a strain with

ous

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 257

very large tails, but coarse in body and poor in action. The
problem of modern breeders has been to combine the two
types, a task in which they have been completely successful.

The Fan-tail of today is a small, round-bodied bird with
hard, tight feathers. The head is carried far back, and when
the bird is at attention it should rest at the base of the tail,
thus throwing the chest into greater prominence. The head
and neck are moved continually, with a nervous, jerky
motion. |

The tail rises nearly to the perpendicular, and should
form more than half a circle, flat and well spread. F orty
or more feathers have been recorded, but most birds carry
several less. Evenness and freedom from breaks are of
more importance than numbers. The wings should drop
below the tail, without catching in the side feathers.

The head of the modern bird is smooth, although at one
time crested specimens were common.

The Fan-tail is found chiefly in white, black, blue, red
and yellow, although the two latter have never been brought
to the same state of perfection as the others. At the present
moment an effort is being made to fix the black-barred silver.
There are also Saddlebacks, which have the wings colored,
except for the primaries, as in the Turbits.

In the Lace Fan-ratt the feathers are deficient in web-
bing, owing to the absence of the tiny hooklets which nor-
mally hold the barbs together. Laces are seen most fre-
quently in white, but other colors are known.

In breeding Fan-tails there is often difficulty in getting
fertile eggs, owing to the extreme nervousness and constant
action of the best birds. This is overcome to some extent
by clipping the side feathers of the tail or even the entire
tail.

258 BIRDS

The Jacobin

The JACOBIN represents the extreme development of the
crest, and furnishes an excellent example of what can be
accomplished, by careful selection, from a small beginning.
It is a bird of medium size, but with the feathers very long
and heavy, making it appear much larger. The body is slim
and straight, with flights and tail well drawn out. The
chief point is the hood, which has been brought to a state
of great perfection. The feathers rise from the shoulders
in a graceful curve, until they reach the head, around
which they fit closely, covering the eye and beak. They
extend forward, as well as backward and upward, meeting
on the chest. The portion which fits around the head is
known as the hood; the line from the hood to the back is
called the mane, while the part that runs from the hood to
the chest is called the chain. The feathers radiate from a
point on each side of the neck, known as the rose. All por-

tions must be smooth and free from breaks, the section most -

given to weakness being the upper part of the mane or
*“ top.”

The head is round, while the beak is short and white
in all colors. The eye is white or pearl.

The standard Jacobin colors are black, red, yellow and
white. The colored birds have the head, to a line running
from the base of the mandibles, the flights, rump and tail,
white. The greatest points of weakness in color are the
chin, abdomen and thighs, which frequently are infused with
white.

There are also blues, but these are still in the making.
In breeding Jacobins many off colors, such as strawberry,
kite, various sorts of dun, splashes, etc., frequently occur.
These are often birds of great excellence in other points,
and are used for crossing with standard colors.

ee

Almond Short-faced Tumbler
Black Fan-tail

Black Shield
Bluette

~ DOMESTIC PIGEONS 259

Well-bred Jacobins have the sight obstructed by the hood,
so during the breeding season it is customary to trim the
feathers around the eyes, and also the longer ones about the
vent.

The Pouters

The Pouters are a very distinct group, apparently with-
out close relations, in which the inflation of the crop with
air, which is common in all pigeons, has been carried to an
extreme. There are several breeds, in all of which the crop
development is of paramount importance.

The PouTer proper is a large bird, with slender, upright
body and long, slim legs. The latter are covered with
feathers which lie closely until the feet are reached, where
they spread out over the toes. The crop or “ globe” should
be as round as possible when expanded, and stand well out
from the body. Narrowness of body girth, length and
straightness of limbs and circular globe are the points most
sought. Pouters occur in most colors, with a crescent on
the crop, flights, underparts from a line just above the thighs,
and primaries white. A few small white feathers, known
as pinion marks, appear on the wing butts. Reds and yel-
lows commonly have the tail white as well. The Pouter
once was one of the most popular of pigeons, but has
waned exceedingly of late years. Just now it is enjoying a |
wave of prosperity in this country, but how long this will
endure is a matter of doubt.

The Pycmy PouTer is a perfect miniature of its larger
relative, and should resemble it in every particular except
size, which should be as small as possible. The Pygmy is a
particularly vivacious and friendly little fellow, and its
great popularity is readily understood.

The Norwicu Cropper is intermediate in size between
the two preceding and is clean-legged instead of booted.

260 BIRDS

It lacks the length and slimness of its relatives, but excels
in crop properties. The Cropper is noted for its merry
nature, and is rapidly gaining followers in this country.

The Performing Tumblers

The Tumblers and their derivatives fall naturally into two
groups: those which are bred for their flying or performing
qualities and those which have lost these characters and are
kept for exhibition purposes only. Since the former natu-
rally preceded the others, we may consider them first.

The action of the Tumbler is well known to nearly every
one. In its simplest form it is a single backward somer-
sault, made in flight, and from which the bird recovers
gracefully. This may be increased to two or three turns
in the Common Tumbler, or a swift succession of four or
more in the Roller. ‘‘ What makes the Tumbler tumble”
no doubt has been a moot point among breeders ever since
the first bird went over, and it has never been satisfactorily
settled. That it has a physiological cause; such as a defec-
tive inner ear or brain, there can be no doubt, but the prob-
lem is so clouded by what appear to be psychological ques-
tions that it will not easily be solved. At any rate, the
facts remain that the bird does go over, that he does it more
freely at certain times, as when flying with his mate, and
that under stress of necessity, when pursued by a hawk or
striving to regain his place in the kit, he flies as well as any
pigeon. On the other hand, some individuals, particularly
among Rollers, appear to lose entire control of themselves,
and having started to roll, continue until they strike some
object which stops their fall. Such birds, which are known
as “ roll-downs”’ or “ mad rollers,” never regain the ability
to fly safely once they have lost it.

The tumbling character responds to the usual laws of

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 261

breeding, and is transmitted to the offspring in accordance
with them. The young bird, almost as soon as it is on the
wing, starts to drop, with its tail elevated and wings held
up. It practises continually, soon getting the knack of turn-
ing completely over. The method of learning is exactly
what might be expected if tumbling were merely a habit,
but there can be no doubt of a fundamental cause.

The simplest form in which this phenomenon is seen is the
Common TumsBter. This bird is abundant everywhere,
and occurs in all colors. It is at its best flying about a
garden, making its single or double turns. It will not fly
for more than a few minutes at a time and is properly
known as a “ boy’s pigeon.”

From this bird, apparently, the several more advanced
forms have been developed. Those which both fly and per-
form come under two heads: the Birmingham Roller and
the West of England Tumbler. The BrrmincHam ROLLER
has been particularly specialized for performing, which it
does remarkably well. It makes a series of somersaults,
from four or five to twenty or more, so swiftly and clearly
that the eye can scarcely follow. When this is done by a
kit in unison the effect is most striking.

In Birmingham, England, where the breed appears to
have originated, and where it is still extensively kept, the
greatest attention is given to kit flying. Competitions are
held at Christmas, in which the birds are judged for twenty
minutes only. All must pack together closely and roll in
unison. To get a kit to do this requires great patience
and rigid selection. Birmingham breeders do not approve
of high flying and endeavor to keep their birds low and
not too long on the wing.

In America, on the other hand, the demand is for high
and long flying. That these two characters are not com-
patible with the best rolling is perfectly evident. Constant

262 BIRDS

performing is exhausting and a good worker must either —
leave a high-flying kit or become a non-roller himself. The —
Roller is a natural high-flyer, but if the kit is to do its best —
performing its flying tendencies must to some extent be —
checked. |
The breeding, training and flying of Rollers is a fascinat- —
ing pursuit, presenting many obstacles which are not easily ©
surmounted. To get a bird that will roll a medium dis- —
tance swiftly and cleanly, and still be able to maintain its —
position in the kit, is not an easy matter. Many advocate ©
the mating of birds that work little to those that roll down, |
but this is not in accord with the writer’s experience. Such —
matings may occasionally produce a good individual, but ~
when this bird is used in turn its offspring are almost cer- —
tain to revert to the characters of its grandparents. This, ~
no doubt, is the reason so many “ roll-downs” are pro- ~
duced. If such birds were never used for stock, their kind
would be less common. %
Young Rollers should be got on the wing as soon as they ~
are sufficiently strong. They should not be urged, and at ©
first will fly but ten or fifteen minutes. Any which drop ~
out should be held in for a bit, as they will demoralize the” »
others. They will gradually increase in time and height and _ rf
soon will be going well. Young birds of some strains start —
rolling at an early age, others hardly tumble under six
months. At any rate, when they do begin to develop they
must be watched closely, to prevent the stronger birds from _
spoiling the others. An individual that is starting to work %
well will often be ruined by kit-mates which fly too fast y
and too long for it. t
Rollers, like all flying breeds, should be taught to drop
together on a given spot and to enter the loft at once. —
Loitering in the loft-top will ruin the best. Many fliers _ A
train their birds to come down to a “ dropper,” usually a

a ee

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 263

white Fan-tail. The birds should be kept hungry, so that
when the Fan-tail is thrown up they quickly learn to asso-
ciate its appearance with food and are not long in descend-
ing. Food is the rod that commands obedience, and through
its judicious use absolute control may be maintained.

Rollers are bred in all colors and of all markings. The
latter in general approach those of Show Tumblers, such as
Balds, Beards, Badges, Saddles, etc., but no attention is
paid to details. Both bull and pearl eyes are found, as well
as clear legs and boots. Flying and rolling are the only
points that interest the Roller breeder.

The West oF ENGLAND TuMBLER has been developed
for flying, as the Roller has for performing. That the two
breeds are closely allied cannot be denied by any one who
is familiar with both, for they cannot be distinguished by
sight. The “ West” is a true high and long flyer, kits hav-
ing been flown for twelve hours or more. Some individuals
do not tumble, but most make a single, very rapid turn.
Any heavy tumbling or rolling would not be tolerated in a
kit, because of the detrimental effect on the flying. The
West of England Tumbler is the bird that should be used
by those who favor high flying and long time, as well as a
little performing. The West occurs in the same colors and
markings as the Roller.

The Partor TUMBLER has the acrobatic tendency so well
developed that it is unable to fly. It offers excellent evidence
of the existence of a psychological factor in tumbling, for
at the slightest incitement it somersaults. A good bird is
not able to rise from the floor, and at the slightest effort to
do so tumbles. Parlors are divided into three groups:
singles, which go over once; doubles, which go over twice
in succession, and rollers, which roll backward on the floor,
often until stopped by an obstacle. Singles and doubles
must turn cleanly, close to the floor, and without bumping

264, BIRDS

themselves. It is naturally necessary, in breeding, to have
all the nest boxes on the floor. Parlor Tumblers are bred
chiefly in black, dun, red, yellow and splashed.

The Exhibition Tumblers

By careful selection and breeding a great vdriety of Tum-
blers have been evolved which are prized for various colors
and markings. Such birds have, in most cases, lost the tum-
bling ability and are seldom given their liberty. Once
despised as “ boy’s pigeons ”’ they have risen to a state where
they are among the most popular. Exhibition Tumblers are
divided into two main groups—Short-faced and Long-
faced. All varieties have at least one point in common, the
white or pearl eye. The Short-faced really has a very short
beak, but the so-called opposite is far from long in this
feature. if.
The SHort-FACED TUMBLER is the fourth of the group
once known as “high-class” pigeons, and like its fellow-
erstwhile favorites, has of late lost greatly in prestige. Re-
cently it has experienced something of a revival in this coun-
try and some excellent specimens have been imported. The
Short-faced is very small, in fact one of the most diminutive
of pigeons. Its legs are short and the body chunky, with
very full breast. The head is large and rounded, and broad
between the eyes. The beak is extremely short, fine and a
pointed, and has the appearance of being set in beneath the ©
bulging forehead. The little creatures are quite incom- :
petent to rear their own young and feeders must be utilized.

Short-faces are bred in many colors, the most popular of Pu

which is still the almond. The Almond Short-face was once f |
the most popular of pigeons and was bred in great num- .

bers. The exact cause of its decline is not easy to name,

but it is a significant fact that to produce it to perfection i.

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 265

is a most difficult task. It is a beautiful bird, being a rich
almond-brown, spangled throughout with deep black. The
flights and tail should be variegated evenly with almond,
black and white. Hens are invariably weaker in color than
cocks. Almonds usually leave the nest with very little
spangling, then gradually becoming darker as age increases.
Cocks are generally at their best after the third annual molt.

In breeding two Almonds are seldom paired together. If
this be done, the progeny are seldom of the color of their
parents and very often “ bladder-eyed,” these organs being
enlarged, projecting and quite useless for sight. It is cus-
tomary to mate an Almond with an Almond-bred bird of
another color. Those most frequently used are red and
' yellow agates, which are selfs, with grizzled flights and tails;
kites, or bronzed blacks, and duns. It is unusual to get
more than one Almond in a nest, and cocks are rhore numer-
ous than hens.

Short-faced Mottles, Balds and Beards also exist, but
are now so scarce as to be almost never seen.

The Lonc-FAcED TUMBLER is subdivided with regard
to presence or absence of feathers on the legs, the bird being
known as a “muff” in the first place and a “clean leg”’
in the other. In both varieties the body is short and com-
pact, with prominent chest. The head is rounded, with
well-developed top-skull. The beak is straight-set, stout
and comparatively short. They are prolific breeders and
excellent feeders.

Clean-leg tumblers are bred in a great variety of colors,
the most popular being the selfs—red, yellow, black and
white. There are also solid blues and silvers and almonds.
Among the marked varieties, some are very striking. Mot-
tles are either black, red or yellow, with a rosette of white
feathers, each separate from the others, on the shoulders,
and a V-shaped mark on the back. In breeding Mottles

266 BIRDS

much use is made of selfs and splashes or “ gay” birds,

Mottle-bred, although standard Mottles often breed well
together. Rosewings are similar to Mottles, but lack the
back markings.

Balds are found in most colors. The head, to a sharply
defined line, starting just under the lower mandible, is
white, as are the rump, tail and flights. These last should
be ten on each side. The thighs and abdomen, to a straight
line across the breast, should be white. Present-day Balds
are very deficient in color properties, at least in blacks,
“reds and yellows.

Beards have the head colored, except for a white mark
under the beak, which extends from eye to eye. The upper
mandible is dark, the lower light. Tail, wings and under-
parts are white, as in Balds.

Whitesides are found only in reds and yellows, all efforts
to produce blacks having failed. These are lovely birds,
solid colored throughout, except for all of the wing coverts
and the secondaries, which are pure white, thus making the
markings exactly opposite to that of the Turbit. White-
sides are solid in color when they leave the nest, the white
appearing at the first molt.

Muffed Tumblers are now very popular, and rapid strides
are being made in their improvement. They resemble the
Clean-legs in all, except that the legs and toes are heavily
enveloped in feathers. The longest of these should be three
to four inches in length, the whole being arranged in cir-
cular form. A tuft of stiff feathers, arising from just
above the hock or heel, is also found in Muffs.

Muffed Tumblers occur in the usual solid colors, chiefly
red, yellow, black, white, blue and silver. There are also
black, red and yellow Mottles and Rosewings, also red and
yellow Whitesides. Beards are marked as in clean-legs,
and in muffs there are also Badges and Saddles.

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 267

In Badges the body is solid in color, except for the
flights and muffs, which are white. The head markings,
from which the name is derived, consist of a white bib, as
in the Beard, with the addition of two small, pear-shaped
markings extending downward from the lower mandible.
There is also a small white dot over each eye and a narrow
white stripe, known as the “ blaze,” on the forehead.

Saddles have the head markings of Badges, but the color »
on the back is confined to the scapular feathers, making
a heart-shaped mark, and leaving most of the wing white.
The color on the breast is cut off at a sharp line near the
point of the breast-bone, leaving the entire underparts and
muffs white. The rump also is white, while the tail is dark
in blacks and blues, and either colored or white in reds and
yellows.

The Tippler

’ The Tippter is the high-flyer par excellence. Originally
bred in the town of Macclesfield, Staffordshire, England,
from ancestors now unknown, it undoubtedly is of the Tum-
bler family, many specimens still exhibiting this trait. The
typical Tippler is the old-fashioned “ print,” a nearly white
bird, with dark flights and tail, and the head and body
lightly sprinkled with bronze or brownish feathers. Fur-
ther crosses with Tumblers have produced dun, grizzle, blue
and silver barred, and various other colors. In form the
Tippler conforms in general to the type of the Clean-leg
Tumbler.

Tipplers are noted for their easy, graceful wing action and
the height and length of their flight. A good kit will often
ascend in spirals until it is entirely lost from view, and will
remain for hours at this great height. The sport of Tippler
flying is exceedingly popular in England and is gaining head-
way in this country. The record length of time flown is

268 BIRDS

eighteen hours thirty-two minutes, made at Leicester, Eng-
land, by Mr. E. Chamberlain, on June 22, 1913.

Tipplers are commonly flown in kits of three, five or,
more rarely, seven birds, preferably all of one sex. The art
of flying these birds, as in too many other similar sports,
is more or less enveloped in mystery, most initiated persons
having a decidedly mean habit of keeping, their “ secrets ”
to themselves. Many diets and methods of training are
whispered from one to another, each man pinning his faith
to his own system.

Young Tipplers should be treated as recommended for
Rollers, except that the tumbling factor is eliminated, thus
greatly simplifying matters. A very little training suf-
fices to get youngsters flying well, and competitions are
often flown with birds but eight or ten weeks old. It is
essential that Tipplers be trained to a “ dropper,” as it often
is much more difficult to get them down than to make them
go up, many a good kit having been lost because of their
failure to drop at night. Although, as already stated, many
Tipplers tumble, such birds must be discarded, as their
action interferes with the flying of the kit.

As with most other flying pigeons, Tipplers have found
their way to the show room. There are now several recog-
nized standard varieties, bred entirely for exhibition pur-
poses, without regard to their flying ability. These show
birds resemble in type the Clean-leg Tumbler, except that
the head is a little less full and the beak not quite so short
and stout.

There are three marked varieties. The Dark Mottle or
Print is a dark chocolate color, the wing coverts evenly
marked with white. The Light Mottle or Print has brown
markings evenly distributed over a white ground, the flights
and tail always remaining dark. The Light or Chuck is
pure white throughout except for its flights and tail, and a

ar

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 269

dark mark, deep brown in color, under the chin. The
Self Tippler is a dark bronze chocolate throughout. The
eyes are pearl and the beak and cere dark, in all varieties.

The American High-flyer

3)

The AMERICAN HIGH-FLYER or “ FLicHT” is the only
pigeon breed which has originated in America. It is a
handsome bird, and since it has outlived its rather unsavory
early associations, undoubtedly will become popular. At
present it is bred very extensively in and near New York,
but is little known elsewhere.

The American High-flyer is a fairly large-sized. bird,
built on slim and graceful lines. The head is narrow, and
the beak, which is always white, is long and tapering. The
eye is an important point, being large and clear pearl, with
red cere. All colors are found, the body being solid, with
only ten primaries on each side white. There are also
splashed birds, known as “tigers,’”’ and self whites. There
are both plain-headed and crested or “capped’’ varieties.

The High-flyer was produced from flying birds of Ger-
man derivation, but just which ones is obscure. The Bruns-
wick Beatd, however, undoubtedly took a conspicuous
part. For many years these birds were used by men and
_ boys about New York for the purpose of catching stray

_ pigeons, flocks being trained to fly and drop at signal. Now
_ that the High-flyer has risen to the status of a show pigeon
there is no doubt of its future success.

The Cumulet

Of high-flying pigeons, the CUMULET is undoubtedly one
of the oldest. Once in great esteem in Europe, it has been
all but lost sight of until within recent years, when it has

270 BIRDS

enjoyed a revival. It is a pigeon of great merit as a high
flyer and it is to be hoped that it will now be restored to its
former rank. The Cumulet is rather larger than a Tumbler,
slender in body, and with long, narrow head and beak. The
eye is noted for the unusual size and clearness of the white
iris. The color is either pure white, or, more commonly,
white lightly ticked with pale red.

The Nun

The Nun, like most of the marked pigeons, is of Con-
tinental origin. Its Tumbler-like form and white eye indi-
cate a derivation from this group, but nothing definite
appears to be known. It is very prettily marked, the body
being white, while the flights, tail, head, sides of neck and
throat are colored. The nape carries a very large and full
shell crest, which should be entirely white on both surfaces,
Blacks are the best and the most numerous, but blues, duns,
reds and yellows are rapidly improving.

The Magpie

That the MaGpte is really a modified Tumbler there can
be no doubt, for within the writer’s memory tumbling Mag-
pies were frequently seen. Many of those birds were
crested, but the present type is plain-headed.

The Magpie is marked somewhat like a Saddle-backed
Tumbler, except that the white rump and head markings are

lacking. The head and neck, breast to the point of the
sternum, the scapulars, rump and tail are colored, while
the remainder is white. Richness of color is a point for

which Magpies are famous. Blacks excel in type, with
reds and yellows a close second. Blues, silvers, duns and
creams have never equaled the others, but are making
rapid strides.

:

DOMESTIC PIGEONS 271

Once a bird of markings, the Magpie has recently be-
come one of type. The old-fashioned birds were Tumbler-
like in form, but later breeders developed a slimmer sort
in which the body, limbs and neck were as slender and grace-
ful as possible. Within the last few years a remarkable
advance has been made by resorting to an extremely high-
stationed French breed, the Bagadais. The advent of these
“modern type” birds created a sensation in the Magpie
fancy, many old-time breeders being forced to give up.
The English firm which produced these birds swept the
deck at shows for several years and then engaged in the
profitable business of disseminating their stock. Many
“modern ” Magpies have been brought to this country, and
once the markings have been regained will greatly improve
the breed here.

