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SAMUEL B. GREEN 


Late Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, 
University of Minnesota. 


POPULAR | 
FRUIT GROWING 


PREPARED ESPECIALLY FOR BEGINNERS AND 
AS A TEXT BOOK FOR SCHOOLS 
AND COLLEGES. 


BY 
SAMUEL B. GREEN 
y) 


PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE AND FORESTRY IN THE 
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. 


Author of “Vegetable Gardening,” “Amateur Fruit Growing,” 
“Forestry in Minnesota,” ‘Principles of American 
Forestry,” “Farm Wind-Breaks 
and Shelter Belts,” Etc. 


FOURTH EDITION, Revised. 


Gaprdene 1999, 1910 
By 
SAMUEL B. GREEN. 


Copyright, 1912 
By 
MRS. ALICE H. GREEN. 


Suasooiry, 


PREFACE. 


The development of the teaching of Agriculture has made 
necessary, and has been largely dependent on, the making of text- 
books of various kinds adapted to the special technical work for 
which our best agricultural schools stand. 

When these agricultural colleges started there were no text- 
books adapted to their special lines of work, and the demand 
necessitated the hasty preparation of text-books which are now 
being replaced by those that are more complete and better adapt- 
ed in every way for teaching purposes. 

This book is. the result of the development of the teaching 
of Fruit Growing in the University of Minnesota and is, in a way, 
a compilation of lectures on Fruit Growing given to the students 
which have been carefully revised and considerably extended. 
At the end of each chapter are suggestive questions on the mat- 
ter presented. 

An appendix is added which contains formulas for fung}- 
cides, insecticides and grafting waxes, etc.; lists of fruits recom- 
mended for special typical states and rules for naming fruits. 
The fruit lists are from the professors of Horticulture of the 
various Agricultural Colleges and from secretaries of the va 
rious Horticultural Societies. 

In the preparation of this work I have had the earnest and 
intelligent assistance of Miss Jeannette Foster. I am also under 
obligations to my assistant in Horticulture, Mr. A. R. Kohler, 
who prepared the pages on Spraying and Spraying machinery; 
to Mr. Elvin Peterson, student of the College of Agriculture, 
who has made many of the drawings; to Prof. Frederick Wash- 
burn for cuts which he has loaned; to Prof. E. M. Freeman for 
many suggestions embodied in the chapter on Plant Diseases and 
to Mr. A. G. Ruggles for suggestions in regard to the chapter on 
Insects Injurious to Fruits. I am also under obligations to those 
who have assisted by furnishing data for the fruft list and in 
other ways aided in its preparation. 

SAMUEL B. GREEN, 
St. Anthony Park, Minn. 
March 1, 1910. 


PREFACE TO THE FOURTH REVISED 
EDITION. 


The large use of Popular Fruit Growing in all sections of 
the country and the ever-changing horticultural conditions have 
made it seem best to revise some portions of the book before 
this, the Fourth Edition, goes to press. Some rearrangement of 
the subject matter has been made in order to conform more 
closely to the usual plan of teaching fruit growing in American 
schools and colleges. In a number of cases, additional material 
has been incorporated where conditions have changed or experi- 
ence has shown that the subject was not discussed at sufficient 
length in former editions. 

It is but fitting at this time to add to this preface a short 
biography of the teacher and scientist who originally prepared 
the work. 

Samuel B. Green was born in 1859 at Chelsea,.Mass., and 
died July 11, 1910, in Itasca Park, Minnesota. 

In 1879 he graduated from Massachusetts Agricultural Col- 
lege at a time when agriculture was not looked on very favorably 
as an occupation for one to follow. The independence of purpose 
shown in the selection of this course was characteristic of Pro- 
fessor Green throughout his life. Whenever possible, he did the 
thing that appeared to him to be right, regardless of what others 
thought or said. 

Ten years following graduation were spent in practical 
nursery and farm work, gradually gaining the experience that 
would be of value to him in later life. In 1888 he came to Min- 
nesota as Horticulturist of the Experiment Station and Professor 
of Horticulture in the University, which positions he held till 
his death. There were very few students and practically no 
equipment in the Department of Horticulture at the time of Pro- 
fessor Green’s coming. He not only built up a strong Horticul- 
tural Division and very greatly advanced the horticultural inter- 
ests of the state, but also helped to establish the School and Col- 
lege of Agriculture on the solid foundation on which they exist 
in Minnesota today. He also found time to serve the state in 


many other ways, as a member and for nearly four years as 
President of the State Horticultural Society, member of the 
American Pomological Society, Society of American Foresters, 
and other similar organizations. During the later years of his 
life he took up work in forestry with enthusiasm, establishing a 
strong course in forestry in the University and developing a 
system of summer training for foresters in Itasca Park. Early 
in 1910 he was made Dean of the College of Forestry. 


Professor Green was the author of many bulletins and books 
along horticultural lines. He is perhaps best known as author of 
Vegetable Gardening, Amateur Fruit Growing, Popular Fruit 
Growing, Forestry in Minnesota, Principles of American Forestry, 
and Farm Hedges and Windbreaks. Thus much of his work is 
preserved in permanent form and will live after him. 


LE ROY CADY. 
St. Anthony Park, Minn., 
November 25, 1911. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER lI. 
Desirable Factors in a Fruit Growing Section.—Accessibility. 
Location. Soils. Topography. Business Aspect. 


CHAPTER II. 
Principles of Plant Growth.—Parts of Plant. Parts of Flower. 
Pollination. Hybrids, Assimilation. Transpiration. Rest 
Period. Classification of Plants. Varieties. 


CHAPTER III. 

The Planting and Care of the Orchard.—Selection of Varie- 
ties. Selection of Nursery Stock. Preparation of Land. Laying 
Out the Orchard. Setting the Trees. Cultivation. Mulching. 
Cover Crops. Plant Food. Manuring. Irrigation. 


CHAPTER IV. 

Pruning.—Reasons for Pruning. Effect of Pruning. Pruning 
the Young Tree. Starting the Head. When to Prune. How to 
Make the Cuts. Tools. Training the Apple Tree. Renewing 
Old Trees. 


CHAPTER V. 


Orchard Protection.—Injuries. Frost Protection. Foretell- 
ing Frost. Orchard Heating. 


CHAPTER VI. 


Insects Injurious to Fruits——State Inspection. Chewing In- 
sects, Sucking Insects. Root Insects. Beneficial Insects. Par- 
asites. Predaceous Insects. Apple Insects and Remedies. Pear 
Insects and Remedies. Peach Insects and Remedies. Plum 
Insects and Remedies. Insect Enemies of the Grape. Insect 
Enemies of the Bush Fruits. Strawberry Insects and Remedies. 


CHAPTER VII. 


Diseases Injurious to Fruits.—Apple Diseases and Remedies. 
Pear Diseases and Remedies. Quince Diseases and Remedies. 


Plum Diseases and Remedies. Peach Diseases and Remedies. 
Cherry Diseases and Remedies. Grape Diseases and Remedies. 
Strawberry Diseases and Remedies. Blackberry Diseases and 
Remedies. Raspberry Diseases and Remedies. Gooseberry Dis- 
eases and Remedies. Currant Diseases and Remedies. 


CHAPTER VIII. 
Spraying and Spraying Apparatus.—Dust Spraying. Liquid 
Spraying. Spraying Apparatus. 


CHAPTER IX. 


Harvesting and Marketing.—Picking. Peddling. Associa- 
tions. Packing. Packages. Package Laws. Barrels. Packing 
Barrels. Grades of Fruit. Cold Storage. 


CHAPTER X. 


Propagation of Fruit Plants.—Seed. Stratification. Offsets. 
Cuttings. Budding. Grafting. Inarching. 


CHAPTER XI. 


Pome Fruits.—Apples: Classes of, Propagation, Apple Or- 
chards, Trees, Seedlings, Root Grafting, Planting, Heeling In, 
Cultivation, Pruning, Mulching, Varieties. Pear: Origin, Chi- 
nese Sand Pear, Standard Pears, Dwarf Pears, Propagation, Soil 
and Cultivation, Planting, Pruning, Insects and Diseases, Varie- 
ties, Packing. Quince: Propagation, Planting, Pruning, Insects 
and Diseases, Varieties. 


CHAPTER XII. 


Stone Fruits—Plum: Origin, Propagation, Stocks, Soil, 
Planting, Insects, Varieties. Cherry: Origin, Soil, Planting, 
Time of Planting, Age of Trees, Cultivation, Propagation, Prun- 
ing, Picking and Marketing, Insects and Diseases, Varieties. 
Peach: Origin, Groups, Propagation, Planting, Pruning, Soil, 
Insects and Diseases, Varieties. Nectarine: Origin. Apricot: 
Origin, Stocks, Planting, Pruning, Insects and Diseases, Varieties, 

CHAPTER XIII. 


Grapes.—Origin, Propagation, Soil, Planting, Training and 
Pruning, Single Post Method, High Renewal Method, Kniffen 


Method, 4-Cane Kniffen Method, 2-Cane High Renewal Method, 
Munson Method, Tying Material, Thinning, Manuring, Girdling. 


CHAPTER XIV. 


Small Fruits.—Strawberry: Origin, Location, Soil, Manuring, 
Planting Methods, Trimming, Protection, Renewing, Burning, 
Picking and Marketing, Varieties. Currant: Origin, Soil and 
Planting. Pruning, Protection, Marketing, Varieties. Gooseberry: 
Origin, Propagation, Planting, Pruning, Marketing, Insects, Dis- 
eases. Raspberry: Origin, Classes, Propagation, Location, Soil, 
Manuring, Planting, Cultivation, Pruning, Thinning, Mulching, 
Protection, Picking, Marketing. Blackberry and Dewberry: 
Groups, Propagation, Soils, Planting, Cultivation, Pruning. 
Cranberry: Location, Soil, Cultivation, Drainage, Planting, Pick- 
ing. Juneberry: Origin, Propagation, Cultivation, Varieties. 
Sand Cherry: Distribution, Propagation. Bullberry or Buffalo 
Berry: Distribution, Propagation. Mulberries: Origin, Propa- 
gation, Varieties. Persimmon: American Persimmon, Where 
Found, Value of Fruit, Method of Propagation, Japanese Per- 
simmon, Value of Fruit, Propagation. 


CHAPTER XV. 


Nuts.—Pecan: Origin, Soil, Harvesting, Marketing, Insects, 
Grafting. Chestnut: Groups. Chinquapins: Propagation, Plant- 
ing, Insects, Diseases, English Walnut: Propagation, Harvest- 
ing, Marketing. Japanese Walnut. Black Walnut. Almond: 
Soil, Planting, Propagation, Marketing. Hazel: Origin, Flower. 


APPENDIX. 


Appendix.—Spraying Calendar. Fungicides. Insecticides. 
Grafting Waxes. Rules for Naming Fruits. Lists of Fruit Rec- 
ommended for Different States. Distances Apart for Planting 
Fruits. List of Horticultural Books, Periodicals and Bulletins. 


ms Lie 
cP a 
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Popular Fruit Growing. 


CHAPTER I. 


FACTORS THAT MAKE UP A GOOD FRUIT-GROWING SEC- 
TION. 

Accessibility.-One of the first requisites for success in fruit 
growing is ready communication with a good market. This may 
be obtained by nearness to the market itself, or to shipping facili- 
ties where transportation to the market centers may be had at 
reasonakle rates. Water communication is often better than 
rail, especially for those kinds of fruits that are easily injured 
by rough handling. Two or more competing lines of communica- 
tion generally tend to give the shipper better service than when 
one road has the monopoly. Accessibility is of the first impor- 
tance though it will not entirely take the place of suitable soil 
conditions; however, it may sometimes make it profitable to use 
an inferior soil. The distance which fruit can be hauled with 
safety or profit depends largely on the nature of the product 
itself. The apple grower can afford to be farther from shipping 
facilities than the peach or berry grower, as his fruit is less 
likely to be damaged in hauling. Growers of perishable fruits 
should not be more than two or three miles from a shipping 
station. 

Good wagon roads make it easy to get to market quickly 
with large loads of produce in good condition and form a very 
important factor in the development of any fruit section. 

If the location is so far from the consumer that the produce 
must be shipped by a common carrier it is important that enough 
fruit be raised in the section to make the business of handling 
and shipping it one of sufficient importance to command special 
attention from the carrier and the buyers, so as to make it a 
place where buyers will go for fruit. In starting a fruit industry 


14 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


in a new place the pioneers often labor under the disadvantage 
of not having enough of their product to make it worth while to 
ship it. This difficulty can be overcome in new sections by 
starting the industry on a large scale so that shipments may 
be made in carload lots and by co-operation in selling. 

Soils.—The only sure way of determining the value of a soil 
for a particular fruit is by field-trial, because so many factors 
enter into the makeup of a good fruit soil that it is easy to make 
mistakes, and yet the best fruit soils have many evident points 
in common, There is hardly any soil but which under favorable 
conditions will be found adapted to some class of fruits. For 
instance, the pear prefers a rather heavy clay soil; the peach 
and cherry quite open and porous soils. The strawberry and 
blackberry will often do well on soil too sandy for other fruits 
although either one suffers from drought on a heavy soil. The 
currant and gooseberry prefer an open clay loam but will adapt 
themselves to almost any location. Then there are locations, such 
as the lands adapted to the Yellow Newtown or Albemarle Pippin 
apple in Virginia, so wondrously fitted to special fruits that it 
seems impossible to raise these in perfection elsewhere. 

In the case of apples and many other tree fruits the condition 
of the subsoil is generally of more importance than the surface 
soil, although the condition of the latter must not be overlooked. 
It is desirable to have a surface soil that can be cultivated easily 
and will not bake hard after rains. Soil that is extremely rich 
in plant food is usually undesirable for apples, pears and peaches, 
especially if too rich in nitrogen. On such land the trees 
generally grow large and frequently do not bear until quite 
mature. The unripened buds and wood, common under such con- 
ditions, kill back in winter and the vigorous growth of early sum- 
mer seems to be predisposed to fire blight or similar diseases. 

Loess loam is the name given to an open clay soil which 
is made up largely of clay and small shells. On such land we 
generally find in the North a vigorous growth of maple, hack- 
berry and white oak. It is perhaps the best kind of an all 
around fruit soil and any of our fruits will do well in it. 

A limestone soil, where the roots can reach the underlying 
lime rock or soil and which has much lime in its makeup, is 
especially favorable for all our fruits and comes next to or may 


FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 1d 


equal in value the loess loams. In parts of Florida the coral 
rock and the old shells in the sand help to make good fruit soil. 

Heavy clay loam may be better adapted to agriculture than 
to fruit raising, but if such soil is thoroughly underdrained and 
given a proper rotation of cover crops, manure and general cul- 
tivation, it will often be found adapted to a goodly number of 
fruits and especially to apples, pears, currants, gooseberries and 
the sweet cherries. Such a soil requires a very careful manage- 
ment in order to get the best results from it. 

Sandy loam underlaid with a good, open clay subsoil is 
almost ideal for any of the small fruits and grapes. It is the 
easiest kind of soil to handle and can be cultivated shortly after 
a rain without becoming lumpy or sticking to the tools, and it 
easily forms a dust blanket. Implements scour in it very read- 
ily, which is no small convenience. Altogether, it is the most 
pleasant kind of soil to cultivate and well adapted to a long list 
of fruit plants. 

Sandy soil dries out so quickly that crops on it suffer from 
drought. This is especially true where the soil particles are 
coarse. It gives quick returns from manure applied to it but 
does rot hold soluble manures. In general it is not adapted to 
any of the fruit crops unless it can be irrigated, or is located 
where the water table is within the reach of the roots. Under 
such conditions this soil may, with proper management, give 
good results with strawberries, blackcap raspberries, plums, 
sour cherries and peaches, and with many of the subtropical 
fruits. 

Mucky soil is not well adapted to fruits of any kind but some 
kinds of strawberries and blackberries will occasionally yield 
enormously on such land where it is well drained. When muck 
is applied to sandy or clay land, it is often beneficial. 

Flat, black prairie soil is seldom sufficiently adapted to any 
kind of fruit to become the foundation of an important fruit 
industry, although many kinds of fruits may do well enough on it 
to make them desirable for planting in the home garden. 

Clay soil, underlaid with gravel at a depth of from two to 
four feet, may be used fer sour cherries, peaches and plums, 
but crops on it are liable to suffer from dought and such lands 


16 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


should generally be avoided for fruits. It dries out easily and 
yet the surface soil, being of clay, becomes lumpy unless care- 
fully handled. It has most of the disadvantages of both a stiff 
clay and sandy soil. 

Topography.—The topography of a country is the “lay of the 
land;” i. e., whether hilly, rolling or flat. A rolling country gives 
good water drainage and our cultivated fruits, with the exception 
of the cranberry, are intolerant of surplus water in the soil. A 
rolling country also gives many high slopes where there is com- 
parative immunity from unseasonable frosts. Its various slopes 
are adapted to a variety of crops. For these reasons good fruit 
sections are generally located where the land is hilly but land 
that is quite flat may sometimes prove valuable for fruit when 
near large water areas so that there is secured comparative 
immunity from frosts and when sufficiently elevated to secure 
good drainage. As a rule, however, flat land is not well adapted 
to fruit growing. 


The direction of the slope is an important matter, but one 
which is so influenced by local conditions and by the class of 
fruits which is to be grown that no definite rule can be given. 
In the Northern states, a northeast slope is generally regarded as 
best for the tree fruits, as it warms up slowly in the spring and 
the trees are less likely to start early and suffer injury from late 
spring frosts and the hot, dry winds of summer. Locations near 
large bodies of water, especially those so situated that the pre- 
vailing winter winds blow across this water and are tempered by 
it, are particularly favorable for fruit growing, as the danger 
from frost injury is greatly reduced. The peach belt along the 
eastern shore of Lake Michigan, which is as far north as south- 
ern Minnesota, is a familiar example of the tempering effect of 
water. It is possible to grow fruit in that locality, owing to the 
freedom from frosts, which could not be produced some distance 
farther south, in Indiana and Illinois, in districts where there is 
no protection from cold northwest winds. 


BUSINESS ASPECT. 
Fruit Growing as a Business.—Success in any business is 
largely a personal matter and success in fruit growing likewise 


FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 17 


depends much on the individual and his adaptability. The 
demand for fruit is on the increase and the consumption of fresh 
fruits per capita is now greater than a few years ago. With the 
introduction of improved methods of storing and shipping, fresh 
fruit is destined to play a more important part in the diet of 
every American, Comparatively a few years ago fresh fruit was 
regarded 2s a luxury but now it is looked upon as a staple article 
of diet with special hygienic values. 

Overproduction of Fruit.—There is occasionally an overpro- 
duction of fruit in some districts, but-it is rare that there is an 
overproduction of good fruit. Our chief trouble is that our 
methods of distfibution are faulty and our people do not get the 
fruit they want. Fruits that can be readily used for canning or 
drying purposes are most stable in price because, when low in 
price, it is easy to dispose of the surplus. Fruits which keep 
over a considerable period, as winter apples, are more stable in 
price than these that are perishable, as berries or peaches. The 
tendency is certainly toward cheaper good fruit, but there is 
also a growing discriminating taste for fruit of the best quality 
and the number of consumers who are willing and able to pay 
a fair price for a good article is fast increasing. As wealth 
increases this discrimination in favor of the best will become even 
more pronounced than it is today. 

The successful fruit grower must be well grounded if the 
principles of growing fruit and the many problems that are sure 
to present themselves in the course of the annual round of 
duties. Not only is it desirable that he know how to grow 
fruit but he must know how to market it. In other words, he 
must be a good business man. Some of the most successful fruit 
growers and horticulturists have been men who were not raised 
in the work but have taken it up late in life and succeeded largely 
because of their business training and ability. This is not to 
3ay that farmers’ sons donot make good farmers, but they often 
fail to get the most out of their farm practice owing to the lack 
of business training. In this respect another man may perhaps 
excel, although he may not understand the practice of handling 
the land. The fruit industry is especially suited to the man of 


18 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


ready resources who can quickly adapt himself to changes of 
situation. 

Choice of Locations.—Most people who are making a spe- 
cialty of fruit growing, and most farmers who contemplate a 
change to fruit growing, are held fast by social ties, by land 
holdings or in other ways, so that they cannot easily change 
their location even if they wished to do so, therefore the choice 
of location for them is a settled fact. If they engage in fruit 
growing at all it must be in their present surroundings. To 
them it is a selection of crops and methods of management best 
suited to their conditions. If fruit growing cannot be made 
profitable where they are they had better devote their land to 
other purposes. 

On the other hand, there is a small class of people who 
wish to grow fruit of certain kinds who do have the opportunity 
of changing their location. For such, it would be a good plan 
to visit the principal fruit sections and thoroughly study their 
conditions and probable future before locating permanently. In 
making such a study it is not well to be too quick to form an 
opinion as there are many factors to be considered. Rarely, 
indeed, is it desirable for a grower to change from a line of 
fruit growing that he is thoroughly acquainted with to one that 
is very different. Occasionally it may be desirable or necessary 
to do so, but in any case the change should be made with great 
caution. The successful apple grower of Missouri may make a 
successful California orange grower after he has had experience, 
but he will have much that is new to learn before he can do 
this. The man who is starting anew in the growing of fruit of 
any kind will generally find it best to start in a small way and 
not risk too much on a single venture. 


QUESTIONS—CHAPTER Il. 

What is meant by accessibility? ; 
What are the characteristics of a good fruit growing section? 
What soils are best adapted to different fruits? 
. What is the composition of limestone soil? Of clay loam? Of 
sandy loam? Of sandy soil? Of mucky soil? Of prairie soil? Of 
clay soil? 

5. What is meant by the topography of a country? 

6. What is the best location for fruit growing? : 

7. What are some of the things upon which the success of fruit 
growing depends? 

8. What is the result of an overproduction of fruit? 

9. What are some of the problems with which a fruit grower has 
to contend? 


SS 


CHAPTER II. 


SOME FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 


The roots of plants are made up of several distinct parts. 
The main central root is termed the tap root when it extends 
directly downward into the earth, as in the roots of Bur Oak 
and Black Walnut. When a plant has several spreading roots 
it is said to have surface roots, but such roots may sometimes 
divide and go deep into the ground; for example, the roots of 
the Red Oak and White Pine. Root fibres or rootlets is the 
term used for the smaller division of roots. The foregoing 
roots have hard bark and do not feed the plant. They do little 
more than anchor it in place. The roots feed through what 
are known as the root hairs, which are soft, fresh, young roots, 
generally white in color. 

The collar or crown of a plant is that portion where the 
roots and top unite. It is close to the surface of the ground. 
This portion of the tree is frequently injured by borers, by ice 
and in other ways. It is a good plan, especially in the case of 
young trees, to protect them in winter with a bank of earth 
around the collar. 

The stems of plants may be annual, as in the case of many 
garden plants; biennial, as in the case of the raspberry and 
blackberry, and perennial, as in the currants, gooseberries and 
fruit trees. Runners are creeping stems, as in the case of the 
strawberry. Suckers are stems springing up from roots or 
underground stems. Thorns are modified branches and live for 
indefinite periods while prickles, like those on the gooseberry, 
are modifications of the bark and live but one year. 

The bark covers the whole exterior of the trunk, branches 
and roots and serves as a protection. It is made up of two 
parts, the outer or corky layer which is dead bark, and the in- 
ner, or live bark. These vary much in appearance and thickness 
on different kinds of trees. For instance, on the White Birch 
the corky layer is pure white, very thin and tough, while on 
our White Pine it is very dark brown and often an inch or 


20 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


more in thickness and quite brittle. This covering of bark is 
quite impervious to disease where intact, but there are gener- 
ally many small breaks in its surface through which disease 
may enter and once inside the bark it is well protected. 
Cracks in the live bark are most common in early summer 
when growth is rapid. Diseases may also enter through some 
wound, and hence the desirability of covering large wounds 
with some impervious material to keep disease out of the plant, 
Buds are the portions of plants which always tip new 
growth. They are often opposite, as in the case of the Maple, or 
alternate as in the apple, pear, plum or peach. Adventitious 
buds are those that start apparently without system. Theoreti- 
cally, botanists say that any cell may grow into a bud so that 
buds may appear in almost 
any place on the trunk, roots, 
or branches, and in the case 
of the orange a single seed 
may grow three plants, one 
of which is the result of ordi- 
nary sexual union while the 
other two may be looked up- 
on as being adventitious. 
Buds may produce leaves or 
flowers. The former are 
termed leaf buds and the lat- 
ter flower buds. These are 
illustrated in Fig. 1. They 
vary in shape, time of forma- 
tion and location in different 
plants. Flower buds are more 
liable to winter injury than 
leaf buds. Plants that are 
growing fast are quite liable 
Fig. 1.—Fruit buds of: a.—Apple. to form only leaf buds and 
id ee arte ae The crosses often fail to form flower buds. 
. When growth is rather slow 
naturally or when checked by artificial means, fruit buds are 
formed. In the case of some trees that do not come into bear: 


FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 21 


ing readily, girdling is sometimes practiced in order to throw 
the plant into bearing. This may be done in a variety of ways 
but should not be attempted except in the case of trees that 
seem hopeless otherwise. 

Girdling may be done successfully as follows: 

With an ordinary cross-cut saw, cut in a spiral direction 
around the trunk or branch to be treated and have the cut end 
just under where it commenced but several inches below. In 
this way the circulation of sap is only sufficiently impeded to 
cause flower buds to form. Such wounds seldom cause serious 
injury to vigorous trees. This work should be done in June if 
at all, but is seldom a desirable practice. 

r% The leaves of plants are made up of 
loose, open tissue enclosed in a thin mem- 
brane. This membrane has openings in it 
through which the plant takes in carbonic 
acid gas, i. e. carbon dioxide from the air, 
and throws off large quantities of water. 
It is through these openings, called stomata, 
that diseases frequently enter the plant. 
Such openings also occur in the young 
twigs of some plants. It is in its green por- 
tions that the plant absorbs and assimilates 
food, and since this green portion is formed 
almost exclusively in our fruit plants only 
in the presence of direct sunlight, the im- 
portance of lots of sunlight for best develop- 
ment of these plants is evident. 

The flower is the portion of the tree 

; wut, designed for the production of seed. All 
Fig. 2.—Trunk of g ‘ 

apple tree two the parts of our fruit plants in a natural 

inches (in Giamz State seem to facilitate this object. Flow- 

after girdling ers are often imperfect, as in the case of 

ree some forest trees, but in our com- 
mon cultivated fruit plants the flowers are generally perfect 
and only such flowers are referred to here. But flowers that are 
perfect may be self-sterile, that is, may not be fertile to their 
Own pollen but need to ba cross fertilized. 


22 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


The parts of the flower and the purpose of each.—The parts 
of the flower are modified leaves. The outside covering of the 
flower of our common fruits is termed the calyx. Its purpose is 
to protect the more tender organs and it is generally green in 
color. The next row of modified leaves of the flower is called 
the corolla. This is generally white or of some conspicuous 


Fig. 3—Flower of Duchess of Oldenberg apple. 


color. It serves as a protection and also by its coloring at- 
tracts insects which assist in pollination. The next row of 
modified leaves are the stamens. They are of various forms, 
generally tipped with a small pouch-like vessel in which the 
male element, known as pollen, is formed. The stem is called 
the filament and the pouch the anther. The pistils are the fe- 
male organs made up of ovary or seed pod, style or stem, and 
stigma, which latter is the part that receives and holds the pollen 
which grows through it to the seed. The bright colored por- 


FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 23 


tions and the nectar attract insects that aid in transferring the 
pollen from one flower to another. The edible portions of the 
fruit attract birds and other animals, including man, who aid 
in distributing the seed. 

Fruit.—A true fruit as defined by botanists is the ripened 
seed vessel and its contents. This agrees with the horticul- 


" Catan —pollen Rees 


= ~ Stigma. 


Fig. 4.—Diagrammatic drawing showing how pollen grains grow 
down the pistil of the strawberry and unite with the contents of 
the ovary in the act of fertilization; At the right, cross section 
through flower of strawberry, showing its parts, 
turists’ definition so far as fruits such as apples, pears, peaches, 
apricots, plums, gooseberries and currants are concerned, put 
in the case of strawberries, blackberries and mulberries, this 
definition would allow us to claim only the single grains on 
the sides of the berries as fruits, while in these fruits, we com- 
monly consider the fleshy center a part of the fruit. These lat- 
ter fruits are in structure much like an ear of corn with an 


24 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


edible cob. The word fruit as used by the fruit grower had a 
certain definite, well understood significance before the dawn 
of scientific botany and the botanists should not attempt to 
change the significance of the word. 

Pollen.—Pollen grains vary in form but are cell-like in 
structure and have the power of making a root-like growth into 
the tissues of the pistil to the ovary where the contents of the 
pollen grain unites with and fertilizes the ovule. Without this 
process taking place, seed is not produced and it is seldom that 
fruit is formed at all. Pollen from one distinct kind of fruit 
will not fertilize the ovule.of another of a different, distinct kind 
but each is restricted to a very close limit. For instance, the 
pollen of one variety of the apple will fertilize other apples 
but will not fertilize the plum. When varieties of the same 
or nearly allied fruits are fertilized with the pollen from one 
or another, they are said to be crossed and the operation is 
termed crossing. The results from this work are seldom well 
marked in the crossed fruit although the skillful operator may 
sometimes be able to see it. But the results of the cross will 
show in the seedlings from the crossed fruit and it must not 
be expected that the seedlings will partake equally of the nature 
of each, for we know from much experience that the results of 
such crosses are uncertain and irregular. 

Pollination.—Under natural conditions flowers are pollen- 
ized in various ways, but chiefly by wind, in the case of 
plants that have inconspicuous flowers such as corn, pine, 
spruce and poplar; and by insects in our cultivated fruits and 
most other plants which have conspicuous flowers. Some flow- 
ers are probably pollenized in both ways. 

Hybrids.—Where a cross is made between very unlike forms, 
as between the sand cherry and the plum, the result is generally 
termed a hybrid. The difference between crosses and hybrids 
is only one of degree and of late years there has been a tendency 
to do away with the use of the term hybrid altogether. There 
is a very common impression that hybrids are exceedingly rare 
and of more value than ordinary crosses but such is far from 
being the case, as they are frequently of little value for any 
purpose and often fail to form seed and even to set fruit. 


FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 25 


Fruit Plants from Seed.—While our wild plants come nearly 
true from seed, our cultivated fruits, which have come from 
them, will not come true but will show a decided tendency to 
resemble the wild, ‘inferior forms. Although an occasional seed- 
ling may be a decided improvement over the cultivated kinds 
there is not one chance in a thousand of getting better fruits 
than those we now have by saving seed. This comes from the 
fact that we do not grow our fruits from seed but by grafting, 
budding, ete. If they were grown for many generations from 


4 


Yl 


“np an 


Fig. ‘Eohowiie variation in sizes and shapes of plums grown from 
the same lot of seed. 


seed it would undoubtedly be possible to get them to come 
as true to type as our garden vegetables. It must be noticed 
that as there are no two plants exactly alike the strongest ten- 
dency in plants is to be unlike. Some cultivated fruit plants that 
come nearly true from seed are a few local varieties of the peach, 
the Wyant plum and such strawberries as the Alpine and St. 
Anthony de Padua. 

The yearly round of life in plants consists of a rapid 
growth in the spring, during which time the plant is using up 


26 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


the store of food accumulated the year before. After this rapid 
growth has passed comes a period of slower growth in which the 
wood is said to ripen. That is, it becomes hard by reason of its 
cells becoming filled with starch or other plant food which 
is used to start growth in the spring. When this is completed 
active growth stops, but plant food is probably being stored 
up as long as the leaves still remain green. When we have 
warm, moist weather late in autumn, active growth sometimes 
starts again and some of this plant food is changed to unstable 
compounds which may result in winter killing. Some varieties 
are much more liable to start in this way than others. No 
characteristic of hardiness in plants is more certain than ear- 
ly maturity of wood. ~ 
Assimilation.—Plants are made up of various tissues and 
these are composed of numerous cells. The material of which 
the cells are composed is largely carbon. This carbon is de- 
rived from the carbon dioxide of the air which enters the 
leaves, and, under the action of light, air and water is decom- 
posed; the oxygen is given off and the carbon is retained and, 
combining with water obtained from the roots, forms starch, 
sugar, gum and other plant foods. This process of food mak- 
ing is called assimilation and can be carried on only in the green 
parts of the plant and in these, only when exposed to light and 
air. Hence foliage, air and light are essential elements for 
plant growth, and the greater the quantity and better the de- 
velopment of foliage and the more light this foliage has at 
its disposal for its work the more vigorously will the tree grow. 
In general, therefore, the growth of the fruit and wood may 
be reduced either by the removal of foliage, which reduces 
the working surface, or by shading, which somewhat checks 
the activity of the foliage by hindering light action. 
Transpiration.—The flow of sap in trees is not well un- 
derstood. In a general way it may be said that the sapwood 
transmits the water from the roots to the leaves, where a part 
enters into the assimilated sap and goes to build up the plant, 
and the remainder, which is by far the greater part, passes off 
as vapor. The amount thus transpired varies greatly with the 
species, age of the tree, amount of foliage at work, amount of 


FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 27 


light at its disposal, climatic conditions and the condition of 
tree growth. The amount of water transpired is so large in 
comparison to the amount retained in the tree that while an 
acre of forest may store in its trees 1000 pounds of carbon, 
15 or 20 pounds of mineral substance and 5000 pounds of water 


Fig. 6.—Abnormai flower of strawberry with seven petals; not unusual. 


28 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


in a year, it may have taken from the soil and given off to 
the air from 500,000 to 1,500,000 pounds of water or from one- 
quarter to one-half as much as agricultural crops. It has been es- 
timated that the leaves of deciduous trees transpire one-sixth to 
one-third as much water as an equal surface of water. Large 
deciduous trees undoubtedly give off as much as a barrel of water 
a day in dry summer weather. Coniferous trees transpire much 
less water than most deciduous trees, frequently not over one- 
sixth as much. 

Mineral substances are taken up by plants in small quanti- 
ties and consist mostly of lime, magnesia, potash and phos- 
phorus. They are carried to the leaves where they are used, 
(perhaps also on their passage through the tree), with a part 
of the water in food preparation. The main part of the mineral 
substances taken up remains, as the water transpires in the 
leaves and young twigs, and is returned to the soil when tie 
leaves are shed. 

Rest period of plants.—With very few exceptions, all plants 
require an occasional rest period for their best development. 
Some species get it naturally by being dried and others by be- 
ing frozen. Even when plants are kept under growng condi- 
tions the year round, they have periods of rest and of active 
growth. During the rest period plants undergo very few 
changes, and yet there is undoubtedly some growth during 
mild weather in winter, and as evaporation must be going on 
most of the time from twigs and buds water must be supplied 
from the roots. 

Classification of fruits—The commercial fruits of the 
world may be grouped under the following heads, of which only 
the more important Northern grown fruits are referred to here. 


Class I. Orchard culture or tree fruit culture. 
Sub-class 
I. Pomaceous fruits: Apple, pear, quince. 
II. Drupaceous or stone fruits: Plums, peach, cherry. 
III. Citrus fruits: Orange, lemon, lime, etc. 
IV. Moraceous fruits: Mulberry. fig. 
V. Anonaceous fruits: Pawpaw. 
VI. Myrtaceous fruits: Guava. 
VII. Sapotaceous fruits: Sapodilla. 
VIII. Anacardiaceous fruits: Mango. 
IX. Ebenaceous fruits: ersimmon., 
X. Leguminous fruits: t. Johns bread, tamarind. 
XI. ‘Nut fruits: Nuts of various kinds. 
XII. Palmaceous fruits: Cocoanut, date, etc. 
XIII. Miscellaneous tree fruits: Olive, pomegranate. 


FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 29 


Class II. Vine fruit culture. 
Sub-class 
I. Viticultural fruits: Grape. 
II. Passifloraceous fruits: Granadilla. 
Class III. Small fruit culture. 
Sub-class 
I. Bush fruits: 
Group (a) Rubaceous fruits: Raspberry, blackberry. 
(b) Ribaceous fruits: Currants and goose- 
berries. 
(c) Miscellaneous fruits: Juneberry, buffalo- 


berry. 
II. Strawberry culture: Strawberry. 
IIfl. Cranberry culture: Common cranberry. 
Class IV. Non-woody or herb-like fruits. 
Sub-class 

I. Musaceous fruits: Banana. 

II. Pineapple. 

III. Cactaceous fruits: Prickly pear. 


It has been estimated that there are more than ten thou- 
sand varieties of our commonly cultivated fruits in America. 
In order to study these satisfactorily some method must be 
found to classify them. This matter will be found worked out 
in the various books on systematic pomology. Botanists have 
found it convenient to group plants under the head of class, or- 
der, genus, species, varieties. The same classification, of course, 
applies to the larger groups in horticulture; but the horticultur- 
ist has gone farther than the botanist with his classification 
and has divided his plants into varieties. 

A variety is made up of a group of individuals which differ 
from. the rest of its species in certain recognizable particulars 
which are transmitted from generation to generation without 
material modification. The horticulturist makes into groups 
more or less definite the varieties having certain important 
traits in common, as, for instance, when he groups certain va- 
rieties of vegetables or fruits together. New varieties of fruits 
are being continually offered by the trade, and, although not 
one in ten of those sent out is as good as those commonly 
grown, yet from time to time marked improvement is made. 


QUESTIONS—CHAPTER II. 


What is the root system of plants made up of? 
Of what value are these parts to the plant? 

. What is meant by “collar or crown?” 

Why does this portion of the tree need protection? 
When are plants annuals? biennials? perennials? 


pigs 


30 


32. 
the yea 
33. 
34, 
35. 


36. 
37. 


POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


What are runners? suckers? thorns? prickles? 
Of what use is the bark? 
What is it made up of? 


- How do these parts vary in different plants? 


What are the buds? 
What are adventitious buds? 


- What are the characteristics of the leaf? flower? bud? 
- How are fruit buds formed? 


What is meant by girdling? 
How is it accomplished? 
What are leaves made up of? 


. How are they constructed? 
- What functions do the leaves perform for the plant? 


What functions do the flowers perform for the plant? 
What are the different parts of the flower? 


. How is each constructed and for what purpose? 


What is a fruit as defined by botanists? by horticultur- 


- How is it constructed? 

. What is pollen? 

. What are .its characteristics? 
. How are plants crossed? 


What is meant by the term “hybrid?” 
How are flowers pollinated? 


- To what extent do fruit plants come true from seed? 
- What is the cause of this? 
. What local varieties come true from seed? 


What course of growth does the plant take throughout 
r? 

What is meant by the process of assimilation? 

How is it carried on in plants? 

What is the result of removing foliage from a plant? 
What is meant by transpiration? 

What approximate amounts are transpired from the 
of deciduous trees? 


8. What minerals are taken up from the ground by plants? 
. How is it returned to the soil? 


What is the need of a rest period for plants? 


-. How should they be cared for during this period? 
. How may commercial fruits be grouped? 

. What is the most convenient way of classing fruits? 
. What is a variety? 


CHAPTER, ITI. 


THE PLANTING AND CARE OF THE ORCHARD. 


Selection of Varieties—When a decision has been reached 
as to the kinds of fruits which are to be grown and a location has 
been selected, it is necessary to choose the particular varieties 
which are best suited to the purpose in mind. Those which are 
zrown for home use or for a special nearby market may be quite 

‘different from those grown for shipment to a distant market. 
It often happens that varieties of the very best quality do not 
carry well or are not of attractive appearance; these should be 
grown for home use or for the special market where quality is 
the first consideration, while for the distant market the only 
varieties which should be grown are those which ship well and 
are attractive. Quality is rather a secondary matter in a mar- 
ket fruit, though discriminating buyers are often willing to pay 
a premium for varieties of particularly good quality. 

Varieties of fruits to grow.—The varieties of fruits best 
adapted to a given location cannot be named without special and 
careful study. Some varieties are very profitable in one local- 
ity but close by, in another locality, they may be a failure. The 
matter of selection of varieties for profitable culture is one of 
the most important subjects the fruit grower has to consider. 
There are many new varieties of fruit introduced each year and 
only a few of them are any better than old standard sorts, while 
the greater part have very serious faults. 

Among the varieties of fruit in cultivation, we may distin- 
guish two general classes: 


(a) Varieties of great vigor and productiveness, adapted for 
a wide range of country. These are oftentimes somewhat infe- 
rior to the best in quality but are of good appearance and zood 
enough in quality for the average market. Among such vari- 
eties may be named the Duchess of Oldenburg, Talman Sweet 
and Ben Davis apples; Bartlett and Anjou pears; Lombard and 
Quackenboss plums; Crawford and Elberta peaches; Concord 


32 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


and Niagara grapes; King and Marlboro raspberries; Snyder 
blackberry, and Dunlap, Splendid and Bederwood strawberries. 
These varieties do well over a large extent of country. Some 
of them may not bring the highest prices in our markets but 
they sell: well and are the popular standards. 

(b) Varieties that are very particular about location and 
are not generally successful, but, where they do well, produce 
fruit of very superior quality. Among this class of fruits may 
be mentioned the Yellow Newtown, Gravenstein and Williams 
apples; Green Gage plum; Bosc pear; Columbia peach; Iona 
grape; Herstine raspberry; Lawton blackberry and Jucunda 
strawberry. : 

In selecting varieties for growing the fruit grower should 
choose those that are adapted to his market for it is there they 
are to be finally tested. The fruit grower’s success is depend- 
ent on how the market regards his product, and he should not 
expect to change the prevailing desires of people very much. 
There is, however, much in the power of a good example and 
there is a growing number of people who are particular as to 
the quality of their food and are willing to pay a fair price for 
it. The fruit grower should nct try to sell white strawberries, 
raspberries or currants, for the general markets demand that 
they be red in color and blackberries must be black and not red 
or white. It is not worth while to attempt to change prevailing 
opinions in such matters for the sake of pushing some new vari- 
ety, no matter how good its quality. By this it is not meant that 
the market will not use the unusual kinds but it does not desire 
them. In general, the market wants large size, bright, warm 
colors and at least fair quality in fruits. 

The fruit grower should not select varieties because they are 
doing well elsewhere but should become familiar with the expe- 
rience of fruit growers in his section and get in touch with the 
officers of the experiment station of his state and advise with 
them in these matters. The reports of his local horticultural 
society should be very helpful and they must be poor indeed if 
he cannot get some benefit from them. 

Choose varieties that will pollenize well together.—It should 
be more generally known that there are some varieties of fruits 


PLANTING AND CARE OF THE ORCHARD. 33 


that are self-sterile and will not be productive unless near other 
similar kinds. The following partial lists show varieties that 
are both self-sterile and self-fertile but it is quite possible that 
some of these may be self-sterile at one time and self-fertile at 
another time or in another locality. 


Fruit Self-sterile Self-fertile 
Plums Miner Robinson 
Wild Goose De Soto 
Mariana Forest Garden 
Itasca Cheney 
Grapes Brighton Concord 
Wilder Niagara 
Agawam 
Delaware 
Apples Winesap Ben Davis 
Gravenstein Duchess 
Northern Spy Baldwin 
Red Astrakan 
Pears Bartlett Flemish Beauty 
Anjou Clairgeau 
Nelis Kieffer 


An experiment with the Kieffer pear at the Michigan Agri- 
cultural College during the summer of 1907 seems to indicate 
that the Kieffer ought sometimes to go on the self-sterile list. 
A Kieffer tree was enclosed in a canopy of muslin with one 
branch left outside the canopy. The air within the canopy was 
made to circulate daily by artificial means during the blossom- 
ing period so as to insure pollination of at least some of the 
flowers. Not a fruit set under the canopy, while the branch 
that. was left outside and was free to receive foreign pollen set 
fruit freely. 


Preparing the land. 
(a) The land on which the fruit plantation is to stand 
should be in as good condition as possible before the fruit plants 


34 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


are set out. Do not leave this work to be done after the plants 
are set for it costs more to do it then and the plants will very 
likely be injured in the process. 

(b) New land should be thoroughly cleared of stumps and’ 
roots before the orchard is planted, and better results will be 
obtained if the land is cultivated for a year or two before the 
trees are set. 

(c) Old land should be in good physical condition and 
should contain a good supply of humus. While heavy fertiliza- 
tion is not necessary, the soil should be rich enough to enable 
the trees to make a good growth, but must not be too rich in 
nitrogen. ; 

(d) Fall plowing is almost always desirable, whether the 
trees are to be set in the fall or the spring. If the planting is 
to be done in the fall, the plowing should be completed severa! 
weeks previous, to give the soil time to settle. Deep plowing is 
usually best, as it is desirable to have the soil mellow and easily 
penetrated by roots to a considerable depth. If the subsoil is a 
hardpan clay it is often desirable to explode dynamite in the 
holes to locsen the lower layers. 

Time to Piant, 

(a) In severe locations and with the more tender kinds of 
fruits early spring is undoubtedly the best time for planting. 
It is also the best time for the beginner, as there is less liability 
of failure in spring planting. 

(b) For the hardy fruits, such as apples, plums and pears, 
in sections where there is little danger of winter injury, autumn 
is possibly the best season for planting. 

(c) It is often desirable to plant in autumn even though 
extra care is required in order to save the crowding of work in 
the spring. In severe locations autumn planting may often be 
practiced successfully, providing the stems of plants are laid 
flat on the ground after planting and covered with a few inches 
of earth, and afterwards mulched on the approach of winter. 
In doing such work the location of the top of the tree should 
be marked with a stake so that it may be found easily in the 
spring when it is to be uncovered. Autumn planting is often 
a convenient practice and may save the necessity of doing such 
work in the spring when fruit growers are generally crowded. 


PLANTING AND CARE OF THE ORCHARD. 35 


Where to Buy.—As nursery stock cannot be fully judged by 
its appearance as easily as many other lines of merchandise, 
buyers are very dependent upon the representations made to 
them by the parties from whom they purchase. As a rule, it is 
desirable to buy of the nearest reliable man who will furnish 
what is wanted at a fair price. Purchasers will often find it 
advantageous to deal directly with the principal instead of 
through his agent. Expect to pay a fair price and be suspicious 
of bargain counter nursery stock, for the buyer in any case is 
greatly dependent upon the honesty of the seller for the genuine- 
ness of his stock. You cannot always tell what it is by its 
appearance. It may not even be true to name. 


Selecting the Tree Nursery Stock. 

(a) It is important to secure vigorous, thrifty nursery stock 
that is free from scale insects, root lice or other injurious insects 
or diseases. 


(b) Select trees that have their bark green and smooth 
and that have made a thrifty growth the year before. 

(c) In the case of grafted fruits the fruit grower should 
insist upon having his stock worked on roots adapted to his 
location. This feature does not need so much attention in the 
best fruit sections, but in cold, northern climates, in the extreme 
South and in some other locations it is a matter of first impor- 
tance. This matter is discussed under the propagation of each 
fruit. 

(d) In order to make early autumn delivery it is customary 
in some nurseries to strip the leaves from the trees. This is not 
the best practice and such trees should not be selected. 


Age of Nursery Stock to Buy. 

As a rule young, thrifty nursery stock is to be preferred. 
The tendency among beginners is to use stock which is too old. 
Old plants are much more injured by moving than those that are 
young and often give poorer results. 


Shapes of Trees. 
(a) The general public wants a tree that is of good form 
and the nurserymen prefer to grow that kind. 


36 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


(b) Some of our best varieties are so crooked that they 
do not look well and hence have not been pushed by our nursery- 
men. 


ss 


if f 
medica, (, Sp ie ae ee \ ; 1, EC a 4 - Gopi 
ee se Me VT RENN. | a “ate Maik CEE) 


Fig. 7.— Young apple trees of different forms. 


(c) The difference in the habits of trees can be easily seen 
in any orchard of many varieties. The upright form of the Tetof- 
sky apple is in marked contrast with the spreading form of the 
Roxbury Russet. The spreading form of the Wild Goose plum 
is very different from that of the Lombard. A person who is 
very familiar with the appearance of certain varieties of pears 
or apples can easily separate them from other kinds by the 
appearance of the tree even when devoid of foliage. From this 
the impression should not be taken that all fruit trees may be 
distinguished from each other by their forms, color of bark and 
other characteristics, for while a person of much experience in 
this line may thus distinguish many kinds, it is quite out of the 
question to separate the members of all our long lists of fruits in 
this way. 


PLANTING AND CARE OF THE ORCHARD. 37 


Planting the Orchard. 

There are a number of systems of setting trees. The ones 
most generally used are the square, quincunx and hexagonal 
systems. The lay of the land and the size of the orchard will 
influence to some extent the choice of a system. Trees are more 
often set too close than too far apart. This, in fact, is the danger 
in using fillers. (The use of fillers is discussed on page 46.) 
One does not like to remove a tree, once it is grown, even 
though it is injuring other trees. 

lt is always important that the rows run straight both ways 
since the orchard looks better and is cared for more easily. The 
first thing to do is to establish a base line and work from this. 
It is usually safer to have a surveyor establish this line than to 
trust to a road or fence unless the road is known to be on the 
proper line. Having the base given, it is an easy matter to 
establish the two perpendiculars to this and the fourth side par- 
allel to the base. This gives the outside trees of the orchard. 
Then, by using the outside trees as sight stakes the other rows 
may be made straight both ways. If the land is laid off with a 
marker one way and a plow the other, the trees are quite easily 
put where they belong by sighting to the trees set at the ends of 
the rows. 


Square System.—Of the systems named above the square 
system is the most often used. It does not permit of so many 
trees per acre. but is easily laid out, permits of easy cultivation 
and allows systematic thinning of trees later in its life when 
the trees crowd. 


P P Pe P F Pe Ir P 


P P P P P P F 1B 
F F F I F 
P 12 P 122 F P EF 1B 


Square System Square System with Fillers 


38 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Quincunx System.—This system permits of planting many 
more trees per acre than the square system, It also permits the 
use of fillers and provides for a well laid out orchard when the 
fillers are cut out. 


ey 1 P 1B F P F 1 
1 P F P FE P r 

Pp It li Rr F ie F iP. 
Pp 2) F P F if Y 

12 1g) P i F 1 F Ie 
Quincunx System Quincunx System with Fillers 


Hexagonal System.—About 15 per cent more trees are used 
in planting by the hexagonal than by the square system. It has 
the advantage of distributing the trees more evenly over the 
ground than the other systems. Its disadvantage is that cultiva- 
tion is much more difficult. It does not permit of any satisfac- 
tory method of thinning out the trees without leaving too large 
gaps. 


ie IP P iP F 12 F P ty 
F a F F Fr j 
le P 12 I 12 i LE F Pe 
F EF Fr Fr r 
iP 12) Je ie F 8) F iP F 
Hexagonal System Hexagonal System with Fillers 


Digging the Holes. 

(a) In digging the holes make them large enough to receive 
the roots without crowding and deep enough as a rule to bring 
the union of the stock and cion well below the surface. Trees 
should generally be planted a little deeper, say from four to 


PLANTING AND CARE OF THE ORCHARD. 39 


eight inches, than they grew in the nursery. In severe locations 
and on gravelly soils they are frequently planted a foot deeper 
to protect from frost injury. 

(b) In the case of fruit trees of best planting out size, if the 
land has been properly plowed and furrowed out only a little 
digging will be required. 

(c) In digging holes in shallow soil put the surface and 
subsoils separate and then use the surface soil to cover the roots 
and put the subsoil on top. 

(d) Firm the soil around the roots of the trees until it is 
solid. For this purpose it is a good plan to use a packer of 
wood such as is used to firm the soil around posts. This is espe- 
cially important on dry soils. 


Pruning the Trees. 


(a) Trees may be left until after they are set out berore 
pruning but sometimes it may effect quite a saving in freight 
to prune the trees before they are shipped from the nursery. 

(b) Severe pruning is often needed for young trees as 
much depends upon the forming of the tree when young, The 
subject of pruning is more fully discussed in Chapter IV. 

(c) Perhaps no question is more important than that of 
deciding at what height the trees should branch out. This will 
depend much on location. Trees with long trunks certainly tend 
to make cultivation methods easy and in very favorable sections 
they may be safely thus trained. In the Middle states and the 
Pacific coast states, best results have come from allowing the 
branches of trees to start within two feet of or close to the 
ground and thus the trunk is protected against sunscald and 
other climatic troubles. Fruit may be harvested more easily and 
cheaply from trees with low, open heads. 


(d) It is generally advisable to shorten the roots of ordinary 
two-year-old apple and pear trees and vigorous one-year-old 
plum and peach trees to about eight inches, where there are sev- 
eral roots, as such treatment facilitates planting and does not 
injure the trees. Larger trees should have their roots shortened 
in the same proportion and the ragged ends of roots should 
always be cut off before planting. Such pruning as this may 
easily be done with a sharp hatchet on a block. 


40 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Cultivation of Fruit Plantations. 


In a state of nature, as in our primeval forests and groves, 
where trees do well, they generally have the surface soil about 
their roots covered with a loose accumulation of vegetable mould 
that is shaded from the sun and wind. The deeper soil is filled 
with roots more or less decayed and tending to keep the sub- 
soil porous. This covering protects the soil from baking, drying 
out and becoming too compact and gives the conditions aimed at 
in the cultivation of the land. For this kind of treatment, there 
must be a great accumulation of vegetable mould, which is in- 
compatible with the light and air needed for the production of 
cultivated fruit and with the opportunity to get at the trees 
from all sides for gathering the fruit and for giving the pro- 
tection that the trees need from noxious insects and diseases. 
The nearest approach to nature’s method of cultivation is ac- 
complished by mulching the orchard, which is sometimes done 
to advantage. 


The reasons for proper cultivation are: (a) To give our 
favorite plants all the light, air and soil that they can use to 
advantage by destroying all competitors in the shape of weeds 
which would ordinarily make their struggle for existence more 
severe. (b) To protect from drought by keeping the top soil 
loose. In this way evaporation is prevented and the moisture 
saved in the soil for the use of the roots. Soil that is compact 
will transmit water upward to the surface by capillary attraction 
where it can evaporate, but when the surface soil is loose evapo- 
ration is prevented and the water thus transmitted from the 
subsoil is retained near the surface. This is one of the chief 
reasons for the cultivation of the soil. The extent of this pro- 
tection is shown in the following table taken from “Soils and Fer- 
tilizers” by Professor Harry Snyder and giving the result of 
some examinations made in dry weather: 


Per cent of Water in Field. 


With Shallow Surface Without 
Cultivation. Cultivation. 
Sollvdepihto tossonnChes err eae rien 14.21 8.02 


Soilideptheo: toaibeinches. 5 oc 5eee eee ITPA 12.38 


PLANTING AND CARE OF THE ORCHARD. 41 


(c) The cultivation of the soil also sets plant food free. It opens 
the soil up so that the air can get in and assist in the devel- 
opment of the plant food locked up in an insoluble form. This 
is an important function of tillage. The soil should be regarded 
as a great laboratory in which many complex organic and inor- 
ganic changes are continualiy taking place. 

Humus is the decayed organic matter found in soils. It 
much resembles common charcoal in its physical properties, has 
great affinity for water and holds fertilizing agents in the soil. 
Humus makes the soil porous so that the air can readily pene- 
trate it and also assists in chemical changes. Since it keeps 
the soil porous it prevents it from baking hard, thus protecting 
it from drought. It is largely on account of these qualities of 
humus that stable manure, a large per cent of which is humus, 
is often so much more effective than commercial fertilizers. The 
plowing in of green crops adds humus to the soil. The contin- 
ued cultivation of the soil sometimes affects it injuriously by 
oxidizing all the humus and leaving it in such a condition that 
it washes badly and will not hold moisture. A good illustration 
of this change is shown in the fact that newly cleared land will 
seldom wash badly until the decayed organic matter in the soil 
has become so thoroughly oxidized that the humus no longer holds 
the soil together. After this organic matter has disappeared clay 
soils lose their loose, porous texture and become hard, com- 
pact and liable to wash. 

The value of humus in the soil is well illustrated by experi- 
ments at the Minnesota Experiment Station. Corn, grown con- 
tinuously for six years on the same field, yielded an average of 
21.4 bushels per acre, while corn in a three-rotation, including 
wheat and clover, yielded 47.1 bushels per acre. As the plot 
producing corn continuously has sufficient plant food to mature 
a normal crop annually, the low yield can only be accounted for 
by the poor physical condition of the soil produced through the 
depletion of the humus by frequent cultivation. 

Growing fruit trees in sod is a practice not to be generally 
recommended, but where the soil conditions are especially favor- 
able it may sometimes be done to good advaiutage. In locations - 
where trees are especially liable to injury from drought it is a 


42 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


poor practice. In the retentive soils of Minnesota, Wisconsin, 
lowa and elsewhere, apples may be grown to great perfection 
by spading up the soil about the tree for a distance of three 
or four feet from the trunk each spring and later in the season 
mowing the grass and weeds and putting them around the trees. 
However, such locations are exceptional and the great truth re- 
mains that, in general, orchards which are kept in sod are sel- 
dom profitable. When orchards are in a stiff sod the rain water 
is prevented from soaking into the land because an old sod on 
steep hillsides sheds water readily. The grass roots also carry 
up large amounts of water from the soil, which is evaporated 
and lost. 

Mulching.—Growing trees and other plants by mulching may 
sometimes be successfully practiced. Some of the points to 
be considered in this connection are: 

a—There is a great difference in the protective values of 
different kinds of mulch. A covering of coarse weeds may af- 
ford little protection, while a mulch of hard-wood sawdust would 
give excellent results. 

b—Trees that are grown by mulching generally do best 
when the soil about them is worked in the spring before the 
mulch is applied. 

c—A mulch may often be used to advantage close to trees 
where the soil near them is not easily cultivated. In such cases it 
is a good plan to protect the tree trunks with galvanized iron 
wire netting from injuries by mice which are especially attracted 
by the mulch. 

d—Raspberries, blackberries, currants and gooseberries may 
be grown by a system of mulching without cultivation but it is 
seldom desirable to grow them in this way. 

e—While the cultivation of the soil is not as successful in 
the conservation of moisture as mulching, yet when the best 
cultivation is practiced it is far better than mulching as com- 
monly done. 

f—Mulching fruit plants the year around without spring work- 
ing of the soil tends to encourage a development of large surface 
‘ roots which may later be winter-killed. Large surface roots 
also interfere with cultivation when mulching is discontinued, 


PLANTING AND CARE OF THE ORCHARD. 43 


although the risk of permanent injury from this source is much 
less than is generally supposed. 

g—Mulching sometimes causes great danger by fire. 

h—The mulch about plants may harbor insects, such as cur- 
culio, etc., which might injure the trees. These are most easily 
kept in check by clean cultivation; but where fruit trees are 
mulched, pasturing hogs in the orchard will greatly help in check- 
ing the spread of such insects as remain in the fruit after it 
falls. 

Cover crops is a term used in connection with the growing 
of crops in orchards. In a general way, the best fruit growers 
are a unit in believing in the importance of clean cultivation for 
orchards. However, as we have already noted, this is often 
impractical on steep hillsides liable to wash badly. Clean cul- 
tivation also leads finally to a poor condition of the soil which 
can only be fully remedied by the addition of humus. This humus 
may be added by the application of coarse stable litter or other 
organic matter directly to the land. In this case the humus is 
confined almost entirely to the few upper inches and is not dis- 
tributed throughout the soil as it is by the growth of clover or 
similar crops. The decaying roots of a cover crop leave humus 
both in the sub-soil and in the surface soil, thus rendering the 
whole mass more porous. 

Still other advantages of cover crops are (a) they protect the 
soil to some extent from deep and sudden freezing and thawing; 
(b) they prevent the snow from blowing away in the winter; 
(c) such cover crops as clover and peas not only improve the 
physical conditions of soils on which they grow, but actually 
leave them richer in nitrogen. On this account plants of this 
class are especially desirable for orchards. (d) They are some- 
times helpful in checking the production of the wood in late sum- 
mer by using up some of the plant food and moisture in the soil. 
This checking of late growth in the fall ripens up the wood 
earlier, leaving the tree in better shape to stand the winter. 

How to combine the advantages of cover crops and cultiva- 
tion is often an important question for orchardists. In many 
fruit sections, this may be done by the cultivation of the soil 
during the summer and seeding down to some cover crop in the 


44 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


late summer or early autumn. This may be a crop that will kill 
out in winter or that will live over and be allowed to grow on the 
land until late in spring, when it is turned under. Occasionally 
it may be a good plan to seed an orchard down to clover for a 
year or two in order to increase the humus in the soil; as, for 
instance, in the case of soils on steep hillsides where the humus 
is nearly exhausted. For this purpose the land should preferably 
be plowed in late autumn and the clover seed sown in early 
spring without any nurse crop. 

Examples of practical use of cover crops.—Cover crops are 
of various kinds, among which may be mentioned the following: 

(a) Peach growers of Michigan and apple growers and 
nurserymen in Minnesota use oats in their orchards, sown from 
the first to the middle of August, to protect the roots from severe 
freezing. Such a cover holds the leaves in autumn and the 
snows in winter, thus preventing frequent freezing and thawing 
as well as deep freezing of the ground. 

(b) Crimson clover is an excellent cover crop for parts of 
New York State and south to Alabama. It should be sown in late 
summer or early autumn in New York but later in Alabama 
where it grows all winter. 

(c) Buckwheat is a good cover crop for steep slopes or 
other places where it may be desirable to use a cover crop in 
summer. It shades the ground and aids it in holding moisture 
thus preventing the soil from drying out. 

(d) Vetches and cowpeas may sometimes be used to ad- 
vantage for a cover crop and should be sown in early spring. 
The cowpea is the great cover crop of the Southern states. 

(e) The soy bean is a good cover crop. It 1s sown in mid- 
summer in rows. 

(f) ‘The velvet bean and beggar weed are great cover crops 
for the extreme Southern states. 

(g) Mammoth clover and alfalfa may be used as cover crops 
if plowed under the second or third year. They should be sown 
in orchards without a nurse crop in the early spring. Sometimes 
they are sown in the orchard, leaving a space of four feet for 
cultivation by the side of the rows of trees. 

Amount of seed of cover crops to sow per acre.—The follow- 
ing table shows the number of pounds of seed required per acre 


PLANTING AND CARE OF THE ORCHARD. 45 


to obtain a good stand of the cover crops generally used in this 


country: 
Nitrogen Collectors. Nitrogen Consumers. 

PAs evgmee ers ey eial ees, oer sie 40 lbs. VAMC) Arse isis ose els 9 Ibs. 
EVAIIVEVICECIY vscincts o< « 40 lbs. ATEN fans cue oocieve.<: 2 Ibs: 
COWDEAS cotcces% esces 90 Ibs. ER ViOm eta ote 8) cteigie ets 30 ~=s Ibs. 
SOV Beans 2 ...ceeaes 90 Ibs. BUSS oe A ee eae 2) bus 
Velvet Beans ......... 25 Ibs. ais Cvaaster cackecon ie eos 1% bu. 
Mammoth Clover ....20 lbs. Buckwheat ....... % bu. 
Crimson Clover ..... 20 Ibs. (CORI Goma Reenter Y% bu. 
Sweet Clover ........ 15 Ibs. 


Crops in the orchard.—The question of cropping the orchard 
is an important one. As a rule this should never be done, yet 
it may often happen that while the trees are young, before they 
need all the space between them, some other crop can be grown 
on the land to advantage, In such a case, the soil must be man- 
ured or it may run down so much that the fruit crop will not be 
profitable. The best test to apply to this is to see that the young 
trees make a reasonable growth of wood each year and, with this 
accomplished, there is no danger in cropping the orchard. 

A cover crop may permit a fair growth of wood but will so 
rob the soil of moisture late in the summer that the fruit will 
fail to fill out properly. 

The small grains are especially objectionable in the or- 
chard because they do not permit the cultivation of the soil nor 
shade it sufficiently to keep it from baking. These crops also 
take much plant food from the soil. 

Potatoes and corn require the cultivation of the soil in 
summer and consequently are among the best to grow in the 
orchard. In the orchard preference should be given to those 
crops that do not require the cultivation of the soil in late sum- 
mer or early autumn, since cultivation seems to encourage late 
growth of wood. If the orchard is to be cropped care should be 
taken that the fertility of the soil is not impaired thereby, and 
ordinarily it will be necessary to add manure to replace tha 
plant food removed. 


46 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Small fruits of various kinds may be used in orchards but 
must be removed when the trees get large enough to need all 
the land. It may often be a help to an apple orchard to have 
the tree trunks shaded by small fruits, such as raspberries and 
currants. 

Planting with fillers is the name given to the system of plant- 
ing whereby an extra number of trees are set out with the pur- 
pose of cutting them out as soon as they get large enough to 
crowd the trees that are to grow to maturity. Good examples 
of this practice are found in the planting of peaches or plums 
in the intervals between apples, or in planting twice as many 
peaches or plum trees on the land as can grow to maturity, 
the intention in each case being to cut out one-half of them as 
soon as the trees begin to crowd. This is not a bad practice 
when well carried out but in the hands of the average fruit 
grower the thinning process is seldom begun soon enough. 
This may result in serious injury and is always harmful. 


Fruit Crops and Plant Food. 


The most important factor in the growing of a fruit or 
other agricultural crop is the proper preparation of the soil. 
This should be attended to before anything is attempted in the 
way of fertilization of the land. Get the soil into the best physi- 
cal condition and then manure* may be used to best advantage. 
In the case of orchards in new forest land it is poor practice to 
plant until the stumps and trash are well subdued, except where 
mulching is to be practiced, since the soil can be cleaned most 
economically before the trees are planted out. 


All agricultural soils contain plant food in two forms: 

(a) Where the soil is rich in plant food which is easily 
available to the roots of plants and which they can absorb read- 
ily. This is the condition of the soils in new fruit growing sec- 
tions where the land has not yet been cropped extensively. Such 
soils may also contain a large amount of plant food which is not 
readily available. 

(b) Soils also contain plant food in a form which is not 
readily available to the roots of crops. This is the condition of 


*As here used, the term “manure” includes both animal manures 
and commercial fertilizers, 


PLANTING AND CARE OF THE ORCHARD. 47 


the largest amount of plant food in all soils and especially so 
in the case of soils that have been poorly tilled for long periods. 

Each year a portion of the insoluble plant food in the soil 
is.made soluble or put into such a condition that the roots of 
plants can use it. In the soils of the older sections the soluble 
plant food is largely used up and sometimes only the amount 
that is set free each year is available to the plants. It is this 
store of food that we should aim to supplement by the manures 
which we apply to the soil. 

There are some new soils so rich in plant food that nothing 
is gained by manuring them. In fact, fruit trees on such soils 
are occasionally damaged by the use of manures which encour- 
ages a late growth in autumn, but such cases are rare. Prac- 
tically all our fruit lands, especially those in the older fruit 
growing sections, are greatly improved by the addition of 
manures. This is especially true of bearing orchards. 

In manuring the orchard the object is to get the maximum 
crop. The average crop or one just below the average is sel- 
dom profitable, being generally inferior in quality as well as in 
quantity. It comes in competition with the crops of all the poor- 
est fruit growers and is sold only to people of small means. 

The application of manure is for the purpose of getting the 
most profitable crop. It matters not how much money we put 
into our land providing we can take it out with a good profit. 
In other words, expensive manuring may be most profitable. It 
is the best grower that gets the profitable crop. Manure will 
not take the place of good tillage, insect protection and other 
similar factors, but the well fed plant, like the well fed animal, 
will overcome adverse conditions under which the weak, under- 
fed individual will succumb. 

The elements that enter into the composition of fruit crops 
are the same as those that compose our farm crops, They dif- 
fer largely in the relative proportions in which they enter vari- 
ous crops, but as our information about the composition of the 
soils in which our plants grow is indefinite, and as we use 
manures to supplement the plant food in the soil, we need not 
be particular about the exact proportions in which we apply it. 
Each grower should study his own soil conditions and the ef- 
fects of different manures on it in order to get the best results. 


48 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


The chemical elements composing our fruit and agricultural 
crops are oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur, 
iron, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, chlorin and silicon. 
Nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous are the elements commonly 
lacking in the soil and it is these that we look for in the so- 
called commercial fertilizers and manures. These elements 
each act differently in affecting vegetation. To be used by the 
plants they must be soluble in the soil solutions. Soil that has 
an excess of soluble nitrogen in it encourages a vigorous, soft 
growth of wood and a dark green color in the leaves. Often 
such plants are unproductive, but when they bear fruit it is gen- 
erally large in size. On such land trees are liable to grow late 
in autumn and as a consequence winter-kill. For peaches, such 
soil is more injurious than for apples and other hardy crops. 
Nitrogen encourages a growth of wood rather than fruit. Large 
amounts of potash and phosphoric acid in the soil cause a firm, 
solid growth of wood, early maturity of plant, high color and 
extreme fruitfulness but do not increase the size of the fruit 
like nitrogen. Potash and phosphoric acid, with the proper pro- 
portions of nitrogen, give the best results, all of these elements 
being necessary for healthy plant growth. 

