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PORK
PRODUCTION

SMITH

The Rural Science Series

L.H. Bailev Editor

iAIN L 5 S2R A PY- AGRICULTURE DF.F" r

Stije Eural Science Series

EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY

PORK-PRODUCTION

EJje Hurai Science Series

EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY

THE SOIL. King.

THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS. Lodeman.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. Wing. Enlarged and Revised.

THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND. Roberts.

THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING. Bailey. 20th

Edition, Revised.
BUSH-FRUITS. Card. Revised.
FERTILIZERS. Voorhees. Revised.
THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. Bailey. Revised.
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. King.
THE FARMSTEAD. Roberts.
RURAL WEALTH AND WELFARE. Fairchild.
THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE-GARDENING. Bailey.
FARM POULTRY. Watson. Enlarged and Revised.
THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. Jordan. (Now Rural

Text-Book Series. Revised.}
THE FARMER'S BUSINESS HANDBOOK. Roberts.
THE DISEASES OF ANIMALS. Mayo.
THE HORSE. Roberts.
How TO CHOOSE A FARM. Hunt.
FORAGE CROPS. Voorhees.

BACTERIA IN RELATION TO COUNTRY LIFE. Lipman.
THE NURSERY-BOOK. Bailey. (Now Rural Manual

Series.)

PLANT-BREEDING. Bailey and Gilbert. Revised.
THE FORCING-BOOK. Bailey.

THE PRUNING-BOOK. Bailey. (Now Rural Manual Series.)
FRUIT-GROWING IN ARID REGIONS. Paddock and Whipple.
RURAL HYGIENE. Ogden.
DRY-FARMING. Widtsoe.
LAW FOR THE AMERICAN FARMER. Green.
FARM BOYS AND GIRLS. McKeever.
THE TRAINING AND BREAKING OF HORSES. Harper.
SHEEP-FARMING IN NORTH AMERICA. Craig.
COOPERATION IN AGRICULTURE. Powell.
THE FARM WOODLOT. Cheyney and Wentling.
HOUSEHOLD INSECTS. Herrick.
CITRUS FRUITS. Coit.

PRINCIPLES OF RURAL CREDITS. Morman.
BEEKEEPING. Phillips.

SUBTROPICAL VEGETABLE-GARDENING. Rolfs.
TURF FOR GOLF COURSES. Piper and Oakley.
THE POTATO. Gilbert.
STRAWBERRY-GROWING. Fletcher.
WESTERN LIVE-STOCK MANAGEMENT. Potter.
PEACH-GROWING. Gould.
THE SUGAR-BEET IN AMERICA. Harris.
PORK-PRODUCTION. Smith.

PORK-PRODUCTION

WILLIAM W. SMITH, M.S. A.

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
PURDUE UNIVERSITY

WITH A CHAPTER ON

THE PREVENTION OF HOG DISEASES

E. A. CRAIG, D.V.M.

PROFESSOR OP VETERINARY SCIENCE, PURDTTE UNIVERSITY
AND CHIEF VETERINARIAN, PURDUE AGRICUL-
TURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1923

COPTBIOHT, 1920,

BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1920,
MAIN LtBWAKY-Anmo'H Ti JRE DCPT.

J. S. Gushing Co. —Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

PREFACE

THE material in this book has been drawn from three
sources : from practical experience ; experimental studies,
particularly of feeding questions; and the results of re-
search in the field of chemistry and biology. The dis-
cussion on general care and herd management is chiefly a
statement of the methods that have proved most suc-
cessful in practical experience. That part of the book
dealing with questions of feeding is largely the result of
a careful analysis and summary of the mass of experi-
mental data available on this subject. The discussion
of breeding problems has for its foundation the approved
methods of the constructive breeders and the important
facts recently discovered in the field of genetics which
have a bearing on the practical questions related to
animal breeding.

In its preparation the author has sought and received'
many facts and suggestions from hog men, commission
salesmen, experiment station workers, packing-house
officials, and animal husbandry teachers, without which
the book in its present form would not have been possible.
For the help thus received he wishes to express grateful
acknowledgment. For much of the data presented in
chapter five he is indebted to W. J. Carmichael formerly
of Illinois University and now secretary of the National
Swine Growers Association. To the members of the
Animal Husbandry staff of Purdue University he wishes
to express his appreciation of their kindly criticisms,
encouragement, and help.

W. W. SMITH

PURDUE UNIVERSITY,
January 1, 1920

553066

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

PAGES

GENERAL VIEW 1-9

CHAPTER II

FEEDING AND HANDLING THE HERD IN THE BREEDING

SEASON 10-32

Feeding the sows ....... 10-14

Rations 11-13

Amount to feed ....... 13-14

Feeding the boar 14-17

Demands ........ 14-15

Rations 15-16

Amount to feed 16

Exercise 16-17

General considerations 17-23

Length of gestation period 18-19

Age to breed the gilt 19-20

Using the young boar 20-21

Early or late pigs 21-23

Mating 23-32

Systems 23-25

Time in the day to breed the sows ... 25

The breeding-crate 25-26

Number of sows which the boar can breed . 26-28

Records 28-32

CHAPTER III

THE MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF THE BREEDING

HERD IN THE WINTER .... 33-68

General management 33-38

Housing 33-35

vii

viii Table of Contents

PAGES

Sanitation 36

Water 37

Exercise 37-38

Feeding pregnant sows and gilts .... 39-63

Demands 39-40

Corn alone as a feed for pregnant sows . . 40-43

Other grains for pregnant sows .... 43-44

Value of legume hays for pregnant sows . . 44-46

Methods of feeding alfalfa hay .... 46-50

Methods of balancing corn for pregnant gilts . 50-52

Other protein supplements 52-53

The value of succulence ..... 53-54

Conclusions ....... 54-58

Amount to feed 58-62

Preparation of feeds and methods of feeding . 62-63

Feeding the mature boar ...... 64

Feeding the open gilts and young boars . . . 64-65

The feed cost of wintering pregnant sows . . . 65-68

CHAPTER IV

CARE AND FEEDING OF THE Sow AND LITTER . . 69-95

Care during the farrowing season .... 69-80

Preliminary care and feeding .... 71-72

Care at farrowing time ..... 72-73

Needle teeth . . . . . . . 74

Feeding just after farrowing .... 74-75

Pig-eaters 75-76

Sanitation and exercise 76

Marking the litters 76-80

Feeding and care to weaning time .... 80-89

Feeding 81-83

The pig-creep 83-84

Scours 84-85

Weaning 85-86

Gains made by pigs from birth to weaning . 86-88

Castration 88-89

Culling out the unproductive sows .... 89-90

Herd records 90-91

Table of Contents

The cost of feeding the sow and litter from farrow-
ing to weaning time

91-95

CHAPTER V

SIZE OF LITTERS; BIRTH WEIGHT OF PIGS; MILK-FLOW

OF Sows . 96-116

Size of litters 96-107

Age of sow 96-100

Feeding and condition of the sow . . . 100-101

Cross-breeding 101-102

Influence of the boar 102-103

Type, breed, individuality 104-105

The number of pigs raised 105-107

Birth weight of pigs 107-113

Sex 107-108

Age of sow 108-110

Cross-breeding 110

Size of litter Ill

Vigor of sow and boar at breeding time . . 111-112

Nutrition . 112-113

Milk production of sows 113-116

CHAPTER VI

THE SUMMER FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE

BREEDING HERD 117-127

Feeding and management of the pregnant sows . 117-122

Number of litters in a year .... 117-119

Feeding and management 119-122

Feeding and management of the open sows . . 122-124

Fattening the culls ...... 122

Feeding and management of the open brood sows 123
Feeding the yearling sows . . . . .124

Cost of summer feeding sows 124-127

Bred sows . 124-126

Open mature sows ...... 126-127

Open yearling sows 127

Table of Contents

CHAPTER VII

PAGES

FEEDING AND CARE OP GROWING AND FATTENING PIGS 128-152

The weight and type of pig desired by the market . 128-130

General systems of handling and feeding . . . 130-132

Food demands of the growing and fattening pig . 132

Corn as a pig feed 133-141

Experiments demonstrating the deficiencies of
corn alone as a feed for growing and fatten-
ing pigs 133-141

The advantages of forage crops .... 141-152

Dry lot versus forage feeding .... 141-146
Feeding skim-milk on forage . . . .146

Corn alone versus corn and forage . . . 147-148

Summary of benefits from growing forage crops . 148-152

CHAPTER VIII

CHOOSING A FORAGE CROP: EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING

TRIALS 153-193

Essentials of an ideal forage .... 153-154

Medium red clover ....... 154-157

Clover versus alfalfa 155-156

Clover versus rape ...... 156-157

Other clovers 157-158

Alfalfa 159-162

Alfalfa versus rape ...... 159-161

Alfalfa versus sweet clover ..... 161-162

Dwarf Essex rape 162-166

Early versus late rape and other forages . . 164-165

Winter rape . . . . . . . 165-166

Combinations : Canadian field peas, oats, clover, rape 166-170

Forage mixtures for fall pigs .... 167-169

Oats versus other forages ..... 169-170

Rye* 170-174

Rye as a winter forage 171-172

"Hogging-down" ripe rye 172-174

Blue-grass: timothy . . . . . . . 174-177

Blue-grass and timothy versus clover and alfalfa 175-177

Table of Contents

Sorghum-cane ......

Soybeans

Limited versus full feeding on soybeans

Soybeans versus rape ....
Cowpeas .......

Cowpeas versus dry lot
Peanuts ; velvet bean ; chuf as .

Peanut forage versus dry lot
Recommendations for forage crop plantings

PAGES

177-178

178-182
180-181
181-182
182-185
183-185
185-188
186-188
189-193

CHAPTER IX

METHODS OF FEEDING ON FORAGE .... 194-227

The composition of forage crops .... 194-195

Experimental feeding trials 195-208

Supplements for pigs on rape .... 198-200

Amount of supplements on alfalfa . . . 200-202

Supplements for pigs on winter rye . . . 202-203

Supplements for pigs on timothy and blue-grass 203-205

Corn alone on clover ...... 205-206

Oats, Canadian field peas, and rape . . . 206

General summary 207-208

Feeding a grain ration to pigs on forage . . . 208-222

Pigs intended for market 209-220

Rate and cost of gains during forage season 210-212
Rate and cost of gains during the entire

breeding period • 212-216

Time of marketing as affected by system

of feeding 216-217

Summary and conclusions .... 217-220

Pigs intended for the breeding herd . . . 220-222

Possible dangers from full feeding . . 220

Conditions which affect the problem . . 220-221

Summary and conclusion .... 221-222

General management of the pigs in the summer . 223-225

Sanitation 223

Ringing 223-224

Shade and water . 224-225

Xll

Table of Contents

Feed cost of raising the pig to market weight or

breeding age ..... 225-227

CHAPTER X

HOGGING-DOWN CORN 228-238

"Hogging-down" versus yard feeding . . . 228-231

Supplemental forage crops 231-236

Field management 236-238

CHAPTER XI

FATTENING PIGS IN THE DRY LOT (THE USE OF NITROGE-
NOUS OR PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS) . . 239-279

Dairy by-products 240-254

Buttermilk versus skim-milk .... 244-245
Skim-milk and buttermilk versus other supple-
ments 245-248

Skim-milk or buttermilk versus tankage . . 248-249

Whey 249-252

Precautions in feeding dairy products . . 252-254

Packing-house by-products 254-264

Corn alone versus corn and tankage . . . 256-258
Tankage versus linseed-oil meal .... 258-259
Tankage versus wheat shorts or middlings . . 259-260
Corn and tankage versus corn, shorts, and tank-
age 261-262

Tankage versus soybean meal .... 262-263

Summary 263-264

Linseed-oil meal 264-270

Linseed-oil meal versus tankage .... 266-267

Linseed-oil meal versus wheat shorts or middlings 267-269
Linseed-oil meal versus soybean meal (ground

soybeans) 269

Summary 269-270

By-products from the manufacture of wheat flour . 270-276
Shorts or middlings versus skim-milk or butter-
milk 274-275

Summary ........ 275-276

General summary 276-279

Table of Contents

xin

CHAPTER XII

PAGES

OTHER CEREAL GRAINS FOR GROWING AND FATTENING

PIGS 280-299

Barley 281-285

Barley versus corn 281-283

Barley rations for bacon-production . . . 283-285

Wheat 285-291

Wheat versus corn 285-287

Wheat versus one-half wheat and one-half corn 287-288
Dry whole wheat versus soaked whole wheat . 288-289
Soaked whole wheat versus ground whole wheat 289-290
Wheat alone versus wheat and a protein supple-
ment ........ 290

Frosted versus sound wheat .... 290-291

Rye 291-293

Oats 293-296

Oats versus corn 294-296

Kafir, milo, cane 296-299

Kafir versus corn . . . 296-299

CHAPTER XIII

CORN SUBSTITUTES AND OTHER BY-PRODUCTS FOR GROW-
ING AND FATTENING PIGS
Corn by-products

Hominy feed

Corn feed meal

Corn germ meal

Corn gluten meal and corn gluten feed
Peanuts

Peanut oil meal as a supplement to milo .

Peanut meal versus linseed-oil meal versus tank-

age

Rice products

Rice bran and rice polish versus corn .

Rice bran versus peanuts and corn
Cowpeas and soybeans ....

Cowpeas versus corn ....

Corn alone versus corn and soybeans .

300-332
300-309
300-303
303-304
304-307
307-309
309-312
309-310

311-312
312-315
312-313
313-315
315-317
315-317
317

XIV

Table of Contents

Cottonseed meal

Dried distillers' and brewers' grains

Molasses

Roots: tubers ....

Sweet potatoes .

Potatoes ....

Other roots
Condimental stock foods .

Experimental feeding trials

Medicinal properties .

Effect on digestion

Conclusions

PAGES

317-319

319

319-321

321-326

323-324

325-326

326

327-332

327-329

329-331

331

332

CHAPTER XIV

PREPARATION OP FEEDS AND METHODS OF FEEDING . 333-349

Corn 333-341

Grinding corn 333-334

Soaking and grinding corn 335-336

Ear-corn versus shelled corn versus ground corn 336-338

General average results from grinding . . 338-339
Value of grinding as affected by age and finish

of pigs 339-340

General conclusions 340-341

Small grains 341-343

Grinding and soaking 341-342

Cooking 342

Proportion of water in slop .... 342-343

Methods of feeding 343-349

Hand-feeding 343-344

The self-feeder 344-345

Self-feeding versus hand-feeding . . . 346-348

Summary and conclusions . . 348-349

CHAPTER XV

THE COST OF PRODUCING PORK
General observations

350-361
359-361

Table of Contents

CHAPTER XVI

PAGES

MARKETING AND MARKETS 362-390

Marketing 362-368

Shipping 363-366

Selling 366-367

Costs of marketing 367-368

Shipping hogs by motor truck 368

Market classes 368-376

Prime heavy hogs 370

Butcher hogs 370-371

Packing hogs 371-372

Light hogs 372-373

Pigs 373-374

Roughs 374

Stags 374-375

Boars 375

Miscellaneous classes 375-376

Supply and price fluctuations and their usual causes 376-390

Monthly variations in the supply . . . 377-381

Variations in the daily supply .... 381-382

Variations in the yearly supply .... 382-383

Weight as a factor in supply .... 384-386

Seasonal variations in price .... 386-388

Yearly variations in price 388-390

CHAPTER XVII

JUDGING 391-419

Types of hogs 392

Judging the finished fat barrow of the lard type . 393-401

Market requirements 393-395

The score-card 395-401

Judging the finished barrow of the bacon type . . 401-405

Market requirements 401-403

Score-card for bacon hogs 403-405

Judging breeding hogs of the lard type . . . 406-409

The breeder's requirements .... 406

A standard of excellence 406-409

XVI

Table of Contents

Important general points in judging .

Size . .

Form

Feet and legs ....

Condition

Quality

Sex characteristics and disposition

Breed type characteristics .
Judging gilts and young boars .
Judging feeders

PAGES

409-416

409-410

410-412

412

413

413-414

414-415

415-416

416-417

417-419

CHAPTER XVIII

BREEDS OF HOGS

The Poland-China .
The Duroc-Jersey
The Hampshire .
The Berkshire .
The Chester-White .
The Spotted Poland-China
The Large Yorkshire
The Tamworth .

420-430

421-422

423

423-424

424-426

426-427

427-428

428^29

429-430

CHAPTER XIX

BREEDING

The law of heredity

The process of reproduction

" Like begets like " ....

Variations

Prepotency .....

Relative influence of the sire and dam
Systems of breeding

Up-grading .....

Cross-breeding .....

In-breeding

Principles in the selection of breeding stock

Individuality

431-457

431-441

431-433

433-434

434-439

440

440-441

441^49

441-443

443-445

445-449

449-453

450-451

Table of Contents

xvn

Pedigree

Performance ......

Fundamental ideals in breed or herd improvement

PAGES

451-453
453

454-457

CHAPTER XX

THE PREVENTION OF HOG DISEASES .... 458-482

Relation of sanitation to disease .... 458—462

Disinfection of hog-houses and yards . . . 461-462

Relation of quarantine laws to disease . . . 462-463

Diseases of the digestive system .... 463-468

Stomatitis or sore mouth ..... 463-466

G astro-enteritis or inflammation of stomach and

intestines 466-467

Diarrhea or scours in pigs 467-468

Diseases of the respiratory organs .... 468-469

Diseases of the nervous system 470-471

Partial or complete paralysis of the posterior

portion of the body 470-471

Spasm of the diaphragm or thumps . . .471

Castration 471-473

Parasites of hogs 473-476

Infectious diseases ....... 477-482

Hog cholera 477-481

Tuberculosis 481-482

LIST OF PLATES

I. Suitable conditions for the breeding boar . Frontispiece

TO FACE PAGE

II. Pregnant sows should have range during the winter;

a practical method of feeding alfalfa hay ... 40

III. Three gilts, litter mates ; weights at six months —

170, 185, and 250 pounds. The evidence of good
management and the promise of profits ... 98

IV. A visible demonstration of the deficiencies of corn

alone for growing and fattening pigs ; a big smooth
gilt with only two pairs of good teats, an expensive

luxury 150

V. Sows and pigs on alfalfa ; pigs in clover ; pigs in rape 200
VI. Hogging-down corn and soybeans .... 240
VII. Pigs on the self-feeder; a practical convenience in

hand-feeding 270

VIII. Champion pen Duroc- Jersey barrows; carcass of a
model bacon hog; Number 1 Wiltshire side; pork

cuts, lard hog 310

IX. Location of wholesale cuts of lard hog ; points of the

hog 350

X. Representatives of the different breeds. Berkshire
sow ; a champion Hampshire sow ; a champion
Duroc- Jersey sow ; Chester- White boar . . . 390
XI. Representatives of the different breeds. Poland-China
boar; a champion large Yorkshire sow; spotted
Poland-China sow ; Tamworth sow .... 440
XII. Litter of pigs containing a reversion in color, the product
of mating Berkshire- Yorkshire parents; Poland-
China sow with litter of pigs by a Yorkshire boar ;
Berkshire sow with litter of pigs by a Duroc-Jersey
boar . . 470

PORK PRODUCTION

CHAPTER I
GENERAL VIEW

THE important position which the hog occupies on the
American farm is shown by the fact that 37 per cent of
the world's supply of pork (not including China) is pro-
duced in the United States. More hogs are raised in
this country than in any other three countries combined,
and more than double the number than in any other single
country.

Swine are usually most numerous in those countries in
which the population is relatively dense. Their geographic
distribution in the United States is most closely related
to the distribution of the acreage of Indian corn. In the
European countries the number follows closely the pro-
duction of potatoes and the number of dairy cows.1 For
statistics on the distribution of swine, see Figs. 1 and 2.

Hogs are raised in every county of the United States,
but about one-half is produced in the seven corn-belt
states, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Indiana,
and Ohio. North of the corn-belt proper and in the
eastern states, the number of hogs is largely conditioned
on home consumption needs and the development of the
dairy industry. In these districts, barley and mill feeds

1 " Geography of the World's Agriculture," 1917, U. S. Dept.
Agr., Off. Farm Management.

B 1

2 Pork Production

General View 3

with skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey constitute the chief
feeds. Large feeding plants which depend chiefly on
garbage collected from the large cities are an important
recent development in the East. Few hogs are raised in
the arid plains region of the West because the simple
digestive apparatus of the pig is not adapted to the con-
sumption of bulky feeds alone. Not enough hogs are
produced here to supply the demand for pork products.
The production in the South has not yet reached a point
where home needs are supplied ; but with the necessity
of adopting a more diversified system of management to
maintain production, the cotton farmer promises to use
his great natural advantages to increase the number of
hogs.

Pork production is an essential part of practically every
type of farming in America. Even in districts which are
exclusively grain-growing, the hog performs the important
function of saving the wastes of the grain fields and in
utilizing the offal from the kitchen and milk-room, as well
as in supplying the home demand for fresh and cured pork
products. The average general farm is never without
some hogs for the same reasons. Dairy-farming cannot
be conducted along the most efficient and profitable lines
without a sufficient number of hogs to utilize the skim-
milk, buttermilk, or whey which may be available for
feeding, and the undigested grain in the dropping of the
cows. It is doubtful whether any system of farming can
as easily satisfy all the tenets of good farm management
as a properly conducted dairy business which depends
on its output of cream or butter and pork for its principal
revenue.

Hogs are essential to successful beef-production. The
pork produced from the undigested grain from cattle in

4 Pork Production

lot or pasture is clear gain and one of the most important
profit-determining factors in cattle-feeding. For every
bushel of corn fed shelled or on the ear to steers, the hogs
following will produce from one to two pounds of pork
on the average ; when the grain is fed crushed or as meal,
from a quarter to a half pound of pork will be produced.

In crop production the yield of grain in proportion to
roughage is greater than necessary to meet the feed
requirements of cattle or sheep and horses. This leaves
a surplus of grain, much of which, in the case of corn
especially, can be marketed more profitably as pork than
in the raw condition. The value of small grain which
has been damaged seriously by frost, hot winds, or ele-
vator fire is very largely determined by its use in pig-
feeding. The ability of the hog profitably to use corn
which is so soft as to be practically unmarketable has
made him popular on farms which do not ordinarily pro-
duce many hogs.

The important position which the hog occupies on the
American farm has been gained through his inherent
ability to render a profit above the costs of production.
These profits are due largely to certain advantages which
the hog enjoys as a producer of human food; these
advantages are separately enumerated in the following
paragraphs :

1. The demand for pork is wide and insistent. Except-
ing dairy products, no animal food is so necessary in the
diet or so universally used. In this country more pork
is consumed than any other meat. Statistics collected
by the United States Food Administration 1 show the
following relative to the total per capita consumption of

1 " Production of Meat in the United States," Stephen Chase,
1919.

General View 5

the different meats for the years from 1911 to 1918,
inclusive :

TABLE I. — PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OP PORK COMPARED
WITH OTHER MEATS

1911

1912

1913

1914

1915

1916

1917

1918

Av.

Ib.

Pork

Beef

Sheep and Lamb .

8.46

8.84

8.36

8.25

6.94

6.77

5.03

5.38

7.25

Veal

6.67

6.53

5.20

4.53

4.72

7.83

10.71

11.27

7.18

The demand for fat in this country and Europe is sup-
plied chiefly by pork. The responsibility for meeting the
world shortage of fat developed by the War rested most
heavily, therefore, on the American pork-producer. On
the average, the yield of lard constitutes about 1 1 per cent
of the hog's live weight.

No meat is preserved so successfully or transported so
cheaply as pork. Pork products may be held in storage for
long periods without sacrificing palatability or food value.

2. Hogs sell at relatively high prices. This is one of the
results of the broad and insistent demand for pork
products. The figures given in the following tabulation
represent the average prices paid on the Chicago market
for the different classes of live-stock for the twelve-year
period from 1905 to 1916 inclusive :

Native beef steers (not including butcher

stock) $7 .05 per cwt.

Native and western sheep 5.29 '

Yearling sheep 6.26 '

Native and western lambs 7.38 " "

Hogs (all classes) 7.26 " "

Pork Production

These figures indicate that, taking it from year to
year, hogs outsell sheep and lambs or cattle. The larger

proportion of dressed to live
weight in the yield of hogs
and the demand for lard are
the principal reasons why
higher prices are warranted.