The Helmet

The HELMET, which comes to us-from Continental Eu-
rope, is generally considered among the German Toy
Pigeons, but it differs from them in general type, and ap-
pears to be another Tumbler derivative. At any rate, it is
of Tumbler form, with round head, short, stout beak and
pearl eye. It is white in general, with the tail and the
head, to a line starting from the juncture of the mandibles,
colored. The upper mandible is dark, the lower white.
Helmets are found in all colors, and there are both crested
and plain-headed varieties.

The German Toy Pigeons

The GerMAN Toys are so called because of the fact that
their characteristics are chiefly those of color and markings,
rather than of structure, thus making them more easily bred.
In body they are of the Rock Dove type, with narrow heads

242 BIRDS

and thin beaks. In markings and color they present a won-
_derful diversity, comparable only with the Oriental Frills.
Most of the best known Toys are very heavily muffed,
although some are clean-legged. To describe all here would
require more space than is available and only a few of
the most common will be mentioned.

The Swa.Low is a typical Toy, with long body and short
legs, the latter being very heavily muffed. The head car-
ries a wide shell crest. The markings consist of colored
crown, wings, except for the scapulars, and muffs. There
are many colors, including blues, either solid or with black
or white bars, blacks, solid or white-barred, reds, yellows
and various spangles and chequers. The Fairy or Spot
Swallow is similar, but has the color on tite head confined
to a small spot on the forehead. i

The SHIELD somewhat resembles the Swallow, but is ~
plain-headed. It is white throughout except for the wing ~
coverts and secondaries, which are colored, as in the Turbit.
Blacks, blues, reds and yellows, with white bars, are the
most abundant. 2

The Ick Picron is of similar type, but has no white a
markings. The most common ones are of a peculiar pale

lavender tint, not seen in any other pigeon. This color My

extends over the entire bird, being uniform throughout.
White-barred, spangled and laced varieties are also bred.
The HyacintH is like the foregoing in body, but is

clean-legged. It is of a blackish-blue color above and be- a

low, the wing coverts being of a pale brownish cast, with ve
fine, dark markings. Most of the Toys are represented in

this country by a few pairs in large collections. Some, how- 6
ever, as the Swallows, are extensively bred. ‘

DOMESTIC PIGEONS ~ (273

Miscellaneous Breeds

Under this head we may briefly consider a few of the
less well-known breeds which are worthy of mention.

The ScANDAROON is a large, rather ungainly bird, with
a long, down-curved beak. Markings are as in the Magpie,
except that the head and upper neck are white, save a small
oval patch below each eye. There are also solid colored
birds. This is an ancient breed, which has been much used
in the foundation of modern races, such as the Show Homer
and the Magpie.

The ARCHANGEL has no structural peculiarities, its form
being much like that of the common pigeon, except for a
very sharp, high crest on the head. The back, wings and
tail are metallic black, the remainder of the body being
either a dark, reddish bronze or a paler, yellowish shade.
The breed is noted for the richness -and brilliancy of its

__ plumage, points in which it is unexcelled.

The Russtan TRUMPETER is remarkable for its curious
voice and profuse feathering. It is a large-sized bird of
low stature. The head bears a heavy rosette, which radi-
ates in all directions from the center, as in the Crested
Canary, while on the nape is a well-developed shell crest.
The legs are very heavily feathered. In color there are
blacks, whites and mottles.

The FRILLBACK is of the common type of body, the legs
being lightly booted. Its distinguishing character is found
in the wing coverts, which are curled or frilled. Frillbacks
are bred in all colors, and just now are popular in this
country.

Utility Breeds

Under this head may be grouped a number of pigeons of
diverse appearance, but generally agreeing in their large

24 BIRDS

size. All are essentially utility birds, but they are now being
adapted to show-room standards.

The Runt, contrary to the suggestion of its name, is the
largest of pigeon breeds, good specimens often weighing
two and one-half pounds. The bird is of the common pigeon
type, but is so enormously enlarged that its body, head and
beak appear comparatively stout. Runts have been much
used by squab breeders, but the present tendency seems to
be toward Runt crosses or the smaller breeds. Runts are
found in all solid colors.

The Hen Piceon, while considerably less than the Runt
in size, is a large bird. It is curiously shaped, the body
being short and the narrow tail pointing upward. The ~
neck is long and parallels the tail, giving a curious effect.
The old-type birds are now becoming more refined and ~
slender. Hen Pigeons occur in all the solid colors. y

The CarneAu, while large in size, is still very active. It
is rather reachy in neck and limbs, but retains good body ~

size. This breed has been much favored by commercial

squab producers because of its unusual ability as a pro-
ducer of large numbers of heavy squabs. Carneaux are
bred chiefly in solid red and yellow, also mottles and rose-
wings. 4

CHAPTER XVIII
BANTAMS

Amonc birds, the domestic fowl is of the greatest economic
importance to man. The nutritious eggs and succulent
flesh have been one of the chief items of the diet of our
race from the dawn of civilization. So true is this that, if
deprived of eggs, at least, the housewife would be hard
pressed, indeed, in more than one culinary branch. It is no
wonder, then, that many breeds of fowl have been de-
veloped for their utility value alone. Some have become
specialized as layers, producing a marvelous yearly output,
others have gained fame as broilers or roasters, while some
few have attained honors in both fields. On the other
hand, lovers of the beautiful in life have not neglected the
opportunity to practise their arts in this group, and many
attractive breeds have been evolved.

The query naturally arises, ‘“‘ What was the original stock
from which these numerous forms descended?’”’ In answer,
one can do no better than refer the curious or sceptical to
Charles Darwin,* than whose masterly dissertation on the
subject no better has yet appeared. That the little Rep
JUNGLE-FOWL (Gallus gallus), of India and the Malay
States, is the ancestor of all our domestic breeds, we have
no reason to doubt.

The Red Jungle-fowl is best described as closely resem-
bling the common Black-breasted Red Game Bantam of the
old-fashioned type. The wild cock may be a shade larger,
carries his tail lower, has a small, fine comb, and altogether

* Animals and Plants Under Domestication (Westminster Edition),
Pp. 232-284.
275

276 BIRDS

is more wild and racy. He has the bright red neck hackles,
shoulder-bar and saddle, and the black breast and tail of
the bantam to such perfection that the purity of the alleged ‘ |
wild bird is not easily determined. The writer has seen ~
several undoubted bantams, brought direct from India as
Jungle-fowl. '
The hen resembles with equal exactitude the bantam hen,
having the same partridge-brown back, the black-centered,
gold-edged hackle and salmon breast. In examining speci- i
mens of both types the only noticeable difference is in the —
hackles, which appear to be somewhat longer and fuller in — .
the wild bird. i
One curious trait of the wild cock is the fact that the long
feathers of the neck are replaced by short, blackish ones +
for about two months, during the molting season. It seems
strange that this distinct eclipse has not persisted in the
domestic descendants of the bird. ‘k
The Red Jungle-fowl is still found abundantly in many
parts of India, the Malay Peninsula and the adjoining q
islands. It appears to have a fondness for bamboo jungles, ~
where no doubt it is able to secure better protection. Wild —
cocks frequently invade the poultry yards of outlying settle-
ments, and domestic birds not uncommonly join their feral
cousins, so that in some localities the purity of apparently
wild birds is not always certain. ri
Three other species of Jungle-fowl are known: the Son- — |
nerat (G. sonnerati), the Ceylon (G. lafayettei) and the Vs
Javan (G. varius). The Sonnerat cock is gray in general,
the feathers of the neck, the wing coverts and the saddle iy
being ornamented with yellow, wax-like appendages. The
feathers of the breast are narrow and pointed. The tail ff
is black. All of the specimens observed by the writer have i ;
had heavy pendent combs, although this character appears —
‘to be variable. This species goes through the same eclipse —

i a ees ae ae

BANTAMS 277

of the hackles as is seen in the above Red Jungle-fowl. The >
hen is dark gray above and whitish below, and lacks the
ornaments of the male. The species is confined to southern
and central India. It thrives in captivity, but is invariably
wild and intractable. It has been bred in Europe on sev-
eral occasions, but there is no record of success in this
country.

The Ceylon Jungle-fowl is found only on the island for
which it is named. The cock is reddish above, each feather
with a dark central streak. The breast feathers are similar »
and pointed, as in the Sonnerat. The tail is black, with a
violet patch at the base. The comb is erect and bright red,
centered with yellow. The female is very like that of the

| Sonnerat. This species does not appear to have been kept in

captivity outside of Ceylon.

The Javan Jungle-fowl differs markedly from its con-
geners. The comb of the cock presents a smooth, rounded
edge, entirely free from serrations. It is bluish at the
base, changing gradually to red. There is a single wattle in
the center of the throat, the forward edge red, the inner
portion deep yellow and the lower part blue. The feathers
of the hackle and upper back are short and square at the
ends and greenish-blue in color, the upper being edged with
bronze, the lower with black. The pendent saddle feathers
are black, with yellow edges, while the wing coverts are
likewise black, edged with reddish. Tail, breast and under-
parts are black. The female is blackish above, barred and
variegated with brown; the underparts are pale brown, with
dark markings. This species is found in Java and some
small neighboring islands. It is not uncommon in cap-
tivity, but there is no record of its having been bred.

The four species of Jungle-fowl have been interbred more

or less freely, their crossing presenting no great difficulties.

Several of the resulting hybrids, in the writer’s experi-

278 BIRDS

ence, have proved to be perfectly fertile. Although such —
hybridizing is perfectly feasible, geographical distribution
lends support to the belief that only the Red Jungle-fowl is ~
responsible for our present domestic breeds. ¥

The wonderful variations in size, form and color seen
among the numerous breeds form in themselves a matter
of extensive study. Because of this fact, and the existence
of many excellent works devoted to the subject, we shall ~
confine ourselves here to the bantams, which are essentially
pets, and have little other excuse for being. fy

Bantams are well known as the “ Banties” of the old- —
fashioned barnyard. Their origin is not exactly known, ~
but they are believed to have come to Europe from the city ©
of Bantam, in Java, where they had been brought from ©
Japan. According to Harrison Weir, a well-known writer ~
on poultry, these birds were of the Black-breasted Red
type, but their legs were heavily feathered. The Booted
Bantams of today appear to be their direct descendants.
Another old breed was the Nankin, a small, buff-colored, ©
clean-legged bird, with a double or rose comb. This variety
has almost entirely disappeared. Lt

General Care

Bantams are no more delicate than the larger breeds of a
fowl. In fact, provided they are protected from dampness,

A southern exposure is best, and on this side there should -
be a large window, which may be covered with wire in |
summer and with muslin or cheesecloth during the winter.
At the side opposite should be a shelf, two or three feet from

a
the ground and wide enough to catch the droppings of the a

birds as they sit upon the perch at night. The perches —

BANTAMS 279

should be flat, with the corners smoothed off, rather than
round, and should be small enough in diameter to allow
the birds to grasp them firmly. All should be on the same
level, thus avoiding constant quarreling for room on the
topmost. It is also best to make them easily removable for
cleaning.

If the temperature is very low in winter, it is best to pro-
vide a curtain which may be dropped in front of the perches
at night, making allowance for ventilation. They are thus
made snug for the night and will be well protected in spite
of the cloth-covered window. Moreover, the coop will be
free from the dampness which is almost invariably present
when glass is used. |

Sand, well covered with clean, dry straw, makes an excel-
lent material for the floor, keeping the birds busily scratch-
ing. A dust box filled with road dust or fine ashes should
be placed inside in winter and in the run during the summer
months.

An outdoor run in which the birds may run during the
summer should be provided if possible. Its extent will
depend on conditions, but whether large or small, the
bantams, if not overcrowded, will be quite content. The
feather-legged breeds are poor fliers, and are easily con-
fined by a fence four or five feet high. On the other hand,
Games, Sebrights, Rose-combs, etc., fly like pheasants, and
must be kept in bounds by clipping their wings or covering
the run with wire.

Adult bantams are fed on sound grain of the usual sort—
wheat, buckwheat, kaffir corn, barley, etc. Some breeders
still add cracked corn, but its extensive use for bantams is
no more desirable than for pheasants. Grain should always
be thrown among the litter, and only what the birds will eat
should be given at once. Over-feeding is certain to result in
enlarged livers and disturbance of the digestive tract.

280 BIRDS

Either a wet mash, crumbly moist, or the more modern dry
mash, is a valuable addition to the fare, particularly during
the laying and molting season. Suitable balanced mixtures
are obtainable from all dealers. Green food, such as finely
cut grass, clover, cabbage, lettuce, cress, chickweed, etc.,
should be given daily. Grit and clean drinking water
should always be available.

It goes without saying that cleanliness and constant dili-
gence in detecting the presence of lice and incipient disease
are essential to success.

Breeding

Bantam hens of most breeds are excellent layers. Their
eggs are very large in proportion to the size of the bird,
and it is a common assertion of their admirers that the eggs
are superior in quality to those of larger birds.

It was once the universal custom among bantam breeders
to mate each male with about four females. This practice
is still followed by the great majority, but a few of the more
advanced are using the single-mating system; that is, match-
ing the birds in pairs. This, of course, insures the accuracy
of knowledge concerning parentage, which is necessary in
line breeding. With bantams there is not the incentive

to produce large numbers, a few of the best quality gener-

ally proving the best policy.
Hens are usually mated in February or March, but May
is really the best month for hatching bantams, the weather

big =

a Ee ees

te. Se

fai

then generally being the most salutary. Most breeders keep —

a few inferior hens for rearing purposes. Hens of large

breeds are not suitable for rearing bantams, as they are
likely to break the eggs or crush the tiny chicks. It is best

to start several at one time, as with pheasants, so that the
chicks may be doubled up in case of a poor hatch, Bantam

S[MOJ O1y

TS

suejueg ulys0y yor[g

[MOJj-3]suNnf poy

BANTAMS 281

eggs generally start chipping on the nineteenth day after
incubation begins.

The chicks require no food for the first twenty-four hours,
some breeders giving none for forty-eight hours. The first
meal should consist of bread or biscuit crumbs mixed with
hard-boiled egg. After this it is the general practice to
start the chicks on some of the commercial chick grains,
continuing until they are old enough to take a larger size.
The writer is firmly of the opinion, however, that if they
are fed for two or three weeks on pheasant meal, hard-
boiled egg and green food, as recommended for pheasants,
and then shifted to small grains, they will thrive much bet-
ter than they commonly do. The general objection to this
régime is that the birds would grow too large. There is
little fear from this, however, and the extra feeding at first
will give the chicks a fund of vigor that will carry them
safely to maturity.

In rearing bantams it is essential that they be protected
from hot sunshine and dampness at all times. It is also
important that the water be kept clean and out of the sun.

Bantam Breeds

As seen at the present day, most bantams are diminutive
replicas of larger breeds, the original sorts having prac-
tically disappeared. They fall naturally into two groups:
the Game Bantams and the Ornamental Bantams.

Game Bantams

Game Bantams are found in eight breeds, each duplicat-
ing, except in size, the standard exhibition game to which it
corresponds. While the actual size is very small, the Game
Bantam is essentially a tall and “reachy ” bird. The neck
and legs are long and slender; the body is broad at the

282 . BIRDS

shoulders and narrow at the tail, which is short, very tight,
or “ whip,” and carried low. The hackles, saddles and tail
coverts of the male should be short and scant. Although the
cockerels naturally have low combs and small wattles, it is
customary to remove them entirely, the operation being
known as “ dubbing.”

The most popular breed is the BLACK-BREASTED Rep,
which is of the color of the original Red Jungle-fowl. This
bird is extensively, bred in this country, and probably repre-
sents the highest type which has yet been obtained.

Next in popularity come the Duckwincs. They are of
two varieties, the Silver and the Golden. The cock has the
markings of the Black-breasted Red, except that white is
substituted for red throughout the plumage. Thus in the
Silver Duckwing the hackle, saddle, median wing coverts
and the outer edges of the secondaries are white, the re-
mainder of the plumage being black. In the Golden Duck-
wing the wing coverts are straw-colored. The females are
gray above, finely mottled with a darker shade, the Golden
being somewhat darker than the Silver. The neck hackles
are black, edged with gray, while the breast is pale salmon.
The two varieties are commonly interbred.

The male BROWN-BREASTED RED is somewhat similar to
the Black-breasted, except that the colored portions of the
upper plumage are pale lemon instead of reddish-orange.
The feathers of the breast are also narrowly edged with this

shade. The female is strikingly different, being entirely )
black, except for the lemon edging on the feathers of the ©

neck and breast.

_ The BrrcHEn is one of the loveliest of Game Bantams.
It duplicates the Brown-breasted Red, except that the lemon

markings are replaced by silvery white.

In the Rep Py ze the black markings of the Black-breasted ‘
Red have been replaced by white, leaving the orange-red

BANTAMS 283

hackle, saddle and wing markings. The female is white,
with reddish edges on the neck feathers, and salmon breast.
The beak and legs in both sexes are yellow. Pyles were
produced by a cross between Black-breasted Reds and
Whites, and an occasional cross with the former is advis-
able.

Wuites for many years were of very inferior quality,
and too many of the better ones had dark legs. Very
recently, however, this variety has improved wonderfully,
many birds exhibited being fully as good as the colored
varieties, and with the deepest yellow legs.

Backs, unfortunately, are a very mediocre lot, and do
not seem to be improving. There is a field here for an in-
telligent breeder.

The O_p ENGLISH GAME BANTAM, which is of the old-
fashioned, short-legged, full-tailed type, is now enjoying
great favor here. It is a diminutive of the Pit Game, being
strong and well built, although small. The most common
colors are the Black-breasted Red and the Spangle, in which
the plumage of the former is thickly spotted with white. A
few Duckwings are also seen.

Ornamental Bantams

Under this heading are gathered all of the bantams not
included among the Games. There are many attractive
sorts, many of which are diminutives of large breeds. A
few, however, are entirely distinctive. It is convenient to
consider them in two groups, one having the leg free from
feathers and the other having it heavily booted.

In the first group probably the most extensively bred are
the RosE-comss. They were based on a very old breed,
but now have been brought to a point where they corre-
spond perfectly with the Hamburg Fowl. The shape and

284. BIRDS

carriage of these birds are extremely graceful, the tail
hackles and saddle of the cock being long and well de-
veloped. The tail in both sexes is carried low. The comb
is double or “ rose,” having a long spike at the rear. The
ear-lobes are of a distinctive character, being very large,
round and pure white in both sexes. There are two colors,
solid black and pure white, the former being more numerous
and averaging of better quality than the latter. The color
of legs and beaks corresponds with that of the plumage in
each variety.

The SEBRIGHTS are a beautiful breed, but for some rea-
son of recent years they have declined in both numbers
and quality. This is one of the few bantams which do
not parallel larger birds, and almost the only one of this

group of which the origin isknown. Early in the nineteenth ~
century, Sir John Sebright, a well-known English breeder, 4
created the Golden Sebright by crossing various bantams }

and small fowl of rather uncertain antecedents; in fact,
the exact description of each bird concerned varies accord-

ing to different authorities. At any rate, the breed was suc-

cessfully evolved and soon became immensely popular and

very widely kept. The Silver Sebright was produced very —

shortly afterward.

The Sebright cock is an active, stylish bird, with head and
tail carried well erect. He is entirely “hen feathered,”
however, and lacks all of the ordinary plumage ornaments 1 |
of the male fowl. The comb is rose, but seldom is found
to the same degree of perfection seen in the Rose-combs.
The hen is similar, the shanks being blue in each sex. There
are two varieties, the Golden and the Silver, the ground 4
color being a rich golden brown in the former and pure
white in the latter. In each case every feather is edged

or laced with a very narrow rim of the deepest black, cock
and hen being colored alike. Silvers of very fair quality

BANTAMS 285

are still to be seen, but Goldens have retrogressed markedly
during the past few years.

The JAPANESE BANTAMS are characterized by extremely
short legs, long tails and short backs. The shanks are so
diminutive that a really good bird appears to be in a sitting
posture, and makes a ludicrous picture as it walks about.
The tail is long in both sexes, that of the cock being par-
ticularly well developed.’ The back is so short that the
head and tail are often in contact. The comb is high,
straight and single. There are many colors, the most popu-
lar being solid black, pure white and white with black tail
and wings. There are also birchen, duckwing, buff, etc.

The FrizzL—Ep BANTAMS are curious, for the fact that
each body feather is curled, the tips pointing forward instead
of backward. This is a very old character, commonly found
among the fowls of the Orient. In bantams it is found in
many colors, the most attractive being the whites.

The PoLtisH BANTAMsS exactly resemble the large breeds
which they represent. Both sexes carry large globular
crests, which rise from a bony protuberance on the skull.
The feathers of the cock’s crest are pointed like the hackle,
while in the hen they are rounded. Many also have a
spherical mass of feathers on the throat known as the
“beard.”’ The comb is what is known as the V-comb; that
is, it is divided into two small, horn-like projections, which
are almost lost in the flowing crest. The best Polish Ban-
tams are white throughout. There are also Buff-laced and
White-crested Black, but most specimens are much too large.

Recently very creditable diminutives of the Barred Plym-
outh Rock, Partridge Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, White
Leghorn, and perhaps others, have appeared. Some of
these birds are of good quality and in most cases require
only some further reduction in size to secure recognition as
true bantam breeds.