Amount of plant food in a crop of apples.—It is interest- 
ing to note the amount of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric 
acid taken from the land by a crop of seventy-five barrels of 
apples—that number being used as it represents a good aver- 
age crop of apples per acre, 

TABLE SHOWING THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF 75 
BARRELS OF APPLES. 
Water Dry Matter Nitrogen Phos. Acid Potash 
9563 Ibs. 1687 Ibs. 4.5 Ibs. 2.25 lbs. 11.25 Ibs. 
or 85% or 15% or .04 % or .02% or 1% 

To raise this crop of apples there are perhaps 50 trees, 
each one of which is fifteen years old and in its branches, trunk 
and roots, there are 400 pounds of wood of which 40% is water. 
It is probably fair to assume that the weight of the new growth 
of wood of a thrifty apple tree at fifteen years of age is twenty 
pounds per year, from which the amount of plant food used for 
the production of wood each year can be readily computed. It 
is also safe to assume that the amount of plant food yearly set 


PLANTING AND CARE OF THE ORCHARD. 49 


free in the soil is sufficient to take care of this growth of wood. 
The leaves are returned to the soil and hence the material in 
them does not have to be supplied to the soil. Therefore, if we 
supply enough plant food to put back that taken away from the 
land in the crop, we will keep our land in good condition, There 
is nothing exact about such statements, as they may vary as 
much as different soils do from one another. The following 
table shows approximately the amount of plant food materials 
removed in one year from the soil of an acre of land fully 
stocked with thrifty trees. This includes the amount contained 
in the new wood, foliage and fruit: 

PLANT FOOD REMOVED FROM THE SOIL BY ONE ACRE IN 


ORCHARD. * 
Nitrogen Phos. Acid Potash Lime Magnesium 
Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. 
Apple 51.5 14 55 57 23 
Peach 74.5 18 72 114 35 
Pear 29.5 {( 33 38 11 
Plum 29:5 8.5 38 41 13 


The following table shows the amount of nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid and potash found in a good crop of fruit grown cn 
one acre: 

PLANT FOOD OF MANURIAL VALUE REMOVED FROM THE 
LAND BY VARIOUS FRUIT CROPS. 


Fruit Pounds Nitrogen Phos. Acid Potash 
lbs. Ibs. Ibs. 
Apples 11,250 4.5 2.20 11.25 
Pears 10,000 4 1 12 
Plums 7,200 t 3.6 14.4 
Peaches 4,950 4 2 9 
Quinces 7,200 8 3.6 17.2 
Raspberries 4,800 5.6 4.3 12 
Blackberries 4,800 9.6 2.4 ial 
Strawberries 4,000 5.2 2 9.2 
Currants 4,000 12 4.8 12 
Gooseberries 4,000 6 2.8 8 
Grapes 6,000 9 4.2 18 


This manurial value may be applied to the land in many 
forms. Maynard gives the following formulas: 


50 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


(a) For fruit trees over ten years of age (forty trees), vary- 
ing in quantity according to the condition of the soil and crop, 
250 to 500 pounds of fine ground bone, 100 to 300 pounds of sui- 
fate of potash, 50 to 150 pounds of nitrate of soda. 

(b) Unleached hardwood ashes at the rate of one to two 
tons per acre and 500 pounds of fine ground bone. 

(c) 400 to 600 pounds of South Carolina rock, ground fine, 
100 to 800 pounds of sulfate of potash, 100 to 300 pounds of 
nitrate of soda. 

(d) Barnyard manure, 6 tons per acre. 

No manure needed in some cases.—In the case of some new 
and extra fertile fruit soils there may be no apparent diminu- 
tion of fertility of the soil for many years. Such soils may often 
be maintained in their best condition indefinitely without the 
addition of manures by the use of nitrogen-gathering cover 
crops, such as clover, vetches and peas. 

Time to apply manures to fruit lands.—In the case of fresh 
animal manure not yet decayed, there is little loss ordinarily in 
applying it broadcast as soon as removed from the stables or 
yards. As a rule this is the most economical way to handle 
it and is the general practice among good farmers, fruit growers 
and gardeners. However, partly decomposed manures contain 
so much soluble plant food that the loss might be very serious 
were the manure applied to the surface of frozen ground. Such 
manure is most economically applied in the spring and at once 
covered by a light plowing or harrowing. Such manure should 
generally be covered at once after applying and not allowed to 
dry out on the surface of the soil. 

It is generally best to apply commercial manures to fruit 
plantations in the early spring or early summer. This is 
especially true of such soluble, quick acting fertilizers as ni- 
trate of soda and muriate of potash. These may be applied broad- 
east to- the soil about the trees. The surface covered should 
generally be fully as large as the diameter of the top of the tree 
but in the case of upright trees a larger surface should be cov- 
ered. When the land is well stocked with mature trees the 
manure should always be applied to the whole surface of the 
soil, 


PLANTING AND CARE OF THE ORCHARD. 51 


Irrigation of Fruit Crops.—In some fruit sections special care 
must be taken to provide for the proper irrigation of all crops, 
while in others water need only be applied in very dry seasons. 
It is always advisable, if it can be arranged at a reasonable cost, 
to provide water for such crops as strawberries and blackberries, 
so that it may be used when needed. In some seasons a failure 
of the strawberry or raspberry crop may be averted by applying 
water at the right time. 


In arid regions where crop growth depends on irrigation a 
careful study must be made of the needs of the crop and the 
soil, and the time and manner of applying water. Outside of 
the irrigated districts thorough cultivation of a crop is better 
than irrigation, unless water is absolutely needed. Cultivation 
should always follow irrigation where possible. 


QUESTIONS—CHAPTER III. 


1. How are varieties of fruits adapted to different districts? 
Pa How may the varieties be classified in regard to their adapta- 
tion? 

3. What general principles should the fruit growers follow in 
selecting varieties for planting? 

: How and when should land be prepared before planting fruit 
trees? 

5. When is the best time for planting? 

6. How should the fruit grower select his nursery stock in ref- 
erence to the hardiness, age and shape of the trees? 

7. What methods may be followed in setting out the trees? 

8. How should the holes be dug for the trees? 

9. What pruning do the young trees need when set out? 

10. What treatment does the soil need in a fruit orchard? 

11. What are the reasons for cultivation of the soil? 

12. What is humus? Oh what value is it in the soil? 

13. How may fruit trees be grown in sod? 

14. What are the advantages of a mulch to a fruit crop? What 
are the disadv antages? 

15. What is a cover crop? What are the advantages of a cover 


16. How may the advantages of cover crops be combined with 
cultivation? 

7. What field crops are used as cover crops for the orchard? 

18. How much seed should be sown per acre in order to get a 
good cover crop? 

19. Is it practicable to raise garden crops in the orchard? What 
crops are best to grow? 

. How is the orchard planted with fillers? 

21. What is the best way to get new fruit growing land into the 
best physical condition? 

22. In what two forms is plant food found in the soil? 

23. What is the result of a soil too rich in plant food for fruit 
growing? 

24. What is the purpose of applying manures to the land? 

25. What are the elements that enter into the composition of 
the fruit crop? 


52 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


26. What effect does an excess of nitrogen in the soil have upon 
fruit crops? 

27. What effect does an excess of potash and phosphoric acid 
in the soil have upon the fruit crops? 

28. How is the plant food taken from the soil by the plants 
returned to it naturally? 

29. What are some of the formulas for combining and applying 
different fertilizers to the soil? 

30. When should manures be applied to fruit lands? 

31. What is the general practice of applying manures to the land? 

32. When should commercial fertilizers be applied and how? 

33. When is a supply of water for irrigation desirable? 


CHAPTER IV. 


PRUNING. 

Careful watching, pruning and care are necessary in the 
handling of a fruit plantation if the best results are to be 
obtained. The day is past when the successful orchardist can 
afford to set his trees and let nature take care of them. He must 
spray and prune. Under natural conditions nature prunes sur- 
plus branches and trees, but when those trees are grown in an 
orchard and plenty of room is given for growth and development 
certain shaping and training must be given to get symmetrical 
and useful trees. 

Reasons for Pruning.—Trees are pruned for a variety of 
reasons, among which are the following: 

(1) To remove dead and diseased wocd. Nearly all trees 
have dead and diseased limbs some time during the year, which 
must be removed in order to keep the tree healthy. 

(2) To allow sunlight and air to get into the branches and 
aid in keeping the tree healthy. If the branches grow too thick 
the fruit in the tree will not color up as it should. 

(3) To aid in the production of first class fruit. Too much 
wood will form on a tree, thus causing the tree to bear too heav- 
ily and consequently produce small, poorly-colored fruit. 

(4) To secure shape and size that will enable spraying, cul- 
tivating and picking to be easily and economically done. 

(5) To protect the tree from injurious winds and injuries 
resulting from climatic conditions, as sunscald, sleet storms, etc. 

(6) To rebuild and give more vigor to weak trees or weak 
limbs. It is often best to replace trees of this sort with new ones. 

(7) To remove bruised or injured branches or roots. 

(8) To restore the balance between roots and top in the 
case of setting out young trees. 

The effect of pruning and the necessity for pruning depend 
upon climatic conditions to some extent. In a humid district 


54 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


the tree should perhaps be more open than in a dryer district 


to permit more sunlight to enter the top of the tree. 

Too open a head in some districts might lead to sunscald of 
tree and fruits. In the irrigated districts much extra wood is 
cut out and still the fruits of the trees must not be exposed too 
much. In many districts it is well to prune very little other than 
to remove dead wood and interlocking branches. 


Pruning the Young Tree.—Pruning should commence with 
the setting of the young tree. When it is received from the 
nursery all bruised roots should be shortened with a sharp knife. 
The top should be cut back to correspond to the amount the 
root has been shortened. 

If the climatic conditions are moist and the soil rich, not as 
much wood will need to be removed as in a dry season when 
the soil and atmosphere are dry. Some growers even advocate 
very severe root and top pruning as is given by those who follow 
the Stringfellow method. This system is probably too severe 
for general planting. 

Start the Head Low.—If a tree is properly handled from the 
time it is planted little heavy pruning will be needed. Heavy 
pruning is always objectionable since the wounds do not heal 
over as readily as the small ones and are thus more apt to cause 
permanent injury to the trees. Any branches that interlock or 
that are giving the tree an unbalanced appearance should be 
taken out. It is generally conceded that a low-headed tree is 
the best type to grow because the spraying and picking of the 
fruit may be more easily and economically done and there is less 
danger from storms. The head should be started from 18 to 24 
inches from the ground. If properly handled this will permit 
of easy cultivation. Too many branches should not be allowed 
to make up the head or it will become crowded. Three or four 
are plenty and with careful attention will form a symmetrical 
head. 

When to Prune.—Small limbs may be taken off at any time 
of the year. Large limbs should be taken when the tree is dor- 
mant. The best time is in late winter just before growth starts. 
There is less danger of the wound drying out and cracking if 
done then than if done early in the fall. Pruning is usually 


PRUNING. 55 


done at any time during the winter when there is no frost in 
the wood. Pruning tools will break much easier when the wood 
is frosty. The winter is often the slack season in fruit districts 
and the work can be done cheaper then. Some pruning may be 
done at the end of the 
growing season in late 
summer, but this is apt 
to start a late fall growth 
which is objectionable in 
the colder districts. 

Cut Close and Clean.— 
First, make a study of 
the tree to be pruned and 
then follow some defin- 


Fig. 8.—Effect of pruning. a.—Scar ite plan to train that 
from a limb properly removed, after tree. The best orchard- 


ag a a aa left from care- i.+ obtainable should 
do the work. All cuts 
should be made with sharp tools and close to the shoulder. 
Stubs should never be left as they will not heal over and only 
cause decay in the tree. In making the cut, if it be a large limb, 
saw from the bottom up a short distance, then take the saw out 
and saw down so as to meet the under cut. This will prevent 
the limb splitting off and 
causing serious injury to 
the tree. Always make a 
clean sharp cut. It will 
heal much quicker than 
a rough, bruised or jag- 
ged one. 


Paint the Cut.—lIt is a 
good plan to apply a 
thick white lead paint to 
any wounds over an inch 
in diameter as this keeps 
ic weed from drying Fig. 9.—Result of cutting too far from 


out. Paint only the trunk. a.—Section showing stub. 


. — fro long stub penetrat- 
wounded part. Grafting oe aie | on roe. & Pp 


56 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


wax is an especially good material to use, but is too expensive 
for ordinary use where many limbs are to be painted. 
Tools.—Good tools kept in good condition are essential for 
good pruning work. 
The common ax and 
bucksaw do not come 
under this head. A 
good saw, light and 
heavy shears, tree 
pruner for heading in 
limbs, ladder and 
heavy knife are all 
the tools actually need- 


Fig. 10.—Methods of cutting. a.—Split ed in the work. The 
from removal of limb cut from above. 
b.—Proper method of removing limb. Common two-edged prun- 


ing saw is the one most 
often used. The swivel saw is much handier, however. The 
heavy long-handled shears often take the place of the saw, but 
unless the pruner is careful in handling them stubs will be left 
on the tree. 


Forming the Apple Tree. 
—Figure 13 shows the dif- 
ferent steps in formative 
pruning, starting, as is done 
in some parts of the coun- 
try, with the one-year-old 
tree. The numeral / repre- 
sents a tree set; Ja shows 
it cut back to 18 to 24 inch- 
es from the ground and the 
side branches cut off. This 
will force out a number of 
side buds into’ strong 
branches. If all of these 
are allowed to remain we 
have a tree similar to 2 the 
second year. These should 


be thinned to three or four, 


: ; Fig. 11.—Handy method of heating 
) 
as shown in 2a. There grafting wax to paint wounds. 


Fig. 12.—Various styles of pruning tools. 


58 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


should be at least three or four inches between each branch to 
prevent the development of crotches, which are especially 
objectionable in apple trees. The arrangement around the trunk 
is shown in figure 14; a, the first year’s growth; b, the second 
year’s growth. 


Fig. lala ie of tree before and after pruning. 1 and 1a, at plant- 
ing time; 2 and 2a, at beginning of second year; 3 and 3a, begin- 
ning of third year. 

In the second year these scaffold branches should be cut back 
to one-half or two-thirds their length (figs. 13-2a and 14-d). This 
will cause two or three strong laterals to develop from near the 
extremity of each stub. 

With the third season, the laterals which have developed 
from the previous season’s cutting back will again need to be 
headed in about one-half their growth. Shoots which are growing 
inward, and those tending to cross or rub, should be removed or 
corrected. The regulation of a shoot is governed by the position 
on the tree. Note the designated ones and the position of the 
buds in figure 14, and the suggestions brought out in figure 13, 
3 and 3a. 

How to Make the Cuts.—In all formative pruning the cuts 
are made slanting and just back of the bud which has been 
grown on the proper side of the branch to throw the resulting 
shoot in the desired direction. The uppermost bud left on the 


PRUNING. 59 


stub usually throws the strongest branch. In many instances an 
otherwise dormant bud can be found to throw a strong shoot to 
fill up an open space in the top by cutting 
a notch in the main branch just above the 
bud in question. ’ 
The method of cutting back to a bud is 
shown in figure 15; @ and b are cut too far 
above the bud and will leave an excess of 
dead wood to be pinched off or covered over 
by the growing callous; c is cut too close 
to the base of the bud, a proceeding that 
is liable to cause the bud to be killed by 
drying: d shows about the right position 
for making the cut. Fig. 13, 1 and /a, 
show a properly set one-year-old tree and 
cee! Meeaeee the same tree pruned to start the head 
Fig. 14.—a, Dia- about 18 inches high; in 2 this tree is 
hers Se ran as shown after a summer’s thrifty growth, 
beginning of sec- while 2a shows the same tree pruned to 
ne ee tha hes form the head; 3 suggests the growth that 
branches pruned might result the ensuing season and 3a 
before third £ e $ 
year’s growth embodies some suggestions for cutting back 
Brake. _ to form a desirable head. 

It should always be borne in mind that that pruning is best 
which is moderate. The severe cutting back of a tree once or 
twice in its life-time, as is so often the practice, can scarcely 
help but have serious results. Pruning should be done yearly 
from the time the tree is set until it is mature; it will then 
never be necessary to remove any great amount of wood at one 
time. 

Espalier or Cordon.—The espalier method of training and 
pruning is followed in Europe very largely with the apple, pear 
and peach. It can be used there to advantage since labor is 
cheap and land is high in price. In America skilled labor is too 
expensive to use on this work and with our abundance of land 
the method would be of no value except for ornamental purposes. 
Espalier training consists of forming the tree into various gro- 
tesque shapes, or in training it flat along the side of a building 


60 


POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


or fence, It is a common method of growing the pear in Eng- 
land on the south side of buildings. 


Fig. 15.—Methods 
of removing 
buds. a and b, 
stubs too long; 
c, cut too close 
to bud; d, prop- 
er method of 
cutting. 


12. How may 
certain buds? 
13. How may 


Renewing Old Trees.—This is a difficult 
matter and the best method is probably to cut 
out the trees entirely or else to cut back the 
tops in winter very severely and train the new 
growth the same as young trees are handled. 
If the varieties are not good, top-working with 
better varieties may often be done to advan- 
tage. 

Trimmings.—All trimmings from the or- 
chard should be burned at once to prevent the 
spread of insects or disease that may be on 
them. 


QUESTIONS—CHAPTER IV. 
1. What are the principal reasons for prun- 
orchard trees? 
2. When is an open headed tree objectionable? 
3. When is an open head desirable? 
4. When should the work of pruning com- 
mence? How severe should the early pruning be? 
5. Why is a low head desirable? How far 
from the ground should it be to the first branches? 
6. When should pruning be done? 
7. Describe the method of making cuts in re- 
moving small and large limbs. 
8. What is the danger if a long stub is left? 
9. Why should the larger wounds be painted? 
10. What tools are ordinarily used in pruning? 
11. What is a desirable form for the young 
tree? 
the growth of the tree be influenced by pruning to 


ing 


old trees be renewed? 


CHAPTER V. 
ORCHARD PROTECTION. 


Throughout the whole life of fruit plants there is danger 
of injury from a variety of causes. At no time can we say that 
our fruit plants are safe, and we must be continually on the 
lookout to head off some injury. Among the more common of 
these injuries may be mentioned the following: sunscald, win- 
ter killing of the twigs, roots and fruit buds; injuries from 
birds and live stock, from wind, rain and frost in the growing 
season, from ice on the branches in winter, from girdling by 
mice and rabbits, from label wires, injuries from cultivation and 
from insects and diseases. 

if Sunscald is the name given to 
the condition of the bark of trees 
which probably comes as a result 
of exposure to the sun under cer- 
tain peculiar conditions. Its ef- 
fect is usually to kill the bark on 
the south and southwest sides of 
the tree; later on, this bark peels 
off, leaving the wood exposed which 
soon decays and permanent injuries 
result. It is found that anything 
which shades the trunk will pre- 
vent this, hence one of the com- 
mon remedies is to shade the trunk 
with burlap, corn stalks or simi- 
sunscald. lar material, especially during the 
time when the branches are not protected by leaves. The en- 
couraging of branches on the south side of the tree to protect 
the trunk from the sun, and the inclining of the trees to the 
southwest, are also remedies. 

This injury is most liable to occur during severe droughts 
and in the early spring or late winter before growth has fairly 
started. It is supposed to be caused by the warm sun of the 


62 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


middle of the day starting active life in the portion of the trunk 
exposed to its direct rays. Later, when a cold spell comes, the 
protoplasm is destroyed and the soluble compounds formed by 
the renewal of active life are decomposed. The trees most liable 


Fig.17.—Apple trees in trial orchard protected from sunscald by 
corn stalks. 


to this injury are those that are newly set and weak, those 
with smooth bark such as Hard Maple and Basswood, those 
trees with the trunks inclining to the northeast and those on 
dry land. 


ORCHARD PROTECTION. 63 


The philosophy of this disease should come in for more than 
passing notice. It is well known that one branch or portion ofa 
dormant plant may start into growth independent of the con- 
dition of the rest of the plant. Thus a branch from a grape vine 


Fig.18.—Apple tree with trunk protected by boxing. Such treatment 
protects from sunscald, from severe freezing, and from cultiva- 
tion injuries. 

or other plant, brought through an opening into the greenhouse 

in winter, will soon start into growth while the rest of the vine 

is frozen out doors. So the portion of the trunk of an apple 


64 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


tree that is exposed to the direct rays of the midday sun may 
start into growth independently of the rest of the tree. 

Injuries from birds.—Birds are often 
very injurious by eating cherries, raspber- 
ries and some other fruits. At times they 
become so exceedingly injurious that it may 
be necessary to use the shot gun, but as 
a rule the birds that commit these depre- 
dations are very helpful in destroying large 
numbers of injurious insects and the toll 
they take in fruit is not more than they are 
justly entitled to. The Yellow-belly Sap- 
sucker is a bird that often girdles the larg- 
er branches of our choicest trees. He should 
be destroyed. Partridges and perhaps 
quail will sometimes eat the buds of our 
fruit trees in winter. They may be kept off 
by giving them a shock of grain to work on 
instead. 

Injuries to trees by cattle.—in remote 
sections deer will browse the twigs off fruit 
trees and break them down. Farm stock is 
also occasionally injurious in the same way. 
Fig.19.—Bark of aP- Reasonable precautions will prevent this. 

ple tree injured by i 2 s 
the sap-sucker Injuries from wind.—Wind often causes 
ra eene much injury to trees heavily loaded with 
fruit by shaking off the fruit or even break- 
ing the trees. The remedy is the use of windbreaks, the support- 
ing of branches by stakes or by tying one branch to another 
on the opposite side of the tree. Attention to these precau- 
tions will often prevent serious injury. Young trees in exposed 
places are often injured by being blown about. This is the case 
for the first year with trees that are newly set and especially 
those that are set out in autumn and not properly staked or 
laid down. Such trees are liable to be blown about very much in 
windy spring weather when the ground is soft, and the tree is 
then easily loosened and killed. Autumn-set trees should al- 
ways be staked if they are large enough to take the wind; a 


ORCHARD PROTECTION. 65 


pile of soil about a foot high around them will often be very 
helpful in holding them:-in place. In staking, the method of 
tying the tree so that it will not be scraped by the stake is 
very important. It would be better not to use stakes at all than 
not to tie the tree to them properly. It is generally best to tie 
trees to two stakes, using one on each opposite side. 

Mice and rabbits.—Mice and rabbits eat the bark off the 
trees and where this injury is not more than three or four inch- 
es wide and only extends around a portion of the tree, it will 
often heal over in one or two seasons. But it will be greatly 
hastened in healing by covering the wound with grafting wax or, 
better yet, piling up the soil over it if near the ground. When 
the injury extends completely around the tree and is wide, the 
tree may be saved by setting some cions in the live bark, above 
and below the wound, which will carry over the sap until the 
wound is covered. In such a case, however, the wound 
should be entirely covered with grafting wax or clay after the 
cions are put in. 

Cultivation injuries.—Cultivation is frequently done in such 
a rough way that it results in serious injuries. These can be 
largely prevented by the use of narrower singletrees and by 
protecting the ends with leather, or, better yet, using leather 
traces that go completely around the end of the singletree, so 
that when a tree is struck it is not injured. The best way of 
treating wounds of this kind is by covering them with grafting 
wax or grafting clay and then covering the whole with burlap. 

Root galls result from the presence of low forms of life 
known as Nematodes and possibly also from a bacterial disease. 
Their life history is not well known. They are often exceedingly 
injurious but some of them do little harm. Prevention is bet- 
ter than cure and it is a good plan to refuse to receive nursery 
stock having such blemishes. They are sometimes prevented 
by using stocks that are resistant to such injuries. 

Winter killing may be confined to the twigs and roots or 
flower buds of fruit trees. Any of these injuries may occur in 
deep valleys, when comparative immunity is secured on the 
higher land. 

Winter injury to twigs and trunks.—This is due to the use of 


66 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


varieties too tender for 
the locality and the 
most successful remedy 
is to secure hardier 
sorts if possible. But 
this is not always possi- 
ble and the varieties 
grown may be most 
profitable if the trunk 
is protected in winter. 
Thus, in northern Min- 
nesota the best authori- 
ties recommend that 
the trunks of young ap- 
_ ple trees be surrounded 
with a box six inches 
square up to the branch- 


Fig.20.—Twigs of young cherry trees that 
have been pulled out by settling of snow eS and that the same 
crust which had piled in over them. be filled with soil 


to furnish protection against winter injury. It is well known 
that even though the smaller branches may be seriously injur- 
ed in the winter, they stand a good chance of recovering, pro- 
viding the trunk is vigorous and uninjured. Such protection 
also prevents scald, injuries from mice and other animals. 
In Florida some of the orange growers protect their tree trunks 
by piling up the soil about them as far as the branches. 
Winter injury to the buds of fruit trees.—This is a common 
source of loss to growers of cherries and peaches at the North. 
The fruit buds of these trees are liable to start a little in warm 
winter days and then to be killed by a low temperature, al- 
though the leaf buds may not be injured at all. Various reme- 
dies have been tried for this, among the most successful of 
which is the bending of the trees to the ground in autumn and 
covering with corn stalks. The tops are sometimes tied to- 
gether and covered with corn stalks or matting in winter. Ex- 
periments have also been made in covering the trees with va- 
rious paint compounds for the purpose of giving an extra cover- 
ing to the buds, but without good results. One of the most 


ORCHARD PROTECTION. 67 


ingenious ways of furnishing protection to peach buds has 
been tried by Prof. Whitten of the Missouri Experiment Station 
who worked on the well known principle that dark colors absorb 


i a 


- fn 


Fig.21.—Protection of young trees . a.—Trunk protected by wooden 
box. b.—Trunk protected by lath screen. c.—Trunk protected 
against mice by mound of earth. 


more heat than the lighter ones. He found that light colored 
peach twigs were slower about starting into growth and con- 
ceived the idea of spraying peach trees with lime wash to pre- 
vent their starting on mild days in winter. He claims to have 
been very successful in this practice. 

The roots of fruit trees may be seriously injured in winter.— 
This may result from the use of a root stock too tender for 
the section in which the tree is grown. For instance, in Iowa, 
North Dakota, South Dakota and Minnesota the best root to use 
for the plum is the Prunus americana, but when they arescarce 
the nurserymen there often use the Mariana, Myrobalan or even 


68 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


the peach for stocks. The plum takes well on these and they 
are commonly used in milder sections, but with such roots, trees 
are often injured or killed out entirely in severe winters in those 
sections. The same is true of some other trees. It is important 
to have them on hardy roots in order to prevent root killing. 


Fig. 22.—Tree gnawed by mice and the wounds bridged over with 
cions. 


Heavy mulching about the roots of trees that are on tender 
roots will often make them safe against winter injury. Deep 
planting of trees on tender roots bring the roots deep in the 
ground where they are not injured and the cion above will 
generally send out hardy roots. As stated above, it is not un- 
common to have the tender stocks on which trees are worked 
killed out, and if the cion has rooted the effect is seen in a 
weakened growth until a new root system has formed. If there 
are no roots from the cion the tree dies. 

Protection from frost.—Freezing affects different plants in 
various ways. We can therefore divide plants into two classes: 

(a) Frost tender plants, such as the asparagus, ash, oak, 
spruce and various other plants whose young foliage is easily 
injured by severe frosts. 

(b) Frost hardy plants, such as the apple, peach, willow, 
poplar and birch whose foliage is not destroyed by even a 5e- 
vere frost. 

The flowers of many plants will stand a severe freeze with- 
out injury providing they are not open when it occurs. This is 


ORCHARD PROTECTION. 69 


the case with the apple, pear, strawberry and most cultivated 
northern fruits. 

We also have fruit plants like that of the Buffalo Berry 
and Juneberry whose flowers are seldom injured by severe frosts, 
even if fully expanded at the time it occurs. 

The pistils are the parts of flowers most easily Injured.— 
Thus, in the strawberry, after a severe frost in flowering time, 
we will often find the pistils ruined but the stamens apparently 
uninjured. 

When injurious frosts are most likely to occur.—Injurious 
frosts are most likely to occur in places where the air is still, 
especially in low spots where the air is not only still but where 
the cold air from the surrounding elevations drains in. If the 
air moves rapidly, the warm air is mixed with the cold air and 
does not separate. Such frosty places are evident at the time 
of the first severe autumn frosts, especially if this comes early. 
It will then be seen that the frosty air fills certain hollows, as 
water might fill it. In such places, often called warm sheltered 
nooks, winter killing is frequently serious. A windbreak may 
also make a frost pocket on the side hill by interfering with 
the free circulation of the air. 

The locations where injurious frosts are least likely to oc- 
cur and hence afford the best location for fruit growing are high 
elevations tipping to the north or east where growth is rather 
backward in spring. Other locations. that are comparatively 
exempt from injurious frosts are such as are near lakes or 
streams which tend to produce an equable climate. 

Foretelling of frosts.—Frosts may be foretold some hours 
in advance by means of the wet and dry-bulb thermometers, 
the readings of which are compared. The difference between 
the readings is due to the evaporation from the wet bulb ther- 
mometer which produces a degree of cold in a direct ratio ac- 
cording to the dryness of the air. If the air is very dry, the 
wet bulb thermometer may record ten or fifteen degrees lower 
than the dry bulb. If the air is saturated with moisture they 
will read exactly alike. The basis for the calculation is the 
fact that we seldom have injurious early autumn or late spring 
frosts after the dew begins to fall. By referring the difference 


70 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


between the readings of the two thermometers to a table, the 
dew point may be determined and if it is several degrees above 
the freezing point, no injurious frost need be expected. 

The psychrometer is an instrument made up 
of a wet and dry-bulb thermometer attached to 
a board or frame for determining the humidity 
of the air. One adapted for this purpose may be 
purchased ata reasonable price from instrument 
dealers or it may be made as follows: For the 
frame, take a board eighteen inches long, two 
inches wide and one-half inch thick with a hole 
bored in one end to hang the apparatus up with 
when not in use. Get two all-glass thermometers 
with cylinder bulbs and the degrees Fahrenheit 
engraved on the stem. Cover the bulb of one 
thermometer with a thin piece of cotton cloth, 
fastening it securely by a thread. When the 
cloth covering is wet with water and exposed to 
evaporation in the air it constitutes the wet 
bulb thermometer; the other thermometer has 
no coverihg on its bulb, is not wet at any time 
and constitutes the dry bulb thermometer. 

The following extract from Bulletin No. 23 
Fig. 23.—Pscyro- 

meter for fore- Of the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of 

telling frosts. A>sriculture, entitled “Frost,” explains the meth- 
od of using a psychrometer to foretell frost. 

To make an observation.—The bulb of the so-called wet bulb 
thermometer is thoroughly saturated with water by soaking it 
in a small cup or wide mouthed bottle until the covering is 
thoroughly wet. The thermometers are then whirled rapidly 
for fifteen or twenty seconds, stopped and quickly read. A 
mental note of the reading is made when they are again whirled 
and read. Subtract the reading of the wet thermometer from 
that of the dry. Find this difference in the column at the 
side of the following dew point table. Follow the horizontal 
line under this figure until it intersects the column under the 
reading of the dry bulb thermometer at the top of the column 
to the right. The number at the intersection is the dew point 


ORCHARD PROTECTION. 71 


reading. If this comes above thirty-two degrees there is no 
danger of a frost, but if below there is danger, although frost 
may not occur owing to wind, clouds or other phenomena. 


DEW-POINT TABLE. 
Difference of 


reading of dry Temperature of Air in Degrees (Fahrenheit). 
and wet bulbs. 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 
eter aleaiieters: cis erais)eisiavecee)s ee tile aGe eae a2 oe) 4ou.4s os" OS's G00) 69 
2 Sp RS es doe cap pOonic 6G” 12) 18> 24.30 85 41 ~46 -52" 5%) 62: 67 
Re MPT apeNet ol crois aretctle co saka, susere: wy's 1431 27 133) 39 “44- 507 55, 60 66 
BM ta nisi cease) S a's "e's aie 10? 17 24) 30) SG 642) 48. 53) 59" 64 
RN cercy ere ce nile caw love sce eve AP 20) 27. 3385 40) 946 ble 57 2 62 
Ris etotaboteyeapesy cate. snciaicys:'sieieie'e a 7 16 24-30) 37-48 49) bbe 61 
We wader orate rctayers Geach. ee tea. ong ere tle SOMO a4 At Ay bs) 09 
ie RM fava lic akere Se: sieve /ais sso Bul Ge 248i. SOM 45: bi 257) 
ain eleva eieterevaiaus eieravevs THN) 2S 865 ess) 649 bb 
ne Sate ar cieloc ea oes ee « 4) 16) 25. 1650.. 40) WAT obo 
POMRe TE. aaycPere hats, et b\w etals Sis 38% {1 S21, 30) “SS). 45.251 
HN eau Mcineaiarete: s.cheral<Vevelal os %els.0 ei e:e 4 Al 27°35" 42)- 49 
te envi dace wtareieloiche'e%e"e0 0.6 11 (23.32. 40) 47 
RETR ens fae) al a piavelsicre, © 5 18 28 37 45 
PVE Pi cicWohe. Secs isustace seis! sone: fe bra 12 24 34 42 
First Example. 

Gv UlbeEnermOMeLer cioaf.. ...ccels ows aes oleic are weetes 60 degrees 
Wet DUL Me CHERTMOMETCT cbs. < 6 60 selec ele ears we sis cwlee's 47 degrees 
MEET CO MEP etescrotare\ cies Riis clare vie or eiere tvaiexetersiaa’wiele 13 degrees 
Mewar POUNtsTON) CADIS celles so cnc ee see case wines 32. degrees 


Probably no frost. 
Second Example. 


DISVas ILI EMOTIMOMCLED. ojc:< er<'-'. oichercln «> vere gee she oe wie 47 degrees 
Veta ENE IMOM GCI. \s,.2 <2 s sete sPernic e's e\stalwis« oletaale 39 degrees 
TOTES OEE Ay Bec OES NOI OER a RIG ORR CRO 8 degrees 


Dew point from table, between 24° and 31° or 27 degrees 
Probably a severe frost. 

Protection from injurious spring and autumn frosts may be 
given in various ways according to circumstances: 

(a) By covering up the whole plant and thus retarding its 
period of bloom until danger of frost is past, as may be done 
with strawberries and other small fruit. For this purpose they 
may be covered with earth or mulch. Peach trees are some- 
times covered with corn stalks or hay to retard flowering. They 


72 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


may also be laid on the ground and successfully carried through 
the winter when covered with corn stalks. 

(b) By smudges which make a cloud of smoke over the 
land and thus prevent evaporation. This is effective when 
there is sufficient wind to spread the smoke. The material used 
for this purpose is wet straw, tar, resin, etc., or a combination 
of such material. It may be carried about the orchard on a stone 
boat or the smudges may be located in various places. 

(c) By heating the air directly by means of fires, as is 
done in parts of Florida where wood is piled ready to be set 
on fire whenever frost threatens. 

(d) By cultivating the land; moist soil is exposed, which 
furnishes considerabie protection by the evaporation of the mois- 
ture from the freshly exposed soil. 

(e) By spraying the plants; the air is brought near to dew 
point and also warmed. In order to make this effective the 
spraying must be repeated during the night when frost is ex- 
pected. 

(f) By irrigating the land; the air is brought near to dew 
point and it is also warmed. This is frequently resorted to 
in the case of cranberries. 

(g) By covering with tents, as practiced in Florida and 
other places and even by using stoves in tents. 

(h) Covering the flowers with straw mulch at night is 
practicable in the case of strawberries. Where the mulch is 
kept between the rows to protect the fruit from dirt, it may be 
thrown over the plants when frost threatens the flowers. If 
the weather continues cold, it may remain on the plants for a 
few days without injury, otherwise it should be promptly re- 
moved. 

Protection against frost—In the Yearbook of the United 
States Department of Agriculture for 1907, G. H. Powell has the 
following to say in regard to frost protection in California, which 
is of very general application: 

“There are few districts in the citrus belt of California that 
may not be visited by frost in December, January, or February. 
The prevention of injury by frost may be influenced to a large 


extent by the location of groves on lands over which there is 
a sufficient air drainage. The new groves established during 


ORCHARD PROTECTION. 73 


the past few years have been located on the higher lands with 
this factor prominently in view. To protect them against the 
extreme cold, many of the groves on the lower lands are equip- 
ped with wicker coal baskets, briquets of shavings, crude oil, 
and asphaltum, or sheet-iron stoves in which the same material 
is burned. Oil smudges (in tin receptacles) or other materials, 
which are located at definite intervals in the spaces between 
the trees, are sometimes burned. It is a common practice, also, 
to run the water in the irrigation furrows between the trees on 
cold nights, in order to make use of the latent heat in the water 


Fig. 24.—Form of smudger for use in protecting orchards from 
frosts. It is used with a protected stone boat. 


as a means of frost protection. The materials employed in this 
protection against frost injury are used to cause a circulation 
of air over the grove in order to mix together the strata of differ- 
ent temperatures or for the production of a cloud of smoke over 
the grove in the morning in order to exclude the direct sunlight 
and thereby prevent the rapid thawing of the fruit when it has 
been frozen during the preceding night. It is the rapid thawing, 
rather than the freezing, of the tissues, that causes most of 
the injury to citrus fruits that have been subjected to ordinary 
frost temperatures. 


74 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


“A general idea of the operation of frost fighting may be 
gained from a brief description of the work observed in a grove 
on a cold night. There were twenty-five perforated sheet-iron 
stoves scattered over each acre of grove, one stove being placed 
in the center of the square between four trees. These stoves 
were filled with a prepared mixture of shavings, asphaltum, and 
crude oil. When it was determined to light the fires a force of 
men appeared, eaeh one carrying a can of oil and a torch. A 
small quantity of oil was poured over the smudging material 
and was then quickly lighted with the torch. As soon as all 
the fires were burning, the men returned home, except one man 
to about 5 acres, who kept the fires replenished and in good, 
burning condition. 

“Just how much benefit is derived from these various devices 
it is difficult to estimate, as the experience of the growers is 
conflicting and the experiments that have been conducted have 
not always been comprehensive. There seems to be no doubt, 
however, that the judicious use of the various devices used in 
frost protection has been of great commercial value. One who 
has had an experience of many years and who has large finan- 
cial interests involved writes: 

“‘We have been able to protect against the severest cold 
we have had since we secured the coal baskets. Several times 
the temperature has been around 24° or 25° until we got our coal 
baskets under way, but we were usually able to make a change of 
from 3° to 5° when our baskets were lighted and were giving off 
a good heat.’ 

“Aside from the injury to the fruit and the young wood by 
frost, continued cold weather causes the wood of the lemon 
trees to mature and the fruit to develop a coarse, rough texture 
and to ripen prematurely.” 


QUESTIONS—CHAPTER V. 


1. What is sunscald and how can it be prevented? 

2. What injuries to trees are caused by birds? By cattle? By 
wind? By mice and rabbits? By cultivation? 

3. What are root galls? 

4. What effect does winter injury have upon orchard trees? 

5. How may twigs, trunks, roots and buds be protected from 
winter injury? 

6. Into what classes may plants be divided, considering their 
susceptibility to frosts? 

7. When are injurious frosts most likely to occur? 

8. By what means can frosts be foretold? Explain each. 

9. In what ways may trees be protected from frosts’ 


-l 


cl 


CHAPTER VI. 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 


The work of the fruit grower is not only one of tillage, prun- 
ing and fertilizing the crop, but he must be ever on the watch to 
ward off or kill the insects and diseases that injure or destroy 
his crop. None of these treatments can be neglected with im- 
punity, yet if the crop has good cultivation and manuring it 
will overcome insect injuries and adverse conditions much bet- 
ter than if neglected. However, spraying will not take the place 
of manuring, nor manuring of spraying. 

The great growth and wide specializing in fruit growing 
has led to the increase of troublesome pests. In some sections 
where the natural food of the native insects has been destroyed 
by cleaning the land, they have attacked the introduced plants. 
Then, too, new and exceedingly injurious insects and diseases 
have been introduced from other countries and have spread 
rapidly within recent years and these often need extremely dras- 
tic measures for their prevention. Good illustrations of the 
latter are peach yellows and root galls among diseases, and 
San Jose scale, Gypsy and Brown Tail moths among insects. 
By the introduction of insects and diseases some of the old 
standard varieties have been driven out of cultivation, even 
in sections where they formerly grew, or else can now only 
be grown when they are given much more care than was former- 
ly necessary. The presence of these pests and the discovery of 
methods of checking their injuries has worked for the interests 
of the careful, painstaking grower who now has a decided ad- 
vantage over the slovenly cultivator. In other words, it takes 
more brains and application to raise fruit now than formerly. 

Comparative exemption from pests is often the case in new 
fruit areas but this exemption seldom lasts more than a few 
years, as is shown by the history of the new fruit areas in the 
Pacific Coast states where exceptional immunity from insect 
pests was enjoyed for many years, which might have been 
continued indefinitely had there been a suitable inspection law 


7E POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


properly enforced. The codlin moth and the plum curculio and 
other insect pests have come in and are now extremely trouble- 
some and much care is required to hold them in check. 

State Inspection.—Much has been said in favor of and against 
State Inspection laws for the prevention and suppression of 
insects and diseases. They have accomplished much good in 
some sections although they have been unquestionably used at 
times to restrict trade between the states. One of the great- 
est things that they have accomplished has been to cause peo- 
ple to think about insect pests and diseases and to impress upon 
them the importance of subduing them. 

Laws for the suppression of noxious insects and diseases 
vary much in the different states but there is a tendency today 
for all the states to bring their laws to the same standard. 
These laws generally provide for the appointment of a state 
entomologist who is required to inspect all nurseries in his 
state and to furnish a suitable certificate if he finds them worthy. 
There is also a rule providing that no nursery stock shall be 
shipped from one state to another without a copy of this, or a 
similar certificate, being attached to the parcel containing it 
and that badly infested nurseries and orchards must be prop- 
erly treated. Suitable penalties are provided for those avoid- 
ing the provisions of the law. In a few of the states and Canada 
the law requires that all nursery stock must be fumigated at 
the destination before its delivery to consignee. It would be 
hard to say now just what is a fair law for all concerned, and it 
ought perhaps to vary in different sections of the country ac- 
cording to crops and climate. A national law is needed to 
regulate interstate commerce in nursery stock, fruit and other 
products that might carry noxious insects and diseases from 
one state to another. The intelligent fruit grower should be 
familiar with the life habits of the insects in which he is most 
interested and should not work blindly by “Rule of Thumb.” 

Insects.—Noxious insects are held in check in various ways 
and from this standpoint we conveniently class them in groups: 

Chewing insects.—Examples of these are grasshoppers, cat- 
erpillars, beetles and their grubs, etc. These are quite easily 
reached by arsenical and other poisons which may be placed 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 77 


on their food. The great problem in dealing with this class is 
to find something which will hold the poison on the leaves for 
a reasonable length of time and will at the same time prevent 
the arsenical poisons from burning the leaves. This is particu- 
larly true of plants belonging to the plum family, including 
plums, peaches and apricots, which are easily injured by ar- 
senious acid even when present in such small quantities that it 
would not be injurious to the foliage of apple, pear, currant or 
gooseberry. This burning is especially bad when its application 
is followed by several days of bright, dry weather. Another 
{mportant problem which we have not solved is how to apply 
these poisons so that they will not wash off from the leaves. 
Among the insecticides commonly used for this class of insects 
are Paris Green, arsenate of lead and hellebore. Some of the 
chewing insects may be destroyed by the acrid or oily applica- 
tions which are commonly used for the destruction of sucking 
insects, such as tobacco water and kerosene emulsion. 

Insects that work in the wood of the tree belong to the class 
of chewing insects. These vary in their habits and nearly as 
various are the remedies used against them; each must be con- 
sidered in the light of its life history. When borers are in 
their holes and can be reached easily by gas fumes, perhaps as 
satisfactory a remedy as any is to squirt a small amount of 
carbon bisulfide into their holes with a common oil dropper 
and stop up the holes with a little putty. In the case of borers 
that tunnel just under the bark, the location of which can be 
seen by the discoloration of the surface bark (as with the borer 
of the peach), the best remedy is probably to look over the 
trees in the early spring and again in the late summer and dig 
them out with a sharp knife. 

Sucking Insects —Examples of this class of insects are plant 
lice, scale insects and chinch bugs. These do not chew, but 
their food is the juice of plants. They obtain it by sucking. 
As they do not bite they cannot be destroyed by internal poisons, 
such as arsenic and hellebore, but they must be reached by 
something that will affect their respiratory organs. All such in- 
sects breathe through small pores in their sides and may be de- 
stroyed by a covering of a film of oil or soap (whale-oil soap 


78 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


and kerosene emulsion). The bodies of leaf lice, which form 
a considerable portion of this class of insects, are covered with 
a thin skin and are injured or killed by astringent solutions, 
such as tobacco water, and also by hot water. Fumigating with 
hydrocyanic acid gas in case of scale or other sucking insects 
is a good remedy. Fumigating with tobacco smoke will kill most 
kinds of leaf lice. In fact, it would seem that fumigation, be- 
ing so sure a remedy, is destined to be more largely used in the 
future. The use of strong compounds, when trees are dormant, 
for the destruction of scale insects, must continue to gain in 
popularity. Among the best of the compounds used for this 
purpose are the lime and sulfur mixture and the soluble oil 
preparations, 

Insects that attach themselves to roots generally are of the 
sucking class and are extremely difficult to destroy. Among 
the worst of these pests is the woolly aphis or root louse of the 
apple, and the phylloxera or root louse of the grape, the latter 
having been extremely injurious to the roots of the European 
Wine Grape in France. In the case of the woolly aphis the 
trouble is largely avoided by planting trees that are known to 
be exempt from it. If the trees are once well started there is 
little danger of injury, since the pest is seldom harmful to large 
trees. Fumigation of stock insures the removal of the root 
louse. In the case of the phylloxera on the European Wine 
Grape the only satisfactory remedy has been to graft on the 
roots of some resistant stock such as the American Frost Grape 
(Vitis riparia). So common has this practice become in Europe 
that the result is the European wine industry stands on Ameri- 
can roots. 

Beneficial insects.—In a state of nature, each species of the 
animal kingdom is held in check so there is a nicely balanced 
relation between them, but occasionally even in nature some 
one species becomes too numerous and breaks the bounds that 
are ordinarily strong enough to hold it. Among the natural 
agencies that destroy insects may be mentioned heavy rains, 
sudden changes to a freezing temperature, winds, predaceous and 
parasitic insects, and fungous and bacterial diseases. 

Parasites.—A most important factor in checking the spread 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 79 


of insects is the numerous parasites to which they are sub- 
ject. These may be either animal or vegetable. Any one who 
has had much experience in gardening may have seen many 
instances of the increase of animal parasites until certain kinds 
of insects were no longer injurious. This is common in the 
ease of the cabbage worm, the tent caterpillar, grasshoppers 
and many others. 

Animal Parasites.—The mast common of animal parasites 
that destroy insects are small wasps and some two-winged flies 
which deposit their eggs in or on the eggs and larvae of the in- 
jurious insects on which the growing wasps feed. These destroy 
enormous numbers of insects and should be regarded as among 
the greatest aids to the fruit grower. 

Among vegetable parasites that destroy insects may be 
mentioned the diseases which destroy the chinch bugs, and 
which the states of Kansas, Nebraska and Minnesota attempted 
to introduce on a large scale for the subjugation of this pest. 
Another instance is the disease which often destroys cabbage 
worms and even house flies. A good illustration of this oc- 
curred recently in the experience of a Minnesota gardener. He 
found the Cabbage Plusia getting very numerous in his twenty 
acres of cabbages and got a spraying outfit to kill them with, 
but had hardly started when he found the worms dying naturally, 
as the result of a fungous disease. He put up the machine and 
the disease successfully did the work for him. 

Predaceous insects search out and destroy their prey. In 
this class of insects may be included the Preying Mantis, Tiger 
beetles, ladybugs and some wasps and drazgon,flies. 

The Cottony Cushion Scale was first noticed in California 
in 1872 and was greatly feared on account of its spreading so 
rapidly and protecting itself from insecticides by excreting a 
waxy substance which completely covered the insect. The pest 
was finally destroyed by a lady bird (lady bug) imported from 
Australia. 

Insects Injurious to the Apple. 

Affecting the Fruit: 

Codlin Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella).—The Codlin Moth 
is the common cause of wormy apples and makes the infested 


80 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Fig. 25.—Injury caused by the lar- 
va of the Codlin Moth. 


_places to spin their cocoons 
nearby, which is often be- 
tween the hoops and staves 
of the barrels holding the 
fruit. 

Remedies.—The fallen fruit 
should be promptly gathered 
and destroyed. Keeping hogs 
in the orchard is very bene- 
ficial as they destroy the 
worm-infested fruit; but it 
should be remembered that 
when too much stock is pas- 
tured in the orchard and the 
grass becomes scarce, they 
are liable to bark the trees. 
If bands of burlap, or even 
paper, six Inches wide, are 
fastened around the trunks 


Fig. 26 —Flowers of the apple; 


fruit ripen prematurely 
and fall to the ground. 
The moths deposit their 
eggs in the calyx (or eye) 
of the apple just as the 
blossoms fall. On hatch- 
ing, the worm eats into 
the fruit where it lives 
until it is ready to change 
to the moth stage. It 
then leaves the fruit and 
Spins a cocoon in which 
it undergoes its changes. 
There are two or more 
broods in a season. The 
worms that are in the 
late apples leave them in 
the winter and find 


the proper stage for spraying 
to control Codlin Moth. 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 81 


not later than the first of June, many of the worms and chrysa- 
lides of this moth will be found under them and may be easily 
destroyed. The bands should be examined about once in ten days 
until the last of August. 

The most common way of protecting against this insect is 
by spraying the trees just after the blossoms fall, when the ap- 
ples still stand upright, with Paris Green and water at the rate 
of one pound to one hundred and sixty gallons. When the trees 
are sprayed to prevent scab, the Paris Green may be added to 
the Bordeaux mixture at the rate of one pound to one hundred 
and fifty gallons of the mixture. 

Plum and Apple Curculio.—These are snout beetles which cut 
small holes in the fruit as 
they feed, and also use the 
fruit as a place for laying 
their eggs. The latter soon 
hatch into a small grub 
which, at maturity, is about 
one-half inch long. The spe- 
cial injury to the fruit from 
this insect comes from the 
hard knots that form where 
it has been gtung, which 
makes the apple gnarled and 
of poor quality. 

Fig. 27.—Showing the way in Remedies.—These insects 
Se es bye breed mostly in the - wild 
plums, haws and wild crab 
apples, and destroying these generally results in _ lessen- 
ing the damage to the apples in their vicinity. The 
windfalls should be destroyed, and pasturing hogs in the or- 
chard is probably the easiest way to accomplish this. Clean 
culture has proven most satisfactory in ridding orchards of the 
curculio as they winter over in grass and rubbish. Spraying the 
fruit with Paris Green, lime and water, as recommended for the 
tent caterpillar, has sometimes proven satisfactory. 

Affecting the foliage: 

Tent Caterpillar (Malacosoma americana).—The character- 
istics of this insect are readily seen in Fig. 28. which shows the 


82 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


caterpillars resting on the outside of the tent-like structure in 
which they live, and also a twig on which a bunch of eggs is 
fastened. The habit of this insect is about as follows: The 
eggs are laid on the smaller twigs of fruit trees in ring-like 
clusters during the first two weeks in July. Two or three hun- 
dred eggs are laid in each cluster and they are firmly cemented 
together. These hatch out early in the spring just as the leaves 
open. The young caterpillars soon commence to make a tent 
by extending sheets of silk web across the nearest forks of the 
twigs and this tent or nest is enlarged as more room is needed. It 
has holes in it through which the caterpillars enter and they re- 
treat to the nest 
at night, in stormy 
weather and usual- 
ly when not feed- 
ing. They gener- 
ally come out of 
their nest once in 
the morning and 
once in the after- 
noon to feed. They 
are very voracious 
and soon strip the 
infested tree of 
its foliage. They 
change to moths in 
June and soon com- 
mence laying eggs. 
The eggs of the 


Fig. 28.—Tent Caterpillar. a—Web Western Tent cat- 
house of tent caterpillar much reduced. erpillar are not 
Caterpillar nearly full size. b.—Egegs P 
nearly natural size. e¢.—Moth natural laid around the 
size. 


twig but in bunches 
on the sides of the twigs. 

Remedies.—The tents are readily seen. They should be 
gathered and destroyed early in the season when the worms 
are within them. The egg masses are also easily seen against 
a cloudy sky when the trees are leafless, and can be gathered 
and destroyed in winter or at any time before they hatch, 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 83 


Fall Web Worm (Hyphantria cunea).—This is often mis- 
taken for the Tent Caterpillar from which it is quite distinct. 
It appears later in the season, generally in July or later. Its 
webs are larger and loose or open and the caterpillars stay in 
them and feed. The web is extended to include other foliage 
as that enclosed is eaten. The remedies should be the same as 
in the case of the Tent Caterpillar. 

Leaf Lice or Aphis (Aphis mali).—The leaves of the apple 
are frequently attacked by plant lice which, by sucking the 
sap, cause the leaves to curl up and assume a very unnatural 
appearance. They work almost entirely on the lower side of 
the leaf and are most abundant on the new and tender growth 
which generally becomes distorted as a result of such attacks. 
Similar lice attack the foliage of the plum, 
currant and other plants. The eggs are laid 
on the branches of apple, plum and other 
trees in autumn. They are yellowish in 
color when first laid, but become a glossy 
black by winter. These hatch in the spring 
and locate themselves on the small, young 
growth and feed by sucking sap. All hatch- 
ed at this time are females and reach ma- 
turity in ten or twelve days, when they com- 
mence to give birth to living young, pro- 
ducing about two daily for two or three 
weeks, when they die. The young ones 
soon commence to produce live young and 
their. increase is very rapid, in fact so fast 
that the new growth is kept covered with 
es them. As the season advances, some of 

Fie. 29.—Eees the lice acquire wings and found new colo- 
of Plant Lice nies on other trees. On the approach of 
ea eee cold weather males appear and the season 
tree, closes with a stock of eggs for the con- 

tinuation of the species. 

Remedies.—The lice should be destroyed in the spring be- 
fore they become numerous. The eggs hatch about the time the 
buds are bursting, and as soon as the lice appear, they should 


S4 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


be sprayed wth strong soapsuds, kerosene emulsion or tobacco 
water. If the lice are allowed to get very numerous before 
spraying is commenced, the work will have to be repeated sev- 
eral times. Where trees are heavily infested, smoking may be 
the most desirable treatment. (See reference to this under the 
head of Insects Injurious to the Plum.) 

Climbing Cut Worms (Agrotis sp.)—When the foliage or 
buds are being destroyed without any apparent cause, climbing 
cut worms should be searched for. If present they will be found 
in the day-time buried in the ground near the base of the trees 
and occasionally do much damage. They are closely allied to 
and resemble the common cut worms so well known to gardeners. 

Remedies.—They may be destroyed by spraying the foliage 
as recommended for the Tent Caterpillar and by jarring the 
trees after dark and then gathering the worms. 

Insects Attacking Trunks and Branches. 

Flat Headed Apple Tree Borer (Chrysobothris femorata).— 
This borer is quite abundant in some sections but generally does 
not cause serious losses here. It prefers 
to work in trees that are newly trans- 
planted, or weakened by some disease, 
making its borings in the trunks and larg- 
er branches and often completely girdling 
them. It is the larva of a beetle that is 
oblong, flattish in form and of a shining 
greenish-black color about three-cighths 
of an inch long. The beetles emerge from 
the borings in: the trees in the early 
summer. They are very active in the 
middle of warm days and may be found 
Fig. 30.—Flat head- in the hot sunshine running up and down 


ed Apple Tree the trunk of the tree, whence they fly 
Borer. a.—Borer 


full grown. b.— quickly if an attempt is made to catch 
eee ee ee them. They lay their eggs, which are 
Mature borer. yellow, under loose scales on the bark or 


in cracks and crevices. The young soon hatch and eat their 
way through the bark, feeding on the sap wood. As the borer 
approaches maturity, it usually bores into the more solid wood 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 85 


and finally out to the bark where it changes into the beetle form. 
This insect also attacks the pear, plum, peach and cherry. 

Remedies.—All trees should be examined early in autumn; 
if there are borers present, they may be detected by the dry ap- 
pearance of the bark or by the exudation of sap or sawdust-like 
castings. When such signs are seen the parts should be at 
once cut into with a knife and the borer destroyed. As a pre- 
ventive measure there is perhaps nothing better than to coat 
the trunk and larger branches with a mixture of soft soap reduc- 
ed with a solution of washing 
soda to the consistency of a 
thick paint, and if a little car- 
bolic acid is added, it will be 
even more rep:Jsive to the 
beetles. This should be kept on 
the trees during the summer 
months when the insect is in- 
jurious, 

Twig Borer (Amphicerus bi- 
caudatus).—A dark colored, cyl- 
indrical, small beetle that bores 
into the twigs of the apple, grape 
and some other fruits. It is 
seldom extremely injurious. 

Remedies.—The remedy is to 
cut out in-early summer the in- 
fested twigs which contain the 
borers and to burn them. 
Buffalo Tree Hopper (Ceresa 


| 
| ie { wld 


Fig. 31.—Buffalo Tree Hop- 


per; showing scars on old bubalus)—An active, jumping, 
wood as the result of its rat : 

injuries; also mature in- ridiculous looking creature about 
sect. one-third of an inch long, re- 


sembling a beech nut more than any insect. Its eggs are laid 
in slits cut into the bark of apple trees by the female. Their 
presence seems to seriously injure the adjoining wood and bark 
and causes numerous irregular wounds which often seriously 
check growth and are sometimes taken for hail injuries. It 
feeds on the foliage when young, but does little injury in this 
stage. 


86 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Remedies.—The best treatment is to prune away and burn the 
infested wood in winter, but this is seldom entirely practicable 
and we have largely to depend on natural remedies and on high 
cultivation to enable the plant to resist the pest. 

San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus).—This is perhaps 
the most insiduous and destructive of all our insect pests. In 
appearance, it is nearly circular, about one-six- 
teenth of an inch in diametcr, dark brown in col- 
or, with a darker spot in the center. It lives on 
the bark of nearly all of our garden and lawn plants. 
It is a sucking insect and moves only when very 
young and then only for a short time, after which 
it becomes fixed in place. Several generations are 
produced each year. At the North many of the 
scales die in winter but those left breed -so fast 
that they soon cover their host. It is probably 
spread to young trees by the feet of birds, ete. 
When this pest is discovered for the first time 
some good expert in such matters should be con- 
sulted. 

Remedies.—The best remedies now known are 
the lime and sulfur wash and some of the soluble 
oils specially prepared for this purpose, the formula 
for which will be found in the Appendix. 
pe Scurfy Bark Louse (Chionaspis furfurus) affects 

Fig. 32.— the apple and pear. The life history of this insect 
See eel! is similar to that of other scale insects. The fe- 
in place on males are larger than the males, and oval; the 
twag. males are very small and slender. A branch in- 
fested with this pest appears to be covered with whitish scurf 
or dandruff. It is seldom very injurious. 

Remedies.—The remedies for the San Jose Scale are effective 
here but covering the branches with whitewash or lightly brush- 
ing them with kerosene oil is extremely satisfactory. 

The Oyster-Shell Bark Louse (Lepidosaphes uli) is about 
the color of the bark on which it grows. It is very injurious 
where it occurs in great numbers. In appearance each scale 
is long and shaped somewhat like an oyster. Its life history 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 87 


and remedies are much like those for other scales. It generally 
yields readily to the whitewash treatment, but where many trees 
are badly infested they should be treated with some of the solu- 
ble oils, or lime and sulfur wash should be used. 

Woolly Apple Louse (Schizoneura lanigera); branch form.— 
When fully grown, this insect is dark colored and covered 
with a cottony coating. They may be found covering the new 
bark about wounds and in the axils of leaves and buds and 
they may cause serious wounds when neglected. It comes from 
small eggs laid near the base of the twigs. 

Remedies.—They are easily destroyed by painting with kero- 
sene. Where very numerous, it may be best to use whale oil 
soap mixture, on account of the danger to the tree from using 
kerosene. 

Insects Attacking the Roots of the Apple. 

Woolly Apple Louse (Schizoneura lanigera); root form.—This 

insect attacks the roots as well as the branches of the apple. On 


Fig. 33.—Woolly Aphis. a.—Mature insect. b.—Swellings on the 
root as a result of its injuries. 


be POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


the roots it causes warty swellings and may kill the trees. It is 
one of the most dangerous of all insect pests affecting the apple. 

Remedies.—The best remedies for it when occurring on the 
roots are as follows: Remove the earth about the crown for a 
distance of about two feet and put on from four to seven pounds 
of tobacco dust. Put back the soil and irrigate where practicable 
to do so. Removing the soil from about the roots and apply- 
ing hot water has been satisfactorily practiced. Bisulfide 
of carbon poured into holes made with a bar about the trees 
has also been successfully used. In doing this, make the holes 
about ten inches deep near the infested roots and then pour 
three ounces of the bi-sulfide into each hole. Three or more 
holes should be made about each tree. Young trees are often 
destroyed by the woolly aphis but the old trees are seldom hurt 
by it. 

Insects Injurious to the Pear. 

Any of the foregoing insects referred to as attacking the 
apple may also attack the pear except the woolly aphis, and the 
same remedies should be used. In addition to these, the pear is 
attacked by the fol- 
lowing insects: 

Pear Tree Slug 
(Eriocampoa cerasi). 
—These slimy look- 
ing insects are hatch- 
ed from eggs laid in 
the tissues of the 
leaves by a glossy, 
black fly soon after 
the leaves expand in 
spring. When first 
emerging from the 
egg they are white 
but soon become cov- 
ered above with a 


: slimy brown matter 
Fig. 34.—Pear Tree Slug. a.—Mature in- 

sect. band c.—Larva, side and back view. that oozes out of the 
d.—Worms feeding on leaves partly skel- skin. The slug, when 
etonized by them. 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 89 


mature, undergoes its changes in the ground where it also re- 
mains during the winter. There are several broods each season. 
The slugs eat off the green surface of the foliage, leaving it 
skeletonized. It attacks the cherry, plum and rose as well as 
‘the pear. 

Remedies.—The remedies are the same as for any of the 
leaf-eating insects, Paris Green and Pyrethrum Powder being 
most commonly used. Dusting the leaves with air-slaked lime 
is also a good remedy. 

The Pear Psylla (Psylla pyricola).—This is a minute insect 
that has occasionally done much injury to pear trees by sucking 
the sap. It is so small as to be seen with difficulty with the un- 
aided eye. In severe attacks old trees put forth but little growth, 
new shoots often wither and drop in May, the leaves turn yellow 
and the fruit prematurely ripens in midsummer and falls off. Its 
presence is also indicated by the honey dew which is excreted 
by the insect in large quantities so as to cover the tree and 
even the vegetation under it. In this sweet solution a kind of 
fungus soon starts and smears the tree with a blackish coating. 

The mature insects pass the winter hidden in crevices un- 
der the loosened bark on the trunks and limbs of pear trees. 
During warm days they crawl about. In the first warm days 
of spring the egg-laying season begins. The eggs are laid in 
creases in the bark and in the old leaf scars. In two or three 
weeks they hatch into what is known as “nymphs,” which first 
locate along in the axils and petioles of the leaves. As these 
nymphs grow, they change their skin and in about one month 
become full grown with wings, and resemble the harvest fly 
in miniature. They can jump like a flea and fly away upon the 
slightest unusual jar. 

Remedies.—There are several natural enemies that help to 
hold the pear psylla in check, among which are the Jace winged 
fly and the red ladybug. The most effective treatment seems to 
be spraying in the spring with kerosene emulsion, applied with 
considerable force to destroy the young. The mature insect is 
not easily reached in this way. 

Insects Injurious to the Peach. 

Peach Twig Borer (Anarsia lineatella)—When the buds of 

the peach begin to open in the spring, a small, brownish larva 


90 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


with a black head eats into the buds and destroys them. When 
the new shoots start, the borer eats into them causing them to 
wilt and decay. Many of the second brood of this borer eat into 
peaches, causing a gummy exudation and ruining them for mar- 
ket. The larvae that appear in the spring spent their winter in 
little excavations which they made in the fall in the bark of the 
trees. 

Remedies.—EHarly in the spring, just before the buds open, 
spray the trees with lime and sulfur wash or with whale oil 
soap, in the proportion of one pound to two gallons of water. 
Fish oil soap, diluted once with water or kerosene emulsion, will 
doubtless do the work nearly or quite as well as the lime and 
sulfur wash. Many of the larvae may be caught under band- 
ages used as for the Codlin Moth. 

Peach Borer (Sanninoidea exitiosa)—The yellowish white 
borer commonly very destructive in peach trees is the larva 
of a wasp-like appearing moth that lays its eggs on the trunks 


Fig. 35.—Peach borer; showing trunk of peach tree irjured near 
surface of ground where gum and frass are mixed together. 
a.—Male. b.—Female. 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 91 


and larger branches of peach trees from the middle to the last 
of summer in the North. The eggs soon hatch and the larva 
works into the trees, which exude a quantity of clear, jeélly- 
like gum that is often mixed with borings. The borer lives 
in the tree about one year. 

Remedies.—Carefully inspect the trees in autumn and spring, 
just below as well as above the ground, and remove all borers 
with a small pointed knife. Wrapping the trunks with stout 
paper or wire screen during the egg-laying period is recom- 
mended. 

Other insects attacking the peach are several kinds of 
aphis and curculio. For each of these see similar heads included 
under “Insects injurious to the apple and plum.” 


Insects Injurious to the Plum. 


Plum Curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar).—This is the insect 
which causes the plums to prematurely ripen and drop to the 
; zround. It is not nearly so 

destructive to our native 
plums as to those of Eu- 
ropean origin (Prunus do- 
mestica). The latter are 
often so badly infested that 
none of the fruit comes to 
full maturity. While our 
native plums are stung 
just as much by the cur- 
culio as the EHuropean 
Fig. 36.—Plums injured by Curculio, plum, but few of the eggs 
oe sears, also enlarged cur- Of the curculio develop 
into the grub in this fruit, probably on account of its rapid growth. 
This insect is a small, rough, grayish or blackish beetle, about one- 
fifth of an inch long, with a black shining lump on the middle of 
each wing and behind this a more or less distinct band of a dull 
yellow color with some whitish marks about the body and with a 
rather short snout. The female lays her eggs in the young, green 
fruit shortly after it is formed. Then she cuts a circle around 
the portion of the fruit in which the eggs are laid to prevent it 


92 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


from growing. The eggs hatch in a few days and the larva 
works around the outside of the stone. This causes the fruit 
to.become diseased and it falls prematurely to the ground. 
Within the plum the growth of the larva is completed. It then 
goes into the ground where it transforms to a beetle, which soon 
escapes. 

Remedies.—Recent investigations seem to show that clean 
cultivation and burning of any grassy areas near .by, in which 
the beetles can winter over, is most desirable in checking the 
spread of this pest. When the curculio gets alarmed it draws 
itself together and falls to the ground. Advantage is taken of 
this peculiarity to catch and destroy it. A sheet is spread under 
the tree whose branches are suddenly jarred, when the beetles, 
which fall on the sheet, may be gathered and destroyed. As it 
is important to catch as many beetles as possible before any 
mischief has been done, jarring should begin while the trees 
are in blossom and should be continued every morning until 
they are gone. If the insects are abundant this will generally 
take about three weeks. It will be found that where hens with 
their broods of chickens are enclosed within the plum orchard, 
they will devour a large number of the larvae of the curculio. 
If hogs are kept in the same enclosure as the plum trees, they 
will pick up the fallen fruit and so destroy a great many of the 
larvae and assist very much in reducing the injury from this 
cause. 

Plum Gouger (Coccotorus scutellaris)—The plum gouger 
is a snout beetle somewhat resembling the curculio, but readily 
distinguished from it by a little careful examination. It is about 
five-sixteenths of an inch long. The head and wing cases are 
brown with a leaden grey tinge, the latter with whitish and 
black spots scattered irregularly over their surface. It appears 
in the spring about the same time as the curculio, but instead 
of working around the stone it eats through the soft shel] and 
lives within the stone where it undergoes its changes and 
emerges a perfect beetle. Both sexes of the Plum Gouger bore 
cylindrical holes in the fruit for food. These cause the fruit to 
become knotty and worthless but it does not prevent their re- 
maining on the tree until maturity. This insect does not cut 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 93 


a flat or half circle around the hole in which the egg is placed, 
as is so characteristic of the curculio. 