3. Pork is produced eco-
nomically. No other meat-
producing animal on the farm
produces human food as eco-
nomically as the pig, despite
the fact that concentrated

WORLD TOTAL
162,800,000 HEAD
LEADING COUNTRIES

NUMBER PER IOOO POPULATION

100 ?00 300 tO <, 0' 60 700 800 ;

DENMARK

UNITED STATES

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

CANADA

ARGENTINA

GERMAN EMPIRE

AUSTRIA -HUNGARY

LEADING COUNTRIES

NUMBER PER SQUARE MILE

DENMARK .

BELGIUM

GERMAN EMPIRE

NtTHERLANDS

AUSTRIA -HUNGARY

SERVIA

PORTO RICO__

FRANCE

LEADING COUNTRIES

MILLIONS OF SWINE

UNITED STATES

GERMAN EMPIRE

RUSSIAN EMPIRE

AUSTRIA -HUNGARY

FRANCE

UNITED" KINGDOM

CANADA __

ARGENTINA __

Fia. 2. — Number of swine in leading countries.

General View 7

foods necessarily make up the major part of his ration.
The initial cost of the pig at birth is much less than it is
for the calf or lamb, and the cost of the subsequent gains,
whether measured in pounds of digestible nutrients or in
dollars and cents, is in favor of the pig. The figures given
below represent the average amount of feed required to
produce 100 pounds of gain during the market-finishing
period of steers, lambs and pigs :

1000-lb. Fattening steer . . 800 Ib. grain and 475 Ib.

legume hay.
65-lb. Fattening lamb . . 400 Ib. grain and 500 Ib.

legume hay.
200-lb. Fattening pig . . 450 Ib. grain and no hay.

When to this is added the ability of the pig rapidly to
convert into pork kitchen garbage, the undigested corn in
the droppings of cattle, damaged grains, and dairy by-
products, a still stronger statement of his efficiency and
economy could be made.

4. It does not require much time to get a start in the
hog business. The large number of pigs produced in each
litter, the relatively short gestation period, the possibility
of raising two litters annually, and the rapidity with which
the gilts attain breeding age contribute to this result.
The initial investment in starting a herd of hogs is less
than with other classes of stock because fewer females
will suffice. The length of time between periods of heavy
and light production is shorter for hogs than for cattle or
sheep. A shortage of meat consequently can be met
more promptly with pork than with other meats.

5. Pigs can be sold at weights anywhere from 175 to
350 pounds with little sacrifice in price. This means that
the feeder is comparatively free to take advantage of a

8 Pork Production

good market by selling early or of feeding to heavier
weights when the prospects of a better market are
good. In the case of steers and lambs, the situation
is entirely different. A variation of $1.00 to $1.50 a
hundredweight in the selling price of cattle due to
variation in finish or condition is common ; in the case
of lambs also the variation in price is such that the feeder
is restricted to a very narrow range of time and weight
in marketing.

6. The market value of old sows which have done
service in the breeding herd is higher than it is for cows
or ewes. Heavy packing sows sell during the fall within
50 to 75 cents of the top of the market for prime fat
barrows, according to pre-war quotations, and during
the spring from 25 to 50 cents of the top. On the same
markets the difference in price between choice to prime
cows and the top for fat steers would exceed $3.00, and
between choice ewes and prime fed lambs the spread
would be $3.00 or more. Although sows are subject to
a dock in some markets of twenty to forty pounds, fre-
quently they sell for more after finishing a long career
in the breeding herd than they cost at the beginning.
This is an item of no small importance in the more eco-
nomical production of pork.

7. The necessary equipment for the successful handling
of a herd of hogs is not extensive nor expensive. This is
particularly true when early pigs are not attempted.
Suitable shelter must be provided for early-farrowing
sows, but it need not be of a kind which would mean a
burdensome overhead expense. Hogs are more susceptible
to extreme heat than any other farm animal, but the cost
of appropriate shades is little more than the time required
to erect them.

General View 9

8. The labor-cost of producing pork is low. Excepting
beef cattle, no other farm animal requires so little labor
in proportion to the value of the animals handled. With
the more general use of forage crops in growing the pigs,
the wide use of the self-feeder for feeding pigs intended
for an early market, and the increasing popularity of the
practice of hogging-down corn, labor costs are materially
reduced.

These facts have not been stated with the view of
minimizing the hog raiser's responsibility in the proper
care and management of his herd. It does not pay to
raise hogs if their feeding and care are not given intelligent
thought and consideration. Pigs cannot be raised suc-
cessfully if the sows at farrowing time are allowed to
shift for themselves. Clean dry quarters and balanced
rations are necessary if the growing shotes make either
rapid or economical gains. The money spent for a few
good brood sows is well invested only if they are given
the proper feeds, plenty of exercise, and sanitary quarters.
It does not require much time to start in the hog business,
provided the pigs are saved and properly developed ; but
if systematic measures are not adopted for the control
of lice, worms, plague, and cholera, the business will soon
become a failure.

CHAPTER II

FEEDING AND HANDLING THE HERD IN THE
BREEDING SEASON

THE feeding, care, and general management of the herd
during the breeding season determine in large measure
the results at farrowing time. The treatment received
by the sows and boar at this time affects the size and even-
ness of the litters and the strength and activity of the
pigs at birth. In addition, it is usually desirable to have
the sows farrow about the same time, which is only pos-
sible by proper feeding and systematic attention to the
details of care and management.

FEEDING THE SOWS

The immediate objects which the feeder should seek
are the prompt appearance of heat in the sows, their
susceptibility to impregnation, and the production by
each sow of a large number of vigorous eggs during the
heat period. The fundamental essential in securing
these results is a vigorous condition of health on the part
of the sows during the breeding season.

In order that the sows may be at the maximum of breed-
ing thrift, it is necessary that special attention be given
their feeding and care several weeks before mating. Ma-
ture sows which are thin in the fall as the result of plenty
of grass and exercise' and little or no grain, are in ideal
condition for this preliminary treatment. Sows which

Feeding and Handling the Herd 11

have weaned fall litters are also in good condition to
respond favorably.

This treatment, known among shepherds as 'flushing,'
consists in feeding the sows so as to cause them to gain
from three-quarters to a pound daily two weeks before
the opening of the breeding season and until they are
safely in pig. The practical effect of such feeding seems
to be to stimulate all the vital functions, and among them
the breeding function, to greater activity. When it is
remembered that the size of the litter is limited by the
number of eggs produced by the sow, the importance of
such a condition is magnified. It has also been observed
that sows when gaining in flesh and thrift tend to come
in heat promptly and to be more susceptible to im-
pregnation when bred.

To respond favorably to the treatment suggested above,
the sows must be thin in condition at the beginning.
Sows that are already as heavy as is consistent with vigor
and activity should be stimulated, if possible, by supplying
plenty of range and exercise with access to green feed.
With show sows or those very high in condition, it is
usually necessary to reduce in flesh before they will
breed. This should be done without subjecting them to
any sudden change in diet, by withdrawing the grain from
their rations gradually, and by stimulating exercise by
allowing them the freedom of a good pasture. To estab-
lish regular breeding habits in a sow that has been highly
fitted is as reliable a test of good feeding as is the ability
to bring her up to the bloom of show condition.

Rations.

No single ration is best for bringing about the con-
dition of breeding thrift sought at this time. Conditions

12 Pork Production

as regards feed supply vary from year to year and from
place to place, while variations in the maturity and con-
dition of the sows require modifications in the rations.
The best treatment of the sows by the feeder must be
determined for each particular farm and region, and should
take account especially of the age and flesh of the sows,
and the feeds which are available and cheapest.

If there is considerable variation in the herd in regard
to age and condition of the sows, they should be graded.
If only those sows of the same maturity and general
condition are together at feeding time, the rations can
be measured more accurately to their needs. The average
farm can well afford the facilities which will make prac-
ticable the separation of the gilts which are intended for
breeding from the mature sows.

Thin mature sows should be fed so that they will be
gaining a week or more before the opening of the breeding
season. A most practical and satisfactory combination
for the corn-belt is corn and a run of some green feed of
a leguminous nature. Corn and alfalfa, or clover, or
soybean, or cowpea forage make an ideal diet. Where
these crops are not available, as in the North when breed-
ing in November and December, fall-sown rye, blue-
grass, or the ordinary tame pastures, will be valuable.
Free access to a legume hay fed in racks will help to make
up for the loss of green feed when the latitude and season
make these unavailable. In those sections which regu-
larly grow roots there is available a succulence which is
much relished and of value in bringing about the condition
of breeding thrift desired. With non-leguminous green
feeds, a small amount of some protein feed should be
given along with the corn, the proportion of which should
be determined in each case by the quality of the pasture.

Feeding and Handling the Herd 13

Approximately one part of tankage or meat-meal, or two
parts of linseed oil meal, or five to six parts of wheat
shorts or middlings, to twelve parts of shelled corn will
make a balanced ration. Outside of the corn-belt, the
available grains should take the place of corn, and be
fed, when supplemented with a purchased protein feed,
in practically the same proportions.

When it is necessary to feed grain to sows that are
already in strong condition, or when reducing show sows,
the above suggestions as to kind of rations are appropriate.
With good forage crops or pasture or roots available,
however, little grain will be necessary. The rations
most suitable for the gilts should contain more protein
than those for mature sows, because a large proportion
of their food is used for growth. About one-half more
shorts, tankage, or other protein feed should be given
than in the proportions recommended above for older sows.

Amount to feed.

The best and most practical guide in determining how
much to feed the sows at this time is the condition of
flesh they are in. It is probably true that the amount fed
must be subjected to more variation than the character
of the ration or the combination of feeds. The necessity
for grading is largely due to the ill effects of feeding the
fat sow as liberally as the thin one. A mature sow in
breeding condition can be maintained without loss of
weight, as a rule, by a little less than li pounds of average
grain daily for each 100 pounds weight. Also, a mature
sow will nearly maintain her weight on good blue-grass,
and will make some gain when on a suitable forage crop,
if medium to thin in condition. These facts are useful
in estimating the quantity of grain to feed in the begin-

14 Pork Production

ning, or the necessity of feeding any grain at all. After-
wards, close observation of the gains and condition of the
sows should be relied on to indicate whether too much
or too little is being fed.

Thin mature sows should receive, on the average, from
one-half to twTo-thirds a full grain ration. This will be
sufficient, especially with green feed, to insure the gain
desired. A full ration, or all they will eat, should not be
given because of the probability of their becoming too
fat and the necessity of a sudden reduction in the ration
later, which is always to be avoided. Sows already in
fair condition of flesh should receive little or no grain,
depending largely on the kind of green feed available.
Gilts intended for breeding should be fed liberally. A
little less grain than they will eat is generally desirable
so as to encourage exercise and the use of green feed, and
to avoid too high condition. They should be kept thrifty
and growing.

FEEDING THE BOAR

The boar has large and responsible duties to perform
in the breeding season. His breeding condition is as
important as that of the entire female herd considered
collectively. To be dependable, he must be a ready
server and a sure breeder. Vigorous health, activity, and
a medium condition of flesh usually reflect virility and
breeding capacity. Such a state is influenced largely
by the amount and kind of feeds which he has to eat.

Demands.

The boar should be given a ration in keeping with his
needs. During this time a mature boar requires more
nitrogenous material, or protein, and more mineral

Feeding and Handling the Herd 15

matter than are necessary when not in breeding service.
The demands on his energies, in addition to the require-
ments of maintenance, are largely of a nitrogenous nature,
and this loss, which is considerable with each service,
must be made good if his breeding powers are preserved.
Two weeks before the breeding season opens, the mature
boar should be in rather thin condition and active. He
should then be brought up to the breeding season in an
improving condition, without allowing him to become fat,
or to impair his activity. Young boars require a grow-
ing ration, and when used for breeding the effort should
be to satisfy both demands by a ration that is not deficient
in mineral matter and protein.

Rations.

Probably the worst ration that can be fed is straight
corn in the dry lot. If an unlimited supply of this cereal
is available and exercise is limited, the evil effects will
be still more certain. Experience has shown that sure
and reliable breeding qualities cannot be maintained
when corn constitutes the sole feed in the ration. Access
to a green feed of some kind will enable the boar to acquire
much that corn lacks and will promote a fairly loose con-
dition of the bowels which is essential to good health.
However, when used heavily, the boar should not be
expected to receive a very large part of his nourishment
from this source. Too much green feed, in fact, is con-
sidered by some to be detrimental to his breeding qualities.
Some one or more of the supplemental feeds suggested
for the sows at this time should be fed with the corn or
other home-grown grains.

The boar should have about the same combination of
feeds as the growing gilts intended for the breeding herd.

16 Pork Production

If the service is heavy, he should have a wider variety
and a smaller proportion of corn. Corn alone is so bad
that many breeders recommend that it be entirely ex-
cluded from the ration of the boar when in service. A
variety of home-grown grains, with a little green feed,
skim-milk or roots, with some shorts or tankage, or some
such protein supplement added, will give the best results
in breeding service. The immature boar should receive
approximately the same combination of feeds that is best
for the mature hog when performing heavy service.

Amount to feed.

The amount of grain that should be fed to the boar will
depend : first, on the intensity of his breeding service ;
second, on his age and condition; and third, on the
amount of nourishment obtained from such feeds as
forage crops, grass, or roots. A mature boar in good
condition at the beginning of the breeding season will
ordinarily lose weight when used to the normal limit of
his breeding capacity. If heavily used he will require
practically a full ration. In all cases, however, the guide
should be to determine the amount given by his condition
rather than his appetite, the effort being to maintain his
weight. If just right at the beginning of the breeding
season, this method will insure the maximum of breeding
service. The immature boar should be fed so that he
will experience no material check in his growth and de-
velopment. A full ration, or all that he will clean up,
should ordinarily be given him.

Exercise.

To develop and maintain a vigorous condition of breed-
ing thrift in the boars and sows, exercise is as important

Feeding and Handling the Herd 17

as good feeding. Without exercise the foundation of
good health is impossible. The most practical and de-
sirable method of supplying exercise is to give plenty of
range. Ordinarily, if the boar and sows are in the best
flesh for breeding purposes, they will take all the exercise
needed if given the opportunity. In the case of the boar
particularly, it too often happens that his range is limited
to a narrow pen where insanitary conditions and lack of
exercise combine in reducing his health and vigor. Ex-
ercise is sufficiently important for the breeding boar to
warrant the time and attention necessary to take him
out and drive him a half-hour twice in the day, if it cannot
be given by some other method.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

The period of sexual excitement known as "heat"
should be understood. The significance of heat is that
the sow is secreting, or preparing to secrete, the ripened
eggs or ova. The appearance of heat is supposed to
precede by a day or two the production of these eggs or
germ-cells which, on fertilization by their union with the
male germ-cells, produce the embryo pigs.1 The heat
period lasts about three days, and is the only time during
which a normal sow will accept service from the boar.

A sow comes in heat every twenty or twenty-one days,
on the average, during the breeding season, if not bred.
The exceptions to this are sows which lack breeding con-
dition or thrift and those which are nursing pigs. It
frequently happens, however, that a sow will come in
heat a few days after farrowing, usually the third day,

1 MacKenzie and Marshall: "Journal of Agricultural
Science," 1912.
c

18 Pork Production

and again before the litter is weaned. The natural breed-
ing seasons seem to be the early summer or late fall,
although a vigorous sow when gaining will come in heat
at other times, even in the hottest summer months.

Researches by L. L. Lewis of the Oklahoma Experiment
Station on the vitality of germ-cells indicate that the
ripened eggs or ova are not discharged from the ovaries
until the latter end of the heat period.1 These studies
also revealed that the sperm-cells of the boar do not, as
a rule, retain their vitality in the body of the sow for a
longer period than sixteen hours after service. These
observations would seem to support the theory that
successful impregnation is most certain when the sow is
bred in the latter stages of the heat period. So far,
general observations in practice, however, have shown
no advantage for early or late breeding so far as either
may affect complete fertilization or the size of the resulting
litter.

Length of gestation period.

The time elapsing between breeding and farrowing is
known as the gestation period. During this time each
of the fertilized eggs develops into an embryo pig, and
with the completion of the pigs' embryonic development,
birth takes place. Normally, the gestation period is just
long enough to make possible full embryonic development
of the pigs and to accommodate those physiological adjust-
ments in the sow which are preliminary to parturition
or farrowing.

Gestation tables which have been worked out for the
convenience of breeders are calculated on the basis of
112 days, or 16 weeks, as the time elapsing between breed-
1 L. L. Lewis : Bull. 96, Okla. Exp. Sta.

Feeding and Handling the Herd 19

ing and farrowing. Recent accumulations of data,
however, indicate that the average time is more nearly
114 days than it is 112. Breeding and farrowing records
of 488 litters in the Illinois University herd l showed
114f days to be the average time which the sows carried
their pigs, the longest observed being 124 days and the
shortest 98 days. A study of these records did not reveal
any tendency for mature sows to carry their pigs longer
than did gilts. The average length of seventy- seven
gestation periods in the Purdue University farm herd
was 113i days. In this herd, sows with their first litter
went, on the average, 113.2 days; those with their second
litters, 113.4 days ; those with their third, 114.5 days ; and
with the fourth, 113.6 days. It is the common opinion
among breeders that gilts and old sows lacking thrift
farrow a few days earlier than the average, while mature
vigorous sows tend to carry their pigs a few days longer.

Age to breed the gilt.

A gilt should take her place in the breeding herd as
soon as her growth has reached the stage where the
demands of maternity will not materially affect her own
development or her future usefulness in the breeding
herd. Just where this stage is in the life of the gilt is
a question of development rather than of age. The gilt
that is well grown is more reliable as a future mother
when bred at seven months of age than the gilt of ten
months whose development has been retarded by in-
sufficient nourishment.

Experience has established the important fact that
reasonably early breeding tends to establish reliable
breeding habits, while late breeding frequently results

1 W. J. Carmichael : Master's thesis, Univ. 111., 1916.

20 Pork Production

in the reverse. Furthermore, early breeding, other
things being equal, reduces the cost of the pigs at birth.
The earlier the gilt can be made a producer, the larger
will be the saving in feed, interest, and risk. On the other
hand, the practice of depending on undeveloped gilts
for the production of the entire pig crop, as is frequently
done, cannot be condemned too strongly. The immediate
loss is expressed in small litters and imperfect nourish-
ment of the pigs. Gilts intended for showing usually are
not bred until after they are twelve months old. Show-
ing practice necessitates the postponement of breeding
even though the future value of the gilt as a producer
may be, and often is, sacrificed.

As a general rule, the gilt that is well developed may be
bred safely to farrow when from twelve to fourteen months
of age. When an active gilt has reached the weight of
200 pounds, she may be bred without danger of sacrificing
full development at maturity, provided she is properly
fed afterwards.

Using the young boar.

Most of the statements made above in regard to the
proper breeding age of a gilt apply with equal emphasis
to the young boar. To be fit for even limited service in
November or December, the boar pig must have been
farrowed early, in February or March, he must be well
grown for his age, and he should possess a good constitution
and natural vigor. With all of these, he must be used
judiciously. Experience shows that if the boar pig is
used to excess, the probabilities are that his breeding
powers will be permanently injured and the pigs produced
will have a tendency to weakness and small size. Ordi-
narily, the boar should not be allowed to make more

Feeding and Handling the Herd 21

than two or three services in a single week during the
breeding season. As a rule and under average conditions,
it is unwise to use the pig before he is a year old. The
careful conservation of his breeding powers until he is
fairly well developed will insure larger size at maturity
and an extension of breeding vigor in later life. Experi-
ence has shown the practice of depending entirely on pigs
for sires to be disastrous.

Early or late pigs.

The question of the best time for the sows to farrow
must be determined for each farm according to its location,
the facilities which it affords in the way of quarters for
handling early pigs, and in accordance with the purposes
of the farmer and his plan of management. Through-
out the corn-belt, and farther north, February or March
farrowing necessitates warm barns or houses and special
attention to all the details of care and handling. When
the pigs are not finished for market until the follow-
ing spring or summer, as is still the practice on some
farms, the very early pigs have no advantage over the
late ones.

The advantages urged for early pigs are: first, that
they have the size which enables them to make a larger
and more satisfactory use of forage crops during the
summer, — they can make a larger proportion of their
growth from green feeds and hence reduce the amount
of grain required in their growth, while the expensive
finishing period is shortened; the second advantage,
and perhaps the most important one, is that the early
pigs find the early market, and this is ordinarily the best
market. As a rule, average pigs throughout the corn-
belt are marketed in December or January, and, as a rule,

22 Pork Production

prices are lowest during these months. Furthermore,
during September the supply is generally the lowest of
the year and the prices highest. Although there are
exceptions to these average conditions, the prices for
hogs usually fall from September on until the middle of
the winter. From year to year, the producer of early
pigs will be in a position to profit by a better market.
(See Chapter XVI.) A third advantage often urged for
the early pigs is that they seem to do better, grow faster,
be more healthy and better able to stand the extreme
heat of early summer. Experience generally supports these
claims.

On the other hand, it must be remembered that finish-
ing pigs for the September or October market in the corn-
belt necessitates the use of old corn which must be carried
over, or, if bought, purchased at a relatively high price.
Also, the practice of hogging-down corn which is growing
in favor could not be followed to the same extent as with
pigs that do not go to market until later. Pigs intended
for following cattle during the winter should come early
and be well grown and active. Late pigs are usually
too small to be satisfactory for this purpose.

The breeder of pedigreed hogs ordinarily finds it to his
advantage to breed early pigs. In addition to the gratifi-
cation and advertising value of having pigs which are
large for the season, they can be disposed of as prospective
breeders more promptly and satisfactorily. The buyer
generally favors early purchases, and is particular about
size and growthiness. The early pig will commonly sell
before November first, while the late pig will often remain
to be an expense to the farm and a drag on the market
the next season. Pigs intended for show should come as
soon after the first of March or the first of September as

Feeding and Handling the Herd 23

possible, since these dates determine in most classifications
whether the pig shall show in the junior or senior class.

MATING

Two general systems are followed in the handling of
sows at mating time. The first is to bring each sow as
she comes in heat to the boar for service hand-coupling;
the second, that of allowing the boar to run with the sows.

Systems.

The best system to follow will be determined by the
conditions. The farmer who has only eight to ten sows
to breed finds the practice of turning the boar out with
the sows to be satisfactory, as a rule. The chief advan-
tages of this system are that it does not require the in-
dividual attention and time of a man when each sow is
bred; and secondly, the boar is under conditions which
permit him to take plenty of exercise. It is sometimes
urged, also, that the chances of missing a sow when she
comes in heat and not getting her bred are reduced to
a minimum in this system. When the number of sows
to be bred is well within the number which the boar is
capable of breeding in a given season, and when it is not
considered essential to know the exact date when each
sow is bred, there is little in the practice to condemn.

When the number of sows in the herd is larger than can
be taken care of safely by one boar, it is doubtful whether
this is the best system, unless there is a surplus of boars
of equal merit available. Too often the tendency is to
expect the boar to get as many sows in pig under this
system as could be done with safety when the services
are regulated by hand-coupling. The results are that

24 Pork Production

the sows are not settled promptly and the energies of the
boar are unnecessarily sapped. When running with the
sows, the boar should not be expected to breed many
more than one-half the number which under the other
system he would be able to take care of. Even when
records are not a necessity, it is commonly better to
arrange to turn the sows in to the boar. In this way
the number of services of the boar can be controlled and
his energies conserved. The result is that a maximum
number of sows can be gotten in pig in a given time.
With convenient arrangement of the lots and the practice
of breeding the sows at feeding time, or just before, very
little extra time will be required.

In pure-bred herds where an accurate record of the
breeding of each pig is necessary, any other system than
that of bringing the sows to the boar is practically out
of the question. In pedigreed herds, the number to be
bred is frequently large, also, and several boars are usually
in service at the same time, and it is desirable that each
sow be bred to a particular boar. The importance of
getting each sow successfully bred the first time she comes
in heat and the desirability of maintaining the vigor of
the boar at a high pitch, are so great as to warrant the
time and attention required to breed the sows individually,
under most conditions.