286 BIRDS

The breeds with feathered legs are less numerous than
the clean-legged sorts. The most popular are the CocHIN
BanTAMS, which probably are bred more commonly than
any other Ornamental Bantam. In these birds, length and
softness of feather are paramount qualities. The legs are
short and the body full, the long, soft plumage giving a
rounded appearance. The feathers of the rumps are par-
ticularly lengthened, forming a mass known as _ the
“cushion,” which almost obscures the tail. The latter is
short and soft, and in the male entirely free from long
feathers. The feathering of the legs should be of good
length and well developed on the toes, including the middle
one. The comb is single and as low as possible.

Cochin Bantams were first brought to England from the
gardens of the Royal Palace at Pekin. They were buff in
color and were known as Pekin Bantams, a name which is
still retained in England. The original buffs were of the
dark red color still sometimes to be seen. By crosses with
whites, and also with the large Cochin, the much desired
lemon-buff surface color in the males was secured, but not
without the appearance of white in the primaries and under-
color, faults which even as yet have not been entirely eradi-
cated. .

Ten years ago buffs led in quality and popularity, but
recently they have had to give way to the blacks, which
have improved immensely. The writer can remember when
white undercolor was the common condition, “ black to the
skin’? being a goal apparently far beyond reach. Purity

of color has been so well fixed now, however, that breeders

- are beginning to ignore this point in the strife for shape.

Blacks should be of a beetle-green sheen, entirely free from

purple barring.

The White Cochin Bantam has never equaled the others —

in shape or color. A few years ago, however, fairly good

am, {2

BANTAMS 287

specimens were sometimes seen, but the variety now seems
to have reached a hopeless state of inferiority.

‘Partridge Cochin Bantams are of the Black-breasted
Red type, but with the black penciling more strongly pro-
nounced. The breast of the female is not salmon, but
dark brown, like the back, the whole being heavily penciled
with a dark shade. Although of comparatively recent pro-
duction, this variety has obtained a very high degree of
excellence.

The BrRAHMA BANTAMS are of two varieties, light and
dark. Both have the shape of the large breed, being almost
the opposite of the Cochin Bantams. The legs are longer
and the body is slimmer, with a gradual rise to the tail, the
curve being concave instead of convex, as in the Cochin.
The legs are well feathered, and should be free from stiff
hock feathers, a heritage from the Booted Bantam. The
comb is what is called the “ pea;”’ that is, divided into three
low parallel sections, of which the central one is the high-
est. Brahma Bantams of very good quality are now bred, ©
but many still are larger than they should be.

The Light Brahma Bantam is white in general, the hackle
being centered with black. The flights are mostly black,
with some white markings. ‘The tail also is black, the
coverts being edged with white. The sexes are practically
alike in color. In the Dark Brahma Bantam the male is
black except for the hackle, saddle, wing bars and a patch
on the outer end of the secondaries, which are white. The
hackle and saddle feathers are striped with black. The
female is gray, with dark pencilings, except for the hackle,
which is black, with white edges.

The Bootep BANTAMS are among the oldest breeds and
may represent the bird first brought from Java. As com-
pared with the Cochin Bantams, they are much taller and
slimmer, with the tail well developed and carried high.

288 BIRDS

The chief characteristic is in the long hock feathers, which
are very stiff and of such a length as sometimes to touch
the ground. Whites are the best known color, although
black are also seen. Once very commonly kept, the com-
ing of the Cochin Bantam has driven the Booted Bantam
to the wall, so that it is doubtful if there is now a repre-
sentative specimen of the breed in this country.

In Belgium several very old varieties of bantams are
cultivated. These are of two types, one of which is similar
to the Booted Bantam, just described, except for the pos-
session of large beards of feathers on the throat. It is
bred in several colors, some of which are striking. The
other sort is clean-legged and rose-combed. The only
Antwerp Bantam which appears to have been brought to
this country is the MILLE FLeEur, or “ THOUSAND FLow-
ERS.” It is of the booted and bearded type, deep buff in
color, each feather having a black spot near the end, tipped
with white. This is a beautiful bird and undoubtedly will
become popular here.

The S1LkiE Fowt, which is not commonly considered to
be a bantam, is still small enough to be included in the group.
It is believed to have been produced in Japan or China and
undoubtedly is of very ancient origin. Its chief peculiarity
is the silky quality of the plumage, caused by the entire

absence of the barbicels or hooks, which ordinarily bind

together the barbs, to form the web of the normal feather.
The comb is rose and plum-colored, as are the wattles and
the bare portions of the head. The ear-lobes are blue. The
legs also are blue, and more or less heavily feathered.
There are five toes instead of the usual four. Silkie hens
are the finest possible mothers for pheasants, quail and
ducks. While their use is not necessary for the hardier
species, they are a great aid in rearing the more delicate
birds. :

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SECTION III
REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS

CHAPTER XIX
REPTILES

SNAKES occasion, in the average adult person, a feeling of
deep revulsion. That this often is largely a matter of train-
ing, and not the deep-seated instinct it is commonly sup-
posed to be, is shown by the fact that the small boy,
unspoiled by the example of his elders, finds the same
creature a thing to be admired and coveted. And why not?
The harmless snakes make admirable pets, soon becoming

- tame and even almost affectionate, and much that is of

interest may be gleaned from observation of the habits of
captive specimens. They are clean and, if properly kept,
practically odorless. In point of beauty, there is nothing to
excel the brilliancy of a healthy snake which has recently
shed its skin, the iridescent coloring in some species being
quite remarkable.

The great group of lizards contains a wide variety of
forms which make interesting pets, including the much
abused Chameleon. That baby alligators are kept in sur-
prising numbers is evidenced by the quantities of these little
creatures, in various states of disrepair, which are presented
each year to the New York Zoological Park and the
Aquarium. In the light of this fact, it is unfortunate that
knowledge of their proper treatment is not more general.
Turtles make, perhaps, the most satisfactory captives of the
entire group of Reptilia, since their wants are few and
easily satisfied, and their care makes small demand on the
time and ingenuity of their owner.

291

292 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS

Snakes

In making a cage for snakes, much depends on the size
and habits of the particular species expected to occupy it.
No fixed dimensions need be set. Snakes are not par-

ticularly active creatures, and the cage need be only large © 4

enough to give its occuparits room to move about freely.
For the smaller species large glass aquaria, fitted with wire
tops, make excellent homes, and have the added advantage
of plenty of light. If the cage is to be of wood, the front
should be of glass rather than of wire, as snakes are likely
to rub against the latter and injure their mouths. It is
always wise to make the door of such a box in the top, which
makes it possible to care for the captives with a minimum
of disturbance. This door, or the entire top, may be of
wire netting, to allow ventilation.

The furnishing of the cage may be varied according to
the needs of the inmates. In some cases it is better left
entirely plain. In others the bottom may be covered with
sand, loam, dry leaves, moss or rounded pebbles. Many
snakes will take advantage of a shelf placed midway between
floor and top, and others will drape themselves among
branches set upright in the cage.

Water should be provided for all species, and water
snakes should have a good-sized bath, in which they will
often be found immersed.

Cages must be cleaned frequently and all excreta re-
moved with great care. Snakes are fond of sunshine, and
the cage should be placed so as to admit it, but care must
be taken to avoid over-heating. It is important that the
cage be absolutely dry, for snakes of most species will not
thrive in damp quarters, or even in a moist atmosphere.

The matter of feeding snakes is the most vexing prob-

lem. Few specimens will take dead food, so a stock of

REPTILES 293

insects, worms, mice, young sparrows, frogs and even small
snakes must be arranged for. Some individuals are very
obstinate, and never can be induced to take anything, while
others feed without the slightest hesitation. Fortunately,
all reptiles are able to endure long periods of fasting with-
out apparent harm, and particularly obdurate specimens,
unless especially valuable, can be liberated after a period of
confinement.

The smaller species should be fed about once each week,
but a meal every ten days is sufficient for the needs of the
great constrictors. The larger individuals often go for
several weeks without food.

Snakes, like other reptiles, are what are known as cold-
blooded animals, not having the faculty of adapting their
body temperature to that of the surrounding element, but
being governed directly by it. It is necessary, therefore,
during cold weather, to keep the enclosures of such creatures
suitably warm, if they are to remain active.

Collecting snakes is a sport which offers few obstacles
and much excitement. A search along old fences, stone
piles and heaps of brush, in suitable locations, will lead
to many captures. The smaller, harmless species are
easily taken in the hands. Most of these little fellows sel-
dom bite, and when they do are able to inflict but a mere
scratch. Larger individuals should be captured with a
crooked stick, placed just behind the head. Large black
and water snakes are really serious antagonists, able to
make a strong resistance, and their capture should not be
undertaken lightly.

The writer well remembers an experience in British
Guiana with a large Yellow-tailed Snake (Herpetodryas
carinatus), an active species, similar to the Black Snake
in appearance and habit. This particular individual was
crossing a railroad track which threaded its way through

294. REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS

dense jungle. I was especially anxious to secure him, as
he was an uncommonly fine specimen, and as there was no
time to make the usual preparations I incautiously laid
hold of his rapidly disappearing tail. In my mind, what
followed is a blur of rapid movement in a thick cloud of
dust, dominated by a lashing black body, which seemed to
possess the paradoxical power of occupying many places
at one time. When, after an exciting struggle, the snake
was dropped into a muslin bag, I found that he had bitten
my hands in several places, although in the heat of battle
I had not noticed it.

Venomous species, or those difficult to secure for other
reasons, are captured by means of a slip noose at the end
of a stiff pole, a short fish-rod being excellent for the pur-
pose. The cord used should be strong, heavy fish-line,
thick enough to avoid cutting the captive. The noose
should be about six inches in diameter, well spread, and
attached to the pole by about a foot of line. This noose
is carefully worked over the head of the snake, and sud-
denly drawn tight, but without sufficient force to injure it.
The specimen, if particularly large or dangerous, may be
dropped, by simply cutting the rope from the pole, into the
open mouth of a bag held in readiness. Smaller individuals
may be secured by hand and placed in suitable receptacles,
after the noose has been removed.

Many species of snakes are hardy in confinement, live
‘well and are interesting as captives. Certain forms possess
these qualities in greater degree than others, and these, as
far as possible, should be chosen. However, it is seldom
that snake pets are sought deliberately, except by collectors,
and most captive specimens are secured by chance, with no
opportunity for selection. On the other hand, dealers
in live animals often have many desirable species on
hand.

REPTILES 295

Of our harmless native species, the GARTER SNAKE
(Eutenia sirtalis) is the most abundant and familiar. It is
found everywhere in the East, and west of the Mississippi
is represented by several closely allied forms, which inhabit
country of widely varying character. This is a viviparous
species, its young being numerous and active. It is naturally
docile, and in captivity soon becomes very tame. Its food
should consist of small frogs and earthworms.

The WATER SNAKE (Tropidonatus fasciatus sipedon) is
abundant about ponds and streams, but is shy and difficult
to approach. In color it is brownish-black, varied in
younger specimens with patches of ruddy brown. Like the
Garter Snake, it is viviparous, the young appearing late in
summer. This snake is exceedingly bad-tempered, and
while it is very hardy in captivity, cannot be handled with
impunity. It should be provided with water for bathing,
and fed on minnows, frogs and tadpoles.

The Biack SNAKE (Zaments constrictor) is very active
and swift-moving and, when cornered, a courageous and
formidable fighter. Because of this fact, and its size, it is
much persecuted in country districts, although as a de-
stroyer of rodents it is of the greatest value to the farmer.
In captivity it will eat almost anything alive—frogs, small
birds, rats, mice, and even smaller harmless snakes.

The Mountain or Pitot BLACKSNAKE (Coluber obso-
letus) is found throughout the eastern states, from Maine
southward. It resembles the common Black Snake, but is
readily distinguished by the greater brilliance of its color and
the white edges of the scales. It reaches a length greater
than that of the average Black Snake, large specimens some-
times reaching eight feet. In captivity it will take rats, mice,
guinea-pigs and sparrows.

The GopHer or INp1Ico SNAKE (Spilotes corais coupert),
of the southeastern states, is iridescent bluish-black in color,

296 | REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS

and reaches a length of eight or nine feet. Both this and the
preceding species reproduce by means of eggs. It is espe-
cially desirable as a pet, becoming very tame. Its food is
that of the Black Snake.

A curious little creature is the Hoc-NosED SNAKE
(Heterodon platyrhinus), occasioning much alarm among
the uninitiated by the upturned snout, which gives it a pecul-
iarly villainous expression. It also exhibits signs of ag-
gression when disturbed, even going so far as to vibrate the
end of the tail after the fashion of the Rattlesnake, although
it is, of course, perfectly innocuous. It is a satisfactory
species in captivity, feeding on small frogs and toads.

The GREEN SNAKE (Liopeltes vernalis) is widely dis-
tributed in North America. It is entirely leaf-green in
color, and because of this protective character is not easily
detected. It is insectivorous in habit, searching among the
branches of low bushes for the insects which form its food.
It is an exceedingly docile species, and in captivity thrives
on a diet of insects.

Of native species suitable for pets, the Kinc SNAKE
(Ophibolus getulus) is one of the very best. It is a hand-
some creature, shining black, variegated with narrow, whit-
ish bands, found in the eastern states, from New Jersey
southward, and reaches a length of six feet. It feeds on
rodents and snakes, successfully attacking poisonous species,
to the venom of which it is immune. In captivity it soon
becomes very docile, and has the additional advantage of
willingness to partake of dead food.

One of the handsomest reptiles.of eastern North America
is the Mitk SNAKE (Ophibolus doliatus triangulus), a
small cousin of the foregoing. It reaches an extreme length
of about six feet, and is prettily marked with chestnut
patches on a grayish ground. The curious belief that it
draws the milk from the udders of cows has brought it into

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REPTILES 297

disrepute among farmers, but in reality it is a very useful
species. In captivity it feeds on small rats and mice.

Of poisonous species there are but two in northeastern
North America. These are the CopPERHEAD (Ancistrodon
contortrix) and the TIMBER RATTLESNAKE (Crotalus hor-
ridus), the latter being very uncommon in the north. Far-
ther south we find the Coral Snake, the Water Moccasin
and the Diamond-back and Pigmy Rattlesnakes. Al-
though all of these snakes thrive in captivity, the constant
menace of their ever-ready fangs precludes their inclusion
in the list of pets, and the amateur should confine his efforts
to the non-venomous species.

Specimens of the great constricting snakes, especially the
INDIAN .PytHon (Python molurus) and some of the com-
moner Boas, are generally to be obtained from dealers.
Pythons are in great demand for use by “ snake-charmers,”
and in spite of their large size make very satisfactory pets,
becoming docile and even affectionate under sympathetic
treatment. They are fond of bathing and should be pro-
vided with a tank suitable for the purpose. Once they have
become reconciled to captivity, they usually feed regularly,
and at intervals of about ten days should be furnished with
whatever food they seem to prefer—trats, guinea-pigs,
chickens, pigeons, etc. Some individuals, especially the
larger ones, often have to be fed forcibly at first, but the
necessity for such procedure will hardly fall to the lot of the
tyro.

Lizards '

Although the order LAcERTILIA contains a great array of
forms, comparatively few of them are obtainable by the
amateur collector. Dealers in live animals sometimes have
specimens for sale, but the number of these creatures which
reach the open market is not large, and includes only the

298 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS

commoner and more hardy species. Once secured, even
with the best of care, most lizards are not long-lived, but
still will endure captivity for a time.

Collecting lizards is a sport calling for great agility, and
it must be confessed that results do not always justify the
exertion. What hours has the writer spent in pursuit of
these active creatures, which seem as elusive as light itself!
The larger forms, such as the Iguanas, may be taken by a
skilful person with a pole and noose, as described for
venomous reptiles. The great tropical, fiercely carnivorous
Tegus the writer has often captured in large wire rat-traps,
baited simply with bits of raw meat. Unless resort be had
to strategy, it is practically impossible to catch the more
active of the small species when in natural surroundings.
If one is disturbed, it darts away like a shadow, but if the
collector remains perfectly still, the little fellow, filled
with curiosity, will often return to investigate, when a
quick stroke with the hand net may enmesh it.

Care must be exercised in handling lizards, for most
species possess the faculty of snapping off the tail near its
base. This is, of course, a protective measure, which often
enables the creature to escape its enemies. The discarded
member will be replaced by a new growth, but its center
will be cartilaginous, instead of the normal bony vertebre.

Contrary to popular belief, most lizards are non-poison-
ous, the only venomous forms being the Gila Monster, of
the southwest, and its relatives. The larger species, how-
ever, are provided with many long, sharp teeth, and are able
to administer a very severe bite.

For the smaller lizards the cage must be made very tight,
as they will take advantage of the slightest aperture to make
their escape. The type suggested for snakes will do as well
for lizards, but it should be borne in mind that these crea-
tures, coming from warm climates, require heat, especially

REPTILES 299

in winter, and are fond of basking in sunshine. The cage
should be furnished with branches for the inmates to
scramble among.

Most of the lizards are carnivorous in feeding habits, and
their menu in captivity includes insects, eggs and raw meat.
The more vegetarian forms, such as the Iguanas, feed on
lettuce, tomatoes and similar items. One meal in every two
days is considered the proper régime for most lizards.

Water is necessary at all times, and for such as will take
it, may be furnished in small, low receptacles. . Some
lizards seem unable or unwilling to take moisture in this
way, and for them the sides of the cage, or the leaves of
plants with which it may be decorated, should be sprayed
frequently, when the captive will be found to take the drops
which form.

While the species of lizards are very numerous, so few
are available in the open market that mention of the more
striking forms or groups will meet the needs of the amateur.

Probably the best known species in captivity is the
AMERICAN CHAMELEON (Anolis carolinensis), the com-
mon name being a misnomer, as, properly speaking, it is not
a Chameleon at all. This little lizard is found in the south-
eastern United States, where it is abundant along old fences
and among the branches of trees. Its feet are provided
with small pads, which allow it to cling, in any position, to
smooth surfaces. This lizard makes an admirable pet, soon
becoming very tame, and its curious trait of rapidly chang-
ing color is most interesting. It should be fed on flies, meal
worms and other insects.

A common species, found along fences and in brush
piles, from New Jersey to Oregon, is the FENCE Swirt
(Sceloporus undulatus). This is a small creature, seldom >
exceeding five inches in length, grayish in color and lightly
marked with black. It is extremely lively and difficult to

300 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS

capture, and can be secured only by a combination of in-
genuity and quickness.

The Skinks (ScincID2) are a ics spread group of
comparatively low forms, some of which reach a length of
two feet. The Two-LInep SKINK (Eumeces quinqueline-
atus) is found sparingly in Massachusetts, but is more
abundant in the southern states. Adult specimens are
brown, with reddish heads, younger individuals being black
with yellow stripes. This lizard is strong and active, but
many of the skinks are heavy in body, and appear to be
furnished with legs much too weak to support them.

Curious little creatures are the GecKos, of which there
are a great many species, of very wide distribution. The
toes of these lizards are provided with sucking disks, anal-
ogous to those of the American Chameleon, by means of
which they are able to run at high speed over perpendicular
surfaces. They are nocturnal in habit, hiding in the daytime
and coming forth at the approach of evening to feed on
insects. When peeling bark from dead trees in the tropics,
in search of insects, the writer has often happened on
Geckos, safely hidden from the light. These lizards discard
their tails at the slightest alarm, and it is not easy to secure
perfect specimens. In captivity they should be fed on live
insects.

The Hornep “Toaps,” or, more properly, Horned
Lizards (Phrynosoma), probably are the most weird-look-
ing of all the lizards. The short, squat, sandy-colored body
simply bristles with a mass of strong spines, of varying
length, which protrude from the most unexpected places,
and it is not surprising that the harmless little creature is
credited with all sorts of dreadful possibilities. More than
a dozen species are known, distributed in the southwestern
United States and Mexico. In captivity the Horned Toad
must be kept warm. Its box should be well sanded, and

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REPTILES 301

kept as much as possible in the sun. The usual food is meal
worms, but insect larve should be given when obtainable.

The largest lizards of the Western Hemisphere are the
IGUANAS, great, powerful creatures, sometimes reaching
a length of six feet. Most of the species are ornamented
with a row of dorsal spines, the body usually being of vary-
ing shades of green, sometimes marked with black. The
commonest species is Jguana tuberculata, inhabiting prac-
tically all of tropical America. Although chiefly vegetarian
in habit, it is also a fierce hunter of birds and small mam-
mals. On many occasions the writer has observed this
creature in the act of stalking young birds among the
branches of trees, and the skill with which it insinuated
itself within striking distance of its unsuspecting victim be-
lied its reputation as a strict eater of vegetable food. When
disturbed it will leap to the ground from a considerable
height, and rush off at high speed through the underbrush.
This species often is found in the hands of dealers. It lives
well in captivity, and if kept warm will thrive on a diet of
lettuce, tomatoes and other soft vegetables, with the addi-
tion of a little chopped meat or a young sparrow.

The Grass “Snakes” (Ophisaurus) seem to the tyro
to form the “ missing link ” between the snakes and lizards,
since they lack all trace of external limbs. So far as loco-
motion goes, they are snakes, but the movable eyelids,
lizard-like head and shining scales stamp them as lizards.
O. ventralis is the only American species, found from North
Carolina to Mexico. It is hardy in captivity, and feeds
on insects, chopped meat and raw eggs.

The true CHAMELEONS, of which there are a number of
species, are found chiefly in Africa. Chameleon vulgaris
is the best known form. In common with some other
lizards, they possess the faculty of rapidly changing the
body color, an accomplishment which has made them fa-

302 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS

mous. The chameleon is most grotesque in appearance, with

great, bulging eyes, and the covering of the head extended in ©

a flattened collar around the hind neck. It is especially
adapted for arboreal life, the tail being prehensile and the
toes specialized for grasping branches. It feeds chiefly on
insects, which it secures by quickly extruding its long,
sticky tongue to a length of several inches. In captivity
it lives only a few months, and takes its insect food but in-
differently well.