Remedies.—The remedies recommended for the curculio are 
also best for preventing the work of this insect. 

The Plum Leaf Aphis (Aphis prunifolii) commonly called 
“leaf lice,” is frequently troublesome and occasionally appears in 
such large numbers as to seriously check the growth of the trees. 

The life history of this insect is the same as for the apple 
leaf aphis, which see. 


Fig. 37.—Hoop tent ready to put over a tree. 


94 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Remedies.—Tobacco water, kerosene emulsion and similar 
materials often hardly appear to have any effect when the lice 
are very abundant, as the leaves curl up and protect the lice, 
so that they are not easily reached and the waxy covering of the 


Fig. 38.—Hoop tent in place over tree. 
lice sheds water. At such times it will be found that tobacco 


smoke is a most valuable and certain remedy. In applying it, 
a tent made of unbleached cotton, large enough to cover the 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 95 


tree should be used. The best form for this tent is bag shaped, 
and large enough to easily take in the tree. The tent should 
be fastened at the bottom to a hoop made of gas pipe. In 
operating the hoop tent the hoop is lifted up on its edge close 
to the tree and gradually lifted over it, the slender, long, side 
branches being pushed up under the tent. When the tree is 
finally enclosed, tobacco smoke is applied until the tent is filled 
with smoke so thick that the hand cannot be seen before the 
face; it is allowed to thus remain for fifteen minutes, which is 
long enough to kill all the lice. There is no danger of injuring 
the tree if the tobacco does not flame up. To prevent this, the 
tobacco used should be dampened. The most convenient form 
of tobacco to use is leaf stems which come from cigar factories 
and can be obtained at a very low price. 

A tent that will answer the purpose very well may be made 
out of two large pieces of cotton cloth supported on a light wood- 
en frame. Where the trees are so very large that they require 
a tent more than 14 feet in diameter, a piece of one-inch rope 
will be found to work better than a gas pipe hoop to hold the 
bottom of the tent. 

Other insects injurious to the plum include the peach borer, 
leaf slug and flat headed borer which are described elsewhere. 
Insects Injurious to the Cherry. 

The insects injurious to the cherry are about the same as 
those injurious to the plum and include borers, curculio and 
aphis. The cherry is also commonly injured by the leaf slug 
which attacks the pear. These insects may be found under 
their respective heads. 

Insects Injurious to the Grape. 

Grape Vine Leaf Hoppers (Erythroneura vitis)—These are 
small, grayish insects that sometimes appear on our grape vines 
in countless numbers. When abundant, if disturbed on a hot, 
dry day, they appear in clouds, make a short flight and quickly 
settle on the vines again. They breed most rapidly in hot, sum- 
mer weather and do most injury to varieties having no down 
on the under side of the leaves, such as the Clinton and Beta, 
but may destroy the foliage of any kind. They are sucking in- 
sects and cause the leaves to turn yellow and even finally dry up. 


96 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Remedies.—By taking advantage of the fact that the insects 
are dumpish early in the morning and may be easily jarred 
to the ground, large numbers may be destroyed by shaking the 
vines after first laying down strips of cloth covered with coal 
tar or similar material that will catch them. Perhaps the best 
remedy consists in making two frames four feet square out of 
common lath and covering them with cloth coated with fresh coal 
tar. Two men are required to use these, who place the frames 
opposite one another on each side of the rows, and as near as 
practicable at the bottom, at the same time gently jarring the 
vines by striking downwards, with a few light branches, on each 
side. In this way large numbers of the insects can be caught, 
and if this method is persistently used this pest may be kept 
in check. 

The Grape Phylloxera (Phylloxera vastatrix) or root louse, 
is an American insect that is frequently found on the roots or 
leaves of American vines. On the roots its presence results in 
the formation of swellings or knotty excrescences. It occasion- 
ally appears on the leaves of some species that have thin foliage 
such as those of the Riparia class, where it forms many galls 
on the under side of the leaves which sometimes become so 
abundant as to seriously check the growth of vines. This leaf 
form is seldom very troublesome and is not necessary for the 
propagation of the species. It spreads by winged forms that 
occur on the roots or leaves and may travel through or over 
the land for considerable distances. On the American vines its 
presence does not necessarily cause death or seriously check 
their growth, but European vines succumb very quickly to its 
attacks and it has been the principal cause of the inability of 
growing European grapes successfully in this country. The im- 
portation of this insect into Europe and its spread there threat- 
ened to destroy the vine industry of many sections. 

Remedies.—The danger from this insect has there been large- 
ly overcome by grafting the European kinds on native American 
species which are resistant to this pest; the native V. riparia (our 
River Bank grape) is commonly used. Immense quantities of wood 
of this species have been sent to Europe for this purpose. The 
Phylloxera is a native of America east of the Rocky Mountains 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 97 


and is not found on the Pacific coast, but it has been intro- 
duced into California and foresighted growers there are prac- 
ticing grafting their vines on resistant roots. Bi-sulfate of car- 
bon placed in the ground about the roots is a good remedy. 
Probably the best treatment for the leaf form is to pick and 
destroy the infested foliage. 

The Rose Chafer or Rose Bug (Macrodactylus subspinosus) 
eats roses, the flowers of the grape, and, when very abundant, 
many other garden plants. It is a beetle with long, hairy legs 
which is rather slow in its movements. It is especially injurious 
by reason of its eating the flowers of grapes. 

Remedies.—Where they are very abundant, insecticides are 
too slow in acting to do much good and all remedies fail. Where 
not unusually abundant, they may be kept in check by picking. 
Covering the flowers with bags has also been resorted to with 
excellent results. Bordeaux mixture seems to be distasteful to 

them and_e spraying 
with this material will 


a often largely prevent 
| their ravages as well 
as check fungus dis- 

é Spo eases. 
wl SK ANE Other insects injurl- 


ous to the grape are 
the Snowy Tree Crick- 
et and _ occasionally 
some scale insects and 
leaf eating insects. 
Insects Injurious to the 
Currant and 
Gooseberry. 
The Currant Worm 
Bee teak yee. < Weed of worm (Nematus ventricosus) 


on under side of midribs; holes in is the most trouble- 
leaves gnawed by young larva. some insect that at- 


Va 


tacks the currant and gooseberry. The female lays her 
eggs in rows on the veins on the under side of the 
leaves quite early in the season. They are white in color 


98 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


and about one-twentieth of an inch long. These eggs hatch in 
about ten days. The young worms feed in companies, at first 
eating small holes in the leaves, but later on they destroy all 
the green tissue in the leaf and then spread in all directions 
over the bush, eating the foliage. They will frequently strip a 
bush of its foliage in a few days timeifleft to themselves. When 
full grown they are three-quarters of an inch long. There are 
two broods of these worms; the first appearing before or about 
the time the fruit is ripe and the second, two or three weeks 
later. The mature insect is a fly, somewhat resembling the 
house fly. 


Fig. 40.—Currant Worm at work. 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 99 


Remedies.—Powdered hellebore, mixed with its bulk of flour, 
may be dusted on the plants when the foliage is wet or it may 
be used at the rate of one ounce of hellebore to a gallon of water 
and be sprayed on the foliage. Used in either way it is a very 
cheap, effective and easily applied remedy. But hellebore is 
quite poisonous and is not safe to use when 
the fruit is ripe, although no danger will 
exist if several days should elapse after 
the application before the fruit is gathered. 
A light shower after the hellebore is applied 
will remove all danger from it. Pyrethrum 
insect powder is a good, safe and effective 
remedy when applied just at night, but it is 
very expensive and difficult to obtain of 
good quality. Paris Green and arsenate of 
lead make efficient remedies when proper- 
ly applied and are most commonly used. 

Where these insects have made their 
appearance, the first indication of them 
should be watched for in following years 
and great care taken to destroy the first 
brood each season. It is a good plan to 
begin spraying early, even if no worms 
are seen. Growers of this fruit should be 
very particular not to neglect the bushes 
Fig. 41.—Currant Bor- after the crop is gathered, for it is very 

ee ee important for the next year’s crop that 
cane, where pith has they should make a good growth of wood, 
been eaten out. and neglecting them at this time often al- 
lows a crop of worms to mature and cause more extensive injury 
the following year. The fly seems to prefer the foliage of na- 
tive varieties of gooseberries, such as the Houghton seedling, 
for its eggs and a few of these bushes may be planted among 
the currants, when most of the worms can be destroyed on them 
as soon as the eggs hatch. 

Imported Currant Borer (Sesia tipuliformis)——In many 
sections this insect in its larva state causes great injury to the 
stems of the currant and gooseberry by so weakening them that 


100 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


they break off when loaded with fruit or by making them sickly. 
The female lays her eggs in the stems early in the summer. In 
a few days the eggs hatch into little white grubs, which work 
into the pith of the stem, where they make their burrows and 
live until the zollowing season. They then finish their trans- 
formation and appear as wasp-like moths and the females shortly 
commence to lay eggs. This insect infests chiefly the red and 
white currant, but it also attacks the black currant and often 
the gooseberry. 

Remedies.—The infested stems should be cut out in the au- 
tumn or very early in the spring and burned at once. If the 
growers in any vicinity will follow this method in united effort 
they can keep this insect in subjection. 

Lice (Aphis ribis) are frequently very abundant on the foli- 
age of currants and gooseberries, where they cause the leaves 
to curl up and become distorted, thus checking their growth 
but seldom causing serious injury. The life history of this in- 
sect is about the same as for the apple leaf louse. 

Remedies.—They may be destroyed by spraying the foliage 
with tobacco water, soap suds water, or kerosene emulsion. 
In fighting these insects, it is very important to commence as 
soon as the first of them are seen as they often increase with 
great rapidity. On account of the position of the leaves these 
lice are very difficult to get at with a spray, and on their first 
appearance the infested foliage should be destroyed. It is some- 
times most practicable to apply tobacco water by dipping the 
affected branches into the emulsion or into tobacco water. 

Insects Injurious to the Raspberry and Blackberry. 

Raspberry Flat Headed Borer (Agrilus rujicollis).—The per- 
fect form, of this insect is a beetle which lays its eggs in the 
growing canes sometime during the summer. Where the eggs 
are laid, peculiar gall-like swellings may occur, having many 
rough slits in them; but this is not always the case, for some- 
times canes may be killed by the insect and no swellings at all 
appear on the canes. The eggs hatch into little yellowish- 
white larvae, having flattened bodies, brown jaws and tails furn- 
ished with two dark brown horns. One swelling may contain 
many larvae. When full grown the larva is from one-half to 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 101 


three-fourths of an inch long, and by burrowing in the wood fre- 
quently girdles the canes. The perfect beetles emerge about 
the time that the plants are in full blossom. 

Remedies.—As the insects winter over in the canes, they 
may be destroyed by cutting and burning all the infested wood 
some time during the winter. 

Snowy Tree Cricket (Oecanthus niveus).—This insect does 
not feed on the raspberry plant in any way but it is injurious 
on account of its peculiar habit of puncturing the canes with 

9 tines of little holes in which 
it deposits eggs. If this work 
does not kill the canes, it so 
weakens them that when they 
start in the spring they are 
very apt to break off as soon 
as the foliage is expanded. 
The eggs, which are laid in 
autumn, are yellow and about 
one-eighth of an inch long. 
They are not readily seen 
when laid, but by the latter 
part of winter the infested 
canes take on an unhealthy 
appearance by which they 
may be readily located. This 
insect feeds upon leaf lice and 
Bee ines) Tike Cricket ne is thus beneficial to some ex- 

Mature insect. b.—Infested rasp- tent, but it causes so much in- 

ee a ae 7 Oy laying ite ages ta reap. 

cane. c.—Showing injury to cane berry, grape and other plants 

eee ordinapay appears. with pithy wood that it should 
be destroyed as nearly as possible. 

Remedy.—The only remedy is to cut out and burn the in- 
fected wood before the eggs hatch. 

Insects Injurious to the Strawberry. 

Leaf Roller (Ancylis comptana).—This insect is injurious 
in its larva stage when it is about one-half an inch long and a 
very active worm. It will be found nicely encased in a straw: 


— 
—_ 


i 
ies 
ir 


102 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


berry leaf that it has drawn together by silken bands and of 
which it is devouring the green surface. When abundant, this 
insect may do very much damage. It changes to a small rust 
colored moth with white markings on the wings at maturity. 
It has at least two broods. It winters over in the pupa state 
in the ground near the plants. 

Remedies.—The larvae are not easily reached with any in- 
secticide as they are protected by the folded leaf. The first 
brood is rather difficult to destroy without injuring the fruit. 
Since the second brood does not appear until July, they may be 
destroyed by mowing off and burning the foliage of the plants 
or by scattering straw and burning it. Where there are but a 
few infected leaves, they should be crushed in the hand. A 
few trials will show the best method of crushing the worm in- 

a! Piss side. Arsenical sprays are also used but 
the insect is so well protected that this 
remedy is seldom satisfactory. 

White Grub (Lachnosterna sp).—This is 
the common white grub found in sod land. 
It is the larvae of the June beetle and is 
sometimes exceedingly destructive, when 
plants are set out on Jand that has recently 
been in sod, by eating the roots of the new- 
ly set plants. On land that has been culti- 
vated for two years it is seldom trouble- 

Ge 13.—2.—white Some. It lives several years in the ground 

Grub. b.—Itsma- before emerging as the full grown June 

LS ae es bug. It may be avoided by not planting 

beetle. on land that was the preceding year in sod. 

Strawberry Weevil (Anthonomus signatus).—This appears 
as a small, blackish beetle with gray pubescence when the 
strawberry flower buds are well developed and lays an egg in 
each, afterward puncturing the flower stock below the bud, so 
as to check development. The larva feeds upon the pollen in 
the unopened bud, and changes to beetle stage in midsummer. 
It also attacks a number of other flowers in the same way. Oc- 
casionally it is very troublesome to the strawberry for a num- 
ber of years; then its injury stops suddenly for no apparent rea- 
son. Only staminate or pollen varieties are attacked. 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 103 


Remedies.—The best way of avoiding injury from this in- 
sect is by planting chiefly the pistillate sorts, as these are not 
affected. In a smali way, the rows of staminate plants may be 
protected by mosquito netting or other covering until the buds 
are ready to open. The application of insecticides for the pre- 
vention of injury by this insect have not been especially suc- 
‘cessful. 


QUESTIONS—CHAPTER VI. 
Insects. 


1. What care should the fruit grower take in suppressing In- 
sects and diseases? 

2. How have insects and diseases been introduced into the fruit 
growing sections? 

3. What effect do they have upon the fruit grower’s work? 

4. What sections are usually exempt from insects and diseases? 
Example. ‘ 

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of State In- 
spection? 

6. What do the State Inspection laws provide for? 

7. What would be the benefit of a national law? 

8. Into what groups may the destructive insects be classified? 

9. What are the habits of each? 

10. What are the remedies best adapted to each group? 

11. Into what groups may the beneficial insects and parasites be 
classified? 

12. What are the habits of each? 

13. What is the history of the cottony cushion scaie in Call- 


14. What insects are injurious to the apple? 

15. What is the life history of the Codlin Moth? 

16. What injuries do they cause? 

17. What are the best remedies for this insect? 

18. How does the curculio injure the apple? 

19. What is the remedy for it? 

20. What insects injure the foliage of the apple? 

21. What is the life history of the Tent Caterpillar? 

22. What are the remedies for the Caterpillar? 

23. How do the Tent Caterpillar and fall web worm differ in 
their habits? 

24. What remedy should be used for them? 

25. What injury does the climbing cut worm cause on the apple 


26. How may it be destroyed? 

27. What insects injure the trunks and branches of the trees? 
28. What is the life history of the flat headed apple tree borer? 
29. What harm does it do? 

30. What remedy is used as a preventive for the injuries caused? 
31. What injury is caused by the twig borer? The buffalo tree 


32. What is the remedy for the twig borer? 

33. What is the life history of the San Jose scale? 
34. What injury does it cause? 

35. What is the remedy for the San Jose scale? 

36. What injury is caused by the scurfy bark louse? 


40 


POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


What is the remedy for it? 

What is the life history of the oyster shell bark louse? 
What is the injury caused by and the remedy for the same? 
What is the injury caused by the branch form of the woolly 


aphis ‘and remedy for it? 


41. What injury does the woolly aphis cause on the roots of ap- 
ple trees? 

42. What is the best remedy for it? 

43. What insects are injurious to the pear tree? 

44. What injury does the slug cause? 

45. How are its ravages prevented? 

46. How does the pear psylla injure the trees? 

47. What is its life history? 

48. What remedy should be applied? 

49. What insects are injurious 10 the peach? 

50. What harm does the twig borer cause? 

51. What is the best remedy for it? 

52. What injury is caused by the peach borer? 

53. What is the remedy for it? \ 

54. How does the plum curculio affect the plum? 

55. What is the remedy? 

Take up the other insects discussed in the same way as the 


foregoing. 


CHAPTER VII. 


DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 


The diseases which the fruit grower has to combat are 
numerous. No portion of the plant is exempt from their rav- 
ages. Some diseases are perhaps not due to a special growth 
in the tissues, but result from some physiological weakness of 
the plant, due probably to unfavorable surroundings. Such trou- 
bles can be stopped only by doing away with the cause, and 
practically the only method of preventing them is by improved 
cultural conditions, as is the case with Peach Yellows. 

The great majority of plant diseases are what are known as 
fungus diseases. These are propagated by small bodies or spores, 
given off in various ways, which act as seeds in starting new 
growths. The life habits of these diseases are extremely vari- 
able and often very complex. Someofthem live one generation 
on one plant and the next generation on some very different 
plant. For instance, the Apple Rust (Gymnosporangium) lives 
one stage on the foliage of the apple and the next on the Red 
Cedar, where it develops the cedar apples that produce the 
scarlet, gelatinous fruiting bodies commonly seen on Cedar trees 
in early summer. This diséase may be largely avoided by de- 
stroying the Red Cedar in the vicinity of orchards. 

The remedies commonly used for plant diseases are to cover 
the susceptible portions of the plant with some antiseptic cover- 
ing. Such materials are generally termed fungicides. The ac- 
tive fungicidal principle in most of those in common use is some 
salt of copper, so combined as not to injure the foliage. The 
most generally useful fungicide is Bordeaux mixture, which is 
a combination of the salts of copper with lime and water. This 
material* is adapted for use in diluted form when the tree is in 
leaf, or when of increased strength, for use when the tree is bare 
of foliage. Sulfate of copper solution is a valuable fungicide 
for use when trees are dormant, but is very injurious to young 


coe for insecticides and fungicides will be found in the Ap- 
pendix. 


106 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


vegetation. Potassium sulfide and other forms of sulfur 
are used alone or in combination as fungicides. As noxious 
diseases and insects are present on many plants at the same 
time, it is a common and good practice to use an application 
that shall combine the advantages of fungicide and insecticide. 
A good illustration of this is Bordeaux mixture to which has 
been added a small amount of Paris Green. Such a mixture is 
an effective remedy for apple trees that are affected with scab 
and the Codlin Moth. A very complete list of fungicides and 
recipes for them will be found in the Appendix. 
Diseases of the Apple.. 

Apple Blight, Fire Blight (Bacillus amylovorus).—This is 
the disease that commonly kills the twigs and branches and 
occasionally injures the trunks of apple, pear and quince trees. 
Its cause is a bacterial disease which gains entrance to the 
tree through wounds or through the flowers. The germs are 
carried by insects to the flower. The insects are attracted by 
the dark, mucilaginous fluid that oozes out of the diseased 
wood in the spring and which is swimming with bacteria. 
From the flowers and other centers of infection the disease 
spreads through the whole plant. This is the disease which 
so commonly kills the young growth of apples in June. 

Remedies.—Some varieties are quite subject to it, while 
others are only slightly, if at all, affected with it; hence it 
may be avoided by selecting resistant sorts. When it ap- 
pears the best treatment is to remove and burn the infected 
parts, cutting considerably below where the disease appears. 
The disease may be earried in pruning implements from a dis- 
eased to a healthy tree. It may be well under some conditions 
to disinfect pruning tools by the use of kerosene or in other 
ways so as not to spread the disease by them. 

Bitter Rot (Glomerella rufomaculans).—The summer spore 
stage of this fungus does serious injury to the apple in some 
sections. It attacks apples before they are ripe and also ap- 
ples in storage. The spots which appear become sunken, are 
soft and have a bitter taste. On the surfaces of these spots 
the spores issue in long, gelatinous, cylindrical masses. These 
are washed apart by rain water and spread the infection. The 


DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 107 


winter spores are produced on the branches in canker spots 
from which come the new sources of spring infection. 

Remedies.—Remove and burn all canker spots found on 
the trees each year, as these are the sources of infection. De- 
stroy the diseased fruit. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture and 
later, when the fruit begins to ripen, with a copper carbonate 
solution will hold the disease in check. 


ris Or: ines 


SS 


Fig. 44.—Bitter rot of ap- 
ple. Branch infested 
with canker of bitter 
rot. 


Black Rot (Sphaeropsis malorum) 
is a common source of trouble. It 
especially attacks the summer ap- 
ples at the time of ripening and 
the other kinds in storage. This 
fungus also occurs on the branches 
and leaves of apples. 

Remedies are the same as for 
Bitter Rot. 

Root Galls, in the shape of 
roundish swellings, are sometimes 
found on the roots of apples and 
other trees. Stocks thus affected 
should be regarded with suspicion, 
although some of these galls do 
not appear to be seriously injurious. 

Leaf Rust (Gymnosporangium 
macropus) and (G. globosum).— 
This disease causes serious injury 
to the foliage of apples and pears 
so that the foliage and fruit crops 
are destroyed. This fungus causes 
yellow blotches on the leaves, and 
later, cluster cups with thorn-like 
tops appear on the under side of 
the leaves. One stage of this dis- 
ease lives on the Red Cedar, where 
it produces Cedar apples from 
which in the spring come the bright 
scarlet, gelatinous, honey-like 
masses. The spores from the Red 


108 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Cedar form grow on the apple and those from the apple on the 
Cedar. 

Remedies.—Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is one remedy. 
The best remedy, however, is to remove the Cedar apples in 
winter or to destroy the Cedar trees. 


Fig. 45.—Leaf rust of apples. a.—Apple leaf infested with the rust 
disease. b.—Twig of red cedar showing old and young cedar 
ee ce.—Portion of the tissue of the infested apple leaves en- 
arged. 


Apple Scab (Venturia pomi).—A very serious disease of the 
apple. It attacks and kills the foliage and causes black, scab- 
like spots on the fruit, and also attacks the young growth oc- 
casionally. The sources of infection are the fallen leaves on 
which the fungus matures its spores in early spring in time 
to infect the unfolding leaves. 


DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 109 


Remedy.—Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is the only 
known satisfactory remedy. Several sprayings are usually neces- 
sary where this disease is well established. A winter spray 
with strong Bordeaux mixture before the buds open is recom- 
mended, followed by two or three sprayings after growth has 
started, at intervals of from two to three weeks. Good ventila- 
tion and proper spacing of trees aid very materially in avoiding 
conditions favorable to fungus growth. Burning or plowing un- 
der the diseased leaves which have fallen will also aid in stamp- 
ing out this disease. 

Powdery Mildew (Podosphaera leucotricha).—This mildew 
seldom injures apples except young plants in seedling beds 


or nursery rows. It is most injurious to seedlings in their first 
year, especially when severely crowded. 

Remedy.—This disease may be prevented by spraying with 
Bordeaux mixture, commencing in the early summer and re- 
peating at intervals of about two weeks. 

Fruit Scald.—This occurs most commonly on apples that 
are kept in cold storage. Some varieties with tender skins 


110 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


may be injured in piles in the orchard. The scald shows as 
large brownish or black blotches on the fruit. Some varieties 
are much subject to it while others are quite exempt. The 
subject is not well understood, but varieties liable to this 
trouble should be stored where they will have free circulation 
of air. 

Spraying Injuries.—In spraying plants it is not uncommon 
to cause them some little injury. This often shows in the rus- 
setted appearance of the fruit or foliage. It may be due to 
the use of chemicals of unknown purity or to the unusual sus- 
ceptibility of the plant. Carelessness in making Bordeaux mix- 
ture is often the cause of spraying injury. These injuries may 
sometimes be so serious that they kill the foliage. As a rule, 
however, the earliest spraying on the young leaves does not 
seem to cause injury so frequently as later sprayings. 

Frost Injuries.—Apples and pears are sometimes slightly 
injured by frost soon after the flowers open, and in such cases 
there will often be a russeted ring around the fruit or on one 
side. 

Sunscald.—This is a name given to a condition of trees 
when the bark becomes dead on the southern or southwest side 
of trees. It is a very serious cause of loss of trees in some 
sections and in such places all trees should be pretected against 
it. For description of this trouble see chapter on Protection. 

Diseases of the Pear. 

The pear is injured by about the same diseases as the ap- 
ple. It is especially subject to fire blight, scab and rust, which 
are more fully mentioned under apple. It is also injured by 
leaf blight (see Quince) and leaf spot, for which Bordeaux mix- 
ture is the best remedy. 

Diseases of the Quince. 

The quince is subject to Brown Rot, Leaf Spot, Rusts, Scab, 
Fire Blight, and it is also subject to the following: 

Leaf Blight (Entomosporium maculatum).—This trouble af- - 
fects the leaves and in bad cases may entirely defoliate the 
plants. On the fruit, the fungus produces black areas. On 
pears, it may cause the fruit to turn black in places, grow one- 
sided and crack open. 


DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 111 


Remedy.—The remedy for this is Bordeaux mixture applied 
just before the flowers open in the spring and two to four ap- 
plications of it later at intervals of about two weeks. 

Black Rot (Sphaeropsis malorum).—This disease often 
causes serious rotting of the quince just before maturity. It 
generally starts from the calyx end. The remedy is a preven- 
tive, and consists of spraying with Bordeaux mixture. 

Diseases of the Plum. 

Plum Pocket (EHxzoascus pruni).—This is a name given to 
certain peculiar deformities which occasionally take the place 
of plums on the trees. They consist merely of a thin shell with 
no evidence whatever of seed. They appear in early summer, 
and some seasons this disease is very abundant and then for 
a number of years it may scarcely appear at all. It is due to 
the presence of a parasitic fungus which attacks the young 
fruit, and by growing with- 
in it causes the peculiar de- 
velopment which finally re- 
sults in the formation of the 
so-called pocket. This, or a 
similar fungus, may also at- 
tack the foliage and cause 
\. irregular swellings and dis 
tortion. 

Remedies.—It will some- 
times be found that a sin- 
gle tree will be troubled 
with this fungus for a se- 
ries of years and it will not 
spread much. When this is 

Fig. 47.—Leaf curl of plums in- the: case such trees :should 

volving twig and foliage. be destroyed, as they are 

likely to be centers of in- 

fection, and the diseased fruit should be picked and destroyed. 
Some varieties are more subject to its attack than others. 

The leaf curl of peaches is caused by a fungus similar to 
that which causes plum pockets and recent experiments show 
that this disease may be kept in check by spraying with thick 
Bordeaux mixture or a solution of sulfate of copper just be- 


abe POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


fore the buds open. Later, sprayings of Bordeaux mixture may 
be necessary if the weather is rainy. The object of these spray- 
ings is to kill the spores of the disease which are found on the 
bark. 

Black Knot or Wart of the Plum (Plowrightia morbosa).— 
This manifests itself by wart-like or knot-like growths appear- 
ing on the smaller limbs as well as on the larger branches and 
sometimes even 
on the trunks. In 
sections of the 
country where 
the Huropean 
Plum (Prunus do- 
mestica) is grown 
this is one of the 
most serious ob- 
stacles to its suc- 
cessful cultiva- 


plums are not 
often destroyed 
by it, but it some- 
times causes seri- 
ous injury to 
them. This knotlike growth is spongy and of a black color. 
Upon examining it with a microscope it is found that the surface 
has many little cavities that contain the spores by which the 
disease spreads. Spores escape from the knots during the late 
winter or early spring. 

Remedies.—Upon their first appearance these swellings 
should be removed and burned, if they are on the smaller 
branches where it is practicable to get them off. If on the trunk 
or larger branches where the branch cannot be cut off, they 
should be cut out as much as possible and painted with thick 
Bordeaux mixture. Where trees are badly infested they should 
be removed entirely. This same disease also grows on the wild 
choke cherry and black cherry and, if abundant on them, their 
removal will make the extermination of the disease easier in 
the nearby plum orchard. 


Fig. 48.—Plum pockets as they ap- 
pear on the tree. 


tion. Our native © 


DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 113 


Brown Rot of the Plum (Sclerotinia fructigena) is a common 
and serious cause of loss. See Brown Rot under the head of 
peach. 


Shot Hole Disease.—This may 
be caused by any of the several fungi 
or even by spraying injuries. Any 
of these causes may destroy the foli- 
age in spots; after the deadened tis- 
sue drops out the shot-hole appear- 
ance is produced. 

Crown Gall is the name given 
to a morbid growth which general- 
ly takes place near the surface of 
the ground. It is of a spongy na- 
ture and often spnerical in torm. The 
same disease or Class of diseases 
also attacks the peach, raspberry, 
blackberry, appie ana other trees, It 
is most commonly injurious to trees 
growing in the nursery. AlJl stocks 
showing it should be regarded with 

Fig. 49.—Black knot of suspicion. 

: Eira Scab of plums (Cladosporium 
carpophyllum) causes dark, hard spots in the skin of the fruit. 
It may be prevented by spraying with weak Bordeaux mixture. 

Diseases of the Peach. 

Brown Rot (Sclerotinia fructigena).—This disease principal- 
ly attacks peaches about the time the fruit begins to ripen and 
often spreads rapidly. It also causes decay in the fruit after 
it is picked, and is likewise one of the most injurious foes of 
plums and cherries, as well as of the peach, while apples, pears 
and quinces are sometimes injured by it. It sometimes destroys 
the young growth. If the diseased fruit is allowed to remain 
on the tree it dries up and does not fall off. The fungus passes 
the winter in the diseased branches and also in the dried fruit. 
In the spring these send out spores which start new centers of 
infection. 

Remedies.—The diseased dried fruit should be removed 


114 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


from the trees and ground and destroyed by burying deeply or 
burning. During the ripening season all rotting fruit should 
be gathered promptly and 
burned. Where the fruit 
sets thick, thinning is of 
much assistance in keep- 
ing the disease in check. 
Spraying has not general- 
ly proven successful, on ac- 
count of the rapidity of 
the spread of the disease 
when once started and be- 
cause of the liability of 
the foliage to injury from 
the spraying solutions. It 
i S&S “is probably desirable to use 
Fig. 50 —Brown rot; half grown plums Bordeaux mixture on the 

rotting with this disease. trees in the spring before 
the leaves open,.and then apply two or three sprayings of potas- 
sium sulfide about picking time. 

Crown Gall or Foot Rot.—This disease or class of diseases 
affects the peach in much the same way as the plum. In the 
case of the peach, however, the wood is made weaker and the 
trees are broken off at the surface of the ground. It is thought 
by some that it is the result of too much moisture, and the or- 
ganism to which it is ascribed (Dendrophagus gobosus) comes 
in later as a saprophyte. There is no known remedy. Diseased 
trees seldom amount to much and the best treatment is prob- 
ably to remove and burn them. 

Leaf Curl (Hxoascus deformans).—This disease appears soon 
after the leaves come out. It causes them to become distorted 
and swollen and later those that are infected the worst fall off, 
leaving the tree nearly or quite bare of foliage. The remedy 
for it is spraying with Bordeaux mixture about two weeks be- 
fore the buds begin to swell in the spring. In wet springs a 
second application of one-half strength can be used to advan- 
tage. Where the trees are sprayed with lime and suifur in 
winter for scale, the disease is held in check. A weak solution 


DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 115 


of copper sulfate, containing one pound to twenty-five gal- 
lons, applied in the spring about two weeks before the buds 
open, is effective. 

Scab (Cladosporium carpophylum).—This fungus occurs on 
the fruit, leaves and twigs. On the fruit it makes black spots 
which may unite and involve a large part of the surface in a 
black scab, disfiguring the fruit and causing it to become one- 
sided. The mycelium lives over winter on the infected twigs. 
Winter or early spring sprayings are recommended for the 
Peach Scab. 

Yellows.—This disease is now considered due to some de- 
rangement of the plant functions. It is evidently contagious. 
The disease is not easily distinguished from troubles due to 
other causes and weak trees may present symptoms closely re- 
sembling those that are infected with Yellows. Its symptoms 
are a general premature ripening of the fruit, which becomes 
streaked with red, or spotted, and is of a poor quality; a pre- 
mature development of the winter buds, giving rise to exces- 
sive branching on new shoots resembling “witches brooms”, the 
formation of water sprouts, and finally a scanty, yellowish de- 
velopment of the foliage. 

Peach Rosette.—This disease is very similar to the Yellows. 
It is distinguished by the peculiar rosette arrangement of the 
diseased water sprouts which spring from the branches. It gen- 
erally causes the death of the tree in one season. No remedy 
is known except to dig out and burn all affected trees at once. 

Remedies.—The best treatment is to grub out and burn 
the diseased trees. A rigid enforcement of such treatment 
would probably keep it in check, as this seems to be a fair 
lesson to draw from the wide experience of the state of Michi- 
gan in combatting this trouble. 

Diseases of the Cherry. 

The cherry is subject to the following diseases:—Black 
Knot, Brown Rot, Leaf Curl, Leaf Spot and Powdery Mildew. 
These are all discussed under Plum and Peach. The remedies 
for these is Bordeaux mixture. 

Diseases of the Grape. 

Anthracnose (Sphaceloma ampelinum).—This rot may at- 

tack the twigs, fruit or leaves. On the fruit it forms small, dark 


116 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


spots with bright borders and is called bird’s-eye rot. The dis- 
eased wood should be removed. When vines are sprayed with 
Bordeaux mixture for other diseases, this is held in check, and 
it is seldom abundant enough to warrant spraying for it alone. 

Black Rot (Guignardia bidwellii)—One of the most com- 

F; mon of injurious diseases affecting the 
grape. It sometimes attacks the leaves, 
but is most common on the fruit, which 
causes it to rot, turn black, and finally 
dry up. The disease breeds in the 
mummified fruits and in the diseased 
leaves of the Ampelopsis as well as of 
the grape. 

Remedies.—The dried grapes should 
be removed and burned. Spraying with 
Bordeaux mixture is probably the most 
certain remedy and if persistently fol- 
lowed up year after year will be found 
quite effective. The fruit should be 
kept covered with it until it begins to 
color, after which ammoniacal carbon- 
ate of copper should be used. If Bor- 
deaux mixture was used up to ripening 

F eee cee Oey ete time the fruit would look dirty. Bag- 
infested fruit rotted ging the fruit is commonly a satisfactory 

Ane ARES. remedy, provided the bags are put out as 
soon as the fruit is set. To spray effectively with Bordeaux 
mixture will generally take three or four applications, accord- 
ing to the weather. It is sometimes washed off before it is dry, 
when it should be applied again. Some vineyardists are get- 
ting good results by using a solution of copper sulfate (1 Ib. 
to 25 gals. of water) just before growth starts. 

Downy Mildew (Plasmopara viticola).—This fungus may 
attack the young wood, flowers or fruit, or all these at the same 
time. When it attacks the foliage it appears as greenish yel- 
low, or brownish, irregular spots on the upper surface, with 
corresponding spots of whitish, frost-like mildew on the under 
side. The effect of this is to have the leaves dry up and fall 


DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. qi 


off, frequently when the fruit is quite green, which, consequent- 
ly, does not ripen. But, besides the loss of fruit from this dis- 
ease, the wood is often left in a very poor, immature state, and 
the whole plant so seriously weakened that it will not produce a 
full crop of fruit for several years. It frequently acts in this 
manner on the Delaware, while it seldom injures the fruit of 
that variety. On some other varieties the fruit is more sus- 
ceptible than the foliage and it produces brown rot of the ber- 
ries, which may cause severe loss in some season. In this 
case the first perceptible effect of the disease is when a purp- 
lish spot appears on the side of the berry. Later, the fruit is 
covered with a white mould, then it turns brown, and later on 
becomes soft and wrinkled. 

Remedies.—Spraying as recommended for Black Rot, 

Powdery Mildew (Uncinula necator).—This mildew forms 
a superficial, cobweb-like growth on the leaves and new growth, 
and occasionally on the fruit. The remedies are the same as 
for Downy Mildew. It is also recommended to spray the vines 
in the winter with copper sulfate solution to destroy the win- 
ter spores. Flowers of sulfur has also been used successfully 
against this disease. 

Preventives of grape diseases.—Every effort should be 
made to keep fungus diseases from getting a hold of the plant. 
It has been found that where the vines are closely shut in, so 
that there is but little circulation of air and the water does not 
quickly dry off the foliage, or where the soil is wet and cold, 
the vines are very liable to become diseased. On this account, 
where a vineyard is subject to such troubles, the first thing 
to do is to remedy, as far as is practicable, anything that ob- 
structs free circulation of air through it. If the land is moist 
and cold it should be underdrained. For brown and black rot 
of the fruit early bagging of the clusters will be found quite ef. 
fective. But after these things are done, disease may gain a 
foothold and cause serious injury to weak varieties; hence 
spraying may be necessary. Some varieties are uniformly 
healthy in some locations, while others are very susceptible to 
disease. Yet these latter are often the most profitable kinds to 
grow for marketing purposes. 


118 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING, 
Diseases of the Strawberry. 


Leaf Spot, Rust or Sunburn (Sphaerella fragariae) is a dis 
ease which lives in the tissues of the leaves and stem. In the 
early spring smal] 
purple or red 
spots appear on 
the new leaves. 
About the time 
the plants are ex- 
hausted by fruit- 
ing, or perhaps, 
before the fruit is 
fairly ripe, these 
spots increase 
rapidly in _  sizé 
and in a few 
days what was a 
promising straw: 
berry bed is dried 
up and worthless. 

Fig. 52.—Rust or leaf spot of strawberries. Many varieties 

that are hardy 
otherwise have foliage that is susceptible to this dis- 
ease, and some kinds should not be planted unless some fungi- 
cide is used to protect them from it. Our growers at present 
prefer to obviate the necessity of using fungicides by planting 
cnly those varieties that are very robust and healthy. How- 
ever, it may be desirable to grow some varieties with weak 
foliage. In such a case the newly set plants should be sprayed 
waree or more times the first season, commencing as soon as 
the young plants are well established and twice the following 
spring, with Bordeaux mixture or some other fungicide, begin- 
ning as soon as the leaves appear. To do this requires no more 
labor or expense than it does to spray for the potato bug the 
same number of times, and the grower will be well repaid in 
the increased crop. Highly cultivated plants are less liable to 
disease than those that are neglected. 


DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 119 


Diseases of the Blackberry. 

The Crown Gall occasionally attacks blackberry canes near 
the surface of the ground, causing irregular swellings. It has 
not generally proven seri- 
ously injurious, but un- 
doubtedly, the part of 
wisdom would be to avoid 
setting new plantations 
from a field so infested. 
The diseased canes should 
be gathered and burned. 

Leaf Spot (Septoria 
rubi).—This disease pro- 
duces dark colored spots 
on the foliage, which are 
sometimes very abundant. 
Spraying with Bordeaux 
mixture is the best rem- 
edy. 

Fig. 53.—Crown or root gall of Orange Rust.—The 

blackberries. : rae 
blackberry is also injured 
by the orange rust, which is referred to under the head of Rasp- 
berry. 


Diseases of the Raspberry. 

Leaf Curl.—This name is indicative of one of the early 
stages of the disease. The leaves curl up, and though they 
may remain green all through the season, the plants make a 
poor, weak growth. The fruit is dull in color, small in size and 
rather bitter in taste. Later the plants kill out, and any healthy 
sets with which they may be replaced soon succumb to the 
trouble. This disease spreads very slowly and, as a rule, at the 
beginning there are only a few infected spots in a plantation, 
which slowly increase in size from year to year. The spread of 
the disease may be prevented to a great extent by pulling and 
burning the diseased plants as soon as they appear. In setting 
out a new plantation, use only land which has not been in rasp- 
berries for several years and take great care to have young, 
healthy sets. Do not accept plants from a weak plantation on 
any account. 


120 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Red Orange Rust (Gymnoconia interstitialis) is most harm- 
ful to the Black Cap raspberries, though it frequently injures 
blackberries, dewberries and allied plants. It produces a 
weak appearance in the canes and foliage, and in the latter 
part of the summer the under side of the foliage 
becomes completely covered with a thick coat- 
ing of orange colored spores, which easily rub off. 
One soon learns to know the plants that are dis- 
eased, even before the spores appear, and they 
should be pulled and burned at once. This is es- 
pecially neecessary with the black-cap varieties; 
but even with these, if the affected plants are 
destroyed, the disease may generally be kept in 
check until a new plantation can be well started, 
and sometimes assiduous attention to pulling and 
burning results in stamping out the disease. 

Crown Gall is sometimes injurious to the rasp- 
berry the same as to the blackberry, but it is sel- 
dom very injurious at the North. In selecting 
new sets care should be taken to avoid those from 
infested fields. 

Cane Rust or Anthracnose (Gloesporium neca- 
tor) manifests itself on the raspberry by small 
purplish spots, which may spread and form whit- 
ish patches with purplish edges. The tissue is 

oe c killed out under the spots. It affects raspber- 
ae J aapoted ries generally, but the purple and cap varieties 
berries, are most liable to its injury. 

Remedy.—The best treatment is to spray the canes before 
the leaves start with thick Bordeaux mixture. The badly dis- 
eased canes should be cut out at pruning time and only resistant 
varieties planted. Spray the new growth in the spring once or 
twice. There is a great difference in the power of different varie- 
ties to resist this disease. 

Diseases of the Gooseberry and Currant. 

Mildew (Sphaerotheca morsuvae) is the worst disease of 
the gooseberry. It attacks the foliage which, as a result, be- 
comes covered with a whitish mould. Later the leaves dry up 


DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 121 


and drop off and the wood fails to mature. In bad cases the 
berries become discolored and perhaps ruined. As a rule, this 
disease does not cause serious injury in good locations in this 
section; but in wet seasons, or on wet land in any season, or 
where there is a poor circulation of air it may be very destruc- 
tive. 

Remedies.—These should be preventives largely, and con- 
sist of allowing plenty of room between the plants for a good 
circulation of air and keeping them in as vigorous a state of 
health as possible by manuring and cultivating. If the disease 
makes its appearance in the face of these precautions, recourse 
should be had to the following remedy, which is very satis- 
factory: Spray the plants in the spring as soon as the young 
leaves begin to unfold, and repeat it as often as once in eigh- 
teen or twenty days, except in times of heavy rains when it 
must be done oftener. For this purpose use liver of sulfur 
(Potassium sulfide) dissolved in water at ‘the rate of one-half 
ounce to the gallon. 

Leaf Spot (Septoria ribes).—Both currant and gooseberry 
are injured by what is termed leaf spot, which causes deadened 
spots in the foliage. It may be prevented by spraying with 
Bordeaux mixture before the fruit begins to color and again 
after the fruit is picked. 


QUESTIONS—CHAPTER VII. 


Diseases. 


What portions of the plant are most susceptible to disease? 
How are the majority of plant diseases propagated? 

What is meant by the alternation of generations? 

How are plant diseases generally treated? 

. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the 
plum and give remedy for each: Plum Pocket, Leaf Curl, Black Rot, 
Brown Rot, Shot Hole Fungus, Crown Gall. 

6. What diseases are injurious to the pear? 

7. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the 
apple and give remedy for each: Apple Blight, Bitter Rot, Black Rot, 
Crown Gall, Leaf Rust, Apple Scab, Powdery Mildew, Fruit Scaled. 

8. How does spraying sometimes injure the trees? 

9. How does frost affect the trees? 

10. What is sunscald and how does it injure the trees? 
11. How may it be remedied? 

12. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the 
peach and give remedy for each: Brown Rot, Crown Gall, Leaf Scald, 
Seab, Yellows, 


Cubes de 


122 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


18. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the 
grape and give remedy for each: Anthracnose, Black Rot, Downy 
Mildew, Powdery Mildew. 

14, What are some general preventives for diseases of the grape? 
15. How does rust or sunburn affect the foliage of the straw- 
erry? 

16. What is the remedy for it? 

17. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the 
Blgch berry and give remedy for each: Crown Gall, Leaf Spot, Orange 

ust. : 
18. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the 
raspberry and give remedy for each: Leaf Curl, Orange Rust, Crown 
Gall, Anthracnose. 

19. What diseases affect the cherry? 

20. What diseases affect the quince? 

21. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the 
quince and give remedy for each: Leaf Blight, Black Rot. 

22. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the 
Se and currant and give remedy for each: Mildew and Leaf 

pot. 

Take up the other diseases discussed in the same way as the 
foregoing. 


CHAPTER VIII. 


SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS. 


The methods of spraying of plants naturally divide them- 
selves into two groups, (1) dust spraying and (2) liquid spray- 
ing. 

Dust and Liquid Spraying Compared.—In a general way it 
may safely be stated that insecticides and fungicides applied 
in the dust form to trees are not as efficient as when applied 
in the liquid form, and the difference in efficiency is enough to 
make it worth the extra trouble necessary to employ the liquid 
form under all ordinary circumstances. 

The principal difficulty with the dust spray is in getting 
it to stick to the foliage and fruit. It should be applied while 
the foliage is damp. This may be soon after a rain, or while 
the foliage is damp with dew. Advantage cannot often be 
taken of the former condition; hence one must usually rely on 
getting the dust spray on very early in the morning or oc- 
casionally late in the evening. In either case it will be out of 
the regular working hours and therefore disagreeable. The 
wind also interferes much more with the application of dust 
sprays than with liquid sprays. This difficulty, however, is 
helped by the fact that in the early morning, when the dust 
spray must usually be applied, there is seldom much wind dur- 
ing the summer months. Another reason for the comparative 
inefficiency of dust sprays—and this applies especially to the 
application of dry Bordeaux mixture—is that the dry form can 
never be obtained in as finely divided condition, whether pre- 
pared at home or in the factory, as good home-made liquid 
sprays. This means that an equal or even greater quantity of 
the dust form cannot be as thoroughly distributed over a given 
_amount of leaf surface as can the liquid form, and hence will 
leave more unprotected spots, through which disease or insect 
pests may enter. The great advantage in favor of dust sprays 
is the comparative cheapness of their application because large 
quantities of water do not need to be hauled around in order 
to apply the spraying material, but, as previously stated, this 


124 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


is not enough to make up for the difference in efficiency. How- 
ever, it may become of much importance in the case of hilly 
land. Here the light dust spray outfits can be used when it 
would be impossible to get around with a barrel of liquid spray, 
or, much less, with the large wagon outfits. 

Liquid Spraying Outfits. Pressure.-—The important point 
in the application of liquid sprays is to get a high pressure. 
This should not be less than 75 pounds on an ordinary pres- 
sure gauge. For high trees better work will be accomplished 
with a pressure of 125 pounds. It is not usually advisable to 
use a pressure of over 125 pounds, because it is too hard on 
the machinery and apparatus in general. The higher the pres- 
sure it is practicable to maintain, however, the more efficient 
will be the application of the spray. This should be applied 
in the finest mist-like form pos- 
sible, and a good pressure is nec- 
essary to accomplish this. A fine 
mist will float among the foliage 
like a fog if there is not too stiff 
a breeze, and will cover both sides 
of the leaves and fruit much bet- 
ter than could possibly be the case 
with a spray of drops such as comes 
from an ordinary nozzle under low 
pressure. 

Agitation in Barrel Outfits.— 
The movement of the barrel while 
; in use is often sufficient to keep 

Fig. 55.—Knapsack are well made Bordeaux and other 
er. light sprays from settling, but with 

the heavier sprays, like Paris Green and lime-sulfur wash, 
some provision for agitation is necessary. Probably the best 
way to provide for this agitation is to have a paddle attached 
to the pump near the bottom of the barrel in such a manner 
that it will move with every stroke of the handle and thus keep 
the liquid stirred up and prevent settling. Another method of 
providing for agitation, known as “jet agitation,” is to leave a 
smail hole in the bottom of the cylinder, through which a part of 


SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS. 125 


the liquid is forced out with each stroke. This method works 
quite well while the pump is new and the packing tight, but as 
the pump becomes worn it will usually be found that all of the 
liquid which the cylinder will handle will be needed in order to 
maintain sufficient pressure. Moreover, the hole through which 
the jet escapes wears larger in time and thus further helps to 
decrease the efficiency of the pump. 

Agitation in Tank Outfits.—All tank outfits should be equip- 
ped for agitation for all kinds of spraying compounds. It is, 
however, desirable not to have the agitation too violent, be- 
cause with some spraying compounds, especially with the lime- 
sulfur wash, there may be considerable sediment which, while 
small enough to pass through the strainer on the suction hose 
and through the nozzle in 
‘small quantities, may in 
larger quantities cause col- 
siderable difficulty with 
these _ parts. The  agita- 
tion should be just sufficient 
to keep the finer particles in 
suspension and still allow the 
coarse particles to settle. One 
way of providing agitation is 
to have the tank sectioned 
crosswise with partitions 
every two and a half or 
three feet, leaving a hole 
about a foot wide and six 
inches high through which the 


: liquid will rush and cause a 
Fig, 56.—Plum leaf covered with 


arsenate of lead after 10 days. general stirring up every time 

oe ag ee well it sticks the wagon is driven forward 
to another tree. This method does well with small 
to medium-sized trees with well made Bordeaux and 
the lighter spraying compounds but where they tend to 
settle rapidly, such agitation is seldom sufficient, and where the 
trees are so large that considerable periods occur between 
movements of the wagon it is entirely insufficient. Another 


objection to this method is that the partitions make it difficult 


126 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


to clean out the tank and remove the coarse sediment which 
collects in the bottom. A better method of providing for agi- 
tation is by means of a rod running lengthwise of the tank, with 
perforated cross pieces about six or eight inches high, cut 
rounding to fit in the bottom of the tank, and twelve to sixteen 
inches wide, attached at every two and one-half or three feet. 
There are two methods of giving this apparatus the alternating 
backward and forward movement necessary for agitation. Prob- 
ably the most common way is by means of a chain drive from 
one of the hind wheels of the wagon. This method, of course, 
supplies agitation only when the wagon is in motion and is 
therefore to some extent open to the same objections as the 
preceding method. It has the advantage, however, of giving 
more thorough agitation while 
it is working and of being 
such a simple arrangement 
that it can easily be made, 
and there is little about it to 
get out of order. The other 
method of supplying the mo 
tion to the agitator is by hav- 
ing it connected with the 
pump. Up to the present 
time no really substantial 
method of connection has 
been devised, and little pro- 
vision has been made for 
regulating the amount of agi- 
tation given. Usually this 
agitator gives more agitation 
i OY than is needed. It will, how- 
Fig. 57.—Barrel sprayer. ever, probably be the best 
method when it has become perfected, because it is con- 
tinuous. Provision is sometimes made for hand operation of the 
agitator by means of a handle fastened in the top of the tank. 
The working parts of pumps and the lining of the bamboo 
spray poles should be of brass for most spraying compounds. 
If the parts are made of iron they are liable to ordinary rust- 
ing and to corrosion by Bordeaux mixture and similar com- 


SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS, 127 


pounds. With the lime-sulfur wash iron parts last longer 
than brass parts, but any kind of metal will wear rapidly, since 
this compound contains much grit on account of the large quan- 
tities of lime used in making it. 

Air Chamber.—All spray pumps should be provided with 
an air chamber of liberal size. This equalizes the pressure 
between the strokes of the pump, thus giving a more even flow 
of spray from bd nozzle and easing the strain on the hose. 

i Nozzles.—Most of the nozzles now in 
use have a chamber, known as the “ed- 
dy chamber,” underneath the nozzle-cap, 
with the entrance into the chamber so ar- 
ranged that a rapid, whirling motion of 
the liquid results and causes the liquid, 
if under proper pressure, to break up and 
leave the nozzle in a very finely divided, 
mist-like condition. There are a number 
of types of nozzles, but the amateur will 
probably have the best success by using 
nozzles of the Vermorel type. Where 
sufficient power is available, as with 
gasoline engines, two or more poles may 
be run from one pump, each pole bear- 
ing from two to four nozzles. 

Clogging of the nozzle may result 
from several causes. The most common 
is improper straining. The spraying 
ae mixtures should always be strained, 
Fig. 58~—Bucket when run into the spraying barrel or 

pump outfit. tank, through as fine a mesh as possible. 
For lime-sulfur wash about twenty meshes per inch must be 
used because a smaller mesh fills up badly. For most other 
sprays a mesh as small as twenty-five per inch should be used if 
possible. A much finer mesh can be used when the strainer is 
made with the wire mesh on the sides as well as on the bottom 
because this allows the liquid to continue to pass through the strain- 
er when the bottom has been covered with sediment, as frequent- 
ly occurs with lime-sulfur wash. The mesh should be of brass 
or copper. Whenever burlap is used for holding the dissolving 


128 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


blue vitriol, it should be of a good, firm grade. If it is flimsy, 
much fiber may leave the burlap and ultimately get into the noz- 
zles and clog them. Wood fiber, becoming loose from the in- 
side of the spray tank, will also frequently cause clogging of 
the nozzle. A high pressure will drive much sediment through 
the nozzles that otherwise would clog them. 

Hose.—The hose must be strong and durable in order to 
avoid delays from breakage and disagreeable leakages. Three- 
ply three-eighth inch is most commonly used. One extensive 
fruit grower in the East uses seven-ply three-eighth inch hose. 
It is not advisable to use a larger hose because it does not 
stand the pressure so well and is heavier to drag around from 
tree to tree in spraying. 

Thoroughness of work is es- 
sential to real success in spray- 
ing. The man who goes about 
his trees in a “hit or miss” fash- 
ion, leaving a branch unsprayed 
here and the center of the tree 
unsprayed there, is the one who 
finds that spraying does not pay. 
An apple that is not completely 


Q LT 


Fig. 59.—Inexpensive com- covered with a coat of poison is 
pressed air sprayer for 
spraying currants, pota- not completely protected from 
toes, cabbages, etc. the second brood of the codlin 


moth larvae. Every inch of twig and branch of a tree sprayed 
for the San Jose scale, that is not coated with the 
mixture, has just as many live scales on it as _ it 
had before the spraying outfit came by that tree, and 
hence remains unmolested as a source of infection on the new 
growth and of re-infection on the treated portions as soon as 
the coat of spray becomes ineffective. Many who begin to spray 
after an orchard is about full grown find that the trees are set 
too closely together. Enough space should be left between the 
rows to permit the ready passage of the spraying outfit at all 
times. It is impossible to do good work in spraying trees where 
one cannot get around conveniently with the spray pole. More- 
over, in a closely set orchard, a horse pulling a barrel outfit on 


SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS, 129 


a stone-boat will often not be able to get down the row, to say 
nothing of the impossibility of getting through with a power 
outfit. 

Kinds of Spraying Outfits—For spraying on a very small 
scale, the knapsack, bucket pump, and five-gallon compressed 


Fig. 60.—One of the many types of sprayers with power from a gaso- 
line engine. 


air outfits are very serviceable. The cheapest and most gen- 
erally useful spraying outfit on areas up to five acres is a first- 
class oil barrel set upright on a stone-boat with a good spray 
pump fastened on it. On larger areas up to 15 or 20 acres the 
wagon tank with a horizontal hand pump is more practicable, 
since it has greater capacity and efficiency. On areas of over 
twenty acres the air-cooled gasoline outfit will usually be a good 
investment. It relieves the laborious work of pumping by hand, 
and correspondingly reduces the working force necessary and 
gives a higher pressure. With a little mechanical ingenuity 
and care on the part of the operator it should be easily kept 
in good working order. 


130 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Another type of spraying outfit is what is known as the 
“gas sprayer.” The spray mixture is run into a tight steel tank 


Fig. 61.—Forms of Vermorel Spray nozzles in common use. a.—Ver- 
morel nozzle with an opening. e¢.—Vermorel nozzle with four 
openings. b.—The top and base of extension rod, showing a 
cap to keep the spray liquid off the hand. 


of 50 to 250 gallons capacity. A carbon dioxide gas tank is 
connected with this and the gas released from it, according to 
the pressure desired, into the spray tank. This method has 
the advantage of being the most simple arrangement possible. 
It is, however, expensive, since the gas tanks must be sent back 
to headquarters to be refilled, involving considerable cost in 
freight in distant locations, as well as the cost of refilling. In- 
jury has frequently resulted to trees sprayed with this type of 
sprayer, presumably because the carbon dioxide gas united with 
the “lime” in the Bordeaux mixture, leaving free copper sul- 
fate which burned the foliage. 


SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS. 131 


zontal movement. 


QUESTIONS—Chapter VIII. 
Spraying and Spraying Apparatus. 

1. What are theadvantages and disadvantages of dust spraying? 

2. What are the important things to be remembered for success- 
ful liquid spraying? 

3. By what means can the spraying mixture be kept well mixed 
in the barrel spraying outfits? In the tank spraying outfits? 

4. What materials should be used for making the working parts 
of spray pumps? 

5. What causes the clogging of the nozzles and how may it be 
remedied? 

6. What care should be taken in spraying the orchard? . 

7. What spraying outfits are best adapted to small areas? To 
large areas? 


CHAPTER IX. 
HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 


While good, sound business judgment is necessary through- 
out the whole round of successful fruit growing, it is especially 
important when the grower comes to picking and marketing. 
The successful fruit grower must not only study how to raise 
fruit and what kinds are needed in the markets of the world 
but he must learn the best way to market it so as to bring 
him the largest possible returns. Markets may easily be di- 
vided into small, local and large, and the methods of selling 
may vary greatly in different sections. The ways of doing busi- 
ness are much more uniform in the large markets, but there 
is much difference in this respect in different sections and the 
grower should study carefully the peculiarities of his markets. 

Fruit growers may also be divided into classes, according 
as they retail or wholesale their products, Large fruit growers 
must be wholesalers, while many small growers can often, to 
advantage, work up a retail business. The methods of dis- 
tributing fruit have become very much improved in recent years 
so that the prices are more uniform than formerly. This, to 
be sure, interferes with the high prices that occasionally pre- 
vailed in local markets under the old methods. On the other 
hand it makes less liable the glutting of the local market and 
the resultant low prices that were so troublesome formerly, 
so that the present conditions are probably better than the old 
for both the producer and the consumer. 

Picking.—The marketing of fruit begins with the picking 
for it is the first step in selling it. No matter how carefully 
other details are attended to, the picking must be done right 
or the fruit will be of little value. Fruit allowed to become 
too ripe before picking, or roughly handled in picking, may be 
rendered unsalable. For best results, fruit to be marketed in 
fresh condition must be picked by hand. 

The exact time to pick fruit can only be determined by 


HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 133 


experience. A rule for this cannot be laid down for every class 
of fruits. 

Time to Pick Fruit.—Strawberries are picked when they 
begin to turn red, and raspberries when the fruits part readily 
from the stem on which they grow; blackberries and dewber- 
ries aS soon as well colored, although the flavor would general- 
ly be improved by allowing them to remain longer on the 
plants. Gooseberries are generally marketed green; currants 
are allowed to color, but are not allowed to ripen and are gener- 
ally preferred fcr jelly-making when a few berries show some 
green color. Cherries are picked as soon as well colored. This 
will depend somewhat on the variety. Plums may be picked 
when they are well colored. The Japanese kinds color well 
after picking. Prunes are generally allowed to ripen on the 
trees and are shaken off if to be used for 
drying. If to be shipped for use when 
fresh, they are picked as soon as well col- 
ored. Pears are usually picked as soon as 
full grown and are preferably ripened in 
the shade. For the distant market it is 
necessary that pears be shipped green 
and be allowed to ripen in transit. At 
Fresno, California, the season for Bart- 
lett pears lasts two months, the first ship- 
ments beginning as soon as the fruit is 
large enough to sell. Peaches for the 
nearby market are picked as soon as they 
begin to show a slight softness and be- 
fore they are mellow; for the distant mar- 
ket, they are picked quite green. Summer 
cooking apples are generally picked as 

Fig. 63.—Ladder in S00n as large enough to use, without re- 
Caer ae for gard to ripeness. All the summer apples 
that are to be shipped must be picked green 

as they are quite perishable when ripe. It may be best, however, 
to allow them to color a little. Late varieties are picked as soon 
as well colored and before severe frosts. Apples should always 
be picked earlier if they show by the windfalls that they are 


134 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


ripening, as there is liable to be serious loss from this cause. 
Winter apples generally keep best if picked a little before they 
are fully colored, but while still firm and hard. Grapes should 
be picked when fully ripe, as they do not ripen after being 
picked. 


Fig. 64.—Picking scene in an apple orchard. Note the low-headed 
trees, which make it possible to reach all the fruit from the ground 
or from short ladders. The pickers are equipped with canvas bags 
hung over the shoulders, in which the fruit is placed as picked. 
This leaves both hands free and allows rapid work. The fruit is 
taken to the packing shed in bushel baskets, and is then care- 
fully packed in boxes or barrels. 


The stems should be left on strawberries, plums, apples, 
pears, grapes, currants and cherries. If the stems are pulled 
out of the fruits, injuries are caused that encourage rotting. 

Fruit should seldom be shipped in the same package that 


HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 135 


it is picked in, but should be sorted into other suitable pack- 
ages in a cool storehouse. 

Local peddling is possible where the grower lives near his 
customers. In some sections the dealers have combined and se- 
cured legislation which has made this prohibitory; but where 
practicable, it is a very satisfactory way of disposing of the 
product so as to get the highest possible price. A variety of 
fruits are most easily disposed of in this way and under some 
conditions it is a good plan to combine the peddling of fruit 
with a vegetable business. 

Commission Dealer.—The larger grower must find some 
party to sell his produce. It may be best for him to do this 
through the commission merchant. In any case, it should be 
understood that the larger grower has a decided advantage over 
the small grower as he is a bigger factor in the market and will 
receive more attention. It is most important to secure an hon- 
est and able commission dealer if the business is to be done in 
this way. The usual charge for handling fruit is 10% of the 
gross sales. , 

Associations of fruit growers, when well managed, offer the 
most satisfactory method of selling. Here the sales are made 
by an agent of the growers. Such an arrangement gives to a 
large number of small growers a power in the market equal 
to that of the big grower and shipper. It prevents their com- 
peting injuriously with one another in the local or distant mar- 
ket and reduces marketing to a simpler matter. The small grow- 
er can stay at home and look after the picking and packing, as 
he does not have to go to market, when he sells through an as- 
sociation, and still he is a controlling factor in the market. 
Organizations of this kind should have correspondents over a 
large territory and they can often ignore the prices prevailing in 
the local markets. 

Fruit Packages, 

PackIng.—The packages for fruits are many and various 
and the shipper should be familiar with them all. In some of 
the older fruit sections it is customary to have the pack- 
ages for small fruit returned to the packer. As a rule this 
is a poor practice and results in the use of unsightly pack- 


136 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


ages which hurt the sale of the fruit. The same is true of the 
practice of using dirty barrels for apples. The common experi- 
ence of the larger fruit growers leads to a belief in the gift pack- 
age for general marketing. In fact, for long distant shipments, 
the return package is out of the question, although it may do 
for some local markets. Every fruit shipper should occasionally 
visit the great markets and study this question of marketing 


Fig. 65.—Fruit packages, showing bushel basket with cover, 32-quart 
gift package for berries and grape basket. 
fruits at first hand. He will probably learn more about fruit 
packages in a single hour of inspection at such a place than in 
a week of studying such a subject in the small markets. 
Uniform packages.—While there are a great variety of fruit 
packages in use in the different markets of this country, it is 
very desirable that the packages used for selling fruit in the 
same market be uniform. For instance, it is important to have 
all the so-called quart boxes, such as are commonly used for 
selling small fruit, of the same size, otherwise there will be 
lack of fair competition among growers, since many buyers do 
not properly distinguish between the standard package and one 
that is short. In some states, and notably in Canada, legislation 
has been invoked for this purpose and with good effect. These 
laws generally take the form of prohibiting any person from 
offering for sale any fruit package smaller than the prescribed 
size unless each package is plainly labeled that it is short in size. 
There is much more attention paid to this subject in America 


HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 137 


than in Europe where comparatively little fruit is used and that 
generally marketed in a variety of packages. 


Fig. 66.—Fruit package with separate compartment for each fruit. 


The following list shows some of the fruit packages that are 
prescribed by law: 
Fruit Package Laws. 
New York Small Fruit Package Law: 
Quarts shall contain 67 cubic inches. 
Pints shall contain 331 cubic inches, 
¥ Pint shall contain 16%4 cubic inches. 

New York Apple, Pear, Quince and Potato Barrel Law: 
Barrels shall contain 100 quarts of grain, dry measure. 
Head diameter shall be 17% inches. 

Stave length shall be 2814 inches. 
Bulge shall not be less than 64 inches, outside measurement. 
Potatoes sold by weight shall weigh 174 pounds to the barrel. 


138 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Massachusetts Berry Basket Law: 
Baskets shall be of the capacity of one quart, one pint, or 
one-half pint, Massachusetts standard dry measure. 
New Jersey Peach Basket Law: 
Peach baskets shall hold sixteen quarts, Winchester 14 bu. 
measure. 
Height of basket shall be 1214 inches. 
Width across top of basket shall be 13% inches. 
Inside measurement shall contain 1075.1 cubic inches. 
Missouri Apple Barrel Law: } 
Length of apple barrel shall be 28% inches. 
Chimes shall be % of an inch at the ends. 
Diameter of heads shall be 17% inches. 
Diameter of the center of the barrel, inside, shall be 20% 
inches. 
Canadian Fruit Package Law: 
Apples packed in Canada for export shall be packed in bar- 
rels. 
Distance between the heads, inside measurement, shall be 
261%, inches. 
Head diameter shall be 17 inches. 
Middle diameter of barrel shall be 1814 inches. 
Canadian Fruit Baskets shall contain, when level full 
a—Fifteen quarts or more. 
b—Eleven quarts and be 5% inches deep, inside measure- 
ment. 
c—Six and two-thirds quarts and be 45% in. deep, inside 
measurement. 
d—Two and two-fifths quarts. 
Michigan Peach Basket Law: 
Peach basket shall contain 716 4-5 cubic inches or 1-3 bu. 
Michigan Standard Barrel Law: 
Barrel staves shall be 27 inches long. 
Heads shall be 16% ins. in diameter. 
Maine Barrel Law: 
A barrel of potatoes shall weigh 165 pounds. 
Tennessee Apple Barrel Law: 
Apple barrels shall contain 214 bushels. 


HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 139 


Wisconsin Apple Barrel Law: 

Apple barrels shall contain 100 quarts, dry measure. 
Florida Orange Box: 

The standard orange box adopted by the Florida Fruit Ex- 
change measures 12x12x265¢ inches. 

Georgia Peach Crate: 

The peach crate adopted by the Georgia Horticultural Socie- 
ty measures 8x12%x22 inches. 

Raspberries, blackberries, currants, gooseberries, strawber- 
ries and small plums are generally shipped in boxes that are com- 
monly called quarts and occasionally in pint boxes. There is 
quite a variety in the forms and sizes of boxes used for this pur- 
pose. In the Central states, almost without exception, the gift 
package is used and here the boxes are generally made of wood 
veneer, with the bottom raised about one-half inch and the cor- 
ners ventilated. Cases usually contain sixteen or twenty-four 
pints or quarts. This makes a very satisfactory package in 
which fruit carries well. 

Grapes are usually marketed in the so-called five or ten- 
pound veneer basket which usually contains either four or eight 
pounds. This basket has a wooden cover which is held down by 
wire. Plums are usually marketed in baskets containing about 
one-half peck each. In the Eastern states a package resembling 
the grape basket is often used, while in the Pacific Coast states 
a basket that fits into a case holding six or eight of them is a 
favorite. Peaches are shipped in much the same packages as 
plums although in Delaware round baskets are much used. 

The bushel basket.—In some sections a favorite package for 
marketing apples, pears and quinces is the bushel basket with 
a cover. While this does very well for local use it is too waste- 
ful of space in packing cars to warrant its general use. It is, 
however, a popular package with the purchaser as it is useful 
to him and he is willing to pay something for it, while the box 
package is regarded by the purchaser as being of no value. 

The bushel box is the popular fruit package in many of 
the Western states and has given excellent returns. For fancy 
fruit, it is an excellent package, but for fruit of ordinary grades 
it is probably not as good as the barrel, as the cost of the pack- 


140 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


age and packing is much more than where barrels are used. 
Much fancy fruit from the Western states is wrapped in paper 
before it is packed and is then put in the boxes in layers by 
hand. Of course such fruit ships and keeps better than fruit not 
so carefully handled. The box enables a better display to be 
made of the fruit and supplies a handy package for the retailer. 