With the opening of the breeding season, the sows
should be watched closely for evidences of heat. While,
as a rule, a sow in heat is sufficiently demonstrative in her
behavior to make detection easy, yet in every herd there
are ordinarily a few sows which show few of the usual
symptoms. The practice of having the boar and sows
in adjacent fields facilitates observation. When in heat,
the sow will be found along the fence next the boar and

Feeding and Handling the Herd 25

away from the remainder of the herd. From the stand-
point of the boar's welfare, however, this arrangement,
although productive of exercise, is usually too disquieting
to be without serious criticism. This is especially true
if the demands on the boar are heavy. The boar should
ordinarily be away from all such exciting influences.
The practice of having a " teaser," or a boar to which only
a few sows are to be bred, in the lot or pasture next the
sows is a good solution of the problem.

Time in the day to breed the sows.

A convenient time during the day to breed the sows is,
as a rule, just before feeding. The boar at this time, also,
will be in the best condition to make a prompt and satis-
factory service. When full of feed the boar is naturally
sluggish, and his inclination to lie down after eating
should be encouraged rather than disturbed. In no case
should the boar be used for a period of two hours after
feeding. When two sows are in heat at the same time
and it is necessary to breed them to the same boar, the
plan of breeding one in the morning and the other in the
evening will insure the best results and have a minimum
effect on the vitality of the boar.

After being bred, the sow should be put into a pen by
herself where she should remain until after going out of
heat. It is believed that she will be more certain to
conceive if her activity is somewhat restricted and she
is kept quiet and away from other sows.

The breeding-crate.

The breeding-crate is practically a necessity when
mature heavy boars are to be bred to gilts, or when it is
desired to breed the boar pig to rather rangy sows. Even

26 Pork Production

when the boar and sows are the same general size and type,
many breeders prefer using it. They claim that a satis-
factory service is much more certain with the crate than
without it and that it is much less wearing on the boar,
which is undoubtedly true. The boar, however, has to
be taught to use the crate, and with some individuals
considerable patience is necessary before this is accom-
plished. Boars that have formed the habit of breeding
under natural conditions are especially slow about learning
to use it, while some refuse altogether. Farmers, as a
rule, do not favor the use of the breeding-crate, largely
because of the time and individual attention required
by such a method, and also because they have had no
experience in using it. Some believe that the sow is more
liable to miss conception when bred under such artificial
conditions. If she is thoroughly in heat it is difficult to
see, however, how this could have anything to do with
the successful union of the sperms with the eggs, which
probably occurs some time in the next forty-eight hours.

Number of sows which the boar can breed.

Under given conditions, the number of sows which the
boar can breed safely will depend mainly on the following
factors : age, natural vigor or fertility, the length of the
breeding season, and the distribution of the services.
With a careful distribution of the services, a mature
vigorous hog may be expected to take care of thirty sows,
under good conditions. For a herd of that size, however,
it would be wise to provide a second hog to be employed
in emergencies. As a rule, one service a day may be
permitted, and occasionally two when following a day
or two of idleness. The yearling boar ordinarily should
breed from fifteen to twenty sows in a season of six weeks

Feeding and Handling the Herd 27

or two months. It is safer, however, not to force him
to the limit of his powers. As already stated, it is usually
better not to use the pig until he is a year old. If well
developed, however, he may be allowed two or three
services a week when eight months of age. If used to
excess when young, the effect is seriously to retard develop-
ment and to injure the future breeding powers.

Some boars are naturally more vigorous than others
and can settle twice the number of sows in a breeding
season. Boars from prolific mothers are believed to be
more fertile than those selected from sows which do not
produce large litters. The way the boar has been fed,
the amount of exercise he has had during the season when
he was not in service, the sanitary conditions under
which he has been kept, have a great influence on his
performance during the breeding season. For these
reasons, good judgment is the only reliable guide in
determining the extent to which the boar can be used
with safety.

A careful distribution of the services is important.
Nothing is gained by allowing the boar two services when
the sow is bred. If the first service is a good one, millions
of male germ-cells, called sperms, will be present to
fertilize the female germ-cells, or eggs, of the sow. Since
one sperm only is required to fertilize each egg, it is
obvious that the practice of giving the sow a double
service is not only unnecessary, but a waste of the energies
of the boar. An important fact to remember at this point
is that the successful union of the male and female germ-
cells depends to a large extent on the vigor and activity
of the male cells. It is usually necessary for these male
germ-cells to travel a considerable distance in the uterus
and Fallopian tubes of the sow before reaching the female

28 Pork Production

germ-cells or eggs. This they are able to do by the
movement of a tail-like appendage. If the boar is not
vigorous, as the result of over-use, or is too fat or in
a run-down condition, experiments indicate that the
sperms which he produces will themselves lack in vigor
and activity. The thing to seek, therefore, is vigorous
lively germs, and these can be produced only by a vigorous
boar whose services have been regulated carefully. (See
page 122.)

Records.

The breeder of market hogs does not, as a rule, make
a record of the date each sow is bred. When the sows
are bred early, however, and the farrowing season is in
February or March, a knowledge of the time each sow
is due will make possible that preparation and individual
attention at farrowing time which are necessary to save
the pigs in cold weather. Without a knowledge of the
date of service, it will be necessary to depend on careful
observation and judgment to indicate when the sows are
due. Even with the most careful supervision, the ex-
perienced hog raiser makes many bad guesses, and as
a consequence a number of the sows farrow with the
general herd and under conditions not favorable to the
survival of the pigs. Such experiences suggest that it
might be practical for the producer of market hogs,
especially when early pigs are attempted, to have his
sows tagged and a record made of the time of breeding.
In any case, a definite record should be made of the first
and last services.

With pure-bred herds, breeding records are a practical
necessity. When more than one boar is in service, as is
commonly the case, the record must be depended on in

Feeding and Handling the Herd

writing the pedigrees of the pigs later, as well as to indicate
when each sow is due to farrow. Before the breeding
season begins, the boar to which each sow is to be bred
should be determined so far as possible. Each sow must
wear an ear-tag bearing her number, a breeding sheet
should be made out containing the name or number of
each sow, the name of the boar which it is proposed to
breed her to, with spaces for recording the date of service.
The knowledge of the sire and dam of each sow is im-
portant, also, to guard against the possible use of a too
closely related sire. If this sheet is posted in some
convenient place in the hog-barn, the entries can be made
promptly. With the close of the breeding season, the
date of service and the name of the boar bred to should
be transferred to the permanent record.

The following record form embodying these features
has proved practical and convenient to use :

BREEDING RECORD — FALL 1915

NAME OR
NUMBER
op Sow

SIRE AND
DAM

BOAR BRED TO
AND DATE OP
IST SERVICE

BOAR BRED TO
AND DATE OP

2o SERVICE

REMARKS

Pork Production

•NVf

<N CO T}< lO CO t» GO

I-H <N CO rH »O CO t>.

•oaa

CO T}H iO CD l> CO O5

'NVf

•idag

'AON

£83£

•ony

•loo

<N<N<N<N

i-l(MCOTt<iOoi>

•oay

i— i <N CO Tj* iO O t>

w -oay

amp

•oaa

•AON

Feeding and Handling the Herd

COrJ<lOcOl>OOOSO'-<<MCOTt<>OcOt--COOSOr-i

to CO l> 00 OS O
<M C^ (M C^ C^ CO

COT^iOCOI>OOOSO'— !<?<JCOrJ<»OcQt>GOOSO'— i

COrti'OcOt^-GCOO'— (<MCOrfiiOcOt>GOOSO'— i
i-<i-l»-lT-lr-l»Hi-(THrHi-l<N<N

COT}<LOcOt^OOOSOT-i<MCO

i-Hi— (T— (i— (i— Ii-Hi— »C^C<J(MC<)

T^i'OcOb-OOOSO'— i<MCO^'OcOt>-GOOSO'— I

i-Hi— Ii-Hi— li— (i— (i— li— li— IrHC^lM
T-l.-I^HrHr-lr-li-HfNC^lMfMfNC^lMfMC^C^CO

--HlMCO-^'OCOt^OOOSO'-H

^H^^t^Hr-lrH^H^H^HOJfM

CO^f'OcDI>-OOOiO'-HC<ICOr)H"OcOt>OOO5O
rJliOCDt>GOOSO'-i(MCO'<tiOcOt>GOOSO'-i<M

^H^H^^H^r-I^H^HT-I^HIMlMC^

CO-*iOCOI>OOOSO'-H(NCOTtH»OcOl>.OOOsOr-i

T-HT-Hr-(^-lr-(T-lrHC^(MC^(M<N(MC^(M<M(MCOCO

"H<MCO-**OCOI>OOOS
(M (N C<J (M <N

COt^-OOOSOr- iC^COTftiOcOI>OOOSO'— '(MCOTtl

^-(^HrH^HrHi-lrH^-l^-I^HOqC^lMC^C^

CO^iOcOl>OOOSO'— iC^COrfiOOl>-OOO5Or-i

32 Pork Production

The preceding table has been calculated on the basis of
113 days for the gestation period. To use the table, the
date of service is found in the left of the double column,
and the date on the right will be the time due. For
example, if a sow is bred on November eighteenth, the
date to the right shows that she will be due to farrow
March eleventh; if bred May twelfth, she will be due
September second, and so on.

CHAPTER III

THE MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF THE
BREEDING HERD IN THE WINTER

IT is during the winter, in most of the pork-producing
sections, that the problems of housing and management,
sanitation, exercise, and feeding, become of more than
usual importance. With cold weather, frozen ground,
and dry feeds, the breeding herd is under conditions
which make it more difficult to maintain good health.
The problems involved in the successful management of
the herd during the winter directly affect the results in
economy of maintenance and in the number and quality
of the pigs produced.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT

An item of first importance in the winter management
of the breeding herd is its proper grading. Only those indi-
viduals whose requirements for feed and general care are
the same should be together. The effects, for example,
of allowing the pregnant sows to run with the fattening
shotes is to jeopardize greatly the chances of a good pig
crop in the spring. Hogs that are being fattened for
market do well in restricted quarters, and with full fatten-
ing rations. It is impossible for the pregnant sows under
these conditions to produce healthy, vigorous pigs or to
nurse them properly after birth. The sows demand a
D 33

34 Pork Production

special ration and plenty of exercise. Open and bred
gilts should likewise be separated from the mature sows,
for they require a more liberal ration and one containing
more bone and muscle-building ingredients especially
during the first half of the winter. With advanced preg-
nancy, the gilts which are bred should be separated from
the open gilts when the facilities make this possible.
The practice of allowing the pregnant sows to run with
the cattle is objectionable if separate sleeping quarters
are not provided and their consumption of corn is not
carefully guarded. Horses and hogs do not get along well
together, and when the hogs are compelled to seek the
same shed for shelter the chances of injury are greater
than one can afford to take. Although the number of
divisions necessary in the proper grading of the herd may
present some difficulties on the general farm where other
usual classes of stock must be provided for, experience
has demonstrated that it is a matter of prime importance.
The mature boars should, of course, occupy inde-
pendent quarters from the boar pigs. The boar is often
allowed to run with the bred sows, which is not objec-
tionable so long as he behaves himself. It will facilitate
his care and generally improve his opportunity for needed
exercise. Old boars may in most cases be turned to-
gether after removing their tusks, but their initial en-
counters should be supervised closely to prevent any
serious injury to either. After supremacy has been de-
cided, they will be contented and will do better together
than if kept separate.

Housing.

The hog is more or less sensitive to the extremes of
heat and cold. In the northern latitudes, warm houses

Management and Feeding in Winter 35

are necessary during the winter in order to maintain thrift
and save feed. All the classes of hogs must have com-
fortable quarters in order to do well. This is a principle
in live-stock management which no farm can afford to
ignore. The financial loss which results from undue
exposure and chill is more than would be sufficient to pro-
vide suitable structures. The hog-house must be warm
without being close, and the beds must be clean and dry
and free from much dust.

The question as to the best type of house must be
determined by the conditions. From the standpoint
of the hog, any house which is rain and wind-proof,
adequately ventilated without being drafty, and which
has a dry floor, is satisfactory if kept clean. Provision
should be made for admitting to the interior as much
direct sunlight as possible, for light is one of the most
potent means of destroying disease germs and helps to
maintain dryness. Such a house need not be elaborate
nor expensive. In order to make the proper grading of
the herd possible, the use of several houses is desirable
under most conditions. If these are portable, they may
be so placed in the pasture or lots as to encourage exercise,
an added advantage for this type of shelter.

Sows which are heavy in pig should not be allowed to
sleep together in large numbers, for they may be injured
by crowding and the tendency to pile up badly in the
coldest weather. High door-sills are dangerous for preg-
nant sows, frequently causing sprains and lameness, and
occasionally abortion. The fall pigs should have the
warmest quarters available. A low shed partly open on
the south and connected with a cement feeding floor
makes a satisfactory and practical arrangement for the
fattening shotes.

36 Pork Production

Sanitation.

One of the conditions of good health is sanitary sur-
roundings. In the winter management of the breeding
herd, the sleeping quarters should be the chief concern
in the effort to maintain healthful conditions. No hog
can thrive if his bed is damp or dusty. Rheumatism,
bad colds, coughs, and pneumonia are the ailments most
commonly the result of overcrowded dusty sleeping
quarters. Such conditions not only cause irritation to
the nasal and bronchial passages and induce colds and
rheumatism, but the dust particles may carry the germs
of disease like cholera and tuberculosis. There should
be enough air to prevent steaming and the quarters should
be cleaned with sufficient frequency to keep them clean
and free from dust.

The frequency with which the bedding should be
changed and the quarters cleaned depends chiefly on
the weather and the character of the floors. When the
weather is cold and things are frozen up tight, it is much
easier to keep the quarters dry and sanitary than when
the weather is warm and the ground soft. Likewise,
well-constructed buildings with tight floors require much
less work to keep clean than do poorly constructed houses
with leaky roofs and dirt floors. As a rule, the houses
should be cleaned thoroughly once a week. When the
bedding has been removed, it is a good plan to lay the dust
by sprinkling with crude oil. An occasional spraying
with a strong disinfectant is desirable, also, to keep the
quarters from harboring lice and disease germs. When
the weather is cold, bedding should be supplied in liberal
quantities ; when very warm, the less bedding the better
if the dust is kept down and the floors are dry.

Management and Feeding in Winter 37

Water.

The water supply should be clean and fresh and easily
accessible. Pregnant sows and young pigs especially
require considerable water to satisfy their needs. When
the water is ice-cold, the tendency is for hogs to drink
less than they need. Furthermore, that which is drunk
must be raised to the temperature of the body, which
necessitates the sacrifice of considerable food energy
when the weather is cold. When the water is given with
the feed, it will pay to heat it. Ordinarily, the effort
should be made to get them to take as much water as they
will. Patented watering devices should be cleaned fre-
quently, for they sometimes become contaminated and
may prove a constant source of infection. The water
in such devices should be kept as warm as possible by
banking manure about them or by the use of heaters.

Exercise.

The amount of exercise which the pregnant sows receive
during the winter bears an intimate relationship to the
strength and activity of the pigs which they produce in
the spring, to the ease of pigging, and the promptness of
their recovery, and to their general thrift and health
during the gestation period. The reliability of the boar
during the breeding season is conditioned on his oppor-
tunity for taking exercise throughout the seasons when he
is not in breeding service. Neglect of this during the
winter is often responsible for disappointing results in the
breeding season. The young gilts and boars must have
exercise if they are to attain the healthy development re-
quired for successful lives in the breeding herd. The ex-
periences of hog-men are so unanimous on these points that

38 Pork Production

no experimental proof is necessary to establish them as
important facts.

Weak pigs may be caused by several factors, but that
limited exercise is one of them cannot be doubted. When
the winter is severe and the snowfall heavy, the spring
pig crop is generally short. Under these conditions the
sows stay close to their beds and take little or no exercise,
with the result that the mortality among the pigs at
birth is abnormally high and trouble is more frequently
experienced with the sows in giving birth to their pigs.
Exercise promotes a loose open condition of the bowels
and does much to maintain a healthful functioning of
the other organs of elimination. Exercise contributes
strength and vitality, reduces the chances of disease,
costs nothing, and is an indispensable factor in the main-
tenance of health and breeding thrift.

As a rule, the breeding hogs will take sufficient exercise
if given the opportunity. With plenty of range, access
to pastures, stubble land, or stock fields, the sows and
gilts will be out most of the time if their rations are prop-
erly restricted. When their range is limited because of
deep snow or ice or for other reasons, the practice of
scattering on the ground some grain, sheaf oats, barley,
or legume hay for them to work over will encourage
exercise by keeping them out and on their feet. By
having the sleeping quarters placed at the far end of the
pastures or lots, they will be compelled to exercise at
feeding time. Although exercise is imperative, sows
heavy in pig should not be compelled to push their way
through snowdrifts in order to get to their feed or sleep-
ing quarters. Icy places should be made safe by covering
with straw, ashes, or litter of some kind.

Management and Feeding in Winter 39

FEEDING PREGNANT SOWS AND GILTS

Two principal objects should be sought in the winter
feeding of sows due to farrow in the spring: first, com-
plete nourishment for the sows and their developing
pigs in embryo ; and second, economy.

On the completeness of nourishment depend in large
part the general vigor and strength of the sows at farrow-
ing time, the development and strength of the pigs at
birth, and the capacity of the sows for milk secretion
after the pigs are born. Good feeding also requires that
the rations shall be cheap as well as balanced. The
cost of feeding sows during the pregnancy period repre-
sents an important item in the cost of the individual
pigs at birth, and the initial cost of the pigs is an impor-
tant factor in determining the cost of pork production.

Demands.

Before discussing specific feeds and rations, it will be
profitable to consider the physiological requirements
of the sows during this period. Mature sows, those
past two years of age, require food for two purposes : to
maintain and provide for the upkeep of their own bodies ;
and second, to supply the material for growing the embryo
pigs. Successful feeding of the mature sows during the
gestation period must provide the nourishment to satisfy
these two fundamental needs.

The amount of feed required to meet the demands for
maintenance is constant. The requirements for the
growth of the embryo pigs, on the other hand, increase
more or less gradually with advancing pregnancy. Approx-
imately 75 per cent of the growth of the foetal litter takes
place in the last month of the gestation period. As preg-

40 Pork Production

nancy advances, therefore, an increasing proportion of
the rations is needed to nourish the developing pigs.

The kind of food materials which will satisfy main-
tenance is likewise different from that required to meet
the needs of embryonic growth. The demands for
maintenance are met by food materials which will supply
the heat and energy to run the body machine and make
good the repair of body waste. To meet the needs of the
growing pigs in embryo there is demanded, in addition,
material which will produce bone and muscle. The
first is largely met by the carbohydrates of the ration,
while the latter can only be derived from the supply of
protein and mineral matter. A ration which will satisfy
both these demands in proportion is, therefore, a balanced
one.

Young sows and gilts carrying their first litters must
be fed with reference, also, to a third demand, for
their own growth and development. The first need of
the immature sow is food for maintenance, then for the
growth of her pigs in embryo. If any food remains after
these demands are satisfied, .it may be used for the in-
creased growth of her own body. If the supply of feed
is insufficient to supply all three requirements, the last
is the one to suffer. The maternal instinct of the sow is
so strong as to cause her to sacrifice, in the absence of suffi-
cient nourishment, her own energy and body tissue that
the foetal litter may have the substance for growth.

Corn alone as a feed for pregnant sows.

In the corn-belt the central question is to what extent
it is safe or advisable to make use of corn in the ration
of the pregnant sows. Outside the corn-belt, likewise,
the question is to what extent the home-grown grains

PLATE II. — Above, Pregnant sows should have range during the
winter ; below, A practical method of feeding alfalfa hay.

Management and Feeding in Winter 41

can be used. The answers to these questions should
also suggest economical and satisfactory methods of
supplementing these cereals with home-grown or pur-
chased feeds.

In the present state of our knowledge of hog-feeding
problems, no fact is more clearly established than that
corn alone for pregnant sows is not a good feed. This
is especially true during the latter part of the gesta-
tion period and for immature sows and gilts. The com-
bined experience of practical feeders and the results of a
few carefully planned studies at the experiment stations
supply strong evidence on this point. The train of evils
for which exclusive corn feeding is, in large part, held
responsible is the following: a tendency for the pigs at
birth to be weak and under-developed ; a larger propor-
tion of dead pigs; a feverish irritable condition of the
sow at farrowing time; more frequent trouble in giving
birth to their pigs ; greater tendency of the sows to develop
the pig-eating habit ; inability to secrete a normal supply
of milk for their pigs after birth, all of which means a
smaller number of pigs raised.

A sow cannot grow a strong thrifty litter of pigs on a
diet of straight corn. It does not possess enough of the
materials which make blood, bone, and muscle. A
pregnant sow so fed is certain to approach the farrowing
season in an impoverished state of health, low in vitality,
and in poor condition to bear the strain of pigging or the
later demands of milk production. This, with the weak
under-developed pigs, is the fundamental reason for the
disastrous results just enumerated.

The conclusions of practical experience regarding the
effects of exclusive corn-feeding to bred sows are supported
by recent experimental feeding trials. The results of

Pork Production

studies made by John M. Evvard, of the Iowa Experi-
ment Station, are extremely pointed and full of practi-
cal instruction in this connection. Following is a tabu-
lated statement of the results secured when corn alone was
compared with corn plus different kinds of commercial
supplements when fed during the pregnancy period to
yearling sows :

TABLE III. — STRAIGHT CORN VERSUS CORN AND A SUPPLE-
MENT (Iowa Experiment Station). TEN YEARLING Sows
IN EACH LOT 1

AVERAGE DAILY RATION
FED EACH Sow

4.97 LB. CORN

4.11 LB. CORN
.50 LB. MEAT-
MEAL OR
TANKAGE

4.06 LB. CORN
1.13LB.

LlNSEED-OlL

MEAL

Average daily gain, each
sow

59 Ib

78 Ib

67 Ib

Average weight, each
litter

1706 Ib

24 42 Ib

19 50 Ib

Average number pigs
farrowed
Average birth weight,

9.2
1.85 Ib.

10.1
2.42 Ib.

8.8
222 Ib

Vigor of pigs :
Strong, per cent . . .
Medium, per cent .
Weak, per cent . . .
Dead, per cent . . .
Condition, or fatness of
pigs:
Prime to choice, per
cent

41
35
20

85
5
5
5

76
15
5
4

Good to medium, per
cent

Fair to inferior, per cent

Proc. American Society of Animal Production, 1913.

Management and Feeding in Winter 43

All three lots of sows were kept under identical condi-
tions as regards shelter, exercise, and the like. At the
beginning of the experiment, the ten sows in each lot were
as nearly like the sows of the other lots as it was possible
to make them. Variations in the results, especially the
weight, vigor, and condition of the pigs at birth, were
chiefly due, therefore, to the rations fed.

These results speak for themselves. The birth weight
of the pigs from sows fed straight corn was nearly a half
pound lighter than that of the pigs from sows getting in
addition either meat-meal or linseed-oil meal. Chemical
analyses have revealed the deficiencies of corn in bone-
and muscle-building constituents, and the results of this
experiment are a striking demonstration of the same fact.
The starvation to which the embryo pigs in the corn-lot
were subjected was expressed not only in their small
size at birth, but also in the smaller proportion of strong
pigs and their thin condition of flesh. These differences
are especially significant since the size and value of a
pig crop for any year are limited by the thrift and vigor
of the pigs at birth.

Although corn for pregnant sows is too fattening to
be safe when fed alone, or economical in the end, this
does not mean that it is not a desirable feed when properly
supplemented. It is the abuse of corn in the hands of
careless feeders, rather than its legitimate use, that has
caused many hog-men to condemn it for breeding stock.

Other grains for pregnant sows.

Outside the corn-belt, larger use is made of such grains
as oats, barley, emmer, and wheat, as the basis of the
sow's rations during the winter. Although these grains
possess a little more bone and muscle-building constitu-

44 Pork Production

ents than corn, they are not satisfactory when fed alone
to pregnant sows. Oats is, no doubt, the safest single
grain that could be selected. The grain sorghums,
kafir and milo, are very similar to corn in composition,
but are not so palatable. Rye is not considered a good
feed for pregnant sows unless ground and fed in limited
quantities with other more bulky concentrates. Kafir,
milo, and wheat should be ground, and usually more
satisfactory results will be obtained if they are fed mixed
with other and lighter feeds. Oats, barley, and ernmer
also give better results when ground.