The Gita Monster (Heloderma suspectum), of Arizona

and New Mexico, and two less known relatives are the only

lizards known to be poisonous. The Gila Monster itself is
a repulsive-looking brute—fat-bodied and squatty, with an
ugly head and of a vivid salmon color, coarsely splotched
with black. When first captured it is very savage, showing
a great willingness to make use of its poison fangs at the
slightest provocation. But after a few weeks it becomes
exceedingly dull, so that it is almost impossible to rouse it
to fighting pitch. In.captivity it is very hardy if kept warm,
and is fed on chopped beef and raw eggs.

Alligators

The mere mention of the alligator’s name is enough to
arouse the interest of the average person, and few visitors
to Florida seem able to resist the opportunity to secure and
take home a baby specimen. These little creatures generally
are misunderstood and grossly mistreated, finally finding
their way to a zoological institution, if they are so fortunate
as to survive long enough to meet this happy fate. Alliga-
tors, no matter how small, are able and willing to inflict
painful wounds, so they distinctly are not good pets, and
should not be kept in such capacity. However, if one
really desires to keep them, they are not at all difficult if

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REPTILES 303

properly treated. For small specimens the cage should be
roomy, floored with dry sand or gravel, and provided with
a large pan of water. Alligators feed well on earthworms,
bits of raw meat, fish, mice, etc., although some individuals
may require encouragement at meal-time. They should be
fed once every other day.

The great trouble with alligators comes at the approach of
cold weather. In this connection, it must be borne in mind
that the alligator is a native of a warm country. There-
fore, if its cage and bathing water are of a low temperature,
the inmate will be sluggish and refuse to feed. On the
other hand, if kept properly warmed, it will remain active
throughout the winter months, and feed almost as well as
during warm weather. Alligators which have passed the
baby stage become more aquatic in habit, and require a
larger pool, in which they will spend most of their time.

Turtles

Of all the reptiles, turtles probably are most commonly
kept as pets. These quaint creatures exercise a fascination
which no boy can resist, and indeed they are worthy of the
feeling they inspire, for no animal may be kept with less at-
tention. Turtles are not high in the scale of intelligence, but
become reasonably tame. The aquatic species will live in an
ordinary balanced aquarium, but cannot be trusted with
fishes, tadpoles or others of the usual inhabitants. It is bet-
ter, however, to provide a proper enclosure, with turfed or
sanded bottom, and a bathing tank at one end.

If kept out of doors during the summer, turtles must be
removed to warm quarters at the approach of winter, unless
facilities for hibernation underground, below the frost-
line, can be provided. They are likely to become sluggish
during cold weather, and will not feed well, unless kept

304 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS

at a warm temperature. Their food consists of earth-
worms, minnows, cut fish, small pieces of raw meat, meal
worms, lettuce, etc., and should be provided every second
day.

Turtles reproduce by means of eggs. In captivity it is
unusual for them to lay, much more so for the eggs to hatch,
so that no increase in the family need be expected.

The PAINTED TURTLE or TERRAPIN. (Chrysemys picta)
is the species most familiar to eastern boyhood. It is the
most brightly colored of native Turtles, and easily dis-
tinguished by the red markings on the sides of the shell.
It reaches a length of five or six inches, and is found in

ponds and slow-moving streams. In captivity it willlive for —

years if properly treated. The Diamond-backed and Yellow-
bellied Terrapins are closely allied to this species.

The Musk TurtLe (Aromochelys odoratus) and the
Mup TurtTLe (Cinosternum pennsylvanicum) belong to a
eroup of several closely allied species which are found in
still, muddy waters. They are dull-colored and small in
size, and both emit a musky odor when handled, but may

be distinguished from each other by wider undershell of the —

Mud Turtle. In captivity they are very hardy, and do well
on the usual foods.

The SNAPPING TURTLE (Chelydra serpintina) is theonly ~
eastern species which is really dangerous or grows to a ©
large size. In color it is uniformly dull, the shell being 4
rough and generally moss-covered and the head huge and
evil-looking. It is able to strike with lightning rapidity, and
the powerful, razor-edged jaws can inflict serious damage q
on whatever may come between them. In captivity it will _
enjoy an opportunity to crawl about out of water, but like ~
all truly aquatic species generally cannot swallow unless sub- —

merged.

The Spottep TurTLE (Chelopus aliases is a species 4

REPTILES 305

which, because of its striking coloration, is known to every
lover of nature. The black, yellow-spotted shell is a rather
conspicuous object as the creature basks in the sun, and it
is not strange that it should often be kept in the vivarium.

The Woop TurTLE (C. insculpatus), although closely
allied to the foregoing, is easily distinguished by its brown-
ish coloration and terrestrial habits. This turtle often leaves
the water, and is found in damp localities, where it feeds
on vegetable matter. At this point, it should be noted that
because of the helplessness of this species and the Box
Turtle, when met with in their terrestrial wanderings, their
numbers have become so reduced as to make their total
extinction a matter of a very short time. For this reason,
New York State, at least, has passed a law forbidding their
capture or possession at any time, except as allowed by
special permit issued only to responsible persons.

The Box Turt Le (Cistudo carolina) is well named, from
its ability to close the hinged parts of the lower shell so
tightly as to make it entirely impregnable to the attacks of
its enemies. This species, although still retaining the evi-
dence of aquatic habits, is now entirely terrestrial. It is
found in dry forests, where it feeds on worms, grubs and
vegetable growths. Both this and the preceding make ex-
cellent pets, as they may be allowed to roam at will in an
enclosed garden or an improvised pen, but the stipulations
of the law mentioned above must not be forgotten. These
turtles may be fed on meat, lettuce and soft vegetables.

Of the Sort-sHELLED TurTLEs (Trionyx), several
species are found in eastern North America. All agree
in having the shell soft and leathery, instead of hard and
_ bony, as in other turtles. They are grayish or brownish in
coloration, sometimes marked with dark spots, but never
with bright colors. Although apparently defenseless, they
are savage fighters, and well able to care for themselves.

306 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS

They are purely aquatic, and must be provided with a tank
suitable for swimming. Because of the non-resistant char-
acter of their covering, hard objects should not be placed
in the tank, a water-soaked bit of wood being sufficient for
them to crawl out upon. They should be fed on worms,
meat, cut fish and clams.

The true tortoises have long forgotten their aquatic —
habits, and their feet have become modified as an adapta- .
tion to terrestrial life. The group includes the Giant Tor-
toises, which are exceeded in size only by the marine turtles,
and are believed to live a great number of years. The best
known American species is the GOPHER TorTOISsE (Testudo
polyphemus), of the southern states. It is abundant in
sandy districts, living in burrows. Like most of the group,
it lives well in captivity, but is very sensitive to cold, the
least drop in temperature causing it to approach as closely as —
possible to the source of heat in its quarters. It should be ~
fed on meat, and lettuce, tomatoes and other vegetables. |

CHAPTER XX
BATRACHIANS

In the list of pet possibilities, the batrachians probably stand
the lowest. An uninitiated person, even though a confirmed
lover of animals, would hardly consider a toad or a frog a
desirable addition to the household. And yet the squat,
warty toad, once his acquaintance has been made, becomes an
almost fascinating creature. Frogs, though less friendly
than toads, repay equally well the time expended in caring
for them, and the wonderful metamorphosis of the tad-
pole, easily observed in the balanced aquarium, leaves an
impression which will never be forgotten. Salamanders
and newts are not difficult to keep, and their observation
under the conditions of captivity will reveal much of the life
of these otherwise little known creatures.

Frogs and Toads

Both frogs and toads may be kept in an aquarium with
a wire top, or in a box cage with wire or glass front. In
any case, unless the cage is very large, the door is best at
the top. The bottom should be covered with sand or gravel,
with a basin of water at the lowest level large enough to
enable the inmate to submerge itself. Frogs are more
aquatic than toads, and will spend more time in the water,
but as moisture is absorbed through the skin only, bathing
facilities are, for both, an absolute necessity. A water-
soaked bit of bark or piece of branch placed near the edge
of the water will be appreciated.

Several South American and Old World species are en-

397

308 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS

tirely aquatic and never leave the water, but our North
American toads and many of the frogs spend most of their
time on land, and to confine them to a tank of water, with
no means of leaving it, is cruelty which will soon result in
death.

By far the most attractive way of keepirig frogs and
toads is the properly equipped terrarium. The aquarium
or cage mentioned above may be floored with loam, in which
may be arranged various plants, ferns and mosses, which in
themselves are of great interest. A small pool should be
placed in the center. An assortment of small frogs and
toads in such surroundings. will thrive, and form an at-
tractive collection. ?

Frogs and toads, like other cold-blooded creatures, must
be kept fairly warm, especially during the winter months.

The matter of food, so long as it is of animal character,
is not difficult. The smaller species will eat insects of almost
any kind, meal worms forming a convenient item. Bits
of raw beef, heart or liver are equally acceptable. Bull-
frogs will eat small birds and mice, and also smaller frogs
and toads.

The once common belief in the ability of toads to pro-

duce warts on the hands of the unwary has been too often
refuted to require comment here. But nevertheless it is
true that the larger glands, more particularly the prominent
ones just behind the head, at each side, produce a mildly

poisonous secretion when the animal is very severely

handled. Skunks and some other creatures roll the toad
carefully with the fore-paws before eating it, but snakes
seem to have no qualms, and swallow the victim without
ceremony.

The breeding habits of frogs and toads are of great inter-
est, and fortunately may be observed in the home aquarium.
The eggs are deposited in the water in the early spring, the

~*~

4

Bullfrog

Common Tree Frog

BATRACHIANS 309

love songs of the prospective parents being typical of the
season. Toads’ eggs are arranged in long, transparent
strings; those of frogs in gelatinous masses. These eggs
may be removed to the aquarium where, after a short period,
which may be only a very few days if the water is warm, the
tiny tadpoles will emerge. They are helpless little creatures
at first, but soon gain strength and are able to move about
actively. Algze are their favorite food, but they will eat
almost anything available, such as lettuce leaves, bits of
scraped meat, yolk of boiled egg, fish food, etc.

There are two tiny round pores at the sides of the head
which permit the escape of water which has been drawn into
the gills through the mouth and nostrils. After a time,
which varies according to the species (from three or four
weeks in the toads and tree frogs to one or two years in
the Bullfrog), tiny hind legs make their appearance, and
when they have become well formed the perfectly developed
fore limbs are thrust out through the gill openings. The
tail is gradually absorbed from within, and when it has
finally almost disappeared the little creature is ready to
change its environment.

It is fascinating to watch the gradual widening of the
mouth from the tiny opening of the tadpole to the huge
gape of the adult creature. While this is taking place the
lungs are also coming into service, and one day our lowly
water creature emerges, free to move about as suits him
in the upper world.

There are four distinct species of true toads (BUFONT-
D#), in eastern North America, and some ten are found in
various parts of the West. The American Toap (Bufo
americanus ) is found everywhere east of the Rockies, and is
the most abundant form. Fow.er’s Toap (B. fowleri) is.
found locally in New England and New York, but much
remains to be learned concerning its distribution. The two

~

310 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS

toads are not easily distinguished and few persons realize
the existence of more than one species. Fowler’s Toad is
more slender than the American, the protuberances on the
skin are smaller, the two large glands of the head are nar-
rower, and it never has the deep reddish pigments of its
relative. The SouTHERN Toap (B. lentiginosus) overlaps
the range of the American Toad in the southern states, and
is easily known by the large knobs which mark the ends of
the cranial crests. The Oax Toap (B. quercicus), of the
southeast, is the smallest of the American toads (adults are
only a little over one inch in length). It is so tiny and
obscure that it is not easily observed, and its habits are not
so well known as those of other species.

All of the toads make interesting pets. They soon become
tame and confiding, and show no sign of fear in the pres-
ence of the observer.

About seventeen species of typical frogs (RANID#) are
known in North America, of which five are found abun-
dantly in the northeastern states. The BuLLFRoG (Rana
catesbiana) is found everywhere east of the Rockies, al-
though it has been so much persecuted, because of its large
size, that it is restricted to unsettled districts. This species
reaches a large size and is easily known by this character
and its proportionately broad head. The Bullfrog is essen-
tially aquatic in habit and does not leave the water so
frequently as other species. In captivity it must not be
associated with smaller individuals, as it is distinctly can-
nibalistic.

The Ponp or GREEN Froc (R. clamitans) is the common

a a

green and olive frog of our ponds and streams. It is a

water-loving species and is usually seen in or near its natu- —

ral element. Market hunters have greatly reduced its ©

numbers.
The Leoparp Froc (R. pipiens) and the PICKEREL FRoG

BATRACHIANS 311

(R. palustris), commonly known as “Grass Frogs,” are
generally confused. Both are conspicuously spotted with
large, dark blotches, and both spend more time on land
than in the water, frequenting damp or marshy meadows.
Though they much resemble each other, the Pickerel Frog
may be known from its congener by the bright yellow of
the under surface of the hind legs and the squarish spots on
a brownish body. Both species are active and difficult to
capture.

Most attractive of all our frogs is the tiny Woop Froc
(R. sylvatica). It is a beautiful little creature, of varying
shades of brown, with a large, blackish patch near the ear.
It is thoroughly terrestrial in habit, living in moist wood-
land and entering the water only during the mating season
in early spring. It lives fairly well in captivity, and should
be provided with damp moss and bits of rotten wood under
which to seclude itself.

The TreE Frocs (Hylid@) are so shy and so difficult to
detect that the great majority of people are entirely unaware ©
of their existence, though their voices are well known to all
who have been in the country in spring. Two species are
abundant in the eastern states—the Common TREE FROG
(Hyla versicolor) and the Sprinc PEEPER (H. pickeringit).
Both are capable of astonishing color changes, which range
through all the possibilities of brown and gray. The
Peeper may be known by its small size, which does not
much exceed an inch, while its relative reaches a length of
two inches. The tree frogs are quiet during the day, hid-
ing among moss or foliage, clinging by means of the sucking
disks with which the toes are furnished. At night they
are active in the pursuit of insects. During the mating
season in early spring, tree frogs gather in woodland pools,
where their high-pitched notes form the chorus which has
given the Peeper its name.

312 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS

Both species thrive in the terrarium, which should be
filled with moss and plants, and with rotten wood to furnish
interstices in which the inmates may secrete themselves.
Tree frogs should be fed on flies and other small insects,
meal worms being a convenient form.

Newts and Salamanders

The tailed Batrachians fall naturally into two groups:
the Newts, which are aquatic when adult, and the Salaman-
ders, which are at least partly terrestrial when fully de-
veloped. Newts especially are well adapted to life in
captivity, thriving in the balanced aquarium, while the sala-
manders, especially the larval forms, are very tenacious of
life. The breeding habits of the newts and salamanders
resemble those of the other batrachians. The eggs are de-
posited in the water (in some cases living larvz are born)
and the young creatures lead an aquatic existence, breathing
by means of gills. When the proper time arrives lungs
come into play, the gills disappear, and the adult salamander
is ready for terrestrial life. In the case of the newt, the
individual does not reach maturity “until it again takes to the
water.

The best known species is the Common Newt (Diemyc-
tylus viridiscens), which is abundant in ponds in the East.
It is two or three inches in length, olive above and yellowish
below, the tail being furnished with a fin-like appendage for
swimming. In this stage it may be kept in the aquarium, but
because of its voracity must not be associated with small
fishes. The tiny, brilliant red “lizard” often encountered
in moist situations is the immature form of the newt, which
has emerged from the water and adapted itself temporarily

to life above. This attractive creature will prosper in the ©
terrarium, feeding on small insects, such as plant lice or fruit

flies,

Pt Pe SE ieee > a, €

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Frog Tadpoles

G8 BOOBS

Lined Salamander

Spotted Salamander

BATRACHIANS 313

Of the salamanders, the Brown (Desmognathus fusca)
and the Two-Linep (Spelerpes bislineatus) are the most
abundant. Both are semiaquatic, ard always found near
brooks or ponds, frequently actually in the water. The
former is a dull brown in color, and reaches a length of four
inches. The Two-lined is much smaller and more slender,
brownish, with two yellow dorsal stripes. Both will thrive
in the terrarium, if it is kept moist, and feed freely on
earthworms, insects and raw meat.

The SpotteD SALAMANDER (Amblystoma punctatum) is
a subterranean form, rarely found on the surface of the
ground except when it gathers at woodland ponds during
the breeding season. It is a brilliant creature, bluish-black
in color, thickly marked with small, round spots of yellow.
It is the largest of the eastern salamanders, reaching a
length of 6.7 inches. In captivity it is as hardy as the
other species.

Amblystoma tigrinum, of the southern states and Mexico,
is of particular interest, as the adult form of the well-known
Axolotl. The larva is of large size, reaching a length of
six to eight inches. It is blackish in color, but albinos are
of very frequent occurrence. The species is peculiar, in the
fact that the larve breed in their immature condition, and
not until careful experiments were undertaken was it found
that they metamorphosed into typical salamanders when
forced to breathe air. Axolotls thrive in captivity, and as
they are generally to be obtained from dealers, are excel-
lent objects for observation.

@ , SECTION IV
i ss THE AQUARIUM

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CHAPTER XXI
GENERAL CARE

WuatT normal family has never included among its varied
possessions a tank of goldfishes? The goldfish is almost as
ubiquitous as the canary, but unfortunately there has ex-
isted an almost universal lack of knowledge of the proper
care of this creature, and the first disastrous attempt at
keeping it is almost invariably the last. Just why this con-
dition should exist is not easy to say, as the needs of the
goldfish are simplicity itself. Perhaps the dealers are re-
sponsible, in a way, for it is to them that the tyro looks for
advice as to his new acquisitions. Very often, no doubt, |
help is not solicited, the purchaser taking it for granted that
his crystal globe is the acme of perfection by way of a
habitation, and well suited to the comfort and exhibition of
its inmates, if only the water be changed daily! What
drudgery has been caused by this fallacy, and what secret
thanks have gone forth when the heavy globe finally has
been dropped, or otherwise broken, on one of its many
trips to the nearest tap!

But understanding of the aquarium is spreading. Al-
most every large city has its Aquarium Society, composed
of enthusiasts who devote their spare time to the cultivation
of aquatic life. Dealers are acquiring information, and are
learning that more is to be gained by offering their patrons
facts than by withholding them. Many schools maintain
balanced aquaria, so that the students are able to learn
something of modern methods. Thus the truth about the
aquarium is being disseminated among the public, and the

effect is already discernible.

317

318 ? THE AQUARIUM

The popularity of the goldfish in the home is attested by
the many thousands sold yearly, at something less than popu-
lar prices. Conceive a glass bowl, five inches in diameter,
equipped with a handful of gravel and a spray of sickly
aquatic plant, and inhabited by two infantile goldfishes,
the whole offered for sale for ten cents, with a food wafer
or two thrown in! Consider, also, the untimely end of these
unfortunates, condemned by a combination of ignorance
and sincere love of the beautiful.

Yet the picture has its bright side. The amazing eager-
ness with which these little bowls are bought shows a wide-
spread desire for something alive, and only a little knowl-
edge, properly applied, is necessary to develop a really
humanizing movement. In all of the list of creatures com-
monly kept in the home, there is none which will thrive as
well, with so little care, and give so much pleasure and
satisfaction, as the goldfish. Once the simple principle of
the balanced aquarium is understood, the way is opened
to a vast field of interest and instruction.

As the fish draws the water through its gills, oxygen
passes into the blood and, in circulating, combines with
waste products of the tissues, and is expelled again into the
water in the form of carbon dioxide, a poisonous gas. Thus
it is that the water of tanks which are deficient in plant life
soon becomes vitiated and must be renewed to save the lives
of the inmates. But if the aquarium is supplied with grow-
ing plants this trouble is overcome. Carbon is exactly what
the plant requires for its own growth, but it has no use for
oxygen. Hence, having absorbed the gas through its leaves,
it retains the needed element and returns the oxygen to
the water. Thus is the water constantly kept aerated, and
suitable for the maintenance of animal life. An aquarium
of correct shape, placed in a favorable position, and stocked
with a suitable number of fishes and healthy aquatic plants

Tee SS

\y
‘Y

GENERAL CARE 319

sufficient to provide them with oxygen, may remain un-
touched for years, except for the occasional removal of
sediment and the addition of water to replace that which
has evaporated. This evaporation has a decidedly beneficial
effect upon the air of the room in which the aquarium is
placed, especially in modern steam-heated apartments, which
invariably are lacking in moisture.

Besides the goldfish there are many interesting denizens of
our own ponds and streams which will live well in the aqua-
rium, and a great number of foreign fishes, mostly tropical,
which represent an amazing range of variation in form, color
and habit. These last are more difficult to care for than
the common varieties of the goldfish, but a very little ex-
perience suffices, and their much greater attraction more
than compensates for the slightly increased effort necessary
to keep them in health. While some of these fishes will be
referred to later on, space forbids mention of them all, but
the reader is assured that a pursuit of great scope and fas-
cination awaits him who cares to specialize in these forms.

The Aquarium and Its Care

The globe above referred to, aside from its small size and
improper equipment, is an abomination from its shape as
well. No matter how large, a vessel of this sort, because of
the small surface of water exposed, is never properly
aérated; and, moreover, so distorts the fishes that their
true size and proportions remain entirely unknown to the
observer. Cylindrical tanks are much better, if not more
than two-thirds full of water, and aside from a certain
amount of distortion, are perfectly satisfactory. The most
suitable shape, however, is the square or rectangular. Tanks
of this sort may be had made entirely of glass, but while
these are attractive, they are expensive and easily broken.