Methods of Packing.—There are two methods or styles of 
placing apples in these boxes in general use, known as the 
straight and diagonal packs. In the straight pack the apples are 
placed in straight rows, both lengthwise and across the box. 
The straight pack is not used where the diagonal can be used 
as the apples are more apt to be bruised in pressing and putting 
the cover on. 

There are various ways of arranging the apples in the box in 
the straight pack as well as the other kinds. Some place the 
apple on the side, others with the stem up, and others with the 
stem down. Probably the best packs are those arranged with the 
stems to the outside in the top and bottom layers. 

The term tier is used to designate the number of rows across 
the top and the number of rows deep. The number of rows 
across times the number of rows deep times the number of tiers 
long gives the number of apples in the box. The number of 
tiers, of course, depends on the size of the apples. The up-to- 
date packer now stamps either the number of tiers, or the num- 
ber of apples contained in the box on the outside so that the 
buyer may know at a glance how many apples he has in the box. 


Diagonal Pack.—In the diagonal or diamond pack the rows 
run diagonally with the edge of the box. Its advantage over 
other packs is that it accommodates sizes that do not work 
into the straight pack and also that in pressing the apples can 
adjust themselves to the spaces between the apples in the adjoin- 
ing tiers. The diagonal pack contains the half tiers, such as 
three and one-half and four and one-half. These allow an easy 
pack for many apples that would not go in the straight pack. 

The diagonal pack is started by putting in two or three 
apples in the lower left hand corner and then building the lower 
layer from these. Experience is needed before one can do this 
well. 


HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 141 


Grading.—The apples should be graded by an experienced 
grader and placed on the packing table ready for the packer. A 
mechanical grader, as shcwn in the illustration, is useful until 
one is able to judge the size of an apple readily. The holes in 
the grading board may be of the following diameters: 2%4, 2%, 


Fig. 67.—Methods of packing apples in boxes. Numbers show order in 
which first fruits are placed in the boxes. At left, 4 tier straight 
pack; at right, 3% tier diagonal pack. 


MMOS We 
OOO: 


Fig. 68.—Handy board for grading apples into sizes for packing. The 
figures in the openings show the diameter of the holes in inches, 
while the figures below show the corresponding packs, 


142 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


234, 3% and 35% inches respectively. (This is for the standard 
apple box.) Apples which go through the 3% inch hole and over 
the 31% inch hole are 3% tier apples; through 3% and over the 2% 
inch are 4 tier; through 2% and over 2% inch are 4% tier, and 
through 2% and over 2% inch are 5 tier. If the use of the holes 
results in sizes averaging a trifle too small for a tight pack they 
can readily be cut a little larger. 

In some local markets it is customary to sell a large amount 
of choice fruit in a return package which is not covered. Such 
boxes present a much improved appearance if the fruit is faced 
down and packed in layers. This is done by taking off the bot- 


5 rap oe aly fA 
2 tie Me — Oe 
HPO egy ne we ‘ 
es oe Seo Ps ee 
kMadg nie Mie “a 
at ae 


® PP tee, 
oe ae 


© MUTT 
\ 
\ 


Fig. 69.—Fruit press for packing bushel boxes. a.—Box in place with 
cover ready for nailing. b.—Foot lever. 


tom, placing the box, bottom end up ,on a small shutter and then 
putting in the fruit in layers. The bottom boards are then 
nailed on and the box turned upright. A box packed in layers 
will hold considerably more than one in which the fruit is poured 
in. 

In packing apples and pears in boxes for shipment to distant 
markets, some pressure must be applied to insure the fruit 
being solid and firm in the boxes. This is generally given by 
Springing on the head boards, which leaves the top bulging. 


HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 143 


When packed in a car, such packages should lie on their sides 
and be held in place by the use of strips of wood between each 
tier of boxes. 

Fruit packing material is generally bought by the grower 
all cut out ready to put together. For many of the small pack- 
ages, a wire stitching machine is used in putting them together. 
Barrels are generally bought in the crate and set up in a local 


Fig. 70.—Sorting table for fruit packed in boxes. 


cooper shop. Box material is generally handled in the same 
way. By purchasing it in this way and putting it together him- 
self the grower can often utilize his spare labor to advantage. 
Barrels are commonly used for marketing apples and some- 
times for pears. This package is preferred for apples in most 
of the Eastern markets, and especially when the fruit is some- 


144 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


what inferior in quality, or when low in price. It is probably 
best to always market the extra choice apples in boxes. 

Formerly there was a great difference in the size of barrels 
used for packing apples and this fruit came to market in barrels 
holding scarcely two and a half bushels, while sugar barrels, 
which hold nearly four bushels, were occasionally used. This 
worked in various ways to make the marketing of apples a very 
loose matter. To help overcome this difficulty, the National Ap- 
ple Shippers’ association adopted a standard size for apple bar- 
rels. According to these requirements a standard barrel must 
have a head 171% inches in diameter; a stave 28% inches in 
length and a bulge of not less than 64 inches outside measure- 
ment. This size of barrel is by law the standard barrel in New 
York state for the marketing of apples, pears, quince and pota- 
toes. The standard Missouri barrel is nearly identical. 

How to pack a barrel of apples.—Select a clean barrel. If 
second hand barrels are to be used, such as flour barrels, they 
should be thoroughly cleaned by washing and rubbing. If this 
is not done, the fruit is apt to look dusty when opened which 
will detract from its sale. Under such conditions some packers 
follow the plan of lining the barrels with newspapers or other 
cheap paper which is an excellent plan. Ordinarily, new barrels 
are used. Sometimes a circular piece of paper is put on each 
end. The barrel being placed before the packer with the bottom 
out and the head down, the packer puts about a half bushel of 
apples in the bottom and proceeds to turn them so that the 
stem end faces the head, i. e. downwards. Two layers are gen- 
erally faced in the case of fruit of first quality but for ordinary 
fruit, one layer of facing fruit is enough. When these are in, the 
barrel is filled by pouring in the sorted fruit from a basket that 
is put down in the barrel before it is emptied so as to avoid the 
least chance of bruising the fruit. For this purpose a half-bushel 
basket with a swinging bale is best. As each basketful is put 
in, the barrel is gently shaken so as to settle the fruit but not 
enough to bruise it. When the barrel is nearly full, a layer of 
apples is put on with the stem end up. This layer should stand 
up out of the barrel two inches or more. The chime hoops are 
then loosened a little and the outside one taken off, but not the 


HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 145 


second hoop, as this would allow the barrel to spread too much. 
A head is then put on under a barrel press and is slowly forced 
into the barrel. While the pressure is being applied a few well 
directed strokes with a hammer directs the head into place, when 
the chime hoop is driven down and a few nails are put in to 
hold the head in place while the press is removed. The outside 
chime hoop is put on and nailed in place and then the lining 
hoops are nailed fast. The barrel is then turned over and sten- 
cilled on the end that was downward but is now the top. 

A package thus packed opens up with a nice show of evenly 
packed apples and makes a good appearance. The necessity of 
pressing in the apples arises from the fact that otherwise the 
apples will shake in the barrel when it is moved and will bruise. 

= A properly pack- 
ed barrel has no 
movement of its 
contents. ‘There 
is considerable 
bruising of the 
fruit where the 
pressure is ap- 
plied but such 
bruises are not 
often injurious. 

Barrel press. 
—There are sev- 


Fig. 71.—Packing presses for apples. a.— eYral kinds of bar 
Foot press. b.—Screw press. rel presses in 


common use. Presses illustrated in figure 71 are the forms com- 
monly obtained from the implement dealers. Where such a press 
cannot be conveniently obtained, a very good one may be made 
by any blacksmith by using an ordinary bench screw for applying 
the pressure. 

Grades of fruit.—For the most successful handling of fruit 
there is nothing more important than proper grading. Even grades 
of fruit that can be depended upon soon establish for a shipper 
a reputation that is of great advantage to him in marketing his 
product. The grades of fruit are variously designated. It is 


146 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


generally customary to mark the choicest fruit with the words 
“Choice,” “Select,” or “Fancy,” but other special marks are 
used. The next grading is generally “First Quality’, “A-1,” or 
“AA.’ The lower grade may be marked “A” or “2nds,” or 
for the various grades one or more “X’s” may be used. It is 
seldom that more than three grades are made. In seasons when 
prices are low it will often be found unprofitable to ship fruit 
of third quality. 

Every shipper should put his name on his fruit package to 
indicate his responsibility for its contents. In this way a ship- 
per’s product comes to be known and fairly valued, which is 
an advantage to him as well as to the dealer and consumer. 

For grading apples and pears, the Ontario Fruit Growers 
association has adopted the following standards which gives a 
good idea of what such grades should consist of: 

1. X A No. 1. Sound apples or pears of uniformly large 
size and high color for the variety named; of normal form; at 
least ninety per cent. free from worm holes, scabs or other 
defects. 

2. A No. 1. Sound apples or pears of nearly uniform size 
and good color for the variety named; of normal form; at least 
ninety per cent free from worm holes, scabs or other defects. 

3. No. 1. Sound apples or pears of fairly uniform size; 
at least eighty per cent. free from worm holes, scabs or other 
defects. 

4. No. 2. Apples or pears that are disqualified from be- 
ing classed under any of the aforementioned grades, but which 
are useful for culinary purposes, and not less than two inches 
in diameter. 

Storage and Storage Buildings. 

It is a common fault, at least with growers of late keeping 
varieties of apples, that they are often too quick to sell their 
product and in consequence stand in their own light in the 
matter of getting the best returns from their labor. As a rule, 
it is unwise for the apple grower to Sell late-keeping apples 
from the orchard. It is generally far better to wait until those 
who wish to rush their fruit to market have disposed of it be- 
fore selling. If the grower sells his product as it is picked, 


HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 147 


he has to look after his harvesting and marketing at the same 
time, which is apt to crowd him and his facilities to his disad- 
vantage. Of course, in order to store fruit properly, the grower 
must study the keeping quality of his product and be equipped 
with cool storage so that he can hold it for at least a few weeks. 
Such facilities are an incentive to the grower to give extra at- 
tention to the fruit he raises, as only good fruit can be stored 
to advantage. The inferior fruit, if to be marketed at all, 
should generally be disposed of early. 

Cold storage apparatus of the modern improved form is too 
expensive for general use by individual fruit growers and it 


tf STORAGE 
18 x er 


fs a question whether it is not usually best, when fruit is to 
be stored for a considerable time, for the grower to patronize 
the owners of cold storage plants rather than build for his own 
use or, better yet, co-operate with others and erect a large, 
modern, fruit storage building. 

Cooling rooms adapted to the storage of small fruit and 
other quickly perishable products, even for a short time, could 
be used to advantage on every fruit farm. These need not be 
expensive and often an old building may be refitted and made 


148 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


to answer the purpose. The chief requirements are to arrange 
for thorough insulation against outside changes of temperature. 
This can be most satisfactorily arranged by the use of dead 
air spaces and building paper. There should be at least two 
well constructed dead air spaces about the storage room. These 
dead air spaces should be made in the floor and roof as well as 
in the walls. The windows, if such are found necessary, should 
consist of at least three sash set closely together so as to make 
two tight dead air spaces between. 

It will be found that rooms above ground, surrounded by 
well made dead air spaces, are more satisfactory for cooling 
fruit than cellars even if the latter are provided with proper 
{nsulation. The cost of properly fitting up a cellar as a cool- 
ing room is nearly or quite as expensive as the fitting up of a 
similar space above ground and the wood and other materials 
used in its construction are short lived. The stone, cement or 
brick walls used ordinarily in cellars are good conductors of 
heat and among the poorest of materials for the walls of a 
storage room. 

A fruit grower provided with a well insulated fruit room 
will often find it to his advantage to lower its temperature by 
the use of ice early in the season. Figs. 72 and 73 show a good 
method of constructing a fruit storage house large enough to 
hold a few carloads of apples, with provision for the use of ice 
for reducing the temperature. The building is designed to be 
located on a hillside of such a slope that the first floor will be 
on the level of the surface at one end and the second floor a 
few feet above the surface at the other. The building is 18 by 38 
feet, interior measurement, two stories in height and divided 
into four rooms, two on each floor. On the second floor is the 
ice-storage room, 18 by 21 feet, in which the future supply of ice 
is stored, and the ice chamber, 15 by 16 feet, in which is held 
the ice that cools the refrigerating room directly below. A 
door in the ice chamber communicates with the outside. This 
is for the unloading of ice and is the only outside entrance into 
the second story. The refrigerating room is 16 by 18 feet, and 
is the compartment in which the temperature is to be reduced, 
and in which perishable products are to be stored. Leading 


HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 149 


into this room is the cooling room, 18 by 21 feet, which is to be 
used as a general purpose storage cellar. A small entrance 
room protects the doorway into the cooling room. This is the 
only entrance to the ground floor. 

The flooring is laid tight in the storage room and provided 
with a slope towards the center. A gutter catches the drainage 
and carries it into the gutter from the ice chamber. To prevent 


a 
wal 
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ss 


FeRWrVWWV& RABLBLBRLSR 


SS ee 


Co LLL 


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SSS SSS 


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WiLL ehh 


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ose ccesss se 


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4 
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4 
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4 


5 a a a ae a a ee aoe 


26% 5 ty ee 
Pace ZZ A ee, 
Fig. 73 —Kansas Cold Storage House. a.—Vertical section. b.—De- 
tails of construction. 


leakage the floor of the storage room must have a sheet iron 
covering. The floor of the ice chamber is laid with 2 by 4-inch 
lumber with 1-inch space between. ‘This provides for air cir- 
culation and water drainage. A sloping catch floor leads the 
water into the gutter which carries it down and out through the 
cooling room. 


150 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Cellars and caves may often be used to advantage for stor- 
ing apples. Such storage is cheap and easily obtained. ‘They 
are only useful for this purpose during cold weather. When 
properly handled apples keep well in them. 


QUESTIONS—CHAPTER IX. 


1. Why does so much depend upon the picking of the fruit for 
the market? 

2. What effect does the wide distribution of fruit growing sec- 
tions have upon the market? 

38. What is the proper time for picking different fruits? 

4. When is local peddling a success? 

5. What is the relation of the commissioner to the fruit grower? 

6. Of what value are fruit growers associations to the small 
fruit grower? 

7. What is the advisability of using the return package? 

8. Why is it necessary to have packages for selling the same 
kind of fruit uniform in size? 

9. What are some of the packages prescribed by law? 

10. How are small fruits generally marketed? 

11. What is the standard marketing package for grapes? 

12. How are plums and peaches marketed? 

13. What is the popular package for apples, pears and quince? 

14. How are ordinary grades packed? The fancy grades? 

15. What is the size of the standard apple barrel? 

16. How should a barrel be packed? 

17. What is a barrel press? 

18. What are the advantages of grading the fruit properly? 

19. How should they be designated? 

20. What are the Ontario Fruit Growers standards for grading 
apples and pears? 

21. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a cold storage 

lant? 

: 22. How may inexpensive cooling rooms be fitted up? 

23. Why are cooling rooms above ground more satisfactory and 
economical than those in cellars? 


CHAPTER X. 


PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 


Our cultivated fruits, with a few unimportant exceptions, 
do not come true from seed, and hence, must be increased by 
division. The various ways in which seed enters into the sub- 
ject of the propagation of fruits are as follows: 

Propagation by Seed. 

(1). Seed is used for the growing of stocks on which to 
work (i. e., graft or bud) cultivated fruits such as apples, pears, 
plums, peaches and others. 

(2). Seed is used for growing a few varieties of the peach 
and strawberry that come nearly true from seed, such as the 
Alpine and St. Anthony de Padua strawberries and, in the case 
of the peach, for a large number of varieties which come sufii- 
ciently true to name for home use. 

Some of the conditions which influence germination of such 
seeds are as follows: 

(a) Seeds of many species which ripen in the early sum- 
mer, such as those of the strawberry, gooseberry and raspberry, 
if sown at once, will start quickly. Seedlings of such kinds 
should be wintered over in a cold frame, greenhouse or cold 
cellar. If the seed is dried it should be stratified towards the 
end of winter and frozen and sown in the spring. In the case 
of the raspberry and gooseberry, the seedlings are so small 
at the end of the first season, if the seed is sown as soon as 
ripe, that it is generally best to dry it and sow the following 
spring. 

(b) Seeds that ripen in late summer should be stratified 
and sown the following spring. 

(c) Stratification refers to the mixing of seeds with soil 
or other material and burying out of doors. It is a common and 
very safe way of keeping over winter such seeds as those of 
the peach, plum, apricot, nuts and many forest tree seeds. All 
of our hardy seeds may be treated in this way successfully. In 
practice the seeds are mixed generally in sand, but sometimes 


152 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


leaf mold or fresh, moist leaves are used for this purpose. 
Where only small quantities are cared for, boxes are generally 
used, which are left out doors in winter; but where large quanti- 
ties of large seeds like 
those of the peach and 
black walnut are used, they 
are often mixed in pits on 
the surface of the ground 
and covered with sod. 
Apple seed is gener- 
ally kept dry during the 


a eee 
a 


Fig. 74.—Seed stratified in pit winter and moistened and 
and covered with sod. frozen in the spring before 


sowing, but may be stored over winter by stratification with ex- 
cellent results. In the case of a few plants the seed will start 
at once if stratified. In such cases dry the seed and do not sow 
until spring. However, it is a good plan to mix it with damp 
sand in the latter part of winter for a few weeks, after which it 
may be frozen before being sown. 


Fig. 75.—Boxes of stratified seeds at the Minnesota Experiment 
Station in Winter. 

Propagation by Offsets. 

(a) The strawberry and red raspberry, American plum, Mo- 
rello cherry and some other fruits may be grown by taking off 
sprouts that come up from the roots. Such sprouts are termed 
“offsets,” or suckers. 

(b) Offsets are best removed in autumn or in the spring. 
In removing them, it is important to get a portion of the main 


PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 153 


root from which they grow. In the case of the plum, two or 
three inches of the main root is sufficient. 

Propagation by Layers. 

(a) The easiest and best way of increasing many orna- 
mental as well as fruit 
plants is by layering. 
Spring layers are made by 
laying down any portion 
of the plant in the spring. 

(b) Summer layers 
are made in the summer, 
generally in July, from 
wood of the same season’s 
growth. 

(c) Mound layering is 
used for propagating the 
gooseberry, currant and 
quince. 

(d) Layers may be 
made at any time, al- 
though roots may not form 
for a year or more. 

(e) Layers should be 
taken up when well root- 
ed and dormant. This is 
generally in the autumn 

Fig. Dean ee gate has of the first year or in the 

following spring. 

(f) Layering is adapted to such fruits as the grape, cur- 
rant, gooseberry and black raspberry. 

Propagation by Cuttings. 

(a) Various portions of plants may be used for propagating 
plants. Cuttings may be made of the ripened wood of the 
branches in the case of the gooseberry, currant, grape, quince 
and Kieffer pear. 

(b) Cuttings may be made of the roots, as in the red 
raspberry, blackberry and some kinds of the Morello cherries 
and plums. Plants grown in this way from cuttings are gen- 
erally better than those grown from sprouts. 


154 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


(c) Cuttings may be made of the soft wood of the sum- 
mer as in the grape, currant and gooseberry and, in the case 
of the strawberry, they may be made from the immature offsets. 
Soft wood cuttings need a frame or greenhouse for best re- 
sults and should be treated similarly to geranium and coleus 
cuttings. 

Size of Cuttings. 

(a) The size of the cuttings used in propagation varies 
greatly. All that is absolutely necessary is to have one bud 
to each cutting and this will produce good results, providing 
it has the proper conditions of heat and moisture surrounding 
it. One-bud cuttings are sometimes used for the currant and 
grape with good results, but must have the best of care. 

(b) Cuttings are generally made with more than one bud 
to encourage strong growth and to increase their chance of 
living. 

Conditions Necessary for the Successful Growing of Hard- 
wood Cuttings. 

(a) The wood for ripe wood (hardwood) cuttings must be 
well matured and firm. Such wood, if well matured, has in it 
plenty of food to start the cuttings into growth. 

(b) The wood should preferably be made up into cuttings 
in autumn or early winter if to go into the open ground. If not 
planted out at once they should be stored in a cold cellar, cave 
or pit outdoors. They will often be calloused by spring if thus 
treated. Cuttings may be of any length, from one bud, up. It 
is customary to make cuttings of currant and gooseberry about 
eight inches long. 

Planting Cuttings. 

(a) The soil for cuttings should be rich in plant food, com- 
pact enough to hold moisture but porous enough at the sur- 
face to prevent baking. 

(b) Cuttings should generally be calloused before plant- 
ing for best results, but set out before they show roots. It 
is generally best to get cuttings into the ground as soon as the 
spring weather permits, but do not plant out grape cuttings 
until they are calloused. Currant cuttings may be made up 
in early autumn or even in the last of August and set out at 
once, as when thus treated they will often be rooted by winter. 


PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 155 


Fig. 77.—Cuttings properly planted out. 


(c) Set cuttings deep so that the upper bud will come just 
at the surface of the ground. Do not have over one inch of 
long cuttings above ground. 

(d) Set the cuttings slanting, i. e., at an angle of 45° or 
at half-pitch. This is preferred to setting straight, as they re- 
main firm better when thus planted. 

(e) In making cuttings, plan to have at least one bud with- 
in one inch of the top end. 

The Solar Pit.—There are many trees that will not grow 
from cuttings unless they have their roots started a little be- 
fore planting. This is most easily accomplished by what is 
known as “the solar pit”, which owes its success to the fact 
that cuttings root first at 
the warmer end. It is 
made and used as follows: 
The bundles of cuttings 
are heeled-in as recom- 
mended. In the spring 
they are taken out and 
4 buried close together with 
Fig. 78.—Solar pit with cuttings tied the butt ends uppermost 

in bundles and buried. in a warm, sunny spot 
and covered with about six inches of soil. A hotbed frame 
with sash is then put over them to warm the soil. Sometimes, 


156 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


instead of using sash, the soil over the cuttings is covered with 
a foot or more of fermenting manure. In either case the soil 
is warmed and the formation of roots encouraged. In using the 
solar pit the rooting process should not be carried so far as 
to permit the roots to show plainly, as they are then liable 
to be broken off in planting, but the cuttings should be planted 
out as soon as they show signs of healing over on the butt 
end. This healing over process is called callousing, and in 
many plants necessarily precedes the formation of roots. 
Graftage. 

Graftage includes what is commonly called budding and 
grafting. Working is another term that includes the same. 
Most trees that graft easily will bud readily. 

Limits of Graftage.—It is common to hear surprising stories 
about graftage. Quite recently a prominent grape grower 
referred to his efforts to graft the red currant on the red 
maple tree. Even Pliny says “Some apples are so red that 
they resemble blood, which is caused by their being grafted 
on a mulberry stock.” But budding or grafting are never suc- 
cessful unless the cion and stock are nearly allied, and the 
closer the relationship between them, the more certain the suc- 
cess. Lindley says: ‘Varieties of the same species unite most 
freely; then species of the same genus; then genera of the 
same natural order, beyond which the power does not extend. 
For instance, pears work freely on pears, very well on quinces 
and mountain ash; less successfully on apples or thorns, and 
not at all upon plums or cherries; while the lilac will take on 
the ash, because of the near relationship between the two.” 
But there are many exceptions to any rule that could be laid 
down concerning this matter. Some plants are increased most 
readily by budding, while others graft more easily than they 
are budded. The stone fruits are very easily budded and gratit- 
ing them is often a much more uncertain process. 

(b) Stock is the name applied to the part grafted on, be 
it large or small. The stock may consist of a cutting, a rooted 
layer, a tree or a seedling root and it may be worked when 
either dormant or growing. 

(c) Cion is the name of the part inserted. It may con- 


PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 157 


sist of one or more buds and be cut with or without wood. In 

budding, the term bud-stick is often used to take its place. 
Budding.—In its broad sense the term graftage includes 

all there is of budding, which is simply grafting while the tree 


maT, 
! Vp 
i Nao 


yt 


Fig. 79.—Budding. 1.—Bud-stick with one bud nearly re« 
moved. Note that cut is made from below upwards. 
2.—Two views of bud after it has been removed. 
3.—Stock with T cut made in bark and flaps loosened 
to receive bud. 4.—Bud inserted under bark. 5.—Bud 
tied in place with raffia. 


is growing, but, as generally used, budding ap- 
plies to the process by which a bud of the season 
is removed from its parent plant and -induced 
to unite with and grow upon some other plant 

coaeantat to it. In the Northern states it is commonly 

practiced to propagate plums and other stone fruits, and ap- 
_ ples and pears, all of which are readily increased in this way. 


158 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


The varieties of some ornamental trees and plants may be 
propagated by budding, as, for instance, some varieties of elm, 
maple, poplar and birch. Most trees that graft readily will 
bud as readily, while others that will graft with difficulty will 
bud very easily. Budding is rather a simpler operation than 
grafting and easier for the beginner to perform successfully. 

Stocks for budding are generally grown from seed and the 
buds are inserted in them when they are but a few years old, 
and as near the ground as possible. But budding may be done 
very successfully on any growing branch or stem where the 
bark is not too hard and still bends easily. It is often used to 
change the bearing qualities of fruit trees of small or medium 
size. 

Bud-stick is the name given to the shoots from which the 
buds are taken. It is also referred to as the cion, but the cion 
proper is the piece which is inserted in the stock. 

Time for Budding.—In a general way, budding may be done 
at any time when the bark will peel, providing the buds are 
sufficiently matured on the new growth of the season to insert 
them. The proper time will be influenced by the kind of stock 
used, the season, and sometimes by attacks of insects or dis- 
eases. For instance the native plum is generally budded to 
best advantage about the last of July, but should the stocks be 
attacked by some insect or disease that seriously injures the 
foliage in the middle of July, the growth of the stocks will 
soon be checked and the work must be performed at once or 
not at all. A period of severe drouth may check the growth, and 
in a similar way make early budding necessary. If the stocks 
are growing very fast, it is often best to delay the operation 
until the wood has become somewhat hardened, or else its 
rapid growth may cover up the inserted bud. If considerable 
pruning of the stocks is necessary to make a place for the bud, 
it should be done at least two weeks before budding is com- 
menced, because the heavy pruning of any plant when in ac- 
tive growth results in a serious check to its parts. If done just 
when the buds are inserted, this may prevent the success of 
the operation. The ordinary season for budding in the North- 


PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS, 159 


ern states is from the middle of July to the first of September, 
and the earliness or lateness at which a variety is most suc- 
cessfully budded depends on the condition of growth. The 
stock that stops growing early in the season is budded early, 
and those that grow until autumn are budded late. The condi- 
tions for success are: 

1. The stock and cion must be perfectly healthy and free 
from insects. If either of them are weak or sickly, unsatis- 
factory results may be expected. To this end, everything neces- 
sary shoud be done to keep off insects and disease. 

2. The buds should be well developed in the axils of the 


leaves on the 
young shoots from 
which the buds 
are to be taken. 
It seldom hap- 
pens that they 
are in this condi- 
tion until the bud 
at the end is 
formed, but some- 
times the buds in 
the center of the 
twigs will be 
large enough to 
grow, while those 
at the base and at 
the extreme tip 
are still quite 


Mull bh small. If the buds 
Fig. 80.—Showing method of cuttin 


when the wood is to be removed prom it, are thought to be 
b.—Plum bud in the spring of the year . 
before growth has commenced. c.—A too immature, they 


shoot started from an inserted bud aud may be readily 
tied to the stub of a stock. The dotte 
line b shows where the stock should be cut developed by 


off after the bud is well started. pinching off the 


tips of the twigs. In ten or twelve days after such pinching, of 
even a very soft shoot, its buds will be fit for working. 


160 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


38. The bark must separate easily from the wood on the 
stocks to be budded. This will take place only when they are 
growing rapidly. 

4. A sharp, thin knife is absolutely necessary. 

5. The work must be done rapidly, and the buds firmly 
and evenly tied into place. No wax is needed. 

Necessary implements.—A common shoe knife, with the 
corners rounded off, makes a very cheap, and yet a most excel- 
lent budding knife. There are many specially designed forms 
of knives for this purpose and most of them have an ivory point 
or blade in the base of the handle for lifting the bark, but the 
rounded corner of the back of the shoe knife is just as good as 
the best ivory blade for raising the bark. A shoe knife costs not 
one-fourth as much as an ordinary budding knife and generally 
holds an edge better. 

Besides a shoe knife, tying material is necessary. For 
this purpose basswood bark is perhaps the best, since it is but 
little affected by moisture, and if put on wet, remains tight 
and close. This tying material is prepared by soaking sections 
of the bark of the common basswood in water until the inner 
layers separate easily. The bark peels from the trees readily 
in June and July, and it requires about three weeks of soaking 
in stagnant water to get the fiber into the right condition. Aft- 
er the layers readily separate the bark should be stripped into 
pieces about one-fourth of an inch wide. If hard and stiff, it 
may be softened by rubbing and pounding. Cotton warp, corn 
husks or woolen yarn answer very well, and a tying material 
called raffia is now used more widely than any other material 
for budding. This is a long, grass-like material which is used 
for baskets and is made from the leaves of a palm known as 
Raphia peduncula. It should be made into thin, very narrow 
strips before being applied and should be put on dry. 

The process of budding will be found illustrated in figs. 
79 and 80, showing the successive stages in shield budding, 
which is the form generally used in this country. When every- 
thing is ready for the work, prepare a lot of bud-sticks as shown 
in fig. 79, by cutting off all but about one-half inch of the leaf 


PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 161 


stalks. These sticks should be carefully protected from wilting, 
and it is customary to carry them in the field wrapped up in 
moist cloth or oiled paper. If it is necessary to store them 
after they are cut, they should be kept in a cool, moist place, 
in moss, sawdust, or cloths, but not in water. They are often 
kept for a week before using, but are preferably used as soon 
as possible after they are cut. 

To insert the bud a smooth place is selected (on small 
stocks this should be about two inches from the ground) and 
on the north side if practicable, since buds are less liable to 
be injured by freezing on that side than on any other. A cross- 
cut should be made at this point, and from it a cut about 1% 
inches long, as shown at 3 in fig. 79; at the same time the bark 
should be raised to loosen it. A bud-stick is then taken and 
a bud cut off with the bark and a thin piece of the wood extending 
about one-half inch above and below the bud, as shown at 2 
in fig. 79. The lower point of the bud (by which is meant the 
bark and wood cut off, as well as the bud) is now 
inserted under the bark at the cross-cut, and is gently pushed 
down by the leaf stock and knife blade. If the bark of the 
stock will not raise when the bud is thus pushed down, the 
stock is not in the best condition for budding and it will be 
necessary to raise the bark with the back of the knife blade, 
or with the ivory blade previously referred to, in order to let 
the bud come into its place. The sides of the bud should come 
under the bark, but if the wound is not large enough to admit 
quite all the bud, any small part that may project above the 
cross-cut should be cut off by again drawing the knife through 
the cross-cut. The bud must now be securely and firmly tied 
in place, taking care to draw it down evenly and firmly and to 
cover all the wounds with tying material as shown at 5 in fig. 
79, but do not cover the bud itself. In less severe sections, 
the ties do not need such careful attention as herein the North- 
western states, where it is important to tie very carefully. 
After the bud is tied, the bands should be watched so that when 
the growth of the stock becomes so great that the bands are 
too tight for it—which is generally in about a week—they may 


162 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


be loosened. When the bud is well united, the band should be 
cut off altogether. The buds will generally unite in about two 
weeks, but sometimes they will require a longer time, and it 
is often desirable to leave the ties on for some little time after 
this period. It is a bad practice to neglect the bands and al- 
low them to severely cut into the stock. 

The inserted buds should not start at all until the follow- 
ing spring. If they start into growth the season they are in- 
serted, they are almost certain to be killed the following win- 
ter. If the bark of the inserted bud shrivels, or if it remains 
fresh and the bud falls off, the work is entirely lost, though 
the stocks that have missed one year may be budded the next, 
and even while loosening the bands it may not be too late to 
again bud those that have failed. To make the work more cer- 
tain, two buds are often inserted in each stock, although only 
one is allowed to grow. 

In the spring, the inserted bud will resemble fig. 80. Just 
as the top buds commence to swell, the budded stocks should 
be cut off at least one inch above the inserted bud, and some- 
times seven or eight inches of the old stock is left above the 
bud to serve as a stake to support the shoot starting from the 
bud (fig. 80). All the shoots that come from the stock should 
be rubbed off so that all its strength will go into the inserted 
bud. 

Late in the season the stock should be cut down to just 
above the bud, see the dotted line at c in figure 80. The grow- 
ing shoot should be trained to a single stem if its stock is a 
low one, so as to make a Straight tree. If the root is strong, 
the bud will make a growth of two to four feet the first year. 
Some kinds of trees readily take on an upright form, while 
others naturally grow very crooked and need special care to 
induce them to grow straight. 

On the approach of winter it is a good plan to draw the 
earth up against the buds as a protection, but this cannot be 
done when the buds are more than two or three inches from 
the ground. If the buds are too high up to allow this earthing 
up from the ground, especially in the case of somewhat tender 
kinds, some growers put a very thin covering of grafting wax 


PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 162 


around the bud, taking care not to cover the tip of the bud 
more than a very little. This covering is a protection against 
ice forming behind the bud and from sudden freezing and thaw- 
ing in winter. However, with our hardy trees this precaution 
is unnecessary. 

June Budding.—Many nurserymen offer what they ‘call 
June-budded trees at low prices. These are often small trees 
that can be easily sent by mail and are made by an operation 
similar to common budding as described herewith except that 
the work is done in June and the inserted buds are forced 
into growth as soon as they adhere to the stock, by cutting off 
the latter. At the North they make only a small growth the 
season they are budded. The buds for this purpose may be 
hastened into maturing by pinching off the ends of the shoots 
to be used for bud-sticks. For ordinary purposes, nothing is 
gained by budding in June in the Northern states, for a plant 
budded there in August will make as large, if not a larger, 
growth and as straight a tree by the end of the following year 
than a June-budded tree of the same age will make in its two 
years of growth. However, at the South, where the growing 
season is longer, June budding is the favorite way of growing 
peaches and plums which there make a strong enough growth 
the first season. If they were treated in the common way as 
used at the North the trees would be too large for best results 
in transplanting. 

The wood is sometimes removed from the bud after it is 
cut off. This practice is common in Europe, but in general 
practice in this country it is left on. However, care should 
be taken not to cut the bud very thick, or the large amount 
of wood in it will prevent its binding into place smoothly and 
evenly. When the wood is to be removed from the bud, the 
latter is cut off in a little different way from the method de- 
scribed. This method is illustrated at a figure 80. Two cuts are 
made and then by a dexterous twist, the bud and bark removed. 
It is then inserted as previously described. 

Other forms of budding are used occasionally but in all 
of them the general principles are the same as those practiced in 
shield budding. Figure 81 shows a form of budding where- 


164 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


in a circle of bark is taken out of the bud-stick and is inserted 
into a stock or branch of about the same size. These are un- 
usual forms and only used for some special purpose. In bud- 
ding on the branches of trees, it is generally best to insert the 
bud on the upper side, but the place for its insertion should 
be governed by the form of the tree. Budded trees are no bet- 
ter than grafted trees, but they may be as good, or perhaps 
worse, according to the way in which the work is done. If the 
buds and stocks are perfectly hardy, as, for instance, when 
our native plum seedlings are budded with similar kinds of 
improved quality, as with the DeSoto plum, or native seedlings, 
then the tree resulting is as good as if root grafted. But if 
the hardy kinds of apple are budded on ordinary seedlings 
which are not hardy, then there is a part of the tender seedling 
which is above ground and is liable to be killed out by cold. 
In this case, the resulting tree would be 
much improved if the seedling root had been 
grafted below ground instead of being bud- 
ded above, so as to have the benefit of the 
protection the ground affords. On the other 
hand, where hardy trees are budded on the 
branches to change the bearing, the work 
(aa is just as sure as if grafted. It is foolish, 

then, to pay more money for a budded than 
| } a grafted tree. 
Theol Grafting is distinguished from budding 

Fig. 81.—Meth- by being performed at a season of the year, 

od used in generally in the spring, when vegetation is 

cg ie Seed dormant—at least, when the plant operated 
upon is not in full leaf; but there are many exceptions 
to such a definition, and it might be better to include 
the two subjects of budding and grafting under the general 
head of graftage, as they are closely related. 

Stock is the term used to indicate the plant grafted on, 
whether large or small. 

Cion is the term used to express the part inserted, of 
whatever size or form it may consist. These should ordinarily 
be of the new, well ripened growth of the season. If cions are 


PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 165 


to be used in the spring they should generally be cut late in 
the fall, as some kinds are liable to be injured by the winter. 
However, a spring-cut cion may often be used successfully, but 
it is not safe to trust them if, when cut open, the heart wood 
appears dark colored. Cions should not be cut when frozen. 
“They should be stored in moist sawdust or sand in a cold cellar, 
or buried in the ground outdoors during the winter. But this 
does not apply in the case of plum cions, which generally do 
best when cut in the spring as needed. Plum cions are stored 
with difficulty as they quite often lose their buds in storage. 
Cherry cions are most safely carried through the winter when 
packed in moist leaves. If packed in sand or sawdust, they 
sometimes become water soaked. 


Fig. 82.—Tools used in grafting and budding: 1.—Budding knife. 
2.—Grafting knife. 3.—Grafting chisel. 4.—Club mallet. 


The principles which underlie grafting are the same as in 
budding, i. e., the cions and stock must be closely related; the 
work must be done in such a manner that the inside bark of 
both cion and stock come closely in contact; and at a season 
of the year, and under such circumstances that they may unite 
at once, or aS soon as growth starts. The success of the opera- 
tion largely depends (1) on having the stock and cion perfectly 
healthy; (2) in selecting the proper season, which varies some- 


166 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


what with the different plants; (3) in getting a perfect union 
of the inner bark of cion and stock at least on one side; (4) 
in making all the cuts with a sharp knife, that the parts in 
contact may have a smooth surface; (5) in doing the work 
rapidly, so that the surface may not be exposed. 

Grafting wax is generally used for covering the wounds 
made in some kinds of grafting. A good grafting wax is one 
that will not become too soft in summer, so as to melt and run 
down the stock, or so hard in winter as to crack and split off. 
A very reliable grafting wax is made by melting together resin, 
four (4) parts, by weight; beeswax, two (2) parts; tallow, one 
(1) part. When well melted, pour into a pail of cold water, 
grease the hands slightly and pull the wax until it is about the 
color of pulled molasses candy. Make into balls and store for 
use. This wax should be warmed when applied. If it is too 
hard, more tallow and less resin may be used. Some propaga- 
tors use linseed oil instead of tallow. The linseed oi] should 
be pure. If adulterated with cottonseed oil, the wax becomes 
very stringy and difficult to handle. 

Clay is frequently used for covering wounds made by graft- 
ing, and it gives quite as good results as any of the waxes, if 
properly applied, but is not so convenient. For this purpose 
some very tenacious clay should be used, and it is thought to 
be improved when mixed with about one-third fresh cow dung 
and a little plasterer’s hair. The whole mass should be thor- 
oughly worked over and kneaded before using. 

Cleft grafting is very common and more universally known 
and used than any other. It is commonly performed to change 
the variety of apple, plum and various other trees and plants, 
It is generally the most practical method to use on branches 
one or two inches in diameter or larger, but it also works well 
on small stocks. 

Cleft grafting is performed as follows: The place selected 
for the insertion of the cion should be where the grain of 
the wood is straight. The stock is then cut square off with a 
sharp saw and is split through its center, with the grafting 
chisel, to a depth sufficient to allow the cion to be put in place. 
The cleft is held open by the grafting chisel until the cion 


PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS, 167 


Wee 


d, 
\ x 
WV Zz 


Fig. 83.—The cleft graft. 1.—Side view of cion cut for grafting. 
The opposite side is cut in the same manner, making the lower 
end wedge shaped. 2.—The stub with the cions inserted in the 
eleft. 3.—The graft waxed. 4.—Cloth wrapped over the wax. 
5.—Diagram of cross section of stub with cions inserted. Note 
that the cion is inserted in such a manner that its cambium layer 
comes in contact with the cambium layer of the stock. Note 
also that the cion is cut in such a manner that the side nearest 
the center of the stub is a little thinner, thus permitting the 
cleft to pinch down closely onto the cion where the cambium is 
located, 


168 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


is cut and inserted, when it is withdrawn, allowing the stock ta 
close on the cion and so hold it in place. If the stock does not 
spring back so as to hold the cion firmly, it should be tightly 
drawn together with a string. The number of cions inserted 
will depend on the size of the stock. If the stock is not over 
three-quarters of an inch in diameter, one cion is enough to in- 
sert, but on larger stocks one may be put in each side of the 
cleft. All the cut surfaces, including the ends of the cion, should 
now be covered with wax, as shown in fig. 83. 

The cion to be inserted in cleft grafting should be cut 
wedge-shaped lengthwise and its cross-section should also be 
wedge-shaped. Fig. 83 represents a cross-section through a 
newly made graft, showing cleft in the stock and two cions 
in place (note how the edges of the wood come together). Fig. 
83 also shows the successive stages in cleft grafting. 

Whip grafting is illustrated in fig. 84. When finished, all 
the cut surfaces should be covered with grafting wax or waxed 
paper. In this form of grafting it is seldom that the in- 
ner barks come together on more than one side of the cion 
and stock. It is a method that is very quickly performed by 
one accustomed to it, but its use is limited to branches or stems 
under three-quarters of an inch in diameter, but for stocks com- 
ing within this limit, it is very convenient and reliable. It is 
much used by nurserymen in root-grafting apple, pear and 
plum seedlings. It is done to a large extent during the win- 
ter months, when but little can be accomplished out of doors. 

Root-grafting.—Seedlings, which are dug in autumn and 
packed in sawdust or moss in a cold cellar, are taken as need- 
ed, to a warm room and cions grafted upon them just be- 
low the collar, i. e., the place where the root and top are joined, 
where only one graft is made to a root. The kind of graft made 
is illustrated in fig. 84 which shows the successive stages of 
the work. A common practice among nurserymen is to use a 
cion about six inches long and insert it on a root about three 
inches long, the treatment in every respect being the same as 
where only one graft is made up from each root. In each case, 
when completed, the union is wrapped with a strip of paper 
or cloth about three-fourths of an inch wide which has previously 


PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 169 


been covered with grafting wax. Some prefer waxed string for 
this covering. The cion should be at least five inches long 
to allow the graft to be set deep and thus encourage rooting 
from the cion. When completed, they should be tied in bundles 
and put away, packed in boxes very firmly in clean sand or 


Fig. 84.—Root grafting. a—Apple root such as is used in root 
grafting. b.—Cion. e.—Cion and root prepared for putting to- 
gether. d.—The graft made, e.—The graft wrapped with waxed 
paper, 


sawdust, in a cold cellar. Early in the spring they should be 
planted in the nursery, about six inches apart, in rows three 
feet apart, setting all but the upper bud of the cion below the 
surface of the ground. It is important to plant the cion deep 
.so as to encourage it to throw out roots, as the trees are then 


170 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


more hardy than when they depend entirely on the seedling root 
for support. Great care should be taken to have the soil very 
firm and solid around the base of the root and at the union. 
This may be secured in several ways. Some nurserymen use 
a large dibber, having a guard on the side to prevent its go- 
ing too deep. With this a hole is made sufficiently wide and 
deep to permit the insertion of the graft easily so that not more 
than one or two buds project above the ground. To do this 
work most expeditiously, the grafts should all be of the same 
length and free from side branches. Two persons should work 
together, a man who uses the dibber and a boy who carries the 
grafts. The man makes a hole with the dibber, the boy puts 
in a graft, when the man immediately makes another hole by 
the side of and two inches away from that containing the graft, 
and, pressing toward the graft, packs the soil firmly around it. 
After each row is finished in this way, the man should turn back 
on the row and press firmly by the side of each graft with the 
ball of the foot. 

Another method of planting root-grafts and cuttings, which 
is applicable for planting cuttings on a small scale, is ag fol- 
lows. This is not a fast method but is very excellent for 
a few grafts: The thoroughly plowed land is smoothed off, a 
line stretched and walked on where the row is to come and 
then thrown to one side. With a spade throw out a furrow 
along the line, leaving the edge straight and smooth and nine 
inches deep. Against this place the grafts and then with a hoe 
turned bottom up push a little earth against the lower part 
of the root of each graft, and afterwards draw three inches of 
soil into the furrow around the grafts and then press firmly 
against each graft with the ball of the foot. Fill the trench 
full and repeat the footing process again. A more expeditious 
way is to plow out a furrow instead of making it with a spade, 
and then fill the trench with a plow. In this way the work may 
be successfully done if the soil is not dry and the season is fa- 
vorable. But it pays well to do good work, and, where one has 
only a few hundred or a thousand grafts to plant, the spade 
method is most certain. In planting in a dry time the great 
key to success is to have the land firm and solid around the 


PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS, 171 


root and the union so that there will be no air spaces. This is 
very important. In two or three years from the root-graft, the 
trees will be large enough to be transplanted to the orchard. 
At that time some of the trees will be well rooted from the 
cion and others will scarcely show any at all. Others may 
nave lost the stock on which they were grafted and be entire- 
ly on their own roots. In this latter case the trees will not 
have made a first class growth, although they may make trees 
of good size later on. 

Side-grafting.—Side-grafting is a form of union in which the 
cion is inserted in a cut made in the side of the plant grafted on 


SSE ee —— 
Fig, 85.—Crown grafting below the surface of the ground. a.— 
Inserting cion in root of seedling. b.—Waxing the graft. 


i 


and the stock is not cut off until the cion has started to zrow. 
It is especially applicable to cherry seedlings, on which 
the union should be made at the crown of the plant, which 
is the point on the seedling where the root and top join. This 
form of grafting may be successfully used on plums, apples, and 
other fruits. If it is done on the branches of a tree there is no 
necessity of cutting off the part above the graft until the cion 
starts into growth. 

Grafting below ground.—If grafting is done just below the 
surface of the ground the work is more certain of being success- 


172 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


ful than if above the surface, and the resulting tree will be 
hardier than if the union was above ground, since the weakest 
point in a tree (the graft) will be protected by the earth. Of 
course, very frequently it is impracticable to do the work in this 
manner. The methods adapted for grafting below ground are the 
same as for above ground, only not so much wax is required. 

In grafting below ground, it is important to remove the soil 
until a smooth, straight place in the stem is found of sufficient 
length to contain the cion. In the case of most fruits this is 
preferably at the crown, i. e., where root and stem meet. It is 
important, also, to keep the wounds free from dirt, for however 
much it may help to have the whole graft covered in this way, 
any soil on the cut surfaces will prevent that desirable close con- 
tact of the cells which is necessary for successful work. When 
grafting is done below ground, suckers will often start from the 
stock in great numbers. These should all be removed or the 
graft will be ruined. A little observation soon teaches one to 
distinguish at a glance the sprouts from the 
stock and cion. In removing these suckers, 
they should be pulled away from the stock and 
not simply cut off. Only one shoot should be 
permitted to grow from each cion and this 
should be the thriftiest and generally that 
starting lowest down. The lowest is saved 
because, wherever a shoot starts, there is gen- 
erally a crook formed, and if near the ground it 
is not unsightly. 

Night Cap is a term given to signify a paper 
bag that is sometimes drawn over and tied be- 
low a graft made in the open as soon as it is 
completed. It is illustrated in Fig. 86. Its use 
is to prevent the shriveling of the cion due to 
exposure of drying winds. It is especially de- 
Sirable in top-grafting trees in dry seasons or 
in exposed locations. It is a very valuable ad- 


cap. — Graft be more general. Of course the bags should 


protected by - 
aan ae be removed as soon as the cions start and the 


PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS, 173 


same care should be taken in the use of wax around the graft 
as if the night cap were not used. 

The following notes on grafting different fruits will perhaps 
be of interest: 

Grafting apples.—Top-working and crown-grafting of apples 
in the open ground should be done about the time the buds 
are nicely started, but the cions should not have started at all. 
It is perhaps the easiest of all the fruits to graft, and almost 
any method may be employed on it. The cions should be from 
four to six inches long. 

Top-working.—By top-working is meant the grafting or bud- 
ding of a tree after it is of some considerable size. The term 
is used to distinguish such trees from those that are root-grafted. 
It is here recommended for severe locations and for somewhat 
tender kinds, such as the Wealthy in Central Minnesota, which, 
besides being somewhat tender and liable to sun-scald, is weak 
in the stem and crotches. 

If this variety is grafted on the branches of the Hibernal, 
which is a very hardy sort with strong crotches, a tree is form- 
ed that has much of the hardiness of that variety but at the 
same time bears Wealthy apples. By this method we may in- 
crease the hardiness of trees to a considerable degree. Some 
varieties seem to be better adapted to one stock than to an- 
other. The Hibernal is a stock that is hardy in every particu- 
lar and especially desirable for top-working. It grows rapidly, 
makes a large tree and will keep up in rapidity of growth with 
any of our larger apples. Most of the larger growing crabs 
make good stocks for top-working. The Transcendent Crab 
may be successfully used for this purpose. When it is intended 
to grow an orchard by this method the stocks should be set in 
the spring, to be budded the following August or to be grafted 
the following spring. If to be budded the buds should be inserted 
in about the same positions in the head of the tree as the grafts. 

Grafting the Plum.—The plum is most successfully grafted 
very early in the spring—even before the frost is out of the 
ground or a bud has commenced to swell. When done at this 
time the work is generally successful, though not as certain as 
the apple. It is said that the plum may be grafted very suc- 


174 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


cessfully later in the spring, even after the buds have com- 
menced to swell, providing the buds on the cion are started 
as much as those on the stock at the time the work is performed. 

The plum may be quite successfully root-grafted in the 
house in the winter, as recommended for the apple and treated 
the same way, but it generally takes a year longer to get the 
tree formed, since in this case the growth from the cion is 
quite slow the first two years. On account of this slow growth 
root-grafted plum trees are often crooked and unpromising. 
This defect, however, may be remedied by cutting away in the 
early spring of the second year all the growth from the cion 
except one strong bud at the base. If this work is done very 
early in the spring it will result in throwing the whole strength 
of the root into a single bud and the forming of a stem that is 
straight in place of the former crooked one. A much better and 
more satisfactory plan than root-grafting is to plant the stocks 
in the nursery one year before they are intended to be grafted, 
and then graft them below the surface of the ground very early 
in the spring. For this purpose cleft or whip-grafting should 
be used. When the work is done in this way the result is a 
very strong growth from the cion. If the suckers are pinched 
off and the whole strength of the root forced into one shoot, the 
result, on right land and in the case of strong, healthy stock, will 
be to give a growth often exceeding four feet in height. Some- 
times the growth in this latter case will be so heavy that the 
branches are liable to be broken off in the wind, and should 
be tied to stakes with soft string. The cions should be from 
four to six inches long. 

Grafting the Cherry.—The cherry may be root-grafted in- 
doors in the winter. When this is done, side-grafting is employ- 
ed and gives results far ahead of any other method. But with 
the best of care the losses from in-door grafting of this fruit 
make it very unsatisfactory. Much better results will be achiev- 
ed by side-grafting them at the crown of the plant on stocks well 
established in the open ground, as in the plan recommended for 
propagation of the plum. In regard to this fruit it is also re- 
ported that, as in the case of the plum, the work may be done 
after the stocks start into growth a little, providing the cions 


PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 175 


are aS far advanced. The cions should be from four to six 
inches long. 

Grafting the Peach is occasionally practiced but it seldom 
gives best results. Its most common use is on stocks on which 
the buds have failed to grow and it is sometimes very successful, 

Grafting the Grape is done most safely very early in the 
spring, even before a sign of growth appears, but it may also be 
grafted about the time the first leaves are nicely expanded, if 
the cions are kept dormant until that time. The work should al- 
ways be done below the surface of the ground. Any form of 
graft may be used, but that most commonly used is cleft-graft- 
ing, as described. In making a cleft-graft upon a grape 
root it is often necessary to saw the cleft in the stock with a 
fine saw, on account of the crooked, twisted grain of the wood, 
which does not allow it to split straight. Some growers do not 
use any wax around the graft but simply cover it with a mound 
of well packed earth up to the upper bud of the cion. In graft- 
ing after the leaves are expanded some propagators prefer to 
use side-grafting, and do not cut the vine severely until it is 
believed the cion has grown fast to the stock, when the vine is 
cut entirely away. Whip-grafting is also used for this purpose. 
The cions should be about six or eight inches long. 

To change varieties in a vineyard grafting on a cane from the 
old vine is sometimes practiced. In this case a cane from the 
old vine long enough to reach nearly midway between the vines 
is grafted with a cion which should be at least two feet long. 
When grafted the graft, including the cane and cion, should be 
buried six inches deep, the end bud of the cion being brought 
above the ground where the new vine is desired. The following 
year the old vine may be largely cut away and the growth from 
the cion will take its place. This method is not so neat as when 
the vine is cut off and grafted below at the surface of the ground, 
but it has the merit of being very much more certain of not neces- 
sitating the destruction of the old vine until a new one is estab- 
lished. 

Grafting by approach or inarching is a form of grafting in 
which the branches of growing plants are brought together. It 
is sometimes used to change the bearing of vines or trees, or to 


176 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


grow two branches or stems together. It is much used in propa 
gating such ornamental trees as cut-leaved and purple birches. 
It may be done at any time during the growing: season and on 
any flexible growth of whatever age. It is formed by shaving 
out a piece of bark and wood from the stock and from the cion, 
of the same size and in such a way that the inner barks of each 
may be tied together. If this is done even so late as the middle 
of July they will grow firmly together before winter. It is cus- 
tomary, when this method is to be used for propagation, to either 
set a lot of small plants around the one from which the cions 
are to come, or to grow them in pots and set pots and plants 
near by. When the branches have united they are permitted to 
grow until autumn, then the cions are cut off just below the 
union and the plants with the cions on them are heeled in for 
winter or protected in some other way. No wax is needed, as the 
union is very sure if the parts are closely tied together. This is 


a very safe and sure method and is easily performed, even by 
the novice. 


QUESTIONS—CHAPTER X. 


1. For what purposes are plants propagated from seed? 

2. What is meant by stratification? 

3. What kinds of seed are stratified? 

4. What are offsets and how are plants propagated from them? 
What are layers? Spring layers? Summer layers? Mound 


6. What plants are adapted to propagation by layers? 
7. When are layers made? 
8 How are cuttings made? 
9. What are soft wood cuttings? 
10. What are hard wood cuttings? 
11. What conditions are necessary for successful growing of 
hard wood cuttings? 
12. When should they be made? 
13. What soil is best for planting cuttings? 
14. How should they be planted and when? 
15. What is the solar pit? 
16. How is it made and for what purpose? 
17. What does graftage include? 
18. What are the limits of graftage? 
19. What is meant by stock, cion? 
20. When is budding practicable? 
21. What is the best stock to be budded upon? 
22. What is the bud-stick? 
23. When is the best time for budding? 
24. What conditions are necessary for successful budding? 
25. What implements are necessary? 
26. What material is used for tying the buds? 


stile 
have st 


48. 
season? 


60. 
results? 


PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 17% 


How are the buds cut from the bud-stick? ; 

When is the bark in the best condition for budding? 
Describe the process of inserting the bud in the stock. 

What precautions must be taken in budding? 

What care is necessary in the spring and fall, after the buds 
arted? 

How should the buds be protected from winter injury? 
When and where is June budding practiced? 

How do June-budded trees differ from other budded trees? 
How is June budding performed on peaches and plums in the 


What is shield budding? Flute budding? : 

What is the difference between grafting and budding? 
What precautions must be taken in budding? 

What is grafting wax used for? 

How is it made? 

What other materials can be used instead of grafting wax? 
How is cleft-grafting performed? 

What tools are necessary for cleft-grafting? 

How should the cion be cut for cleft-grafting? 

How does whip-grafting differ from cleft-grafting? 

How and when are root grafts made? 

How are they planted? On a large scale? On a small scale? 
What care should be taken when planting the grafts in a dry 


What is side-grafting? 

What fruit plants is it best adapted to? 

What advantage is there in grafting below the ground? 
How should the work be done? 

For what purpose is the night cap used? 

How are apples grafted? 

How are they budded? 

What is the result of top-working varieties? 

What is meant by top-working? 

How is the plum most successfully grafted? 

How is the plum root-grafted? 

What forms of grafting are used on the cherry with best 


How is the peach grafted? 

When is the grape grafted? 

What methods are used? 

How may the varieties in a vineyard be changed by graft- 


What is ‘‘inarching’’ and when is it used? 


CHAPTER XI. 


POME FRUITS. 
THE APPLE. 


Origin of the Cultivated Apple. 


Classes of Apples: 

(a) The true apples have descended from the Pyrus malus 
of Europe. Characteristics: Woolly twigs, on new growth, calyx 
and flower stems; fruit, various but always holding its calyx, 
i. e., the parts of the flower commonly found on the end of the 
fruit; leaves, thicker and broader and the twigs thicker than 
those of the crab apples (P. baccata). The common apple of 
commerce comes from this species. 

(b) The crab apples have descended from the Pyrus baccata 
of Europe and Asia. In Europe the term “crab” is often applied 
to any small inferior kind of an apple which may be said to be 
crabby. Characteristics: Growth, smoother and more wiry than 
that of the true apple; leaves, narrower, thinner and with longer 
stems; flower clusters and leaves seldom woolly; fruit, small on 
long, wiry, slender stems; seed, enclosed in hard, close fitting 
hulls; calyx falls off when the fruit is mature. There are few, if 
any, of these pure crabs in cultivation. Possibly, however, the 
Yellow and red Siberian crabs are of this parentage. 

(c) Hybrid crabs are sometimes known to botanists as Py- 
rus prunifolia. They are undoubtedly the result of crosses be- 
tween the true crabs and the larger apples. In this group are in- 
cluded most of the so-called crabs of commerce, such as the 
Transcendent, Hyslop, Sweet Russett, Excelsior and others. In 
them are to be found the quality of the P. malus and the P. bac- 
cata, mixed in various proportions. 

(d) Pyrus coronaria, the largest of Western crabs, has a 
form which has become known as Pyrus ioensis. This is a native 
of the Mississippi Valley and eastward. Characteristics: Tree, 
vigorous, especially when young; young growth, woolly; leaves, 
often deeply indented; fruit, green or later yellowish, aromatic, 


APPLE. 179 


hard, bitter, keeps through the winter; resembles quince in 
quality and used like the quince for making an excellent jelly. 

There are but few varieties of this in cultivation, among 
them are the Soulard and the Fluke. It does not readily cross 
with the cultivated apple. 

Groups of Apples: 

Among cultivated varieties of apples we often find several 
that closely resemble one another in fruit, foliage and habit. 
Some of these groups are as follows: 

(a) The Fameuse group includes Fameuse, Shiawassee 
Beauty, McIntosh and St. Lawrence. 

(b) The Duchess of Oldenburg group includes Duchess, 
Borovinka, Gilbert and Charlamoff. 

(c) The Ben Davis group includes Ben Davis, Gano, Shock- 
ley and Black Ben Davis. 

Other groups will suggest themselves to those acquainted 
with many varieties of apples. 

For describing apples a certain convenient nomenclature has 
been adopted. It frequently happens that the color, shape and 
quality of fruits are changed by soil and location. The character- 
istic appearance of the wood and foliage, however, is less liable 
to change; in the identification of fruits it is often necessary to 
take them into account as well as the fruit, and a good descrip- 
tion should include the tree as well as the fruit. These terms, as 
applied to the growth of a tree, are “strong and vigorous,” as 
the Duchess of Oldenburg; ‘“‘vigorous and slender,” as Anisim; 
“stout and short jointed,” as the Yellow Transparent. 

For the general form of the tree the term “upright spread- 
ing” would indicate the Duchess; “spreading” the Roxbury Rus- 
sett; “upright” the Whitney; “round headed” the Red Astrachan. 

In describing the fruit the word “base” means the part of 
the apple at the stem end; “apex,” the portion at the blossom 
end; “cavity” is the depression around the stem; “basin,” the 
depression around the flower end; “calyx,” the so-called flower 
in the apex of the apple. The general form is referred to as be- 
ing “round,” “oblate,” “conical,” and “oblong,” which terms are 
illustrated in fig. 87. As regards size, apples, when under two 
and a half inches in diameter, are said to be small; when from 


180 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


two and a half to three and a half inches in diameter they are 
termed “medium,” and above this, “large.” 


oor ese 
-- “= 


Fig. 87.—Forms of apples. a.—Oblong. b.—Round. c.—Conical. 
d.—Oblate. Numbers refer as follows: 1. Stem. 2. Cavity. 3. 
Calyx. 4. Basin. 65. Core. 


Propagation of Varieties: 


Apples are commonly propagated 

(a) By root-grafting in-doors in winter on whole or piece 
roots. 

(b) By crown-grafting in the field in spring. 

(c) By budding. 


APPLE. 181 


Various other forms of graftage may be successfully used 
in growing the apple as it is easily worked in this way. 

Stocks for the Apple: 

(a) Seedlings of vigorous, hardy sorts are commonly used 
as stocks for the apple in the best apple districts and little at- 
tention is paid to the source of the seed. 

In the Central and Northwestern states, where the winters 
are severe and the snowfall often scanty, the apple is liable to 
winter injury and much care is taken in getting hardy stocks. 
For this purpose seedlings of the hardiest varieties are sought. 

(b) Seedlings of hardy hybrid crabs are now much favored 
for severe locations and are giving good results, but are not suffi- 
ciently tested so that their value can be definitely stated. It 
seems from present experience that their use should be extended. 

(c) Seedlings of the pure Pyrus baccata are of great hardi- 
ness and are now being widely experimented with in severe loca- 
tions, especially in Minnesota and the Dakotas. Some varieties 
do well on it when budded or grafted at the crown while other 
kinds unite poorly with it and there is at least something of a 
question as to its future usefulness as a stock. 

(d) Dwarf apples are formed by working them on the Para- 
dise stock, which is a dwarf apple stock much used in Europe 
for this purpose but seldom used in America. It makes small 
trees that are adapted to training in various forms. 

(e) Top-working or grafting the tops of trees is practiced in 
some sections to change the bearing of trees and to overcome 
weaknesses in the trunk of certain kinds, such as the Wealthy, 
which is liable to canker in the crotches in Minnesota and the 
Dakotas. Some varieties are much more productive when top: 
worked than when merely root-grafted. 

Location of the apple orchard.—The best location for an 
apple orchard is on high northern slopes tipping down to the 
northeast, and the steeper the slope the better, provided it does 
not interfere with cultivation. The northern slope is preferred 
because it is least affected by drouth, sudden changes of temper- 
ature, and by drying winds, which very uniformly come from the 
South. However, some excellent orchards in the Northwest are 
located on southern slopes. It is important to plant apple trees 


182 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


on the highest land available. Even if the elevation is not more 
than ten feet above the general level of the adjacent country, 
it is a great advantage in furnishing air-drainage and thus equal- 
izing the temperature and lessening the danger from frost in 
the blossoming period. 

The worst location fer an orchard is what is called a warm 
sheltered spot, where the sun has free access and the winds are 
entirely shut off. Into such a place the cold air from the sur- 
rounding higher elevations settles, making it cold at night and the 
hottest place during the day. Blight and winter killing are apt 
to be abundant in such a place. In some sections—most generally 
those protected by water or forests of wooded hills—but little, 
if any, difference is to be noticed in the growth and productive- 
ness of trees on the various exposures, while in exposed places 
this difference is very marked. 

Windbreaks.—A free circulation of air is very desirable in 
an orchard, and full exposure is better than shutting it in toa 
closely, yet in a full wind-swept exposure, the best conditions 
for a successful orchard are not found. It should be surrounded 
with windbreaks on the exposed sides, sufficient to somewhat 
break the force of the wind but not heavy enough to prevent a 
good circulation of air through the orchard at any time. It is 
much more important to have a windbreak on the south and west 
sides of an orchard than on the north or east, for it is from the 
former directions that the most injurious winds come from. 

The land best adapted to the growth of apples is what might 
be called a deep, open, clayey loam, that is well drained, either 
naturally or artificially, and does not suffer severely from drouth 
or excess of water. However, the apple may be grown success- 
fully on almost any soil, even on that which is dry and gravelly, 
providing it has a reasonable amount of plant food; but orchards 
require more careful management in severe situations than in 
those which are favorable and of course are not as long lived and 
productive. 

The soil for apple orchards must be retentive and rich in 
plant food, for it is impossible to raise good fruit on poor soil. 
Sufficient moisture can generally be secured by heavy mulching, 
and the newer soils of the Northern states are generally rich 


APPLE. 183 


enough for apples without manuring; indeed, heavy, black prairie 
loam is generally so rich in plant food that it stimulates in most 
varieties of apples a late growth, especially when the autumn 
is warm and moist, and only the hardiest kinds, such as those 
that do not make a late growth in autumn, should be planted in 
such locations. 


Fig. 88.—Various kinds of roots on apple trees. a.—Cut too short. 
b.—Stock has died and roots have been sent out from the cion. 
c.—Similar to b, but with more fibrous roots. d.—A good form 
well dug, in which the stock is still preserved. 

If the sub-soil is a very hard clay that the roots can scarcely 
penetrate, very deep plowing should be resorted to; but as this is 
not deep enough to give the roots much of a chance in very hard, 
dry clays, the holes should be dug very deep. A better way than 
digging holes into such hardpan is to explode a medium charge of 


184 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


dynamite in each hole, which will so loosen the soil that the roots 
can penetrate it. In some locations, such treatment will make all 
the difference between success and failure. 

Trees should be selected that are vigorous and healthy, with 
plenty of strong roots. It is really of little importance what the 
size or form of the top of the tree may be, provided it has good 
roots and is healthy and free from blemishes; for, if vigorous, 
the form of the top may be readily changed. The best trees are 
those, not over four years old, that have made moderate but not 
rapid growth in the nursery. Three-year-old trees, of most va- 
rieties, are generally the best to set. Two-year-old trees do very 
well and are often as good as any. One-year-old trees are too 
small to conveniently cultivate around them in the field a are 
better off in the nursery for another year. 

Seedlings.—Apple seed grows readily and generally forms 
plants about twelve inches high, with tap-roots of about the 
same length, the first season. The seed does not reproduce in 
quality the fruit it was taken from, and probably not one seedling 
in a thousand is as good as any of the better cultivated kinds. 
Seedlings, however, are raised in large quantities, to be used in 
grafting and to increase the named varieties. Apple seed is gen- 
erally obtained by washing out the pomace from cider mills. The 
seeds are heavier than the pulp and are readily separated from it 
by water. It is best not to allow the seed to get very dry after 
cleaning, and on this account some growers prefer to sow it in 
the fall shortly after cleaning, while others mix it with sand and 
keep it buried in the ground until spring. If the seed gets very 
dry it often fails to start, or does not start for one year, unless 
scalded or mixed with moist sand and allowed to freeze and thaw 
a few times. In a small way the seed may be kept mixed with 
sand and buried in a box in the ground until spring, when it 
should be put in a warm place until it starts into growth a little. 
It should then be sown in drills three inches deep and about three 
feet apart, in rich, warm soil, sowing about twenty seeds to the 
foot. 

Root grafted trees should always be preferred to those that 
are budded for severe sections, although in the case of hardy 
trees that have already been root-grafted, budding is as good as 


APPLE. 185 


grafting to change the bearing qualities, where extremely hardy 
stocks are used. The objection to budded trees is not in the 
method of propagation, but in the fact that the buds must be in- 
serted above or close to the ground in a seedling root which is 
often of doubtful hardiness and may be quite tender and the bud 
is partly exposed above ground, where it is liable to fail at 
any time. Root-grafted trees have the graft below ground and 
send out roots from above the graft, which increases the hardi- 
ness of the tree. Quite frequently the roots of a budded or graft- 
ed tree will be tender and kill out, while the top is healthy and 
sound, consequently it is desirable to have the roots as hardy 
as the top. But as this is not always practicable, every effort 
should be made to get the hardiest roots obtainable. In most 
favorable locations, budded trees may be just as desirable as 
those which are root-grafted. The kind of root-graft, whether it 
is made with whole or piece rvots, makes but little difference 
to the ordinary planter, who should try especially to get good 
trees and then be careful to plant the graft well below the sur- 
face of the ground. 

Planting.—For planting, the land should be in as good condi- 
tion as is required for corn. The work of planting will be greatly 
facilitated if the land is furrowed out both ways with a large 
plow, and the trees set at the intersections. If the trees must be 
set in sod, a hole five feet in diameter should be dug for each tree; 
no grass should be allowed to grow in this space, and it should 
be heavily mulched. In setting the trees, the holes should be 
made large enough to take in all the roots without crowding. If 
it is necessary to set trees into the subsoil, as it often is, then in 
digging the holes the top-soil should be kept separate from the 
sub-soil and be put back in the bottom of the hole so as to be in 
contact with the roots. The roots should be evenly spread out 
in the hole and the fine top soil carefully worked among them so 
as not to leave any air spaces between or under them. If the 
soil is dry it can hardly be made too solid around the roots. If 
wet, but little pressure should be used. 