Value of legume hays for pregnant sows.

The legume hays, clover, alfalfa, cowpea, soybean,
field pea, vetch, lespedeza, when of fine quality, offer
one of the most valuable means of supplementing corn
or other home-grown grains. Not only is hay of this
class commonly available on every farm, but it supplies
three important elements in the brood sow ration; viz.,
bulk, protein, and lime or mineral matter. Furthermore,
these hays generally possess the desirable quality of
being laxative in their effects.

At the North Platte, Nebraska, sub-station, considerable
data of value have been accumulated showing the value
of alfalfa as a supplement to corn or other grains when
fed in various ways to pregnant sows and gilts. In the
following table is presented a brief statement of the
results of feeding gilts one part of chopped alfalfa
hay mixed with two to three parts of grain. As much
of this mixture was fed as the gilts would clean up.
When the gilts showed evidence of becoming too fat,
the proportion of grain was reduced and the alfalfa
increased.

Management and Feeding in Winter 45

TABLE IV. — WINTERING BRED GILTS ON GRAIN AND ALFALFA l

YEAR
DATE

1909-'10
Nov. 9-

MARCH15

1910-'ll
Nov. 8-
MARCH 14

?911-'12
Nov. 14-
MARCH 19

1912-'13
Nov. 4-
APRIL 1

1913--14
Nov. 4-
MARCH 25

AVERAGE
5 YEARS

Corn,

Wheat,

Rations Fed

Corn,
Barley,
Chopped
Alfalfa
Hay

Barley,
Rye,
Wheat,
Chopped
Alfalfa

Corn,
Chopped
Alfalfa
Hay

Chopped
Alfalfa
Hay,
Alfalfa
Hay in

Hay

Rack

Number gilts in

lot ....

Number days in

experiment

126

148

141

133

Pounds grain fed

each gilt dur-

ing the winter

519

501

513

694

650

575

Pounds alfalfa

fed each gilt

during the

winter .

161

253

207

237

234

218

Pounds grain fed

daily per 100

Ib. weight of

gilt ....

1.90

1.52

1.75

1.90

1.79

Pounds grain fed

daily per gilt .

4.12

3.98

4.07

4.69

4.61

4.29

Pounds alfalla

fed daily per

gilt ....

1.28

2.01

1.64

1.60

1.66

1.64

Average first

weight of gilt .

156.

201.

188.

181.

166.

178.

Average gain per

gilt ....

121.

122.

88.

130.

153.

123.

Cost 2 of feed for

wintering the

gilt ....

$5.20

$6.04

$5.36

$7.02

$8.74

$6.47

1 W. P. Snyder. Bull. 147, Neb. Exp. Sta.

2 Corn, per bushel, $.47 ; wheat, per bushel, $.70 ; barley, per
bushel, $.40 ; rye, per bushel, $.56 ; chopped alfalfa hay, $10 per
ton ; alfalfa hay, $8 per ton.

46 Pork Production

The system of feeding followed in these tests insured
large gains and the gilts were in rather heavy flesh at
farrowing time. The results were satisfactory both from
the standpoint of economy and the number and quality
of the pigs. Rather large litters of healthy pigs were
produced and no trouble occurred at farrowing time.

The figures showing the cost of wintering the gilts are
high for these experiments because of the rather large
rations fed. If the gilts had been credited with as much
of the gain in weight as remained after they had farrowed
and weaned their pigs, at the market price of pork, the
cost would have been considerably reduced. On the
other hand, the prices of the feeds should be increased
to bring the results more nearly in harmony with present
conditions.

Methods of feeding alfalfa hay.

The question of the best method of feeding alfalfa hay
to bred sows in the winter was also studied by W. P.
Snyder of the North Platte, Nebraska, sub-station.
Table V gives a summary of four years' work with special
reference to the cost of maintenance.

Lot I was fed shelled corn in a trough or on clean
ground and alfalfa in a rack. The sows in this lot were
given all the hay they would eat. Lot II was fed ground
corn mixed with an equal weight of chopped or cut alfalfa.
This mixture was moistened with water at feeding time.
Both lots had access to a small field of fall-sown rye.

In each of the four years the cost of wintering the sows
was lower in the lots fed the alfalfa in racks than when it
was chopped and the sows compelled to eat as much hay as
they were given grain. The average annual saving in the
cost of keep was $1.63 for each sow. The effect on the

Management and Feeding in Winter

resulting pig crops was not reported and it is assumed
the results were satisfactory in both lots.

TABLE V. — WINTERING YEARLING AND MATURE Sows

CHOPPED ALFALFA VERSUS ALFALFA IN RACKS

TIME

AVERAGE 4 YEARS
1910-1914

Rations Fed

I
Shelled
Corn, 2
Alfalfa
Hay in
Rack

Ground
Corn, a
Chopped
Alfalfa,
J

Average number sows in each lot ....
Average number days in experiment .
Average number bushels grain fed each sow
Average pounds alfalfa fed each sow . . .
Average pounds grain fed daily each sow
Average pounds alfalfa fed daily each sow
Average pounds grain fed daily each 100
pounds weight sow

10
121
9.90
86.
4.43
.70

1.14
341 Ib.
93 Ib.
$5.29

10
121

8.84
495.
3.99
4.05

1.04
337 Ib.
96 Ib.

$6.92

Average beginning weight of each sow . .
Average gain each sow .

Average cost 3 of feed for each sow

As the result of this study, the author of the experi-
ment draws the following conclusion : " Feeding a very
light grain ration and letting the sows eat alfalfa at will
from a rack proved a better practice than mixing the
grain and chopped alfalfa in equal proportions and thereby
compelling the sows to eat a pound of alfalfa with each
pound of grain." The important observation is also

1 Bull. 147, Neb. Exp. Sta.

2 In the 1913- 14 test, ground wheat was fed instead of shelled
corn.

3 Prices of feeds, same as those given in Table IV.

Pork Production

made that when hogs are fed alfalfa hay in a rack it is
very important that it be of fine quality.

In Table VI are given some unpublished results of
further feeding tests conducted at the North Platte,
Nebraska, sub-station by W. P. Snyder. It is an interest-
ing comparison of pregnant sows fed straight alfalfa hay
with no grain, sows fed a mixture of equal parts of corn
silage and cut alfalfa hay with access to alfalfa in a rack,
and sows fed approximately 1 per cent of their weight in
corn daily with alfalfa fed in a rack.

TABLE VI. — A COMPARISON OF RATIONS FOR PREGNANT Sows
(mostly mature) DURING 70 DAYS IN WINTER, 1914-15,
1915-16.

EQUAL PARTS

SHELLED

No CORN,

CHOPPED ALFALFA

RATIONS FED

CORN,
ALFALFA

ALFALFA
HAY IN

HAY AND CORN
SILAGE, AND

HAY IN

RACK

ALFALFA HAY IN

RACK

Average feed eaten by

each sow daily . . .

4.04 Ib.

4.91 Ib.

4.15 Ib. corn

corn,

alfalfa

silage

2.18 Ib.

4.151b. chopped

alfalfa

2.22 Ib. alfalfa

Average initial weight

from rack

of sows, Dec. 25 . .

345 Ib.

349 Ib.

362 Ib.

Average gain or loss in

32 Ib.

21 Ib.

21 Ib. loss

weight per sow, 70 da.

gain

loss

Average birth weight of

each litter ....

25.1 Ib.

21.4 Ib.

21.2 Ib.

Average birth weight

per pig

2.30 Ib.

2.23 Ib.

2.26 Ib.

Average number of pigs

raised per litter to

50 Ib

6.8

5.7

4.7

Management and Feeding in Winter 49

It would appear from these results that pregnant sows
are unable to maintain themselves and provide for the
nourishment of their embryo pigs on bulky feeds alone.
This is also the conclusion of practical experience. In
both lots where no grain was fed, the sows lost in the
seventy days an average of twenty-one pounds, and the
number of pigs raised to the litter was below that of
the sows fed some corn. Regarding the ration contain-
ing corn silage, the author of the experiment states that
a considerable proportion of the feed in this lot was
wasted. The sows picked out the corn in the silage,
but ate very little of the fodder. Close observation of
the sows during the progress of the experiment thoroughly
convinced him that nothing was to be gained by feeding
corn silage to pregnant sows.

Additional testimony of the value of a legume hay to
supplement home-grown grains for wintering pregnant sows
is supplied by tests made by W. H. Peters at the North
Dakota Experiment Station. One group of sows was fed
a grain mixture of two parts crushed barley and one part
of bran, by weight, fed as a thick mash with warm water.
The second group was fed the same mixture, but had in
addition free access to alfalfa hay fed in cheaply con-
structed racks. The amount of the mash fed in each group
was determined by the condition of the sows, the effort
being made to secure the proper gains in both lots.

In Circular No. 13 the author makes the following
observations :

"Close observation of the sows during the winter
months and during the month of March, while they were
farrowing, leads to the following conclusions:

1st. "It was possible to replace one-third of the grain
ration for brood sows with alfalfa hay.

50 Pork Production

2nd. "It required 1.04 pounds of alfalfa hay to re-
place 1 pound of grain.

3rd. "The feeding of alfalfa afforded an excellent
means of getting the sows to take more exercise than
they do when fed grain alone.

4th. "No trouble at all was experienced by any of
the sows in farrowing.

5th. "The sows fed alfalfa hay farrowed just as large,
strong, and uniform litters of pigs as did the sows not
receiving it.

6th. "The sows fed alfalfa appeared to milk better
and nurse their pigs a little better than did those not
receiving hay.

7th. "The results obtained in this trial indicate that
it is practical and advisable to feed as much alfalfa hay
to brood sows in winter as they will eat, regulating the
additional grain ration so as to keep the sows in the
proper condition."

Methods of balancing corn for pregnant gilts.

In Table VII are reported results of further investi-
gations by Evvard of the Iowa Experiment Station. In
this experiment a study was made of the relation of the
rations fed pregnant gilts during the winter to the weight,
vigor, and condition of the pigs produced.1

The corn fed in each ration was ear corn with the ex-
ception of the lot receiving cut clover, when it was shelled
to facilitate mixing. The meat-meal fed was the best
grade, containing 60 per cent protein and 14 per cent
mineral matter. The quantity of corn fed was estimated
on the shelled basis. The clover was of only fair quality,

1 Vols. VII and VIII, A. B. A.

Management and Feeding in Winter

TABLE VII. — SUPPLEMENTS FOR CORN FOR WINTER FEEDING BRED GILTS
(Iowa Experiment Station)
FIVE GILTS IN EACH LOT

10' CD

C3
c3

r/T

-3

cf
1

03
P.

co
o

.a
a

'rt
o>

C b
.0

ill!

&5o6

CO
i— i

^H 10

^ 3

|«|

-a

05
05

O5 IO
1> 00

VIGOR OF PIGS

CO
CO
10

CO
00

0 (N

o
<M'

iO
CD 0

"*!

^00
CD

CO O5
00 00

|i|ll

CO
CN

•<*

a i

iMUJ(J|

•CO

CD
O

^ CD
CD t>I

!^l|

cb
05

O
O5

3 2

|§gsgg

<U3

S3 S

AVERAGE DAILY RATION FED EACH
GILT

a d

o o

meat-meal . . .
corn

meat-meal . . .

corn
meal mixture l
corn

cut clover
molasses . . .
corn

'o 'o

a a

• rH "+

t-t CJ

III
o o c3

^JDXJJD^^JOJO^^XJ^-Q^

CO <N

CO IO CO

CO 1> 00
1> 0 b-

CO CD l>
iO <N CO

SSIS

CO CO O <N

~z S

(M T-( CO

6 ^

TH O CO O CO "-"

& 6

52 Pork Production

but quite leafy, while the alfalfa was of the third and fourth
cuttings and choice in grade. The hay fed in racks was
in the long condition. The molasses used was ordinary
black strap, which was fed by diluting and sprinkling
on the cut clover. The gilts selected were in a thrifty
growing condition, and averaged approximately 210
pounds at the beginning of the experiment. The test
covered a period of 140 days, beginning with the start
of the breeding season and continuing to the middle of the
farrowing season.

The best rations fed in this experiment, as measured
by the vigor and condition of the pigs farrowed and the
weight of the pigs at birth, were in lots, II, III, and VII,
the first two receiving with their corn meat-meal in differ-
ent proportions, and the last alfalfa hay in a rack. The
gilts in these lots also made the most rapid gains. The
feed cost of each pig at birth was lowest in the lots receiving
meat-meal.

The disastrous results of exclusive corn feeding to bred
gilts are here demonstrated, and also, different methods
of balancing this corn. The benefits derived from feed-
ing a small amount of high grade meat-meal or tankage,
as shown in this and other tests, are due to the extreme
richness of these meat products in flesh and bone-forming
substances. It is also a matter of considerable practical
importance to know that clover or alfalfa fed in a rack,
if of fine quality, will be eaten in sufficient amounts
apparently to balance the corn or other grains.

Other protein supplements.

In addition to tankage or meat-meal and linseed-oil
meal, other commercial feeds of the same class are exten-
sively used to balance home-grown rations for pregnant

Management and Feeding in Winter 53

sows during the winter. For the amount of dry matter
carried, skim-milk occupies a position next to the packing-
house products in its content of protein. When avail-
able and fed with judgment, pasteurized skim-milk is
one of the cheapest amd most desirable supplements.
Buttermilk, when not diluted, is practically identical
with skim-milk in feeding value. Whey is a carbohydrate
feed, very thin, and of little value as a means of balancing
the grains. Wheat middlings, shorts, and bran are
standard hog-feeds and extensively used by most feeders.
Although containing, on the average, no more than one-
fourth as much protein as high-grade tankage, or one-
half as much as linseed-oil meal, they are valuable as a
part of the grain ration when their price does not exceed
their value.

The value of succulence.

When available, green crops and roots constitute a
desirable element in the ration of the brood sows during
the winter. When supplied as additions to the regular
fare, they furnish, with some food, the property of suc-
culence conducive to the maintenance of breeding thrift
and a healthful condition of the digestive system. In
the South green crops may be depended on for the main
support of the brood sows during the first part of the
winter. In Canada and the northern states, roots are
frequently used as a large part of the daily ration, fed
sliced, pulped, or in the whole condition. In Denmark,
England, Scotland, and Ireland, roots in some form are
considered as practically an essential part of the ration
for pregnant sows.

In the corn-belt and similar latitudes, as much use
should be made of green feeds like fall-sown rye, blue-

54 Pork Production

grass, tame pastures, clover, and alfalfa, as the weather
and other conditions make possible. The use of corn
silage, clover, and alfalfa silage, and pea-cannery waste
has been favorably reported on for pregnant sows when
the feeds were of good quality. When fed with care and
with the main purpose of supplying succulence, they may
be used in limited amounts with safety. Corn silage
is so bulky, however, as practically to exclude it from
the list of hog-feeds. As a rule, such provisions for the
breeding herd will mean more exercise, cheaper cost of
maintenance, and a more vigorous condition of health.
The necessity of feeding salt to hogs has not been
clearly established, but it is the belief of the best hog-
men that it is beneficial, especially for sows in pig. When
the sows are given the opportunity to eat salt at will,
they do not take more, apparently, than their systems
need. To make certain that the needs of the sows for
other minerals are also satisfied, it is a good practice
to give them constant access to a self-feeder containing
a mixture of the mineral elements most frequently lack-
ing in the ration. A combination of 12 parts charcoal,
3 parts of air-slacked lime, ground bone, or ground rock
phosphate, and 1 part common salt will be eaten with
relish and apparent benefit. The addition of wood-
ashes in the same quantity as the lime would probably
improve the combination.

Conclusions.

Summarizing the foregoing, the following fundamental
facts may be set down as practical guides in compound-
ing rations for pregnant sows :

First, Every ration must be balanced; i.e., should
contain more muscle and bone-forming material than is

Management and Feeding in Winter 55

contained in corn and most of the other grains. This is
particularly true for gilts and for older sows during the
last six weeks of pregnancy.

Second, The supply of protein necessary to balance the
ration should be obtained largely from home-grown
legumes. If this hay is of fine quality, access to pur-
chased supplements like tankage, linseed-oil meal, and
shorts or bran will be unnecessary, in most instances, until
the later stages of the gestation period.

Third, Every brood sow ration should contain some
bulky material, such as hay, and the amount eaten
should ordinarily be left to the judgment, or instinct,
of the sows themselves.

Fourth, When possible, there should always be the
opportunity for the sows to get some green or other
succulent feeds, largely because of their tonic and regu-
lative effects, and

Fifth, As a rule, the most economical ration is the one
most largely made up from home-grown sources.

The experimental facts presented in the preceding
chapter and the principles deduced from them will help
in formulating specific rations. In the table on the fol-
lowing page different groups of standard hog-feeds are
shown, from which may be selected the ration which is
available and cheapest for a given set of conditions.

Any of the rations recommended in this table for
mature sows during the last six weeks of pregnancy will
be appropriate for bred gilts.

An extremely large number of combinations may be
selected from these groups. From Group I, for example,
the following ration for the corn-belt may prove the most
economical and suitable for some conditions : First ten
weeks, corn, with fine quality clover hay fed in a rack;

Pork Production

Last six weeks, 12 parts corn and 1 part tankage (8
per cent), by weight, with fine quality clover hay fed in
a rack.

TABLE VIII.

SUGGESTED WINTER RATIONS FOR MATURE
PREGNANT Sows *

FIRST 10 WEEKS

LAST 6 WEEKS

Group I
Home-grown grain +
fine quality legume hay

Home-grown grain +
6 to 8% best grade tankage or
meat-meal, by weight ; or,
(12 to 16% linseed-oil meal),
or, (30 to 40% middlings or
shorts), or,
(65 to 75% skim-milk or but-
termilk) ,
+ fine quality of legume hay.

Group II
Home-grown grain +
green crops

Home-grown grain +
one of the commercial supple-
ments given in Group 1 +
green crops or roots.

Group III
Home-grown grain +
5 to 6% tankage or meat-
meal, or,
(10 to 12% linseed-oil meal),
or,
(25 to 30% shorts or mid-
dlings or bran).

Home-grown grain -f-
7 to 10% tankage or meat-
meal, or,
(14 to 20 % linseed-oil meal), or,
(40 to 50 % shorts or middlings
or bran).

With oats or barley in place of corn, as in the West
and North, and fine quality of alfalfa hay instead of
clover, the amount of tankage required would be less, and

1 The percentages given apply to the entire concentrated part
of the ration, including the supplement. For example, 6 per
cent of tankage means 94 parts corn and 6 parts tankage, rather
than 100 parts corn to 6 of tankage.

Management and Feeding in Winter 57

6 per cent might be better than 8. Furthermore, the
supply of protein in the Northwest might be purchased
more cheaply in mill feeds than in tankage, in which case
12 per cent linseed-oil meal or 25 per cent middlings or
shorts should be used. In dairy districts, where only
cream or butter are sold, skim-milk or buttermilk would
probably supply the necessary protein in cheaper form
than any of the other supplements listed. In the South,
where the hog-man may have the advantage of forage
crops a good part of the winter, a ration selected from
Group II would probably most nearly fit his conditions.
In Group III are suggested combinations for those condi-
tions when good hay, roots, or other succulent feeds
are not available. Instead of using a single grain, the
conditions may warrant a combination of two or more.
When the cost is the same, a mixture is commonly to be
preferred.

A ration more rich in protein is required by mature sows
during the latter stages of the gestation period because
the bone and muscular tissues of the young pigs are being
formed more rapidly than in the earlier stages. There
is an increasing and more or less regular demand for
these growing constituents from breeding to farrowing
time. If the ration used during the first part of the
winter is gradually changed to the one selected for the
last six weeks, the actual demands of the mature sow will
be met approximately.

Bred gilts under a year old and yearling sows need a
larger proportion of protein in their rations than recom-
mended in the above table for mature sows. Partic-
ularly is this true for the first part of the pregnancy period.
The gilt, in addition to the requirements for maintenance
and the growth of her embryo litter, must have food for

58 Pork Production

her own growth if the effects of the early breeding are
not to prove detrimental to her future development.
During the last six weeks, the need for protein supple-
ments is believed to be practically the same for the gilts as
for the mature sows. The reasons for this are that the
older sows are fed a lighter ration for their weight, while
the demands made on them by the growing litter in
utero is larger because of its size.

Amount to feed.

In feeding pregnant sows, the purpose should be to
feed just that amount which will bring each sow to the
farrowing season in the condition of flesh which will best
enable her to perform for her pigs her full duty as a mother.
Even with a balanced ration, plenty of exercise, and
comfortable quarters, it is possible by careless feeding
to ruin or greatly reduce the chances of a good pig crop.
At least one-half of the successful feeding of breeding
stock is in the careful regulation of the amount fed. The
sows must be neither too fat nor too thin. The extremely
fat sow is a pig killer and a poor milker, and, as a result
of her usual indisposition to take sufficient exercise
during the previous months, her pigs at birth are weak
and low in vitality. On the other hand, an extremely
thin half-starved condition should be avoided, for such
a sow will lack the reserve energy necessary for the proper
nourishment of her pigs both before and after birth.
The ideal is to have the sow at farrowing time in what
is known as a strong, but active, breeding condition.

If the mature sow is in a thin active condition at the
beginning of the breeding season in the fall, she should be
fed to gain during the winter from 75 to 85 pounds. From
the standpoint of economy, as well as in the results ob-

Management and Feeding in Winter 59

tained, she should gain as much during the breeding and
gestation periods as she loses in farrowing and the sub-
sequent nursing period. The loss of weight during these
times will depend chiefly on the number of pigs farrowed
and the ability of the sow as a milker, and cannot be pre-
dicted. The most prolific and heavy milking sow in the
herd, however, will usually make a gain during the pre-
vious months considerably in excess of the average.

It is probably true that every brood sow, as well as
every other breeding animal, has a best weight which
varies during the year according as the nature of her
work as a producer changes. The diagram in Fig. 3
represents what is believed to be the best approximate
weight curve for a sow a little above the average in pro-
lificacy and weighing 325 pounds in thin flesh at the
beginning of the breeding season. The variations in
weight shown from breeding to weaning time are based
on average figures obtained from a study of the weight
records of a herd of twenty sows through several breed-
ing seasons. This study has led to the conclusion that
the herd of mature sows that is thin to start with will,
if made to gain 75 to 85 pounds during the breeding and
gestation periods, be approximately of the same weight
and condition of flesh at the time of weaning their pigs
as they were when the breeding season began, when
properly fed.

According to this curve, the sows should make most
of their gains during the last six weeks of the pregnancy
period. This is natural, for the reason that the pigs in
embryo make practically 75 per cent of their growth
during this time. If the sows make a gain, on the aver-
age, of one-third of a pound daily for the first sixty days
of pregnancy, one pound daily in the next thirty days, and

Management and Feeding in Winter

one-half pound daily during the last three weeks, the
rate of gain will closely approximate that shown in the
diagram.

The amount of concentrates necessary to secure this
ideal condition will vary chiefly with the kind of concen-
trates fed and the availability and quality of the hay,
grass, or other succulent feeds which may be supplied in
addition. It will also be influenced largely by the weather
and the type and disposition of the sows in the herd.

In Table IX is the summarized record of the average
weight, the gains made, and the concentrates fed each
hundredweight for 101 mature sows, 40 yearling sows,
and 155 gilts. Most of the data on which these averages
are based have been reported previously in this chapter.
(See Tables III, IV, V, and VII.) In twelve of the nine-
teen rations fed these sows, alfalfa or clover hay was
given in addition to the concentrates. Most of the rations
fed were well balanced.

TABLE IX. — AMOUNT OF CONCENTRATES FED PREGNANT Sows
IN WINTER

AGE OF Sows

AVERAGE
WEIGHT OF
Sows

AVERAGE GAIN
EACH Sow

CONCENTRATES
FED DAILY
EACH 100#
WEIGHT

Average for 101 mature
sows

Ib.
387

Ib.
90

Ib.

1.07

Average for 40 yearling
sows

306

1 62

Average for 155 gilts .