320 THE AQUARIUM

Probably the most satisfactory is the glass aquarium with a
frame of metal. The cheaper grades have metal bottoms as
well, but the best and most serviceable are floored with
slate. Tanks of this sort are not at all difficult to make,
but the beginner might much better invest in the excellent
offerings of dealers in aquaria. There are many recipes for
aquarium cement, but their mixture is a matter calling for
some skill, and if the amateur pisciculturist essays the manu-
facture of a tank, or repairs are required, it is much better
to secure a packet of suitable cement already prepared.

In. placing the aquarium, there are certain rules to be
observed. If they are to thrive, the plants must have a
varying amount of light, according to their habit, some
requiring more than others, but direct sunshine during the
summer months is most undesirable. In the first place, it
overheats the water, causing it to give off oxygen, thus often
imperiling the lives of the inmates. Most plants will not
do well under such conditions, and the growth of undesir-
able algz is certain to be caused. For these reasons, a
strong north light is the most suitable for the aquarium,
which should be placed in or very near a window. During
the winter a little sunshine during the morning is desirable,
and for this purpose an eastern exposure is best. Sunshine
at this time will serve to warm the water slightly, and will
stimulate the plants to a proper activity. If a southern
or western window is the only one available, the aquarium
may be protected to some extent by the introduction of an
opaque fender, such as a piece of cardboard, between it and
the light. A tank fully stocked is spit and its support
should be well looked to.

A piece of glass should cover the top of the tank, under
any circumstances. If it fits tightly, leaving no air space
whatever, it will be found a world by itself, evaporating
water condensing on the glass top, and returning like natural

GENERAL CARE 321

dew. Dust is entirely excluded and many delicate aquatic
plants will be found to thrive much better. It also prevents
the possibility of loss of leaping fishes, a habit to which
most species are subject. For the sake of benefiting the
atmosphere of the room, however, it is often desirable to
have the glass cover short enough to leave a narrow space at
the ends, or to have it slightly raised all around. In this
case it will be necessary to add fresh water at intervals, as
evaporation takes place.

If a green growth of algz gathers on the sides of the
aquarium, it may be removed from the side facing the room
by rubbing with a piece of cheesecloth, or other coarse
material, attached to the end of a stick or long pair of
forceps. The only objection to the presence of the algz
is that they obscure the vision. In fact, they are decidedly
beneficial, acting as aérators, and also furnishing food for
the fishes.

All dead portions of plants should be removed, and sedi-
ment at the bottom should be taken out by suction with
a glass tube, obtainable in drug or aquarium supply stores.
If these matters are carefully looked after, and there is a
proper balance between plant and animal life, it will» not
be necessary to dismantle and thoroughly clean the aquarium
except at very long intervals.

Stocking the Aquarium

In stocking the aquarium, the first consideration is a cov-
ering for the bottom. For this purpose a mixture of sand
and fine gravel is generally the best. It should be washed
and rewashed with great care, until all soluble and float-
ing matter has been eliminated, and the water remains per-
fectly clear. It should then be placed in the tank to a
depth of one or two inches, according to size. It is best to

322 THE AQUARIUM

slope it gradually from back to front, and toward one
corner. This aids observation, arid causes refuse to gather
at the lowest point, whence it may easily be removed with a
rubber siphon or glass tube. The most desirable aquatic’
plants derive their nourishment directly from the water,
so that the gravel’s chief function, as far as the plants are
concerned, is simply to hold them in position. Lilies and
certain other delicate plants require soil and may be set in
small pots, with the soil covered with gravel.

Small tanks should not be obstructed with rockwork, but
if something of the sort is desired, it is best constructed of
natural stones, in the form of arches, bridges, ete. Artificial
castles, images and other articles of the sort are in decidedly
doubtful taste, and will not be used by the discriminating.

The plants with which the aquarium is to be*stocked have
much to do with its ultimate success, and should be selected
with the greatest care. The aquarist who lives in the coun-
try or suburbs will get much pleasure from collecting them
himself from neighboring ponds or streams. Almost any
submerged aquatic plant found growing naturally will thrive
in the aquarium, and a little experience will quickly demon-
strate the few which will not. If the beginner is not so
fortunately placed, he must depend on the dealer for his
- supply. Curiously enough, the plant most commonly kept
by dealers is one of the most unsatisfactory in the aquarium.
This is Fanwort (Cabomba), of which there are several

species. All are difficult to keep healthy except under the — k

best conditions, but if they must be used, the bundles in

which they are sold should be separated, and each sprig L ;

should have from one-third to one-half of its base removed. ; ,

Each should then be planted separately.

The best plants for the amateur are the Swimming Arrow-

wort (Sagittaria natans) and the various species of Water-

weed (Anacharis or Elodea). The former is somewhat —

GENERAL CARE 3 323.

grass-like in appearance, but with broad, strong leaves.
Once it has become established in the aquarium, it sends
out shoots which develop rapidly. It is a good aérator, and
probably the most satisfactory of all aquatics. Amnacharis
is a long, stringy plant, having three or more small, nar-
row leaves arranged in whorls at frequent intervals along
the stem. It is extremely hardy and a good aérator, its
greatest fault being the rapidity with which it grows, neces-
sitating its frequent trimming back.

Tapegrass (Vallisneria spiralis) is another valuable
aquarium plant. It much resembles Sagittaria, but its
leaves are more narrow and ribbon-like, and it has a some-
what different habit of growth. It is a good aérator and
propagates well.

Certain species of False Loosestrife (Ludwigia) are at-
tractive if they can be established. They are rather deli-
cate in the aquarium, but if not too badly crowded, and
given plenty of light, will often thrive.

The Pondweeds (Potamogeton) do not, as a rule, make
satisfactory additions to the aquarium flora, although they
are sometimes offered by dealers. When secured in this
way, the delicate leaves are almost invariably injured,
and as even healthy plants will thrive only under the
most favorable circumstances their acquisition is not
advised.

There are many small floating plants which, while their
value as aérators is almost negligible, add greatly to the
beauty of the aquarium. Of these the Duckweeds (Lemna),
Moss-ferns (Salvinia) and Floating Riccia (Riccia or Ric-
ciella) are the hardiest and most easily obtained. The
Bladderworts (Utricularia), while always submerged, float
close to the surface. Their bright green traceries make
them attractive, but they should never be kept in the breed-
ing aquarium, as the tiny “ bladders”’ are traps from which

324. THE AQUARIUM

newly hatched fishes cannot escape, although they may
enter freely enough.

After the plants have been selected, and before they are
placed in the aquarium, they should be immersed in solu-
tions of salt, creolin, potassium permanganate or other
sterilizing agents, the action of which will not destroy their
tissues. This will serve to destroy any harmful parasites,
fungus spores, etc., which might otherwise be introduced
into the tank. After they have been removed from the
sterilizer, the plants must be rinsed thoroughly in clear
water, to remove'all traces of it from the foliage.

The plants used should be grouped according to their
needs as to light, etc., and set before the tank is filled.
When they have been arranged, the water should be added
with great care, to avoid disturbing them. This may be
accomplished by means of a small sprinkler, or by pour-
ing the water in a piece of paper free from print. After
the completed aquarium has stood for a day or two, to
insure an equable temperature and proper aération, it is
ready for its occupants.

One inch of Goldfish to each gallon of water is the safest
proportion for the permanent tank.

Besides fishes, certain other creatures form part of the ~

balanced aquarium. ‘The most important of these are the j
snails, which, besides the added interest of their presence, — j
serve a useful purpose as scavengers, and removers of the
ever-present alge. There are many species, all of which are
more or less suitable for the aquarium. Some feed largely

on the plants, but when these are in a healthy growing con-
dition the slight depredations of the snails are negligible,
and more than overbalanced by the services they perform.

The most common native species are the Pond- or Mud- —
snails (Limnea). The most abundant form is a small,
blackish creature, found in ponds and ditches everywhere.

GENERAL CARE 325°

It is somewhat destructive to plants, but a few specimens
will not injure vigorous growths.

The species of Planorbis, the Trumpet-snails, are more
desirable. There are a number of native species, and the
common European form is usually obtainable from dealers.
There is also an albinistic variety of this snail which is much
in demand among aquarists. The fleshy parts and shell,
especially in younger specimens, are bright red in color, and
they are very effective among the green foliage of the
aquatic plants.

The Pond- and Trumpet-snails propagate by means of
eggs, which are deposited in masses on the plants or sides
of the aquarium, enclosed in gelatinous capsules. If undis-
turbed, these hatch in about two weeks, according to the
temperature of the water. All fishes large enough to do so
will feed voraciously on the young snails, and some will
attack the eggs, so that few are generally reared in the
aquarium. If the eggs or young, or, better still, the breed-
ing snails, are removed to a small tank or jar where they
will not be disturbed, large numbers may be reared without
difficulty. The young should be fed on tender leaves of let-
tuce and fine fish food.

The larger snails of the genus Paludina are harmless to
the plants when the supply of food is sufficient. They may
be distinguished from the preceding species by the posses-
sion of an opercle, with which they are able to close the
opening of the shell. In these snails the eggs, after fer-
tilization, are retained by the female, the young finally
emerging fully equipped with shells and large enough to
escape the attentions of all but the strongest fishes.

One or two tadpoles should always be kept, as much for
the interesting metamorphoses through which they pass as
for their value as devourers of refuse and alge. Tadpoles
of the common Green Frog are the most desirable.

326 THE AQUARIUM

Some aquatic insects, such as the Water-strider and
Whirligig Beetle, may safely be kept in the aquarium, but
it is best to avoid the larger and stronger species, many
of which will attack and kill the fishes. Dragon-fly and
other larvze must not be introduced, as they are among the
most destructive enemies of young or small fishes.

Turtles and crayfish are interesting and will thrive if
properly treated, but must not be kept in the general
aquarium. Even the smallest specimens will attack the
fishes, killing the weaker ones and tearing the tails of those
strong or active enough to escape them.

Diseases

Unfortunately, in common with other captive creatures,
as well as those in freedom, fishes are subject to a variety
of diseases. These are not numerous, and the most com-
mon are caused by fungi or animal parasites. If proper
care is used in the introduction of plants, attacks of this
nature are infrequent. When they do occur, the best course
to pursue is to remove and destroy the entire contents of the
infected tank, purify it thoroughly and restock it.

If fishes are carelessly handled scales will be loosened or

removed, rendering the specimen subject to attack by

fungus, the spores of which are ever present in the water.
The result is the appearance of a milky, stringy cloud
which adheres to the victim and moves about with it. When
this is noticed the fish should be removed, and immersed for
a short time in a weak solution of salt in water. After this
treatment has been repeated two or three times, improve-
ment will be noted, and a full recovery may finally be
achieved, but once the fungus has penetrated beneath the
scales it is difficult to eradicate.

The so-called black fungus is a common disease among

ee, REE gst aid

GENERAL CARE 327

newly imported goldfishes. It is caused by animal para-
sites, the presence of which is shown by dark patches on
various parts of the victim, covering open sores. Treat-
ment is almost hopeless, and if solutions of salt, potassium
permanganate or other germicides are of no avail, it is best
to destroy the fish and overhaul the aquarium.

There are a great many animal parasites which are de-
structive to fishes, the worst being an infusorian known as
Ichthyopthirius. The first indication of the presence of this
parasite is the appearance of small, round, whitish spots
which gradually spread to other parts of the fish’s body.
The victim becomes greatly emaciated and dies within a
few days. Many methods, such as the usual immersions,
heating of the water to 9go° Fahrenheit, etc., have been tried
to little purpose, and very few cures are effected.

It is pertinent to note at this point that when fishes must
be removed from the tank, they should always be caught ina
net of coarse cloth. They should never be lifted in metal
strainers, or in the hand, as it is almost impossible to
avoid injury, slight though it may be. Carelessness in this
respect is often the primary cause of serious loss.

It is important, also, that the temperature of the water in
which a fish is to be placed be the same as that from which
it came. This is an important point, especially with deli-
cate species, and lack of observance may cause severe losses.

After all is said and done, the tyro’s safest course is to
keep the aquarium clean and take every possible precaution
against the introduction of disease. A sick fish is a diffi-
cult subject, and a fresh start is usually the only means of
relief.

CHAPTER XXII

AQUARIUM FISHES
The Goldfish

THE most popular aquarium fish is, of course, the GoLpFIsH
(Carassius auratus). Small examples of the common vari-
ety may be had for as little as five cents each, but when
the more valuable sorts are reached it is possible to invest
many hundreds of dollars in a few specimens. The modern
goldfish was produced by careful selection of albinistic
individuals of a member of the carp group. Most of the
work of developing the many varieties has been done in
Japan and China, whence we have received some really
wonderful fishes.

Goldfish of the better varieties are found in the usual
scaled condition, and also with the scales so thin and deli-
cate that they are almost invisible. Fishes of this type are
known as transparently scaled or “scaleless.” They are
somewhat more sensitive to cold than the normally covered
breeds, but otherwise are equally hardy.

The SHUBUNKIN is a variety of the common goldfish,

at least in form. It is transparently scaled and very strik- :

ingly colored—a mixture of black, blue, purple and reddish

blotches, usually on a whitish background. The Shubunkin i

has only recently been brought to this country from Japan,
and just now is deservedly popular.

The most simple modification in form is noticed in the 3
breed known as the Comet, which has the body of a com- ~

mon goldfish, somewhat elongated, and with all of the fins
and the tail greatly lengthened. It is pretty and graceful as
| 328

Japanese Scaleless Veil-tailed Haplochilus cameroonensts
Goldfish

AQUARIUM FISHES 329°

well as hardy, and well suited to the needs of the beginner.

Then comes the group, including practically all of the
most remarkable varieties, in which the tail and also the
anal fin are in duplicate. W5ith most creatures, when abnor-
mal repetitions of parts occur, the individual is unable to
survive. In the goldfishes, however, the probably fortuitous
appearance of monsters has led to the development of the
finest breeds. |

The JAPANESE FAN-TAIL is the simplest representative
‘of this type, and is always obtainable from dealers. It is
not in good repute among breeders of fancy fishes, as many
of the specimens are simply degenerates of more advanced
forms. Nevertheless, it is frequently very handsome, and
is always popular with the tyro. The two tails should
be well separated, and not joined at the edges of the upper
lobes, as is often the case.

This fish undoubtedly was the forerunner of the truly
lovely JAPANESE VEIL-TAIL, a breed in which the tremen-
dously developed double tail is produced to a great length
and width, and droops downward like folds of gossamer.
Like all of the following varieties, the Veil-tail should have
a short, egg-shaped body, with the dorsal fin carried well up.

Beside the Veil-tail proper, there are two minor sub-
divisions, separated by the shape of the tail extremities.
The typical form has a slight notch. When this depression
is entirely wanting, the fish is known as a Square-tail or
Broad-tail. A very deep incision makes the specimen a
Ribbon-tail or Fringe-tail. This is really the finest of the
goldfishes, since it is of surpassing grace and beauty, and
has not been marred by the hideous extremes to which
some others have been carried.

Having brought the development of the fins to a point
approaching perfection, Oriental breeders seem next to
have turned their attention to the eyes, with a result which

330 THE AQUARIUM

certainly is not pleasing to the uninitiated observer. The
fishes of this group are known as the TELEscopes. Their
eyes protrude surprisingly, being entirely outside the skull
proper, and should be cylindrical in shape, never globular.

The Telescopes are found in all the variations of tail,
scales and color that are seen in the Japanese varieties. The ©
most popular color seems to be the curious pattern of the
Shubunkin, known among Telescopes as calico. One of the
finest is the Black or Moor, which is a rich and startling
bluish-black. Unfortunately, this color is not always perma-
nent, especially among American-bred fishes.

The extreme pinnacle in the exaggeration of the goldfish
is reached in the CELESTIAL TELESCOPE. This fish is of an
amazing ugliness, the protruding eyes being so turned that
they can gaze only upward. It also lacks the dorsal fin,
and the tail is double but frequently not lengthened.
Altogether it furnishes an excellent example of the fact
that variations of domestic creatures often are carried far
beyond the commonly accepted bounds of beauty. Still,
this fish will appeal to lovers of the grotesque, and as a
monument to the breeder’s skill it stands supreme among
the fishes. The direction of the staring eyes is decidedly
suggestive, and only thoroughly initiated breeders regret
the fact that the secret of reproducing the Celestial Tele-
scope has not yet been revealed to breeders outside the
Orient.

The latest arrivals from Japan are the Lion Heap and
its cousin, the ORANDA. The former is the more popular,
from $25 to $100 each being asked for really good adult
specimens. The Lion Head is a rather large fish, rounded
and massive in body. The tail is divided but short, and
there is no dorsal fin. In color it is either gold or pearl,
with bright red head. The scales are coarse and heavy.
The characteristic feature of the breed is seen in the head,

AQUARIUM FISHES catia. & 3

which is covered with a protuberant, fleshy growth, extend-
ing down over the cheeks. This hood appears when the
fish is about eighteen months old, and reaches its greatest
development in about two and one-half years.

Only within the last year or two have American breeders
been able to produce good young of this form, perhaps be-
cause of the scarcity of suitable breeding stock. All of
the best adults now seen are imported fishes, but it is hoped
that within two or three years domestic specimens will have
developed sufficiently to equal them.

The Oranda is very similar to the Lion Head, but differs
in possessing a heavy veil tail and a well-developed dorsal
fin. The hood is less pronounced, but this may be merely
individual, as the Oranda is not yet so well known as the
Lion Head.

Goldfishes are easily kept if properly fed, and are not
difficult to breed. The chief point in feeding all fishes is —
not to give more than is taken at once. If any remains, it
should be carefully removed. No hard and fast rules for
frequency can be laid down, but the fishes should be fed
once or twice a day, according to their willingness to par-
take. Like all of the carps, goldfishes are chiefly vege-
tarians, and the bulk of the food should be of this nature.
The white wafers commonly sold as goldfish food are most
undesirable, as they contain little nourishment and discolor
the water.

Excellent foods, mostly of German origin, are sold by
all dealers. They are composed of proper mixtures of
natural animal and vegetable food, and are well calculated
to sustain life. Goldfishes will also take boiled cereals,
ants’ “eggs,” dry or fresh, bits of chopped clams and
worms, and almost any insects small enough for them to
swallow.

Those who care to take the trouble, or are unable to

332 THE AQUARIUM

secure suitable food, can easily manufacture their own.
White and graham flour and various cereals may be mixed
with finely ground dried shrimp, ants’ eggs, or other animal
food, and beaten up with a sufficient quantity of fresh eggs.
A small amount of table and Epsom salts should also be
added. No set formula can be given, as the constituents are
varied according to the needs of the fishes kept, but the
proper proportions are easily determined. The dough is
then baked, thoroughly dried and ground to the desired
size. Food suitable for the needs of every aquarium fish
can be made in this way, and it will keep indefinitely.

The goldfish breeds in the spring, and when one or two
individuals are observed driving another about the tank
constantly they should be placed out of reach of interference
by non-breeders. The eggs are small, clear globules,
which are attached singly to the plants by the female, and
there fertilized by the male. After they have been deposited,
the fishes should be removed, as they will eat the eggs if al-
lowed to remain. Tadpoles and snails will destroy them
also, and must not be kept in the breeding aquarium. The
eggs, at a favorable temperature, will hatch in about three
days, the young being extremely minute, and with large
egg sacs attached. They will keep very quiet for a few days,
but soon begin to move about the aquarium, feeding on
the protozoans, chiefly infusoria, which swarm among the
plants. If the fry are numerous, the supply of food will
soon be exhausted, and can be renewed by placing a bundle
of hay or aquatic plants in a jar of water. Ina few days
the water will be full of tiny creatures, many visible to the
naked eye in the proper light. They may be poured into
the aquarium as needed. A little dried lettuce thrown into
the tank will produce protozoa, and there are prepared

substances which serve the same purpose. The young fishes ©

will soon take small crustaceans, such as Cyclops and young

AQUARIUM FISHES 333

Daphnia, which can be secured in any pond, especially if
there are no fishes there. Care must be taken, however, not
to place these creatures in the tank until the fishes are large
enough to eat them, as otherwise the operation will be
reversed. The fry should be induced to take dry food as
soon as possible, and from then on there is little difficulty.
Certain individuals will grow much faster than others, and
as they develop should be sorted out. If the fishes are of
the more valuable varieties, the better ones may be deter-
mined at an early age, and should be segregated and given
special attention.

Native Fishes

A great variety of undomesticated fishes are available for
the aquarium, and generally are far more interesting than
the sluggish goldfish. Many are perfectly hardy, while
others require special care and should not be attempted by
the inexperienced. Let us first consider the inhabitants of
our own ponds and brooks.

The minnows, or the “‘ minnies”’ of childhood, are the
most numerous, and include many attractive aquarium fishes.
They belong to the carp family (Cyprinip2) and abound
in fresh waters throughout the north temperate zone, about
two hundred and twenty-five American species being known.
Of these the SHINER (Abramis chrysoleucus) is one of
the hardiest and handsomest. It is found in quiet water
everywhere east of the Rockies. The Shiner is a brilliant
silvery fish, the male becoming more brightly colored during
the breeding season. It lives in schools, and several indi-
viduals should be kept together in a fair-sized tank. It
will eat dry fish food, small bits of scraped raw meat, earth-
worms and insects, and may be kept safely with goldfishes.