The time to plant.—In the extreme North, fruit trees should 
never be set in the fall of the year as they are then especially 
liable to winter injury, nor should they be dug from the nursery 


186 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


rows in the spring, as they are very liable to have been weakened 
by unfavorable winter conditions and will often start poorly. They 
should be dug in the autumn and buried root and branch—“heeled 
in’”—in dry soil until spring, or else be carried over the winter in 
a cold cellar. As few cellars are fit for this purpose it is gener- 
ally safer to bury them outside. As a rule, it is best for plant- 
ers to get their trees in the fall, as they are then more certain 
to get good stock, and there is no delay in waiting for them to 
come in the spring. The trees may be set as soon as the soil 
works easily in the spring, and until the trees break into leaf. 
Usually moderately early planting gives the best results, but it 
Is bad practice to set trees in wet, sticky soils. 

In the more favorable sections for apple growing there is 
very little danger of trees in the nursery being injured in winter 
and hence it is safe to dig the trees in the spring and set them 
out. Autumn planting is also successful with apples in very 
favorable locations but must be done with much care for best 
results. 

Autumn planting.—While it is best, as a rule, to plant trees 
{n the spring, yet it is quite practical to plant apples, plums, 
and most other fruit trees in the autumn, provided that they are 
afterwards laid on the ground on the approach of winter and 
covered with earth and a little mulch. This makes considerable 
additional labor over spring planting. On the other hand, how- 
ever, it permits of planting in the autumn when the general farm 
and garden work is not as pressing as in the spring. It really 
amounts to the “heeling in” of each tree separately. In the spring 
the trees should be uncovered and straightened up before growth 
starts, and they are then all ready to go on and grow. 

“Heeling in” is a term used to designate the temporary bury- 
ing of the roots of trees or plants in earth or other material. If 
the trees are to be moved again within a few days, a very light 
covering will be sufficient; but if they are to remain several weeks 
much care should be taken to do the work well. To begin with, 
select a dry, mellow piece of ground; dig a wide ditch, put in 
the trees—a few at a time—either in an erect or sloping posi- 
tion, and cover them so deep and firm that they cannot dry out. 
If apples or some other somewhat tender trees are to remain 


APPLE. 187 


“heeled in” over winter, it will be found best to commence by 
digging a trench about two feet deep and three feet wide in dry 
land, where no water will stand in the trenches; put in a layer of 
trees, sloping; cover over the roots with a thin layer of fine, mel- 


. er LZ seeceras 9 * wi, =f ae ee te - . = 38 . > 4 
Ff hn aoe SLE a Sr Te “ee (hike ee is = aa 


— 


Fig. 89.—Heeling-in. Showing methods followed in heeling-in trees 


low earth, filling in carefully and solid all the interstices among 
the stems and roots; continue thus until all the trees are in, when 
the tops should be bent to the ground and covered with a few 
inches of earth. 

Depth to plant.—In the best locations, the trees should be 
set about four inches deeper than they grew in the nursery. In 
very dry, light soil, they may be put, perhaps, twelve inches deeper 
than they naturally grew. On steep hillsides, they must be set much 
deeper or they will come too near the surface, owing to the slope of 
the land. One of the most important objects secured by deep 
planting is the sending out of roots from the cion, for when 
trees are well rooted from the cion they are generally much im- 
proved in hardiness. However, in deep, retentive soil deep plant- 
ing is not desirable. 

Distance apart to plant.—In favorable locations apples should 
be set farther apart than where the conditions are very severe. 
Most varieties do best toward the northern limits of apple growing 


188 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


when not over thirty feet apart. In favorable apple districts 
in the Eastern states apple trees are generally set 35 to 40 feet 
apart, while in some of the Pacific Coast fruit sections, where 
the trees seldom become large, they are set out 25 to 30 feet apart. 
Apple trees should be set so as to “‘break joints” north and south 
—that is, the trees in one row should be set opposite the vacan- 
cies in the next. If the rows run northeast and southwest the 
trees will shade one another on the southwest side, which is the 
side most liable to injury from the sun. 

Cultivation.—Young orchards should be cultivated in some 
hoed crop which does not necessitate the working of the soil in 
autumn, but will keep the land well cultivated early in the sum- 
mer. For this purpose corn, early potatoes or squash are good 
crops. Do not sow the ordinary small grains in orchards. Buck- 
wheat, however, seems to be an exception to the rule, and on 
account of its dense shade is a very good crop for this purpose. 
After the trees begin to Lear it is often a good plan to seed the 
land to clover, which should be broken up occasionally. The 
trees, however, should be well mulched with stable litter and, if 
they do not make a satisfactory growth, should be manured. 
When an orchard becomes “sod bound” nothing will do it more 
good than a drove of hogs, sufficient to root up all the sod, but 
they must not be allowed to gnaw the trees. Besides breaking 
up the sod the hogs are very beneficial in destroying many kinds 
of insects, 

Forming the tree.—Whatever the shape of the tree when it 
is received from the nursery, it will need careful attention in 
the orchard. The question whether to grow trees with a long 
or short trunk is a much disputed one; but it may be laid down 
as a general rule that in favorable locations the trunks of the 
hardier kinds should be free from branches for fully three feet 
from the ground, but in such cases they may need some protec- 
tion from sunscald. In very severe and exposed locations, or 
in the case of somewhat tender varieties, it will be better to 
have the trees branch near the ground. When formed in this way, 
they are hardier and less exposed to the wind than if they have 
tall trunks. There is a constant tendency for trees to incline to 
the northeast, and this should be prevented as far as possible. 
To do this, the growth should be encouraged on the southwest 


APPLE. 189 


side by light summer pruning on the north side. Also, in set- 
ting the trees, they should be slightly inclined to the southwest 
and an effort made to keep them in that direction. 

Sprouting from the roots.—In the case of young thrifty trees, 
such as the Wealthy and some other kinds, even with trees up 
to six inches in diameter, vigorous sprouts will often be pro- 


Fig. 90.—Apple trees of various forms showing method of pruning 
for planting. 

duced from the trunk when the top is badly injured and such 

sprouts will make profitable trees. This has been the experience 

in Minnesota where trees have been killed back in severe win- 

ters. 

Mulching.—The advantage of a mulch around trees in ap- 
ple orchards is not generally appreciated. It checks evaporation 
and prevents the running off of water and allows it to soak into 
the ground. It helps to equalize the moisture in the soil through- 
out the growing season, and ‘prevents root-killing in winter. It 
is of the greatest assistance in rather dry locations, where its 
use makes success possible with many varieties that otherwise 


190 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


would be complete failures. In almost any soil of the North- 
west the chances of trees living and doing well would be in- 
creased by the use of a mulch around them, but this is especially 
true of trees on sandy land and in southern exposures. It is 
generally best to cultivate the land around trees when they are 
small; but if they are set on sod land, or after they begin to 
bear, or if they suffer from drouth, they should be heavily 
mulched at once, and this should be renewed as often as nec- 
essary to keep a covering five or six inches in depth on the 
ground at all times extending at least four feet on all sides of the 
tree, and, in the case of larger trees, extending-out as far as 
the branches. Trees that are mulched should for best results 
have the mulch removed and the soil spaded up around them 
each spring. Mulch, however, encourages the presence of mice 
which are liable to gnaw the bark from the stems which must 
be protected against them. 

The varieties of the apple differ greatly in their resistance 
to severe climatic conditions. Some varieties have wonderful 
hardiness and recuperative qualities and are adapted to a wide 
range as, for instance the Oldenburg, Baldwin, Ben Davis and 
Tolman Sweet, while others are adapted only to a limited range, 
like the Yellow Newtown. There are a large number of differ- 
ent kinds, although but few of them are cultivated in a large 
way commercially. The varieties of the first degree of hardiness 
are recommended by the Minnesota State Horticultural Society 
and may be taken as illustrating the kinds that should be tried in 
the most severe northern sections. They are Hibernal, Duchess 
of Oldenburg, Charlamoff, Patten’s Greening and Okabena. 
This list illustrates the way in which we are developing an 
American pomology of our own, for of this list the first three 
are of northern European origin and the last two are American 
seedlings; one, Patten’s Greening, originated in northern Iowa; 
the other, Okabena, originated in southwestern Minnesota. 

The principal varieties of apples cultivated in the large 
commercial orchards of the chief apple-growing regions include 
the Baldwin, Ben Davis, Gano, Winesap, Greening, Grimes Gold- 
en, Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, Northern Spy, Oldenburg, Tol- 
man Sweet and Wealthy. 


PHAR. 191 


The insects and diseases commonly attacking the apple are 
the codlin moth, flat headed apple tree borer, tent caterpillar, 
apple curculio, apple leaf lice, and among the common diseases 
are scab and fire blight. See Chapter III, Insects, and Chapter 
IV, Diseases. 

Pear. 

Pear growing has been an important matter in the North- 
eastern states since the early settlement of the country, and 
has attained great commercial importance in parts of California 
of late years. In the interior states the pear has been subject 
to fire blight and its cultivation has made little progress. In 
the Gulf states the sand pear hybrids only are grown. The pear 
is probably nearly as hardy as the apple against climatic trou- 
bles. 

Origin—The commonly cultivated pear of America and 
Europe has been developed from the wild pear (Pyrus com- 
munis) of Europe and Asia. In its native state the fruit is hard 
and inferior. Pliny said of the pears in his time that they all 
had to be cooked to be eaten. The greatest improvement in 
pears was made by Von Mons in Belgium early in the nine- 
teenth century. He originated many of the best kinds now 
grown. 

The Chinese 
Sand Pear (Pyrus 
Sinensis) was in- 
troduced into this 
country about the 
middle of the last 
century and was 
. for many years 
\ cultivated mostly 
as a curiosity and 
/ for ornament. It 
is a vigorous tree, 
with broad, shin- 
ing, very resist- 


Fig. 91.—Forms of Pears. A.—Solid line shows : 
me Ser Sigg EA oe Be line, Sa aes ant foliage and 
fo) ne shows oblong obovate. otte ; ; 
line, acute pyriform. conspicuous fruit 


192 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


so gritty, hard and acid as to be valueless for des- 
sert purposes but useful like the quince when cooked. 
It readily crosses with the ordinary pear (P. communis) of 
gardens and a large number of more or less mixed seedlings 
has been the result. Among these are two that have become 
commercially valuable. These are the Kieffer and the Le Conte. 
The Le Conte was for a long time thought to be entirely resistant 
to fire blight and especially adapted to the Southern States, but of 
late years it has been badly affected with this disease and now 
the Kieffer is regarded as the most reliable even in the South, 
although it is not entirely resistant to the fire blight. At the. 
North, and over a wide range of territory, the Kieffer has prov- 
en a profitable sort on account of its fine appearance and keep- 
ing qualities, although of inferior quality. It is also less liable 
to attacks of the San Jose scale, at least in some locations, than 
varieties of P. communis. 

The flowers of the pear are perfect and yet there are many 
varieties that are most certain only when grown mixed in the 
orchard with other kinds and it is now a customary practice to 
mix the varieties in the orchard. This weakness of pears does 
not seem to be constant but varies possibly according to soil 
and location. 

Standard pears.—What are known as Standard pears are 
worked on seedlings of the small wild crabby pears which are 
common in Europe, botanically the Pyrus nivalis, or on seedlings 
of the Oriental pears. These have lots of plump seed and 
are vigorous and thrifty. Most of the stocks used in this coun- 
try are imported from Europe. The seedlings are not easily 
grown as they are liable to leaf blight when young. 

Dwarf pears.—When the pear is worked on what is known 
as quince stocks, the resultant trees are dwarf in size and bear 
fruit very young. Some yarieties of the pear bear best and 
the fruit is of improved quality when worked on this stock. 
The stocks for this purpose are generally grown by layering 
the vigorous Angers quince. The layers are then planted out 
in nursery rows and when growing thriftily are budded or 
grafted in spring with the pear. The pear does not make a good 
union on the Japanese quince and all attempts to use it for this 
purpose have failed, 


PEAR. 193 


If dwarf pears are planted deep, they throw out roots above 
the graft and then become Standards, but quince stock must be 
below ground for protection. An observant person can easily dis- 
tinguish the dwarf pear trees that have roots from the cion 
by their greater vigor and, if desired, these pear roots may be 
eut off and the strong growth checked. 

Dwarf pears have the merit of fruiting very young and 
heavily, often when only three years from the bud. They are 
especially fitted for the small garden and of little importance 


eet tomes 


Ay 


I A 
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k ¥ 
ey M 
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5 
: 


: - a 
- : Oo 4 ett 
Faron my ——s ‘ 3 4 x tt 
ig od | : . 
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rig 92.—Some of the peculiar ways in witch pear trees are com- 
monly pruned in French gardens. 


=e 
ie 
J LA 


ya (Se ry 3 4) 


fie Mn, 


La 


otherwise. Dwarf pears need to have their new wood shortened 
each year if they are to be kept in compact form, otherwise 
they get too rangy. About twelve feet is the proper distance 
between them. The Duchess pear is the most popular sort for 
growing on quince roots. 


194 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Thorns, (Crataegus), Mountain Ash and even Shad Bush 
(Amelanchier canadensis) have been used as pear stocks with 
fair results. The Mountain Ash is occasionally used for this 
purpose in Sweden, where ordinary pear stocks are tender. 

The Kieffer pear is sometimes grown from cuttings in the 
South and used as a stock for other pears. 

Propagation.—The pear is grown in practicaliy the same 
ways as the apple, that is, (a) by crown-grafting in the 
field, (b) by root-grafting in the house in winter on whole 
roots—in this case the growth is generally quite slow the first 
year, (c) by budding in summer. 

Soil and cultivation.—The pear needs a rich, retentive soil 
but thrives on a variety of soils and especially likes a rather 
hard sub-soil clay. It is short lived on soils of a loose, open 
texture. Fire blight is especially troublesome on soils where 
the trees make a very rapid growth and it is the practice of 
some growers to keep the land in sod to prevent too rapid 
growth of wood. Yet the pear orchard must not be allowed to 
become so firmly bound in sod that the trees are prevented from 
making a reasonable growth. Nitrogenous manures and the use 
of nitrogenous cover crops should generally be avoided in the 
pear orchard and most attention given to the use of potash and 
phosphoric acid. 

Trees and planting.—Young, thrifty trees, about two years 
from the bud or three years from the root graft, are best for 
planting. Standard pears are generally planted 16x16 or 20x20 
feet apart, according to the form and size of the varieties. Pears 
generally bear paying crops younger than apples. This quality, 
however, varies with the different kinds. 

Pruning.—Pears need more pruning than apples when young. 
During the first few years after planting, the few central shoots 
that often seem to occupy all the attention of the tree when 
young should be pinched or shortened except the strongest cen- 
tral shoot, which should be preserved through the life of the 
tree. Proper attention to this when the trees are young will 
develop a head that will need but little training after the trees 
commence to bear. 

Fruit.—Pears vary greatly in size, quality, color and form, and 
also in season of ripening, from early summer to late winter. 


QUINCH. 195 


Some are valuable only for cooking, others are of finest dessert 
quality. The fruit should be protected by spraying and should 
be picked when full grown, even if very hard, as they are im- 
proved by being ripened under cover. Some varieties that 
water core badly on the tree are exempt from it when the 
fruit is ripened under cover. Fruit allowed to hang long on 
the trees in autumn does not keep well. 

The fruit is marketed as fresh fruit, dried, canned and used 
for making pear cider known as “perry.” 

Insects and diseases commonly attacking the pear are 
much the same as those attacking the apple. The pear is, if 
anything, more liable to fire blight than the apple. See Chapter 
III, Insects, and Chapter IV, Diseases. 

The varieties of the pear that are most popular include the 
Bartlett, Kieffer, Clairgeau, Anjou, Howell, Sheldon, Seckel and 
Nelis. The Duchess is the most popular dwarf kind. By the 
proper selection of varieties the season for the pear may be 
extended from early summer to late winter, but the very early, 
and especially the very late, pears are not of the best quality 
and are generally supplanted by the apple which is more easily 
grown. 

Quince. 

Origin.—The quince (Cydonia vulgaris) is a fruit of com- 
paratively little importance. It is a native of Asia and South- 
eastern Europe. There are not many varieties of it and few 
of these are much known. The plant is a shallow rooted shrub, 
seldom over twelve feet high, and is sometimes trained to the 
tree form. It is chiefly grown in New York, New England and 
on the Pacific coast. It prefers a cool, rather moist climate and 
is uncertain elsewhere. There is a demand for it in most of the 
markets of the Northern states. 

Flowers.—The flowers of the quince much resemble those 
of the apple but are larger and more open, are white, shaded to 
pink, are produced singly at the ends of the twigs and are very 
ornamental. They are supposed to be self-fertile. 

Propagation.—The quince is easily propagated. The most 
common ways are as follows: 

(a) Cuttings of the new wood planted in autumn (com- 
mon) and from cuttings of the surface roots (uncommon). 


\ 


196 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


(b) Mound layering, i. e., by piling the soil up among the 
stems which causes them to root, after which they are sepa- 
rated and set out. 

(c) Budding or grafting the cultivated kinds on the free 
growing Angers Quince (uncommon). 

(d) By grafting long quince cions on pieces of apple roots, 
perhaps one or two inches long, which are broken off in one year 
and the plants then obtained on their own roots. This method 
is generally successful and especially desirable with some kinds 
that do not grow easily from cuttings. It is customary to use 
the short pieces of apple root commonly wasted in root-grafting 
the apple, for this purpose. 

(e) The quince grows well from seed which starts readily. 
The fruit of seedlings may be either pear or apple shaped. 

Soil and planting.—Rich, retentive, not moist soil is best. 
Sandy soils are not so desirable as clay soils. The bushes 
should be planted out about twelve feet apart each way. Avoid 
cultivation of the soil as much as possible, especially in late sum- 
mer, and avoid stable manure, as these have a tendency to en- 
courage fire blight. Nitrogenous fertilizers and nitrogenous 
cover crops should be avoided. Fertilizers containing potash 
and phosphoric acid are best. 

Pruning.—Little pruning is required, except to keep the 
suckers off from the roots and trunks. The trees should branch 
close to the ground. 

Picking.—The fruit should be picked when it begins to 
turn yellow and it must be handled with great care, as it 
bruises easily. If stored in a cool place the fruit will keep a 
month or more. It is used only for cooking when it has a 
peculiar and delicious quality quite its own. Most of it is pre- 
served in the form of jelly or marmalade but when baked it 
makes a desirable dessert. 

Insects and diseases.—The quince is attacked by nearly the 
same insects and diseases that affect the apple and pear and is 
especially liable to leaf rust, fire blight and leaf blight. See 
Chapter III, Insects, and Chapter IV, Diseases. 

The varieties of the quince commonly grown are the Orange, 
Champion, Rea and Meech. 


QUINCE. 197 


QUESTIONS—CHAPTER XI. 
Apples. 
Into what classes may apples be divided? 
Characterize each. 
Into what groups of varieties may apples be divided? 
What terms are applied in descriptions of apples? 
How are apples propagated? 
What stocks are used in different localities? 
How are dwarf apples formed? 
What is meant by “top-working?” 
What is the best location for an apple orchard? 
What is a poor location for an apple orchard? 
Of what advantage is a windbreak to an orchard? 
What soil is best adapted to apple growing? 
With what kind of trees should the orchard be started? 
How are seedlings grown and for what purpose? 
How is apple seed obtained? 
How is it cared for and planted? 
What are the merits of root-grafted trees? 
What are the merits of budded trees? 
How should apple trees be set out? 
What care should be taken in planting? 
When is the best time to plant trees? 
When should autumn planting be practiced? 
What is meant by ‘‘heeling in?’ 
How are plants heeled in? 
What depths should trees be set? 
How far apart should trees be planted? 
What cultivation do orchards require? 
What pruning should be done? 
In what case should sprouting from the roots be encouraged? 
What are the advantages of a mulch in the orchard? 
When and how should a mulch be applied? 
What varieties are best adapted to the North? To the South? 
What varieties are most grown for commercial use? 
Pear. 
In what sections of the country is the pear grown? 
Of what country is the pear a native? 
What are the characteristics of the Chinese sand pear? 
What is the origin of the Le Conte and Kieffer pears? 
What are Standard pears? 
What are dwarf pears used for? 
What are their characteristics? 
What trees are used as stock for the pears? 
How is the pear propagated? 
What cultivation and soil is best for the pear? 
How should young trees be planted out? 
What pruning do the trees need? 
What are the qualities of the fruit? 
How is the fruit marketed? 
What insects and diseases are injurious to the pear? 
What are some of the common varieties of the pear? 
How are pears packed for market? 
Quince. 
Of what country is the quince a native? 
What are the characteristics of the quince? 
In what ways may the quince be propagated? 
What soil and cultivation is best for the quince? 
What pruning does the tree require? 
When should the fruit be picked? 
For what is it used? 
What are the common varieties of the quince? 


CHAPTER XII. 
THE STONE FRUITS. 


Under the head of stone fruits we include peaches, plums, 
cherries, almonds, nectarines, and apricots, all of which are 
classified under the genus Prunus. This is one of the most im- 
portant groups to horticulturists and contains some very valu- 
able fruits and ornamental plants. The almond is an impor- 
tant fruit that belongs under this head, but its cultivation is not 
referred to in this chapter as it is included under the head of 
nuts. 

The Plum. 

There are more species of the plum cultivated in a large 
way in this country than any other of our common fruits. in 
the Northeastern states and on the Pacific coast the Huropean 
or Domestica plums are much at home and commonly grown. 
In many of the Central states the Japanese plums are widely 
grown and are increasing in popularity. Even as far north as 
southern Minnesota, they are grown successfully in the best 
plum localities. In the great Mississippi Valley, extending from 
far north to the south, the most popular varieties of plums are 
those that have sprung from the native sorts. These have been 
developed within less than half a century. 

The different species—There are several species from 
which the cultivated sorts have come. They are as follows: 

(a) European or Domestica plum group (Prunus domes- 
tica). This plum is a native of Europe and Western Asia and 
includes most of the finest plums of commerce. Its most com- 
mon color is red or purple, but it is also found with yellow or 
green skin. In Europe it is cultivated far into the north, but 
the same varieties that are successfully grown in the cold north 
there have failed in the northern part of the Mississippi Valley. 
Popular varieties in this class are Lombard, German Prune, Vic- 
toria and Bradshaw. 

(b) The Myrobalan or Cherry plum group (Prunus cerasife- 
ra). This plum is native to southeastern Europe. It is a favor- 


PLUM. 199 


ite stock on which to bud varieties of the P. domestica. The 
De Caradeuc and Mariana plums, which are supposed to have 
sprung from species native to this country, are probably close- 
ly related to this species. 

(c) Japan plum group (Prunus triflora). This plum comes 
to us from Japan, whence it was introduced about thirty years 
ago. It is probably a native of various parts of Asia and is 
closely allied to our American plum. The fruit is of large size 
and brilliantly colored in red, yellow and purple. It does es- 
pecially well in good plum sections and has a wider range than 
the Domestica class of plums. Many varieties flower so early 
in the spring that their crops are uncertain. It seems quite 
probable that crosses with it and some of the native kinds will 
give rise to very valuable varieties adapted to a wide range of 
conditions. Examples of this class are Kelsey, Burbank and 
Abundance. 

(d) American plum group (Prunus americana). This is 
the common wild plum of the Northern states and Canada, ex- 
tending from the Rocky Mountains eastward across the continent 
and well to the south. It is admirably adapted to the severe 
conditions of the northern Mississippi Valley and the plains, 
and from it have come a large number of varieties, including 
such well known kinds as De Soto, Wyant, Wolf, Weaver and 
Rollingstone. A form of this, sometimes known botanically as 
Prunus nigra and having some quite evident characteristics of 
its own, is found somewhat north of the range of the typical 
Prunus americana. Good examples of this are the Cheney and 
Aitkin, both of which flower early and mature their fruit ear- 
ly. Plums of this class seem to do best in northern Minnesota, 
northern North Dakota and Manitoba. 

(e) The Wild Goose group (Prunus hortulana), represents 
a group of plums that seem especially adapted to southern Iowa, 
Missouri, southern Iilinois and adjacent sections. Among these 
are such well known popular varieties as Wild Goose and Way- 
land. 

(f) The Chickasaw group (Prunus angustifolia or P. chica- 
sa) are native to the Southern states and include such varieties 
as Newman, Pottawatomie and Lone Star. 


200 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Bailey classifies the various varieties of the Prunus domes- 
tica substantially as follows: 

Prunes.—These are known by their sweet, firm flesh, which 
contains enough sugar to permit of their being dried and made 
a commercial product. As a rule a good prune should contain 
not less than 12 per cent of sugar. Many plums that are grown 
as prunes on the Pacific coast and elsewhere are cultivated in 
the Eastern states as plums. 

The Damsons represent a small class of plums having very 
firm flesh, the fruit of which is borne in clusters and the foliage 
is small. These are commonly seen along fences and in various 
wild places in many of the Eastern states. They are generally 
grown from seed and not grafted. The fruit is valuable prin- 
cipally for cooking. 

Gages.—In addition to these there is a class known as Green 
Gages, which are round and generally of good table quality. 
The variety known as Green Gage is typical of this group. 
Large, yellow plums, such as Coe’s Golden Drop, may be used to 
represent another group. Large purple and blue plums repre- 
sent another section, and some of the most important under this 
class are Lombard, Bradshaw and Quackenboss. 

Propagation.—The plum is propagated in a variety of ways. 
The American sorts are sometimes grown from root cuttings. 
In this case the trees used are on their own roots. Cuttings 
for this purpose consist of pieces of the smaller surface roots 
that are cut up in autumn, about four inches long. They are 
then mixed with sand in boxes or nail kegs and stored in a cold 
cellar until spring, by which time they will be calloused and 
very likely will have started buds. These cuttings are general- 
ly sown thickly in drills about three feet apart and covered 
about three inches deep. 

Growing plums from suckers.—The American plums are 
also grown from suckers which are encouraged by cutting the 
surface roots about trees that are growing on their own roots. 
This method is a favorite one for many small growers and 
amateurs. Some horticulturists consider trees grown on their 
own roots much superior to those that are grown in the usual 
way. 


PLUM. 201 


The European, Japan and American plums are mostly grown 
by budding or grafting on seedling plums. Crown-grafting in 
spring on well established seedlings, is a common practice. 
Root-grafting on whole roots in winter is practiced the same 
as root-grafting the apple, and is successful but not as reliable 
as crown grafting in early spring, and the plants start slowly 
when grown in this way. 

Stocks for the plum.—The Myrobalan plum is in common 
use as a Stock for the plum. The Mariana, a nearly allied stock, 
is also used and both make good stocks for the plum in the 
milder sections. For the colder sections, as in Minnesota, the 
Dakotas, northern Iowa, Wisconsin and adjacent states, seed- 
lings of the native Prunus 
americana are much to be pre- 
ferred. Seedlings of the Wild 
Goose type of plums, as well as 
those of Prunus americana, 
make excellent stocks for 
southern Jowa, Missouri and 
Kansas. Peach seedlings are 
largely and successfully used 
as stocks for the plum in mild- 
er plum-growing sections, while 
for the colder states they are 
to be avoided. The apricot 
has been tried as a stock for 
the American varieties of the 
plum but fails to make a per- 
manent union with it. 

The soil for the plum should 
“ preferably be one that is thor- 
Fig. 93.—Sprout of a plum 2 

root taken off with a piece of Oughly well drained and rea- 

a parent root; the best way. = sonably retentive of moisture, 
but it will succeed in any good agricultural soil. The trees hold on 
well, even on quite gravelly ridges, but in such situations in 
dry years the fruit is exceedingly small and the trees make but 
little growth and are short lived. 

Trees and planting.—It is best to set only young trees, that 


202 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


is, those under three years. Plums that have made a strong 
growth may be set at one year old. Most planters prefer them 
at this age as they are cheaper and easier to plant out than 
older trees. Plums are generally planted from 16 to 20 feet 
apart each way and for some dwarf varieties the smaller dis- 
tance may be sufficient, but for the stronger growing kinds twen- 
ty feet is little enough between them. As a rule a better plan 
than planting equi-distant apart each way is to plant the trees 


%, wa Le : . ey So 
+ Ue ea & 
Fig. 94.—Old plum tree pruned in order to renew the top. 


16 to 20 feet apart in rows forty or fifty feet apart and grow 
some other crop between. 

Mixing Varieties—There is some uncertainty as to the 
flowers of the plum. Some varieties are generally, if not al- 
ways, self-fertile, while others are commonly, if not always self- 
sterile. ‘These qualities seem to vary more or less, according 
to location and soil. Much disappointment has arisen from the 


PLUM. 203 


planting of self-sterile kinds singly, as, notably, the Wild Goose. 
It can be laid down as a general rule, and it will apply espe- 
cially to the native kinds, that varieties of the same time of 
flowering should be mixed in orchards. 

Cultivation.—Good cultivation is as essential in the plum orch- 
ard as with other kinds of fruit. The best growers agree that 
spring plowing, followed by shallow cultivation during the sum- 
mer, and the planting of a cover crop in July or August will give 
best results. Growing the trees in sod will lessen the size of 
the fruit. Frequent cultivation during the spring months will 
keep down the sprouts which are likely to come up around plums 
which are on Americana roots. 

Pruning.—The European plums usually make good heads and 
need little pruning. On the other hand, many varieties of Amer- 
ican and Japanese plums are of a very sprawling and awkward 
habit of growth and require severe heading in to keep them in 
good shape. Pruning should be done regularly, so that it will 
not be necessary to remove large limbs. The larger wounds are 
quite likely to become diseased if they are not painted or cov- 
ered with grafting wax. Broken or split branches, which are 
often found on plum trees unless the fruit is properly thinned, 
should be removed at the first opportunity. 

Thinning.—Proper thinning is even more essential with 
plums than with most other fruits. Nearly all varieties have a 
tendency to set many more fruits than the trees can mature 
properly. Thinning increases the size of the individual fruits 
and their market value, and saves many broken limbs. Over- 
bearing may even shorten the life of the tree, particularly in the 
Japanese varieties. The fruit should be thinned after the June 
drop, the proportion of the fruit which is removed being a mat- 
ter which the grower must settle for himself. The fruits should 
not be less than five or six inches apart on the branches. 

Picking.—The European plums should be picked with the 
stem on; the American plums naturally become detached from 
the stem at maturity. The fruit may be either a free stone or 
a cling stone and examples of each are found among the differ- 
ent classes of the plum. (The word “prune” is applied to a 
class of plums having firm flesh and a larger per cent of sugar 


204 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


than the ordinary plum, which dries readily.) Some of the best 
plum growers practice thinning the fruit. The time when the 
different varieties come into bearing depends much on the pecul- 
iarities of each sort. The different classes ef plums usually 
bear fruit in three years. i 


Packing and Marketing.—Plums are sold either in berry 
boxes, in ten-pound baskets, or in special boxes or baskets. The 
usual method of marketing Americana plums is in quart boxes 
or in half-bushel or bushel baskets. Only the fancy fruit should 
be put in boxes. The ten-pound grape basket is a common pack- 
age in the Hast for the European varieties. Western plums and 
prunes are usually shipped in small baskets or flat boxes, the 
individual fruits often being wrapped in paper. 

Insects.—The insects most injurious to the plum are the 
Curculio, Peach Borer, Tent Caterpillar and Leaf Lice, whicn see 
in chapter on Insects. 

The diseases especially injurious to the plum are Brown 
Rot, Plum Pocket and Leaf Curl. Plum Knot and Shot Hole fun- 
gus are discussed under the head of diseases. 

The varieties of the plum are many and various. In the 
great plum growing sections of the Pacific Coast the principal 
kinds: grown are Burbank, Climax, Clyman, Satsuma, Wickson, 
Yellow Egz, Grand Duke, Washington, Blue Damson. 

In the Northeastern states the principal varieties grown 
are Lombard, Abundance, Wildgoose, Burbank. 

The varieties best adapted to Minnesota and the surround- 
ing states are Wyant, De Soto, Wolf, Stoddard, Surprise, Cheney 
and Forest Garden. 


Cherry. 

The cultivated kinds of cherries probably came from the 
two species known botanically as Prunus avium and Prunus 
cerasus, both of which are natives of Hurope and Asia, but in 
the centuries in which they have been under cultivation they 
have been crossed and recrossed until it is impossible to sep- 
arate the varieties into their species. 


The Different Classes.—The cultivated sorts are divided for 
convenience into two classes: 


CHERRY. 205 


a. Kinds with sweet juice, including what are known as Maz- 
zard and Hearts cherries. These are generally tall, rather erect 
growing trees. They do best in a somewhat moist climate, 
notably in coast states where the winters are not severe. 

b. Kinds with sour or sub-acid juice, including what are 
known as sour and morello cherries, of which the Montmorency 
and Early Richmond varieties are examples. These types are 
usually low-headed, with spreading branches. They include the 
hardiest known varieties, some of which do well even in dry cold 
climates. 

Prunus mahaleb, a slender, small tree bearing small, dark 
red austere fruit, a native of southern Europe, is sometimes found 
in cultivation, It is used for stocks upon which cherries are 
propagated. 

The wild American cherries include the sand cherry (Prunus 
besseyii); the large choke cherry of the Western states (Prunus 
demissa), and the bird cherry (Prunus Pennsylvanica). 


Location and Soil.—The cherry will succeed on a drier soil 
than most other fruits. It must have good drainage in both soil 
and air if it is to be successfully grown. In wet places or water- 
soaked subsoils it soon perishes. The best locations are on high 
land tipping to the north, as in a location of this sort growth 
does not start as early in the spring and the buds are not so apt 
to be injured by frost. A rise of even a few feet above surround- 
ing land is desirable, if high land cannot be obtained. Cherries 
do best on a rather light sandy or gravelly loam. If the soil is 
very rich they tend to produce too much wood. The subsoil 
should be porous and well drained, neither clay hard pan or dry 
gravel. A good cherry soil should contain plenty of moisture 
early in the spring months and up to the time of ripening of the 
fruit, but after that only enough to ripen the wood slowly. 

Planting.—The soil should be thoroughly prepared and in 
good working condition before the trees are set. The distance 
between trees will vary with the variety, climate, soil and rain- 
fall. The sweet cherries on rich soil in a good location require 
from thirty to forty feet distance, while the sour cherries under 
the same conditions require about 400 square feet of soil or to 
be set 20x20 feet. If the soil is not very rich and is rather dry 


206 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


a distance of from 25 to 28 feet for sweet cherries is sometimes 
used and of 16 to 20 for sour cherries. 

The cherry should never be used as a filler, It requires 
‘different cultivation and attention than the apple or peach and 
hence should be by itself. 


ame 


Ga 
tog 


hed 
Wy, 


ee 
iS 
+ ee ee 
2 aay Sie. 
te: . 


SW EZ 


ti 
<< Wy 
ae 
SB: 
E- 
2 sens\e Se 2h y ADB 
RS ia pe NO 
i ash Tae 
- a ‘ 


Fig. 95.—Sour cherry tree of good form. 


Hither the square or hexagonal system of planting are desir- 
able. The square system gives a little more land to each tree 
and consequently less trees per acre than the hexagonal plan. 


Time of Planting.—In mild sections where spring comes 
early and there are no late spring frosts, or where the rains con- 
tinue late, planting may be done in the fall. In the colder sec- 
tions, and in fact generally, early spring planting will be found 
to give best results. 

Stock may be purchased in the fall and carefully heeled in 
over winter ready for early spring planting. The holes should 
be dug large enough so that the roots will go into them without 


CHERRY. 207 


crowding. All bruised or injured roots should be cut off and the 
top cut back to correspond to this trimming. In severe climates 
it is well to set the trees from four to six inches deeper than 
they grew in the nursery. In some good cherry districts they 
are set only two or three inches deeper than they originally grew. 
Put in some rich black loam and lean the tree slightly to the 
direction from which the prevailing winds come. Tramp the soil 
firmly about the roots. Then add more soil and tramp it lightly, 
finally filling the hole and raking the top soil or leaving it loose 
and fine on top. Some water may be used in the bottom of the 
hole to help pack the earth if desired. 

Age of Trees.—Good strong first-class one-year-old or low 
headed two-year-old trees should be used in planting. In the 
West one-year-old trees are preferred. In some other sections, 
two-year-olds with a good root system are used. 

Cultivation.—For the first five or six years at least the 
orchard should be thoroughly cultivated. After that a grass or 
mulch system may be followed, though it is a question if cultiva- 
tion is not better. Some vegetable crop may often be raised 
though it is not desirable to crop the ground too much. Cultiva- 
tion should start as soon as possible in the spring and continue 
until the last of July or middle of August, when a cover crop 
should be sown. 

If the trees are not making a good growth Canada peas or a 
vetch may be used; if the growth is too rapid and too much wood 
is being produced, rve may be sown. A bearing orchard should 
not be permitted to grow too vigorously in late summer, as late 
growth is made at the expense of fruit. 

Propagation.—The cherry, in common with other fruits, does 
not come true from seed, though the seedlings are often of good 
quality. The seedlings are generally used as stocks on which 
to work named varieties. The pits should be managed as rec- 
ommended for plum pits. Named varieties are propagated by 
grafting, budding or suckers. Cherries may be grown on a num- 
ber of different stocks, but the Mahaleb (Prunus mahaleb) and the 
Mazzard,.astrong growing variety of Prunus avium, are most often 
used. These are imported from France. Cions should be taken 
from healthy bearing trees, and if grafting is employed, the work 


208 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


must be done early in the spring before growth starts. Budding 
is usually done in August. 

The Mahaleb stock is hardier than the Mazzard, especially 
in a dry climate, and is used almost entirely as a stock on which 
to bud the sour cherries, It is too tender for severe climates. 


The Mazzard is a native of eastern Europe and is used as a 
stock for sweet cherries. It is not hardy enough for severe 
locations. It may be used for root grafting, but budding is the 
method usually employed. 


Where the cherry is on its own roots, suckers may often be 
taken and planted to advantage. It is a poor plan to follow 
with grafted or budded stock, however, as the quality of the 
plant is usually not known. 

A few varieties may be grown by cuttings, but it is a rather 
uncertain method and is seldom used. 

Top-working.—In some sections where the body of the tree 
is apt to suffer from sunscald or other trouble, varieties may be 
grafted on resistant trees to advantage. The work must be done 
early in spring before the buds start. 


Pruning.—The cherry needs only enough pruning to keep the 
tree in shape. In Russia it is grown in bush form and when it 
becomes too old to be profitable the old parts are cut away and 
new sprouts take their places. The important thing to remem- 
ber in connection with this, as well as all other stone fruits, is 
that they should be trained low. 

Picking and Marketing.—Cherries must be picked by hand as 
soon as they begin to color in order to have them ship well. 
They require very careful handling, although there is a difference 
in varieties in this respect. They must not be poured from one 
receptacle to another. 

They should be packed immediately after picking, precooled 
and shipped at once. One day lost in starting or in transit may 
mean a considerable loss when the fruit is put on the market. 
Cherries are usually packed in ten pound boxes, or in the case 
of sour cherries, in quart boxes or market baskets. 


Insects and Diseases.—The insects and diseases affecting 
the cherry are much the same as those affecting the plum. 


PEACH. 209 


Among the worst of these pests are the curculio, which stings the 
fruit; the leaf slug, which injures the foliage; borers which work 
in the trunk; and brown rot, which is often very destructive to 
the fruit just as it is ripening. 

These and other pests affecting the cherry will be found 
described in the chapters on Insects and Diseases. 

Varieties —Among the sweet cherries Lewelling, Napoleon, 
Royal Duke and Windsor are probably the best. Montmorency, 
English Morello and Early Richmond are good varieties of sour 
cherries. 


wil 


Fig. 96.—English Morello, one of the best cherries for the North. 


Peach. 

The peach is one of the most uncertain of our cultivated 
fruits. It is highly esteemed and is used almost entirely as a 
luxury by the greater part of our people. It is nowhere adapted 
to great areas, although widely grown in a small way. It is 
grown in a large commercial way in a few favorable sections, 
among which may be mentioned: 1. Tle section along the south 
shore of the Great Lakes, including portions of southern Michi- 


210 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


gan, New York, Ohio and southern Canada; 2. Long Island and 
portions of Connecticut, southern New York, New Jersey, Dela- 
ware and Maryland; 3. Further south there is a great peach 
section in the highlands of northern Georgia, Alabama, etc.; 
4, Southern Illinois, Missouri, and portions of Kansas, Iowa and 
Nebraska; 5. Parts of Texas; 6. Parts of eastern Colorado; 
7. A large part of California. 

The northern limits of successful peach growing in New 
England is perhaps central Massachusetts, and even in southern 
New Hampshire peaches are raised in favorable years. In the 
Mississippi Valley peaches are raised as far north as southern 
Iowa. However, as the 
northern limits of peach 
raising are reached, the 
crop becomes uncertain, 
owing chiefly to the kill- 
ing of the fruit buds in 
winter, which will gener- 
ally stand a temperature 
of over 25 degrees below 
zero if the wood is well: 
ripened in autumn. The 
flower buds are much more 
tender than the leaf buds 
and are often killed with- 
out injuring the growth of 
the trees. On rich soils, 
especially on those that 
are liable to be moist, the 
peach grows too late in 
autumn and the flower 


Fig. 97.—Protecting peach _ trees. ; ar) e 
Peach tree tied up, ready for winter buds will kill in such loca- 


covering. (After Whitten.) tions even when uninjured 
on higher, drier, and perhaps poorer, soils. In central Iowa the 
planting of the hardiest kind of peaches has been attended with 


some success. 
Laying the peach trees down in winter.—In northern Iowa 
and southern Minnesota a few peaches are grown each year by 


PEACH. 211 


bending the trees to the ground in winter and covering the tops 
with corn stalks, marsh hay or similar material. The wood of 
the peach is exceedingly brittle but the roots are very tough 
and the trees are bent in the roots by digging a hole at the 
side of the tree deep enough to reach the pliable portion of the 
root. Forked roots are preferred on peach trees that are des- 
tined to be treated in this way, as their roots are smaller, and 
hence do not get stiff as quickly as these grown to one central 
shoot. 

Origin.—The peach is native of Asia, but was introduced 
into America at a very early date, and in the last century was 
spontaneous over a large area of country in the mountainous 
section of the Southern 
states. While there are 
many forms of the peach, 
they are all classed as 
coming from the same spe- 
cies, Prunus persica. Pro- 
fessor R. H. ‘Price, in the 
report of the American 
Pomological Society for 
19038, classifies the various 
kinds of peaches under 
five heads, although he 
says that some varieties 
cannot be placed in either, 
and that the practical ap- 
plication of this classifica- 
tion lies in the fact that 
the grower should not be 
concerned so much about 
what varieties he has as 
about having the varieties 
he plants of the proper 
group for his location. The 
Fig. 98.—Protecting peach trees. Peach following classification is 


sa a with corn stalks, (After taken from this article; 


212 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


(a) Peen-to group. This is distinguished by its vigorous 
willow-like branches. Flowers appear very early; fruit flattened 
and much like an oblate apple; stone flattened in an opposite 
way from that of the ordinary peach; leaves narrow and long 
and hang on in winter. They are adapted especially for the 
Southern states and near the coast. Angel and Waldo are varie- 
ties of this group. 

(b) South China group. The parent of this race is the 
variety Honey, which is supposed to have come from South 
China. The tree is smaller than the Peen-to. Valuable seed- 
lings of this group are Climax and Coleman. 


! wy \ 
U iy 
Y 


ig. 99.—Leaves and pits of the different types of peaches. 1.—Per- 
shan. 2.—North China. 3.—Spanish. 4.—South China. 5.—Peen- 
to. Pits numbers 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 are of the same type as the 
leaves over them. (After Price.) 


PEACH. 213 


(c) Spanish group. The tree is the largest of all supposed 
to have been introduced by the Spaniards; leaves small, flat, 
and hang on late in autumn; fruit ripens late and nearly always 
downy; tinged with yellow; nearly always acid and of low 
quality. This variety bears heavily in the district to which it 
is adapted, which includes the Southern and South Central 
states. Among the varieties belonging to this group are Gal- 
veston, Guadaloupe, Onderdonk and Victoria. 

(d) North China group. The parent of this group is the 
Chinese Cling which is supposed to have originated in North 
China. The tree is of medium growth; flowers large; fruit 
large and white with a red blush. Such varieties as Elberta, 
Mamie Ross and Carmen belong to this group. These are raised 
in enormous quantities on the high lands of the Southern states. 

(e) Persian group; of unknown parentage, but is 
supposed to have come from the high altitudes of Persia. Tree 
is medium in size; flowers varied in size; foliage nearly al- 
ways crimped, trough shaped and fall off the tree early in au- 
tumn. This tree needs a long period of rest. Well known 
varieties of this group are Crawford, Alexander, Mountain Rose, 
Oldmixon Free and Oldmixon Cling. This group includes most 
of the varieties that are successful in the North. 

Propagation.—The peach is sometimes grown from seed. 
Some varieties come -so nearly true from seed that they are 
propagated in this way, but it is an uncommon method with 
commercial varieties. Budding is the common and almost ex- 
clusive method used in growing the peach although success 
often attends grafting, which is of convenient use for working 
over in the spring those budded plants on which the buds failed 
to take. In the South the peach stocks are commonly budded 
in June and make large, full sized trees by the end of the first 
autumn. In the North the peach is usually budded the first year 
in August when the seedlings will be about two feet high, and 
the stocks are cut back the following spring. June budding at 
the North is not popular, as the resultant plants are too small. 

The seed must be stratified over winter and then cracked 
in the spring, if not already open, and the kernels planted. Va- 
cancies in the nursery row may be filled from the seed bed 


214 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


when the seedlings are very young. Seedlings from natural 
fruit are preferred for stocks from sections where the peach 
is healthy and free from yellows. A favorite place for ob- 
taining peach seed is from Tennessee and Kentucky where the 
peach grows in thickets. Plum stocks are sometimes preferred 
for the peach where it is grown in heavy, moist soil but are 
seldom used in commercial peach growing. 

Planting.—The trees for planting out should be one year 
old from budding, small but not weak. They should be trimmed 
to a straight shoot one to three feet high and all side branches 
removed at planting, making them appear as a mere whip 
stick. This facilitates forming the head. It saves freight and 
packing if they are to be shipped long distances, to have this 
done before they are shipped. Trees more than one year old 
are not desirable for orchard planting. At the North peach 
trees should be set out in the spring. The distance apart will 


= . 


<< 


Fig.100. Pruning peach trees. a.—Before pruning. b.—After pruning. 


PEACH. 215 


vary ‘with the locality, soil and variety. In a general way it 
will be found that 15x15 feet apart is about right. Some grow- 
ers put out twice as many trees as can grow well to maturity. 
In such cases they must be thinned out when they commence 
to crowd one another. : 
Pruning.—On inferior soils, such as those of parts of the 
peach region of Michigan and the Maryland peninsula, it is 
customary to do but little pruning and the trees are allowed 
to branch close to the ground and form rangy heads. On better 
soils it is quite customary to cut back the new wood severely 
after the tree is formed, cutting off from one-third to one-fourth 
of the new growth and the weak wood out of the interior of the 
tree. This thins the fruit by removing many fruit buds and 
keeps the tree in compact form. When the trees are injured 


Fig. 101.—The proper method of pruning peach trees injured in win- 
ter. a.—-Before pruning. b.—After pruning. 


216 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


in the winter, they recover most quickly, if at all, by being cut 
back severely. 

Location and soil—The peach grows well even in quite 
poor soil. In very rich soil it is liable to grow late in autumn 
and the buds kill in winter. Some of the best orchards are on 
very poor soil. It does best on high ridges, especially in loca- 
tions exposed to the north and west. Southern slopes are liable 
to start the buds too early. Where late spring and early au- 
tumn frosts are prevented by proximity to water, as in Michi- 
gan, the peach does well at the north, but as the northern limits 
of peach growing are reached, extra skill is required to grow it. 

Thinning the fruit.—If the close pruning referred to is fol- 
lowed, many fruit buds will be cut off and thus the crop is thin- 
ned, but in addition to this, special thinning is most important 
with the peach. If it sets fruit at all it generally sets too much, 
and if all is allowed to grow the tree is weakened and the fruit 
becomes small and poor. Trees that are thinned generally yield 
as much fruit in quantity and that of much better quality than 
trees not thinned. In thinning, take out all curculio-stung and 
imperfect fruit as they are of no value. Thinning should be 
done as soon as the imperfect fruit can be determined and after 
the natural fall of small fruit has taken place. Thin to from 
four to six inches apart on the branches. It often requires much 
will power to do this, as such thinning will seem excessive at 
the time it is done. 

Peach trees bear young, not infrequently at two years old. 
The fruit of the peach is used fresh, for canning, evaporating 
and as a kind of cider which yields brandy by distillation. 

Insects and diseases.—The trunk of the peach tree is fre- 
quently injured by the Peach Borer, and the fruit by the Cur- 
culio. The diseases of the peach are as follows: Brown Rot, 
Leaf Curl, Scab, Postular Spot, Yellows, Rosette, Little Peach. 

Varieties.—There are many varieties of the peach. Grow- 
ers must study the conditions in their own localities and the 
adaptation of varieties to them. The most important varieties 
in the North are Elberta, New Prolific, Kalamazoo, Smock and 
Triumph. Those most important in the South are Alexander, 
Carmen, Elberta, Greensboro, Mountain Rose and Sneed. 


a | 


APRICOT. 21 


Nectarine. 

The nectarine is a smooth-skinned peach. It is interest- 
ing to know that peaches have been grown from the seed of 
nectarines and nectarines from the seed of peaches. The fruit 
is usually inferior to that of the peach in size, quality and ap- 
pearance. It is grown the same as the peach but not nearly as 
successfully, and is liable to the same insects and diseases. It 
seems to do best in the Pacific Coast states. 

Apricot. 

The apricot is a fruit somewhat intermediate between the 
peach and the plum. The bark resembles the peach but the 
leaves are very broad and almost circular. 

Origin. —The apricot commonly cultivated in Eastern and 
European gardens is a native of Asia. Botanically, it is known 
as Prunus armeniaca. The Russian apricot is a hardy form 
of this species having small fruit. There are a few varieties 
cultivated that belong to other species but they are of poor 
quality and of little importance, except the so-called Chinese 
apricot plum (Prunus simoni) of Asia which is referred to un- 
der the head of plums. The apricot is as hardy as the peach 
and thrives under the same soil and climatic conditions but pre- 
fers a rather heavier, although well drained soil. The apricot 
is grown in Europe and in a large way in the Pacific Coast 
states. In the Eastern and Central states it has not been much 
planted because its early period of flowering makes it sus- 
ceptible to injury from frost and the liability of its being in- 
jured by Curculio has made the crop so uncertain that the peach 
has taken its place. 

Stocks.—The apricot may be grown on seedlings of the 
European plums and on the peach. It is said that apricot stocks 
are not as good as either of these, especially on land that is 
liable to be very wet in the spring. Some experience seems to 
show that the apricot does not work well on the Prunus armeni- 
aca. 

Planting and pruning.—The apricot requires about the same 
eare in planting and pruning as the peach. However, it does 
not need quite such close pruning but only enough to keep it 
in good form. 


218 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Picking and marketing is much the same with the apricot 
as with the peach. However, it is generally looked upon as a 
dessert fruit and is generally marketed in small packages. 

Insects and diseases affecting the apricot are practically 
the same as those that attack the peach but it is more liable 
to injuries from the Curculio, which must be carefully held in 
check by jarring and clean cultivation. Arsenical sprays can- 


not be recommended as the foliage is too susceptible to injury 
from them. 


Varieties.—The most popular varieties of the larger apricots 
are Moorpark and Royal. Of the Russian apricots the best are 
the Gibb, Budd and Alexander, but they are little grown. 


QUESTIONS—CHAPTER XIl. 
Stone Fruits. 


1. What fruits are included under the head of stone fruits? 
2. What is the distribution of plum growing in the United 
States? 

3. What is the origin and distribution of the Domestica plum? 

4. What varieties belong to the class and what are their char- 
acteristics? 

5. What is the origin of the Myrobalan plum? 

6. What varieties belong to this class? 

7. What is the origin and distribution of the Japan plum and 
what varieties belong to the class? 

8. What is the origin and distribution of the American plum? 

9. What varieties belong to the class? 

10. What is the origin and distribution of the Wild Goose class 
of plums and what varieties belong to the class? 

11. What is the origin of the Chicasaw group of plums? 

12. What varieties belong to this class? 

13. Into what groups does Bailey classify the plums? 

14. What are the characteristics of each? 

15. In what ways may the plum be propagated? 

16. What is the common way of propagating the American sorts? 
The European? The Japanese? 

17. What stocks are used for grafting the varieties? 

18. What kind of soil is best for the plum? 

19. How should the trees be set out? 

20. Why should varieties be mixed in an orchard? 

21. How and when should plums be picked? 

22. What insects are injurious to the plum? 

23. What varieties are grown in the Pacific Coast states? In 
the Northeastern states? 

24. What varieties are best adapted to Minnesota? 

25. What are the general classes of cherries? 

26. What soil and location are most suitable for cherry growing? 

27. How far apart should cherries be planted? 

28. When and how should cherries be planted? 

29. What care should be given a cherry orchard? 

30. How is the cherry propagated? 
31. How should cherries be picked and marketed? i 
32. What are the most important varieties of cherries? 


35. 


STONE FRUITS. 219 


In what sections of the United States is the peach grown 


commercially? 


34. How far north is the peach grown successfully? 

35. What is the effect of good soil for peach growing in the 
North? 

36. How are peaches protected in winter? 

37. What are the characteristics of peach wood? Of peach root? 

88. What is the origin of the peach. 

39. Into what groups may peaches be divided? 

40. What is the origin and characteristics of each class? 

41. How is the peach propagated in the North? In the South? 

42. How and when is the peach budded? : 

43. How are peaches set out in the orchard? 

44. What pruning of peach trees is necessary? On poor soil? On 
z0od soil? 

45. What location and soil is best adapted to peach growing? 

46. How should the fruit be thinned? 

47. For what purpose is the fruit used? 

48. What insects and diseases are injurious to the peach? 

49. What are the important varieties grown in the North? In 
the South? 

50. From what did the nectarine originate? 

51. How is it grown? 

52. Where did the apricot originate? 

53. Over what territory is it distributed? 

54. What are its characteristics? 

55. What trees are used as stocks for the apricot? 

56. How are apricots planted? 

57. What pruning do apricots require? 

58. How is the fruit picked and marketed? 

59. For what is it used? 

60. What insects and diseases are injurious to the apricot? 

61. What are the most popular varieties? 


CHAPTER XIIl. 


THE GRAPE. 


Origin.—There are about twenty species of wild grapes in 
America and but few of them have been fully tested under 
cultivation. No part of habitable North America is found with- 
out some native species and in many sections these are im- 
portant fruits in their wild state. The grapes commonly cul- 
tivated in this country east of the Rocky Mountains are of 
native origin but in the Pacific Coast states the best European 
grapes are grown in great perfection. They are also grown 
under glass. The species commonly grown in vineyards in this 
country are as follows: 

(1) Northern Fox Grape (Vitis labrusca), the species from 
which almost all of our popular varieties have sprung. Ex- 
amples of these are Concord, Worden, Moore’s Early and Lady. 
As found in its native state, it has a large purple fruit, thick 
skin, and very pulpy meat surrounding the large seeds. The 
flowers are either perfect or staminate; the leaves are large, 
with whitish down on the underside. It is found occasionally 
in the southeastern part of Minnesota, and very abundantly in 
states farther east and south and in parts of Canada. The Con- 
cord grape resulted from the selection of seed from a wild vine 
which had been cultivated for two generations by Ephraim Bull 
of Concord, Massachusetts. Seedling Labrusca grapes are fre- 
quently white or greenish in color. The cultivated grapes of 
this class have perfect flowers with well déveloped stamens. 
They also cross readily with the European wine grape, the River 
Bank and several other native grapes. 

(2) River Bank or Frost grape (Vitis riparia), the com- 
mon wild grape found far north in Canada and in the northern 
United States, is as yet scarcely cultivated, but it is probable 
that some of its hybrids will prove valuable for cold locations. 
This grape has thin, smooth foliage, green on both sides; short 
jointed wood and perfect or staminate flowers. The vines bear- 
ing the staminate flowers generally make an extremely rapid 


GRAPE. 221 


growth and produce a great number of delightfully fragrant 
flowers but no fruit. This species, when crossed with the V. 
labrusca, has given us Beta and Janesville, two varieties of great 
hardiness. From this source will probably come the hardy 
grapes for the colder portions of the United States and Canada. 

European Wine grape (Vitis vinifera)—To this species 
belong most of the cultivated grapes of Europe and Asia. Its 
flowers are either perfect or staminate. It has been cultivated 
since the remote past and has given rise to a large number 
of kinds having widely varying characteristics, but none of these 
have been successfully cultivated in the open air in the 
portion of North America lying east of the Rocky Mountains, 
although they have been grown successfully in California and 
some adjacent states. The reason for this is undoubtedly the 
susceptibility of the roots of this species to attacks of the grape 
vine root louse (Phylloxera) which is abundant over a large 
part of eastern North America, but to the attacks of which the 
American vines are largely immune. This pest has of recent 
years been introduced into both California and Europe, so that 
many vineyards in these sections have been of necessity graft- 
ed on American roots to stem its ravages. 

Hybrid American grapes.—The poor success attending the 
introduction of varieties of EKuropean grapes led to early at- 
tempts at crossing them with native Fox grape (V. labrus- 
ca). Among the first and most successful of these were the 
crosses made by EH. S. Rogers of Salem, Mass., who originated 
and distributed a large number of varieties, some of which still 
remain in cultivation. These are known as Rogers’ hybrids and 
include such well known and productive sorts as Lindley, Aga- 
wam, Aminia, Herbert, Barry and Salem. These have been 
largely replaced by the pure labrusca sorts of more recent in- 
troduction which are nearly or quite as good in quality and 
less liable to disease in ordinary locations. 

Prof. T. V. Munson of Denison, Texas, has paid special at- 
tention to the development of varieties of grapes adapted to 
the Southern and Southwestern states and has sent out a large 
number of good varieties. Among them are the following: Car- 
man, Headlight, Brilliant and others. In his work he has used 


222 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING, 


a large number of little known species in addition to those men- 
tioned. Among them are the following: V. rupestris, V. solonis, 
V. doaniana, V. Champini, V. candicans, V. bouquiniana, V. 
lincecumii, V. aestivalis, V. berandieriana and V. rotundifolia. 

Flowers of the grape.—In the wild state some species of 
grapes produce some plants that have perfect flowers and others 
that have staminate flowers. Our cultivated kinds, that are 
not the result of crossing distinct species quite uniformly, have 
perfect flowers and no crossing is needed to make them produc- 
tive. The sorts that have originated from the crossing of two 
or more species, such as Brighton and Lindley, often have flow- 
ers in which the stamens are reflexed. Such stamens seldom 
if ever produce germinable pollen and hence must be supplied 
with pollen from other vines. When this is not supplied the 
flowers generally fail to set fruit, or if they set fruit at all it 
is very small and seedless. 


Fig. 102.—Flowers of the grape. a.—Flower just opening, with cap 
pushed off. b.—Perfect flower. ec. Staminate flower. d.—Flower 
with reflex stamens. 


Propagation.—The grape is increased from cuttings and lay- 
ers and, to a very limited extent in this country, by grafting. 
In California it is considered good practice to graft the Eu- 
ropean kinds on American roots to avoid the phylloxera. 

By seed.—Propagation by seed is used for growing stocks 
and to obtain new varieties. If vines are to be grown in’ this 
way the seed should be at once sown in boxes of rich soil, or 
in a fine seed-bed. (The seed should be saved from ripe ber- 
ries). Cover it half an inch deep and protect by a mulch in 
winter. The plants will make a growth of one or two feet 


GRAPE. 223 


the first season and will show blossoms about the fourth year. 
Some will have perfect and some staminate flowers, while others 
will have flowers with reflexed stamens; not one seedling in a 
thousand will be worth anything for fruit. The chances for 
obtaining good kinds will be much increased if careful, intelli- 
gent hybridization is resorted to. 

By cuttings.—Grape cuttings are of three kinds—long and 
short hard-wood cuttings, and soft-wood cuttings. The pro- 
cesses by which they are rooted vary greatly in details but 
the general principles are the same in every case. 

Long hard-wood cuttings.—These should be made in the 
fall from the hard, well-ripened new wood of the season. It 
is best to make them about eight inches long, if wood is abun- 
dant. The length will necessarily depend somewhat on the 
distance between the buds on the canes, and when three-bud 
cuttings are made of some varieties they may be ten inches 
long. They are cften made six inches or less in length, but as 
short as this they are more liable to fail from drying out than 
if longer. They will send out roots best if cut just below a bud, 
but this is not necessary. These cuttings should be put up in 
bundles of about one hundred each. Bury them in some well- 
drained place with the tops down, and cover with about six 
inches of soil and a foot or two of mulch. Be sure the soil is 
packed firmly around and between the bundles, so that they 
cannot dry out in winter. In the spring, when the ground is - 
dry, take all but about three inches of the soil from over the cut- 
tings and replace it with about one foot of hot stable manure, to 
induce the cuttings to callous. This is very necessary to insure 
their rooting, and they should never be planted out until well 
calloused. The same object may be secured by covering the 
cuttings with a box and sash, which will confine the sun’s rays 
und so warm the roots that they will start a callous. When the 
soil is settled and warm they should be planted out six inches 
apart, in rows two or three feet apart, putting the cuttings down 
to the top bud. They should be put at least seven inches deep 
in most locations. 

The land for cuttings.—The land selected for growing grape 
cuttings should be warm, light and rich. Its condition will be 


224 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


greatly improved if it is warmed by being plowed several times 
and has a coat of fine, warm manure turned in before planting. 
When planting on a large scale the land may be marked off 
with a line, and a sub-soil plow run eight inches deep in the 
mark to loosen the soil, after which cuttings can easily be 
pushed into place by hand. The after-cultivation consists in 
continually working the top soil and keeping it loose and open. 
In the fall, if the plants are weak, they may be covered with 
earth and left where they are for another season’s growth; but 
if strong, they may be dug and used for vineyard planting the 
following spring. It is customary to dig all the vines late in 
the fall, carefully sort them and heel them in outdoors for win- 
ter, or else put them in a cold cellar. In the spring the strong 
vines may be used in the vineyard and the weaker ones be set 
out in the nursery to grow another year. (See p. 152 on growing 
cuttings in chapter on Propagation). 
One-eye cuttings.——The wood for these should be cut in 
the fall and wintered over in a cold cellar buried in moss, sand, 
sawdust, or other similar 
material, or it may be 


N buried outdoors. In the 


: spring, generally in Feb- 
\ y ruary or early in March, 
; these canes should be cut 

up into pieces having one 

inch of wood below and 

\* half an inch above the 

bud. Boxes about the size 

i, of an ordinary soap box, 
S but only four inches deep 
\ and having holes for drain- 
Wy age, should be prepared by 
se = putting in one and a half 
inches of rich soil and then 
about the same amount of 
clean sand on top of it. 
The cuttings should be set deep enough in the sand to just cover 
the bud, putting them two inches apart each way. The boxes 


Fa iS mS 
ia: ¢ \ 
a / 


PK 


iS 


— 
( 


Fig. 1083—One year old grape vine 
from one-bud cutting. 


GRAPE. 225 


may now be put in a gentle hot-bed, or on a greenhouse bench, 
and kept moist. They should be rooted in about six weeks. 
When they have made a good root growth they should be plant- 
ed, after the soil is warm, in rich soil outdoors. The time for 
this will be as late as the latter part of May in this section. 
Very nice plants may be grown in this way, but they do not 
make as strong a growth the first year as plants from long cut- 
tings, and often need a second year in the nursery before they are 
large enough for transplanting to the vineyard. 

Soft-wood cuttings.—These are made from the green wood 
taken off while the plant is growing. They are rooted in sand 
in much the same way that florists root cuttings of geraniums, 
fuchsias, etc. It is a method used only where wood is very valu- 
able, and as a means of increasing new varieties. Plants grown 
this way are apt to start slowly and to be weak until well start- 
ed, and should not be used when those grown from hard-wood 
can be obtained. 

Layering.—This is the simplest, surest and easiest method 
of increasing the grape, and is the best way to grow it where 
but few vines are wanted. There are two kinds of layers, called 
spring and summer layers from the season in which they are 
made. 

Summer layers are made in the summer, generally the last 
of July, from a branch of the same season’s growth. They are 
likely to be weak for several years, and do not make as good 
plants as spring layers. In making them the wood should be 
slit for an inch or so near the buds that are covered. Bury 
about one foot of the cane four inches deep in‘the ground and 
it will be rooted by late autumn, when it may be treated as 
recommended for weak year- 
ling vines grown from hard- 
wood cuttings. 

Spring Layers.—These may 
be made by laying down any 
cane early in the spring. It 
will root in one season and by 
fall will have made a good 
growth of roots, when it may 


Fig. 104.—Ordinary layer of a grape 
vine. 


226 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


be cut from the main cane, and if strong enough may be divided 
into two plants. By a little different treatment of the spring lay- 
er, a vine may be grown from each bud on the layered cane. For 
this purpose some thrifty cane should be selected in autumn, 
pruned of its laterals and buried. In the spring it should be 
uncovered and only one shoot permitted to grow from each 
joint. After the new growth has started about six inches from 
each bud, the whole cane should be layered about four inches 
deep, handling it carefully so 
as not to break the new 
growth. Fig. 106 shows such 
a layer after it has rooted. It 
is a good plan to cover it not 
more than three inches at 
first and to fill up the trench 
Fig. 105.—Ordinary layer of grape 2S Soon as the shoots grow. It 
Searle and made into two covered four inches deep at 
once, the young growth will 
sometimes rot, though this seldom happens, and some skillful 
growers fill the trench full at once. In the autumn roots will be 
found growing from each joint and these may be cut apart and 
treated as recommended for weak vines grown from cuttings. 
If this method of propagation is to be used to some consider- 
able extent, vines should be grown especially for the purpose. 
It is not a good plan to use fruiting vines for layering to any 
great extent, though it may be safely done in a small way. 
For directions as to grafting the grape see chapter on Propaga- 
tion. j 


5S Rs Sam) sm a ea ee : 0p : 
ZO NGS S$) Sas eo ee 


Fig. 106.—Layering grapes. Showing how to get a plant from each 
bud of the cane layered, 


GRAPE. 227 


Location of the vineyard.—Some of the hardy, early ripen- 
ing but inferior grapes will mature in almost any situation, but 
the better kinds need a warm exposure and free circulation of 
the air about them to insure their ripening each year. High 
southern slopes generally offer the best locations; in such 
places there is the greatest amount of heat in summer, very 
general immunity from the late frosts of spring or the early 
frosts of autumn, and a movement of the air at all times; all 
of which are important matters in growing grapes. Other slopes, 
and even level land, may be successfully used for this purpose, 
but on northern exposures, the fruit will be later in ripening 
than if in situations where the plants receive the direct rays 
of the sun. However, excellent fruit may often be grown on a 
northern slope if it is near some large body of water, which 
will help maintain an equal temperature, and especially to keep 
off the early frosts of autumn. In a vineyard closely shut in 
so that the foliage of the vines does not dry off quickly after 
summer showers, it will be found very difficult to grow many 
of our better kinds of grapes on account of the prevalence of 
fungus diseases in such places. The cutting away of a belt 
of trees surrounding a vineyard, so as to allow a free move- 
ment of air through the vines at all times, has often been the 
means of making the difference between failure and success in 
growing grapes. 

Soil.—The best soil for a vineyard is a rich gravelly or 
sandy loam, with an open clay sub-soil; but a somewhat clayey 
loam will do very well if sufficiently drained to remove excess 
of moisture. Before planting, the land should be thoroughly 
prepared by plowing and harrowing until in the best condition. 
Where there is not good surface drainage, as on some prairie 
farms, it will be found a good plan to plant the vines on ridges 
made by turning six furrows back to back. In other locations 
the land should be kept smooth. A limestone soil or loess loam 
is almost ideal for the grape. 

The best vines for planting are strong one-year or thrifty 
two-year-old plants from layers or cuttings, and only those hav- 
ing a good root system should be used. Plants more than three 
years old are not desirable, as young, thrifty plants soon out- 


228 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


grow those that are old and large when transplanted. It mat- 
ters little about the direction of the rows; they should be laid 
out so as to prevent erosion as much as possible. 