243

1.61

These figures show that when mature sows have access
to alfalfa, a daily ration equal in amount of concentrates
to 1 per cent of their weight was approximately sufficient

62 Pork Production

to secure an adequate gain during the pregnancy period.
In view of the fact that they will eat treble this amount
if given the opportunity, the folly of measuring the amount
fed by the appetite is apparent. In practice, the only
safe rule to follow is to measure the amount by the condi-
tion and weight of the sows.

The gilts were fed, on the average, 1.61 pounds of con-
centrates daily for each hundredweight, and made the
average gain of 94 pounds during the pregnancy period.
The gilts fed at the North Platte, Nebraska, station re-
ceived chopped alfalfa hay with their grain, while those
at the Iowa station were not given any roughage.

Gilts must be fed more heavily during the pregnancy
period than mature sows because in addition to the
demands for maintenance and the developing pigs, their
own requirements for growth should be provided for.
Although their loss of weight at farrowing time and
during the suckling period is less than with mature sows,
their gains may safely be made larger. In actual prac-
tice, the purpose should be to keep the young sows thrifty
and growing without endangering their activity by
allowing them to become too fat.

The extent to which early breeding of gilts may result
in a permanent check to their development is largely
determined by the kind and amount of the rations fed
during the first gestation period. As with mature sows,
the best guide to follow in feeding pregnant gilts is to
limit the amount by their condition.

Preparation of feeds and method of feeding.

It seems to make little difference whether the sows
are fed their concentrates in a wet or a dry condition,
although many still maintain that the feeding of slops is

Management and Feeding in Winter 63

essential, especially during the last weeks of pregnancy.
When feeding meals and supplements like shorts, bran,
tankage, or oil-meal, it is often thought better to feed as a
slop, as less is wasted or blown away. It is often most con-
venient, also, to water the sows with their feed, and when
the weather is extremely cold heating the water and feed-
ing the slop warm is beneficial. However, more and
more hog raisers are being converted to the dry-feeding
method. That the sows will do equally well and that
the system requires less work and bother than slop feed-
ing, is the verdict of those who have tried both methods.

Cooking is a detriment rather than a benefit with the
usual hog-feeds. The effect of grinding and soaking is
slight and of doubtful value in practice, except with
small hard grains like rye, wheat, kafir, and very dry
corn. With pregnant sows whose rations are limited
to no more than one-half the amount they are capable
of eating, special methods of preparation for the pur-
pose of insuring greater palatability are not justified.

The self-feeder method of feeding pregnant sows and
gilts during the winter would appear to be safe when
handled under favorable conditions by a careful feeder.
With good quality of alfalfa or clover hay cut fine or
ground and mixed with ground corn and the proportion
of hay so regulated that the consumption of corn will
not exceed the amount necessary to maintain the proper
condition and weight, good results may be secured. How-
ever, great care must be exercised that the consumption
of corn is not excessive. In the hands of a careless feeder,
the indiscriminate use of the self-feeder would prove
disastrous. Under general conditions it is doubtful
whether this method of feeding will ever prove generally
successful for feeding sows in pig.

64 Pork Production

FEEDING THE MATURE BOAR

It is as important that the mature boar be properly fed
during the winter as that he have a reasonable amount
of exercise and sanitary quarters. His energy and breed-
ing capacity in May will be conditioned largely on the
care exercised in his feeding during the winter. Prac-
tically the same combination of feeds recommended for
the mature sows during this time is suitable for the boar.
However, since under average conditions his quarters
are more restricted and his opportunity for grazing more
limited than the sows', his ration should contain a larger
variety. In the absence of some legume hay or succulent
feed, wheat-bran or linseed-oil meal should be added to
forestall any tendency to constipation. The amount of
feed should be limited to practically a maintenance
ration. Nine out of every ten mistakes in feeding the
mature boar arise from supplying him too liberally and
allowing him to become too fat. This means not only
a waste of feed but a serious handicap on his future
breeding powers. The amount fed should, therefore,
be determined by his condition and weight and any gain
deferred to just before the opening of the next breeding
season.

FEEDING THE OPEN GILTS AND YOUNG BOARS

The prime object in feeding young prospective breed-
ing stock is to secure a strong and reasonably rapid de-
velopment. With this end in view, the gilts which are
not bred and boars of the same age should receive rations
during the winter which will promote growth rather than
the production of fat. Their demands for bone and
muscular development should be supplied and a tendency

Management and Feeding in Winter 65

to over-fatness and inactivity opposed. However, a
reasonable amount of fat is an evidence of growth and
thrift and should not be received as a danger signal
and with starvation rations. The nice point in feeding
hogs of this class is to give them just the amount of feed
that will secure good growth, yet not enough to permit
them to become too fat. The experienced judgment
of the practical feeder is the most valuable asset in ob-
taining this result.

The best ration to feed will depend on the conditions,
especially the supply and price of feeds. In practice,
the same ration fed the bred gilts will be suitable and
most practical for the open gilts and young boars. During
much of the winter, in fact, the gilts may be fed in the
same troughs.

THE FEED COST OF WINTERING PREGNANT SOWS

The cost of feeding a pregnant sow during the winter
is subject to wide fluctuations, largely due to variations
in the price of feeds and also to the opportunity and judg-
ment of the feeder in the selection of the rations. Varia-
tions in the weather and other natural conditions are
also influences which cannot be estimated. It is be-
lieved, however, that the practical need for basal figures
on the cost of producing pork is great enough to warrant
study at this time, even in the absence of any systematic
and extended investigations on which to base the study.

Basing the calculations for mature sows on the average
number of pounds of concentrates and other feed re-
quired to produce, according to experimental tests, the
amount of gain desired during the winter, it is possible
to obtain reliable figures fairly representative of average

Pork Production

conditions. According to the data reported earlier, a
mature pregnant sow, weighing on the average 350 pounds
in the middle of the winter, may be fed to gain 90 pounds
during the 126 days on a daily ration, approximately,
of 3.75 pounds of concentrates, mostly corn, and 1.65
pounds of alfalfa hay. (See page 61.) For a gain of
75 pounds, 3.50 pounds of concentrates and 1.50 pounds
of fine quality alfalfa hay would probably be sufficient.
According to the Scandinavian feed unit system,1 1.50
pounds of alfalfa hay is equivalent in feed value to .75
pound of concentrates like corn, wheat, shorts, or linseed-
oil meal. Reducing the hay to terms of grain, or feed
units, the daily ration would be 4.25 feed units for a sow
averaging 350 pounds. Charging at the rates of 1 cent
to 2J cents for each feed unit, or pound of concentrates,
the cost would be as represented in Table X.

TABLE X. — AVERAGE COST OP FEEDING 101 MATURE PREG-
NANT Sows DURING THE WINTER

POUNDS OF CON-
CENTRATES FED
DAILY

POUNDS OF AL-
FALFA HAY FED
DAILY

TOTAL FEED
UNITS FED
DAILY

PRICE PER FEED
UNIT

TOTAL COST
126 DAYS

•

1 cent

$ 5.35

lj cents

$ 6.70

3.50 Ib.

1£ cents

$ 8.02

mostly corn

1.50 Ib.

4.25

If cents

$ 9.37

2 cents

$10.71

2| cents

$13.39

1 Henry and Morrison : " Feeds and Feeding." A feed unit
is a pound of concentrated feed. One pound of corn, 1 pound
of shorts or middlings, 1 pound of linseed-oil meal, or 1 pound
of tankage, etc., is equal to one feed unit; while 1.4 pounds of
bran, 1.1 pounds oats, 6 pounds of skim-milk, 12 pounds of whey,
or 2 pounds of alfalfa are equivalent to one feed unit.

Management and Feeding in Winter

The rates of charges used above are practically equiva-
lent to corn at 56 cents, 70 cents, 84 cents, 98 cents, $1.12,
and $1 .40 a bushel, respectively. By the use of some legume
hay of fine quality and a limited use of some nitrogenous
or protein supplement during the last six weeks of preg-
nancy, the feed cost under average conditions would be
reduced about 10 per cent.

TABLE XI. — AVERAGE COST OF FEEDING 155 PREGNANT
GILTS DURING THE WINTER

TOTAL AVERAGE
FEED UNITS FED
DAILY EACH GILT

TOTAL AVERAGE
GAIN EACH GILT
126 DAYS

PRICE OF FEED
UNIT

TOTAL COST 126
DAYS

at 1 cent

$ 5.67

at lj cents

$ 7.09

4.50

94 lb.

at H cents

$ 8.50

at If cents

$ 9.92

at 2 cents

$11.34

at 2| cents

$14.17

TABLE XII. — ESTIMATED COST OF FEEDING THE OPEN GILT
6 MONTHS DURING THE WINTER (200 to 300 lb.)

CONCENTRATES, OR

TOTAL CONCEN-

FEED UNIT, REQUIRED
FOR EACH 100 POUNDS

TRATES, OR FEED
UNITS, EATEN IN

FEED COST FOR 180

DAYS

GAIN

180 DAYS

at 1 cent per lb.

— $ 5.00

at 11 cents per lb.

- $ 6.25

500 lb.

at 1^ cents per lb.

- $ 7.50

at If cents per lb.

- $ 8.75

at 2 cents per lb.

- $10.00

at 2^ cents per lb.

— $12.50

68 Pork Production

According to the data reported in Table IX, 155 bred
gilts gained during the winter an average of 94 pounds
on a daily ration of 1.61 pounds of concentrates for each
hundredweight, with a little less than one-half pound
of alfalfa hay for each sow daily. This is practically
equivalent to 4| pounds of feed units, or pounds of con-
centrates, daily for a gilt weighing an average of 250
pounds during the winter. Figuring the feed units, or
concentrates, at the same prices used in Table X, the
results are as shown in Table XL

CHAPTER IV

CARE AND FEEDING OF THE SOW AND
LITTER

THE foundations of a successful farrowing season are
laid in the winter by the proper feeding and care of the
sows during pregnancy, but the number of pigs saved
and finally raised is largely a question of the thought and
attention to details which the man in charge is disposed
to give the herd during and immediately following the
farrowing season.

CARE DURING THE FARROWING SEASON

An important step in preparation for the farrow-
ing season is to see that the farrowing-pens are
ready and in order. They should be given a thorough
cleaning and then sprayed with a strong disinfectant.
It is very important also that the floors be dry and warm.
Probably the most ideal floor is concrete covered with
wood, but a good dirt or clay bottom is satisfactory if
kept dry and free from dust. Bare concrete or cement
floors are cold and often become damp.

There should be guard rails on the sides of the pen
projecting out 8 or 10 inches from the walls and about
8 inches from the floor. These frequently will save a
pig from being crushed by a restless mother. In Fig. 4
is a suggestion for a pig-nest which may be placed in
one corner. In very cold weather this is of value in keep-
ing the pigs warm as well as offering a place of safety.

Pork Production

It is covered with loose slats on which straw is piled. The
straw will absorb the dampness and reflect much of the
heat from the bodies of the pigs. If kept well padded with
straw below, the pigs will be cozy on the coldest days.

When the pens are thoroughly dry, they should be
bedded carefully. The kind and amount of bedding to
use is of considerable importance, especially the latter.
Any good absorbent that is dry and will lie close to the
floor is satisfactory. Rye or wheat straw is preferred
to oat straw. Cut straw, shredded stover, any fine-
stemmed hay, or sawdust, when available, are highly

FIG. 4. — Framework in corner of farrowing pen for a pig-nest.

considered, for they interfere little with the efforts of
the newborn pig to reach the mother's teat. A great
pile of loose straw is an evidence of mistaken kindness.
As a rule, the less bedding used the better. A very thin
covering on the bare floor is sufficient, especially when the
weather is not severe.

With early pigs, especially in the North, provision for
the supply of artificial heat will often be desirable, even
with a good piggery. An old stove or heater fixed up in
one end of the hog-house may often be the means of saving
the pigs in a particularly severe spell of weather.

Care and Feeding of Sow and Litter

Preliminary care and feeding.

The sow should be removed from the general herd and
placed in her farrowing-pen a few days before she is
expected to pig. This will enable her to become ac-
quainted with her new quarters and will serve to make her
more contented when pigging. By this procedujp she
will also become accustomed to the presence of the herds-
man, which is important later in the case of herself and
litter. An effective way to quiet a nervous sow is to
give her a daily brushing. If the sow is taken out from
the general quarters as soon after the one-hundredth day
as accommodations are available, the chance that she will
farrow outside will be reduced to a minimum.

FARROWING RECORD

NUMBER
OF Sow

DATE OP

SERVICE

DATE DUE

DATE
FARROWED

NUMBER AND
SEX OF PIGS

EAR- NOTCH
NUMBER

Nov. 10

Mar. 2

Nov. 12

Mar. 4

etc.

The importance of a record of the date of service is
apparent at this time, as it is impossible, with any reliable
degree of accuracy, to tell by the appearance of a sow
just when she will pig. The usual signs of approaching
farrow are a filling of the udder and teats and a mild
spirit of unrest. When she begins carrying litter or
arranging her bedding for a nest, she may be expected
to farrow within twelve hours. Without a record, con-
stant observation of the sows is imperative, and even
with it is still desirable. A farrowing sheet should be
made out and posted in a convenient place in the barn.
This should contain the number, date of service, and the

72 Pork Production

date due, of each sow in the herd, with blank spaces for
recording the date of farrowing, the number and sex of
the pigs, and the ear-notch number of each litter.

Opportunity for some exercise should be given the sow
after she has been removed to the farro wing-pen. It too
frequently happens that she is shut in a pen with no
liberty to move about. This is certain to aggravate the
tendency to constipation as well as to make it difficult
to keep her quarters in a dry sanitary condition. If a lot
is not accessible to the farrowing-pen, the sows that are
up should be turned together in an open yard for a part
of the day to work over some clover or alfalfa hay.

It is very important that the ration of the sow be care-
fully regulated in the days just preceding farrowing.
Two important changes should be made in her feeding ;
the ration must be made more laxative and the amount
reduced. She will need less food under the more restricted
conditions, and her recovery from farrowing will be more
prompt if her digestive system is kept well cleared. Any
tendency to constipation is dangerous. By feeding with
the grain a quantity of wheat-bran or linseed-oil meal,
her droppings will be kept in proper condition. A safe
rule or practice to follow at this time is to cut her grain
ration in half and add to it one-half its bulk in wheat-
bran. One pound, or about a quart, of this mixture to
the feed just before farrowing is sufficient.

Care at farrowing time.

The previous treatment of the sow will determine
largely the results at farrowing time. If she has taken
plenty of exercise during the preceding months, has been
fed properly, and is in a strong active condition, she will
cause little concern. With all preparations made, the

Care and Feeding of Sow and Litter 73

attitude of the man in charge should be that of " watchful
waiting." With a large number of sows to farrow, he
should be at his post constantly during the day and every
three hours at night, especially if the weather is severe.

It is sometimes desirable to remove the pigs as they are
born to a half-barrel or basket lined with straw. With
a six-tined manure fork or long-handled shovel, this may
be accomplished without annoyance to the sow. If the
weather is very cold, a few warm bricks or a jug of hot
water may be placed in the basket, or the pigs may be
taken to a warmer room until dry, when they should be
put back to the sow for nourishment. If the sow is
nervous and irritable, it may be desirable to keep the pigs
away from her for several days, giving them the oppor-
tunity to nurse every two or three hours.

Gilts which are not in good breeding condition frequently
have trouble in giving birth to their pigs. As soon as it is
evident that protracted labor is of no avail, help should
be given promptly. A small hand and arm, thoroughly
cleaned and smeared with vaseline, is the best instrument.
In fact, the unskillful use of pig-extractors is usually un-
successful and often a cause of injury to the organs of the
sow. Without some knowledge of the positions of the fe-
male parts, she should have the attention of a veterinarian.

The after-birth should be removed as soon as the sow
has cleaned and be burned or buried. If allowed to
remain in the pen she may eat it, which many believe will
encourage the development of the pig-eating vice. Dead
pigs also should be removed promptly for the same
reason. The next day after farrowing the pen should be
cleaned thoroughly and fresh litter supplied. Air-slacked
lime or gypsum scattered on the floor has a cleansing and
drying effect.

74 Pork Production

Needle teeth.

By an examination of the mouths of the pigs at this
time, it will be found that they are all born with the
so-called needle or black teeth. In Fig. 5 is shown
their appearance at birth. These teeth are normal,
inclined to be flat, but with sharp edges and are generally
brown in tinge at the tip. Needle teeth are not a source

of trouble to the owner, but to
the pig with whom he fights.
These are temporary tusks and
considerable laceration of the
mouth and gums results in the
usual course of events. These
injuries become infected and a
sore mouth is the result. Hog-
men who give their pigs the
most care believe, as a rule,
FIG. 5. — Showing "needle" in removing these teeth soon

teeth of pig at birth. /,. i • ,1 rm • i i i i

after birth. This should be

done carefully with regular forceps made for the purpose,
or with a pair of small pliers. The effort should be to
get a clean break without leaving any jagged splinters.

Feeding just after farrowing.

After farrowing the sow is in a feverish state for several
days, and she will want and should be offered no food
for practically twenty-four hours. She should be given
plenty of fresh water, however, with the chill taken off.
Special care should be exercised in her feeding the first
week. The promptness of her recovery and the success
with which she comes to her milk-flow will be determined
largely by the judgment employed. The same kind
of rations should be used after farrowing as just before.

Care and Feeding of Sow and Litter 75

Rather thin slops of meal, containing little or no corn,
will give the best results. A supply of shorts, bran, and
ground oats or barley is excellent to have on hand during
this time. A safe procedure to follow in feeding is the
following : the first day give her plenty of water, but no
feed ; the second day, give her one double-handful of
meal to the feed (a double-handful of meal containing
a desirable proportion of bran and shorts will weigh
about one-half pound) ; the third day, two double-
handfuls to the feed; the fourth day, three; and each
of the three succeeding days, four double-handfuls to
the feed. This is equivalent to 1 pound the second
day, 2 pounds the third, 3 pounds the fourth, and 4
pounds for each of the remaining days of the first week.
The practice of giving the sow a mild physic the day after
farrowing in the form of 1-^- to 2 tablespoonfuls of Epsom
salts is a good one. If the sow is normal, she should be
brought up to full feed during the second week by having
her feed increased at the rate of -J- to 1 pound each day.

Pig-eaters.

It is probably true that a normal well-nourished sow
rarely eats her pigs. At least, sufficient protein and
mineral matter in the winter ration, plenty of exercise,
and light laxative feeds during the farrowing season
will reduce to a minimum the loss from this vice. A sow
fed in restricted quarters during the pregnancy period
on a diet of straight corn is certain to have a natural
craving at this time for bone and muscle foods, and the
usual result is that the pig is the victim. This, after
all, is simply the working out of the law of compensation,
for the growth of the embryo litter on such a diet was
only possible through the extensive sacrifice by the sow

76 Pork Production

of the lime of her skeleton and the protein of her muscular
tissues. In eating her pigs, she is merely taking back
her own body substance which her maternal instinct
caused her to appropriate for the nourishment of the
litter during pregnancy. A balanced diet is unquestion-
ably the best prevention, and the only successful cure
for habitual cases is the fattening-pen.

Sanitation and exercise.

Clean dry beds, sunshine, and exercise are indispensable
to the health and progress of the pigs tte first few weeks.
Damp filthy quarters are responsible for the origin and
aggravation of nearly all the pigs' ailments. Sore tails,
infected mouths, scours, and a general lack of thrift are
the direct results of such conditions. The pigs should
have the opportunity to lie in the sun as much as possible.
Pigs, like plants, will not thrive in dark places. Exercise,
also, seems indispensable. If the weather outside is bad,
they should be given the liberty of the alley for a part of
each day. Fragments of paper scattered about on the
floor or a pile of loose straw will have the effect of stimu-
lating action. Perhaps the ideal condition for the sow
and litter is supplied by the single cot set in a fairly roomy
yard which is set to blue-grass. Even in the colder
latitudes, a well-constructed single house will be warm
enough for the pigs after they are a week or two old.

Marking the litters.

In pedigreed herds, it is necessary to give each litter
an identification mark so that the parentage of each pig
may be determined later by reference to the herd record.
In herds kept exclusively for the production of market
pork, such a record is desirable to make more certain

Care and Feeding of Sow and Litter

that the future brood sows shall be selected from the best
litters and prolific strains. The scheme universally
employed for this identification is some system of ear-
notches made with a special ear-marker or an ordinary
harness-punch. There is a great variety in these systems,
resulting from the individual ideas of breeders and the
size of the herds. The following system is commonly
used when the number of litters to be marked is not large :

A PLAN OF EAR-NOTCHING FOR IDENTIFYING LITTERS

NAME, MARK,
OR NUMBER
OF Sow

NOTCHES
OUTER
RIGHT

NOTCHES
OUTER
LEFT

NOTCHES
INNER
RIGHT

NOTCHES
INNER
LEFT

Etc.

All the pigs in the litter are given the same mark. The
first litter farrowed, according to the above plan, would
be given the ear-notch number 1, one notch in the outer rim
of the right ear, the second would be litter number 2, the

Pork Production

third litter number 3, and the like. The notches should
be broad and deep enough to be legible without catching
the pig, yet not so large that the ear will be disfigured.
The notches are often made larger than necessary since
they increase in size with the growth of the pig.

A second plan of ear-notching is suggested by A. J.
Lovejoy in his book, "Forty Years' Experience of a
Practical Hog Man." According to this scheme, each
notch in the outer right ear counts one, each one in the

— I

FIG. 6. — Illustrating the second plan of ear-notching.

outer left three, in the inner left thirty, and in the inner
right ten, as shown in Fig. 6.

In this scheme, the number of the litter is determined
by adding together the figures for which the notches stand.
For example, one notch in the outer rim of the right ear
would be litter number 1, while two notches in the outer
right would be litter number 2 (1 + 1). Two notches in
the outer left would be litter number 6 (3 + 3), and two
in the outer right and one in the outer left would be litter
number 5 (1 + 1 + 3). This plan of marking, shown in
detail below, is particularly well adapted to large herds
when the number of litters exceeds thirty or forty.

Care and Feeding of Sow and Litter 79

A PLAN OF EAR-NOTCHING ADAPTED TO A LARGE HERD

NAME, MARK,
OR NUMBER
OF Sow

NOTCHES
OUTER
RIGHT

NOTCHES
OUTER
LEFT

NOTCHES
INNER
RIGHT

NOTCHES
INNER
LEFT

100

A third plan of marking is shown in Fig. 7. By this
scheme the number of the litter is determined by the
position of the notch on the ear. The outer rim of the
right ear is divided into three areas numbered 1, 2, 3
from the point of the ear back. A notch in the forward
third would stand for litter number 1, a notch in the
middle would be litter number 2, while one well back in
area number 3 would be litter number 3. The outer left ear
is divided into two areas, numbered 4 and 5 from front to
back. A notch in the forward rim of the left ear would,
therefore, be litter number 4, while one in area number

Pork Production

five would stand for litter number 5. Each notch in the
inner right ear stands for 10, while each in the inner left
ear stands for 30, regardless of their position.

The number of notches required is reduced in this
scheme to a minimum. Ninety litters can be numbered
without necessitating more than two notches in either
rim of each ear. In using this system, care must be taken
to place the notch, particularly in the outer right ear,

LE"T- ,30

FIG 7. — A third plan of notching.

in the exact position it is intended to occupy. In ex-
amining the ear later, care must be exercised that notches
in the second and third areas are not confused.

FEEDING AND CARE TO WEANING TIME

From this time on until the pigs are weaned, the primary
purpose is to keep the pigs healthy and growing. In
addition, economy in the selection of the ration should
not be lost sight of. The thrift and development of the
pigs will be conditioned on the extent to which the hog-
man successfully eliminates dirty insanitary conditions
and provides the combination of feeds which will meet
the requirements of the sow and her nursing pigs.

Care and Feeding of Sow and Litter 81

Feeding.

After the sow is on full feed, the best ration to give her
is the one which is cheapest and most productive of a
large milk flow. The importance of feeding a ration that
is stimulating to milk production is so great, however,
that balance should not be sacrificed to economy. A
ration of straight corn would be cheap and convenient,
but ruinous to the prospects of a generous flow of milk.
The amount of milk a sow gives determines the rate of
development of her pigs during these weeks. Further-
more, the cheapest gains which the pig will ever make are
at this time. The mother's milk is an ideal food for the
young pigs, and it is a matter of economy and good judg-
ment to feed so as to stimulate the largest production.