The Biacx-nosep Dace (Rhinichthys cataracte) is a
smaller fish than the preceding, and easily distinguished by

334 THE AQUARIUM

the heavy black line which extends from head to tail on
each side. It is found in cold, swift streams, but rapidly
adapts itself to life in the aquarium, of which it is a most
desirable inhabitant. It is always active and forms an
agreeable contrast to the goldfish, with which it may be
associated. The ordinary prepared foods, with occasional
insects, will suit its needs.

There are numerous other beautiful species of dace
found in America, many of them suitable for life in cap-
tivity. A few, however, some of them, unfortunately,
among the most lovely, are extremely delicate, and almost
impossible to keep without running water.

Chubs, Horned Dace and small specimens of the many
species of Suckers and their allies all live well in the aqua-
rium, but are less interesting because of their comparative
inactivity. They will do well on the same food as that
given the goldfish. F

There are several European species of the carp family 4

‘which are attractive in the aquarium. The GotpEN OrFE
is an albinistic derivative of the Orfe or Ide (Jdus idus),
established by careful selection by breeders. It is yellow
above, with whitish sides, and of active habit. Small speci-

mens make excellent tank fishes, but under favorable con- | .

ditions will grow to a length of more than a foot.
Although the TeNcuH (Tinca tinca) is a favorite food fish
in Europe, the smaller individuals make excellent aquarium

pets. The typical form is metallic green, but an albinistic { \

variety, known as the Golden Tench, has been produced in
captivity and is an ideal tank fish. It is bright yellow,

slightly spotted with darker color, and is active and hardy. (
All of the above species may be kept with goldfishes, and

will thrive on the same food.

CaTFISHES and small Eexs are interesting captives, but —
must not be kept with goldfishes or other delicate forms —

AQUARIUM FISHES 335

because of their voracity. Young Eels are especially at-

tractive. During the spring they may often be met with in

great numbers, ascending streams after their babyhood spent
in the sea, where the adults go to breed. In the aquarium
they will burrow in the sand, with only the head exposed,
and lie thus concealed for hours. Catfishes and Eels are
not delicate feeders, and will do well on almost any diet,
in which animal food should predominate.

The great group of Percomea, or Perch-like fishes, con-
tains many aquarium favorites. ‘The various species of
SUNFISHES—Common, Black-banded, Long-eared, etce.—
are well distributed and some sort is obtainable by every
one. Specimens of good size are best kept singly, or in pairs
if they will agree. They quickly become very tame, and
soon learn to look forward to feeding time. They should
be fed chiefly on chopped worms, bits of meat and clams,
and live insects.

The Darters, distant relatives of the Sunfishes, are bril-
liantly colored little fellows, of which more than fifty
species are known. They are among the most beautiful of
fishes, and it is to be regretted that they do not thrive bet-
ter in captivity. The Tessellated Darters (Boleosoma)
are probably the best known. They inhabit swift streams,
lying among the stones on the bottom, springing into activity
only when prey appears. In the aquarium they should be
kept in cool, shallow water, and fed as much as possible on
live food, with whatever else of the usual items they can be
induced to take.

The StickLeBacks belong to the family GASTEROSTEIDZ,
and are widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemi-
sphere in fresh and brackish water. They are variously
named—two-spined, three-spined, etc.—according to the
number of dorsal projections. Specimens can be taken in
almost any clear brook or pond, and most dealers can supply

336 THE AQUARIUM

them, especially in the spring. They are exceedingly de-
structive when at large, being very persistent in the devour-
ing of the eggs and fry of other fishes. Their breeding
habits, however, are most interesting and may easily be
observed in the aquarium. When the season for reproduc-
tion is at hand, the male selects a proper site among the
aquatic plants, and there builds a fairy mansion of tiny
bits of plant material, cemented together with a glutinous
secretion from an abdominal gland. There are two en-
trances, and after he has induced the female to enter and
deposit her eggs he proceeds to fertilize them, and then
stands guard. The female should now be removed, to save
her from the attacks of her mate, who keeps up a continual
fanning, forcing a current of water over the eggs. After
about two weeks his zeal will be rewarded by the appearance
of a great crowd of little ones. He is the best of fathers
until the young begin to move about the aquarium, when
he no longer recognizes them as his own and must be re-
moved. The young feed at first on protozoans, and later
will take small crustacea and prepared foods.

Adult sticklebacks are too pugnacious to be kept with
other fishes. They are hardy, and should be fed chiefly
on animal food, although they will take artificial prepara-
tions.

Tropical Fishes

We come now to the fishes of the tropical and subtropical
waters of Asia, Africa and America. They exist, of

course, in almost endless variety, and comparatively few are

known among aquarists. Their cultivation has been carried
on for years in Europe, and more especially in Germany,

where great proficiency in their care and propagation has qe

been attained. It is only during recent times that they have

received attention from American fish-keepers, but their —

i
x

AQUARIUM FISHES 337°

popularity is rapidly increasing. Many aquarium societies
have been formed for the importation of specimens and the
dissemination of knowledge concerning their care. Every
large city has dealers who specialize in fishes of this sort,
and a little investigation will reveal their whereabouts.

Many of the tropical species are of surpassing beauty,
and there is a great range of curious breeding habits. They
are by far the most fascinating of aquarium fishes, and
most are really no more difficult to maintain in health than
goldfishes. The chief requirement is a uniform tempera-
ture, ranging from 60° to 75° Fahrenheit. Tanks are made
with heating apparatus attached, and these may be useful
at times. Ordinarily they are unnecessary, except for very
delicate fishes, for once they have become well acclimatized
most species are very hardy, if a steady warmth is main-
tained.

Unfortunately, most of these fishes, like many plants,
especially the orchids, have not yet been given suitable com-
mon names, and are known by their scientific appellations
only. A little application, however, will overcome this diffi-
culty, and the amateur soon speaks them as glibly as the
most hardened expert. Perhaps the most interesting group
is the Pacitiup#, or Killifishes. About two hundred
species are known, and are divided by aquarists into two
groups: oviparous, or egg-laying forms, and viviparous,
in which the eggs are retained within the body of the parent
until they are fully formed, and the young able to care for
themselves when emitted.

Of the egg-laying group, the species of the genus Fundu-
lus are very numerous, and extend from Maine to Central
America. It is represented on the eastern coast by a num-
ber of well-known species, some living in brackish water.
The Common Killifish (F. majalis) and the Fresh-water
Killifish (F. diaphanus) are very abundant, and will live

338 | THE AQUARIUM

well when established in the aquarium. Fundulus chrys-
atus is perhaps the most beautiful of this genus, and is a
most desirable aquarium fish when it can be procured. It
is very abundant in ponds in our southern states, and its
scarcity in the New York market is difficult to explain. The
species of Fundulus will thrive on the usual preparations,
but should have as much live food as possible.

The genus Haplochilus contains some of the most bril-
liantly colored fishes known to the aquarist. The males
especially are remarkably handsome, and possess various

embellishments of the tail and fins which add greatly to

their beauty. H. cameroonensis, a comparatively recent ar-

rival in America, is the most brilliant species so far imported, |

but many exceedingly fine forms have not yet been intro-
duced here. H. rubrostigma, H. chaperi, H. panchax, H.
sexfasciatus and H. latipes are the best known species, and
all may be recommended. None is especially delicate, but
the water should not be less than 70° Fahrenheit. The eggs
are attached to the plants of the aquarium, which should be
thick and bushy. After spawning the fishes should be re-
moved. The fry when hatched are very minute, and will
feed at first on protozoans and tiny alge. Later they may
be given crustacea and prepared foods. The adults do very
well on good prepared foods and chopped earthworms, but
should have Daphnia and Cyclops as often as possible.
The species of Rivulus somewhat resemble ‘those of
Haplochilus in general appearance, but are much quieter in
coloration, and do not have decorative appendages. Few
species are known, all from Central and South America.
R. ocellata, R. flabellicauda and R. payi are the forms most

familiar to aquarists. They are fascinating fishes, the soft —

colors being very harmoniously blended. Their breeding

and feeding habits are much the same as those of Ha-—
plochilus, but they are expert climbers, and able to live for —

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en
am 2

Xiphophorus hellert Alfaro cultratum
Male above, female below

Climbing Perch

AQUARIUM FISHES | 339

some time out of water, so their tank must be kept carefully
covered.

The viviparous group of the Pe@ci_Ltip# includes what
are probably the most attractive species of the family. The
fact that active, independent young are brought forth at
surprisingly short intervals, and that they are not at all diffi-
cult to rear, ensures their lasting popularity. There are
many species, of varying colors, but all may be known by
the anal fin of the male, which ends in a needle-like process,
used as an intromittent organ. In most species the male
is much smaller than the female.

The most commonly kept species, and probably the best
for the beginner, is Acanthopthalmus (Girardinus) guppyi.
‘This diminutive fish is a native of Trinidad and Venezuela,
and has been introduced in Jamaica and various other West
Indian islands because of its value as a destroyer of mos-
quito larve. The males average three-quarters of an inch
to an inch, and the females up to two inches. The latter
are very plainly colored, but the males are extremely bril-
liant, presenting an amazing variety of patterns in metallic
greens, reds, blues and blacks, no two being exactly alike.
Most live-bearers are inveterate devourers of their own
young, but this species is not nearly so badly disposed
toward its offspring as most, and if the aquarium is well
supplied with vegetation a great many can be reared with
little difficulty. In case it is desired to save all of the young,
however, it is best to isolate prospective mothers, which are
easily distinguished.

Most keepers of live-bearing fishes have their own
methods for insuring the safety of the young. Various
appliances are in use, ranging from small metal cages to
glass funnels, all intended to confine the mother while the
young escape through tiny apertures. It is far safer to
restrict the mother to a small part of the aquarium by

340 THE AQUARIUM

means ‘Of a sheet of glass, a narrow space being kept for
the passage of the babies, but most experienced aquarists
prefer simply to stock the tank thickly with vegetation,
and trust to this for protection for the young fishes, rather
than risk the life of the mother in unnatural and cramped
quarters. When emitted the young are about one-quarter
inch in length, and able to take small crustacea and fine arti-
ficial foods almost from the very first. They grow rapidly,
and under favorable conditions reach maturity in from two

to three months. The adults may be given the dry prepa-
_ rations, with an occasional meal of animal food.

Next in popularity comes the Sworp-Tait MInNow
(Xiphophorus hellert), a fish which for beauty and hardi-
ness is most satisfactory. It is a native of Mexico, and
well-grown specimens are from two and one-half to three
inches in length. It is brilliantly colored, the sides being of
iridescent blue and green, with a red lateral stripe extend-
ing the entire length of the fish. The male is characterized
by the development of the lower portion of the tail, which
terminates in a sword-like projection, about one inch in
length and bright green in color. Helleri, as they are popu-
larly known among their admirers, are generally inveterate
persecutors of their young, and it is necessary to isolate the
females if it is desired to breed them. Both young
and adults may be treated as with the preceding, but —
the present species is somewhat more carnivorous in ©
habit.

The genus Gambusia contains a number of small, pug-
nacious fishes, known as top-minnows. G. holbrooki is an ~

excellent tank fish, and very popular among aquarists. It

ranges from southern Illinois through the southern states

into Mexico. The males of the typical form are whitish, ~

thickly blotched with black, some specimens having the ©
background entirely obscured. The female is considerably —

AQUARIUM FISHES 341

larger than the male and plain olive in color. This fish is
very abundant at certain points, inhabiting ponds, brooks
and even ditches. It is found associated with males which
lack the black spots, and are known as G. affinis. It seems
probable that the two types represent mere color phases of
one species, as the females are not separable, but little is
known concerning this point. Wild-caught fishes do not
always breed true to color, the young often reverting to the
affimis phase, but strains of aquarium-bred fishes have been
formed the progeny of which come true to type. This
is a very prolific but exceedingly voracious fish, necessitating
the seclusion of the mothers if any of the young are to be
reared. It is hardy, does not require so high a temperature
as many others, and will thrive on the usual foods, but be-
cause of its pugnacity cannot be associated with other
species. ,

Several forms of Platypecilius are popular among ad-
mirers of aquarium fishes. The best known is P. maculatus,
a rather plainly colored olive fish, usually diversified by
dark caudal spots and bluish sides. It rarely much exceeds
an inch and one-half in length, but is very deep in com-
parison. There are various other handsomely colored forms,
varying in color between the extremes of bright red and
velvety black. Some have been named, but as they inter-
breed freely their specific standing is very much in doubt.
All are quiet, harmless fishes, of vegetarian habit and easily
kept.

Pecilia is a very widespread genus, extending from
Mexico to northern South America and the West Indies.
There are many species, only a few of which have been kept
in America. P. sphenops, P. pavonina, P. amazonica and
P. vivipara are the best known. All are handsome, sociable
fishes, subsisting chiefly on a vegetarian diet, and may safely
be kept with other fishes.

342 THE AQUARIUM

Alfaro cultratum is one of the most interesting fishes of
the live-bearing group. It is known only from the Carib-
bean slope of Central America, where it inhabits swift,
stony-bottomed brooks. Well-grown specimens reach three
inches in length and are olive in general color, with patches
of brilliant blue and green on the body, and yellowish tail.
The anal fin of the male is very far advanced, and in both
sexes the space along the ventral line between this fin and
the tail is occupied by a double row of scales which forms
a curious, keel-like structure. The first specimens to reach
this country were collected in Costa Rica by the writer, and
have proved both hardy and prolific in captivity, taking
kindly to the ordinary diet of aquarium fishes.

Some of the smallest known fishes belong to the genus

Heterandria, of which a Mexican form, H. formosa, is the

only species known among American fish culturists. Large
females reach an inch and sometimes slightly more, but
the males are never more than three-quarters of an inch in
length and mature at much smaller size. It is an attractive
fish, olive brown in color, with dark lateral stripe and dorsal
spot. It is very hardy in the aquarium, breeding freely and
sustaining itself with algz and prepared food.

Certain small members of the Cyprinide, or carp group,
are mentioned here, instead of with their allies, because the
nature of their habitats necessitates their treatment being
that of other tropical forms.

The genus Barbus contains a number of European and
Asiatic species which grow to a very large size, but there
are many smaller ones which are in favor with aquarists.
They are harmless, fairly active fishes, rather broad in pro-
portion to their length and often strikingly marked, al-
though they do not present the brilliant colors of some other
groups. 8B. maculatus, B. ticto and B. vittatus are some of
the more familiar species. They are easily kept at warm

AQUARIUM FISHES 343

temperatures, may be associated with other small, quiet
fishes and thrive on the ordinary foods.

The species of Rasbora are beautifully colored and other-
wise attractive, but have a reputation for delicacy which,
unfortunately, seems only too well founded. R. hetero-
morpha, the only species familiar to aquarists in this coun-
try, is a small, deep-bodied fish, reddish in general color,
with a large, triangular, bluish-black spot covering the sides.
To its brilliant color it adds active habits, and it is to be
hoped that when its needs are better known it will prove
longer-lived. At present we can only look to the tempera-
ture of its tank, provide it with plentiful crustacean food,
as well as the best of artificial mixtures, and hope for the
best.

Danio is a genus which includes several species that meet
in every particular the needs of the tyro. Their bold and
handsome markings, combined with extreme activity and
perfect hardiness, make them ideal aquarium fishes. All
bear on the lips two long, hair-like barbules, which are easily
observed when the fish is in proper position.

The feeding habits of the various species are similar.
They will take dry food readily, seizing it from the surface
of the water in a series of lightning darts. They are ex-
ceedingly fond of living food, which should be provided
as frequently as possible.

All are rather difficult to breed, but the feat may be ac-
complished if sufficient care is bestowed in the tank.
When the eggs are laid, they do not adhere to the plants,
but sink to the bottom, where, if undisturbed, they will
hatch ina few days. The fishes, however, will persistently
search them out and devour them, so they must be removed
as soon as oviposition is seen to have occurred. Many
breeders cover the bottom of the tank with rough stones,
so that the eggs, falling into the interstices, may get beyond

344 THE AQUARIUM

reach. All tadpoles and snails should be removed, and pre-
cautions should be taken to free the tank of low forms of
life, such as hydras, which will devour the tiny young. If
the fry emerge safely, they will thrive on protozoans, and
later on small crustacea and finely powdered dry food.
Danio rerio, a native of Ceylon, is the commonest species.
It is boldly marked with broad stripes of brilliant blue,
which extend across the tail and anal fin, the ground color
being silvery in the females and yellowish in the males, the

distinction being more strongly noticeable during the breed-

ing season. Large specimens will average about an inch
and one-half in length.

Danio malabaricus is an Indian form and the largest of
the genus. Its sides are bright blue, with three well-
marked, yellowish stripes. It is an exceedingly graceful
fish, and while less active than the preceding, is nevertheless
almost constantly in motion.

Danio albolineatus is really one of the most marvelously
colored of fishes. Seen by properly reflected light its beauty
is indescribable, and just why it is not more commonly kept
is difficult of comprehension. When in full color, the entire
fish scintillates with flashing opalescent hues of great bril-
liancy, the females being somewhat less strongly colored
than the males. It is a species of lively disposition, and a
few individuals in good condition form a spectacle not soon
to be forgotten.

The Labyrinth Fishes (LABYRINTHINI) form a group of
several families, all the members of which are distinguished
by the possession of air chambers, which supplement the
action of the gills in purifying the blood. By means of this
adaptation the fish is able, especially in the case of the
Climbing Perches (Anabas), to live out of water for some
time; but, on the other hand, if it be deprived of coming
to the surface to renew the supply of atmospheric air in the

AQUARIUM FISHES 345

chambers, it soon dies. Thus the labyrinth fishes are well
suited for the aquarium, being able to take oxygen from
the air as well as from the water.

They are hardy fishes, but most of the species, especially
the Fighting Fishes (Betta), require a temperature of at
least 68° to 70° Fahrenheit, and often are kept in heated
tanks. Generally they are pugnacious and vindictive, and
must be kept singly or in pairs. They are easily fed, readily
taking prepared foods, which should be supplemented with
occasional bits of scraped raw beef, chopped worms, boiled
yolk of egg and living crustacea.

The breeding habits of these fishes are curious and most
interesting. At the approach of the season of reproduction
the male goes through an elaborate courtship, spreading his
brilliant fins to their utmost extent, and scintillating with
intense color. Soon the female responds, and the male com-
mences the construction of the nest. This is composed of a
mass of air-bubbles coated with a viscous substance secreted
by a special gland, which causes them to adhere together.
The bubbles are piled up in the form of a low cone, which
floats on the surface of the water. Oviposition soon takes
place, and the female must be removed at once, for the male,
assuming charge of the nest, will not tolerate her presence.
After two or three days the tiny young hatch and are
carefully guarded by the father, which gathers up in his
mouth any which fall from the nest and carefully returns
them. Soon after hatching the young begin to leave the
nest and move about in search of food. When this stage is
reached he, too, must be removed, for parental affection
vanishes, and he regards his offspring merely as an admir-
able addition to his menu. The fry feed, as do the young of
most other fishes, on protozoans, and later on small crus-
tacea and powdered dry food. Care must be taken not to
feed crustacea until the young are large enough to eat them,

346 THE AQUARIUM

otherwise they themselves are likely to be destroyed. Young
labyrinth fishes are exceedingly sensitive to change of tem-
perature, which must be kept at an even point. :

The ParapIsE Fiso (Macropodus viridi-auratus) is the

most familiar species. This fish has been kept and bred in
the East for so many years that it is really domesticated, and
great numbers are bred yearly in Europe and America. It
is an extremely brilliant species, particularly during the
breeding season, when the colors of the male are seen at
their best. The upper parts are mottled in tones of brown,
but the sides bear alternate stripes of rich greenish-blue
and reddish-orange, the fins being bordered with deep blue.
The intensity of color varies constantly with the tempera-
ture of the water and the mood of the fish. The dorsal and
anal fins, and the points of the tail, in the male are produced
to long wavy flagellze, which greatly add to the grace and
beauty of the specimen. At the breeding season the male
may be distinguished by his heightened color and lengthened
appendages, while at this time the female is usually almost
flesh-colored, if in good condition.

Much nonsense has been written and spoken concerning
the supposed delicacy of the Paradise Fish. It is said to
die at once if water falls into the tank, if it is carelessly
removed, or if there is a slight drop in temperature. As a
matter of fact it is a hardy creature, remarkably tenacious
of life, and not in the least affected by the conditions just
noted. When a fish can fall down a flight of stairs, lie un-
discovered on the floor for some time, and on the following
day be none the worse for the experience, as recently hap-
pened to a specimen now in the collection of the writer, it
is not to be classed as delicate.

Several species of Gouramis are attractive additions to
the collection. All have the ventral fins far advanced and
transformed into long antennz-like threads, often of very

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AQUARIUM FISHES 347

considerable length. The largest of the commonly kept
species is the StriPED GouRAMI (Trichogaster fasciatus),
which reaches a length of four to five inches. It is rather
sluggish and inactive, but the alternate perpendicular bands
of red and blue which adorn its sides are wonderfully bril-
liant, especially when the fish is excited.

The Dwarr GouraAmi (T. lalius), true to its name, sel-
dom exceeds one and one-half inches. It is much more
active in habit than its larger relative and almost as brightly
colored, having a blue ground with orange-red perpendicular
bars, and red spots on fins and tails. The female is easily
distinguished by her paler color and the absence of the blue
spot on the gill covers. It is of quiet disposition and may
safely be associated with other fishes.

The Spottep GourAMI (Osphromeus trichopterus), al-
though rather extensively kept, is not especially attractive.
Except during the breeding season, it is olive in general
color, with two darker spots on each side. When excited
it assumes more intense coloration, but is not to be com-
pared with its congeners.