The proper distance between the plants will depend some- 
what on the vigor of the kinds planted, the manner of pruning, 
and the soil; but the strong growing varieties, which are most 
desirable, should generally be set ten by ten feet apart each way, 
or in some cases eight feet apart in rows ten feet apart, to al- 
low for the growth of roots and a good circulation of air be- 
tween the vines. When the vineyard is much shut in it will 
be found advantageous to increase this distance, but when lo- 
cated in an airy position and on retentive soil the plants may 
be set eight by eight feet. 

Planting—The most rapid way of planting grape vines is 
to furrow out the land one way and mark the other, putting the 
vines at the intersection of the furrows. Before planting, the 
tops of the vines should be cut off so as to leave only two or 
three buds, and if the roots are very long it will facilitate plant- 
ing to cut them back to twelve inches in length; shortening the 
roots to this extent does not seem to injure the growth of the 
plant. On light soil and on hillsides it is exceedingly important 
to get the roots down deep in the land, and the holes should 
be made large enough to allow the lower roots to come about 
fifteen inches below the surface. The top loam should be put 
around the roots, but the plants should not be covered at once 
more than two inches deeper than they grew in the nursery. 
The soil should be gradually worked in around the vines as 
they grow until the holes are full. On heavy soils, especially 
those quite moist, it is not safe to plant deep, and eight inches 
will probably be found about the right depth in most locations. 
In planting vines to be pruned on the one-cane system, it is 
best to incline them somewhat in the direction in which they 
are to be trained on the trellises. This should be in the 
direction of the prevailing summer winds. 

Cultivation.—Soon after planting, the vines should be well 
cultivated, and some hoed crop that will not shade them may 
be grown between the rows for the first two years. After this 
the vines will need all the land. Cultivation should consist of 


GRAPE. 229 


a shallow plowing early each spring and during the summer. 
The top soil should be kept loose and light by shallow cultiva- 
tion. Deep cultivation or much cultivation late in summer is 
not desirable in a vineyard, and it may cause serious injury by 
encouraging a late growth. If the land is lightly plowed each 
spring no large surface-roots will have time to form; but if 
this is neglected for several years large surface-roots will get 
started, and then plowing may seriously injure the vines. 
Pruning and training are the great bugbears to amateurs 
in grape growing, and the attempt to follow some peculiar meth- 
od has done more than anything else to discourage the growing 
of this fruit by farmers. As a matter of fact, vines will grow 
and bear fruit without any pruning whatever. Pruning is done 
simply to get the most good fruit from the least amount of vine, 
and for practical purposes itis a very simple matter. There are, 
however, many systems described in books, and occasionally 
used in practice, that are quite complicated and difficult for 
a beginner to understand and even for the experienced to carry 
out in practice. The practical points to have in mind in pruning 
grapes are: (1) That the old wood which has borne fruit once 
never bears again. (2) That the wood that is formed one season 
produces the bearing wood for the next season. (3) If all the 
new wood is left on the vine it will bear ten times more clusters 
than it can properly develop, and they will be small and imper- 
fect. (4) If nine-tenths of the new 
wood is cut away, leaving only from 
thirty to fifty good buds to each vine, 
the yield of good grapes will be much 
increased. (5) It is desirable in severe 
climates to train the vine so that it can 


Fig.107.—Grape vine 


pruned and cov- be laid down on the ground with but lit- 
ered for winter at tle resistance, for in such locations it is 
the end of first : : 

year. With extra necessary to protect it each winter. 
strong vines the * : ‘ 
formation of the If these points are borne in mind 
vines is started it matters not so very much what sys- 


the first year. : “ @ 
% tem is pursued in pruning. However, 


it will be found most convenient to adhere somewhat clearly to 
some simple system of pruning. But whatever plan for after- 


230 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


training is adopted, the care of the vine for the first two years 
should be about the same. 

The first year no support or pruning is needed. The vines 
will ripen their wood as well on the surface of the ground as 
if tied to stakes, but it will be more convenient about cultivat- 
ing if they are staked. Late in the autumn of this year, all of 
the vines should be cut away except three or four buds as shown 
in fig.107, unless the wood is exceedingly firm and ripe, in which 
case it may be practical to start forming the vine the first 
year. The vine should be covered with a mound of earth four 
or five inches deep. Later on, before severe weather sets in, it 
is a good plan in the more northern states to apply a covering 
of mulch two or three inches in depth, of straw or litter of some 
sort. This mulching is absolutely necessary to insure the winter- 
ing of newly transplanted vines. 

Trellis —The following spring, a trellis should be built un- 
less stakes were set the 
first year, when they may 
be used again and the 
work of putting up a trel- 
lis be deferred until the 
opening of the third year. 
The most desirable kinds 
to use will depend upon 
the method of training fol- 
lowed. 

Spur is a term used to 
indicate the short stubs of 
the lateral canes that re- 

Fig.108.—Spur of a Grape Vine. Main on the main cane 
after pruning, from which 
the new growth starts. It is generally desirable to keep the 
spurs as short as possible. 
Systems of Training and Pruning the Grape. 

There are two fundamental systems used in training the 
grape, which underlie all methods in common use. In one sys- 
tem the shoots are trained upward from the cane. This is call- 
ed the upright system and embraces a large number of methods. 
In the other, or drooping system, the shoots are allowed to hang 


GRAPE. 231 


naturally from the cane from which they grow. The upright 
methods have been more widely used than the drooping meth- 
ods although they are more expensive in practice, since they gen- 
erally require a more elaborate trellis and the labor of pruning 
and training is much greater. Further, some of our strong grow- 
ing vines produce more fruit when trained on the drooping than 
on the upright system, but there is still quite a difference of 
opinion among commercial growers as to the relative merits of 
each, so it is certain that good results are obtained by both of 
them. 

The single post method is the simplest method of pruning 
the grape on the upright system. In this, generally two canes 


20 a 


Bie Ree ; = a 


Fig.109—Pruning grape vines. Vine treated on high renewal system 
at end of the season. 


are selected and wound about the post, each in opposite direc- 
tions and tied in place. In pruning in after years these canes 
are preserved and the canes that grow from them are shortened 
back to two or three buds. The advantage of this method con- 
sists in the fact that it permits cultivation of the vineyard both 
ways and in the cheapness of the support. Its disadvantages 


232 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


are that probably the vines are too crowded and the foliage and 
fruit do not have the best chance to develop. This crowding 
also encourages disease. 

High renewal method of training is a form of the upright 
system that is extensively and successfully employed on a large 
scale. It starts the branching of the vine at about twenty-four 
inches from the ground, which is the height of the lower wire 
of the trellis. A single stem is carried up to the wire where 
it branches and its two arms are trained in opposite directions 
along the wire. In this style of training, the end of the second 
season will find the vine with two well developed canes extended 
on the lower wire of the trellis. These should be cut back at 
pruning time to firm, strong wood. At the beginning of the third 
season, the buds on this wood will start and form canes that 
should be trained upward and be tied to the second wire. The 
third wire is generally put up during the second season, although 
it is very likely that it will not be needed until the following 
year. Some of the upright shoots will bear a little fruit the third 
season but unless the growth is very strong, this should not be 
permitted. At the end of the third season, all the vine is cut 
away except two strong canes nearest the center of the vine, 
which are merely cut back to firm wood and extended along the 
lower wire. It is from these canes that the vine starts the next 
year. The subsequent training of the vine is a continued suc- 
cession of preserving the two best central shoots and the cutting 
away of all the rest of the vine. If the two central shoots are 
not strong enough, the nearest strong shoots are preserved. 


GRAPE. 233 


In the case of strong growing varieties of grapes like the 
Concord and Worden, it is customary to leave more than two 
canes in pruning; often four and occasionally six are left.. When 
four are left, two are often tied together along the bottom wire. 
If six are used, the two extra canes are tied along the second 
wire in the same manner. 

The amount of wood that should be left on a vine after prun- 
ing will depend upon the vigor of the variety grown. In the 
case of the weak growing sorts, like the Delaware, from twenty 
to thirty buds should be left on the vine after pruning. This 
meaus that all the buds left on the new wood shall not be more 
than this number on the whole vine and these shall be on two 
or more canes. In the case of strong growing kinds like the 
Concord, as many as ten or twelve buds may be carried on each 
cane and four canes may be left. In other words, such vines 
may safely carry from forty to fifty buds each year. In any 
case, a weak vine should have fewer buds left than a strong vine. 

As the vine acquires age, the spurs at the top of the trunk 
get weak. It is customary then to encourage a shoot from near 
the ground and treat it much the same as if it were a new young 
vine and from it form a new top. The second year after it is 
well started, i. e., when it is in good bearing condition, the old 
cane may be cut away and the young vine allowed to take its 
place. A top will retain its vigor six or eight years under ordi- 
nary treatment but seldom much longer, although the roots will 
still be vigorous and will form several successive tops. 

The high renewal method requires much more tying than any 
of the forms of the drooping system of training. In doing this, 
the vine should be firmly tied to the trellis and the new growth, 
as it reaches it, should be tied to the second wire and later to 
the third wire. It will be necessary to go over the vineyard sev- 
eral times each season to accomplish this. All shoots do not 
start with the same vigor, but after they have reached the up- 
per wire and are well tied they are allowed to hang down and 
need no further pruning or tying. 

In the case of the drooping method of training the only tying 
that is ordinarily practiced is that of tying the main cane very 
strongly to the wire. In this method, the vines are trained un- 


234 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


til the canes reach the upper wire, after which no further train- 
ing is given and the summer shoots are allowed to hang from the 
upper wire. 

In tying the canes, and especially in tying the main arms, 
allowance should be made for their growth or they may be gir- 
dled. They should be tied loosely and for this purpose it is cus- 
tomary to use roping, cotton warp, green Kentucky Blue grass 
or even willow twigs. 

The One-Cane Spur Renewal Method. 

The one-cane spur renewal method of pruning is a form of 

the upright system that is adapted to sections where vines must 


Fig.111.—Method of forming vine trained on one cane spur renewal 
system. 

be laid down in winter, although some of the Labrusca sorts seem 

to fruit better when they are not pruned so close as is necessary 

in adhering to this system. Its chief advantage is that the vine 

is trained close to the ground where it may be easily laid down 

and covered with earth in winter, 

Trellis—A form of trellis well adapted to the upright and 
fan methods may be made by setting posts sixteen feet apart in 
the row, and using four wires of No. 12 galvanized iron, putting 
the lowest one about eighteen inches from the ground, and those 


GRAPE. 235 


above ten inches apart. The wires should be securely fastened 
to one end post passing through the other end and through sta- 
ples driven in the inside posts, so as to allow the wires free play 
through them. This method allows loosening of the wires in 
autumn and tightening of them in summer. The form of trellis 
best adapted to the Kniffen and Munson methods will be found 
described under those heads. 

The second year after planting and as ssoon as the weather 
is settled the vine should be uncovered, using a garden fork, 
which is the best tool for this purpose. Permit only one cane to 
grow, and that the strongest which starts. Rub off all the other 
buds that show while they are small. Tie the cane, as it grows, to 
stakes or wires and if it grows rapidly, pinch off the top once 
when it reaches the upper wire. 

The pruning in the fall of the second year should consist in 
cutting off all the laterals—in other words, in cutting off all tne 


Fig. 112—Pruning grape vines. Old vine trained on one cane spur 
renewal system. 


236 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


side branches close to the main cane. In pruning the main cane, 
leave about two-thirds of the growth it has made but not more 
than four feet long. The vine should then be buried as directed 
for the previous year, and it will be found convenient to bend it 
as low as possible. To do this to the best advantage, take away 
a little soil from near the vine, to permit part of the bend to come 
near the ground. As the vine gets older and stiffer, it will bend 
most easily and safely below ground. 

Third season.—The third spring the cane should be tied along 
the lower wire (fig. 112). If it has wintered well two shoots will 
start at nearly every joint. As soon as these are three or four 
inches long the weakest should be broken off und only the strong- 
est ones, that come about ten inches apart, be allowed to grow. 
In selecting these shoots preference should always be given to 
those coming out on the upper side of the main cane. As these 
shoots push upwards they should be carefully tied to the wires, 
and when they have reached the top of the trellis each of them 
should be pinched off at the end. This pruning will check the 
growth a little and result in the fruit buds being formed nearer 
the main cane than they would if not checked. Further pinch- 
ing is sometimes practiced when the finest bunches of fruit are 
wanted, but for practical purposes one pinching is enough, and 
some large, successful growers do not pinch at all, though it is 
probably a mistake not to pinch once, if this system of pruning 
is followed. 

If the vine is thrifty it will bear several pounds of fruit this 
year. AS soon as convenient after gathering the ripe fruit the 
vines may be pruned. It is not necessary to wait for a frost to 
kill the leaves, and it will not do any harm to bury with some of 
the leaves on the vine. Where one has but few vines it is best 
to wait until there is danger of the ground freezing hard before 
laying them down, but in large vineyards it is not practicable to 
wait so late, and the work must commence earlier. In pruning 
the third fall, first select a cane near the extremity of the main 
cane and cut it off at a length sufficient to reach the next vine 
on the trellis. This cane must be tied to the lower wire the 
following (or fourth) spring, and will complete the permanent 
main cane, fig. 114. The rest of the pruning this fall will con- 


GRAPE. 237 


sist of cutting away all but from three to six buds of the other 
shoots that have grown from the main cane. In pruning do not 
cut nearer than within one inch af any bud, to avoid winter kill- 
ing. Bury as directed. 

The following spring each of the buds left will start shoots; 
two vigorous ones should be selected from those nearest the main 
cane and the others rubbed off. The pruning in after years will 
be a repetition of this cutting of the canes back to several buds 
in autumn and allowing two shoots to start from each spur each 
spring. 

The Kniffen Method of Training. 

The Kniffen method of training the grape is a form of the 
drooping system. This is a method of training which originated 
in the Hudson valley, perhaps fifty years ago, and which is now 
widely used since it gives good results and requires less expense, 
in the items of support and tying, than any others. It is especial- 
ly adapted to strong growing varieties of grapes and to those of 
drooping habits. In this method a trellis with two wires is com- 
monly used and these are respectively 314 and 5% feet from the 
ground. It is especially important to have the end posts set sol- 
id in the ground and well braced. The intermediate posts are 
generally driven and they usually stand about twenty feet apart, 
which allows for a post between every other vine, if they are 
set ten feet apart—the common distance between them. Vine- 
yardists often grow their vines two years on stakes before put- 
ting up the trellis when following this method. 

Four-cane Kniffen system.—In this method a single cane is 
carried up the trellis to the top wire and two canes are trained 
outward from side spurs at each wire. The vine has then four 
horizontal canes tied to two wires. These are far enough from 
the ground so that the drooping new growth is pretty well out 
of the way in cultivation. The pruning of vines on the Kniffen 
system is much the same as in the case of the High Renewal 
system. Each year all the tops are eut away except the four 
best canes nearest to the trunk and these are cut back to sound, 
firm wood, extended on the wires and tied the following spring. 
In case the canes nearest the trunk are not strong enough for 
main canes, these may be cut back to one or two buds (i. e., to 


238 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. - 


spurs), and the nearest strong cane used to form the vine. The 
following season the shoots growing from these spurs will prob- 
ably be strong enough to be used to renew the vines. As the 
vines become well established, it is customary to leave the upper 
renewal canes longer than the lower. Under this method a 


R 
AWAY An ia ee 
PL) Brn 
en aul 
7 


aS 
ew 


a\\ 
Fig. 113—One form of the four cane Kniffen system of training 

e the grape. 
strong growing variety, like Concord, should be allowed ten buds 
for each of the canes on the upper and five buds each for those 
on the lower wire or a total of fifty buds for each vine, while 
such varieties as Delaware should not bear more than thirty 
buds. There is no summer pruning practiced in the Kniffen 
method although the young, superfluous, summer shoots should 
be broken out when they start, as is necessary for best results 
in any system. 

Two-cane Kniffen system.—Since the greater part of the 
fruit under the four-cane Kniffen system is borne on the upper 
canes, a modification of this system, in which the lower canes 
are dispensed with and the upper canes left longer, has come 
into practice in some sections. In this case the lower trunk is 
tied to the lower wire to steady it, and two canes, each bearing 
ten to fifteen buds, are left on the upper wire. Sometimes the 
lower wire is not used at all. 


GRAPE. 239 


The Munson Method of Training. 

The Munson trellis is referred to by its author, Professor 
T. V. Munson, as the Three-Wire Canopy Trellis and is a form 
of the Kniffen system of pruning. It is described by its author 
as follows: 

“The posts should be of some durable, strong wood. The 
end posts of every row should be large and strong and be set 
three and one-half or four feet in the ground and well tamped. 
The intermediate posts, which may be much lighter than the 
end posts, should be six and one-half or seven feet long and set 
two to two and one-half feet in the ground, with twenty-four 
foot spaces between posts, which will take three vines eight 
feet apart or two vines twelve feet apart. After the posts are 
set a three-eighths-inch hole should be bored though each, four 
feet from the surface of the ground in the direction in which the 
rows run, leaving six inches or more of post above the hole. 
These holes are to admit the middle, lower wire of the trellis. 
For each end post prepare a cross arm of 2x4 hard pine or oak, 
two feet long; at one inch from either end, and one inch from the 
upper side, bore a three-eighths of an inch bit hole to pass the 
lateral wires through, and in the middle of the lower side saw 
a notch one-half inch deep. For each intermediate post prepare 
a board of similar wood and likewise bore and notch.” 

“Through the holes in the posts run a No. 11 galvanized wire, 
fasten at one end, tighten at the other end with a wire stretcher 
and fasten. This will be the middle and lower wire of the 
trellis, and all that will be needed the first year, when the young 
vines are trained up a string tied from the vine to the wire and 
along it. 

“The arms and the two lateral wires which they bear need 
not be put on the trellis until after the vines are pruned and 
tied the next winter. x 

“Hach end cross arm is placed inside the post, and against 
it, on top of the wire with notch side downward, straddling the 
wire to keep it from sliding. Then take a piece of the same 
size wire, about seven feet long, pass one end through the bit 
hole in one end of arm and fasten the cross arm thoroughly in 
place. The wire will hold the arm in place and not weaken or 
split the arm as do nails or bolts, and will be longer lasting, 


240 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


quicker, cheaper, and more elastic, so that when struck by the 
hames or collar in cultivation, it gives a little, receiving no dam- 
age. 

“Likewise place the cross arms on the intermediate posts, 
leaving the ends of the wire projecting about six inches after 
fastening. Then fasten a piece of wire about twenty-four feet 
long to each end of the cross arm at either end of the row and 
draw both tightly around the next post from the end near the 
ground and fasten so as to hold the arm at right angles to the 
middle wire. Then fasten the lateral wires firmly with the 
above mentioned six inches of wire left after fastening the in- 
termediate posts, as may be seen in fig. 114. This will prevent 
the arms from slipping out of position. 

“Pruning and training on this trellis is very simple and easy, 
with a little instruction for a few minutes with a vine or two 
pruned for example. The first season the vine is allowed to 
grow up on the middle wire by a string about which it is 
coiled by hand, by going over the vineyard once or twice until 
the selected shoot of each vine is upon the wire, after which it 
is allowed to ramble at freedom over the wires. By getting on 
to the trellis the first year one strong shoot, and allowing no 
other to grow, a partial crop may be had the second year with- 
out damage. On all weak growers, like the Delaware, this 
should not be allowed to bear until the third year. At the first 
regular pruning, (all pruning should be done in November, after 
leaf fall, and never so late as to cause the vines to bleed), the 
vine should be cut back to two or three buds that have reached 
the middle wire. 

“Tf the vines are strong growers, cut back to six or eight 


24+ tt. Between Posts. 
Zz 
SF Ee Eo 
ewe 


Y 
aon ae 
=e, . 


End Past Vines at all Jearing age, Res arms a pruned and tied. 


Uft. tt.bin 
bove round 


Fig. 114.—The Munson method of pruning; a modification of the 
Kniffen system. 


GRAPE. 241 


buds each on two arms, one going each way along the lower 
wire, from where the ascending vine first touches the wire. 
After the vines are thus pruned, the outer end of each arm is 
firmly tied to the lower wire, along which it is gently coiled. 
These two ties hold the vine firmly in place. The buds on the 
arms push and ascend, passing over the lateral wires, clinging 
thereto with their tendrils and hang over like a beautiful green 
drapery, shading the fruit and body of the vine according to its 
natural habit. Buds that push on the body of the vine are rub- 
bed off as they appear, and after blooming the tips of all the 
bearing shoots are clipped off with a quick stroke of a sharp 
knife. This causes the growth to concentrate in the fruit, great- 
ly increasing the size of the berries. The four or five shoots 
pushing nearest the crotch of the vine should not be tipped, but 
the flower clusters, if any, on them picked off and the shoots 
allowed to grow in freedom along the trellis above the bearing 
shoots, to better shade the fruit and develop themselves ready 
for cropping the next year. This is known as the ‘long arm re- 
newal system,’ in contradiction to the spur system of pruning 
and gives much better results. 

“At the second year’s pruning and others following, the old 
arms with all the bearing shoots on them are cut off down to the 
new arm and the new arms cut back to lengths they can fill with 
fruit and mature well. In this, critical judgment and knowledge 
of capabilities of different varieties are more required in the 
pruner than in any other part of the training work. Some vari- 
eties, such as Delaware, cannot carry more than three to four 
arms, while Herbemont can more easily carry four arms, each 
eight feet long. Hence the Delaware should be planted eight 
feet or less apart, while Herbemont and most of the Post Oak 
hybrids should be twelve to sixteen feet apart. In other words, 
each variety should be set far enough apart so that it will fill 
the trellis with fruit from end to end and mature it well so as 
to better economize space and not be crowded. 

“By the third year, the vines should come to full bearing 
and be pruned with four bearing arms, two to go each way along 
the lower wire of the trellis, gently coiling around the wire, one 
arm in one direction, the other in opposite direction, and should 
be of about equal lengths, so that one firm tie with jute yarn, 


/ 


242 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


near the ends, will be all the tying the vines will need—that is, 
two ties to each vine—the least required by any trellis system, 
and the pruning is also simplest and the results every way the 
best. 

“Some of the advantages of this trellis are its cheapness, 
its simplicity, bringing the work up breast high so that pruning, 
harvesting, tying, and spraying can be done in an erect position, 
saving back strain; perfect distribution of light, heat and air 
to foliage, fruit and soil, yet protecting body of vine and fruit 
from sunscald and birds; giving free ventilation and easy pas- 
sage of wind through the vineyard without blowing down the 
trellis or tender shoots from the vines, and allowing ready pas- 
sage from row to row, without going around, thus getting larger 
and better crops at less expense and increasing length of life of 
vineyard and the pleasure of taking care of it.” 

Training vines against buildings or walls is a good plan, and 
such treatment will hasten the period of ripening and protect 
from early and late frosts. Of. course, the southern exposure 
is always preferable. The trellis for this purpose should be 
about one foot away from the wall or building. In such iocations 
it is possible to mature good varieties of grapes where otherwise 
they would be a failure. It is doubtful if there is a habitable 
section of northern United States where fairly good grapes will 
not ripen nearly every year in such positions, and almost every 
farm offers several favorable opportunities of this sort. The 
soil close to buildings may not be such as is desired, but it can 
easily be improved, or entirely removed and a better kind sub- 
stituted. And sometimes what would be a very poor soil for 
many other crops is just what is needed for the grape. There 
are many cases where in such locations single vines have borne 
several hundred pounds of grapes in one season. 

Pruning neglected vines.—When vines have been neglected 
for several years it is often a difficult matter for the beginner 
to bring them under any system of pruning, and they are on. 
this account allowed to go unpruned and unproductive. Some- 
times such vines may best be brought into shape by cutting 
away nine-tenths of the wood and then carefully thinning out 
and pinching the young growth that may start. At other times, 


GRAPE. 243 


again, it may be best to cut the whole vine off at the surface of 
the ground. If this is done at the proper season for pruning sever- 
al sprouts will start from near the root, but only one, or at most 
two, should be saved. These sprouts should be trained the 
same aS a newly planted vine, except that in one season they 
will make a vine large enough to bear a good crop of fruit the 
following year. By either method only one fruiting year is lost, 
but as a rule the greatest success attends the latter method. 

Time of pruning.—The best time to prune the grape is late 
in the fall or early in the spring. If the vines are to be laid on 
the ground in winter of course they should be pruned in au- 
tumn, as doing it then will greatly facilitate the laying down 
process. If for any reason the vines have not been pruned until 
the buds have started, it is far better to do it then than not at 
. all. The so-called “bleeding” of vines does not appear to serious- 
ly injure them, though pruning when the sap will run from the 
cut surfaces is a bad plan and generally causes the bleeding 
wood to die back. 

Spring pruning of the grape should consist only in pulling 
out the extra shoots that start from each spur that have been 
left to produce bearing wood. No matter what training method 
is followed, the vine is liable to produce a number of weak shoots 
that are of no help to it and should be removed if not needed to 
carry out the plan of training. 

Removing foliage.—Under no circumstances should any con- 
siderable foliage be taken from the vine while it is growing. The 
notion that ripening fruit needs the sunlight is very much at 
fault. Grapes ripen best where the fruit is in the shade and the 
leaves in the bright sunlight. The leaves are, so to speak, both 
lungs and stomach to the plant and anything that injures them 
prevents the ripening of the fruit. 

The tying material commonly used in tying vines consists 
of raffia which can be purchased from the dealers in garden and 
florist supplies. Many vineyards are tied with green rye or even 
with green bluegrass. 

Thinning the fruit—Under almost any system of pruning, 
some varieties will set more fruit than they can properly mature. 
Where this is the case, the poorest bunches should be cut away 


244 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


as soon as the berries are well formed. As arule, the improved 
appearance of the remaining fruit is so great, as the result of 
this thinning process, as to make the operation a paying one. 

Manures.—Ordinarily new soils contain an abundance of 
plant food. Grapes do not require much manure, and the best 
kinds for them are those which have but a small amount of or- 
ganic matter, such as wood ashes, or acid phosphate and potash. 
Yet on gravelly or sandy lands, they may be much benefitted by 
the liberal use of stable manure. Never apply manure as long 
as the vines are making a satisfactory growth without it. A’ 
very rapid, long growth is not.nearly as desirable as that which 
is firm, well matured and moderate in quantity. 

Bagging grapes.—In sections of the country where black 
rot of the fruit is abundant it may be profitable to put all the 
grapes in bags, but in sections where this disease is only occa- 
sionally destructive it will seldom be a paying operation. But 
in growing fruit for home use, or where something very nice is 
wanted, it will often be worth undertaking, as the expense for 
labor and material need not exceed a half cent per pound. The 
bagged grapes have a little thinner skin than those not bagged, 
are free from dust and spiders’ webs, and are not so liable to be 
caught by the first autumn frost. Some varieties seem to ripen 
more evenly when bagged. 

Bagging should be done when the berries are about the size 
of small peas, and if there is danger from rot, even earlier. For 
this purpose ordinary two-pound manila paper bags should be 
used, such as may be obtained from any grocery store. They 
should be cut down about two inches on each side, and a small 
hole made in each bag, generally by cutting off the lower corners, 
to let out any water that might collect in them. They are then 
ready for use. A bag is brought up over the bunch, above the 
branch, and securely fastened with a pin. The bags should be 
left on until picking time, when the bag and bunch may be 
taken off together. If the fruit is to be stored it will be found 
that it will keep longer in the bags than without them. Gener- 
ally the bags remain on the whole season without trouble, and 
some growers use the same bags for two seasons. Cloth bags 
made especially for this purpose will last about four years. In 
France a wire bag is used to some extent for this purpose, 


GRAPE. 245 


Keeping grapes.—The keeping quality of grapes varies 
much with the different kinds; some varieties will hardly keep 
a week after being gathered, while others are easily kept for 
two or three months by using only ordinary care. A moist, cold 
cellar is a very good place to keep them. The bunches should 
first be relieved of any cracked or injured berries, and then laid 
one tier deep on shallow trays or shelves, so that the air may cir- 
culate freely among them. The fruit should be perfectly dry 
when put in the cellar. If the cellar is not cool when needed 
for use some ice may be put in it in a tub and the windows kept 
shut in the day time and opened at night. If the grapes are 
packed in dry saw dust or cork bark they will keep even better 
than on trays. Where cold storage is accessible they may be 
packed in baskets before being stored, but in any case great 
care should be taken to remove any injured berries, or they will 
rot and spoil those near them. 

Girdling the grape to advance the period of ripening is prac- 
ticed to a limited extent, but there is quite a difference of opin- 
ion regarding the ultimate 
effect of the operation on 
the health and vigor of the 
vine. It seems, however, to 
be pretty generally conced- 
ed that it can be done to a 
limited extent without seri- 
ous, if any, injury; that it 
generally advances the peri- 
od of ripening from seven to 
ten days, and that the 
fruit from girdled vines 
is considerably larger than 
from vines not girdled and 
of just as good quality. The 


a operation consists in taking 

Fig. 115.—Girdling the grape. French P f 7 

girdling tool which removes a out a ring of bark one- 
section of bark about one-fourth fo . . : 

inch wide. Branch of grape vine urth ee or more ax: width 

showing where girdling can be at any time during the 


safely done on the portions of A 
the cane that are pruned away. growing season but -Sener- 


NA SKG 


246 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


ally soon after the berries are well set. For this purpose a spe- 
cial tool is often used which makes two cuts and takes out the 
bark with one movement. If the whole vine is girdled at the 
surface of the ground, it will soon show great weakness, so when 
practiced at all it should be confined to girdling the lateral canes 
that are to be cut away entirely when the vine is pruned. In sec- 
tions where early autumn frosts are common, it is frequently de- 
sirable to try this method of advancing the period of ripening. 


QUESTIONS—CHAPTER XIII. 
The Grape. 


Where did the grape originate? 
Describe the Northern Fox Grape. 
Describe the River Bank Grape. 
Describe the European Wine Grape. 
Describe the flowers of the grape. 
How is the grape propagated? 
What are long hard wood cuttings of the grape? 
How should they be cared for? 
How should the tand be prepared before planting the cuttings? 
10. What are one eye cuttings? 
11. How are they planted? 
12. What are soft-wood cuttings? 
13. How are they grown? 
14. What is layering? 
15. How are summer layers made? 
16. How are spring layers made? 
17. What is the best location for a vineyard? 
18. What soil is best for a vineyard? 
19. How should grapes be planted? 
20. What cultivation do they need? 
21. What points should be remembered when pruning the grape? 
22. What pruning is needed the first year? 
23. What is meant by a “‘spur?’” 
24. Explain the two “systems” of training. 
25. What is the single post method? The high renewal method? 
The Kniffen method? One-cane spur renewal method? 
26. What pruning is needed the second year? 
27. What pruning is needed the third year? 
28. Explain the Munson method of training? 
29. What pruning is required the first year, second year and 
third year in this system? 
30. Describe a method of pruning. 
31. What effect does training vines against buildings or walls 
produce? 
32. How should neglected vines be pruned? 
33. When should grape vines be pruned? — 
34. What material is commonly used in tying vines? 
35. To what extent should the foliage and fruit be thinned out? 
36. What fertilizers do grapes require? 
37. What is meant by ‘‘girdling?”’ How should it be done? 


S ConA M OT mw EOS pe 


CHAPTER XIV. 


THE SMALL FRUITS. 


The strawberry is the most important of small fruits. It is 
found growing from the far North to the hot South and around 
the world. Is is easily grown, stands transportation moderately 
well and is almost universally admired. 

Origin.—The cultivated varieties of strawberries have come 
from the following species: Chilian strawberry (Fragaria chilo- 
ensis). This South American species evidently enters most 
largely into the parentage of our cultivated kinds, although this 
fact was not generally acknowledged, and until recent years it 
was thought that the native North American strawberry was 
the parent of nearly all our cultivated kinds. 

American strawberry (Fragaria virginiana).—This species 
enters in a small way into some of our cultivated kinds. It was 
formerly believed to form the largest part of the parentage of 
the best American kinds, but this has been shown to be a mis- 
take. 

Alpine strawberry (Fragaria vesca).—This is a native of 
Europe and of the northern parts of this country and Canada, 
From it have come some of the ever-bearing varieties whose 
praises are so often talked of. It will not readily hybridize with 
either of the two kinds previously mentioned. This species is 
not sufficiently productive to warrant its being largely culti- 
vated. The ever-bearing or perpetual varieties are not desirable 
since they produce a few berries all through the season, but do 
not produce enough at any one time to make their cultivation 
an object of importance. This class of strawberries is generally 
grown from seed but may be increased by runners. 

Propagation.—The strawberry is increased by seed, runners 
and plant divisions. The plants of the commercial kinds do not 
“come true” from seed, but seedlings vary very much in their 
value for cultivation. Probably not one plant in five thousand 
seedlings that may be raised will be as good as any of the best 
half dozen varieties now in cultivation, but there will be a good 


248 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


many plants out of such a number that will be fairly productive 
of good fruit. It is this variability that gives us an opportunity 
of originating new kinds that are better than those now grown. 

To raise strawberries from seed the ripened berries should 
‘be crushed in a small amount of dry sand or loam as soon as 
they are “dead ripe.” The seed and sand should then be sown 
at once in a somewhat shaded bed of rich soil, when the seed 
will come up in a few weeks if well cared for. The plants should 
be transplanted four inches apart in another bed as soon as 
large enough to handle. By winter, if carefully attended to, 
they will be of good size and may be moved to the fruiting bed 
in the spring, where they will fruit the following year; that is, 
in two years from the time the seed was sown. It is a very sim- 
ple process and may be carried on by any careful person. The 
raising of seedlings is not often profitable, but is a very fascinat- 
ing line of experimental work on account of the possibility that 
one may develop a variety of more than ordinary value. 

For practical purposes, strawberries are increased only from 
runners, which most desirable kinds produce in great abundance 
when growing in rich soil. These runners are attached to the 
old plant only one season, the connection dying the first win- 
ter if not before. It is common to separate them into old plants 
and young plants. By old plants is meant the plants that have 
once borne fruit. They can be distinguished by their black 
roots, and should never be used for starting new beds except in 
an emergency, as they often fail to grow. The young runners 
are what should be set out. They have never fruited, have white 
roots, and were formed the season just preceding the spring they 
are set. Strawberries should never be grown from divisions, un- 
less it is necessary to save the stock of a valuable kind. 

Location and soil.—A northern slope is most to be desired 
for strawberries as there they are not exposed to drying souther- 
ly winds, which occasionally in exposed locations so dry out the 
land that the crop is seriously lessened; also, as the plants start 
latest on north slopes the blossoms are not as liable to be in- 
jured by the late spring frosts which sometimes cause serious 
injury to plants that start early. Some growers, however, are 
very successful in growing them on southerly slopes or on level 


STRAWBERRY. 249 


land. In a general way, any land or location that is good enough 
for a crop of corn will do admirably for strawberries, but straw- 
berries should never be planted on sod-land on account of the 
liability of its being infested with cut-worms, or with white 
grubs which feed on the roots of the plants. 

Manure and preparation of the land.—The strawberry is a 
gross feeder and needs plenty of plant food in the soil. The best 
fertilizer is barn-yard manure, but it should not be plowed in 
very deep because the plant feeds mainly in the surface soil. 
It is generally best to plow the land in autumn, turning in the 
manure about six inches deep if it is coarse, but if partially rot- 
ted, four inches is deep enough to cover it. The land should be 
thoroughly dragged and smoothed in the spring when it is ready 
for the plants. When so prepared the land has a loose surface 
bed in which to set the plants, while underneath it the soil is 
s0 firm as to retain the moisture and yet it is open enough so that 
the young roots can push into it. 

Time of planting.—Practically there is only one time to plant 
and that is in the spring. It is occasionally recommended to 
plant in August. It may be all right to do so in case there is no 
‘strawberry bed in the home garden and there is considerable 
moisture in the ground so the plants will live without too much 
care; but in ordinary seasons the results from setting the plants 
at this time are very uncertain and do not warrant the planting 
of them on a large scale. If it is decided to set a bed for the 
home garden in August, the plants may be well-rooted layers 
from some bed near by, or if obtained from a distance they should 
have been potted and be well rooted in the pots. The potted 
plants cost more but are more certain to grow than layers. The 
growers of strawberries for profit nearly always plant in the 
spring. The earlier the plants can be set the longer the season 
for them to grow, and the cool, moist weather of early spring 
seems to favor the formation of roots. But they may be set as 
late as the first of June with fair prospect of success. However, 
if the land is very dry at planting time, it is best not to plant 
until after a rain, even if waiting for it delays the planting con- 
siderably. It is poor practice to set out strawberry plants in 
dry soil and try to keep them growing by watering, as so much 


250 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


water and attention is required that the operation will be found 
a losing one—except where good facilities of irrigation are at 
hand. It is occasionally practiced in northern states to set straw- 
berry plants in autumn, when the plants should be covered with 
soil and mulched on approach of winter. At the South, straw- 
berry plants are set in late autumn and in winter. 

If plants are received when the land is very dry, it is the 
custom of the _ best 
growers to open the 
bundles, shake out the 
plants and dip the 
roots into a clay-loam 
mud and “heel them in” 
close together, putting 
a little soil between the 
plants. When thus 
treated, they may be 
easily watered, and will 
commence to grow and 
be ready to set out in 
the field or garden as 
soon as a favorable time 
offers. If the space 
where the plants are 
heeled in is surrounded 
by a board fence or 

Fig. 116.—Strawberry roots pruned other windbreak, a few 
ne gene cakes feet high, it will aid 
much in retarding the drying action of the wind. 

Plants that have been some time in transit are very apt to 
look white and weak when received, and are almost sure to 
die if at once set in the full sunshine. They should be “heeled 
in” and partially shaded until they assume their normal color 
before planting. 

Plants for setting out may occasionally be found to have the 
fleshy part of the interior of their stems discolored by the win- 
ter. If not moved, they will frequently grow and overcome this 
injury, but if transplanted they often die. The loss from this 


STRAWBERRY. 251 


cause may be greatly lessened if the plants are not set out until 
late in the spring, after they have partly recovered from the 
trouble. Cases have occurred where all the plants set early have 
died from this cause, while those from the same bed set out late 
have done well. 

Methods of planting.—There are several methods of planting 
strawberries. Two ways are mentioned here, and they may be 
modified as the good judgment of the planter suggests. 

The hill system.—This system is especially adapted to the 
home garden. By it the fruit is grown to a larger size than in 
the matted rows, but not so much is produced. It consists in 
setting the plants at about one foot distance in rows two and one- — 
half or three feet apart, and keeping all the runners cut off. 
Managed on this plan, the plants become very large, have many 
crowns, look neat and pretty, and produce a good amount of ex- 
tra choice fruit. The objection to it is that it takes three or four 
times as many plants to set out as are needed where the matted 
row system is followed, and the crop is not so large. For these 
reasons this system is seldom followed by commercial growers. 

Matted-row system.—All large strawberry growers pursue 
very nearly the following plan: After the land is prepared in 
the spring it is marked out with a corn-marker, four feet one 
way and two feet the other, and the plants are set at the inter- 
sections. The horse cultivator is run both ways until the plants 
commence to make runners rapidly (about the middle of July), 
when it is run only in the four-foot intervals. The runners are 
then pushed together by the cultivator, thus forming a bed or 
matted row, which by autumn will be eighteen inches wide. The 
ground between the rows should be worked as often as once in 
ten days, and after each rain, throughout the growing season up 
to the last of September, after which cultivation should cease for 
the year. Keep the soil loose and be sure the bed is free from 
weeds on the approach of winter. For some varieties two feet 
apart in the row may leave larger gaps than the runners can fill, 
but almost any of our commercial kinds will easily fill up even 
larger vacancies. Such varieties as the Dunlap will easily fill up 
intervals of three feet in rich soil. The runners should stand 
about six inches apart in the bed by the first of September, after 
this number is secured all others should be destroyed as weeds. 


252 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Trimming and setting the plants.—The plants, when dug, 
should have all the dead leaves, pieces of runners and blossoms 
trimmed off, and if there is a considerable growth of leaves part 
of them should be cut off. All flowers that appear the first year 
should be taken off. If the roots are large, they are not readily 
planted, and it is customary to shorten them to about three inch- 
es. The old roots then quickly start a lot of fresh feeding roots. 


Fig. 117.—Strawberries. Cultivating the new bed about midsummer, 


If a great mop of roots is planted in a bunch, a part of them is 
very apt to rot. Perhaps as good a way as any to set the plants 
is with a spade. This requires two persons, generally a man and 
a boy, to do the work rapidly. After the land is marked out, 
the man places the spade with the back side away from him, 
presses it about six inches into the moist earth, moves it from 
him and lifts it out. The boy takes up a plant, separates the 
roots, and puts them in the hole. The man puts the spade in 
the ground about four inches nearer him than he had it before 
and presses the soil against the plant. The boy finishes the op- 
eration by firming the plant in the soil with his hands. As soon 
as the planting is done, the cultivator should be started to loosen 
up the soil between the plants. Great care should be taken to 
keep the plants from getting dry when planting them out. 


STRAWBERRY. 253 


Some large growers have used a transplanting machine 
such as is commonly used for tobacco for setting strawberry 
plants, but the ordinary transplanter requires much care to 
prevent its setting the plants too deep and burying the crowns. 
Do not set the plants deeper than they grew in the bed from 
which they were moved. 

Winter protection—Under whatever system the strawberry 
may be grown, it is benefitted by being protected in winter by 
a mulch of sufficient thickness to prevent frequent freezing and 
thawing, which is very injurious to the plants. Of course a cov- 
ering of snow will answer the purpose, but it is not safe to trust 
it. The mulch should consist of marsh hay, corn stalks, straw, 
boughs, or any litter that does not lie too close and is free from 
weed seeds. It should ordinarily be put on about three inches 
deep over the whole of the strawberry bed. This should be ap- 
plied in late autumn or early winter, after the ground is frozen, 
but some good growers think that a part of the covering at least 
ought to be put on before any severe freezing sets in, while 
others wait until the ground is frozen hard enough to bear up a 
team before covering. In spring the mulch should be taken off 
and put in the intervals between the plants where it will help to 
preserve the moisture during dry weather and to keep the fruit 
clean. 

In winters when there is not much snow fall but severely 
cold weather, it is important to cover strawberry plants much 
deeper than is customary in the Eastern and Central states. 
Eight inches of settled straw is generally none too much where 
the winters are cold and dry with little snow-fall; and where 
straw is very abundant, as is the case where grain growing is 
largely practiced, it is a good plan to use as much as this every 
year. This is especially true in western Minnesota, the Dakotas 
and Wyoming where a heavy covering will often make all the 
difference between success and failure. However, where a heavy 
covering is used, it is important to set the plants in rows at 
least six feet apart, so that there will be room between 
the rows for the straw when the plants are uncovered. It is then 
very convenient for replacing over the plants if a very cold spell 
comes when the flowers are open. The use of straw as here 


254 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


recommended has been known to save the crop for several years 
in succession in some of the most severe locations in Minnesota 
and the Dakotas. 

How to continue beds in bearing.—Some growers prefer to 
fruit their strawberry beds but one season. It is probably best 
to fruit the beds at least two seasons, provided they are in good 
condition when the first crop is gathered. If properly renewed 
it will often happen that the second crop on a strawberry bed 
will be better than the first, but generally it is not quite as good. 

Renewing strawberry beds.—There are several ways of re- 
newing an old strawberry bed, but perhaps the following plan is 
as good as any: As soon as may be after the crop is gathered 
the bed is closely mowed and all the weeds and strawberry leaves 
are burned. A plow is then run on either side of the matted rows 
and all but about one foot in width of it is turned under. The 
furrow thus made is filled with fine rotted manure and the cul- 
tivator set going. The plants remaining are then thinned out 
with a hoe and special pains are taken to cut out all weeds and 
old or weak plants. This leaves the old bed clean and with 
plenty of manure close by, in which the old plants can make 
new roots. The plants soon send up new leaves which are 
much healthier than they would be were the old foliage allowed 
to remain, and if we have an ordinary season an abundance of 
runners will be sent out, and by winter the old bed will look 
nearly as vigorous as a new one. 

This method of renewing the old bed has the merit of de- 
stroying all the diseased foliage, and to some extent, also, in- 
jurious insects. It is very important that the renewed bed be 
kept healthy by frequent cultivation and the destruction of any 
insects that may appear, in order to have it do its best in fruit- 
ing the following season. In renewing old beds a common two- 
horse corn cultivator will be found a very satisfactory implement. 
A disc harrow with the inner sections removed is also good. 
Hither of these implements will do the work better in hard soil 
than the one-horse plow. 

Burning over the strawberry bed is very important where 
old beds are to be fruited again, but it is absolutely necessary 
for best success that the burning shall be done quickly; that is, 


STRAWBERRY. 255 


the trash should be thoroughly dry, so that it will “go like a 
flash.” If the trash is somewhat moist, so that it will burn but 
slowly, the roots and crowns of the plants will almost certainly 
be killed. Sometimes it may be impracticable to get the trash 
sufficiently dry to burn well. In such cases the material should 
be raked from over the plants into a windrow between the rows, 
to be burned, or it may be best to cart off a part of it if the cov- 
ering is very heavy. 


Fig. 118.—Flowers of strawberry. At left, pistillate flower; at right, 
perfect flower. 


Sexuality of the strawberry plant.—We have two classes of 
the strawberry, distinguished by their blossom. One class has 
perfect flowers, i. e., all its flowers have well developed stamens 
and pistils (male and female organs). These can be planted 
alone without any other variety near, and will produce fruit. 
This class is sometimes called bi-sexual (fig. 118). The other class 
has pistils (female organs), but does not have stamens, or has 


256 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


but very few of them. This class is often called imperfect (fig. 118). 
It is found in practice that the varieties with pistillate blossoms 
frequently produce more fruit than those with bi-sexual flowers, 
consequently it is often advantageous to raise as many of such 
kinds as possible and as few of the others, but it is necessary 
to have some of the bi-sexual kinds near the pistillate kinds or 
no fruit is produced. Just the proportion that should exist be- 
tween the bi-sexual and the pistillate kinds is a disputed point, 


Fig. 119.—Portions of flower of strawberry. At left, cross section of 
receptacle, showing pistils; at right, two petals attached with 
three stamens to a portion of the calyx. 


but it is probably about one to three or four, depending upon 
the weather at the time of blossoming. It is safe to say that 
when pistillate kinds are used, every third row should be of some 
bi-sexual kind, selected so that it will be in flower at the same 
time as the imperfect variety. The neglect of this precaution 
is a constantly recurring source of disappointment. Some grow- 
ers recommend that every third plant in the row be of some bi- 


STRAWBERRY. 257 


sexual kind. The objection to this way in practice is that the pistil- 
late kinds, being often the strongest growers, may soon crowd 
out the weaker variety; and then, again, when this plan is fol- 
lowed, the plants when taken up are so hopelessly mixed as to 
be worthless for setting a new bed. 

Dry berries, “Nubbins.”—Sometimes the berries fail to fill 
out evenly all over, or are small and mostly dry and hard, or one- 
sided. This may result from the pistils, or a part of them, being 
injured by frosts, dry wird, or an unusually severe rain or hail 
storm which, by destroying the delicate pistils, prevents the 
formation of seed and the development of the part adjoining, for 
it has been conclusively proven that unless the seeds are per- 
fected the fleshy part near them does not fill out. Sometimes 
the blossoms are stung by a snout-beetle and then they hardly 
form berries at all. Nubbins are also caused by winter injury 
which weakens the plants to such an extent that apparently they 
are not strong enough to fill out the fruit. Imperfect pollination 
may also cause nubbins. 

Picking and marketing.—If the berries are to be sold great 
care should be taken to have them carefully picked. Green ber- 
ries are bad enough to have in a box, if they are to be shipped, 
but overripe berries will cause much more trouble for they are 
sure to decay before they reach their destination and damage 
all the good fruit. On this account the beds should be picked 
clean every day in warm weather. The pickers will need care- 
ful watching so as to be sure they do not put poor berries in 
the bottom of the boxes, and that they pick all the ripe berries 
so none will be left to get overripe. It is always desirable to 
pick fruit, that is to be shipped, in the cool of the day unless it 
should be wet. Sorting and grading the berries after they have 
been picked will be found necessary if a strictly first class prod- 
uct is desired, and will often pay if the general average of the 
fruit is large. 

Gift packages holding twenty-four boxes are almost universal- 
ly used for shipping strawberries in the Western states, while 
in some of the Eastern states the return package is still popular. 
The latter cost about twenty-five cents per crate, including boxes 
and cover. They are always made so there is room to heap up the 
boxes and to allow a circulation of air through them. 


258 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Avoiding frosts.—It sometimes happens that the blossoms, 
which appear about the middle of May and are quite sus- 
ceptible to frosts, are seriously injured on cold nights. They 
may often be protected when in this critical condition by taking 
the mulching from the rows and throwing it back again on the 
plants for a few days, or until the danger from frost is past. 
If the winter mulch is left on as late as it is safe to do so, which 
is until the new growth starts strongly, it will serve to retard the 
plants and they will not come into blossom until a week or so 
later than they otherwise would were the mulch removed early in 
the spring. But aside from the risk or injury from frost, more fruit 
is produced from plants that come into flower early. An ordi- 
nary frost seldom destroys the stamens, its damage being con- 
fined to the pistils, therefore, the center or berry part of the 
frosted flower turns black. 

Varieties.—The varieties vary much in size, color, and qual- 
ity of the fruit and vigor, productiveness and hardiness of the 
plants. The flowers also vary, as has been mentioned under the 
head of Sexuality of the flowers. There are now several hun- 
dred varieties catalogued by nurserymen, and new varieties are 
brought out each year, but of the new kinds that have been tried 
probably not one in twenty-five has been worth the keeping, and 
yet we can reasonably expect that most of the kinds now popular 
will be displaced by better kinds within a few years. 

It is well not to pay a high price for plants. The new kinds, 
if good, are soon offered at reasonable figures. As a rule it is 
not necessary to pay over twenty-five cents per dozen, or one 
dollar per hundred for plants. In quantities of five hundred or 
more they can be bought at much less cost. About two hun- 
dred plants, if well set out and cared for, will give all-.the fruit 
needed by the ordinary family. Beginners will generally be most 
successful if they confine themselves at the start to some good 
bi-sexual kind, to save the annoyance of caring for two varieties 
which may be easily mixed together. 

The Currant. 

The currant will grow and fruit abundantly in almost 
any soil or situation in the northern states if given good cultiva- 
tion; and even when it has but little care it is still very sure 


CURRANT. 259 


to produce a fair crop. However, no cultivated plant responds 
more promptly and generously to manuring and careful at- 
tention. The acid fruit, in any of the various ways in which it 
is used, is healthy and refreshing. It is not so universally es- 
teemed as the strawberry, yet it is used in immense quantities 
each year, and first-class fruit carefully marketed generally pays 
the grower a good profit. No fruit is more satisfactory in the 
home garden. A currant bush once planted will continue to bear 
fruit for an indefinite period, often for thirty years. There are 
very many species of currants, but our cultivated kinds belong 
to the following: 

Origin: 

(a) The red currant has come from Ribes rubrum of north- 
ern Europe and northern America. Examples of this species are 
to be found in the varieties known as Red Dutch and White Grape, 
which have red and white fruit respectively. 

(b) The black currant of the garden has come from Ribes 
nigrum of Europe. Plants and fruit of this species have a pe- 
culiar chinch-bug-like odor which to many people is unpleasant. 
There is no great demand for the fruit, but in some markets it 
is much sought after and brings a high price. Examples are 
Black Naples and Lee’s Prolific. 

(c) The Crandall currant has come from Ribes aureum of 
western America. The fruit is purplish black, shining, often 
large, two to several in a cluster. The variety known as Cran- 
dall is practically the only cultivated form, but it varies greatly 
when grown from seed. It seems to be little if any improvement 
over the best wild forms. The well known Missouri currant of 
the gardens is a form of this which seldom produces much fruit. 

Propagation.—The currant does not come true from seed. 
The named varieties are grown from layers, cuttings, or divisions. 

Seedlings are easily raised if treated the same as recommend- 
ed for raspberry seedlings, but rather more care must be tak- 
en with its seed than with that of the raspberry as it germinates 
very quickly in the spring, and if moved after growth has start- 
ed it often fails to grow. On this account the seed should be 
sown in the fall where it is to grow the following year. Or if 
sown in boxes they should be frozen until February or March, 


260 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


when they may be put in a greenhouse or hotbed. But very few 
seedlings are of any value, and the growing of them is seldom 
attempted. 

Cuttings are very easily rooted and varieties are almost 
universally grown from them. They may be taken off at almost 
any time while the plant is dormant, and wood of almost any 
age or size will root if carefully handled, but the following meth- 
od is generally very certain to bring good results: 

As soon as the leaves have fallen—which may be in the 
latter part of August or first of September—the young wood 
(growth of the current season) is cut into pieces about seven 
inches long. They are then at once set out in rich, well drained 
soil four inches apart, in rows three feet apart. Only about one 
inch of the cutting should be above ground, and great care 
should be taken to very firmly pack the earth around the bottom 
of the cuttings. When thus treated they will have calloused and 
made some small roots before the ground freezes, and will start 
vigorously the following spring. The cuttings should remain as 
planted for at least one, or perhaps two years. If the land is 
in good condition they will be ready to set out when one year 
old, but can remain where planted for several seasons if well 
cultivated. If wood is scarce the cuttings may be shorter than 
recommended, but in such a case more care will be required to 
ensure that they do not dry out in the soil. Sometimes the cut- 
tings may consist of a single bud each, and may be sown like 
beans in a furrow, but much experience is required to be suc- 
cessful with them when made so very small. 

Layers may be made at any time during the growing sea- 
son, but preferably in the spring or early summer, as they will 
then be well rooted by autumn. They consist simply of branches 
which have been covered with earth and have become rooted. 
After becoming well rooted they are separated from the old plant. 
The branches are rather surer to root if the bark and wood is 
cut or broken a little, but most varieties root very easily without 
this trouble. 

Soil and planting.—The currant will grow in almost any 
kind of land, and on that which will raise a fair corn crop it 
gives good returns, but the soil cannot be too rich or the cul- 


CURRANT. 261 


tivation too constant for the best crops of fruit. Plants may be 
set out in the fall or spring with good results. If set in the fall 
each plant should be banked up with about two spadesful of soil. 
They should be put five or six feet apart each way, and for the 
strong varieties most generally grown six is better than five 
feet. One plant is enough for a hill, and those that are young 
and thrifty are better than older ones. Where practicable, they 
should be planted so as to allow for cultivation both ways. They 
should not ordinarily be set along a fence or border, as they are 
difficult to cultivate in such places and are often neglected. The 
land should be plowed lightly with a one-horse plow early in the 
spring, and the cultivator started soon afterward. While the 
plants are in fruit, cultivation will have to be suspended, as the 
weight of the berries will bend the branches so that they will be 
in the way and liable to injury. As soon as the crop is gathered 
the working of the land should be again commenced and continue 
until the middle of August, after which there is no need of it. 

Mulching.—Good crops of currants may be grown without 
cultivation provided the land is heavily mulched, and in some- 
what dry locations they are more surely grown on this plan than 
on any other. The mulch may consist of straw litter, coal ashes, 
hard-wood sawdust, or similar material. If ashes or sawdust is 
used it should not be mixed with the soil but kept on the surface. 
It is often a good plan to mulch near the plants and cultivate 
in the center of the rows. Ashes or sawdust used for this pur- 
pose will keep down the weeds near the plants and do away with 
the necessity of hand cultivating. Pine sawdust is not as good 
for this purpose as that from the hard woods, but may be safely 
used if kept on the surface of the land and not mixed with it. 
Partially rotted sawdust is much to be preferred to that which 
is fresh. 

Pruning.—The currant is improved by some pruning each 
year. This may be done at almost any season, but preferably 
in August. To do this work properly it should be understood 
that very little fruit is borne on the wood of the preceding sea- 
son’s growth, and that the buds which produce the greatest 
amount of fruit are on wood in its third season of growth or 
older. The fruit buds are formed late in summer and open early 


262 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


in the following growing season. In pruning, the old wood which 
is weakened by age should be cut out close to the ground and 
enough new sprouts from the roots should be encouraged to take 
its place. Not more than from four to six shoots from the roots 
should be allowed to remain. If all are allowed to grow, too 
much bearing wood will be produced and the fruit will conse- 
quently be very small. The wood which is infested by borers 
should also be cut away. 

Tree currants are frequently advertised as being very desir- 
able and are often sold at a high price. They are, in fact, merely 
our common currants pruned so as to make them take on a tree- 
like form. They appear very pretty while growing, but having 
only one stem the first borer that attacks it destroys the plant. 
To make plants take on this tree-form, all but one upper bud is 
rubbed off the cuttings when they are set out. The remaining 
bud pushes up a straight shoot, which is allowed to branch at 
about a foot from the ground and to make a miniature tree. 
Such plants seldom send up sprouts, so the stem cannot be re- 
newed. The common red currant is sometimes grafted on the 
strong growing Ribes aureum, but such plants are open to the 
same objections as other tree currants and are only valuable as 
curiosities. 

Winter protection.—The Red Dutch and a few other very 
excellent varieties are perfectly hardy in almost any soil or situ- 
ation, but some of the kinds producing the largest fruit are oc- 
casionally injured in severe locations in winter. They may, how- 
ever, be protected by covering them with earth, but if so treated 
they will need to be mulched or to have some support to keep 
the fruit off the ground, as the canes will not straighten up well 
in the spring after being bent down all winter. Another way 
of giving some protection is to tie the stems together in autumn 
with string or willow withes. This is very desirable where the 
snow drifts over the plants, as it prevents their being broken by 
it when it settles in the spring. More protection is afforded by 
this treatment than is generally supposed. 

Marketing.—It is customary to market the currant in bas- 
kets holding about six or eight pounds, but sometimes quart 
boxes and other packages are used for this purpose. One must 


GOOSEBERRY. 263 
study the local market to learn which package is the best to use. 
This fruit is generally sold by the pound. Unlike raspberries 
and strawberries, it will remain in good condition on the plants 
for some little time after getting ripe, but it does not ship as well 
if very ripe as when it is a little green. The fruit makes the 
firmest jelly before it gets fully ripe, and on this account it is 


Fig. 120.—Currant bushes tied up for winter to prevent snow from 
breaking them down. 


sometimes most profitable to market the crop when the berries 
at the end of the bunches are still quite green. 

Varieties.—There are not so many varieties of the satan 
offered in the nursery catalogues as of most other cultivated 
fruits, but still there is much difference in the size and quality 
of the different kinds, as well as in the hardiness and vigor of the 
plants. For the home garden, about one dozen plants well cared 
for will give an abundance of fruit. 

The Gooseberry. 

The gooseberry is closely related to the currant and is 
fully as productive. The fruit, however, is not so highly es- 
teemed in this country as in northern Europe where a differ- 


264 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


ent species is grown and where it is a favorite fruit. There 
are several species of the gooseberry that enter into our culti- 
vated kinds. The color of the cultivated gooseberries varies 
from a pale green to a deep red when ripe. 

Origin: 

(a) The American gooseberry has come from the Ribes 
oxyacanthoides of America. Examples are the Houghton and 
the Smith. There are several other species of native American 
gooseberries which are used locally in a wild state. The great- 
est objection to this class is the large number of sharp prickles. 
Some of the new varieties are a great improvement in this re- 
spect. 

(b) The European gooseberry is Ribes grossularia. Exam- 
ples are the Industry and the Lancastershire Lad. They are 
not much grown in America as they are especially subject to 
mildew in this country. 

Crosses.—There are a number of crosses between the Eu- 
ropean and American gooseberries. The Triumph and the 
Downing are each supposed to be crosses of this kind. 

The directions given for growing the currant apply with 
equa] force to the gooseberry, except in a few particulars, which 
are included under the following heads: 

Propagation.—Most varieties of the gooseberry do not grow 
as readily from cuttings as the currant, and many kinds with 
small, slender wood it is almost impossible to root in this way. 
For this reason layering is a most common method of propaga- 
tion. If the branches are carefully covered with soil in June, 
after the new growth is six or more inches long, each twig will 
be found slightly rooted by autumn. They should then be taken 
up and cut apart with a piece of the rooted main branch with 
each twig. ‘These little layers should be set out at once in the 
spring and treated the same as recommended for currant cut- 
tings. Some varieties need to have the bark slightly broken 
when they are laid down, but most kinds root readily without 
this trouble. 

Planting.—Autumn is the time usually preferred for set- 
ting the gooseberry. The sprouts start into growth so very 
early in the spring that any delay at that time causes them a 


RASPBERRY. 265 


set-back from which they may not readily recover. But plants 
may be very successfully set in the spring if planted early. 
Gooseberries are grown in practically the same way as currants, 

Pruning should consist in taking out any superfluous or 
weak stems, as recommended for currants. Besides this, the 
size and appearance of the fruit of the common kinds will be 
greatly improved if from one-third to one-half of the new growth 
is cut off annually. However, some of the newer kinds pro- 
ducing the large fruit, may perhaps, need this recommendation 
somewhat modified. Large fruit is picked and sold most readily 
and the quantity produced from a trimmed bush is, as a rule, 
fully as much as from one not trimmed. This is especially 
true of our native kinds which are inclined to overbear. Prun- 
ing thins out the bushes so that picking can be more easily 
done. 

Marketing.—Gooseberries are most in demand when Der- 
fectly green but are also used when fully ripe. They are gen- 
erally marketed in quart boxes. 

Insects.—The insects that commonly injure currants aad 
gooseberries are the Currant Worm, Currant Borer, Leaf Lice 
and Berry Moth. See Chapter VI. 

Diseases.—The more common diseases of the currant and 
gooseberry are Leaf Spot and Mildew. See Chapter VII. 

The Raspberry. 

(a) The European raspberry (Rubus ideus). Varieties of 
this class were the only kinds grown in this country for many 
years and they proved to be poorly adapted to general cultiva- 
tion here although in a few sections, as, for instance, near the 
Hudson River, they were a success. Among the varieties of 
this class that have been grown here are the Herstine, Hud: 
son River, Red Antwerp and Superlative. In this class are yel- 
low as well as red kinds. 

(b) The American raspberries are the foundation of com- 
mercial raspberry growing in America on a large scale. They 
embrace the red raspberry (Rubus strigosus) and the black 
cap varieties (Rubus occidentalis). Examples of the red rasp- 
berry are the Cuthbert, King and Turner and of the black caps, 
Gregg, Older and Kansas are examples. Among the varieties 
of each of these species are red and yellow varieties. 


266 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


(c) Hybrids between the red and black cap raspberries are 
common. They were formerly considered a separate species 
and known as Rubus neglectus. Examples are the Columbian, 
Schaeffer and Philadelphia. 

Classes of raspberries.—All raspberries in cultivation may 
be divided into two classes, the suckering class and the tip 
rooting class, according as to whether they increase by suckers 
or by tip layers. This is a convenient, rather than a botanical 
classification. 

Propagation—The methods of propagation vary greatly 
with the different species of raspberries. They consist of propa- 
tion by seed, by suckers, by root cuttings, by tip layers and gis 
division of the stools. 

Raspberries from seed.—All the cultivated kinds may be 
grown from seed, but plants from seed are not “true,” i. e., are 
not like the plants from which they came, and it is only an 
occasional seedling that is nearly as good as any of the varie- 
ties commonly cultivated. To raise seedlings, the ‘‘dead” ripe 
fruit should be crushed in a small amount of dry sand, and the 
whole sown at once in a light, moist soil, somewhat shaded. 
The seed will seldom germinate until the following spring when, 
after the plants are large enough to handle, they may, if too 
thick in the seed beds, be set out in another bed to grow the 
first season, or if not crowded be left to grow where they are. 
The plants should be taken up in the fall, “heeled in,” and plant- 
ed again the following spring, when they will bear fruit the 
following (the third) year. Another way is to sow the seed as 
soon as obtained in small boxes, and cover them lightly with 
leaves or litter. In February bring the boxes into a green- 
house, transplant to other boxes as soon as the seedlings have 
their third leaves formed, and plant permanently outdoors as 
soon as large enough and the weather will permit; by this sys- 
tem some fruit is generally obtained the second year after plant- 
ing out. 

By root cuttings.—Most of the varieties of raspberries com- 
ing under the first three species mentioned produce suckers 
from the roots and these are generally used to start new planta- 
tions, but when there is a shortage for this purpose it is cus- 


RASPBERRY. 267 


tomary to grow plants of the suckering kinds from root cut- 
tings, which may be made as follows: In the autumn, after the 
plants have stopped growing, the roots are taken up, cut into 
pieces two or three inches 
long and put in boxes with 
alternate layers of sand or 
loam. The boxes are then 
buried in some well-drain- 
ed spot until the land is 
fit to work in the spring, 
when the roots’ should 
show a callous on the cut 
ends. The roots are then 
planted two or three inches 
apart in the furrows ané@ 
covered about two inches 


Fig. 121.—Raspberry Plants. A.— deep in rich soil. By the 
Dormant plant ready for trans- 
planting. B—Growth started too end of the season they 


much to transplant. will have made plants large 


enough to set out permanently. 

This plan of growing plants from root cuttings may be 
ereatly changed in detail, but the general plan is the same. It 
is always best to make up the root cuttings in the fall, but cut- 
tings from strong growing kinds do nearly as well made up in 
the spring. The cuttings are generally made with a sharp 
knife or a pair of pruning shears, but nearly equally good re- 
sults may be had by cutting the roots in a hay cutter and this 
is a common practice where large quantities are grown. 

By layers.—The black-caps and some other species grow 
most readily from layers. The tips of the new growth reach 
the ground about the latter part of August or first of Septem- 
ber and readily make new plants if held in place. These tips 
should be covered with a spadeful of soil, or better, be inserted 
three or four inches straight down into a hole made by push- 
ing a spade in the ground. They will be well rooted in a week 
or two. These rooted layers will be found to winter over most 
safely if allowed to remain undisturbed until spring, but should 
have a light mulch over them during winter. They may also 


268 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


be wintered over if dug and very carefully heeled in, or kept in 
a cold cellar, but the plan recommended should be followed 
when practicable. It is not considered good policy to plant 
the layers in the fall as they are very liable to winter injury 
when disturbed in autumn. In digging the layers about ten 
inches of the cane should be cut off with the roots to facilitate 
handling. It is generally believed that unprotected plants are 
much hardier when the layers remain attached to the plant dur- 
ing winter than they are if the canes are cut loose in the fall. 

Location and soil.—The common varieties of the raspberry 
succeed admirably in any good soil, but the suckering class, 
which includes chiefly the red varieties, produce rather more 
abundantly than the black-caps in moist, heavy loam, and the 
latter do best in a sandy loam. A northern slope is generally 
better than a southerly one as it is less liable to injury from 
drouth, which frequently shortens the fruiting season in bad 
situations; but it is well known that some varieties withstand 
dry weather and other climatic troubles far better than others 
of the same species. 

Manure and preparation of land.—All varieties need high 
cultivation. The land should be heavily manured, if of inferior 
quality, and thoroughly plowed and brought into the best con- 
dition for corn or other gross feeding crop. The best fertilizer 
is well rotted barnyard manure. Raspberries, especially the 
black cap kinds, will produce very well even on quite poor soil, 
but rich land and thorough cultivation is necessary for the best 
success with any variety. 

Time of planting.—The suckering kinds may be planted in 
autumn or spring with safety. When the work is done in the 
autumn great care should be taken to firm the soil around the 
roots, and a forkful of mulch over each hill is a great protec- 
tion against winter injury. Many growers prefer to set in au- 
tumn, since at that season they can give the work more careful 
attention than in the spring. Then, again, the new sprouts from 
sets (suckers) start very early, and if the work is delayed in 
the spring the new growth is often broken off or injured in the 
work of planting. Black caps and other tip-rooting kinds should 
never be set in the fall, as they are very liable to be winter- 


RASPBERRY. 269 


killed if moved at that season. They ‘should always be set in 
the spring. 

Selection of plants.—Since the canes are biennial there is 
no such thing as two or three-year-old plants, as with trees 
when we refer to the stems; but the roots may be of any age, 
as they are perennial. Plants of one season’s growth are best 
to begin with. Sucker plants are largely used in the case of 
varieties increasing in that way; but plants from root cuttings 
are generally considered fully as good, or even better, when 
well grown. The old stools from raspberry plantations may 
be broken up and the parts planted, but such sets have few 
fibrous roots and often fail. With the tip-rooting kinds plants 
obtained by breaking up the old stools are not so good as those 
from the suckering kinds obtained in the same way and should 
not be used, as they are very apt to fail even with the best of 
care. It is important to use only vigorous sets taken from 
perfectly healthy stock. Old plantations of raspberries fre- 
quently become diseased and plants from them are often worth- 
less, consequently much care should be exercised in buying 
plants. Care should also be taken to avoid using sets that are 
affected with root galls. 