The sow in milk should be fed very much the same
kind of ration as the cow in milk. Feeds containing
a sufficient supply of protein and mineral matter are
necessary because milk is a muscle and bone-forming
food. The ration at this time should be more concen-
trated and contain less fattening foods than the one used
during the winter. A large proportion of bulky feeds
would mean the exclusion of the necessary nutrients.
Practically full rations should be fed, also, for the first
six weeks. The usual home-grown grains, corn espe-
cially, do not contain enough protein and mineral matter
to make satisfactory rations. Consequently, use must
be made of some one of such feeds as tankage or meat-
meal, linseed-oil meal, shorts or middlings, skim-milk or
buttermilk. The cheapest, according to price and com-
position, should be utilized.

The following combinations are examples of good
rations. They suggest about the proportions, by weight,

82 Pork Production

in which it is desirable to use the different commercial
supplements with the ordinary grains in order to have
balanced rations :

(1) (4 parts corn+1 part shorts) + 10% tankage or meat-
meal.

(2) (4 parts corn+1 part shorts) +20% linseed-oil meal.

(3) (2 parts corn+1 part ground oats+1 part shorts) +5%
tankage.

(4) (1 part corn +2 parts skim-milk or buttermilk).

(5) 3 parts corn+2 parts ground oats+10 parts skim-milk
or buttermilk.

(6) | ground barley, ^ ground oats, ^ shorts.

(7) \ ground barley, \ shorts.

(8) 1 part ground barley +1 part ground oats +2 parts
skim-milk or buttermilk.

(9) i ground Kafir, \ shorts.

(10) \ ground wheat, \ ground oats, \ shorts.
NOTE. — The above rations have nutritive ratios of 1 : 5.27
to 1 : 6.07.

If the sows get a bite of grass, it will be a valuable
addition to the regular ration. Succulent feeds generally
are good milk-producers. Blue-grass, rye, rape, clover,
alfalfa, or other legumes are available in many parts of
the country at this time. Sows with fall pigs should have
access, if possible, to some legume, which will aid ma-
terially in properly balancing the grains fed. To make
certain that the sows receive sufficient mineral matter
in their diet, a mixture of charcoal, air-slacked lime, or
ground rock phosphate, and salt, in about the proportions
of 12 : 3 : 1, should be provided.

The results at this time will depend very much on the
care and judgment of the feeder in determining the
amount fed. Sows that have a normal number of pigs
to nourish will ordinarily need full rations. The average
sow loses weight during this period, even when given all

Care and Feeding of Sow and Litter 83

the feed she will eat. According to actual records, sows
will lose an average of about 25 or 40 pounds during
the lactation period. This does not include the loss of
weight in farrowing. The heaviest milking sows are, fur-
thermore, the biggest eaters and the heaviest losers. Or-
dinarily, therefore, the amount fed should be regulated
by the appetite, just a little less being given than will
be taken at each feed. This will encourage a larger
feed consumption and result in cleaner troughs. In
every herd there are sometimes a few sows with only
two or three pigs. These sows usually employ their
feed for fat rather than the production of milk, and
when their pigs are about five weeks old, begin to take on
weight. Such sows should not be fed full rations, but an
amount that will about maintain their weight. Sows
that have large litters and are heavy milkers may be
fed three times a day with advantage.

If the sow can be fed individually at this time, it will
not only be an aid to good feeding, but will insure more
uniformity in the pig crop. Two or three sows with pigs
of approximately the same age, however, may occupy
the same lot and be fed together with good results. The
practice of running the sows together with pigs of all
ages and sizes is the surest way to produce a large pro-
portion of runts. If it is necessary for several sows to
occupy the same quarters, those of the same tempera-
ment and with pigs of about the same age only should
be put together.

The pig-creep.

When two or three weeks old, the pigs begin to take an
interest in their mothers' rations. This interest should
be encouraged, for pigs of this age have the teeth and

84 Pork Production

digestive apparatus successfully to use small quantities
of solid food. The sow produces her maximum milk
flow on the average three weeks after the pigs are farrowed,
and from this time on, the decreasing supply must be
supplemented to meet the needs of the pigs, whose food
requirements are increasing with each day. When the
sows are fed individually and sufficient trough-room is
supplied, a creep will be unnecessary for at least the first
few weeks. When possible, however, it is advisable to
have a pen constructed to which all the pigs can go and
eat from low troughs at frequent intervals. A small
quantity of dry shelled corn will be consumed at first with
the greatest apparent relish. Later, the shelled corn
should have added to it a supply of middlings or shorts or
ground oats that have been sieved to remove the hulls.
These may be supplied appropriately in separate com-
partments of a self-feeder. The mother's ration, minus
such bulky feeds as oats or bran, with a little extra shelled
corn, will be a suitable combination for the pigs. Pas-
teurized skim-milk and buttermilk are of the highest
value at this time.

These pigs should not be fed carelessly. Wet feed
should not be allowed to stand in the troughs, but should
be cleaned up at once. Dry feed should not be supplied
in such quantity that it will be in the trough longer than
twelve hours. The self-feeder, when used, should be
carefully adjusted and the trough frequently cleaned.
These points are of special importance in eliminating one
of the common causes of scours.

Scours.

Pigs that have dry clean beds and plenty of opportunity
for play and exercise in the open are not subject to scours.

Care and Feeding of Sow and Litter 85

In addition to unhygienic conditions, however, there are
many other causes of this ailment : as running in the wet
grass; cold damp weather; too much succulent feed,
especially when skim-milk or buttermilk is fed ; irregular,
careless feeding ; and sour filthy troughs. Any modifica-
tion of the mother's milk, resulting from feeding fermented
rotten slops, or a feverish condition of the sow, is also
frequently responsible for the trouble. The first step in
the treatment of scours in young pigs is to remove the
cause. The second is to cut down the mother's ration,
and also that of the pigs. (See Chapter XXII.)

Weaning.

The pigs usually should be weaned when eight to ten
weeks of age. If they have had up to this time the advan-
tage of a creep and good rations, they will scarcely miss
the mother's milk, which is secreted in rather limited
amounts at this time. Those sows which are to raise
fall litters should be taken from their pigs at eight weeks,
since sows usually do not come in heat while suckling
their pigs, and early fall litters are desirable. On the
other hand, sows which are extremely heavy milkers
and which it is not the intention to breed, may with
profit be allowed to nurse their pigs for twelve weeks,
provided they are liberally fed. A few days before the
sows are removed from their pigs, their rations should be
reduced materially. This precaution will tend greatly
to eliminate the conditions which favor inflamed udders
and caked teats at weaning time. It is commonly more
convenient to remove the sows than the pigs. Some
recommend that the sows be put back the next day and
the pigs allowed to nurse partially. This may be de-
sirable with individual sows, but, as a rule, it should be

86 Pork Production

unnecessary. When separated, the sows should be put
into a dry lot and fed only scanty rations for a few days
until their udders begin to shrivel and dry up.

Gains made by pigs from birth to weaning.

The average pig in a well-managed herd should make
a gain from birth to weaning time of ^ to ? pound daily.
When weaned at ten weeks, this will mean a weight,
approximately, of 26 to 38 pounds when taken from the
mother. But under the very best conditions, there is a
wide variation, ranging all the way from a daily gain of
.20 of a pound to over .50 of a pound.

In Table XIII are shown the weekly gains made by
twelve litters of eighty-six pigs up to seventy days of age,
at the Wisconsin Experiment Station. These pigs were
farrowed by Berkshire, Poland China, Razorback, and
cross-bred sows. Both sows and pigs were liberally fed
on good growing and milk-producing rations during the
suckling period.

These figures are conservative and show the remark-
able capacity of the new-born pigs for growth. During
each of the ten weeks of the nursing period, the pigs
gained an amount considerably in excess of their original
birth weight. The original weight was almost doubled
in the first week. From a total weight of 227 pounds
at birth, these eighty-six pigs, during the suckling period,
gained a total of 2805 pounds, more than twelve times
their original weight. (See Chapter V, page 107.)

The total gains made in seventy days, as shown in the
column at the right, show the variation common among
the different litters in every herd. A study of these
figures reveals the interesting fact that the pigs in the
small litters did not gain faster than the individual pigs

Care and Feeding of Sow and Litter

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88 Pork Production

in the larger litters. The average gains made by the
individual pigs in the litters of different sizes were as
follows: In the litters of ten, the pigs made an average
gain during the seventy days of 35.4 pounds; in the
litter of nine, the pigs gained an average of 39.1 pounds;
in the litters of eight the average gain was 30 pounds ;
in the litter of seven it was 35.5 pounds; and in the
litters of five pigs it was 39.9 pounds a pig. These
figures bear out the theory held by many practical hog-
men that the individual pigs in large, but normal-sized,
litters usually grow as fast as do the individual pigs pro-
duced in small litters.

Another interesting observation on this table is that
the gaining capacity of the pigs increases quite regularly
from week to week during this time, although the gain
for each unit of body weight is much greater in the first
weeks than the last.

Castration.

Castrating the pigs should not be postponed long after
the pigs are weaned. In fact, if performed before weaning,
when the pigs are about six weeks old, it will require less
work and the shock to the system will be less noticeable.
From the standpoint of the pig, the earlier he is castrated
the better.

Although this is not a dangerous nor a complicated
operation, the observation of a few practical precautions
will reduce the risk of possible complications. The pigs
should have their morning feed withheld; one should
avoid, so far as possible, getting the pigs warmed up and
excited ; a dry clean place, close to where the pigs are to
be inclosed should be provided for the work; the knife
should be sharpened thoroughly, and a whetstone put

Care and Feeding of Sow and Litter 89

into the pocket if the number of pigs to be operated on is
large; a pan or half-bucket of strong disinfectant, as a
4 per cent solution of coal-tar dip, should be at hand
in which the knife is placed between operations. In
performing the operation, it is important that the incision
be made low enough to provide ready drainage and to
prevent the accumulation of pus at the base of the pouch,
the cord should be broken off well back, or drawn out
and scraped. Before releasing the pig, the wounds should
be washed with the disinfectant; if in fly-time some
pine-tar should be applied. After the operation, the
pigs should be shut away from old wallows and much-
used mud-holes, so as to prevent the entrance of filth
germs into the wounds. The best place for the pigs is a
clean pasture. For several days they should be examined
occasionally and any swollen or infected ones properly
looked after.

CULLING OUT THE UNPRODUCTIVE SOWS

The best time of year to make an accounting with the
sows is after they have weaned their pigs. They have
individually just finished a test of performance which
offers the best and most practical basis for the selection
of future breeding stock. Only those sows which have
produced good-sized, even litters of pigs and suckled
them well should be retained for another breeding sea-
son. The prolific heavy-milking sow, though "thin as
a rail" when her pigs are taken from her, is the foun-
dation of every successful herd of hogs. Such a sow
should hold her place in the breeding herd so long as
there are no better ones, according to the same standard,
to take her place. Mature sows which fail to raise litters

90 Pork Production

of six good pigs should ordinarily be put into the fat-
tening-pen. Although they may be smooth and good
to look at, the herd from a pork-producing standpoint
should be rid of them. Sows with defective teats, the
cross sows with mean dispositions, the gilts which did
not perform up to expectations, the pig-killers and poor
milkers should go into the fattening-pen. No market-
producing herd can be brought up and maintained at
a high level of breeding performance without constant
culling, and no herd of pedigreed stock can be made to
succeed where "looks" and not performance is made the
test in selection.

HERD RECORDS

In the management of a pedigreed herd, a systematic
and detailed set of permanent records is imperative.
The reliability of every printed pedigree rests not only
on the integrity of the breeder, but also on the faithful-
ness and care with which the records have been kept.
It is desirable, therefore, that the system of record-keep-
ing adopted possess the following features: it should
provide for the statement of all essential facts, i.e., it
should be complete ; it should be logically and systematic-
ally arranged; it should be as simple as possible and
adapted to the needs of the individual breeder; and it
should be of a kind which will insure permanency.

The records may be kept either in specially made
book form or on suitably ruled cards which may be in-
dexed. Each form has its advantages. The publishers
of practically all breed papers now put out private herd
record books which are furnished to the breeders at a
nominal cost. These have done much to encourage the
systematic keeping of records and to give confidence in

Care and Feeding of Sow and Litter 91

the results of pedigree registrations generally. These
books are inexpensive, convenient to use, and are en-
tirely satisfactory. They are especially recommended for
breeders who are poor bookkeepers. Two sample pages
from one of the best of these private herd registers are
given on pages 92 and 93 .1

In addition to the sow and litter divisions, a complete
record system should also provide spaces for: (a) an
extended pedigree of each boar and a list of the sows to
which he has been bred during the year ; (6) a summa-
rized record of the individual animals bought and sold ;
and (c) an index. If such a system is supplemented by
giving each sow in the herd which has produced two or
more litters a page or card upon which may be recorded
a summarized statement of the litters she has produced,
the number of pigs farrowed and raised in each, the num-
ber retained, and the number sold and total value, it will
facilitate the study of the performance records and insure
a more accurate estimate of the value of each sow in the
herd.

THE COST OF FEEDING THE SOW AND LITTER FROM
FARROWING TO WEANING TIME

The feed cost of growing the litter of pigs to weaning
time represents a necessary and important part of the
cost of producing finished pork. This cost will vary
widely, of course, with general conditions, herds, and
feeders. The effort is here made to estimate the approxi-
mate cost for the average of good conditions. The
calculations are based on the average feed consumption
of twenty sows and litters, sixteen at the Wisconsin

1 The W. B. C. Herd Register, Moore Bros. Co., Rochester
Ind.

Pork Production

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Care and Feeding of Sow and Litter

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Pork Production

Station,1 four at the North Carolina Station,2 and four
at Purdue University.3 The feeds in these tests are for
convenience reduced to a common basis by the use of the
Scandinavian Feed Unit System. The summarized rec-
ords for these twenty sows and litters are shown in
Table XIV.

TABLE XIV. — RECORD OF AVERAGE FEED CONSUMPTION OP
TWENTY Sows AND LITTERS FROM FARROWING TO WEANING
TIME

AVERAGE
NUMBER
DAYS FED

AVERAGE
NUMBER
PIGS
RAISED
PER LITTER

AVERAGE
WEIGHT
LITTERS
AT WEAN-
ING TIME

AVERAGE
WEIGHT
Sows
WHEN
WEANING
PIGS*

AVERAGE Loss
WEIGHT EACH

SOW IN

SUCKLING
PERIOD

AVERAGE
NUMBER
FEED UNITS
DAILY PER

SOW AND

LITTER

76.6

74.5

Ib.

270

Ib.

318

Ib.

23.75

11.32

Charging corn at 56 cents a bushel, or $1.00 a hundred,
shorts at $1.50 a hundred, tankage at $2.50 a hundred,
and skim-milk at 30 cents a hundred, a very satisfactory
combination c\f these feeds would cost approximately
lj cents for each feed unit contained. When corn is
70 cents a bushel, and protein supplements about on a
par in price with those just quoted, the cost of each feed
unit would be a little less than 1| cents, and so on. In
Table XV is given the cost of feeding the sow and litter
on the basis of 1 cent, Ij cents, 1| cents, If cents, 2 cents
and 2| cents for each feed unit.

1 W. J. Carlyle : Bull. 104.

2 Dan T. Gray : Circ. 25.

3 Braxton and Jones : Purdue Univ. Thesis, 1915.

4 Average weight of four sows estimated.

Care and Feeding of Sow and Litter

TABLE XV. — SHOWING AVERAGE COST OF FEEDING Sow AND
LITTER TO WEANING TIME

PRICES OF FEEDS

AVERAGE NUM-
BER FEED UNITS
FED DAILY

AVERAGE DAILY
COST FEED, Sow
AND LITTER

AVERAGE COST
FEEDING Sow AND
LITTER OF 7-8
PIGS, 70 DAYS

1 cent per feed

unit ....

11.32

11.32 cents

$7.92

11 cents per feed

unit ....

11.32

14.15 "

9.90

\\ cents per feed

unit ....

11.32

16.98 "

11.89

If cents per feed

unit ....

11.32

19.81 "

13.87

2 cents per feed

unit ....

11.32

22.64 "

15.85

2| cents per feed

unit ....

11.32

28.30 "

19.81

With a careful selection of the feeds, it is believed that
a good feeder should be able to feed the sow and litter
for considerably less than here indicated. Especially
should this be true when a part of the concentrated feeds
are supplemented by good forage crops. Legume forage
crops should cut down the cost approximately 5 per cent.
No charge is here made for the normal loss of weight of the
sows during this period, because no credit was taken for
the gains made during the breeding and gestation periods.
She should weigh about the same at this time as at the
beginning of the breeding season, so that the feed account
is balanced.

The cost of feeding the gilt with her first litter during the
nursing period is less than that for the mature sow. Consid-
ering the smaller size and the fewer pigs to the litter in case
of the gilt, a feed charge of 10 per cent less than the figures
given for the mature sow should be approximately correct.

CHAPTER V

SIZE OF LITTERS; BIRTH WEIGHT OF PIGS;
MILK-FLOW OF SOWS

IN the following pages some figures are given showing
the influence of certain factors on the size of litters, birth
weight of pigs, and the milk-flow of sows. Since the
usefulness and value of a sow are largely determined by
her performance in these particulars, it is thought the
statistics will be of interest and value.

SIZE OF LITTERS

The ability of the sow regularly to produce large litters
is the most fundamental and valuable of those traits
which determine her usefulness in the breeding herd. In
view of this, it is of considerable importance to learn what
factors are responsible for its wide variation and the
extent to which these factors are under the control of the
breeder or feeder. The following have each been re-
garded by hog-men as important : age, feeding and condi-
tion at breeding time, cross-breeding, the boar to which
the sow is mated, type, breed, and individuality.

Age of sow.

It is a matter of observation that the number of pigs
produced by a sow varies from year to year throughout
her breeding life. Her age is usually considered the most

Size of Litters

important factor causing this variation. In Table XVI
are presented the findings made by Rommel from a study
of the farrowing records of 6145 sows recorded in volume
36 of the American Poland China Record.

TABLE XVI. — SIZE OF LITTERS OP Sows OP DIFFERENT AGES

AQE OP Sows

NUMBER OP LITTERS

AVERAGE NUMBER OP
PIGS PER LITTER

1 year ....

2010

6.64

2047

7.56

1157

7.88

4 . .

606

8.26

5 "

325

8.40

These results show that the two-year old sows, recorded
in volume 36, produced larger litters than did the year-
lings, and the three-year old sows larger litters than the
two-year olds. There was a regular increase in the size
of litters as the age of the sows increased. It is believed
that these averages are based on a sufficient number of
litters to make them reliable and fairly indicative of the
fertility of sows of different ages. These results should
not, however, be interpreted to mean that the average
sow necessarily produces an increasing number of pigs
to the litter up to and including her fifth year. Ordinary
herd selection would mean the elimination of the low pro-
ducers at an early age and the retention of the more pro-
lific. The older sows in the average herd are, therefore,
selected individuals, while the younger ones contain many
whose performance records will not entitle them later to
permanent places in the breeding herd.

With the purpose of securing information on how age

Pork Production

affects the fertility of the individual sow, the breeding
records of ten colleges and experiment station herds were
studied.1 These records are of 1152 litters and 10,555
pigs. The tabulated data are shown in Table XVII.

TABLE XVII. — NUMBER OF PIGS AT BIRTH IN SUCCESSIVE
LITTERS OF INDIVIDUAL Sows

NUMBER
OF Sows

NUMBER op LITTER

AVERAGE NUMBER
PIGS PER LITTER

AVERAGE INCREASE
IN PIGS PER LITTER

244

First litter

7.778

244

Second

8.922

+ 1.144

243

8.991

243

Third

9.275

+0.284

176

9.630

176

Fourth

9.857

+0.227

113

10.460

113

Fifth

10.221

-0.239

10.478

Sixth

10.521

+0.043

10.870

Seventh

9.709

-1.161

9.388

Eighth

10.111

+0.723

11.000

Ninth

9.428

- 1.572

9.200

Tenth

8.000

-1.200

As shown in the above table, 244 sows produced in
their first litters an average of 7.778 pigs. These same
244 sows in their second litters produced an average of
8.922 pigs, or 1 444 in excess of their first litters. Of
these 244 sows, 243 produced their third litters, the

1 South Dakota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Cornell,
Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Ohio, Purdue.

Size of Litters

average size of which was 0.284 pig larger than their
second litters. Of these 243 sows, 176 produced their
fourth litters, the average for which was 0.227 pig larger
than their third litters. In the same way, it is deter-
mined that the fifth litters were 0.239 pig smaller than the
fourth, while the sixth slightly exceeded the fifth litters.
The seventh litters were very much smaller than the sixth,

FIG. 8. — Showing variations in the number of pigs in successive litters.

while of the 18 sows producing eight litters, the eight
slightly exceeded the seventh. Only 7 of these sows
produced their ninth litters, and only 5 their tenth, but
with these litters, there was a decided decrease in their size.

These results, expressed graphically in Fig. 8, will show
more clearly the fluctuations which may be expected in
the size of the successive litters of any individual sow.

According to this curve, a sow may be expected to
produce an increasing number of pigs up to and includ-

100 Pork Production

ing her fourth litter. From the fourth litter on, she may
be expected to produce a decreasing number with each
succeeding litter. The number of sows with records
here of seven, eight, nine, or ten litters is too small, how-
ever, to make the averages for these litters reliable. The
extreme fluctuations shown in the latter part of the
curve would be made to disappear if a larger number of
records of these litters was available. As a result of this
limitation of numbers, the dotted line is the more reliable
indication of the average performance.

No attempt was made in this study to allow for
a sow producing two litters a year. It is believed,
however, that she will as closely approximate the curve
shown, as she would if producing but one. The large
increase of the second litter over the first was probably
due to the fact that few of the young sows produced their
second litters without a rest of six months. The average
size of all the litters here reported was slightly over nine
pigs, which is probably above the record of the average
herd. This, however, would not tend in any way to
change the general direction of the above curve.

Feeding and condition of the sow.

That the way a sow is fed the week or two before breed-
ing exerts an important influence on the number of eggs
secreted when she comes in heat and the consequent
size of the resulting litter is strongly supported by the
observations of the best hog-men. It is not so much
the direct effect of the feeding alone which is believed to
produce this result, as it is the state of health and breed-
ing thrift brought about by the proper combination of
judicious feeding and liberal exercise. Thin active sows,
when fed liberal rations before breeding, respond to the

Size of Litters 101

stimulating effects of the gaming condition by the se-
cretion of a maximum number of eggs. (See page 11.)

That a low degree of fertility, or even complete sterility,
may result from excessive fatness is also clearly estab-
lished by experience. Sows which have been highly
fitted for show, especially if maintained in this extreme
condition for a considerable length of time, require skill-
ful handling before regular breeding habits can be estab-
lished. Excessive quantities of fat about the generative
organs would seem to offer a mechanical obstacle to the
normal nutrition of the egg-secreting ovaries, and to the
free passage of the eggs after secretion down the Fallopian
tubes to the uterus. When to excessive fatness is added
the evil of close confinement, the breeding qualities are
very likely to suffer permanent injury.

Cross-breeding.

Some hog-men claim that cross-bred litters are, on the
average, larger than pure-bred ones. In the table on the
following page are submitted figures which, although
limited in number, will throw some light on this ques-
tion. Ten pure-bred sows, nine Berkshires and one
Poland China, produced a total of 36 litters, 11 of which
were cross-bred and 25 pure-bred. Each sow produced
both cross-bred and pure-bred litters.

Considering that only one of the 11 cross-bred litters
was produced by a gilt, or sow with her first litter, while
8 of the 25 pure-bred litters were so produced, the results
do not show any advantage in size for the cross-bred
over the pure-bred litters. Stated in another way,
73 per cent of the cross-bred litters were produced by
mature sows, .while only 36 per cent of the pure-bred
litters were produced by mature sows. Making allow-

102

Pork Production

ance for the factor of age, therefore, it would seem that
the difference of less than one pig is too small to justify
the conclusion that cross-bred litters are larger than
pure-bred ones.