The habits of the Ficutinc Fisues (Betta) are almost
too well known to every one to need description here. The
bellicose disposition of the fiery little male has been made
the basis of a national sport in various eastern countries,
especially in Siam. The fishes are bred with the greatest
care and select strains, noted for their ability in battle, have
been developed. The amateur will not have to be told that
fishes of this group must be isolated.

All of the Fighting Fishes are brilliantly colored, the
general type of marking being as in the preceding. The
best known are the Common (Betta pugnawx), the Red (B.
rubra) and the Splendid (B. splendens).

The Crimpine PercueEs (Anabas) represent the highest
development of the air-breathing apparatus of the labyrinth

348 | THE AQUARIUM

fishes. It is able to travel long distances overland, pro-
pelling itself by means of sharp spines on the gills and fins,
or, in case of drought, to bury itself in the moist bottoms of
dried-up pools and await the coming of rain. Some skepti-
cism is shown as to its ability to ascend trees, but it has been
recorded by good authorities that the fish can climb inclining
trunks for a distance of several feet. This seems to require
confirmation.

The best known species (A. scandans) is far from lovely,
being of unattractive form and dull olive in color, but its
curious habits recommend it to the aquarist. It is hardy and
long-lived in captivity, and feeds well on the usual foods.

Its tank must be kept carefully covered, to prevent it from.

jumping out.

The Cichlid fishes (CicHLip#) are bass-like in general
appearance, but are separated from this group by several
important anatomical characters. There is a vast array of
species, extending throughout tropical America, Africa and
western Asia. From Mexico southward almost every
stream has its own kind and sometimes several. In Costa
Rica the writer has taken three distinct and gorgeous forms
from a tiny brook not more than a foot in width. In
British Guiana a narrow irrigation ditch swarmed with a
very handsome species which could be scooped out in the
hands. Many of these fishes are exceedingly brilliant in
color. /

These are hardy aquarium fishes, being mainly carniv-
orous, and thriving on scraped beef, chopped clams and
worms, crustacea and prepared foods. They are quarrel-
some in the extreme, and often even a pair cannot be kept
together. Ifa pair can be induced to live amicably, they are

not difficult to breed, when they form a most interesting

family group. The eggs are deposited in a hollow in the
sand, and fanned by the fins of the male until they hatch.

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AQUARIUM FISHES — 349

The young are cared for with great solicitude, being herded
and watched by both parents. Some individuals may be
left until the young are well reared, but it is safer to remove
them as soon as the fry reach the age of three or four
weeks. The young fishes will require finer food than that
furnished the adults, otherwise their diet should be the
same.

Heros fasciatus is the most familiar form, as well as one
of the dullest, being of a pale olive color with dark perpen-
dicular bands. Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum is bluish-black,
with dark bars, and flecked with tiny points of bright blue.
Many other forms of Heros, Cichlasoma, Acara and Geoph-
agus have been imported at times, but these do not repre-
sent a tithe of those which exist.

A rather aberrant form of this group is a curious fish
known as Pterophyllum scalari. The body is short and
round, but the anal and dorsal fins are tremendously ex-
tended, and the ventrals are represented by two long, an-
tennz-like appendages which give the fish a most bizarre
appearance. In color it is silvery with heavy black per-
pendicular bars. It is said to be found only at Manaos, on
the Amazon, but much remains to be learned concerning
its distribution. A pair which the writer saw in a private
collection in Belgium, in 1912, were the first to reach Eu-
rope, and represented an outlay of 600 francs. A few of
these fishes have been brought to America at one-fifth of
this price or less. Because of their value, they generally are
kept in heated tanks, and favored with live food.

Of the Old World Cichlids, the MouTH-BrEEpDERs (Para-
tilapia) are of great interest. P. multicolor, the usual
species, is from one and one-half to two inches in length
and rather plainly colored, although it brightens during the
breeding season. Its breeding habits, however, are most
extraordinary. After the eggs have been deposited and

350 THE AQUARIUM

fertilized, they are taken in the mouth of the female, and
there retained until they hatch. The male should be re-
moved, and the female not disturbed for this time, during
which she generally does not feed. After hatching the fry
are cared for by the mother until they begin to move about
freely, when she should be removed. Mouth-breeders should
be fed as the other Cichlids are, but of course the food must
be finer.

THEORIES OF BREEDING

In considering the methods of breeding, we must first
clearly understand that we are dealing with forms produced
by artificial means. The standards which are the accepted
criteria in the majority of cases are based on the whims of
individual persons or small groups. They frequently are
formed without strict regard to beauty or utility and are
subject to constant change, not invariably for the better.
Vacillating conceptions of the ideal and lack of full under-
standing of the laws which govern careful breeding are
evils from which stock rearing never will be entirely
free.

In the cultivation of our domesticated animals, we influ-
ence them as wild species are influenced by nature, the in-
telligent control of man replacing the effects of the forces
which govern the development of feral forms. Since do-
mestic breeds are artificially produced and controlled, it
is evident that it is essential to adhere rigidly to the con-
ditions which brought them into being. Variation in en-
vironment is very likely to cause changes even in well-
established natural species; any neglect of the rules of the
artificial evolution which produced man-made breeds will
result in quick deterioration. \ Selection, ontogeny, heredity
and environment, the four factors which, according to
Professor Osborn,* are most potent in governing natural
evolution, are equally influential in the maintenance of
domestic varieties. They are the tools with which the

* Osborn, Henry Fairfield: “Tetraplasy, the Law of the Four In-

separable Factors of Evolution,’ Journ. Ac. Sci. Phil., Vol. XV, 2nd
Series, 1912, pp. 278-3009.

353

354. APPENDIX

breeder works his will, and on his skill in wielding them
depends his success or failure.

In captivity, under the best conditions, heredity and selec-
tion assume major positions, the proper development of
the individual and suitable surroundings being matters of
more simple routine.

Heredity is the force which is of greatest importance to
the breeder, for it is on the workings of its laws that the
result of his efforts depends. The saying that “like pro-
duces like’’ is well known, but if it were entirely true
progressive breeding would not be possible. Like produces
like in a general way, but no two individuals ever are
identical. It is here that the breeder finds leverage to
sway the character of his subjects. An understanding of
the laws of heredity and the methods of making use of
them, so far as they have been made known, are essential
to success in animal culture.

Heredity is commonly considered to concern the inherit-
ance of parental characters by the offspring. This is true
in a sense, of course, but the true meaning is really much
more comprehensive. In the narrow definition the “ pull”
of the total number of ancestors, which is the governing
influence, is lost sight of, an error which has brought to
grief many a budding amateur.

The effect of the ancestors on hereditary characters has
been expressed numerically by Galton.* According to his
theory, the immediate parents contribute between them one-
half the heritage, the grandparents one-fourth, the great-
grandparents one-eighth, etc., the fraction decreasing with
each backward step. Thus each individual parent has but
one-fourth the total, each grandparent one-sixteenth, and
each great-grandparent but one-sixty-fourth, so that the in-
fluence of ancestors diminishes rapidly. In the sixth gen-

* Galton, Francis: Natural Inheritance, pp. 134-137.

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APPENDIX 355

eration the influences of each of the sixty-four forbears is
only ass which, according to Davenport,* is practically
negligible, although of course not entirely so.

Thus we see that while a good foundation is desirable and
even necessary, it is the more immediate ancestors which
have the greatest influence on the offspring. However,
although the effect of long-past generations may appear to
be slight, it is they which give to a family stability, reduced
variation and adherence to type. How best to establish
and continue a family or strain of the highest quality has
long been the Mecca of breeders.

The discovery of the phenomena known as Mendel’s law
gave a fresh impetus to research in heredity and great things
were predicted. So far, however, from the animal breeder’s
point of view, practical results have not equaled expectations.

Mendel was an Austrian monk, who experimented in his
garden, chiefly with peas. His results, published from
1866-67, were not appreciated by the scientists of the
period, and it was not until 1900 that the value of his work
was realized. From that time on an army of investigators
has worked on Mendelism and much important material has
been amassed.

To thoroughly understand Mendel’s law we must realize
that every individual is composed of a certain number of
independent characters—color, coat, comb, size, etc. It is
on the pairing of these characters that Mendelism depends.
Units which are inherited according to this law must be
opposites and are known as paired characters. Such are
black and white, long hair and short, rose and single comb,
large size and small.

When a black and a white animal of known purity are
crossed, all of the young in most cases will be black, be-

* Davenport, E.: Principles of Breeding, p. 596.
% Locy, Wm. A.: Biology and Its Makers, p. 314.

356 APPENDIX

cause the black is stronger than the white and obscures it.
The obscuring character is known as a dominant, while the
one which appears to be lost is called a recessive. When
these crossed young are bred together, however, it is found
that, on the average, of every four of the offspring, three
are black and one white. Further experiment shows’ that
one of the blacks is pure, and when mated with a specimen
of equal purity, will breed nothing but black. The white
recessive is equally single in character. The two remaining
blacks, however, while often indistinguishable in appearance,
are found, when bred together, to again produce blacks and
whites in the ratio of three to one. This is due to the
fact that they contain equal quantities of black and white,
the white being overcast by the dominant black. Such indi-
viduals are known as heterozygotes, and so long as they are
bred together will continue to produce young in the same
proportion of three to one.

An excellent example is found in blue fowls. When two
birds of this color are bred together, young are produced
in the proportion of one black, two blues and one white
(usually splashed with black). If the black and the white
are crossed, all of the young are blue; if the two blues are
bred together, blacks, blues and whites again occur in the
same proportion.* It is thus shown that blue in fowls is
a heterozygous color and never can be permanently estab-
lished. This is one of the few cases in which the hetero-
zygotes may be distinguished at sight from the pure domi-
nant.

There is one important point in connection with this
form of transmission. In most cases characters are inherited
singly, and not in relation to others. Thus while an indi-
vidual may be dominant so far as one or more characters
go, it may be recessive in others. A cross between a black

* Punnett, R. G.: Mendelism (American Edition), p. 30.

APPENDIX 357

tumbler pigeon and a white of pure blood would produce
young, from the offspring of which pure dominants and
recessives, closely resembling the original parents, could be
segregated, because they differ only in color. On the other
hand, if a bulldog and a spaniel were crossed, the chances
of producing a specimen resembling either parent would
be remote. The various paired characters would be trans-
mitted intact and could bé segregated, but the exact num-
ber of dominants and recessives required to make a typical
representative of either breed probably never would occur
in a single individual.

The values and limitations of Mendelism already are ap-
parent to the reader. In the making of new breeds, by
crossing those already in existence, it is invaluable; the
knowledge of its workings is of tremendous advantage to
the horticulturist. But to the animal breeder who must im-
prove his stock by working with what he has, rather than
by crossing, its value has not yet been demonstrated. It
may be that soon the many investigators will show us how
Mendelism inheritance can be recognized in the tiny char-
acters which matter to the breeder of fine stock. At present
our knowledge is not sufficient to be of use in this
field.

How, then, are we to proceed in order to achieve the de-
sired end? Since Mendelism in its present state cannot give
us what we need, we must find other means. Selection is
the force with which we can do most to control heredity.
It is by this method that our wonderfully diverse domestic
breeds have been produced.

Variation is of two sorts, continuous and discontinuous.
Differences of the first group are almost unnoticeable and
are those by which most of the slow but sure progress in
the improvement of our breeds is made. The sudden breaks
or jumps, known as mutations, or “ sports,” are the means

358 APPENDIX

of securing, at one step, great advancement. The first
type is that on which Darwin * based his theory of the
origin of species; the second was developed by De Vries,f
thus forming two schools of thought which have not yet
become thoroughly reconciled. It is probably by muta-
tion that we may explain the first occurrence of crests in
pigeons, feathers on the legs of fowls and long hair in
guinea-pigs. Proper mating and selection fixed these sud-
den abnormalities ; variation of the continuous type, guided
by the breeder’s skill, caused their gradual improvement.

Breeders often have maintained the potency of one sex
over the other ; that is, that the characters of the male domi-
nate those of the female, or vice versa. There is also much
talk of the effect of the age of the parents in governing
inheritance in the offspring. There is no evidence to sup-
port either of these theories, but the prepotency of indi-
viduals, regardless of age or sex, is undoubted. Certain
specimens, which may be discovered only by actual experi-
ment, are found to transmit given characters with great
regularity, and not infrequently pass on the prepotent quality
as well. The tendency may be either toward or away from
the ideal of the breed. In the former case advance may be
made in a comparatively short time, which could be accom-
plished by the usual slow steps only after years of pains-
taking selection.

We have seen that selection is the governing rod which .

controls the tendency of heredity. We must go one step
further, however, and realize the truth that selection within
well-established family lines is the surest way to success.
Once well developed, there appears to be a tendency for in-
heritance to follow certain paths, and any crossing outside
of the family has something of the same effect as crossing

* Darwin, Charles: The Origin of Species.
t De Vries, Hugo: Species and Varieties, Their Origin by Mutation.

APPENDIX 359

two natural species. A family or strain can be formed
only by inbreeding, and it is here that we find the key to
the situation.

Although long practised by progressive breeders, con-
sanguinity is still abhorred by many, which perhaps ac-
counts for the fact that progress in every breed of domestic
animals is made by a very few leaders, the majority being
engaged in producing mediocre specimens. Inbreeding is
believed by many to lead at once to ruin and chaos. This
belief is not entirely without foundation, for there can be
no doubt that, improperly practised, no system of breed-
ing will more quickly ruin a stock. A touch of consanguin-
ity brings out whatever of good or evil is in the strain and
any inherent weakness is at once intensified. In domestic
animals there is always present a tendency toward sterility.
Injudicious inbreeding increases this condition and quickly
brings about total lack of fertility. On the other hand, there
is no evidence to show that consanguinity itself can pro-
duce any bad effect, and there is much to prove that in union
with the most rigid selection, every good point of the breed
in question can be firmly established and improved and the
undesirable eliminated.

Inbreeding, reduced to a system, is known as line breed-
ing. There are many forms and variations, but an explana-
tion of the typical one will suffice. A selected pair, chosen
for vigor, high quality and freedom from bad faults, are
mated together. From their offspring the finest male is
mated to the mother and the finest female to the father.
This process may be repeated and the best of the grand-
children remated to the original parents, or the former may
be crossed among themselves. The last method might be con-
sidered the better, for while the grandchildren contain three-
quarters of the blood of the original male on one side and
the same quantity of that of the female on the other, when

360 APPENDIX

mated together their offspring can never contain more than
one-half the blood of each. Thus inbreeding can be con-
tinued indefinitely, always getting back to the original ratio
of one-half of each original parent, but reducing the number
of individuals in the immediate ancestry and thus diminish-
ing the tendency to variation. On the other hand, if suc-
ceeding generations are mated back to the first parents the
blood becomes overwhelmingly that of the side chosen.

The great stumbling-block is that selection is often made
because of blood, or points, without regard to stamina. The
use of an individual of low vigor may very well be fatal.
The choice should always fall on the best specimen among
the most vigorous offspring, weaklings, regardless of qual-
ity, being discarded. |

It is by this means that the average of the family, toward
which individuals gravitate, may be steadily raised. Ex-
ceptional specimens are above the mean of the strain, and
except in cases of strong prepotency, the offspring are
almost certain to revert. It is for this reason that uncom-
monly good animals frequently fail to realize expectations
as breeders, while many inferior specimens of good blood,
being below the average, produce better than themselves.
It thus becomes plain that the only way in which lasting
improvement can be secured is by raising the average of the
strain. The exceptional individuals, which constantly ap-
pear, will then push out farther and farther, reaching new
levels of excellence. Close observance of family lines and
the most exacting selection are the only means known for
securing this desirable result

3

- PRACTICAL REFERENCE WORKS

MAMMALS

American Natural History, by William T. Hornaday (Fireside Edition),
4 vols. Chas. Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1914.

Cavies, by C. A. House. “Fur and Feather,” Idle, Bradford, Eng-
land, 1913.

Show Dog, The, by H. W. Huntington. Published by author. Provi-
dence, Rhode Island, rgor.

Fancy Mice and Rats, by W. Maxey. “Fur and Feather,” Idle, Brad-
ford, England.

Pet Rabbits, Cavies and Mice, by George Gardner. F. Carl, London.

Rabbits, Cats and Cavies, by C. H. Lane. J. M. Dent & Co., London,
1903.

Raising Belgian Hares and Other Rabbits, by David E. Lantz.
Farmers’ Bulletin No. 496, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1915.

BIRDS

American Pheasant Breeding and Shooting, by E. A. Quarles.
American Game Protective Association, New York, 1916.

Aviaries and Aviary Life, by Wesley T. Page. Published by author,
Glenfield, Mitcham, Surrey, England, 1912.

Canaries, Hybrids and British Birds in Cage and Aviary, by John
Robson and others. Cassell & Co., Ltd., London, tort.

Foreign Birds for Cage and Aviary, by Arthur G. Butler. “ Canary
and Cage Bird Life,” London, tor11.

Foreign Finches in Captivity, by Arthur G. Butler. 2 vols. L. Reeve
& Co., London.

Hints on the Management of Hawks, by James Edmund Harting.
Horace Cox, London, 1808.

My Foreign Doves and Pigeons, by Rosie Alderson. “Canary and
Cage Bird Life,” London, rort.

The Poultry Book, by Harrison Weir and others. Doubleday, Page
& Co., New York, 1904.

Parrakeets, by David Seth-Smith. R. H. Porter, London, 1903.

Parrots in Captivity, by W. T. Greene. 3 vols. Bell & Sons, London,
1884.

361

362 _ PRACTICAL REFERENCE WORKS

Pheasants in Covert and Aviary, by Frank Townend Barton. John
Long, Ltd., London, 1912.

Pheasants, Their Natural History and Management, by W. B. Teget-
meier. Fourteenth Edition. Horace Cox, London, 1904.

Pigeons, Book of, by Robert Fulton. Cassell & Co., Ltd., London.

Propagation of Wild Birds, by Herbert K. Job. Doubleday, Page &
Co., Garden City, rors.

Swans, The, by C. William Beebe. Tenth Annual Report, New York
Zoological Society, 1905, pp. 159-180.

REPTILES, BATRACHIANS AND FISHES

Domesticated Fish, by Walter L. Brind. Published by author,
pamphlet form, New York, 1914-15.

Freshwater Aquarium, by Otto Eggeling and Frederick Ehrenburg.
Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1908. |

Goldfish Breeds, by Herman T. Wolf. Innes & Sons, Philadelphia,
1908.

Home Aquarium, The, by Eugene Smith. E. P. Dutton & Co., New
York, 1902.

Reptile Book, The, by Raymond L. Ditmars. Doubleday, Page & Co.,
New York, 1908.

Reptiles and Batrachians, by E. G. Boulenger. E. P. Dutton & Co,
New York, 1914.