Planting.—After the land is thoroughly prepared the plants 
should be set out in rows seven feet apart and at three-foot 
intervals in the rows, putting two plants at a place. The dis- 
tance between the rows may be lessened to five feet if more 
space is not available and the weaker growing kinds are plant- 
ed, but the greater distance admits of cultivation even when 
the bushes are loaded with fruit. It allows sunlight to readily 
reach the plants and is most satisfactory every way, and for 
profit they should never be set any nearer; while for some of 
the strongest growing varieties the hills should not be nearer 
than five feet in the row. At the time of planting the canes 
should be cut off close to the ground and no fruit allowed to 
form the first season. 

A good way to plant is to mark out the land the three-foot 
way and then furrow out where the rows are to come. Set the 
plants in the furrows, covering them temporarily with the feet, 
and afterwards more carefully with a hoe, firming them in with 


270 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


the feet at the same time. The rows should preferably run 
north and south, for planted in this way the fruit is shaded 
by the new growth during the hottest part of the day during 
the period of ripening. Some garden crop may be grown between 
the rows the first year. 

Depth to plant.—Black cap raspberry plants should be set 
about the same depth in the soil as they naturally grew. The 
roots should be carefully spread and the soil well firmed over 
them. The suckering kinds should be planted a little deeper 
than they naturally grew and be well firmed in. 

Cultivation.—The soil should be kept loose with a horse cul- 
tivator and the rows free from weeds. If the land gets hard 
the one-horse plow may be used but the land should be kept 
flat and as free from ridges as possible. Frequent shallow 
cultivation, especially in a dry time, is important. 

Pruning and thinning.—Not more than two shoots should 
be permitted to grow from each root the first year. The second 
and succeeding years the suckering kinds will produce a lot of 
sprouts all around the hill; four or five of those nearest the hill 
should be allowed to grow and the rest treated as weeds. If 
a great lot of these suckers are allowed to remain, but little 
fruit will be produced. Black cap raspberries will this year 
send up a half dozen or so of sprouts at the base of the old 
plants, and enough of these should be removed to allow the re- 
mainder to properly develop. All these sprouts should be 
pinched once when from twelve to eighteen inches hign, if they 
are to be grown without a trellis. As soon as the fruit has been 
gathered the old canes which have borne fruit the current year 
should be cut out and destroyed. In the spring the suckering 
kinds need no pruning, but the lateral canes of the black cap 
varieties should be shortened back to twelve or fifteen inches, 
and the main cane shortened perhaps one-third its length. This 
is very important, as the branches of this kind are so slender 
that they will bend to the ground and break under the weight 
of fruit unless severely pruned, or they may set more fruit than 
they can mature and the whole be lost. When pruned in this 
manner the fruit will be much larger and the plant will yield 
fully as much fruit as if all the canes were left their whole length. 


RASPBERRY. 271 


Mulching.—The first year no mulching is needed; but the 
second season, as early as the middle of June, the rows should 
be mulched for two feet on each side with hay, straw or litter, 
or with what is better still, green clover cut when in blossom 
and put on two inches deep. The latter is especially desirable 
because it lies close, and as it rots in one season and is very 
rich in plant food it makes a good manure. This material 
keeps the land moist, the berries clean, and kills out weeds. 
After putting on the mulch as recommended there will still be 
a space two and a half feet wide between the rows where the 
cultivator should be run to keep the soil loose. Too much 
stress can hardly be laid upon the importance of mulching this 
fruit. It frequently makes a difference between a good profit 
and a big loss. : 

Support.—It is desirable in severe climates to have the 
canes supported in some manner. In milder sections, where 
winter protection is not necessary, the bushes may be so fre- 
quently pinched as to make them form little trees that support 
themselves; but this kind of treatment is not desirable where 
the plants have to be covered in winter, as it makes them so 
very stocky they cannot be easily laid down. A very good sup- 
port for raspberries and blackberries is made by running a No. 
12 galvanized iron wire on each side of the bushes, attached 
to a good solid post at each end of the row and tied together at 
frequent intervals. This wire should rest on nails driven in 
stakes set twenty-five feet apart. Such a support permits the 
plants to move gently in the wind but not sufficiently to break 
them by its violence. It keeps the fruit off the ground and is 
cheap and convenient. 

Winter protection.—Winter protection of some sort may 
be necessary for raspberries that are growing in severe loca- 
tions. A good windbreak may be sufficient to make the differ- 
ence between success and failure in growing this crop on our 
western prairies, but in many places in the extreme Northern 
states and in many parts of Colorado it is necessary to bury 
the canes to protect them from winter injury. This is espe- 
cially true when tender kinds are grown. To do this, the 
bushes should be covered late in autumn before the ground 


272 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


freezes hard and should not be handled when there is any frost 
in the canes. The best covering is fresh earth. In laying them 
down commence at the north end of the row, remove the soil 
from the north side of the hill, about four inches deep, with 
a garden fork; gather the branches together with a two-tined 
fork, press gently to the north, at the same time place the foot 
firmly on the base of the hill and press hard, bending the bush 


Fig. 122.—Uncovering raspberry bushes in the spring. 


in the root as much as possible and as little as may be in the 
canes, until nearly flat on the ground and hold it there until 
the second man covers with soil sufficient to hold it down. The 
top of each succeeding hill will lie at the base of its predeces- 
sor, making a continuous covering. It will be found that a lit- 
tle mulch put on the canes first after laying them down will 
hold the soil put on, and much less soil will be required than 
if no mulch is used. After laying them all down turn a furrow 
against each side of the rows, covering as much as possible, 
and draw a little over any canes that may pe left exposed. It 
is only necessary to use enough to barely cover the canes. 
There are some of the strong growing varieties, such as the 
Gregg, that on rich land are very difficult to cover. With them 
it will do very well to bend as nearly to the ground as is safe 
and cover the tops only with enough soil to hold them in place, 


RASPBERRY 273 


While it would be better to cover them all if it were practicable, 
‘yet treated in this way enough snow will generally lodge in 
the canes to cover them, and if this is supplemented with a 
light covering of coarse litter or straw so much the better. If 
mice are numerous they must be poisoned or they will eat the 
canes under the mulch. 

A machine has been originated in Minnesota that covers 
raspberries and blackberries quite successfully and it is there 
used on a large scale. It requires four horses to operate it. 
However, it often breaks many canes in operating and some 
growers prefer to take their chances of winter injury to cover- 
ing with it. 

Lifting canes in the spring.—The canes should be raised 
in the spring soon after the land is dry and well settled. To 
do this use a round-tined fork and after carefully removing 
some of the earth raise the plants slightly to a slanting posi- 
tion. It is found that left in this position the fruiting canes 
are shaded by the new growth and are not so crowded as when 
raised up straight. 

The fruit—The fruit is found in red or yellow colors in 
the red raspberry class and in black, yellow and purple in the 
cap class. The varieties vary in size, fruitfulness and vigor 
as well as in color. The red kinds are most popular but the 
black caps are much used. The purple and yellow varieties 
do not sell well in most markets but are often very satisfactory 
in the home garden and for drying. All kinds are used for 
drying in years when prices are low. 

Picking and marketing.—Avoid picking when fruit is wet, 
if possible, and pick fruit clean. Do not leave any overripe 
fruit on the plants. Keep picked fruit in a cool, shady place; 
transport smali fruit in a good spring wagon. 

Red raspberries are generally marketed in pint boxes, (24 
pints in a case), and black cap raspberries in one quart boxes, 
but some growers find the pint box best for all kinds of rasp- 
berries. In the west the gift package only is used, but in the 
Eastern states the return package is generally preferred. This 
subject should receive the most careful attention of growers. 

For further notes on picking, marketing, diseases and in- 


274 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


sects affecting raspberries see special chapters on these sub- 
jects. 
The Blackberries. 

The cultivated blackberries may be grouped under five heads 
as follows: 

(a) The high bush of the clearings and fence rows of the 
Northern states, with long clusters—as those of the Ancient 
Briton. 

(b) The type with lower growth and short clusters such 
as those of the Snyder and Badger. Both of these groups are 
probably forms of the Rubus villosus. ; 

(c) The trailing dewberries such as the Lucretia and the 
Austin, known botanically as Rubus canadensis, 

(d) The forms that are intermediate between these species 
are probably hybrids between the two species above mentioned. 
Among these are varieties such as the Wilson and the Rath- 
burn. 

(e) The cut-leaved or evergreen blackberry (Rubus lacinia- 
tus) is probably a form of the European blackberry (Rubus 
fruticosus). This kind is cultivated on the Pacific Coast where 
it remains green all winter and is very prolific and highly es- 
teemed. 

Propagation: 

(a) The high bush blackberry is propagated by suckers 
and root cuttings in the same way as the suckering raspberries. 

(b) -The dewberry is propagated by layering the growing 
canes, which root readily about midsummer. Varieties of this 
group are not generally cultivated with success, but in some 
locations they fruit abundantly. 

Soils: 

(a) The best soil for the high bush blackberry is a heavy 
clay loam, but it grows on a wide range of soils. 

(b) The dewberry does best in a warm, sandy or gravelly 
soil, but is not nearly as reliable as the blackberry. 

Planting, Cultivation and Pruning: 

(a) Plant and cultivate the same as the suckering rasp- 


berry. 
(b) It is considered important by many growers to pinch 


DWARF JUNEBERRY. 275 


the high bush blackberry canes at least once when two feat 
high, as this encourages the low setting of the fruit buds. 

(c) Spring pruning should not be done until the blackberry 
canes are in flower and the amount and location of bloom is 
seen, otherwise too many fruiting canes may be removed and 
thus no fruit left. As a rule, about one-half of the bloom should 
be cut off in the pruning. 

(d) It is desirable to have a trellis for blackberries and 
dewberries. 

Dwarf Juneberry. 

Dwarf Juneberry (Amelanchier canadensis, variety oblong- 
ifolia).—This is also called shad bush, service berry and suscu- 
tan berry, native of the Northern states and far into western 
Canada where in thickets it reaches the height of 16 feet and 
produces heavy crops of large fruit that is much prized by the 
settlers and Indians. 

There are several so-called varieties of it found in the 
Northern states, one of which makes a small tree, but it is bet- 
ter known in its dwarf form, which is so very distinct from 
the tree form as to seem quite worthy of being made a separate 
species. This latter form is quite abundant and occasionally 
very productive. It is the selected kinds of it that are cultivat- 
ed for fruit. It generally grows from four to six feet high; is 
covered with a profusion of white flowers early in the spring, 
and ripens its fruit in July with the raspberries. The berry 
is of a purplish red color, often nearly one-half inch in diameter. 
Figure 124 shows its size and form. Like the blueberries, the 
quality of the fruit is sweet though rather tame, but by the ad- 
dition of a little lemon juice it makes an excellent pie or sauce. 
It is readily cultivated and yields regular and abundant crops. 
However, when grown in a small way the fruit must be protect- 
ed from the birds or they will take it as fast as it ripens. Mos- 
quito netting, or the coarse wire netting—such as is used 
for chicken yards, is useful for this purpose. When grown on 
a large scale, the depredation of the birds is not so apparent. 
The plants are extremely hardy, seldom if ever being injured 
by our most severe winters, and are healthy and free from 
insect pests. On account of its many good qualities, it should 


276 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


find a place in the home garden, and it could often be cultivated 
for the near market at a profit. 

Propagation and cultivation—The plants are readily in- 
creased from suckers, which are produced rather sparingly 
around the old plants 
unless they are cut 


EF ? VAZ ff back. These should be 
PONE Y set out at about four- 
(CZ Ky foot intervals in rows 
PSA | five feet apart, on rich 

i “4 upland. They com- 

= why mence to bear in two 
E> years, but will not pro- 

iy duce a full crop until 


the fourth year. They 
need clean cultivation, 
and in dry situations 
should be mulched to 
protect from  drouth. 
They require but little 
pruning, though the 
suckers should be thin- 
| ned out if they become 
Fig. 128.—Dwarf Juneberry. Flow- abundant. 

ers: Varieties—T here 
are but few varieties of this fruit offered by nursery- 
men, and these are the _ result of selections made 
from plants growing in the wild state. They are, however, 
much superior in size of fruit and in productiveness to the 
plants commonly found in the fields, although these latter are 
greatly improved by cultivation. It is very probable that by 
growing seedlings, new varieties much superior to those now 
known will be originated. The kinds now grown require several 
weeks in which to ripen their fruit. The only variety of importance 
is known as Success and probably originated in Kansas. It is pro- 
ductive of large purple fruit of good quality; rather spreading 
in habit, with pendulous fruit clusters; earlier than the others 


SAND CHERRY. 277 


mentioned, ripening with the early currants. Probably as good 
as any if not the best for general cultivation. 

Aside from its fruit-producing qualities the Dwarf June- 
berries make nice lawn shrubs, being clean in habit and very 
pretty when covered with their profusion of graceful white flow- 
_ers, which appear early in the spring. 

Sand Cherry. 

Sand Cherry (Prunus pumila).—This fruit plant is found 
in northern Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas, and. 
elsewhere. It frequently fruits prodigiously on dry, gravelly 


Fig. 124.—Dwarf Juneberry. Foliage and fruit. 


embankments where scarcely any other plant can find exist- 
ence. In fact, it seems to be better adapted to a very dry rather 
than to a moist location. Plants on rich, moist land will often 
flower profusely but fail to set much fruit. It seems quite prob- 


278 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


able that where the rainfall is light this plant will do well on 
rich soil, but where the precipitation is abundant it is best 
adapted to sandy or gravelly land. Thus it fruits abundantly 
on the sandy land of northern Minnesota and on the dry, rich 
land of the Dakotas. 

Description.—Some plants will reach a height of four feet. 
and spread five feet on the ground, while others attain only 
half that size. The fruit resembles the cultivated cherry, but 
varies considerably in form, size and color on different plants. 
It is generally of a reddish—almost black—color when ripe. 


Fig. 125.—Sand Cherry. Foliage and fruit. 


The ripe fruit varies from the size of a large green pea to five- 
eighths of an inch or more in diameter. In some, the pit is small, 
while in others it is very large. The quality is generally too as- 
tringent to be relished uncooked, but this quality varies greatly 
in the different plants. When cooked, its astringency disap- 
pears and it makes a most excellent sauce. Where it grows 
abundantly it is used for sauce and for a sort of wine, which 


BUFFALO BERRY. 279 


is said to be very palatable. It is not only a productive fruit 
plant, but a clean, strong growing shrub, and well adapted to 
severe locations on the lawn. The fruit ripens in the latter part 
of July and first of August. It seems to be much more like a 
plum than a cherry, and perhaps the name sand plum would be 
more appropriate for it. 

Propagation.—It grows freely from seed, which should be 
sown as soon as ripe and not be allowed to get dry. Seedlings 
vary much, and selected plants should be grown in other ways. 
They fruit in about three years from seed. In many sections 
the wild plants may be dug and transplanted to the garden. 
Plants may be increased by layers, suckers and root cuttings, 
and by budding and grafting on the sand cherry or the native 
plum. The easiest way to increase them is by cutting the roots 
around the plants about eight inches away from the main stem 
sometime when the plant is dormant, and all the cut surfaces 
will sprout and form new plants. If the roots are cut into 
pieces about six inches long and these treated like willow cut- 
tings, they will grow nearly as readily. When budded on the 
plum, peculiar-looking, interesting trees are formed, which are 
quite fruitful. The plum may also be worked on the sand cher- 
ry and it forms a good union, but the roots are so flexible that 
the trees are liable to blow over unless the union is set very 
deep. The common cherry 
does not take freely on it. 
At present only seedlings 
are offered by nurserymen, 
there having been no nam- 
ed kinds introducd. 

A form of this, called 
the Dwarf Rocky Mountain 
cherry, has recently been 
sent out from Colorado, 
but has not been  suffi- 
ciently tried to warrant 
conclusions as to its value 
here. It is, however, ex- 
tremely doubtful whether 


Fig. 126.—Buffalo berry. Flowers. 
a.—Pistillate. b.—Staminate. it is any better than 


280 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Fig. 127.—Buffalo Berry. Foliage and fruit. 
a.—Fruit, natural size. 


the best of our native kinds. The Utah hybrid cherry some- 
what resembles this but has a more erect habit. A quite limit- 


ed experience seems to show it is much inferior to our best na- 


tive kinds, Bullberry, or Buffalo Berry. 


Bullberry, or Buffalo-berry (Shepherdia argentea).—This 
plant is found abundantly along the river banks and coulees of 
the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming and Idaho, though but sparing- 
ly, if at all, in Minnesota or the more eastern and central states, 
yet it grows freely and fruits abundantly in all the northern 
states. 

Description.—A small tree or shrub with light colored foli- 
age, young growth and opposite leaves. The flowers and fruit 
are clustered near the base of the small branchlets on spurs on 
very short stems. The plants are dioecious, i. e., one has pistil- 
late and the other staminate flowers, so that it is necessary to 
have both kinds near together in order to get fruit. The flow- 
ers appear very early in the spring before the leaves and are 
small and inconspicuous. The fruit is produced in great abun- 
dance—often so thickly as to conceal the branches on which 
it grows—and when ripe gives a scarlet appearance to the 


MULBERRY. 281 


whole plant. Occasional plants have yellow fruit. It is about 
the size of red currants, and contains one oval, quite large seed. 
The quality is much like that of rather sour red currants. It 
makes a fine jelly, but on account of the large seeds it is not 
so desirable for a sauce as red currants, and it is doubtful 
whether it will ever be popular for fruit where the red currant 
is productive and reliable, but it is of use as an ornamental 
shrub, and it will probably be used to quite an extent for this 
purpose. 

Propagation.—This plant suckers readily if the roots are 
cut, but it is generally grown from seed, which germinate readi- 
ly if not allowed to dry and are winter covered with earth and 
sown in the spring. An easy way to winter it is to cover the 
seed on the surface of the ground with an inverted sod. 

Mulberries. 

The mulberry is seldom grown in this country and then 
is generally limited to two or three trees. This is probably on 
account of its lack of keeping qualities and its peculiar flavor 
which is not generally highly esteemed. It is classfied by Prof. 
L. H. Bailey as follows: 

1. The White Mulberry group (Morus alba). 

a. Russian Mulberry (Morus var. tartarica). 
b. Nervosa Mulberry (Morus var. venosa). 

. The Multicaulis group (Morus latifolia). 

. The Japanese group (Morus japonica). 

. The Black Mulberry group (Morus nigra). 

. The Red or Native Mulberry group (Morus rubra). 
a. Lampasas Mulberry (Morus var. tomentosa). 

The best variety of the mulberry for growing in the north 
Central states is known as the New American but it is not 
hardy in the more northern ‘states where the Russian Mul- 
berry takes its place. This latteris known as Morus alba var. 
tartarica and is described in Amateur Fruit Growing as follows: 

“The Russian mulberry was introduced from Russia and 
is very hardy over much of the Northwest. The Mennonites of 
Nebraska were among the first to introduce it into this coun- 
try and they grew it from imported seed. It makes a small tree 
but is much better adapted to being grown in the form of a 


oT Rm CO bo 


282 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


hedge or windbreak. In this form, it will often attain the height 
of twenty feet and becomes very close and pretty if given an oc- 
casional pruning. It is of a rapid growth and very hardy in 
southern Minnesota and southern Dakota, Nebraska and Kan- 
sas, and even north to the latitude of St. Paul, it stands fairly 
well. Occasionally in very severe winters, it will lose a part 
of its new growth but it quickly outgrows this injury and is less 
liable to winter killing when old than when young.” 

Its fruit.—With few exceptions, all trees of this species 
now growing in this country have been propagated from seed, 
and as with most other fruits, not one seedling in five hundred 
produces fruit of much value. Most seedlings have very small 
fruit, while others are staminate and have no fruit at all. Quite 
frequently some trees will bear fruit as large as a medium-sized 
blackberry, and occasionally considerably larger. The quality 
of the fruit varies nearly as much as the size of the berries; 
some being insipid and even unpleasant, while others are sweet 
and agreeable, but like all mulberries, they lack high quality. 
They are quite soft when 
ripe and quickly fal! to 
the ground, which should 
be kept smooth so that 
they may be readily gath- 
ered. Itis atits best just 
as it falls from the tree 
and generally commences 
to ripen just before the 
first currants, and con- 
tinues ripening for a 
week or more. It re- 
sembles the blackberry 
in appearance, but the 
fruit of some seedlings 
is nearly white in color, 
though the latter are sel- 
dom, if ever, as good eat- 
ing as the blackberry. The 


Fig. 128.—Russian Mulberry. Foli- ‘ 
age and fruit. age at which plants com- 


CRANBERRY. 283 


mence to produce fruit varies greatly, but when five or six years 
old, they may be expected to commence fruiting, and as they grow 
older their fruitfulness increases. As a market fruit it probably 
has no value, but a few trees should be in every garden. Children 
generally relish the fruit, and the birds let other fruit alone 
to feed on it. It is also used for sauce and pies, but for this 
purpose something should be added to it for flavor. 

Propagation.—The seed grows readily if sown as soon as 
ripe. For this purpose, the berries may be crushed in dry sand 
and sown with it in a rather moist, somewhat shady situation. 
In two years the seedlings may be transplanted to the perma- 
ment location, but seedlings vary in their productiveness, and 
while for a windbreak they may answer as well as any, yet 
when plants are wanted for fruit, they should be grown from 
cuttings or layers of the best kinds, or by grafting on seedling 
stocks. For this purpose, the cuttings should be made in the 
fall, about twelve inches long of the old wood, and be deeply 
planted in rich land, with not more than two buds above the 
surface. The branches root easily when layered, and if the 
earth is drawn up around the sprouts until they root they make 
good plants. 

Varieties—There are no named kinds offered by nursery- 
men, and it is necessary to depend on chance seedlings. How- 
ever, if any large windbreak is looked over in the fruiting sea- 
son one or more trees can generally be picked out that bear 
fruit of exceptional value, and such may readily be increased. 
The flowers are of two kinds; sometimes both staminate (male) 
and pistillate (female) are on one tree, and sometimes a single 
tree is limited to one sex. On this account some care is neces- 
sary in selecting a variety to get one with both kinds of flowers, 
or else plant the pistillate kind near a tree having staminate 
flowers. 

The Cranberry. 

Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon).—This is the low trail- 
ing cranberry of the swamps of many of the northern states. 
The form and habit are well illustrated in Fig. 129. The so-called 
high bush cranberry (Viburnum opulus) is a tall shrub and 
much more widely distributed than the trailing cranberry. The 


284 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


latter has one flat seed in each fruit, whilethe former is a 
many seeded berry. This plant is not adapted to general cul- 
tivation, and seldom, if ever, does well on the prairies of the 
West. It may be laid down as a general rule that it cannot be 
successfully cultivated except on the granitic soils of the north- 
ern states, and that it will be a failure on the limestone drift 
soils, such as are common to the prairies of Minnesota, Iowa 
and the Dakotas. In Wisconsin and eastern and northern Min- 
nesota it is often very productive, either wild or cultivated, and 
is an article of much importance in the markets of those see- 
tions each year. Where this fruit can be cultivated it is often 
the most paying crop that can be grown. 

Best location for cranberry beds.—In a wild state this 
plant is found at its best on moist land where the water level is 
within eighteen inches of the 
surface. It seems to be rather 
indifferent about the soil, some- 
times growing on sand and then 
on peat mud or moss. AS a 
Tule the best locations are low 
meadow lands sloping down to 
ponds, or watered by brooks or 
creeks, somewhat sheltered 
but shaded. On uplands, it has 
been successfully cultivated, 
but in such situations in is gen- 
erally unprofitable and _ fre- 
quently an entire failure. It 
may be laid down as a rule 
that the soil in which this plant 
is to thrive must be liberally 
supplied with water, and yet 
the land must be so drained 

pa et Gis VS _ that the water can be drawn 
off to at least ten inches be- 
Fig. 129—Common cranberry. Foli- low the surface. The best 


ae and fruit; about one-half cranberry bogs are so ar- 


CRANBERRY. 285 


ranged that both the flowage and drainage can be controlled 
at will. Land that has been covered with stagnant water for 
a long time, as the bottom of ponds, is not fit for the growth 
of this plant until it has been cultivated and exposed to the air 
for a year or more. 

Soil adapted to it—Wherever the cranberry is growing nat- 
urally one may be sure that the land near by is adapted to its 
culture. If no wild plants are growing near the supposed prop- 
er location, it is a safe and good plan to plant a few rods of 
the most favorable portion of it as an experiment before spend- 
ing much time or money on improvements which may prove 
to be futile. With a bog adapted to the growing of this plant, 
with control of the drainage and flowage, a good crop of fruit 
is assured for almost every year, if the work of preparation is 
properly done. Yet there are many wild and cultivated bogs 
that have yielded very profitable crops for many years where 
the flowage has not been controlled, and hence if that factor 
cannot be directed at will, it is not necessarily a sufficient rea- 
son why an attempt should not be made to plant suitable land, 
providing the work can be done at small cost. The returns 
from natural cranberry bogs may often be greatly increased 
by a little judicious expenditure. 

Preparation of the land.—The first steps should be directed 
to destroying the vegetation growing on the land. The proper 
method of doing this will vary according to the location and 
condition of the land. It can sometimes be done by flooding 
the land for one year and then clearing it, or by summer fallow- 
ing, and it may occasionally pay to cut off the whole surface 
of the bog, with spade or turf ax, and remove it by hand. But 
in some way the surface of the land must be cleaned of its 
growth and made level, and fine and perfect as a garden. If 
it is to be flowed, it should be made perfectly level, as it will 
then take much less water for flowage than if uneven. This 
matter is especially important where the water supply is limited. 

Supplying sand.—It is of great advantage to have the sur- 
face of the land covered with about four inches of clean sand, 
and this should be done even if at considerable expense. The 
sand used should preferably be rather coarse, but it must be 
free from clay or loam, as anything that encourages the baking 


286 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


of the surface of the bed is injurious. This sand offers a good 
place for the plants to root, is easily cultivated, and experience 
shows that it is conducive to fruitfulness. Yet there are many 
very fruitful peat beds that have never been sanded. If a peat 
bed is to be used without sand, the surface should be exposed 
to frost one year before planting or it will be likely to bake 
hard, but after one season’s frost it becomes loose and fine. 
Drainage and flowage.—The method of securing these con- 
ditions will depend much on the situation of the land. The 
drainage is generally best accomplished by digging an open 


Fig. 130.—Cranberry bog newly planted, showing ditch and dike; also 
portion of bed not yet covered with sand. 

ditch four or more feet wide through the center of the land. 

A smaller ditch should completely enclose the land, which 

should be divided into beds by lateral ditches about five rods 

apart. Where springs are met with they must be connected 

with a ditch. 

Importance of water.—The flowage may sometimes be con- 
trolled from a pond above the bog, or by a brook or creek run- 
ning through it. Every reasonable effort should be made to 
secure and control water for flowage for the following reasons: 
(1) Without a good water supply bogs often get very dry in 
periods of protracted drouth, to the great injury of the plants, 
and occasionally peat or moss bogs get on fire and burn up, 
destroying all the work done. A bog once on fire can seldom 
be saved except by flooding. (2) The water kept over the 


CrANBERRY. 287 


plants in the spring will serve to retard the blossoming until 
danger of frost is past, and will protect the fruit from early 
frosts in autumn. (3) Beds that are kept under water until 
late in the spring are seldom seriously injured by insects. (4) 
Beds do best when protected by a water covering in winter. If 
not thus protected they may be seriously injured. 

When there is considerable fall in the bed it is customary 
to finish it at several grades and to put in 
as many dams, but where there is not more 
than two or three feet of fall one dam is 
quite sufficient. Dams should be made 
strong and have sluiceways large enough to 
let off all the water liable to drain through 
them. 

About flowing.—All that is required in 
flowing a bog is sufficient water to cover 
the vines. They should be covered about 
the first of November, and as deep as they 
are to remain covered during the winter. 
The freezing of the vines in the ice does 
not hurt them, but raising the level of the 
water in the bed after they are frozen, and 
thus raising the ice and tearing the vines 
out of the ground, is where the great dan- 
Fig. 131.—Cranber- per lies, To avoid this, the _ sluice- 

ry plants, one, 

two and three ways should be kept sufficiently open 

dots after set- to allow any surplus water to pass 
off. 

The first two seasons the water should be kept on the vines 
until the last of April, but after that, or when the bog is in con- 
dition to bear, the water should be kept on until the last of 
May or first of June. The object of keeping it on so late is 
to prevent injury from late frosts, and to destroy the fruit 
worm and fire worm which are the worst foes of the cranberry. 
If the fruit is covered with water in warm weather, it is very 
liable to be ruined, but the vines are uninjured by such flowage. 
Throughout the growing season the water should be about 
twelve inches below the surface of the bed. 


288 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Plants and planting.—In selecting plants great care should 
be used to get them from fruitful beds, as some are almost 
barren. There are very many named kinds, and they vary great- 
ly in size, growth, time of ripening and productiveness, but it is 
doubtful if any of the named kinds, the most of which ori- 
ginated in the East, are adapted to the climate of this section,’ 
and it is probably better for the present to depend on getting 
plants from the most fruitful wild cultivated beds near at hand. 
The kind most esteemed in the East is called the Early Black. 
It is very early and productive, though not a vigorous grower. 

Propagation.—The cranberry plant grows very readily from 
cuttings, and on this account some growers cut the plants in 
a hay cutter, sow the pieces broadcast and harrow them in with 
a disc harrow, but that method of planting is not advisable. 
The most common way is to make cuttings of the younger parts 
of the vines about ten inches long, and plant one in a place, 
but sometimes longer cut- 
tings are used which are 
doubled when planted. 
The cuttings may be car- 
ried over a whole season 
with good success if they 
are kept covered with 
running water, but in stag- 
nant water they would be 
likely to spoil. On this 
account they may be set 
at almost any season of the 
year if the flowage is con- 
trolled, but the spring of 
the year is generally pre- 
ferred, and if there is no 
chance to flow at will it 
is by far the surest time 


Fig. 132.—The two kinds of cran- to plant. 
berry rakes in common use. Before planting is 


commenced, the bed should be marked off each way 
at about eighteen inch intervals. In planting, a 


PERSIMMON. 289 


wooden dibber is used having an incurved or reversed wedge- 
shaped point, with which the cuttings are crowded through the 
sand down into contact with the bog beneath at one operation, 
without first making a hole as is customary in the ordinary 
use of a dibber. After the cuttings are planted the water should 
be raised in the trenches sufficiently to keep the surface land a 
little moist to encourage the rooting of the cuttings. The after- 
cultivation consists in keeping the soil moist and giving clean 
cultivation. Some of the best cranberry growers apply each 
year a coat of about one inch of sand to their bogs and find that 
it is profitable to do so as it acts much like a fertilizer. 

Picking.—If the berries are allowed to fully ripen on the 
vine they will keep much better than if picked earlier, but 
where there is danger of frost before they are ripe the berries 
should be picked as soon as they commence to color, though 
when picked so early, they will seldom keep well after the mid- 
dle of January. If severely frozen the berries are ruined, but 
they are not injured by a “white frost.” Picking is generally 
done by hand, though some few growers “rake” them off the 
vines. The berries keep well in a dry, cool place, and are more 
easily kept if covered with water. 

The Persimmon. 

There are two distinct forms of the persimmon in cultiva- 
tion, which are commonly known as the Native or American 
persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) and the Asiatic species 
(Diospyros kaki) which has been chiefly developed under cul- 
tivation in Japan, and is known commonly in America as the 
Japanese persimmon. The wood of most of the species of this 
tree is hard, close-grained and takes a light polish. Some of 
the tropical species give us the ebony of commerce. 

The native persimmon is found growing wild in the South- 
ern states and as far north as latitude 38, that is, to central 
Indiana. The tree, when grown in the forest, is sometimes 75 
feet high but usually 20 to 30 feet high. It will ripen its fruit 
as far north as northern Indiana. Its use is largely local, al- 
though it is occasionally offered in the larger markets. The 
wild fruit varies in size from one-half to two inches in diameter, 
depending largely upon the number of seeds it contains. Seed- 


290 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


less varieties an inch in diameter are known. The fruit is very 
astringent until ripe and some seedlings never lose this quali- 
ty. There is a general impression that frost is necessary to 
sweeten this fruit but this is a mistake, as some varieties are 
sweet without being touched with frost and others are made 
more edible. It ripens from August 1st to December in the Cen- 
tral states. It is easily propagated by seeds which should be 
stratified over winter and planted in spring the same as the 
peach pits. The seedlings do not come true from seed. This 
is especially so with the selected kinds, which are propagated 
by budding and grafting when two or three years old at the 
collar in the spring, as soon as the bark will peel easily. This 
tree is very difficult to transplant and if its tap root is cut off, 
it is Jiable to die. The top should be severely pruned when 
the tree is transplanted. The persimmon will grow in any good 
agricultural soil, but thrives best on a good, rich, warm soil. 
As yet, little attention has been paid to originating good named 
varieties of this native fruit but some of those produced are 
of fine quality and destined to be widely grown in favorable 
localities. 

The Japanese persimmons were introduced into America in 
the early history and have proven well adapted to the more 
southern states and parts of California, and are regularly to 
be seen in our markets and are growing in popularity. There 
is quite a difference in the hardiness of different varieties. 
Few of them can stand a temperature of zero and, as a rule, da 
best south of the 32nd degree of latitude. It is considered by 
the Japanese as their best pomological product. 

The trees of the different varieties attain a height of ten 
feet while others are compact and dwarf in habit and do not 
grow more than 5 or 6 feet high. This latter class bears young, 
often a good crop at three years old. The fruit is very pretty, 
usually bright orange red or vermilion, and round or oblong in 
shape. They color up when far from being ripe and should 
not be gathered until just before the frost or when they be- 
come soft, as in the case of the early kinds, The round varie- 
ties ripen first and the oblong ripen later. The latter, if picked 
before being ripe, should be allowed to ripen in the house to 
remove the slight astringency. 


PERSIMMON. 291 


Seedlings of the Japanese persimmon have a tendency to 
produce male flowers only during the first three years of flow- 
ering. After that, a few female flowers appear but they are 
few in comparison with the male flowers. A large proportion 
of the seedlings produce fruit that is small and too astringent 
to eat. There are a number of varieties offered by the nursery 
trade. 


QUESTIONS—CHAPTER XIV. 
SMALL FRUITS. 
Strawberry. 
1. From what species of strawberry have our cultivated vari- 
eties originated? 

2. How may the strawberry be propagated? 
3. What location and soil is best for strawberries? 
4. How should the land be prepared? 
5. When should strawberries be set out? 
6. Explain the Hill system—the matted Row system. 
7. How should the plants be trimmed and set? 
8. What protection should be given strawberries in winter? 
9. How may old strawberry beds be renewed? 
10. Into what two classes may strawberries be divided? 
11. What are nubbins? 
12. How should strawberries be picked and marketed? 
138. How may they be protected from frosts? 


Currant. 

What is the origin of the red currant? Of the black cur- 
rant?- Of Crandall’s currant? Of the Missouri currant? 
What soil is best adapted for currant growing? 
How should they be planted? 
How often and in what way should they be cultivated? 
When do currants need mulching? 
What is a good mulch for currants? 
How often should currants be pruned? 
What pruning is necessary? 
What are ‘‘tree currants?” 

10. How are they formed? 

11. Of what value are they? 

12. In what ways may currants be protected from winter injury? 

13. How is the fruit marketed? 

14. For what is it used? 

15. What varieties are best for the home garden? 

Gooseberry. 

1. What is the origin of the American gooseberry? Of the 

European gooseberry ? 
What are the crosses of the two varieties? 


e 


3. How is the gooseberry propagated? 

4. When is the best time to plant gooseberries? 

6. What pruning is necessary? 

6. How are gooseberries marketed? 

7. What insects and diseases are injurious to the gooseberry? 
Raspberry. 

1. What varieties belong to the European raspberries? 

2. What varieties belong to the American raspberries? 

3. Into what two classes are raspberries divided? 


292 
4, 


POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


How are they propagated? 


5. How are raspberries raised from seed? From root cuttings? 
From layers? 


* ge What location and soil is best adapted to each class of rasp- 
erries? 

7. How should the land be prepared for the raspberry? 

8. When should they be planted? 

9. How should the plants be selected? 

10. How far apart should the plants be set? 

11. How deep should raspberries be set? 

12. What cultivation is necessary for the raspberry? 

13. How much pruning and thinning is necessary the first year? 


The second year, etc.? 


What mulching is best for the raspberry? 
How and when should it be applied? 
How can a good support be made for the canes? 


17. In what ways may the canes be winter protected? 
18. How are the canes faid down and covered? 
19. How are they taken up in the spring? 
20. What are the characteristics of the berries of the two classes? 
21. How are they picked and marketed? 
Blackberry and Dewberry. 
1. Into what groups may the blackberries be divided? 
2. What are the characteristics of each? 
3. How is the blackberry propagated? 
4. How is the dewberry propagated? 
6. What soils are best adapted to each? 
6. How is the blackberry planted and cultivated? 
4. What pruning does the blackberry require? 
The Cranberry. 
1. What are the characteristics of the high and low bush cran- 
berries? 
2. How is the trailing cranberry cultivated? 
3. What is the best location for a cranberry bed? 
4. What soil is best adapted for the growing of cranberries? 
5. How should the land be prepared? 
6. Why is sand important in the cranberry bog? 
7. By what means can the bog be drained? 
8. Why should the drainage and flowage be controlled? 
9. How should the flowage be controlled in the fall? 
10. What harm comes from freezing the plants in the ice? 
11. How long should the water be kept in the bog in the spring? 
12. What care is necessary in selecting the plants? 
13. How are they propagated? 
14. When should the plants be set? Why? 
15. How should the beds be made? 
16. What cultivation is necessary? 
17. How are cranberries picked? 
Juneberry, Buffalo Berry, Sand Cherry and Mulberry. 
1. Where is the Dwarf Juneberry found most commonly? 
2. What are its characteristics? 
3. How are they propagated? 
4, What cultivation do they need? 
5. What are the characteristics of the varieties most common- 


ly cultivated? 


What is the distribution of the Sand Cherry? 
What location and soil is best adapted to them? 
What are the characteristics of the Sand Cherry? 
How are they propagated? 

How are they used in grafting? 

What is the Dwarf Rocky Mt. Cherry? 


1. 
{ts valu 
2. 


PERSIMMON. 293 


Where is the Buffalo Berry commonly found? 
What are the characteristics of the plant? 
For what is the fruit used? 
How is the plant propagated? 
Into what classes may the Mulberry be divided? 
What variety is best for the Northern states? 
What are its characteristics? 
What are the characteristics of the fruit? 
How is the Mulberry propagated? 
What care should be taken in selecting plants? 
Persimmon. 
Where is the American persimmon found native and what is 
e for domestic use? 
Of what country is the Japanese persimmon native and what 


is its value as a commercial fruit? 


‘CHAPTER XV. 
THE NUTS. 


Comparatively little attention has been paid to the growing 
of any of the nut trees in this country, with the exception of the 
English walnut. Most of the American nuts, except the English 
walnut, that reach our markets are the chance productions of the 
wild groves. It is undoubtedly true that there is a large sec- 
tion of this country where nuts of some kind might be grown 
to advantage. This is especially true of rough land in some of 
the Middle and Southern states. 

Nearly all of the cultivation of nuts in this country up to the 
present time has been done by the growing of seedling trees, 
and little attention has been paid to grafting, which for many 
years was regarded as a very difficult matter with all nuts. Now 
that successful grafting methods have been discovered, there is 
less excuse for planting seedlings. The leading nurserymen now 
offer named varieties of the principal nut trees, or else of trees 
grown from selected seed. 

The Pecan. 

The pecan (Hicoria pecan) is an important native nut that 
is used largely and gaining in popularity. It is a near relative 
of the hickories, several of which produce edible nuts. In its 
native habitat, the tree grows to a large size and the wood is 
highly esteemed for the same purposes as the hickory. It is 
native to a large part of the Mississippi Valley, Eastern and 
Central Texas and a portion of Mexico. It is cultivated through- 
out most of this section south of Central Illinois and also in the 
Southern states south of the Potomac river. Further north it 
is occasionally grown, but not profitably, and Central Iowa may 
be regarded as its northernmost limit. 

The fruit of the pecan is borne on the new growth. The male 
flowers are at the base of the shoot and the female flowers near 
the end. The flowers appear with the leaves and are seldom 
injured by spring frosts. Trees from seed generally bear when 


PECAN. 295 


about ten years old, and at full bearing age they have been known 
to yield over twenty bushels to a tree. 

Soil requirements.—The pecan does best on the open, porous 
clay loams of river bottoms and especially on those that are 
likely to overflow at high water. It is also grown successfully 
on the sandy soils of southern Georgia and northern Florida, 
and even on rich up-lands it frequently produces well. The 
most successful growers plant the trees from 40 to 50 feet apart. 
If the trees are grown from seed, it would be an advantage to 
put them nearer together and then remove the unprofitable ones. 
In transplanting the pecan it is desirable to save as much of the 
tap root as is possible, but it may be shortened somewhat with- 
out seriously interfering with its growth. The root is often very 
long and it will be found a great convenience in transplanting to 
have it somewhat shortened. Very often a one-year-old tree will 
have a root far longer than the stem. The soil should have the 
best of cultivation, as the trees are gross feeders and should be 
kept growing rapidly, especially when young and not fully es- 
tablished. 

Harvesting and marketing.—It is common to harvest the 
nuts after they have fallen to the ground. When they are raked 
together the leaves are shaken out and the nuts dried off before 
being stored. The highly polished surface of nuts which are 
seen in our markets is attained by polishing them in revolving 
barrels where they are polished by rubbing against one another. 
The great demand today is for larger, thinner-shelled nuts, and 
there seems to be an almost unlimited market for them. Those 
who have pecan trees in good locations find them very profitable. 
Comparatively few of the best nuts are sold at present, as they 
are in demand by nurserymen for planting. 

Insects.—There are a number of insects that injure the pecan 
trees. Perhaps the most serious of these is known as the 
shuck worm, which penetrates the hull and causes the young 
fruit to drop prematurely. The remedy is to gather and burn 
the infested nuts. A web worm is occasionally injurious to the 
foliage, but this may be destroyed in the same manner as ree: 
ommended for the common web worm. 

The twig girdler sometimes girdles the twigs of the pecan, 


296 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


causing them to be blown off. The worm will be found in the 
part that falls. If these twigs are raked together promptly and 
burned soon after falling, this enemy is easily held in check. 

Grafting the pecan.—The most successful method of grafting 
the pecan seems to be crown grafting of the seedlings, when 
they are only an inch or less in diameter, early in the spring 
with terminal bud cions and without wax. The stalks should 
be cut off smoothly, close to the surface of the ground, and a 
side cleft graft or whip graft used. When this is done, the earth 
should be drawn up to the top bud of the cion to prevent it 
drying out. In order to grow seedlings, the nuts are generally 
planted in autumn in well drained soil, which is sufficiently 
loose so that it does not bake badly; or, where mice and squir- 
rels are abundant, a much better plan is to stratify them in the 
same manner as recommended for peach pits and plant out in 
the spring as soon as the ground can be worked, putting them 
about eight inches apart in rows four feet apart and covering 
three inches deep. Rich, deep garden soil should be used for 
the seedlings. 

The Chestnut. 

The chestnut is one of the most popular of our native nuts 
and is widely sought after. In some sections in Europe, where 
the nuts are especially abundant, they are ground into flour and 
used for bread making. 

The American chestnut (Castanea americana) forms a large 
tree as far north as southern Vermont, and west into Indiana. 
North and west of this range, it is very uncertain. It has, how- 
ever, been fruited in southeastern Minnesota and occasionally it 
is grown successfully in Illinois and Iowa. The wood of this tree 
is very durable in contact with the soil and of rapid growth, 
hence is in demand for railroad ties and telephone poles. It is 
one of the most promising trees for use in new timber plantings 
within its range. There are few varieties. Its nuts are the 
best in quality of all known species. The other species of chest- 
nut graft readily upon it. 

The European chestnut (Castenea sativa) is a native of the 
cooler portions of central and southern Europe, western Asia and 
northern Africa. The foliage of this tree is thicker and more 


CHINQUAPIN. 297 


abruptly pointed than that of the American chestnut. Its burrs are 
very large and its nuts are larger but not so sweet as the Ameri- 
can chestnut. The skin enclosing the nut is bitter and tough. 
This species is variously known as European, Spanish, French, 
Italian and Sweet Chestnut. Among the best of the European 
varieties are Numbo and Paragon. The latter is most widely 
planted and the most successful of all cultivated introduced 
chestnuts. It is sometimes classed as a hybrid. Both of these 
nuts originated in the United States and are of good quality. 

Japan chestnut (Castanea crenata).—This tree is said to 
reach a height of fifty feet in Japan but the varieties that are 
grown for fruit are dwarfish in form and slender, with a close 
head. Its leaves are much smaller than those of the American 
or European chestnuts and the burrs are small with a thin, pa- 
pery lining and short spines. The nuts are large and glossy, 
but inferior to the other chestnuts in quality as a rule, though 
good when cooked. A few varieties are of good quality when 
fresh. Among the best of the Japanese chestnuts are Parry and 
Reliance, both of which are of fair quality. 

Chinquapin (Castanea pumila), (C. alnifolia)—The Chinqua- 
pins are dwarf chestnuts, extending, in their native range, from 
Massachusetts south to Florida and Texas. The fruit of the 
Chinquapins is edible and used in a local way throughout their 
range. 

Propagation.—The different species of the chestnut are usu- 
ally propagated from seed, which may be sown as soon as 
gathered in autumn, or stratified and sown in the spring in 
rich, porous soil. They may be whip-grafted in the nursery 
when one year old. This should be done by using dormant cions 
after the buds have swollen and covering with wax in the or- 
dinary way. 

Top-working of large trees has not been successful except 
where it has been practiced on the young sprouts. Great care 
should be taken to secure a good union, and if possible the cion 
should unite with the stock on both sides. 

The flowers of the chestnut open in early summer and the 
long, conspicuous, light colored, male catkins are quite ornamen- 
tal. The pistillate flowers are inconspicuous and grow from 


298 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


the axils of the leaves on the new growth. Some growers think 
it necessary to have the pollen of different trees intermingle in 
order to get the best results. This idea is borne out by the 
fact that solitary trees often fail to set fruit. 

Planting and care.—Ordinary seedlings of the American 
chestnut commence to bear when from eight to fifteen years old, 
while those tnat are grafted will frequently bear inside of five 
years. On account of this, some growers follow the practice of 
grafting all of their seedlings. It is probable that seedlings would 
bear as quickly as grafted trees if they were girdled as recom- 
mended for the grape. Where natural groves are used for grow- 
ing nuts, the reproduction will often come from sprouts. If de- 
sired, these may be grafted and cared for the same as seedlings. 
In any case, however, the sprouts should be thinned out so that 
the trees can take on their natural form. Where the ground is 
overgrown with brush, it will be found a good plan, when the 
trees are once fairly started, and out of reach of stock, to pas- 
ture the land with sheep. This will destroy much of the brush 
and the lower leaves on the chestnut trees, giving them a healthy 
pruning. it will also have a tendency to prevert the spread of 
fire, as the sheep mix the fallen leaves with the soil and thus pre- 
vent the coliection of large masses of leaves about the stems of 
the trees. If the trees are to be planted out, the American spe- 
cies should be set from 40 to 50 feet apart each way. The for- 
eign kinds do not grow so large and they may be planted nearer. 

The nuts are prepared for market by putting them in a suit- 
able vessel and then pouring scalding hot water over them as 
soon as gathered. By this means the eggs and larvae of the in- 
sects in them are destroyed. The nuts should be gathered 
promptly after falling and the scalding done at once, otherwise 
the eggs of the weevil in the nuts will have a chance to de- 
velop and will injure their sale. The nuts should stand in the 
hot water for about fifteen minutes, after which they should be 
taken out and carefully dried. 

There are several insects and diseases that affect the chest- 
nut. The most harmful is probably the weevil, whose eggs are 
laid in the nut, but no satisfactory remedy has been found for 
it. The leaf diseases are subject to control by Bordeaux mixture. 


ENGLISH WALNUT. 299 


English Walnut. 

The English walnut (Juglans regia) is cultivated to some ex- 
tent in the Eastern states south of Connecticut and west into 
Texas, but in the section east of the Rocky Mountains, it has 
not attained commercial importance. In southern California, 
however, it is grown very successfully within a short distance 
of the coast where the water table is near the surface of the 
soil. Back from the coast, it may also be grown in favorable 
locations, but the shucks do not separate from the nuts so well 
and hence the product is not nearly so valuable as the product 
from sections where the climate is somewhat humid. 

The flowers of the walnuts are monoecious, the male flow- 
ers being produced in catkins and the pistillate flowers at the 
ends of the short branches appearing with the leaves. 

Propagation.—Most of the trees in the Eastern states are 
grown from seed; the same is true of a large portion of the or- 
chards in southern California, although in the last few years 
there has been a large number of grafted trees planted. When 
grown from seed, it is customary to select the largest, thinnest 
shelled nuts from trees that are hardy and productive, and 
that start late in the spring. These are stratified over winter 
in the same manner as peach pits. They are generally allowed 
to sprout in the spring before planting, when they are set about 
one foot apart in rows four feet apart. For this purpose rich. 
open, porous soil should be used. They are generally large 
enough for budding the first season. If they are to be planted in 
an orchard without budding, it is customary to leave them for 
two or three years in the nursery. The trees are generally bud- 
ded by the shield or ring method. Cleft-grafting and whip-graft- 
ing have also been successfully used. 

Harvesting and marketing.—In the best localities for the 
English Walnut, the shucks open on the trees and the nuts fall 
to the ground, where they are easily gathered once or twice a 
week, and taken to the drying house. Sometimes it is necessary 
to jar the trees in order to get the nuts in season. It is not de- 
sirable to beat the trees with poles, as it frequently destroys 
many of the fruit buds. The nuts are dried by exposure to sun 
or by artificial heat. 


300 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Japan walnut.—The Japan walnut (Juglans sieboldiana) is 
now cultivated in an experimental way and is much hardier than 
the English Walnut which it somewhat resembles, although not 
so hardy as the Black Walnut or Butternut. This tree gives 
promise of being productive even as far north as central Minne- 
sota. The nuts are small and more like the Black Walnut than 
the English Walnut, and probably of little importance commer- 
cially. 

The Black Walnut and Butternut are prized for their timber 
and shade as well as for their nuts. These are frequently gather- 
ed and marketed in considerable quantities and there is generally 
a good demand for them. The shucks should be removed and 
the nuts dried before they are marketed. Black Walnuts have 
been planted in considerable quantities in Minnesota and Iowa 
for fence posts and for their nuts. 

The Almond. 

The Almond (Prunus amygdalus) resembles the peach in 
habit of growth, flowering, etc. The nut is really a peach in 
which the flesh portion is obliterated. It is divided into two 
classes, the bitter and sweet almond. The sweet class is di- 
vided into the hard and soft shell types. The hard shell type is 
searcely grown, but the soft shell type produces the edible al- 
monds of commerce. The bitter almond has a hard shell and its 
chief use is as a stock for the cultivated kinds. It is also grown 
in the Mediterranean district for the bitter kernel, which is used 
in the manufacture of flavoring extracts and prussic acid. The 
Almond is cultivated in a very limited area confined mostly to a 
few small districts in California, Utah, Arizona and New Mexico. 
The tree is nearly as hardy as the peach, but on account of the 
flowers opening so very early, they are almost always destroyed 
by frost, except in a few favored districts. The tree comes into bear- 
ing from two to four years after budding, and is generally at its 
best when from six tonine years of age. Five pounds of hulled al- 
monds per tree is reported as a good average crop in California 
orchards. The nuts begin to ripen about the middle of August. 
It is desirable to have varieties mixed in order to secure good 
pollination. Much disappointment has been occasioned by plant- 
ing the almond in situations not suited for it, or possibly by 
the planting of only one variety in a large area. 


HAZEL. 301 


Soil and planting.—The soil for almonds should be light, 
warm and well drained. The trees, like the peach, will stand much 
drought but will yield good crops only on rich, productive soil. 
It is, however, impatient of too much water in the soil. The 
trees are generally planted about 24 feet apart each way. It is 
customary to do considerable pruning to the tree in order to get 
it in good form while it is young, after which little pruning is 
done. 

Propagation.—The almond is grown almost entirely by bud- 
ding on seedlings of the sweet or bitter almond, though it is 
sometimes worked upon peach stocks. The seedlings are han- 
dled in very much the same way as those of the peach and the 
trees are planted in an orchard when one year old from the bud. 
The peach and the prune D’Argen are also successfully grown on 
the almond. 

Marketing.—Where the summer air is very dry, the hulls 
open readily and the unstained nuts are in good condition for 
marketing and require no further care. In some sections, how- 
ever, the nuts are more or less stained by rains and then recourse 
is had by bleaching them with sulfur fumes. As the sulfur 
fumes do not penetrate to the kernel, the nuts are not injured by 
this treatment. The only advantage is that it gives them a little 
better appearance. If the hulls do not separate readily from 
the nuts it is customary to use what is known as an almond 
huller, by means of which the hulls are pulled off. Nuts that 
are so badly stained that they cannot be made marketable are 
generally sold for confectioner’s use. 

The Hazel. 

The European hazels are known botanically as Corylus arel- 
lana, C. pontica and C. maxima, and in Europe, are cultivated on 
an extensive scale and yield the most filberts of commerce. The 
species ordinarily grown in Europe have shown themselves quite 
liable to disease in this country and have not been successfully 
cultivated here. Our two native species have a wide range and 
are quite variable, some plants bearing fruit of very good size 
and quality. 

The American hazels are known botanically as Corylus amer- 
icana, C. rostrata and C. californica. They are of dwarf form and 


302 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


a 


can perhaps be cultivated to advantage on open, loose soils of 
moderate or poor fertility, in rows eight feet apart, although this 
has not proven encouraging in the few experiments tried. Some 
of the foreign species are quite large and grow to the height of 
12 or 14 feet. The plants are generally propagated by seed lay- 
ers and sometimes budding is practiced. 

The flowers.—The flowers are monoecious and form on the 
new wood. The male flowers are grouped in the form of small 
catkins that may be seen on the bushes all winter. In the spring, 
these elongate and the pollen is distributed by the wind. The 
female flowers are inconspicuous and form a star-like tuft of 
crimson stigmas that push out from the rather large buds at 
the time the male flowers elongate. These flowers open early 
in the spring. 


QUESTIONS—CHAPTER XV. 
Nuts. 


1. Of what country is the pecan a native? 

2. What soil is best for pecan growing? 

3. How should they be planted and cultivated? 

4. How are pecans harvested and marketed? 

5. What insects are injurious to the pecan? 

6. How are pecans grafted? 

7. How are they propagated from seed? 

8. What are the characteristics and distribution of the American 
chestnut? Of the European chestnut? Of the Japanese chestnut? 

9. To what extent are they grown? 

10. What are the Chinquapins? 

11. How are chestnuts propagated? 

12. How should chestnuts be planted and cared fonee 

13. How should chestnuts be cared for before marketing? 

14. What insects and diseases injure the chestnut? 

15. Over what territory is the English walnut distributed? 

16. How are they propagated? 

17. How are the walnuts harvested? 

18. How are they marketed? 

19. What are the characteristics of the Japanese walnut? 

20. What are the characteristics of the almond? 

21. What soil is best adapted to it? 

22. How should the almond be planted? 

23. How is the almond propagated? 

24. How is it harvested and marketed? 

25. How is the hazel grown in Europe? 

26. How is it propagated? 

27. What are the characteristics of the Hazel flower? 


APPENDIX. 


SPRAYING CALENDAR. 


This spraying calendar is taken almost entirely from Bul- 
letin 89 of the Iowa Experiment Station, by Prof. S. A. Beach and 


EH. E. Little. 


The changes made from the original are noted. 


General Treatment For The Apple. 


When to Spray. 


1, When the_ green 
tips of the first leaves 
burst the buds. May be 
omitted if insects and 
scab are not abundant. 


2. Just before the blos- 
soms open. 


3. Just after the blos- 
soms fall. 


4. Ten to twenty days 
after 3. 


5. Late July or early 
August. 


Special treatment early 


What to Spray With and What For. 


Bordeaux mixture for scab, canker and 
leaf spot diseases with Paris Green or 
other arsenical poison for bud moths, 
case bearers, tent caterpillars, canker 
worms and other leaf-eating insects. 


Bordeaux mixture for diseases men- 
tioned under 1. Paris Green or other ar- 
senical poison for curculio and the in- 
sects mentioned under 1. The most im- 
portant single treatment against the scab! 


Bordeaux mixture for diseases mention- 
ed under 1. Paris Green or other arseni- 
eal poison for codlin moth, curculio and 
leaf eating insects. The most important 
treatment in fighting codlin moth! 


Bordeaux mixture for scab, bitter rot 
and other diseases. Paris Green or other 
arsenical poison for codlin moth curculio 
and leaf-eating insects. 


Bordeaux mixture for scab, bitter rot, 
fly speck, sooty blotch and other diseases. 
Paris Green or other poison for second 
brood of codlin moth. Important! 


Lime-sulfur wash for. oyster. shell 


spring before buds break.scale and other scale insects, 


304 


POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


General Treatment For Cherrles. 


When to Spray. 


1. Just before the blos- 
soms open. 


2. Just after the blos- 
soms fall. 


3. Ten to fifteen days 
later than 2. 


4. Just atter ‘fruit’ is 
picked. 


5. From 2 to 3 weeks 
after 4. 


6. When cherry slugs 
are first seen on leaves. 


General 


When to Spray. 
1. About ten days be- 
fore growth starts. 
2. Just before the blos- 
soms open. 


3. Just after the blos- 
soms fall. 


4. About 15 days after 
the blossoms fall. 


5. Soon after the mid- 
dle of June. 


6. Late July or early 
August. 


7. On first appearance 
of insects. 


General 
When to Spray. 
1. Before the buds 


swell; surely before April 
first. 


What to Spray With and What For. 


Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot. 


Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot and leaf 
spot. Arsenate of lead for curculio. 


Ammoniacal copper carbonate for fruit 
rot and leaf spot. 


Bordeaux mixture for leaf spot. 
Repeat 4. 


Dust or spray with Paris Green or 
other poison. 


Treatment For Plums. 
What to Spray With and What For. 


Copper sulfate solution (2 lbs. to 50 


gallons of water) for Plum Pocket. (S. 
183, (Gi) 
Arsenate of lead for curculio. Bordeaux 


mixture for fruit rot on blossoms. 
Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot and 
leaf-spot. Arsenate of lead for curculio. 


(Dilute the Bordeaux about one-half for 
Japanese varieties.) 


Repeat 2. 


Repeat 2. 


Ammoniacal copper carbonate soap or 
eau celeste soap for fruit rot and leaf 
spot. 


Arsenate of lead for web worms and 
other leaf-eating insects. 


Treatment For Peaches. 
What to Spray With and What For. 
Bordeaux mixture or lime-sulfur wash 


(or copper sulphate solution, S. B. G.) 
for leaf curl and fruit rot 


General 


When to Spray. 
Same as for the apple. 


When twig blight first 
appears, and during the 
dormant season when the 
leaves are off. 


General 


When to Spray. 


1. Just before growth 
starts. 


2. When the leaves are 
one-third grown. 


3. Just before the blos- 
soms open, . 


4. Just after the fruit 
sets. ~ 


5. 10 to 20 days after 


6. 10 to 20 days after 


APPENDIX. 305 


Treatment For Pears. 


What to Spray With and What For. 


Treat same as for apple scab, leaf spot 
and insects. 


Cut affected branches back to sound 
wood and burn them. Keep tools disin- 
fected by wiping with cloth saturated 
with kerosene or other disinfectant after 
each branch is cut. 

Before buds open in spring spray with 
lime-sulfur wash. 


Treatment For Grapes. 


What to Spray With and What For. 


Bordeaux mixture or sulfate of cop- 
per solution (1 pound to 25 gallons of wa- 


ter) for grape rot. (S. B G.) 

Bordeaux mixture for mildews and 
black rot. IMPORTANT! 

Repeat 2. 

Repeat 2. IMPORTANT! 

Repeat 2. 

Repeat 2. 


General Treatment For Currant and Gooseberry. 


When to Spray. 


1. When worms 
appear. 


first 


2. When fruit is about 
half grown. 


3. After fruit is pick- 
ed. 


4. About 2 weeks aft- 
er 3. 


What to Spray With and What For. 


Paris Green or other arsenical poison 
for the ‘‘worms.’”’ Bordeaux mixture for 
leaf spot. 


Repeat 1. 


Bordeaux mixture for leaf spot. 


Repeat 3. 


General Treatment For Strawberry. 


When to Spray. 


When growth begins 
and later as often as 
necessary. 


After picking the fruit. 


At first appearance of 
the leaf roller, 


What to Spray With and What For. 


Bordeaux mixture for “rust” or leaf 
spot. 


Cut and burn foliage on windy day. 


Arsenical poison every week if neces- 
sary, but not after fruit is half grown. 


306 


General 
When to Spray. 


When orange rust ap- 
pears. Note.—This dis- 
ease is easily recognized 
by the bright orange col- 
or on the under side of 
the leaf. The whole cane 
looks sickly. 


When anthracnose and 
other cane diseases are 
doing serious damage. 


Treatment For Raspberry, 


POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Blackberry and Dewberry. 
What to Spray With and What For. 


Dig plants at once and burn. 


After leaves drop in fall or in early 
spring, cut and burn over the whole af- 
fected patch. 


General Treatment For Potato. 


When to Spray. 


Begin when plants are 
about 8 inches high or 
when beetles first appear 
and spray at intervals of 
from 10 to 15 days till 
growth stops. 

Spray more frequently 
in hot, damp weather and 
less often in dry weather. 


Soak seed potatoes two 
hours, 


General Treatment For Cucumbers, 


When to Spray. 


When young plants 
come through the ground; 
repeat trequently. 


About 1 month after 
planting. Repeat at in- 
tervals of 10 day 


What to Spray With and What For, 


Bordeaux mixture combined with Paris 
Green or other poison for early blight 
and late blight and rot, also for flea 
beetles, blister beetles, and Colorado po- 
tato beetles. Make strong Bordeaux mix- 
ture, using at least one pound of cop- 
per sulfate to make 38 gallons of the 
mixture. 


To prevent potato scab, use commercial 
formalin (40 per cent solution) 1 pint to 
30 gallons of water. This is enough for 
twenty bushels of seed. 


Squashes and Melons. 
What to Spray With and What For. 
Tobacco dust for striped beetle. 


Spray with Bordeaux mixture for 
blight, flea beetles and striped beetles. 


General Treatment For Cabbage and Cauliflower. 


When to Spray. 


When ‘‘worms” appear. 
Repeat when necessary. 


Lice or aphis, 


What to Spray With and What For. 
Paris Green or other arsenical poison 
in dust, or in resin-lime mixture. Do 
not apply poison after heading begins. 


Bury the affected plants. 


APPENDIX. 307 


General Treatment For All Kinds of Plants. 
What to Spray For. What to Spray With and When. 


All leaf-eating insects, Paris Green or other arsenical poisons 
such as slugs, caterpillars, when insects first appear. 
beetles, etc. 


Sucking insects, such as Tobacco dust or tobacco infusion with 
plant lice and true bugs. whale-oil soap or kerosene emulsion. 
Small plants or ends of twigs are best 
treated by dipping. 


Scale insects, such as Spray with the lime-sulfur wash in 
oyster shell scale, scurfy spring before the buds open. 
Let louse and San Jose 
scale. 


FUNGICIDES AND INSECTICIDES. 


Sprays are preventive and not curative and therefore must be ap- 
plied befcre the injury becomes apparent. After a fungus has gained 
entrance to the fruit or foliage it cannot be reached, but the infection 
may be prevented by coating the parts with a fungicide such as Bor- 
deaux Mixture, which prevents the germination of the spores of the 
fungus, 

Fungicides. 
Bordeaux Mixture: 
Copper sulfate (blue vitriol) 5 pounds. 
Quicklime (not slaked), not less than 314 pounds or more than 
5 pounds. 
Water, 50 gallons. 

Dissolve the copper sulfate and dilute to from 25 to 35 gallons. 
Slake the lime and add enough water to it to complete the required 50 
gallons; then pour the two solutions together. Lastly, add any arseni- 
cal poisons which are to be combined with the Bordeaux mixture. 
This is a general fungicide for all fruit plants. 

Testing Bordeaux Mixture. To determine if the Bordeaux mixture 
is safe to use on tender foliage, one of three simple tests may be used: 

(a) Insert the tip of a knife for at least one minute, when if me- 
tallic copper forms on it, i. e., the tip is the color of copper, more 
lime should be added. If on the other hand the steel remains un- 
changed it is safe to conclude the mixture is all right. 

(b) Pour some of the mixture into a shallow dish; then blow into 
it for at least one-half minute, when, if properly made, a thin scum- 
like oil will form on the surface. 

(c) Pour a few drops of a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium 
into the Bordeaux mixture. If there is not enough lime present, a 
dark reddish-brown substance will form. Ferrocyanide of potassium is 
known as yellow prussiate of potash. It is a very deadly poison. To 
prepare it for use add about ten times its bulk of water. 

Bordeaux mixture should always be well stirred before it is tested. 

Bordeaux Dont’s. Don’t use iron or tin vessels for mixing; don’t 
use air-slaked lime; don’t pour in the coarser particles of lime; don’t 
make more than can be used in one day—it should be mixed fresh 
every day. 


Eau Celeste and Soap: 
Copper sulfate, 1 pound. 
Ammonia, strong (26° Baume), 3 pints. 
Soap, 1 pound. 
Water, 50 gallons. 
Dissolve the soap in 10 gallons of water. In a separate vessel, 
not iron or tin, dissolve the copper sulfate in 40 gallons of water 


308 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


and add the ammonia; stir well and add the soap. This is a good 
fungicide to use in place of Bordeaux mixture when the fruit is full 
grown. 


Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate and Soap: 


Copper carbonate, 6 ounces. 
Ammonia, strong, 3 pints. 
Soap, 1 pound. 

Water, 50 gallons. 

Dilute the ammonia with water and use as much of it ag is 
necessary to dissolve the copper carbonate; add water to make 40 
gallons. Dissolve the soap in 10 gallons of water and pour into the 
copper carbonate solution. The dissolved copper carbonate loses 
strength when left exposed to the air, but it may be kept all right in 
stopped bottles or jugs. This is used when the fruit is nearly ripe 
because it shows less than the Bordeaux mixture. 


Potassium Sulfide or Liver of Sulfur: 


Potassium sulfide, 3 ounces. 
Water, 6 gallons. 

Dissolve the potassium sulfide in the water. Apply at once. 
This mixture deteriorates rapidly and should not be prepared un- 
til ready for application. This is an effective spray for mildew on 
gooseberries. 


Lime-Sulfur Wash: 


Lime, 15 pounds. 
Sulfur, 15 pounds. 
Water, 50 gallons. 

Place the lime in a kettle and slake it with hot water so that 
it forms an even white paste, then add water until it makes a thin 
whitewash. Blend the sulfur with water into a thin paste and add 
to the whitewash and mix thoroughly. Boil one hour, stirring frequent- 
ly to keep from caking on the sides of the vessel, and adding water 
from time to time to replace that which has boiled away. Dilute to 50 
gallons and bring to ‘the boiling point again. Strain it boiling hot 
into the spray tank through wire screen and apply as hot as possible. 
It should be boiled until it is a brick red color and until the sediment, 
when it has settled, is brownish or yellowish green. Salt is recom- 
mended to be added to the sulfur pound for pound, but it may be 
omitted with no material disadvantage. Use good fresh stone lime 
which slakes free from grit and dirt. Either flowers of sulfur or 
light or heavy flour of sulfur may be used. The flowers of sulfur 
goes into solution most readily. 

In orchard practice this wash is mostly used against insects which 
are found on the trees when they are dormant. It has proved very 
effective against the San Jose Scale, oyster shell scale, the scurfy 
scale, the case bearers and other insects which pass the winter on the 
trees. It was formerly customary to add salt to this wash in order to 
make the wash more adhesive, but later experience seems to show that 
is not effective. 