TABLE XVIII. — EFFECT OF CROSS-BREEDING ON SIZE OP
LITTERS

CROSS-BRED LITTERS

PURE-BRED LITTERS

Sows

Total

Number of Litters

Number

Number of Litters

Number

Pigs

1 (2d litter)

1 (1st litter)

1 (1st " )

1 (2d " )

1 (2d ' )

3 (1st, 3d, and 4th

litters)

1 (3d " )

2 (1st and 2d lit-

ters)

1 (7th " )

6 (1st, 2d, 3d, 4th,

5th and 6th lit-

ters)

2 (3d and 4th lit-

2 (1st and 2d lit-

ters)

1 (3d litter)

2 (1st and 2d lit-

ters)

1 (5th " )

3 (2d, 3d and 4th

litters)

1 (4th " )

3 (1st, 2d and 3d

litters)

#10

1 (3rd " )

2 (1st and 2d lit-

ters)

Aver-

ages

11 Cross-bred litters

8.72

25 Pure-bred litters

7.92

Influence of the boar.

That the boar to which the sow is mated exerts an
influence on the size of the resulting litter is believed by

Size of Litters 103

most hog-men, and experience supplies many instances
which seem to prove this claim. On the other hand,
the known facts relating to the reproductive process do
not seem to supply any ground on which to base this
belief; in fact, they indicate that such influence under
normal conditions is an impossibility. It is known,
for example, that there cannot be a larger number of
pigs in the litter than there are eggs produced by the
sow at breeding time ; also, that in normal breeding serv-
ice the boar supplies a thousand sperms and more for
each egg produced by the sow. Under conditions, there-
fore, in which the sow and boar are both vigorous, there
would seem to be no chance or possibility for the num-
ber of pigs farrowed to be in any way affected by the
boar.

But the sow and boar are not always vigorous, and
the facts also support the view that when this is
the case the union of the sperms with the eggs may
be so weak that not all of them develop completely in
embryo; the result is a smaller litter. A boar that is
over-used during the breeding season, or is run down
and out of condition, or that is lacking in normal fer-
tility or vigor, may produce a considerable number of
sperms which, although strong enough to fertilize the
eggs, lack the life to insure the full embryonic develop-
ment of the pigs from these unions. There is good reason
for believing, therefore, that in such instances the size
of the litter may be influenced below the normal by the
boar with which the sow was mated. It should be
understood that in no case, however, can the boar cause
the number of pigs to be increased beyond that num-
ber of eggs produced at the time the sow was mated.
(See p. 17.)

104 Pork Production

Type, breed, individuality.

Although breeds of the bacon type are, as a rule, more
prolific than those of the lard type, the question of breed
advantage within the respective types will probably never
be determined satisfactorily for the reason that the va-
rious breeds are in a state of constant change, some on
the whole improving and others possibly deteriorating.
A statement claiming superiority for one breed over
another of the same type might be a fact at this time, but
when applied to the same breeds, ten years hence, might
be far from the truth. Furthermore, the task of deter-
mining from the herd-book records the pig-producing
abilities of two breeds for a given time would be an ex-
ceedingly tedious and laborious undertaking. The fact
that the number of pigs in the litter is not yet made a
matter of permanent record by all the breed associations
renders such a study impossible for several of our promi-
nent breeds. Until such records are reported and a
comprehensive study is made of them, the seeker after
breed information relating to this important point will
be limited in his search to the observations of himself
and others, and the more or less prejudiced claims of the
different breed advocates.

Of the several factors which affect the breeding quali-
ties of a sow, individuality is one of the most important.
This is determined largely by the combination of heredi-
tary qualities represented in her breeding and make-up,
and which gives distinction to each of the individuals of
a herd. If one breed is superior to another, it is because
this breed possesses in the aggregate a larger number of
prolific individuals. The prolificacy of any herd or strain
of hogs, in the same way, is not a question of breed but

Size of Litters

105

of individuals. Every breed possesses a sufficient number
of prolific individuals to reward the breeder who will
correctly value and then persistently select for this
quality. If to careful selection, the breeder will add
intelligent feeding and care, the breeding performance
of any herd can be developed and maintained at a high
standard.

The number of pigs raised.

The number of pigs farrowed is not as important as
the number raised. Although the most prolific sows in
the herd raise more pigs, as a rule, than do those which
produce smaller litters, they do not raise as large a per-
centage of those farrowed. This seems to be especially
true when mature sows are compared with gilts.

In the following table are summarized the records
made by mature sows and gilts at the North Platte,
Nebraska, Experiment Station.1 The test included 87
litters produced by gilts and 72 litters by mature
sows, in 1910, 1911, 1912, and 1913. The large num-
ber of individuals studied makes the results particularly
valuable.

TABLE XIX. — PERCENTAGE OF PIGS RAISED BY MATURE Sows
AND GILTS

NUMBER

LITTERS

TOTAL,

NUMBER
PIGS
FARROWED

NUMBER
PIGS FAR-
ROWED PER
LITTER

NUMBER
PIGS
RAISED PER
LITTER

PERCENTAGE
OF FAR-
ROWED PIGS
RAISED

Mature sows

791

10.9

6.56

Gilts . . .

714

8.2

6.25

1 W. P. Snyder : Bull. 147.

106

Pork Production

As bearing on the same point, the number of pigs
farrowed dead or immature in litters of different sizes
is also instructive. The author is indebted to W. J.
Carmichael 1 of the Illinois Experiment Station for these
data which are presented in Table XX.

TABLE XX. — EFFECT OF SIZE OF LITTER ON NUMBER OF
DEAD OR IMMATURE PIGS

NUMBER PIGS
PER LITTER

TOTAL NUMBER
op LITTERS

TOTAL NUMBER
DEAD OR
IMMATURE PIGS

DEAD OR

IMMATURE PIGS
PER LITTER

PERCENTAGE
OP DEAD OR
IMMATURE PIGS

.36

8.97

.40

8.07

.38

6.31

.71

10.71

.43

5.37

.87

9.72

.72

7.17

1.30

11.83

1.27

10.61

1.56

11.89

3.36

24.02

.60

4.00

1.66

10.41

Although a larger number of dead or immature pigs
is farrowed in litters containing ten or more pigs than less,
it would appear that in litters smaller than ten the number
of pigs farrowed dead or immature is not greatly affected.
When the proportion of dead or immature pigs is con-
sidered, the table does not show any greater loss in the
larger litters, up to ten, than in the smaller ones. When
the number of pigs to the litter exceeds ten, however,

1 Master thesis, Univ. of 111., 1916.

Size of Litters 107

there is a regular tendency, both absolutely and relatively,
for the number farrowed dead or immature to increase
with the increased size of the litter.

BIRTH WEIGHT OF PIGS

Generally speaking, the heaviest pigs in the litter are
the strongest and the smallest ones the weakest. The
pig that is well grown and developed at birth has an
advantage over his smaller litter-mate which renders
him a better prospect for economical pork production.
The average weight of pigs at birth is approximately
2^ pounds, but they may range all the way from less than
| pound to almost 5. A number of influences are sup-
posed to be responsible for this wide variation. Some
of these influences or factors are : sex, the age of the
mother, cross-breeding, the size of the litter, vigor of
the sow and boar at breeding time, and nutrition during
foetal development.

Sex.

It is generally believed that boar pigs are heavier than
sow pigs. It is an accepted fact that the males of colts,
lambs, and calves are heavier than the females. In
Table XXI are some figures interesting in this connec-
tion. In 5287 pigs farrowed in the college herds of
Illinois1 and Purdue, there were 2376 boars and 2217
sows. The average birth weight of the boars is shown
in Table XXI to be 2.58 pounds, and of the sows 2.50
pounds, a difference in favor of the boars of only ^
of a pound.

1 W. J. Carmichael, Master thesis : Univ. of 111., 1916.

108 Pork Production

TABLE XXI. — EFFECT OF SEX ON BIKTH WEIGHT OF PIGS

SEX

NUMBER OP PIGS
BORN

TOTAL BIRTH
WEIGHT op PIGS

AVERAGE BIRTH
WEIGHT OP Pioa

Boars . .

Sows . .

2.720
2.567

Ib.

7.023
6.431

Ib.
2.58

2.50

Both sexes

5.287

13.454

2.54

All available American statistics on the proportion of
the sexes in pigs would indicate a slight preponderance
of males. In Circular 112, Bureau of Animal Industry,
Rommel reports the results of an extensive inquiry on this
point. From eighty-two breeders in twenty-four states
he obtained a record of the proportion of males to females
in 1477 litters containing 13,285 pigs, which was, ap-
proximately, 201 boars to 200 sows, or 6660 boars and
6625 sows. Carmichael reports in thesis studies the pro-
portion of 2560 boars and 2420 sows. Combining both
sets of data we have :

Boars 9220

Sows 9045

Ratio 100 boars to 98 sows

Age of sow.

The pigs produced by young sows or gilts in their
first litters are supposed to be smaller than those borne
by mature sows in their prime, when under the same
conditions as to feeding and care. In the following table
some figures with reference to this point are shown. The
record is here given of the birth weight of pigs farrowed
by young sows twelve to eighteen months of age, and the

Size of Litters

109

birth weight of all pigs farrowed by mature sows. The
figures in the first part of the table are from the records
of the Purdue University herd, while those in the last
are from records kept at the North Platte, Nebraska,
substation.1

TABLE XXII. — EFFECT OF MATURITY OF Sow ON BIRTH
WEIGHT OF PIGS

LITTERS

NUMBER OF
LITTERS

TOTAL BIRTH
WEIGHT ALL
LITTERS

AVERAGE
BIRTH WEIGHT
EACH LITTER

AVERAGE
BIRTH WEIGHT
EACH PIQ

Young sows,

Ib.

1st litters

256.25

17.08

2.67

Mature sows

354.25

24.25

2.61

Gilts, 1st lit-

ters . .

1649.34

18.95

2.31

Mature sows

1898.40

26.36

2.40

AVERAGE OF ALL

Young sows,

1st litters

102

1905.59

18.68

2.36

Mature sows

2252.25

26.49

2.43

The effect of the age of the sow on the birth weight of
the individual pigs farrowed is shown in another way in
Table XXIII. The data are the result of studies by
W. J. Carmichael.2

It would appear from both tables that there is a
tendency for the mature sows to produce slightly heavier
pigs individually than the gilts. The difference, how-
ever, is very small and does not mean that the pigs
from gilts are materially handicapped in their start in life.

1 W. P. Snyder : Bull. 147.

2 Master thesis: Univ. of 111., 1916.

110

Pork Production

TABLE XXIII. — EFFECT OF AGE OF Sow ON BIRTH WEIGHT

OF PIGS

AGE OP Sow; YEARS

TOTAL NUMBER OF PIGS

AVERAGE BIRTB
PIGS

t WEIGHT,

922

2.4411

826

2.48

899

2.56

2£

570

2.54

455

2.59

299

2.66

293

2.56

166

2.70

2.87

Cross-breeding.

As shown in Table XXIV, cross-bred pigs appear to
have a heavier birth weight than do pure-breds. In this
table the average birth weight of pure-bred pigs is com-
pared with that for cross-bred pigs produced by the
same sows. Although a larger proportion of the cross-
bred pigs were produced by mature sows, the difference
shown is suggestive. The method of feeding the sows
during pregnancy was the same throughout the years in
which the records were taken. (See Chapter III, page 42.)

TABLE XXIV. — EFFECT OF CROSSING ON BIRTH WEIGHT
OF PIGS

TOTAL NUMBER OF
LITTERS

TOTAL BIRTH
WEIGHT OP LITTERS

AVERAGE BIRTH
WEIGHT OF PIGS

Pure-bred pigs .
Cross-bred pigs

Ib.

66.40
34.13

Ib.

2.45
2.62

All pigs . . .

100.53

2.51

Size of Litters

111

Size of litter.

In Table XXV are figures collected by W. J. Carmi-
chael * on the relation of the size of the litter to the birth
weight of the individual pigs. The large number of pigs
involved in this study makes the data here presented
especially valuable.

TABLE XXV. — EFFECT OF SIZE OF LITTER ON BIRTH WEIGHT

OF PIGS

NUMBER OF PIGS PER
LITTER

TOTAL NUMBER OP PIGS

AVERAGE BIRTH WEIGHT,
EACH PIG

134

2.78 lb.

249

2.78

353

2.60

495

2.65

568

2.60

579

2.45

690

2.42

533

2.45

365

2.43

225

2.44

According to these figures, as the number of pigs in
the litter increased, the size of the individuals quite
regularly decreased.

Vigor of sow and boar at breeding time.

That there is a causal relation between the vigor of the
parents at breeding time and the vigor and development
of their offspring is attested by the observation of stock-
men and the results of laboratory experiments. Animals
which are in a state of vigorous health at breeding time

1 Master thesis : Univ. of 111., 1916.

112 Pork Production

produce germ-cells endowed with the maximum of vigor
or growth energy ; while those in a run-down, weakened,
or unthrifty condition produce germ-cells which lack
the life necessary for the conception of vigorous young.

Sows bred immediately after weaning large litters of
pigs, when "pulled down" and weakened in condition,
before they have had the opportunity to recuperate,
produce not only small litters but also pigs which in-
dividually are lacking in strength and development.
For the same reason, sows in a state of extreme fatness
at breeding time, especially if closely confined, do not
produce, as a rule, strong pigs. Each pig is the product
of two germ-cells, one produced by the sow and one by
the boar. If the breeding condition of the boar is at
low ebb at this time, as the result of insufficient or
excessive feed, lack of exercise, over-use, or disease, his
germ-cells, like those of the sow, will lack the life necessary
to insure vigorous pigs. It is reasonable to conclude
that one of the causes responsible for small weak pigs
is the practice of breeding the sows when they and the
boar are not in vigorous breeding condition. These
observations emphasize the need of more careful attention
to feeding and exercise prior to and during the breeding
season.

Nutrition.

Probably the fundamental factor determining the
size and development of pigs at birth is the completeness
of their nourishment during embryonic development.
Both the amount and kind of feed are important in
determining the supply of this nourishment. When
the ration is deficient in lime and protein, as is not un-
common in the corn-belt, the result is a weak and im-

Size of Litters 113

perfect development of the pigs. In the same way,
a balanced ration may be fed in such stingy portions
that the pigs are not fully developed.

The effect of a diet of straight corn, in comparison with
a balanced ration, on the birth weight of pigs is strikingly
shown in experiments conducted at the Iowa Experiment
Station, the results of which have already been noted
in Chapter III, page 42. Yearling sows fed corn alone
during the winter produced pigs averaging 1.85 pounds
at birth, while another similar lot fed a ration of corn and
meat-meal, containing sufficient lime and protein, pro-
duced pigs which weighed, on the average, 2.42 pounds.
The average birth weight of pigs from gilts fed corn alone
at the same station was 1.74 pounds, while pigs from
another lot of gilts in the same experiment fed corn and
alfalfa hay weighed, on an average,, 2.29 pounds. In-
adequate foetal nourishment is, no doubt, the funda-
mental cause of the runt pig.

The pigs in abnormally large litters are ordinarily not
so well developed as are those in normal-sized litters.
(See Table XXV.) This, it seems reasonable to suppose,
is due to the inability of the foetal membranes to accommo-
date and properly nourish the extra number. As a rule,
sows which bring forth two litters a year, also, do not
produce as large pigs as they do when farrowing after a
six-months rest which is probably the result of deficient
nourishment.

MILK PRODUCTION OF SOWS

The amount of milk which a sow gives determines her
ability to raise a large litter of pigs, and is, therefore,
of first importance in determining her real value as a
breeder. In every herd a few sows are always better

114

Pork Production

milkers than the average, as evidenced by the weight and
thrift of their litters at weaning time. The heavy milking
sows are, also, the ones which lose the most weight in
suckling their pigs.

TABLE XXVI. — MILK PRODUCTION OF BROOD Sows

Sows

AGE
YEARS

NUMBER op PIGS
FARROWED

WEIGHT OP
LITTERS AT
BIRTH

AVERAGE
DAILY MILK
PRODUCTION

Berkshire . .

28 Ib.

7.30 Ib.

Berkshire . .

16 "

4.18 "

Berkshire . .

22 "

7.96 "

f Berkshire

| Razorback .

15 "

5.81 "

Poland China

20 "

5.38 "

f Poland China

i Razorback .

12 "

3.39 "

\ Poland China

\ Razorback

27 "

6.65 "

Poland China .

30 "

4.00 "

Razorback . .

17 "

7.18 "

Razorback . .

13 "

5.38 "

Razorback . .

13 "

3.65 "

Razorback . .

14 "

4.45 "

Duroc Jersey .

35 "

7.33 "

Duroc Jersey .

26 "

6.02 "

Duroc Jersey .

28 "

4.18 "

Berkshire . .

25 "

5.70 "

Average . .

8.37

21 "

5.53 "

Carlyle l at the Wisconsin Experiment Station de-
termined the milk production of twelve sows by keeping
the litters and sows separate and weighing the pigs im-
mediately before and after nursing. The milk-flow of
the individual sows represented in this test is shown
in the first part of Table XXVI. The records of pro-
1 Wis. Exp. Sta. Bull. 104.

Size of Litters 115

duction of the last four sows listed were determined by
Braxton and Jones,1 under the direction of the author,
with sows in the Purdue University herd.

There is, apparently, as much individual variation in
milk-producing capacity in a herd of brood sows as there
is among the untested cows of an ordinary dairy herd.
The variation shown above ranges all the way from
a minimum of 3.39 pounds daily to a maximum of nearly
8 pounds. The average daily production of the sixteen
sows tested was 5.53 pounds, which, for a ten- weeks
suckling period, would mean an average production of
387 pounds of milk during the lactation period.

It is interesting to note, in the preceding table, that
the sows which produced the most milk farrowed the
largest litters. That a high degree of correlation should
exist between two such intimately associated functions
is natural. Fertility and milk-producing capacity are
in reality expressions of a common function. To improve
the milking qualities of a herd, therefore, the prolific
sows should be retained. That there is sufficient oppor-
tunity for selection in any herd is indicated by the wide
variations in the individual records shown in the pre-
ceding table.

The amount of milk which a sow gives is also largely
conditioned on her feeding during the suckling period.
In order to secrete a large amount of milk, she must
have the raw materials from which to manufacture it.
The ration, therefore, that is rich in milk-producing
properties and that is fed in liberal amounts is the one
which will stimulate and make possible the largest pro-
duction which each sow, according to her individuality
and breeding, is capable of.

1 Purdue Univ. thesis, 1915.

116

Pork Production

The average composition of sow's milk as compared
with cow's milk is shown in the following table :

TABLE XXVII. — THE COMPOSITION OF Sow's MILK COMPARED

WITH COW'S MlLK1

TOTAL
SOLIDS

FAT

CASEIN

AND

ALBUMIN

MILK
SUGAR

ASH

Sow's milk . .
Cow's milk . .

Per Cent

19.00
13.60

Per Cent

6.70
4.40

Per Cent

5.90
3.50

Per Cent

5.40
5.00

Per Cent

1.00
.70

Difference .

5.40

2.30

2.40

.40

.30

Sow's milk is shown to be richer in all constituents than
cow's milk, particularly in casein and albumin (protein),
and ash. The fact that sow's milk contains less water
and more protein and ash, largely explains why pigs
make larger and more economical gains to a unit of milk
and weight than do calves.

1 Henry and Morrison : " Feeds and Feeding."

CHAPTER VI

THE SUMMER FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT
OF THE BREEDING HERD

As a rule, the breeding herd during the summer is under
more favorable conditions for the maintenance of health
and breeding thrift than in the winter. With most of the
farm fenced hog-tight, an adequate range, plenty of green
succulent forage, shade and good water, the problems
of feeding and management are practically solved. The
cost of feeding and the work of handling are, furthermore,
reduced to the minimum when natural rather than
artificial conditions prevail.

FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE PREGNANT SOWS

Number of litters in a year.

The question of whether two crops of pigs shall be
produced on the farm each year is one which involves
the ability of the sow on the one hand, and the availability
of the proper equipment on the other. As a general rule,
the mature sow is capable of raising two litters each year.
To do this regularly and farrow in season for a number of
successive years, however, requires fertile and reliable
breeding qualities, and also good feeding and careful
management. Allowing 226 days for two gestation periods
and 112 days for the time between farrowing and weaning

117

118 Pork Production

the pigs, 27 days are left in a year of 365 days, which
will give sufficient leeway to permit the sow to come
in heat and be bred. If for some reason, as a weakened
condition resulting from improper feeding or a lack
of natural fertility, she fails to come in heat promptly
or does not conceive with the first service, the chances
are that she will farrow late. If she falls behind in
her breeding schedule, it will be necessary to allow her
to skip a period in order to prevent the pigs coming out
of season.

A certain proportion of the sows in the herd can usually
be depended on for two litters each year. When fall
pigs are raised, the practice may be to produce a limited
number. Approximately 75 per cent of the pigs raised
in the corn-belt are spring farrowed. The plan of having
each sow produce three litters every two years is a good
one. Gilts which farrowed their first litters when from
twelve to fourteen months of age should not produce
their second until they are two years old. This is neces-
sary to insure their own development, on which depends
their future usefulness as breeders.

Those who raise two litters a year claim that it is faulty
management to allow a mature sow to remain idle one-
half of the year ; that the yearly cost of feeding the sow
is so great that one cannot afford to board her for six
months without some return. This is an important
point and in line with the growing tendency to look
on the brood sow as a producer whose business it
should be to work twelve months of the year instead
of but six.

Success in raising fall pigs will depend largely on the
equipment for properly handling them and the disposition
to give them the best of care. Warm quarters are a

Summer Feeding of the Breeding Herd 119

necessity in most of the pork-producing areas if pigs are
to make satisfactory growth during the winter. Fall
pigs should be farrowed early so that they may make a
good start in their growth before cold weather sets in.
In the latitude of the central corn-belt, they should come
the latter part of August or early in September. With
warm quarters, a clean place to sleep, and good feed, fall
pigs will do nearly as well as spring ones. Such pigs
should have the growth by spring which will enable them
to make excellent use of forage crops and be finished in
the early or late summer, depending on the method of
feeding employed and their development.

However, with the best of conditions, it is not easy
successfully to raise and bring through the winter a crop
of fall pigs. As a rule, they do not compare favorably
at the same age with pigs farrowed in the spring. Further-
more, it is a matter of general observation that a sow does
not have as many nor as strong pigs as she does when
bred but once a year. Nevertheless, with proper equip-
ment and good care, these objections are more than
balanced by the smaller number of sows which it is neces-
sary to keep in order to produce the required number of
pigs for the farm.

Feeding and management.

After the sows are dried off, no time should be lost in
preparing them for breeding. The early fall pig is usually
a safer investment than the late one. In most sections
it is desirable, as a rule, to begin breeding about May
first, which will bring the first pigs the last week in August.
The importance of flushing, or feeding the sows so as to
cause them to gain, has already been discussed in Chap**11*
II. The best method of feeding in the spring is the onr*

120 Pork Production

which depends largely on legume or other good forage
crops, and which supplies just enough grain in addition
to secure a gain of about one pound a day for each sow
until bred.

After the sows are safely in pig, they should be kept
during the summer in the condition of flesh that will
insure, with exercise, strong pigs and a good milk-flow
after farrowing. The principles discussed in Chapter
III should be followed during the summer. The sows
should be permitted to gain as much as they lose in
farrowing and the succeeding suckling period. This will
be an average of 75 or 80 pounds for mature sows. Year-
ling sows should ordinarily gain more than this. During
the first ten weeks of gestation, there should be a sufficient
supply of good grass or forage crops to make any grain
feeding unnecessary. They may, therefore, occupy during
this time the same pasture and quarters as the sows which
are not bred. If it is possible to maintain them on green
crops alone, and it should be, it will not only mean greater
economy in their feeding, but more exercise and more
healthful surroundings. The beneficial effects of such
conditions will be reflected later in ease of pigging, strong
pigs, and a state of health that will support a good
milk-flow.