INDEX

Abramis chrysoleucus, 333
Acanthis cannabina, 183
Acanthopthalmus guppyt, 339
Accipiter cooperi, 147
velox, 147
Acridotheres tristis, 202
Acryllium vulturinum, 106
Agapornis cana, 169
nigrigents, 169
pullaria, 169
taranta, 168
Aidemosyne cantans, 198
malabarica, 198
Aix galericulata, 134
sponsa, 134
Alfaro cultratum, 342
Alligator, 302-3
Aluco pratincola, 151
Amadina. erythrocephala, 196
fasciata, 196
Amateur Menagerie Club, 50
Amauresthes fringilloides, 196
Amblystoma punctatum, 313
tigrinum, 313
Anabas, 344, 347, 348
Anacharis, 322
Anas platyrhynchos, 132
rubripes, 133
superciliaris, 134
Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus, 158
Anolis carolinensis, 299
Anser albifrons, 139
anser, 138
brachyrhynchus, 139
fabilis, 139
Anthropoides virgo, 124
Antigone antigone, 123
Aprosmictus cyanopygius, 168
Aquarium, arrangement, 320
balance, 318-9
plants, 322-4
shape, 319
snails, 324-5
stocking, 324-6
Ara ararauna, 158
chloroptera, 158
macao, 158
militaris, 158

Aromochelys odoratus, 304
Asio lammeus, 150

wilsonianus, 150
Axolotl, 313

Baldness, 80

Balearica pavonina, 124

Belgian Hare, as food, 18
description, 22-3
hutch, 19

Bengalee, 198

Betta, 345
pugnax, 347
rubra, 347
splendens, 347

Birds, aviaries for, 68-71
cages for, 71-2
diseases of, 76-82
food for, 73
selecting, 82-4

Brambling, 185

Branta canadensis

137-8

hutchinst, 138
minima, 138

Breeding, theories of, 353-360

Brotogerys jugularis, 165
Bubo virginianus, 150
Bulbul, Green, 174
Red-eared, 174
White-eared, 174
Bulldog, English, 10
French, 11
Bullfinch, 82, 83, 184
Buteo borealis, 147
lineatus, 147
platypterus, 147

Cabomba, 322

Cacatua alba, 156
galerita, 155
leadbeatert, 156
moluccensis, 156
roseicapilla, 156

Cairina moschata, 140-1

Calliste, 188

Callithrix jacchus, 53

Callophasis ellioti, 97

363

canadensis,

364 INDEX

Canaries, ancestry, 206-7
breeding, 211-216
cages, 208-9
care, 209-10
color feeding, 222
colors of, 219-22
food for, 209-10
hybridizing, 226-9
traffic in, 207-8
breeds of:

Belgian, 218
Border Fancy, 224
Common, 21
Crested, 223
Frilled, 218-19
Lancashire Coppy, 223-4
Lizard, 225-6
London Fancy, 226
Norwich, 222-3
Roller, 216-17
Scotch Fancy, 225
Yorkshire, 224

Canis dingo, 4

Carassius auratus, 328

Cardinal, Red-crested, 187
Red-headed, 188

Carduelis elegans, 183

Casarca casarca, 136
variegata, 136

Cats, ancestry, 12
breeding, 14
care, 13
colors of, 16-17
food, 14
wild, Egyptian, 12

European, 12
breeds of:

Manx, 17

Persian, 15

Short-haired, 15

Siamese, 17

Cavies, ancestry, 28-9
as food, 28
breeding, 31-5
colors of, 34-5
food, 31
hutch, 30
prolificacy, 32
breeds of:

Abyssinian, 35-6
English, 33-5
Peruvian, 36-7
Cebus hypoleucus, 53
Cereopsis novae-hollandiae, 139

Chaffinch, 185

Chelopus guttatus, 304
insculpatus, 305
Chelydra serpentina, 304
Chen hyperborea hyperborea, 138
nivalis, 138
rossit, 138
Chenopsis atrata, 144
Chipmunk, 60
Chloephaga magellanica, 139
Chloris chloris, 185
Chloropsis aurifrons, 175
Chrysolophus amherstiae, 94
pictus, 94
Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum, 349
Cichlids, 348-9
Cinosternum pennsylvanicum, 304
ircus hudsonicus, 147
Cistudo carolina, 305
Cittocincla tricolor, 179
Clarino, 178
Cockateel, 157
ockatoos, cage for, 155
food for, 155
species of:
Great White, 156
Leadbeater, 156
Red-crested, 156
Roseate, 156
_ Sulphur-crested, 155
Colinus virginianus, 109-10
Coloeus monedula, 205
Coluber obsoletus, 205
Columba fasciata, 114 ~
flavirostris, 114
livia, 230
Combasou, 190

‘Conure, Aztec, 164

Black-headed, 165
Brown-throated, 164
Cactus, 164
Golden-crowned, 16
Conurus aeruginosus, I
aureus, 165
azteca, 164
cactorum, 164
nanday, 165
Cordon Bleu, 195
Corvus brachyrhynchus, 204
Cranes, breeding, 125
care, 119-21
food, 120
species of:
Asiatic White, 123
Crowned, 124
Demoiselle, 124

INDEX

Cranes, species of:
Little Brown, 122
Manchurian, 122
Paradise, 124
Sandhill, 121
Sarus, 123
Stanley, 124
White-necked, 123
Whooping, 122

Crossoptilon manchuricum, 98

Crow, American, 204

Cyclops, 332, 338

Cygnopsis cygnoides, 140

Dace, Black-nosed, 333.
Horned, 334
Danio albolineatus, 344
malabaricus, 344
rerio, 344
Daphnia, 333, 338
Darter, Tessellated, 335
Dendrocygna, 135
Desmognathus fusca, 313
Diardigallus diard1, 98
Diatropura progne, 190
Didelphis virginiana, 53
Diemyctylus viridiscens, 312
Dingo, 4
Dogs, ancestry of, 3-4
breeding, 7
care, 5-6
diseases, 7-8
food, 6
parasites, 8
breeds of :
Bulldog,
French, 11
Pekinese, 11
Pomeranian, II
Spaniel, English Toy, 11;
Japanese, 11
Terrier, Airedale, 9; Bos-
ton, 10; Bull, 10; Fox, 9;
Irish, 9; Maltese, a
Scotch, 9; Skye,
Welsh, 9; West Highland
White, 9; Yorkshire, 9
Doves, breeding, 113
care, 112
food, 113
species of:
Australian Crested, 116
Barbary Turtle, 113, 116
Diamond, 116
Ground, 115

English, 10;

365

Doves, species of:
Mourning, 67, 112, II4
Quail, 115
Rock, 230
Senegal, 116
White-winged, 114

Ducks, breeding, 131-2

care, 127-30

food, 130, 132

nests, 129

pinioning, 130, 132

pond for, 128-9

species of:
Baldpate, 133
Black, 133
Canvas-back, 135
Gadwall, 133
Mallard, 132
Mandarin, 129, 134
Muscovy, 140-1
Pintail, Common, 133; Chil-

ian, 133

Redhead, 135
Rosy-bill, 135
Scaup, 135; Lesser, 135
Shoveller, 133

Teal, Black-capped, 133;
Brazilian, 133; Chilian,
134; Cinnamon, 133;

Green-wing, 133; Ringed,
134; Versicolor, 134
Tree, 127, 134
Tufted, 135
White-eye, 135
Widgeon, Chilian, 133
Wood, 67, 129, 134

Eel, 334-5
Egg-binding, 81
Emberiza citrinella, 185
Eulebes intermedia, 203
javanensis, 203
religitosa, 203
Eumeces quinquelineatus, 300
Euphonia, 1
Eutaenia ony 2905

Falco candicans, 148
peregrinus anatum, 148
sparverius, 148

Feather-plucking, 79-80

Felis ocreata, 12
sylvestris,.12

Fever, bird, 79

septic, 79

366

Fighting Fish, 345
Common, 347
Red, 347
Splendid, 347
Finch, Cut-throat, 106
Diamond, 196
Red-headed, 196
Strawberry, 193, 194
Zebra, 197
Finches, 73, 182-88
Fishes, Tropical, care, 336-7

food, 338, 340, 341, 342, 343,

348, 350

345,
breeding, 338, 339-40, 343-4,

345-6, 348-9, 349-50
species of, 337-50
Foudia madagascariensis, 192
Fringilla coelebs, 185
montifringilla, 185
Frogs, breeding, 308
cage, 307-8
food, 308
metamorphosis, 309
species of:
Leopard, 310-11
Pickerel, 310

Wood, 311
Fundulus chrysoetus, 338
diaphanus, 337
majalis, 337

Gallus gallus, 275
lafayettei, 276
sonnerati, 276
varius, 276

Galton’s law, 354-5

Gambusia affinis, 341
holbrooki, 340

Garrulax albogularis, 176
leucocephalus, 176

Garrulus glandarius, 205

Geese, breeding, 137, 138, 139-40

care, 136-7

food, 137

species of:
Bean, 139
Brant, 138
Cackling, 138
Canada, 137
Cereopsis, 139
Chinese, 140
Egyptian, 140
Gray-lag, 138

INDEX

Geese, species of:
Hutchins, 138
Pink-footed, 139
Ross, 138
Snow, 138
Upland, 139

Gennaeus albocristatus, 97

horsfieldi, 97
leucomelanus, 96
lineatus, 96
melanotus, 96
nycthemerus, 96
swinhoei, 97

Geopelia cuneata, 116

Geotrygon montana, 115

Goldfinch, European, 82, 183

Goldfish, breeding, 332-3

diseases, 326-7
food, 331-2
breeds of:
Celestial, 330
Comet, 328-9
Fan-tail, 329
Lion-head, 330-1
Oranda, 330-1
Shubunkin, 328
Telescope, 330
Veil-tail, 329
Goura coronata, 117
victoria, 117
Gourami, Dwarf, 347
Spotted, 347
Striped, 347
Grassfinch, Common, 199
Long-tailed, 199
Masked, 199
Grassquit, Melodious, 187
Yellow-faced, 187
Greenfinch, 185
Grus americana, 122
canadensis, 122
japonensis, 122
mexicana, 121.
Guinea-fowl, breeding, 105-6
care, 105
species of:
Abyssinian, 106
Common, 104
Crested, 106
Mitred, 106
Vulturine, 106
Guinea-pig. See Cavy
Guttera cristata, 106
pucherani, 106

Gymnorhina hypoleuca, 180
tibicen, 181

Haplochilus cameroonensis, 338

chapert, 338
latipes, 338
panchax, 338
rubrostigma, 338
sexfasciatus, 338
Hare, Belgian, 18, 19, 22
Varying, 61
Hawks, cage for, 146
care, 146
food, 146-7
species of:
Broad-winged, 147
Cooper, 147
Duck, 148
Gyrfalcon, 148
Marsh, 147
Red-shouldered, 147
Red-tailed, 147
Sharp-shin, 147
Sparrow, 148
Heloderma suspectum, 302
Heredity, 354-7
Heros fasciatus, 349
Heterandria formosa, 342
Heterodon platyrhinus, 296
Hill-tit, Red-billed, 82, 176
Horned Toad, 300-1
Hydrophobia, 7
Ayla pickeringii, 311
versicolor, 311
Hypochaera chalybeata, 190

Icterus icterus, 201
jamacati, 201

Idus idus, 334

Iguana tuberculata, 301

Inbreeding, 358-60

Jay, European, 205
Jay-thrush, Melodious, 176
White-headed, 176

White-throated, 176
Jungle-fowl, Ceylon, 277

Javan, 277

Red, 275-6

Sonnerat, 276-7

Kennel, dog, 5
Killifish, Common, 337
_ Fresh-water, 337

Kitten, 14

INDEX

Lagonosticta, coerulescens, 194

minima, 194
Lark, Sky-, 173, 181
Wood-, 173, 182
Lepus americanus, 61
cuniculus, 22
sylvaticus, 61
texianus, 61
Line-breeding, 359-60
Linnet, 82, 183
Liopeltes vernalis, 296
Liothrix luteus, 176
Lizards, cage for, 298-9
collecting, 298
food for, 299
species of:

Chameleon, 301-2; Ameri-

can, 299
Gecko, 300
Gila Monster, 302
Iguana, 301
Skink, Two-lined, 300
Swift, Fence, 299-300
Lophophorus impeyanus, 99
Lorikeet, cage for, 153
food, 153
especies of:
Blue Mountain, 154
Red-collared, 154
Scaly-breasted, 154
Swainson, 154
Lorius domicella, 154
garrulus, 154
flavopalliatus, 154
Lory, cage for, 153
food, 153
species of:
Chattering, 153
Purple-capped, 153
Yellow-backed, 153
Lovebird, breeding, 169
cage for, 168
care, 168
food, 169
species of:
Abyssinian, 168
Black-cheeked, 169
Gray-headed, 169
Red-faced, 169
Ludwigia, 323

Macaws, food, 157
stands, 157
species of:
Blue-and-yellow, 158

268

Macaws, species of:
Green-winged, 158
Hyacinthine, 158
Military, 158
Red-and-blue, 158

Macropodus viridi-auratus, 346

Magpie, American, 205
European, 205
Mannikin, Black-headed, 198
A bis ma
agpie, I
Three-colored, 198
White-headed, 198
Marmoset, 53
Marmota monaxz, 58
Mealworms, 75
Melopelia asiatica, 114
Mendel’s law, 355-7
Mephitis mephitis putida, 57
Metopiana peposaca, 135
Monkey, care, 51
food, 52
species of:
Capuchin, 53
Rhesus, 52
Spider, 51
Mouse, ancestry, 42-3
breeding, 41
cage, 39-40
care, 39
colors, 42-6
waltzing, 46
Mouth-breeders, 349
Mule, Bullfinch-Canary, 228
Goldfinch-Canary, 228
Linnet-Canary, 228
Munia atricapilla, 198
maja, 198
malacca, 198
orizivora, 197
punctulata, 198:
Mus musculus, 42
norvegus, 47
Mutation, 357-8
Myadestes unicolor, 178
Myna, Common, 202
Hill, Greater, 203
Javan, 203
Lesser, 203

Nettion brasiliense, 133
carolinense, 133
flavirostre, 134

Newts, 312

Nightingale, 179

INDEX

Numida meleagris, 104
mitrata, 106
ptilorhyncha, 106

Nun. See Mannikin

Nyctea nyctea, 150

Ocyphaps lophotes, 116
lor bewicki, 143
buccinator, 143
columbianus, 143

cygnus, 143
melanocorphus, 143
olor, 141
Ophibolus doliatus triangularis,
getulus, 206

Ophisaurus ventralis, 301
Opossum, 53-54
Oreortyx pictus, 110
Orfe, Golden, 334
Osphromeus trichopterus, 347
Otocompsa jocosa, 174
leucotis, 174
Otus asio asio, 150
Owls, cage for, 149
food, 149
species of:
Barn, 151
Barred, 150
Horned, 150
Long-eared, 150
Screech, 149
Short-eared, 150
Snowy, 150

Palaeornis alexandri, 167
cyanocephala, 167
fasciata, 167
nepalensis, 167
torquata, 166

Paradise Fish, 345

Paratilapia multicolor, 349

Paroaria cucullata, 187
larvata, 188

Parrakeets, breeding, 164, 166, 170,

172
cage for, 164, 170
care, 164, 166, 170, 172
food, 164, 166, 170, 172
species of:
Banded, 167
Blossom-headed, 167
Budgerigar, 171
Grass, 171
Gray-breasted, 166

Parrakeets, species of:
Indian Ring, 167
Javan, 167
King, 168
Pennant, 171

Rosella, 170; Mealy, 171

Shell, 171
Tovi, 165
See also Conure
Parrotlet, Blue-winged, 165
Parrots, breeding, 161
cage for, 159
care, 159-60
food, 159
teaching, 160-1
species of:

Amazon, Blue-fronted, 163;
Cuban, 163; Golden-
naped, 162; Green-cheek-
ed, 163; White-fronted,
163; Yellow-fronted, 162;

Yellow-headed, 162
Gray, 161
Pavo cristatus, 101
muticus, 104
Peafowl, breeding, 102-3
care, I0I-2
food, 102
forms of:
Black-winged, 104
Indian, 101
Javan, 104
Pied, 103
White, 103
Pekinese, 11
Perch, Climbing, 344, 347-8
Phaps chalcoptera, 116
Phasianus colchicus, 92
formosanus, 93
mongolicus, 93
sSoemmeringii, 93
torquatus, 93
versicolor, 93
Pheasants, aviaries for, 86-7
breeding, 87-92
chicks, 89-92
food, 87-8, 90-1

Fireback, 98
Golden, 88, 94-5

INDEX 369

Pheasants, species of:
Impeyan, 99-100
Japanese, 93
Kalij, Black-backed, 96;
Black-crested, 96; Hors-
field, 97; White-crested,

97
Lady Amherst, 88, 94-5
Lineated, 96
Mongolian, 93
Peacock, 97-8
Reeves, 94
Ring-neck, Chinese, 93;
English, 92
Silver, 96
Soemmering, 93
Swinhoe, 97
Phlogoenas luzonica, 115
Phrynosoma, 300-1
Pica pica hudsonica, 205
pica, 205
Pigeons, Domestic, ancestry, 230-1
breeding, 236-42
care, 231-2
colors of, 242-6
food, 234-5
loft, 232-4
breeds of:
American Highflier, 269
Antwerp, 250-1
Archangel, 273
Barb, 253
Birmingham Roller, 261-3
Blondinette, 256
Carneau, 274
Carrier, 252-3
Cumulet, 269
Dragoon, 251-2
Fan-tail, 256-7
Frillback, 273
Helmet, 271
Hen, 274
Homer, Exhibition, 250;
Flying, 247-50; Show, 250
Hyacinth, 272
Ice, 272
Jacobin, 258-9
Magpie, 270-1
Norwich Cropper, 259-60
Nun; 270
Owl, 253-4
Pouter, English, 259
Pygmy, 259
Runt, 274

370

Pigeons, breeds of:
Satinette, 255
Scandaroon, 273
Shield, 272
Swallow, 272
Tippler, 267-9
Trumpeter, 273
Tumbler, Exhibition, 264-7;
Parlor, 263-4; Perform-
ing, 260-4; West of Eng-
land, 263 ;
Turbit, English, 254-5; Ori-
ental, 256
Turbiteen, 256
Pigeons, Wild, breeding, 113
care, I12
food, 113
species of:
Band-tailed, 114
Bleeding-heart, 115
Bronze-wing, 116
Crowned, 117-18
Passenger, 112
Red-billed, 114
Piping Crow, Black-backed, 180;
White-backed, 180
Pithecus rhesus, 52
Platypoecilius maculatus, 341
Poecilia amazonica, 341
pavonina, 341
sphenops, 341
vivipara, 341
Poephila acuticauda, 199
cincta, 199
gouldiae, 200
mirabilis, 200
personata, 199
Poliospiza leucopygia, 186
Pomeranian, II
Procyon lotor, 56
Psittacosis, 79
Psittacula passerina, 166
Psittacus erythacus, 161
Psitteuteles chlorolepidotus, 154
Pterophyllum scalare, 349
Puppy, 7
Pyromelana afra, 191
flammiceps, 191
franciscana, 191
taha, 192 :
Pyrrhula pyrrhula, 184

Quail, breeding, 108-9
cage for, 108
care, 108

INDEX

Quail, food, 107
species of:
Bobwhite, Eastern, 107, 109;
Florida, 110; Texan, 110
California, 107, rr0
Gambel, 107, rz0
Montezuma, I10
Mountain, 107, rzo
Scaled, 110
Quelea quelea, 192
YUSS1, 192
Querquedula cyanoptera, 133
discors, 133
versicolor, 134

Rabbit, Domestic, ancestry, 22
breeding, 21
care, 19
food, 20
hutches, 19-20
breeds of:
Angora, 20, 27
Belgian Hare, 18, 19, 22
Black-and-tan, 24
Dutch, 19, 25
English, 26-7
Flemish Giant, 19, 23
Himalayan, 26
Lop-ear, 25
Polish, 24
Silver Brown, 24; Fawn,
24; Gray, 24
Rabbit, Wild, cage, 60-1
food, 61
species of :
Cottontail, 61
Jack, 61
Snowshoe, 61
Rabies, 7
Raccoon, 55-6
Rana catesbiana, 310
clamitans, 310
palustris, 311
pipiens, 310
sylvatica, 311
Rasbora heteromorpha, 343
Rat, Domestic, ancestry, 47
cage, 48
care, 47-8
colors of, 48-9
food, 48
Rhinichthys cataractae, 333
Rivulus flabellicauda, 338
ocellata, 338

poeyi, 338

INDEX 371

Robin, Japanese. See Hill-tit Squirrels, cage, 58
Roup, 78 food, 59
species of:
Sagittaria natans, 322 Flying, 59
Salamander, Brown, 313 Gray, 59
Spotted, 313 Red, 59
Two-lined, 313 Starling, European, 202
Sarcogeranus leucogeranus, 123 Glossy, 202
Scaly leg, 81 Steganopleura guttata, 197
Sceloporus undulatus, 299 Steganura paradisea, 189
Sciurus carolinensis, 59 Stickleback, 335-6
hudsonicus, 59 Stigmatopelia senegalensis, 116
subrinus, 59 Streptopelia risoria, 116
Serinus canarius, 206 Strix varia, 150
icterus, 186 Sturnus vulgaris, 202
serinus, 206 Sunfish, 335 .
Sheldrake, Common, 136 Swans, breeding, 142-3, 144
Paradise, 136 care, I41
Ruddy, 136 food, 141
Shiner, 333 species of:
Silver-bill, African, 198 Bewick, 143
: Indian, 198 Black, 144
Singing Finch, Gray, 186 Black-necked, 143
Green, 186 Mute, 141
Siskin, European, 184-5 Polish, 142
Skunk, 56-7 Trumpeter, 143
Snails, 324-5 Whistling, 143
Snakes, cage for, 292 Whooping, 143
collecting, 293-4 Sycalis flaveola, 186
food, 292-3 Syrmaticus reevesi, 94
species of:
Black, 295; Mountain, 295 Tadorna tadorna, 136
Copperhead, 297 Tadpole, metamorphosis of, 308-9
Coral, 297 Taeniopygia castanotis, 197
Garter, 294-5 Tamias striatus, 60
Gopher, 295-6 Tanager, Blue, 188
Green, 296 Palm, 188
Hog-nosed, 296 Silver-beak, 188
King, 296 Tench, Golden, 334
Milk, 296 Terrier. See Dogs.
Moccasin, 297 Testudo polyphemus, 306
Python, 297 Tetrapteryx paradisea, 124
Rattlesnake, 297 Thrush, Shama, 82, 179
_ Water, 295 Song, 82, 178
Solitaire, Blue, 178 Tiaris canora, 187
Spaniel, Japanese, 11 olivacea olivacea, 187
Toy, 11 olivacea pusilla, 187
‘Spatula clypeata, 133 Tinca tinca, 334
Spelerpes bislineatus, 313 Toads, cage for, 307-8
Spermestes cucullata, 196 food, 308
Spilotes corais couperi, 295 species of:
: Spinus spinus, 184 American, 309
Sporaeginthus amandava, 194 Fowler’s, 309-10
melpodus, 195 Oak, 310

subflavus, 195 Southern, 310

372 - INDEX

Tortoise, Gopher, 306 Warbler, Black-cap, 180
Tragopan, 98 Waterfowl, 127-144
Trichogaster fasciatus, 347 Waxbill, Common, 195
lalius, 347 Crimson-faced, 195
Trichoglossus novae-hollandiae, Golden-breasted, 195»
154 Lavender, 195
rubritorques, 154 Orange-cheeked, 195
Trionyx, 305 St. Helena, 195
Trochalpoterum canorum, 176 Weaver, Crimson-crowned, 191
Tropidonatus fasciatus sipedon, Grenadier, 191 ;
295 Madagascar, 192
Troupial, 201 . Masked, 192
Turdus merula, 178 Napoleon, I91
muscius, 178 | Orange, I9QI
Turtles, care, 303-4 Red-billed, 192
food, 304 Russ, 192)
species of: Taha, 192
Box, 305 Whydah, Giant, 190
Mud, 304 Pin-tailed, 190
Musk, 304 Paradise, 1890
Painted, 304 Woodchuck, 57-8
Snapping, 304
Soft-shelled, 305-6 Xiphophorus helleri, 340
Spotted, 304-5
Wood, 305 Yellowhammer, 185
Vallisneria spiralis, 323 Zaminis constrictor, 205
Vidua serena, 190 Zenaida macroura carolinensis,
Vulpes fulvus, 55 114
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