Copper Sulfate Solution: 


Copper sulfate at the rate of one pound to twenty-five gallons of 
water is used for the prevention of grape rot, plum pocket and peach 
leaf curl. Some experiments seem to show that good results will fol- 
low from an application of this kind on apples, cherries, and some 
other trees and plants. This solution should only be applied to dor- 
mant plants, and it is probably best to apply it early in the spring, 
at least two weeks before there is any sign of vegetation. If applied 
after the plants have started, injury will result. Its object is to de- 
stroy the spores of injurious diseases that may be on the plants, 


APPENDIX. 309 


Insecticides. 
Paris Green: 


Dry Paris Green—Flour, 20 pounds. 
Paris Green, 1 pound. 
Mix the two and dust the plants when they are moist from dew 
or rain. 
Wet Paris Green—Paris Green, 1 pound. 
Bordeaux mixture or water, 50-300 gallons. 
For apples or pears use 1 pound to 150 gallons of Bordeaux mix- 
ture or water. If water is used add 2 pounds of fresh slaked lime 
to prevent injury to the foliage. 
For cherries or plums use 1 pound Paris Green to 300 gallons of 
Bordeaux mixture or water. 
For potatoes use 1 pound Paris Green to 75 gallons of Bordeaux 
inixture or water. ‘ 
For cabbages and cauliflowers use 1 pound Paris Green to 80 gal- 
lons resin lime mixture after the plants begin to head. 


Arsenite of Soda: 
White Arsenic, 1 pound. 
Sal Soda, 4 pounds. 
Water, 1 gallon. 

Mix and boil about 15 minutes or until the arsenic is all dissolved. 
Add just enough water to make up for that lost in boiling, then put 
in jugs or bottles until needed. Two quarts of this solution may be 
used in the place of 1 pound of Paris Green by adding about 4 pounds 
of fresh slaked lime or by combining with Bordeaux mixture in which 
there is an excess of lime. This spray forms a cheap substitute for 
Paris Green, but is liable to burn the foliage of tender plants. 


Arsenate of Lead: 


Lead acetate (sugar of lead), 22 ounces. 
Sodium arsenate, 8 ounces. 
Water or Bordeaux mixture, 100 gallons 

Dissolve each separately; then mix the two together and pour 
this mixture into the required amount of water, or if it is to be used 
with the Bordeaux mixture, pour it into the lime wash before that is 
mixed with the copper sulfate solution. 

The sodium arsenate dissolves in water quite readily. Dissolve it 
in about a gallon of water. Into it pour the dissolved lead acetate to 
the required amount and let it settle. Then take a small quantity of 
the liquid in a cup to test it. This is done by adding to it a little 
more of the lead acetate solution. If a white substance then forins, 
it signifies that not enough of the lead has been used to combine 
with all of the arsenic, and therefore more lead acetate should be 
added to the mixture. Then pour this mixture into the lime wash if 
it is to be used with the Bordeaux mixture. 

While arsenate of lead may be made at home by the above form- 
ula, yet it is commonly purchased in a paste form in sealed packages. 
The home made article is more finely divided and stays in suspension 
longer than the commercial form; yet the difficulty of getting re- 
liable materials with which to make it oft-times prevents its being a 
success. 

Arsenate of lead has the merit of adhering well to and being 
harmless to the foliage. As a rule, about three pounds of arsenate 
of lead are required for fifty gallons of water, while of Paris Green, 
its most popular competitor, about one-third to one-half pound would 
be required. This would make the arsenate of lead cost for spraying 
purposes from two to two and one-half times as much as Paris Green. 
On the other hand, the arsenate of lead adheres so tenaciously to the 
foliage that less applications of it are usually necessary. This is es- 
pecially true in rainy weather. This feature of it, together with its 


310 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


harmlessness to the foliage, makes it a very desirable insecticide. It 
is especially effective against the codlin moth and the curculio. 


Soap: 
Whale Oil Soap, 1 pound. 
Water, 6 gallons. 

Whale oil soap or other cheap soap is used for plant lice and 
other soft bodied insects. When the leaves are off the trees it may be 
used as strong as 2 pounds to the gallon of water. It is sometimes 
used in treating scale insects. 


Hellebore: 
Hellebore, 1 pound. 
Water, 25 gallons. 

Hellebore may be mixed with three or four parts of flour and 
dusted on the insects, or it may be mixed with water and used as a 
spray. It is especially useful in combating worms on currants and 
gooseberries while the fruit is ripening, because it may be used with- 
out serious danger of poisoning the fruit. 


Pyrethrum: 
Pyrethrum powder, 1 ounce. 
Water, 3 gallons. 

For dry applications, mix thoroughly one part by weight of in- 
sect powder with four of cheap flour and keep in a closed vessel for 
twenty-four hours before dusting over the plants. Pyrethrum, if fresh 
and pure, can be made to do very effectual work. It should be kept in 
tightly sealed cans. If the best pyrethrum cannot be obtained it 
would be better to use some other insecticide. 

Resin Lime Mixture: 
Pulverized resin, 5 pounds, 
Concentrated lye, 1 pound. 
Fish oil or any cheap oil except tallow, 1 pint. 
Water, 5 gallons. 

Place oil, resin and a gallon of water in a kettle and heat until 
resin is softened; add lye solution made as for hard soap. Stir thor- 
oughly, add remainder of water and boil for about two hours until 
the mixture will unite with cold water making a clear amber colored 
fluid. Replace the water which has boiled away by adding boiling 
water to make the 5 gallons. This gives a stock solution which 
may be kept until needed. In using it, add to the 5 gallons, 80 gal- 
lons of water, 15 gallons of thin whitewash, and 1 pounce of Paris 
Green or its equivalent. Resin Lime mixture is used in spraying 
smooth leaved plants, like cabbage and cauliflower, to which other 
mixtures do not stick well. 


Kerosene Emulsion: 
Kerosene (coal oil), 2 gallons. 
Rain water, 1 gallon. 
Soap, % pound. 

Dissolve the soap in water by boiling. Take from the fire and 
while hot, turn in kerosene and churn briskly for five minutes. It 
can be easily churned by pumping. Dilute before using with 6 to 9 
parts of water. For scale insects and all sucking insects. 


Lime: 

Dry slaked lime is often used in combating insects having soft, 

ached bodies, such as those of the rose slug, cherry slug and asparagus 
eetle. 
Tobacco Dust: 

Tobacco dust may be obtained from large manufacturers at a 
comparatively small cost. In addition to its value as an insecticide, 
it has the advantage of acting as a fertilizer. It is useful in fight- 
ing striped beetles which infest cucumbers, squashes and melons, 


APPENDIX. 311 


and in keeping plant lice and other insects from the garden plants. 
It is also used against root lice, particularly the woolly aphis. For 
this purpose, it should be worked into the ground in liberal quantities. 


Tobacco and Soap: 
Tobacco (waste stems), 1 pound. 
Boiling water, 4 gallons. 
Add the hot water to the tobacco and let it stand until cold. 
Strain and add 1 pound of whale oil soap or 2 pounds of soft soap to 
each 50 gallons of infusion. Used for plant lice. 


WAXES FOR GRAFTING AND FOR WOUNDS. 


The following recipes for waxes are taken from the Horticultur- 
ist’s Rule Book: 


1. Common Resin and Beeswax Waxes: 

a. Reliable wax.—Resin, 4 parts by weight; beeswax, 2 parts; 
tallow, 1 part. Melt together and pour into a pail of cold 
water. Then grease the hands and pull the wax until it is 
nearly white. One of the best waxes, either for indoor or out- 
door work. 

b. Resin, 4 pounds; beeswax, 1 pound; tallow, 1 pound. 

ec. Resin, 6 pounds; beeswax, 2 pounds; linseed oil, 1 pint. 

d. 6 pounds resin, 1 pound beeswax and 1 pint linseed oil; apply 
hot with a brush, one-eighth of an inch thick over all the joints 

2. Alcoholic Waxes: 

Lefort’s Liquid Grafting-Wax, or Alcoholic Plastic.—Best white 
resin, 1 pound; beef tallow, 1 ounce; remove from the fire and 
add 8 ounces of alcohol. Keep in closed bottles or cans. 

3. Waxed String and other Bandages: 

Waxed String for Root-Grafting.—Into a kettle of melted wax 
place balls of No. 18 knitting-cotton. Turn the balls frequently, 
and in five minutes they will be thoroughly saturated, when 
they are dried and put away for future use. This material is 
strong enough, and at the same time breaks so easily as not 
to injure the hands. <Any of the resin and beeswaxes may be 
used. When the string is used it should be warm enough to 
stick without tying. 

Waxed Cloth.—Old calico or thin muslin is rolled on a stick 
and placed in melted wax. When saturated it is allowed to cool 
by being unrolled on a bench. It is then cut in strips to suit. 

Waxed Paper is used to a large extent in some nurseries for 
covering root grafts. It is made by painting tough paper with 
hot wax, which is then hung up to dry. 


LISTS OF FRUITS ESPECIALLY ADAPTED TO CERTAIN 
TYPICAL STATES. 

The list of fruits given for different states must be looked 
upon as only directive. The states given are selected because 
they represent certain typical areas adapted to fruit growing. 
Lists of this kind, however, are often misleading to the beginner, 
and the inexperienced should be cautious how they follow such 
lists for the reason that soil and climate may change in some sec- 
tions of the country within very short distances; for instance, 


312 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


parts of California are well adapted for orange raising, and with- 
in a short distance, on a considerably higher elevation, the 
country may be well adapted to the growing of apples. Those 
who are intending to begin planting in any section should aim 
to get in touch with the Experiment Stations and obtain from 
them a list of fruits especially adapted to their location. 


Varieties of Fruits Recommended for Planting In Alabama. 


By R. S. Mackintosh, Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, Agri- 
cultural College, Auburn, Ala. 


North half of state. 


Apples—Red June, Red Astrachan, Early Harvest, Family, Wine- 
sap, Yellow Transparent, Horse, Yates, Terry. 

Apples, Crab—Not planted to any considerable extent. 

Apricots—Not planted. 

Blackberries—Dallas, Early Harvest. 

Cherries—Not planted. 

Currants—Not planted. 

Gooseberries—Not planted. 

Grapes—Bunch: Delaware, Niagara, Concord. Muscatine type: Eden, 
Memory and Scuppernong. 

Peaches—Greensboro, Carman, Hiley, Family Favorite, Belle, El- 
berta, Solway, White Heath. 

Pecans—Stuart, Van Deman, Pabst. 

Pears—Kieffer. 

Plums—Red June, Burbank, Abundance. 

Raspberries—Northern part of state: Gault, Springfield, Cuthbert, 
Cardinal. 

Strawberries—Lady Thompson, Klondike, Hoffman, Gandy, Dunlap. 

Figs—Celestial, Brown Turkey. 

Oranges—Coast region only: Satsuma. 

Japanese Persimmons—Hachiya, Okame, Hyakume, Tane-Nashi. 

Pomegranates—Sweet, Acid. 


Varieties Recommended for Planting in California. 


By E. J. Wickson, Dean of College of Agriculture, Berkeley, 
: California. 


There is practically no differentiation as yet between varie- 
ties for amateurs and commercial varieties. The leading varieties 
used commercially are selected by amateurs so far as their char- 
acters agree with individual desires. The following list of varieties 
is especially recommended for the coast region of California: 
Apples—Newton, Pippin, Belle Fleur, Gravenstein, R. I. Greening, E. 

Spitzenberg, Mo. Pippin, W. Astracan, Red June. 

Grapes—Muscat, Tokuy, Cornichon, Thompson, Emperor, Malaga, 
Rose of Peru, Zinfandel, Sweet Water, Verdal, Carignane, Black 
Prince, Alicante, Sultina. 

Peaches—Muir, Phillips, Solway, Lovell, Early Crawford, Tuskena, 
Foster, Elberta, Late Crawford, Orange Cling, Susquehanna, Nich- 
ols, Sellers, Lemon, St. Johns, Henrietta, Mary’s Choice, Hale, 
Alexander, Heath. 

Pears—Bartlett, Winter Nelis, Seckel, Easter, Du Comice, Doyenne 
D’Ete, Clapp’s Favorite, Glout Morceau, Barry, Comet. 

Plums—Wickson, Hungarian, Kelsey, Yellow Egg, Tragedy, Wash- 
ington, Satsuma, Burbank, Jefferson, Climax, Grand Duke, Clyman. 


APPENDIX. 313 


Blackberries—Crandalls, Mammoth, Lawton, Kittatinny. 
Currants—Cherry. 
Gooseberries—Berkeley, Houghton. 
Quince—Apple, Orange, Paragon, 
Raspberries—Logan berry. Phenomenal (Hybrids) 
Black—None grown. 
Red—Cuthbert. 
Sete alas: Arizona, Melinda, Thompson, Brandywine, 
andy. 


Varieties Recommended for Planting in Colorado. 


By W. Paddock, Professor of Horticulture, Agricultural College, 
Fort Collins. Colorado. 


For Arkansas Valley. 


Apples—Jonathan, Gano, Stayman, Winesap, Grimes, Colo. Orange, 
Wealthy, Duchess and Haas for early. 
Apples, Crab—Whitney. 
Blackberries—Early Harvest, Lawton, Snyder. 
Cherries—Montmorency, Morello, Richmond. 
Currants—Cherry, Fay, Red Cross. 
Gooseberries—Smith, Downing, Houghton. 
Grapes—Concord, Niagara, Moore’s Early. 
Peaches—Only grown by laying down in winter; Crawford, Elberta. 
Pears—Not much grown. Bartlett, Kieffer, Seckel. 
Plums—Wyant, Cheney, Pfeffer, Premium, Moore’s Arctic in the 
north. Lombard, Bradshaw, Italian Prune in Arkansas Valley. 
Quince—Not grown. 
Raspberries— 
Black—Kansas. 
Red—Marlboro. 
Strawberries—Capt. Jack, Jocunda, Bederwood. 


Varieties Recommended for Planting in lowa, 


By S. A. Beach, Professor of Horticulture, Iowa Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, Ames, Iowa. 


Apples—In selecting stocks upon which to top-work less hardy va- 
rieties, much yet needs to be learned. In the light of our present 
knowledge of this subject, Hibernal and its kin appear to be suit- 
able for the most northern parts of the state, while in southern 
Iowa, Plumb Cider and Haas appear to be especially desirable 
for this purpose. 

Northern Iowa—Yellow Transparent, Lowland (Lowland Raspberry), 
Charlamoff, Oldenburg (Duchess), Patten Greening, Wealthy, Ani- 
sim, Longfield, Hutchin’s Red, Northwestern (Greening), Salome, 
Black Annette, Iowa Blush, Windsor, Tolman Sweet, Allen Choice, 
Stayman, Delicious, Ben Davis or Black Ben Davis or Gano. 

Central Iowa—Yellow Transparent, Lowland (Lowland Raspberry), 
Charlamoff, Oldenburg (Duchess), Wealthy, Anisim, Longfield, Fall 
Orange, Ramsdell Sweet, Hutchins Red, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, 
Roman Stem, Northwestern (Greening), Salome, Black Annette, 
Iowa Blush, Windsor, Tolman Sweet, Allen Choice, Stayman, Ralls 
Genet, Delicious, Nelson Sweet, Winesap, York Imperial, Ben Davis 
or Black Ben Davis or Gano. 

Southern Iowa—Yellow Transparent, Lowland (Lowland Raspberry), 
Red June, Oldenburg, (Duchess), Dyer, Wealthy, Benoni, Fall Or- 
ange, Ramsdell Sweet, Hutchins Red, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, 
Roman Stem, Iowa Blush, Windsor. Allen Choice, Stayman, Ralls 
Genet, Delicious, Nelson Sweet, Winesap, York Imperial, Ben 
Davis or Black Ben Davis or Gano. 


314 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Pears—On account of the prevalence and great destructiveness of 
pear blight in Iowa, pear culture is precarious in all parts of the 
state. The varieties named below have shown a good degree of 
hardiness and resistance to blight in some localities in Iowa: 
Fluke, Bloodgood, Warner, Seckel, Flemish Beauty, Bezi de la 
Motte, Longworth, Kieffer, Anjou. 

Peaches—Because of their lack of hardiness peaches are seldom 
fruited north of central Iowa and only the hardier varieties can 
be recommended for planting in any portion of the state. The 
varieties named below are among the best of those which have 
been fruited successfully in different portions of central and south- 
ern Iowa: Sneed, Greensboro, Champion, Lone Tree, Russell, Hill 
Chili, Crosby. 

Plums—Northern Iowa—Forest Garden, Ocheeda, De Soto, Cheney, 
A fesse Wyant, Hawkeye, Stoddard, Brittlewood (?), Hammer (?), 

iner. 

Central Iowa—Forest Garden, Ocheeda (?), De Soto, Wolf, Wyant, 
Hawkeye, Stoddard, Brittlewood, Hammer, Miner. 

Southern lowa—Forest Garden, Ocheeda (?), De Soto, Wolf, Wyant, 
Hawkeye, Stoddard, Brittlewood, Hammer, Miner. 


Varieties Recommended for Planting In Michlgan. 


By Prof. L. R. Taft, East Lansing, Mich., Superintendent of Farm- 
ers’ Institute. 


Apples—Red Astrachan, Duchess, Wealthy, Baldwin, Maiden Blush, . 
sonayee: Hubbardston, Grimes, Wagener, Red Canada, Golden 
usset. 

Apples, Crab—Transcendent, Hyslop, Martha, Whitney. 

Blackberries—King, Wilson, Snyder, Eldorado, Taylor. 

Cherries—Early Richmond, Montmorency, English Morello, Gov. 
Wood, Black Tartarian. 

Currants—Victoria, Red Dutch, London, White Dutch, Perfection. 

Gooseberries—Downing, Smith Improved, Keepsake, Industry. 

Grapes—Moore, Worden, Concord, Delaware, Niagara, Diamond, 
Brighton. 

Peaciice— Triumph, Dewey, Engle, Elberta, Kalamazoo, or New Pro- 
ific. 

Pears—Clapps, Bartlett, Howell, Seckel, Anjou, Kieffer, Lawrence. 

yduans  eeandaNce, Burbank, Bradshaw, Lombard, Grand Duke, Mon- 
arch. 

Quince—Orange, Rea and Champion. 

Raspberries— 
Black—Kansas, Gregg, Cumberland. 
Red—Miller, Marlboro, Eaton, Cuthbert. 

Strawberries—Excelsior, Haverland, Clyde, Sample, Dunlap, Aroma, 
Pride of Michigan, Dornan, Brandywine. 


Varieties of Fruits Recommended for Planting in Minnesota. 
By Minnesota State Horticultural Society. 


Apples—First degree of hardiness—Duchess, Hibernal, Charlamoff, 
Patten’s Greening, Okabena. Second degree of hardiness—Wealthy, 
Tetofsky, Malinda, Peerless, Anisim. Most profitable for commer- 
cial planting in Minnesota—Wealthy, Duchess, Patten’s Greening, 
Okabena, Anisim. Varieties for trial—Salome, Eastman, Yellow 
Sweet, Brett, Milwaukee, University, Lowland Raspberry, Iowa 
Beauty, Jewell’s Winter, Gilbert. Valuable in some locations— 
Wolf River, McMahon, Yellow Transparent, Longfield, Northwest- 
ern Greening. 

Crabs and Hybrids—For general cultivation—Florence, Whitney, Ear- 
ly Strawberry, Minnesota, Sweet Russet, Virginia, Transcendent. 
Varieties for trial—Lyman’s Prolific, Faribault, Shields. 


APPENDIX. 315 


Plums—For general cultivation—DeSoto, Surprise, Forest Garden, 
Wolf (Freestone), Wyant, Stoddard. Most promising for trial— 
New Ulm, Brittlewood, Compass Cherry, Terry. 

Grapes—First degree of hardiness—Beta, Janesville. Second degree 
of hardiness—Moore’s Early, Brighton, Delaware, Worden, Aga- 
wam, Concord, Moore’s Diamond. 

Raspberries—Red Varieties—King, Turner, Marlboro, Miller, Brandy- 
wine, Loudon. Black and purple varieties—Palmer, Nemaha, 
Gregg, Older, Columbian, Kansas. 

Blackberries—Ancient Britain and Snyder. 

Currants—Red Dutch, White Grape, Victoria, Long Bunch, Holland, 
North Star, Pomona, Red Cross, Perfection, London Market, 

Gooseberries—Houghton, Downing, Champion, Pearl. 

Strawberries—Perfect varieties—Bederwood, Enhance, Lovett, Splendid, 
Glen Mary, Clyde, Senator Dunlap. Imperfect varieties—Crescent, 
Warfield, Haverland. 

Native Fruits—Valuable for trial—Dwarf Juneberry, Sand Cherry, 
Buffaloberry, High Bush Cranberry. 


Varieties recommended for Planting in Missourl. 
By J. C. Whitten, Professor of Horticulture, Columbia, Mo. 


Apples—Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan, Grimes, York, Winesap, Ingram, 
Rome Beauty, Maiden’s Blush, Wealthy, Early Harvest. 

Apples, Crab—Florence, Whitney, Hyslop. 

Apricots—Alexander and Budd (Even these do not thrive, and I 
know of none that are well adapted). 

Blackberries—Snyder, Taylor, Lawton, Early Harvest. 

Cherries—Early Richmond, English Morello, Montmorency. 

Currants—Red Dutch, White Dutch, Red Cherry. 

Gooseberries—Downing, Smith, Houghton. 

Grapes—Moore’s Early, Worden, Concord, Woodruff Red, Wyoming 
Red. For wine—Cynthiana, Elvira. 

Se Champion, Carman, Family Favorite, Elberta, Crosby, 
alway. 

Pears—Kieffer, Garber, Dwarf Duchess, Anjou, Keull. 

Plums—Wild Goose, Wayland, Gold, Dawson, Chabot, Burbank. 

Quince—Missouri Mammoth, Orange. 

Raspberries— 
Black—Evans, Kansas, Hopkins, Greggs. 
Red—Turner, Cardinal, Loudon. 

Strawberries—Aroma, Excelsior, Warfield, Bubach, Haverland, Gandy. 


Varieties Recommended for New York. 


By S. D. Willard, Geneva, N. Y., leading nurseryman and fruit 
grower. 


-Apples—Garden Royal, Gravenstein, Oldenburg, McIntosh, Esopus, 
Spitzenburg, Northern Spy, Boiken. 
Apricots—Acme, Montgamet. 
Blackberries—Early Bagnard, Eldorado. 
Cherries—Sour: Richmond, Morello, Montmorency. 
Sweet: Rockport, Windsor, Schmidt. 
Currants—White Imperial, Wilder. 
Gooseberries—Downing, Columbus. 
Pears—Bartlett, Anjou, Lawrence, Washington. 
Plums—Reine Claude, Burbank, German Prune. The varieties espe- 
cially valuable for home use are very few. 
Raspberries— 
Black—Diamond. Gregg, Cumberland. 
Red—Cuthbert, Loudon, Golden Queen. 


316 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


List of Fruits for Northern New England. 


By W. M. Munson, Professor of Horticulture, Agricultural College, 
Orono, Me. 


Apples—Oldenburg, Gravenstein, Baldwin, Spy, Hubbardston, Stark, 
Tolman, Fameuse. For home use, add—Astrachan, Williams, Mother, 
Paradise, Winter Sweet, Mackintosh. For extreme northern parts 
of Maine and Vermont, except Grand Isle County, hardier sorts 
are required; for example—Wealthy, Dudley, Oldenburg, Alexander, 
Rolfe, Arctic and some local varieties, like Stowe and Hayfora. 

Apples, Crab—Hyslop, Martha, Transcendent. 

Blackberries—Agawam and Snyder. 

Cherries—Richmond, Windsor, English Morello. 

Currants—Fay, Wilder, White Imperial. 

Grape—Moore’s Early, Campbell’s Early, Green Mountain, Worden, 
and possibly, King. 

Gooseberries—Downing. 

Peaches—Not commercially grown. : 

Pears—Angouleme, Anjou, Bartlett, Bosc, Clapp, Diel, Lawrence, 
Sheldon, Vermont Beauty. ; 

Plum—Bavay, Burbank, Bradshaw, Grand Duke, Imperial, Gage, 
Moore’s Arctic. 

Quince—Not commercially grown. 

Raspberries— 

Blaeck—Cumberland, Gregg. 
Red—Cuthbert, Loudon. 
Purple—Shaffer. 
Strawberries—Dornan, Dunlap, Glen Mary, Warfield. 


List of Fruits Recommended for New Jersey. 


By M. A. Blake, Horticulturist, Experiment Station, New Bruns- 
wick, N. J. 

Apples—I would suggest Early Harvest, Early Ripe, Red Astrachan, 
William’s, Starr, Summer Rambo, Wealthy, Maiden’s Blush, Fall 
Pippin, Jonathan, Stayman’s Winesap, Winesap, York Imperial and 
Rome Beauty. These varieties are recommended for south Jersey. 
North Jersey has practically the same conditions for fruit growing 
as New York State, and such varieties as Northern Spy, R. I. 
Greening, Baldwin and Mackintosh can be included in the list. All 
varieties that are adapted to New York state can be grown in 
northern Jersey. Such varieties as Baldwin and R. I. Greening are 
practically fall apples in southern Jersey. 

Crab Apples—Hyslop and Transcendent. 

Apricots—Harris Hardy and Moorpark. 

Blackberries—Ward. 

Cherries— 

Sweet—Governor Wood, Yellow Spanish, Black Tartarian, Windsor. 
Sour—Early Richmond and May Duke. 

Currants—Wilder, Fay and Cherry. 

Gooseberries—Downing, Columbus and Red Jacket. 

Grapes—Commercial varieties for south Jersey—Concord and Ives. 
Some grapes are sold from south Jersey for eating purposes, but 
the larger quantity is now made into grape juice. The two va- 
rieties named are the ones almost exclusively grown. Green Moun- 
tain, Niagara, Brighton, Worden, Moore’s Diamond, Delaware and 
others can be grown for dessert and home use, however. 

Peaches—Greensboro, Hiley, Carman, Waddell, Mountain Rose, Ear- 
ly Crawford, Niagara, Reeve’s Favorite, Elberta, Late Crawford, 
Belle of Georgia, Old Mixon, Steven’s Rareripe, Salway. 


APPENDIX. 317 


Pears—Kieffer and La Conte for market. Bartlett, Clairgeau and 
such varieties can be recommended for the home orchard, but are 
likely to be severely attacked by blight. Clapp’s Favorite is es- 
pecially susceptible. 

Plums (European)—Lombard and Fellenburg. (Japanese)—Red June. 

Quinces—Champion and Orange. 

Raspberries— 

Black—Cumberland and Kansas. 
Red—Herbert and Cuthbert. 
Hybrids—Columbian and Haymaker. 

Strawberries—Gandy, Tennessee Prolific, Nettie, Glen Mary, William 
Belt, Success. 

The conditions for fruit growing in northern Jersey are about 
the same as those of New York and New England. Some of the 
soils there are well adapted to apples. Some of the high quality 
varieties of pears could be recommended for this section in addition 
to those given. Pear blight is very severe in south Jersey, however, 
and Kieffer and La Conte are becoming the varieties most grown. 
Southern New Jersey has much the same ‘conditions for fruit grow- 
ing as Delaware and parts of Maryland. 


Varieties Recommended for Planting in North Carolina. 
By W. N. Hutt, Horticulturist, Agricultural College, West Raleigh, 
Nee: 


Apples—In Mountains—Red June, York, Stayman, Winesap, Grimes 
and Bonum. In Cotton Belt—Horses, Winesap, Stayman, Shock- 
ley, Ben Davis. 

Apricots—None grown. 

Blackberries—Dewberries in sandy region only Lucretia. 

Cherries—Little grown. Sour type grown in mountains. 

Currants—In Mountains, Red Dutch and Fay. 

Gooseberries—Downing and Houghton. 

Se Niagara, Coneord and Delaware. Scuppernong and James on 
coast. 

Peaches—Greensboro, Carman, Salway. 

Pears—Kieffer, La Conte, Seckel, Early Harvest. 

Plums—Abundance, Red June, Burbank, Wild Goose. 

Quince—In mountains, Meech, 

Raspberries— 

Black—In mountains—Gregg. 

Red—In mountains—Loudon, Cuthbert and Miller. 
Strawberries—Lady Thompson, Heflin, Gandy, Bubach, Clenoa, 
Figs—In coast and lower Piedmont—Brown Turkey, Celestial. 
Pecans—In coast and lower Piedmont—Stewart, Van Deman, Frot- 

schen, Schley. 

Mulberries—White English, Black English, New American. 

Varieties Recommended for Planting in Ohio. 


By W. J. Green, Professor of Horticulture of Experiment Station, 
Wooster, O. 


Apples—Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg, Sweet Bough, Maiden’s 
Blush, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Hubbardston, York Imperial, 
Rome Beauty, Northern Spy. 

Apples, Crab—Transcendent. 

Blackberries—Early Harvest, E. King, Eldorado, Snyder. 

Cherries—Dydhouse, Early Richmond, Montmorency, English Morello. 

Currants—Victoria, Wilder, White Dutch. 

Gooseberries—Downing, Pearl, Portage, Josselyn. 

Grapes—Worden, Green Mountain, Niagara, Brighton. 

Peaches—Mountain Rose, Greensboro, Champion, Elberta, Smock, 

Pears—Wilder, Bartlett, Angouleme,- Seckel, 


318 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


Plums—Bradshaw, Field, Reine Claude, Lombard, Grand Duke. 
Quince—Orange. 
Raspberries— 
Black—Cumberland, Munger, Conrath. 
Red—Cuthbert, King, Loudon. 
Strawberries—Fairfield, Dunlap, Haverland, Bubach, Latest. 


Varieties Recommended for Planting in Oregon. 
By C. J. Lewis, Professor of General Horticulture, Agricultural Col- 
lege, Corvallis, Ore. 
Apples—E. Spitzenburg, Yellow Newtown, Jonathan, Baldwin, Ben 
Davis, Gano, Yellow Imperial, Gravenstein. 
Apples, Crab—Martha, Transcendent. 
Apricots—Blenheim, Moore Park, Royal. 
Blackberries—Lawton, Kittatinny. d 
Cherries—Royal Anne, Lambert, Bing, Black Republican. 
Currants—Fay, Cherry, White Grape. 
Gooseberries—Champion, Downing, Industry. 
Grapes—Concord, Niagara, Tokay, Malaga, Muscat. 
Peacnes—Alexander, Crawfords, Foster, Muir, Salway, Hale’s Early, 
iE. Gliny~ 
Pears—Bartlett, Anjou, Bose, Howell, W. Nelis, Comice, E. Beurre. 
Plums—lItalian, Petite. 
Quince—Champion, Apple or Orange, Rea’s Mammoth. 
Rasvberries— 
Black—Gregg, Cumberland, Kansas, Mammoth Cluster. 
Red—Cuthtert, Marlboro, Loudon. - 
Strawberries—Clark’s Seedling, Niagara, Warfield, Clyde, Hopkins, 
Oregon Everbearing, Excelsior, Dunlap. 


List of Fruits Recommended for the State of Washington and Adjoin- 
ing Fruit Districts; Revised and Corrected by Professor 
W. S. Thornber, Pullman, Wash. 


Varieties recommended for western Montana, Idaho, eastern 
Washington, eastern Oregon, Nevada, eastern California and adja- 
cent parts of British Columbia: 


Apples— 

Early—Bough (sweet), Early Harvest, Red Astrachan, Jefferis, 
Oldenburg, Yellow Transparent, Maiden Blush, Gravenstein. 

Midseason—F all Pippin, Fameuse, McIntosh Red, Rambo, Wealthy, 
Tompkins King, Bailey. 

Late—Grimes Golden, Arkansas Black, Blue Pearmain, Esopus Spitz- 
enberg, Jonatnan, Monmouth, Northern Spy, Wagener, White Winter 
Pearmain, Rome Beauty, Staymen Winesap, Yellow Bellflower, Wine- ~ 


sap. 
Crab Apples—Hyslop, Transcendent, Grant. 
Pears— 

Early—Bartlett, Tyson. 

Midseason—Beurre d’Anjou, Flemish, Seckel, Howell. 
Late—-Sheldon, Easter Beurre, Winter Nelis. 

Plums— 

Early—Columbia, Bradshaw. 

Midseason—Agen or French, Peach Golden Drop, Imperial Gage. 
Late—Shropshire, Damson, Italian Prune. 

Peaches— 

Early—Alexander, Early York, Greensboro, Mountain Rose. 
joey. Crawford, Foster, Lemon Cling, Muir, Susque- 
anna. 

Sweet Cherries—Napoleon (Royal Anne), Lambert, Black Republican, 

Windsor. 

Sour Cherries—Late Duke, May Duke, Morello, Olivet. 


APPENDIX. 319 


Apricots—Moorpark, Royal, Gibb. 
Grapes— 
Early—Moore, Brighton, Winchell. 
Midseason—Worden, Delaware, Concord. 
_ Late—Niagara, Iona, and Alexandria or Muscat and Black Hamburg 
in warm valleys only. 
Currants—Cvrerry, Red Dutch, White Grape. 
Gooseberries—Industry, Houghton, Pale Red. 
Strawberries— 
Early—Dubach, Crescent, Excelsior, Warfield. 
Midseason—Hood River, Parker Earle, Sharpless. 
Late—Gandy. 
Red Raspberries—Marlboro, Cuthbert, Shaffer. 
Black Raspberries—Gregg, Kansas, Palmer. 
Blackberries—Ancient Britton and Kittatinny. 
Quinces—Mech and Missouri. 
Dewberries—Lucretia. 
The following varieties are recommended for the Coast region of 
ered Oregon, western Washington, and adjacent parts of British 
olumbia. 


Apples— 
Early—Early Harvest, Yellow Transparent, Red Astrachan, Benoni. 


Midseason—Gravenstein, Fall Pippin, Fameuse, McIntosh, Rambo. 

Late—Baldwin, Belmont, Esopus Spitzenberg, Jonathan, Northern 
Spy, Talman Sweet, Grimes Golden, Yellow Bellflower. 
mee Apples—Hyslop and Transcendent, Whitney. 

ears— 

Early—White Doyenne, Clapp, Bartlett, Tyson. 

Midseason—Beurre D’Anjou, Bose, Louise, Seckel, Gray Doyenne 
and Sheldon. 

Late—Easter Beurre, Comice, Winter Nelis, Dana, Hovey and 
Lawrence. 
Plums— 

Early—Columbia, Jefferson. 

Midseason—De Soto, French, Golden Drop, Peach Golden Prune, 
Sugar, Imperial Gage. 

Late—Snropshire, Damson, Italian. 


Peaches— ; : 
Early—Alexander, Charlotte, Mountain Rose, Triumph, Hale. 


Midseason—Early Crawford, Foster, Muir, Oldmixon Free. 
Late—Late Crawford, Heath. 
Sweet Cherries—Bing, Republican, Royal Anne, Lewelling, Lambert, 
Tartarian. 
Sour Cherries—May Duke, Richmond, Morello, Olivet. 
Apricots—Moorpark, Royal, Gibb. 
Varieties Recommended for Planting in Saskatchewan. 
By Angus Mackay, Superintendent Experimental Farm, Indian Head, 
Saskatchewan, 
Apples, Crab—Siberian Crab (P. baccata) and crosses on this variety. 
Cherries—Prunus tomentosa. 
Currants— 
Red—Fay’s Prolific, Victoria, Red Dutch. F 
White—White Grape, White Imperial. 
Black—Lee’s Prolific, Black Naples. 
Gooseberries—Smith’s Improved, Houghton. 
Plums—Manitoba Native, Aitken, Weaver. 
Raspberries— 
Black—Older Black and Hilborn Black. 
Red—Dr. Reider, Marboro, Turner, Herbert. 
Yellow—Caroline. 
Strawberries—South Dakota No. 1 (Seedling of Jessie fertilized with 
pollen from Manitoba Wild Strawberry). 


320 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 


RULES FOR NAMING FRUITS. 


In the naming and describing of new sorts, there is chance for 
much confusion by duplication of names and in other ways. In order 
to simplify this matter, rules have been adopted by the American 
Pomological Society as follows: 

Rule I. No two varieties of the same kind of fruit shall bear 
the same name. The name first published for a variety shall be the 
accepted and recognized name, except in cases where it has been ap- 
plied in violation cf this code. 

(a) The term ‘kind’ as herein used shall be understood to ap- 
ply to those general classes of fruits that are grouped together in 
common usage without regard to their exact botanical relationship; as, 
apple, cherry, grape, peacn, plum, raspberry, ete. 

(b) The paramount right of the originator, discoverer or in- 
troducer of a new variety to name it, within the limitations of this 
code, is recognized and emphasized. 

(c) Where a variety name, through long usage, has become thor- 
oughly established in American Pomological literature for two or 
more varieties, it should not be displaced nor radically modified for 
either sort, except in cases where a well-known synonym can be ad- 
vanced to the position of leading name. The several varieties bear- 
ing identical names should be distinguisned by adding the name of the 
author who first described each sort, or by adding some other suit- 
able distinguishing term that will insure their identity in catalogues 
or discussions. 

(d) Existing American names of varieties, which conflict with 
earlier published foreign names of the same, or other varieties, but 
which have become thoroughly established througn long usage, shall 
not be displaced. 

Rule II The name of a variety of fruit shall consist of a single 
word. 

(a) No variety shall be named unless distinctly superior to ex- 
isting varieties in some important characteristic nor until it has 
been determined to perpetuate it by bud propagation. 

(b) In selecting names for varieties, the following points should 
be emphasized: distinctiveness, simplicity, ease of pronunciation, and 
spelling, indication of origin or parentage. 

(c) The spelling and pronunciation of a varietal name derived 
from a personal or geographical name should be governed by_ the 
rules that control the spelling and pronunciation of the name from 
which it was derived. 

(da) A variety imported from a foreign country should retain its 
foreign name subject only to such modification as is necessary to 
conform to this code or to render it intelligible in English. 

(e) The name of a person should not be applied to a variety dur- 
ing his life without his expressed consent. The name of a deceased 
horticulturist should not be so applied except through formal action 
by some competent horticultural body, preferably that with wich 
he was most closely connected. 

(f) The use of such general terms as_ seedling, hybrid, pippin, 
pearmain, beurre, rare-ripe, damson, ete., is not admissible, 

(g) The use of a possessive noun as a name is not admissible. 

(h) The use of a number, either singly or attached to a word, 
should ‘be considered only as temporary expedient while the variety 
is undergoing preliminary test. 

(i) In applying the various provisions of this rule to an existing 
varietal name that has, through long usage, become firmly imbedded 
in American Pomological literature, no change shall be made, which 
will involve loss of identity. 

Rule ITI. In the full and formal citation of a variety name, the 
name of the author who first published it shall be given. 

Publication. 

Rule IV. Publication consists (1) in the distribution of a printed 

description of the variety named, giving the distinguishing charac- 


APPENDIX. 321 


ters of fruit, tree, etc., or (2) in the publication of a new name for 
a variety that is properly described elsewhere; such publication to 
be made in any book; bulletin, report, trade catalogue or periodical, 
providing the issue bears tne date of its publication and is generally 
distributed among nurserymen, fruit growers and horticulturists; or 
(3) in certain cases, the general recognition of a name for a prop- 
agated variety in a community for a number of years snail consti- 
tute publication of that name. 

(a) In determining the name of a variety to which two or more 
names have been given in the same publication, that which stands 
first shall have precedence. 

Revision. 

Rule V. No properly published variety name shall be changed 
for any reason, except confiict with this code, nor shall anotner va- 
riety be substituted for that originally described thereunder. 


Usual Distances Apart for Planting Fruits. 


ANT RUGS), § SAE Oe CADRE Seesricr enree At Oe Boe 25 to 40 feet 'each way 
ELE SOD VIE” He,on nik a here cealeretek ecaavevalcie-ovee eya}a'e ae LOGO |< ce < 
PETE SUM ataate trapeteyel e/a fa orabape tare ash aiaove els /efel eitielaiay eel ate Se eee) | ee a4 “¢ 
Saerruee om Vel Ely Waser ay ois seetetct svelera des oretavcuete aerate, sisle <a, ore HOEORAG se * ef 
SMe SMe Matarer aula vs¥ereh isceYolteleuele ciets/ dleieletele chal aielete isis els wlacs H6ltar20 Ss oe e~ 
EEN HENS EM ae? raion) icles chederel eraters¥eve and ecetdsiavenels ears e eee 16sto 20) ** oe ee 
AONE OTL MET CRIS evel ciate) sents vee s cceveteua: ciara tioke ovantheiie sisisuereita's N6 to 25 ‘** a vo 
PSETTRAC EN SMa ia ores ugenalnistis ey eorateleke jersey eye) er eiele svaeayai sha LG EORZ0F \s ee sf 
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ERLMRNCES ° een bieiee GagO0 50d Ue DIOOe 0-H cOIGIa Dm enone SrtowT4ay, <* st ae 
AN MIG TT ECS Wa cescteclh avis sores santa el ch avein a's, olaledoncne Gvapeiais: shee lay Zo GON 0m Ss ee 
PAO AMESE: LETSIMIMONSG .h.ccisices ccwcsieiesisies veisines 20 to 25 ** ih “ 
Deira serAT Ramee aitey eetela | otcn foateesreyeeve:reive" vlfe ce. e:(e) alleseveve baile’ elavaretetene 35 to 40 ‘** fs re 
VEVEI@ GAS), ‘dnote cido GMp ola CAN Oo, O16 CORD GO aeIOrOC LO ECInIG Stoo se Savor ig. 1S ze ae 
MORTAR Ea TN SUN Per ayctore caja: sfafosuna fates. v\isve\o cde: avs atbreteNaies aisle sie 313 AS Sei, 5 #E sf cs 
PRESET COM TCS ME iircre ie fase aleve letol ties shee dl ee [ave (ells these le) ee) eve Bees Se " ss 
IP. SUBIC TSTMS AVEC 9 OAc) A em ESIC GIO IOKIn CIOCnn On OU OICSe Bie ele ee Ms ao 
SRR aIE TONES am ECE (linn « ieirthalial ol/ey si/a' a <)a svereisie’shele evaieia a aya ta\s Syke. <a (ak poke ae « 
Pere ra NMETV Sy erate care os chm Stake. ie oh e/a. Six shan sheroucalslavavelerd @ avers ePareiene 4x7 to 6x8 feet 
NB baE ENE CISL Reefer ay ies) ie oe ganar old etiere ae aterellbitcye'eveye tevevs 1 or 2 feet apart each way 
RMR AIDE TLE See a erent a anvel cla acevaice © alalalie faxareysyaratare Sei evel ar eoeceniie 1 to 3x3 to 4 feet 
ORANGES ANG LCMOTMS: 5. cio ei sjels vjo'sicinis vice s\s/eha eels aie 25 to 30 feet each way 
Number of Plants Required to Set an Acre of Ground at Given 
Distances. 
MPL ePESCR Ue Libives cree ee levee wicrele 43,560 eS eat SoA Diet Gis cieleercis cyatatene ate 181 
iL Ties Se" 2A) i a eae 21,780 MOOG eRe AAU, etka elstateyepercenmeiete 151 
TL HE Sc ZUG Se cree Serre 10,890 Me ROR VOOR LG sts scien cone 121 
MUTE Ree GLU excise aysiel slo were 7,260 Ue iter xe SORE Circe cheG ere 86 
UTD eE Se ihedilicercy civic cus ceceiee's o 6,223 iGe Eis bi titereeiieleta stoma ore 193 
PUR e peer) Uavaveteve\la vers cut ineteveve 10,890 by 2 oe 2 OPEL tae ciehee eters 145 
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RLM SEL Us ste oxsys slave’ aieieieVs « 4,840 AQ LES ae 2 O ati taramncteevaine tres 108 
RID Ol Le cvcvers-olcletefore «se 2,420 2 efter OE TIC erie cichclaveperaeaveve 90 
Bite m Anis ayers otens os cie!s ialsis 2,722 20V GG SSO PEOY eeu temas 72 
Petia y Rp LL avershevs: « teks uiers ove.e.6 2,178 DO eh tice Some hat Garsre- dere cieroree atau 51 
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Pamdiioe Rae GW Lites con slew ahareieevaiers 1,452 CAUSE EAS: Cher At Pee Rainer icra 34 
Eytaeeseey Gulilsyc,cierc, cxelelee aeinre 1,089 AGH TAO VET on. ceics eee onion 27 
ett pen ok bec ieisiers o-oo) fusvehoxe 302 AOR Et Sar SOE TE keene eg car oneas 21 
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TART PS 5-27 IRs US ns eee cae e OL 100 ft, x 100... .. S clatie ahaerny/e 4 


322 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING 


HORTICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS. 


The following list of books, papers and bulletins on fruit 
growing is appended as suggestive material for supplementary 
reading for the student and fruit growel1. 


BOOKS. 


William Briggs, Toronto, Ont. 
The Canadian Apple Growers’ Guide. 
Dewey & Co., San Francisco, Cal. 
California Fruits and How to Grow Them, E. J. Wickson. 
Doubleday, PFage & Co., Garden City, N. Y. 
How to Make a Fruit Garden, 8S. W. Fletcher. 
Orchard and Fruit Garden, EK. P. Powell. 
The Fruit Grower, St. Joseph, Mo. 
The Fruit Grower’s Guide Book, EH. H. Favor. 
Ginn & Co., Chicago, Ill. 
Fungous Diseases of Plants, B. M. Duggar. 
Orange Judd Co., New York, N. Y. 
The American Apple Orchard, F. A. Waugh. 
The American Fruit Culturist, J. J. Thomas. 
Foundations of American Grape Culture, T. V. Munson. 
Fruit Harvesting, Storing and Marketing, F. A. Waugh. 
Grape Growing and Wine Making, Geo. Husmann. 
Plums and Plum Culture, F. A. Waugh. 
Systematic Pomology, F. A. Waugh. 
J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 
Insects Injurious to Fruits, Wm. Saunders. 
Macmillan Co., New York or Chicago. 
Cyclopedia of American Horticulture, edited by L. H. Bailey. 
Bush Fruits, F. W. Card. 
Farm and Garden Rule Book, L. H. Bailey. 
Fruit Growing in the Arid Regions, Paddock and Whipple. 
The Nursery Book, L. H. Bailey. 
The Principles of Fruit Growing, L. H. Bailey. 
The Pruning Book, L. H. Bailey. 
The Spraying of Plants, E. G. Lodeman. 
W. T. Seibels, 242 N. Clark St., Chicago, IIl. 
Produce Markets and Marketing. 
John Wiley & Sons, New York, N. Y. 
American Horticultural Manual, two vols., Budd and Hansen. 


PERIODICALS. 


The following periodicals are devoted wholly or in part to horti- 
cultural subjects: 

Better Fruit, Hood River, Ore. 

The Country Gentleman, Philadelphia, Pa. 

The Chicago Packer, Chicago, Ill. 

The Fruit Belt, Grand Rapids, Mich. 

The Fruit Grower, St. Joseph, Mo. 

The Fruit Magazine, Vancouver, B. C. 

The Fruitman and Gardener, Mt. Vernon, Iowa. 

The Fruit Trade Journal, New York, N. Y. 

The Market Growers’ Journal, Louisville, Ky. 

The National Horticulturist, Council Bluffs, Iowa. 

The Rural New Yorker, New York, N. Y. 

The various local farm papers usually maintain horticultural col- 
umns or publish more or less matter relating to fruit growing. 


HORTICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS. 323 


The reports of the state horticultural societies contain many valu- 
able suggestions, and as they are based very largely on the actual 
experience of local growers, they are usually very practical and useful. 


BULLETINS. 


The U. S. Department of Agriculture has published a number of 
bulletins on fruit growing which may be obtained free of charge by 
writing to the Division of Publications, Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. The bulletins which are now available include the 
following: 


Farmers’ Bulletin 113, The Apple and How to Grow It. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 118, Grape Growing in the South. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 154, The Home Fruit Garden, Preparation and 
Care. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 156, The Home Vineyard, with Special Refer- 
ence to Northern Conditions. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 157, The Propagation of Plants. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 176, Cranberry Culture. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 181, Pruning. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 198, Strawberries. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 2138, Raspberries. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 238, Citrus Fruit Growing in the Gulf States. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 245, Fungicides and Their Use in Preventing 
Diseases of Fruits. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 284, Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Grape 
East of the Rocky Mountains. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 291, Evaporation of Apples. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 293, Use of Fruit as Food. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 332, Nuts and Their Uses as Food. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 401, The Protection of Orchards in the Pacific 
Northwest from Spring Frosts by Means of Fires and Smudges. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 404, Irrigation of Orchards. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 426, Canning Peaches on the Farm. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 440, Spraying Peaches for the Control of Brown 
Rot, Scab and Curculio. 


The various state experiment stations have issued a large num- 
ber of publications on fruit growing. Those published in your own 
state can be obtained from the Director of the Experiment Station 
free of charge. These bulletins are also usually sent free to applicants 
outside the state as long as the supply lasts. 


INDEX 


A 


Accessibility to market, 13 
Adventitious buds, 20 

Age of trees for planting, 35 
Agitation in sprayers, 124 
Alabama, Varieties for, 312 
Alcoholic waxes, 311 
Almond, 300 

Altitude and frosts, 182 
Analysis of fruit, 48 
Anthracnose, 115, 120 
Aphis, 83, 98, 100 
Apparatus, Spraying, 123 
Apple, 178; blight, 106; classifica- 


tion, 178; curculio, 81; descrip- 
tion of varieties, 179; diseases, 
106; forming the tree, 56, 188; 
grading, 146; grafting, 173; 
insects, 79; mulching, 189; 
origin of, 178: packing, 140, 144; 
picking, 132; planting, 185; 
propagation, 180; scab, 108; soil 
for, 182; species of, 178; spray 
calendar, 303; stocks, 181; tree 
borer. 84: varieties, 190. 

Apricot, 217 

Arsenate of lead, 309 

Arsenite of soda, 309 

Assimilation, 26 

Associations, 137 

B 

Bagging grapes, 244 

Bark, 19 

Bark louse, 86 

Barrels, 143 

Barrel press, 145 

Baskets, 139 

Beeswax, 311 

Beneficial insects, 78 

Birds, Injuries from, 64 

Bitter rot, 106 

Blackberry, 274; diseases, 119; 
insects, 100; propagation, 274; 


spray calendar, 306 
Black knot, 112 
Black rot, 107, 111, 116 
Blight, 106, 110 


Books on horticulture, 322 
Bordeaux mixture, 105, 307 


Borer, 84; currant, 99; flat-head- 
ed, 84; peach, 90; peach twig, 
89; raspberry, 100 

Brown rot, 113 

Buds, 20 

Buds, Winter injury to, 66 

Budding, 157; forms of, 163; 
June, 163; time for, 158 

Budstick, 158 

Buffalo berry, 280; propagation, 


281 
Buffalo tree hopper, 85 
Bulletins on fruit growing, 323 
Bushel basket, 139 
Bushel box, 139 
Business aspect, 16 
Butternut, 300 
Buying trees, 35, 184 


Cc 


California, Varieties for, 311 
Callousing, 154 

Cane rust, 120 

Caterpillar, Tent, 81 

Cedar apples, 107 

Cellars, 150 

Chart of frost, 71 

Chemical elements in fruit, 48 


Cherry, 204; classification, 204; 
cultivation, 205; diseases, 115; 
grafting, 174; insects, 95; mar- 
Keting, 208; planting, 205; 
propagation, 207; soil for, 205; 
spray calendar,304; varieties, 
209 


Chestnut, 296 

Chinese sand pear, 191 
Chinquapin, 297 

Choice of locations, 18 
Cion, 156, 164, 168 
Classification of fruits, 
Clay soils, 15 

Cleft grafting, 166 
Clogging of spray nozzles, 127 
Codlin moth, 79 

Cold storage, 147 

Collar; 19) - 

Colorado, Varieties for, 313 
Commission dealers, 135 


28 


INDEX 325 


Cooling rooms, 147 

Copper carbonate and soap, 308 

Copper sulfate solution, 308 

Cordon pruning, 59 

Corn in orchards, 45 

Cover crops, 438, 45 

Cranberry, 283; drainage, 286; 
location of beds, 284; picking, 
289; planting, 288; soil for, 285 

Cricket, Snowy tree, 101 

Cropping the orchard, 45 

Crossing, 24 

Crown, 19 

Crown gall, 113, 114, 119 

Cultivation, 40, 188 

Curculio, 81, 91 

Currant, 258; borer, 99; 
260; diseases, 120; insects, 97; 
origin, 259; propagation, 259; 
spray calendar, 305; worm, 97 

Cuttings, 153, 154 

Cut worm, 84 


cuttings, 


D 


Dewberry, 274 

Diagonal pack, 140 
Digging the holes, 38 
Direction of the slope, 16 
Diseases of fruits, 105 
Distances for planting, 321 
Downy mildew, 116 

Dust spraying, 123 


Eau celeste, 307 

Effect of pruning, 53 
English walnut, 299 
Espalier pruning, 59 


F 


Fall web worm, 83 

Fillers, 46 

Fire blight, 106 
Flat-headed apple borer, 84 
Flower, 21 

Foot rot, 114 

Forming the apple tree, 56 
Forming the head, 54 


Frost, 68; foretelling, 69; killing. 
68; protection, 68, 71 f 
Fruit, 23; analysis, 48; classifi- 


cation, 28; diseases, 105; grades, 

145; laws, 137; lists, 311; pack- 

ages, 135; plants from seed, 25; 

propagation, 25, 151; scald, 109; 

rules for naming, 320 
Fungicides, 105, 307 


G 


Girdling, 21, 245 

Gooseberry, 263; diseases, 120; 
insects, 97; spray calendar, 305 

Gouger, Plum, $2 

Grading fruit, 141, 145 

Graftage, 156 


Grafting, 164; cleft, 166; root. 
168; side, 171; tools, 165; wax 
formula, 166, 311; whip, 168 

Grain in orchards, 45 

Grape, 220; bagging, 244; culti- 
vation, 228; cuttings, 223; dis- 
eases, 115; flowers, 222; gird- 


ling, 245; grafting, 175; hybrids, 
221; insects, 95; Kniffen method 
of training, 237; layers, 225; 
location for, 227; Munson meth- 
od of training, 239; origin, 220; 
phylloxera, 96; planting, 228; 
propagation, 222; pruning, 229; 
soil for, 227; species of, 220; 
spray calendar, 305; thinning, 
243; training, 229; trellis, 230; 
vine leaf hopper, 95 

Growing trees in sod, 41 

Grub, White, 102 


H 


Hardwood cuttings, 154 
Harvesting, 132 

Hazel, 301 

Heeling in, 186 
Hellebore, 310 
Hexagonal system, 38 
Hogs in orchards, 80 
Holes for trees, 38, 185 
Hopper, Leaf, 95 
Horticultural publications, 322 
Hose for spraying, 128 
Humus, 41 

Hybrids, 24 


Inarching, 175 


Injuries, 64; frost, 68; 
110 


Insecticides, 309 


spraying, 


Insects, 75; beneficial, 78; chew- 
ing, 76; parasitic, 78; preda- 
ceous, 79; sucking, 77; on the 
roots, 78 


Inspection laws, 76 
Iowa, Varieties for, 313 
Irrigation, 51 


326 INDPX 


J 


Juneberry, 275; cultivation, 276; 
propagation, 276; varieties, 276 
June budding, 163 


K 


Kerosene emulsion, 310 
Kniffen system for grapes, 237 


L 


Ladders for picking, 133 
Layers, 153 

Laying out the orchard, 37 
Leaf blight, 110 

Leaf curl, 111, 114, 119 
Leaf hopper, 95 

Leaf lice, 83 

Leaf roller, 101 

Leaf rust, 107, 118 

Leaf slug, 88 

Leaf spot, 118, 119, 121 
Leaves, 21 

Lice, 838, 100 

Lime, 310 

Limestone soil, 14 
Lime-sulfur wash, 308 
Liquid spraying, 123 
Loam, 14, 15 

Location for fruit growing, 13, 18 
Loess loam, 14 

Louse, Woolly apple, &7 
Low-headed trees, 54 


M 


Manures, 47, 50; 

Marketing, 132 

Methods of packing, 140 

Mice, 65 

Michigan, Varieties for, 314 

Mildew, 109, 116, 120 

Mineral substances, 28 

Minnesota, Varieties for, 314 

Missouri, Varieties for, 315 

Moisture loss, 26 

Mountain ash as stock, 194 

Mulberry, 281; groups, 281; prop- 
agation 283; varieties, 283 

Mulching, 42 


application, 49 


N 


Naming fruits, Rules for, 320 
Nectarines, 217 

New England, Varieties for, 316 
New Jersey, Varieties for, 316 


New York, Varieties for, 315 
North Carolina, Varieties for, 317 
Nozzles, Spray, 127 

Number of plants to the acre, 321 
Nursery inspection, 76 

Nursery selection, 35 

Nursery stock, 35 

Nuts, 294 


fe) 


Offsets, 152 

Ohio, Varieties for, 317 
Open-headed trees, 54 
Orange rust, 120 

Orchard cultivation, 40 
Orchard protection, 61 
Oregon, Varieties for, 318 
Outlook for fruit growing, 17 
Overproduction, 17 

Oyster shell bark louse, 86 


Pp 


Packages, 136, 139, 143 
Packing, 135, 140 
Painting wounds, 55 
Papers, Horticultural, 322 
Parasites, 78 

Paris green, 309 

Parts of the fiower, 22 


Peach, 209; borer, 89, 90; classi- 


fication, 212; diseases, 113; 
distribution, 209; grafting, 175; 
insects, 89; leaf curl, 111; loca- 
tion and soil, 216; origin, 211; 
planting, 214; propagation, 213; 
protection, 210; pruning, 215; 
rosette, 115; spray calendar, 
304; thinning, 216; varieties, 
216; yellows, 115 

Pear, 191; Chinese sand, 191; 
diseases, 110; dwarf, 192; in- 
sects, 88; psylla, 89; spray cal- 
endar, 395; standard, 192; tree 
slug, 88 

Pecan, 294 

Peddling, 135 

Periodicals, 322 

Persimmon, 289 

Phylloxera, 96 

Picking fruit, 132 

Plant food, 46, 48 

Plant growth, 19 

Planting, 34, 37 

Plum, 198; classification, 200; 
cultivation, 203; curculio, 81, 
91; diseases, 111; gouger, 92; 
grafting, 173; insects, 91; leaf 


marketing, 204; mix- 


aphis, 93; 
planting, 


ing varieties of, 202; 


INDEX 327 


Plum—Cont’d. 
201; picking, 203; 
propagation, 200; 
soil, 201; species, 198; spray 
calendar, 304; stocks, 201; 
thinning, 203; varieties, 204 

Pollen, 24 

Pollination, 24, 32 

Pome fruits, 178 

Potassium sulfide, 308 

Powdery mildew, 109, 117 

Preparing the land, 33 

Pressure in spraying, 124 

Press, Barrel, 145 

Principles of plant growth, 19 

Propagation, 151 

Protection, Orchard, 61, 68 

Pruning, 39, 53; effect of, 53; how 
to make cuts in, 55, 58; method 
of, 55; reasons for, 53; the 
young tree, 54; tools, 56 

Publications, 322 

Psychrometer, 70 

Psylla, Pear, 89 

Pumps, Spray, 126 

Pyrethrum, 310 


pocket, 111; 
pruning, 203; 


Q 
Quince, 195; as stock, 192; dis- 
eases, 110; insects, 196; prop- 
agation, 195 
Quincunx system, 38 
R 
Rabbits, 65 
Raffia, 160 
Raspberry, 265; classification, 
265; diseases, 119; flat-headed 


borer, 100; insects, 100; market- 
ing, 273; mulching; 271; pick- 
ing, 273; propagation, 266; pro- 
tection, 271; pruning, 270; rust, 
120; soil, 268; spray calendar, 
306; support, 271; thinning, 270 

Rate of seeding cover crops, 44 

Reasons for cultivation, 40 

Reasons for pruning, 

Red orange rust, 120 

Renewing old trees, 50 

Resin lime mixture, 310 

Rest period of plants, 28 

Return package, 142 

Root cuttings, 153 

Root galls, 65, 107 

Root grafting, 168 

Root killing, 67 

Rose chafer, 97 


Rot, Bitter, 106 

Rot, Black, 107, 111, 116 
Rot, Brown, 113 

Rules for naming fruits, 320 
Runners, 19, 152 

Rust, 107, 118, 120 


Ss 


Sand cherry, 277; distribution, 
277; propagation, 279 

Sandy soils, 15 

San Jose scale, 86 

Saskatchewan, Varieties for, 319 

Scab, 108, 113, 115 

Seald, Fruit, 109 

Scale insects, 86 

Scurfy bark louse, 86 

Seed, 25, 151 

Seedlings, 25, 184 

Selection of trees, 35 

Selection of varieties, 31 

Shape of trees, 35 

Shot hole fungus, 113 

Side grafting, 171 

Slope, Direction of the, 16 

Small fruits, 247 

Smudger, 73 

Snowy tree cricket, 101 

Soap, Whale oil, 310 

Sod culture, 41 

Soils, 14 

Solar pit, 155 

Sorting table, 143 

Sprayers, 124, 129 

Spraying, 123; calendar, 
injuries, 110; outfits, 129 

Square system, 37 

Stems, 19, 139 

Stock, 156, 181, 201 

Storage buildings, 146 

Storing, 132, 146 

Stratification, 151 

Strawberry, 247; 
hill system, 251; insects, 101; 
marketing, 257; origin of, 247; 
picking, 257; propagation, 248; 
renewing beds, 254; row sys- 
tem, 251; rust, 118; setting 
plants, 252; sexuality of plants, 
255; soil, 248; spraying cal- 
endar, 305; time of planting, 
249; varieties, 258; weevil, 102; 
winter protection, 253 

Stone fruits, 198 

Success in fruit growing, 17 

Suckers, 19, 189 

Sunburn, 118 

Sunscald, 61 

Systems of planting, 37 


303; 


diseases, 118; 


328 


T 


Tent caterpillar, 81 
Thermometer, 70 

Thinning fruits, 203, 216 
Thorns, 19 

Thoroughness of spraying, 128 
Time to apply manures, 50 
Time to pick fruit, 1383 

Time to plant, 34 

Time to prune, 54 

Tobacco dust, 310 

Tobacco soap, 311 

Tools for pruning, 56 
Topography, 16 
Top-working, 173 
Transpiration, 26 

Tree currants, 262 

Tree hopper, Buffalo, 85 
Trellis for grapes, 230 
Twig borer, 85, 89 


Vv 
Varieties, 29, 31 


Varieties for various states, 312 


INDEX 


WwW 


Walnut, 299, 300 
Washington, Varieties for, 318 
Waxed string bandage, 311 
Waxes, Grafting, 311 

Web worm, 83 

Weevil, Strawberry, 102 
Wet and dry bulb, 70 
Whale oil soap, 310 

When to prune, 54 

Whip grafting, 168 

White grub, 102 
Windbreaks, 182 

Wind injury, 64 

Winter injury to roots, 67 
Winter killing, 65 

Woolly aphis, 87 

Woolly apple louse, 87 


6 
Yellow, Peach, 113 


STANDARD 
AGRICULTURAL BOOKS 


Published and Sold By 


WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY, 
ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA 


AGRICULTURAL. 


POPULAR FRUIT GROWING, by Samuel B. Green. This book 
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AMATEUR FRUIT GROWING, by Samuel B. Green, a practical 
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isoepp. Price, 12 Mo. 2s ..'.:. Paper, 25 cents; cloth, 50 cents. 

VEGETABLE GARDENING, by Samuel B. Green. 10th edition. 
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ject published. Thoroughly illustrated. 

PAV CGsmel Min Oni uccaras: ac stele ote oc larecetay-osuesegsveraie’s eteislers ee Cloth, $1.00 

THE FARMER’S TANNING GUIDE, by G. E. Stevens, gives all 
the quick ways of tanning in from ten minutes to six weeks. 
Also complete receipts for making your own solutions. Pre- 
pared especially for farmers. Price ........ Paper, 25 cents. 

VACANT GOVERNMENT LANDS, locates all available govern- 
ment lands that can be secured free by entry and tells how 
to get them. All about irrigated lands and how obtained 
free. (1908 Edition.) 112 pp. Price....... Paper, 25 cents. 

THE DOMINION OF CANADA, by Moses Folsom. All about 
free government land in Canada and how to get it. 155 pp. 

BeBiCOy VeinOnis 22.5 svete: 2 Ab ackiece ale a Cloth, 50 cents; paper, 25 cents. 

THE COUNTRY KITCHEN. Nine hundred tried and tested 
recipes suited to the country and contributed by readers of 
The Farmer. The most popular and practical cook book on 
the market. 154 pp. 

Price al QumiOn!. erties. cele cjerees Cloth, 50 cents; paper, 25 cents. 

THE “BUCKEYE” COOK BOOK, by Mrs. Wilcox. A careful 
compilation of tried and approved recipes for all branches of 
the household. 1288 pp. with complete index. 

EIGEs PORE Pale ete ee eelets cea eles s ee. ssl tere, o\cilvi'als) om ales si sieve $2.50 


STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS. 


FARM BOOKS. 
SHORT TITLE LIST. 


Farmers’ Account Book and Farm Record, net............. $2.25 
Bookkeeping fon Farmers. Clark “Atkeson=.... seis =20 
Barn. Plans and (Outs Bull ins) scr. cre clei oisceul nie cioheweneie one eee 1.00 
Gottage: HOUSES. 9 Sib: HRRCE or joreratel olcletelehel=leleie ele) =iahel Nolet tamer 1.00 
Homes forsHome Builders. D> We Willen... lee ene 1.00 
Ay 6. C..and Xx: ¥. 2. of Bee Culture. “Ave Rooteaa. cee 1.50 
Mysteries of Bee Keeping Explained. L. C. Root.......... 1.00 
Vetenrinany Elements, “Arthur G. Hopkiisij.. 1 tienen 1.50 
Diseases of Horses and Cattle. D. McIntosh.............. leva 
Feeds and Feeding: WaeAte ElCmiryin tiie crete cls.) ctcrcqahenne stent 2.00 
Diseases jof, Swine. DS eIMiGIMtoOshy yeiycvere cle ct~ -ne1-1<)u-ie)s ete 2.00 
Swihe insAmenica;, By D> (Coburn; mete aa. 3 .-1e ae doer 2.50 
Farm Live Stock of Great Britain. R. Wallace, net........ 5.00 
Profitable “Dairying: (C. Tas CR GCK: 5 cette eve « e.0 cislayelelel tener arrerene 15 
Judging Live Stock. | John A. Craiey mete...) o)oietetenel enters 1.50 
Creamery s ACCOUNTING! dls “An ViVi nC Lets teteisycre iether ne icten ease 1.00 
Cattle Breeding. William \Wicltie) Givers ctetele srcr-teyterlapone i etenenae 2.00 
Practical WROrestry.) As ton Ellery. cyerreleseleteyateireteielel toler ateraerene 1.50 
Beautifying Country Homes. J. Weidermann............. 10.00 
Garden Making. clo: ch Jalley-cicstcrcis cneteter assertion 1.00 
Practical Floriculture. Peter Henderson...:.............. 1.50 
SprayingiGrops: °C. Mi. JWeed oi. 2 005 5 is <cyere e's che aoe eres -50 
Spraying of Plants. “H. J. Lodeman, net... 02)... arenas 1.50 
Agriculture with Some of Its Relations with Chemistry. F. 

EES SLOLer 93) VOLUMES) pmMelsareeie = o/crenevele) ols) oie cionelo) stele eee 5.00 
Pruning Book, . H, Bailey, Net, ss esac. see terri 1.50 
Field Notes on Apple Culture. L. H. Bailey, net........... 2.00 
mhe Potato, Jie TH. (Gregory jit. oc «emetic ye octle cnet eee 30 
Gardening for Profit; Peter Hiemdersomrerrrel-ya-) stirrer eerie 1.50 
she Soil Mramkilin Gel. Wane yor. sw oceans tovotche rs etel siete shennan mene 1.00 
Principles of Agriculture: I: He Bailey, metee esse ae 1.50 
Physics of Agriculture, HE Huy Kime, metre. crrt- eileen Leas 
How To Make a Garden Pay. T. Greiner................. 1.00 
Soiling Crops and the Silo. Thomas Shaw................ 1.50 
Forage and Fibre Crops in America. Thomas Hunt........ 1.75 
Fertility of the Eand: 1.0 P.) Roberts; netsn..- cere 1.50 
Farm Machinery and Farm Motors. J, B. Davidson and L. 

Wi Chase net... saiels:s aleistsisic elec cere sleie ie crels)etslotea aeeteiens 2.00 
Manual of Corn Judging. A: D)Shamel...-...-0. 5. os. sce. 50; 
Cereals inv AMmericas mle He EU Ger eyes oleriey atest etnteyteneene 1.75 
Alfalfa; Book of, HDs Coburmite 1 toc tele telnet een 2.00 


WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY, 
ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA 


i peta 
Re a 
We etay 


One copy del. to Cat. Div. 
FEB 12 1912