Sows which raise two litters a year, however, should
not be allowed to become too thin during the summer.
It is important that they make the required gain in flesh,
most of which should be put on in the last half of the
summer. Beginning at this time and continuing until
they farrow, the bred sows will ordinarily need some
grain or other concentrated feeds. With legume forage
crops, these should be largely home-grown. With ordi-
nary pastures, a small amount of some protein feed like

Summer Feeding of the Breeding Herd 121

tankage, linseed-oil meal, shorts or middlings should be
fed with the corn or other grains in approximately the
same proportions as recommended for winter feeding
on page 56. The amount of grain to feed, or the neces-
sity of feeding grain at all, will depend entirely on con-
ditions, and will be shown by the condition of flesh the
sows are in. The judgment of the feeder, consequently,
must always be relied on to determine how much to feed
at any time.

Plenty of range and green feed will solve the problem
of supplying exercise for the bred sows. In the absence
of natural shade, which is most to be desired, artificial
shades should be provided. These should be so con-
structed and located as to receive the greatest benefit
from the breezes. In extremely hot weather, an artificial
wallow or bath located in the shade will be of value in
helping to keep down the temperature of the sows. If
properly taken care of, kept clean, and coal-tar dip or
crude oil occasionally applied, it is of value. If allowed
to become filthy, it may easily become more harmful than
beneficial. The sleeping quarters or shade should be
kept as free from dust as possible by occasional cleaning
and sprinkling with crude oil.

Sows which farrow in the fall should be given the same
careful attention as regards feeding and handling during
the farrowing season as that recommended for the sows
which farrow in the spring. (See page 69.) The fall
litters should be given every possible consideration, for
a good start before cold weather begins is especially de-
sirable. During the winter, the pigs should have the
warmest quarters available, and they should never be fed
less than the amount necessary to keep them in a thrifty
growing condition. It is imperative, also, that their beds

122 Pork Production

be kept clean and dry and opportunity for some exercise
provided.

FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE OPEN SOWS

Fattening the culls.

The sows which have lost their places in the breeding
herd should ordinarily be fattened before they are sent
to market. Thirty days of intensive feeding will enable
them to sell at sufficient advance over the average " grass-
widow" to more than pay the costs. In this time a
mature vigorous sow should make a gain of 60 to 90
pounds. According to the observation of men who are
daily on the market, this gain will, under normal con-
ditions, enhance the selling value of the sow by 25 cents
a hundred, on the average. This gain should not cost
to exceed 5J pounds of grain for each pound of gain,
which, with the usual prices, would insure a good profit
from fattening.

Sows which are to be fattened should have, if possible,
access to a patch of rape or some legume forage crop to
supplement their grain. Without a good supply of forage,
a small quantity of some commercial supplement will be
necessary for the best results. Some tankage, or linseed-
oil meal, or shorts, will not only insure greater palatability
for the ration and faster gains, but also cheaper gains.
Fifteen parts of corn, or other grain, to 1 part of tankage
or meat-meal, or 2 parts linseed-oil meal, or 5 parts shorts
or middlings, by weight, will make a balanced ration.
They should be placed ordinarily on full feed as soon as
dried off and continued until in good condition. Just
how fat they should be made will depend on the weather,
the market, and the supply of feed.

Summer Feeding of the Breeding Herd 123

Feeding and management of the open brood sows.

Mature sows which are not bred should be handled
during the summer in a way that will reduce to a minimum
the cost of their keep, yet maintain them in an active
healthy condition. It is possible to keep a mature open
sow on little or no grain, provided good forage crops are
available. Furthermore, experience has shown that the
most economical method of handling is to provide the
crops which will enable them to get most of their living
from this source. These crops should be grown in suf-
ficient abundance so that the sows, as well as the pigs,
may have an adequate supply. A thin mature sow will
maintain her weight during June and July on good blue-
grass alone, and on a forage crop like clover or alfalfa or
rape will make some gain. Much depends, however, on her
condition and previous feeding. If the sows are restricted
to over-stocked pastures, they will require some grain,
especially in late July and August when the ordinary
pastures often become parched and bare. When grain
feeding is necessary, corn or other home-grown grain is
appropriate since their need for protein is limited to the
requirements of maintenance, which are small. It should
never be necessary to feed the sows more grain than 1 per
cent of their weight daily.

In addition to economy of feed and labor, the method
of feeding recommended above has the merit of providing
the conditions which promote exercise and thrift. Sow.;
that have had plenty of range during the summer and
a minimum of grain are in the best possible state of health
for breeding in the fall. Such conditions also provide
healthful surroundings and eliminate many of the chances
of disease.

124 Pork Production

Feeding the yearling sows.

Gilts that have farrowed when twelve to fourteen
months of age should not, as a rule, be bred for fall litters.
They need the next six months of idleness to recuperate
their lost energies and to provide the opportunity for the
further development necessary to make them good repre-
sentatives of their breed. These young sows should not
be fattened, but fed with sufficient liberality to insure
good growth. For this reason, they will need some grain
during the summer. This should not be straight corn,
but a ration properly supplemented with some one of the
common nitrogenous or protein feeds. This will not be
required in large quantity, especially if the sows have
access to a good forage crop. About 10 or 12 parts of
corn or other grain, to 1 part tankage or meat-meal, or 2
parts linseed-oil meal, or 4 or 5 parts shorts or middlings,
or 10 to 15 parts of skim-milk or buttermilk, by weight,
will supply the nutrients in the correct proportions for
best results. With a good legume forage, they will require
less supplement than this; in fact, they will get along
very well with none.

As a rule, they should be fed considerably less than the
amount they will eat. The guide should be their con-
dition, rather than their appetites. They should be com-
pelled to do a certain amount of rustling, for in addition
to the food value of succulent feeds, they will gain much
in constitution and vigor as a result of the exercise taken.

COST OF SUMMER FEEDING SOWS

Bred sows.

The feed cost of keeping a pregnant sow from the time
her pigs are weaned in the spring until she farrows in the

Summer Feeding of the Breeding Herd 125

fall is perhaps subject to more fluctuation than is the cost
at any other season of the year. This is due to the wide
difference in the types of management employed in feeding
the sows and the variation in the value and price of
pasture land in the different sections of the country.

The feed costs as estimated in the following tables are
confessedly approximations. The effort is to represent
the cost under different conditions by making three
separate sets of calculations. The ability of the sow to
make the proper gain during the 126 days of the breeding
and gestation periods under the different conditions shown
in I, II, and III is the point in the determination about
which it is impossible to obtain any very definite figures.

TABLE XXVIII. — COST OF SUMMER FEEDING MATURE BRED
Sows TO TIME OF FARROWING

METHOD OP

TOTAL PAS-
TURE OR FOR-

TOTAL CON-

TOTAL COST OF

CON-

TOTAL
FEED

MANAGEMENT

AGE CHARGE
126 DAYS

FED 126 DAYS

CENTRATES

COST
126 DAYS

at 1 I per lb. — »

4.41

$ 5.01

Poor pasture,

1 per cent

at l\i per lb. —

5.52

$ 6.12

no special

weight daily

at lit per lb. —

6.61

$ 7.21

forage crops

(350# sow)

at Iffi per lb. —

7.72

$ 8.32

or legumes

441 lb.

at 2 t per lb. —

8.82

$ 9.42

at 2\t per lb. —

11.02

$11.62

at 1 t per lb. —

3.31

$ 4.57

Fair pasture,

at 30 1 per

| per cent
weight daily

at \U per lb. —
at 1M Per lb. —

4.14
4.96

$ 5.40

$ 6.22

forage crops
or legumes

month $1.26

(350 # sow)
331 lb.

at \U per lb. —
at 2 t Per lb. —
at 2$t Per lb. —

5.79
6.62

8.27

$ 7.05
$ 7.88
$ 9.53

at 1 t Per lb.—

.76

$ 3.76

III

Specially
grown for-
age crops or
legumes

at $12.00 2 per
acre
4 sows per
acre $3.00

| per cent
weight daily
(360 # sow)
last 6 weelcs
only 76 lb.

at \\t per lb. —
at \U per lb. —
at Hi per lb. —
at 2 t Per lb. —
at 2ff< per lb. —

.95
1.14
1.33
1.52
1.90

$ 3.95
$ 4.14
$ 4.33
$ 4.52

$ 4.90

1 1 cent, 11 cents, 1£ cents, If cents, 2 cents, and 2| cents a pound are equivalent,
respectively, to 56 cents, 70 cents, 84 cents, 98 cents, $1.12, and $1.40 a bushel for corn.

2 This represents cost of crops, including rent.

126

Pork Production

The figures are based largely on experience in handling
sows under these conditions. One pound of concentrated
feed used in these calculations is equivalent to 1 feed
unit. (See page 61.)

TABLE XXIX. — COST OF MAINTAINING MATURE OPEN Sow
6 MONTHS DURING SUMMER

TOTAL PAS-

METHOD OF
MANAGEMENT

TURE OR FOR-
AGE CROP
CHARGE
180 DAYS

TOTAL CON-
CENTRATES
FED

TOTAL COST OF CON-
CENTRATES

FEED
COST
180 DAYS

% per cent

at 1 t per Ib. — $2.92

$3.82

Poor pasture,

weight daily

at Uj< per Ib. — $3.65

$4.55

no special

at 15f£ per

(325 # sow)

at l±l perlb. — $4.38

$5.28

forage crops

month $.90

180 days

at Ifjf perlb. — $5.11

$6.01

or legumes

292 Ib.

at 2 i per Ib. — $5.84

$6.74

at 2%i per Ib. — $7.30

$8.20

f per cent

at 1 i per Ib. — $2.20

$3.70

Fair pasture,

weight daily

at \U per Ib. — $2.75

$4.25

no special

at 25 i per

(325# sow)

at l^per Ib. — $3.30

$4.80

forage crops

month $1.50

180 days

at If jf perlb. — $3.85

$5.35

or legumes

220 Ib.

at 2 1 per Ib. — $4.40

$5.90

at 2}l per Ib. — $5.50

$7.00

III

1 per cent

at 1 i per Ib. — $0.49

$3.49

Specially

at $12.00 per

weight daily

at l\i per Ib. — $ .61

$3.61

grown for-

acre ; 4 sows

(325# sow)

at H£ per Ib. — $ .74

$3.74

age crops or

to the acre

60 days

at lU per Ib. — $ .86

$3.86

legumes

$3.00

49 Ib.

at 2 t per Ib. — $ .98

$3.98

at 2^ perlb, — $1.23

$4.23

Open mature sows.

The cost of maintaining an open mature sow during
the six months following the time her spring litter is
weaned will depend chiefly on the charges made for pasture
and forage crops. It is believed that the figures shown
in Table XXIX are a fair approximation of the average
costs under different conditions. The figures are for sows

Summer Feeding of the Breeding Herd 127

averaging 325 pounds, which are maintained at a constant
weight for six months during the summer, or until the
beginning of the fall breeding season.

Open yearling sows.

If the gilts weigh about 250 pounds on the average
when they wean their litters in the spring, they should be
able to make a gain of 75 pounds during the succeeding
six months without becoming too fleshy. To make
375- to 400-pound sows in medium condition, they should
gain this much. The cost of this increase, with their
maintenance, will depend on the factors already discussed.
With fairly good pasture, no more than four pounds of
grain should be required to produce one pound of gain.
With these conditions, the cost will be as shown in Table
XXX. With legume forage crops, instead of only fair
pasture, the cost should be about 10 per cent less than
the figures given.

TABLE XXX. — COST OF FEEDING OPEN YEARLING Sow
6 MONTHS DURING SUMMER

TOTAL

COST OF CONCENTRATES

TOTAL

PASTURE

CONCEN-

FEED

METHOD OP
MANAGEMENT

FORAGE

TRATES TO
PRODUCE

COST
i fin

CHARGE

GAIN 75 LB.

loU

DAYS

180 DAYS

at 1 i per lb.

— $3.00

$4.50

Fair pasture,

at l^perlb.

- $3.75

$5.25

no special

at l^perlb.

- $4.50

$6.00

forage crops

$1.50

300 lb.

at \H per lb.

— $5.25

$6.75

or legumes

at 2 ^perlb.

- $6.00

$7.50

at 2\i per lb.

- $7.50

$9.00

CHAPTER VII

FEEDING AND CARE OF GROWING AND
FATTENING PIGS

WITH the pigs weaned, the problem of the feeder is to
mature the crop as economically as possible under his
conditions without sacrificing the weight and finish
required of those which go to market or the growthiness
and thrift desirable in those intended for the breeding
herd.

THE WEIGHT AND TYPE OF PIG DESIRED BY THE MARKET

In the corn-belt, no single type or weight of pig sells
at the top of the market in all seasons of the year. As
a general rule, the market pays a premium for the weights
which are most scarce. As a consequence, in the late
summer and early fall when weights are the heaviest,
light hogs command a premium; while in the middle of
the winter and early spring when light weights pre-
dominate, the heavier hogs sell at a slight advance. (See
Chapter XVI, page 387.) In recent years the tend-
ency has been for both producer and consumer to favor
the lighter weights. The farmer with higher priced
land, feed, and labor has found the method of more
intensive feeding and earlier marketing profitable. Like-
wise, changing demands during this time have been
toward the lighter handier- weight cuts. This has been
due to the changing tastes and requirements of the con-

128

Feeding and Care of Pigs 129

sumer, and to the improvements in methods of curing,
refrigeration, and transportation of pork products.

The weight and type of hog in greatest demand by the
market is not necessarily the best for the farmer to pro-
duce in a given season. When corn is cheap and hogs
relatively high, it is profitable to sacrifice some on selling
price a pound for heavier weights. On the other hand,
when feed is high and hogs cheap, the feeder is disposed
to market early and at immature weights. In general,
however, the requirements of the packer and shipper
coincide fairly well with the type and weight of hog which
the farmers of the corn-belt find most profitable to produce.
This is a hog weighing from 200 to 275 pounds and of the
general lard type, what the packer calls a medium weight
butcher hog. Ordinarily, it is advisable to market at
a weight somewhere between these limits.

Canadian farmers cannot afford to compete with those
of the corn-belt by producing the fat-back lard hog.
Both their feed supply and packing interests favor the
production of the type of hog that will meet the require-
ments of curers of the best British bacon. This means
a hog of strictly bacon type, full of lean meat, and capable
of producing the "Wiltshire side." (See page 401.)
Pigs of this type, sometimes called "singers" on the
Chicago market, weighing from 160 to 220 pounds and
finished so that the layer of fat on the back and loin is
no more than 1^ to Ij inches in thickness, is the kind
which experience has shown the great bulk of northern
farmers should seek to place on the market.1 These
requirements of weight and quality are standard, and
practically constant from year to year and from season
to season. The price received for the finished pigs is
1 Bull. 10, Dept. of Agr., Dominion of Canada.

130 Pork Production

more a question of the quality of bacon which they will
produce than the result of any seasonal fluctuation in the
number supplied.

GENERAL SYSTEMS OF HANDLING AND FEEDING

One system of feeding the spring pigs intended for mar-
ket is to grow them rather slowly during the summer by
the maximum use of forage crops and a minimum of grain,
finishing them late the following winter or spring. An-
other practice of handling is that of feeding practically
full rations from start to finish and having them ready
for market by fall or early winter. The bulk of the hogs
sold at the great central markets is produced by systems
between these two extremes.

The most profitable system to follow as a policy on
any particular farm must be determined by the conditions.
There are many types of farming where hogs are produced,
and the method of feeding should be in harmony with the
plan of management of the farm, in accord with the pur-
pose for which the hogs are produced. On many farms
hogs are raised for home consumption only, in which case
the problem is to have the pigs at the condition and
weight when it is most appropriate and convenient for
farm butchering. The most economical method of
procedure under these conditions, no doubt, is to depend
chiefly on forage crops, kitchen and farm wastes, reducing
largely the use of grain until the last month or six weeks
of feeding.

On other farms, pigs are produced mainly for the purpose
of following cattle during the winter, to save the wastes
of the feed yard by converting them into pork. For this
use the pigs should be vigorous and growthy, and inclined

Feeding and Care of Pigs 131

more to thinness than to fatness. The amount of grain
necessary to feed during the summer to produce an active,
strtmg-boned pig which will weigh in November from 100
to 150 pounds will depend on the time of farrowing and
the quality and abundance of the green feed available.
With good forage crops and early farrowing, no more than
half a ration, or 2 per cent of their weight daily, should
be sufficient to produce this weight with pigs of the right
type. With April and May pigs and no special forage
crops, heavier grain feeding would be necessary. Under
such conditions, it is difficult to have the pigs at satis-
factory weights without making them too fat for good
cattle hogs.

When hogs are produced in relatively large numbers
and are the principal live-stock product of the farm, the
question of intensity of feeding during the summer should
be determined for any year by the availability of forage
crops, the price of feed, and market conditions. Intensive
feeding and early marketing in the corn-belt necessitate
early farrowing and a large use of old corn. The higher
cost of feed and the special attention required by early
pigs at farrowing time, however, are believed by many to
be more than compensated for by the better market and
the shorter period of dry lot feeding necessary. (See
Chapter XVI, page 387.) On the other hand, the
system of feeding which finishes the pigs in the middle
or late winter does not require so large a use of old corn,
may rely more largely on forage crops for the summer
gains, and postpones any heavy feeding until the new crop
is available. As indicated by present practices in the
corn-belt, the general farmer believes this system to be
one well adapted to his conditions. With the increase
in the practice of hogging-down corn and the need of hogs

132 Pork Production

on most farms to follow cattle, the present systems of
feeding and handling will probably change but little.

FOOD DEMANDS OF THE GROWING AND FATTENING PIG

The successful growing and fattening of pigs require
that they be supplied with those feeds which will meet
their body needs. Two general classes of feeds are re-
quired in the proper development of every young animal :
first, those which produce fat and heat ; and second, those
which supply bone and muscle. The first is commonly
called carbohydrate or fat-producing feeds, and the latter,
protein or growing feeds. For the most vigorous and
economical development, these constituents must be fed
in the proportions which will satisfy without waste the
demands of the pig for growth as well as fat production ;
i.e., the ration must be balanced. These demands vary
with the age and development of the pig. The weanling
pig weighing 35 pounds requires a considerably larger
proportion of growing elements than does the mature hog
when being fattened. In the development of the pig
from weaning to the market weight of 250 pounds, there-
fore, the requirements for bone and muscle-building feeds
decrease very regularly, while the need and capacity for
using the heat and fat-producing feeds progressively
increase.

When feeds are high priced, as is now the rule, it is
not possible to grow pigs successfully and with profit
if attention is not given to feeding rations which are
balanced. The importance of this has been repeatedly
emphasized by the experiences of practice and the results
of carefully conducted feeding tests at the experiment
stations.

Feeding and Care of Pigs 133

CORN AS A PIG FEED

The American farmer has no cereal equal to corn for
fattening live-stock. Its unusual palatability, its con-
centration and richness in fat-producing qualities, its
mildly laxative effects, its keeping qualities and physical
texture, make it a feed unequaled for fat production. The
fact that 65 per cent of the pork produced in the United
States is grown in the corn-belt is largely due to the feeding
qualities of this grain. The greatness of corn as a crop
in this region is in part due to its extensive use in pork
production. Probably no animal on the farm is capable
of using so large a proportion of corn in his diet as the lard
hog.

The faults of corn as a pig feed are that it lacks in
protein and mineral matter (ash), which are indispensable
for the growth and development of muscle and bone tis-
sues. Corn is so over-abundantly rich in carbohydrates
and deficient in protein and mineral matter that its grow-
ing properties have been sacrificed to fattening properties.
Furthermore, the proteins which it does contain are
inferior, for they do not supply the kinds and variety
necessary to meet all the body needs. The mineral
supply of corn is likewise deficient in the kind of elements
supplied. Lime, or calcium, which, with phosphorus,
makes up more than 80 1 per cent of the ash of bone, is
present in extremely meager amounts.

Experiments demonstrating the deficiencies of corn alone
as a feed for growing and fattening pigs.

That growing and fattening pigs do not do well when
restricted to a diet of straight corn is admirably demon-

1 Jordan : " The Feeding of Animals," page 46.

134'

Pork Production

strated by the results of a practical feeding test made at
the Iowa Experiment Station 1 in the spring of 1906.
Thirty-six shotes, averaging approximately 136 pounds,
were divided equally into four lots. Lot I was fed a
ration of straight corn-meal, and lots II, III, and IV
rations containing corn-meal and different proportions
of meat-meal. The results from the lot fed corn alone
and that fed ten parts of corn and one of meat-meal, by
weight, are here reported.

TABLE XXXI. — CORN ALONE VERSUS CORN AND MEAT-MEAL
(Iowa Exp. Sta., Bull. No. 91)

RATIONS FED

LOT I
CORN-MEAL.

Lor II
10 CORN-MEAL
1 MEAT-MEAL

Average daily ration fed .
Number pigs per lot ...
Average initial weight per pig
Average final weight per pig
Average daily gain per pig .
Feed required to produce 100
Ib gain

6.48# corn-meal
9
134.9#
251.2#
1.163#

556 6jf corn-meal

7.6 1# corn-meal
.76 meat-meal
9
137. 1#
322.9#
1.858#
409.9$ corn-meal
40 9 meat-meal

The test began on March 13 and closed June 31,
covering a period of 100 days. The pigs used were of
mixed breeding, growthy, and in rather thin flesh at the
beginning of the test, which accounted in part for their
rapid gains. They were confined to dry yards, 40 by 80
feet, with open sheds for shelter. Every effort was made
to secure uniformity in the different lots of individual
pigs, in the conditions of housing, and in the methods of
feeding employed. The number of pigs in each lot, the
1 Kennedy and Robbins : Bull. 91.

Feeding and Care of Pigs 135

length of the experiment, and the care exercised to make
all conditions identical give assurance that the results
fairly show the merits of the rations fed under the con-
ditions of this experiment. The results of this test are
shown in Table XXXI.

In growing and fattening pigs for market, the value
of the rations fed is determined by the rapidity of the
gains, the amount or cost of feed required to produce
100 pounds of gain, and the character of the finish at-
tained by the pigs (selling price) at the end of the feed-
ing period. This does not consider the greater fertility
value of the dropping produced by pigs fed on the better
rations.

There was a marked difference in the gains on the
two rations. The pigs fed the balanced ration made
59.75 per cent faster gains than did those fed the un-
balanced ration. While those receiving corn alone made
an average gain of 116 pounds, the pigs receiving in
addition to corn .76 pound of meat-meal daily, gained
185 pounds. Assuming a uniform rate of gain, the pigs
fed corn and meat-meal were as heavy at the end of 62
days' feeding as were those fed corn alone at the end
of 100 days' feeding. There was, on the average, a saving
of 32 days in the time required to produce 100 pounds of
gain. All this means an earlier and usually a better
market, and a saving in labor, interest, and risk, con-
siderations of no little importance to the practical hog-
man.

The principal reason why pigs fed a balanced ration
always outgain those given an unbalanced one like
corn alone, is because it is eaten with greater relish and
consequently consumed in larger amounts. Although
corn is an unusually palatable feed, the pigs fed the

136 Pork Production

balanced ration in this experiment ate 1.89 pounds more
daily to each pig than those receiving corn alone, or an
increase of 29 per cent.

The second and perhaps the most important difference
in these two rations was that in the amount of feed
required to produce a given gain. Those receiving corn
alone required 556.6 pounds of feed for each 100 pounds
of gain, while those fed 10 parts corn and 1 part meat-
meal needed only 450.8 pounds. This is a saving of
approximately 106 pounds of feed in the production of
100 pounds of gain ; or, in other words, the balanced
ration required 19 per cent less feed for the same gain.
Expressed in another way, a bushel of corn (56 pounds)
in the corn-alone lot produced 10 pounds of pork, while
56 pounds of the balanced ration produced 12.42 pounds
of pork. Every pound of meat-meal fed in the balanced
ration had the equivalent value of 3.58 pounds of corn
fed in the corn-alone ration, in producing 100 pounds of
gain. If a bushel of corn fed in lot I had a value of 56
cents, a ton of meat-meal, as fed in this experiment,
would have a corresponding value of $71.60. If the corn
is valued at 70 cents a bushel, the value of the meat-meal
would be $81.40 a ton; with corn at 84 cents a bushel,
the value of the meat-meal would be $107.40 a ton.

The corn-alone ration did not produce economical gains
because corn does not contain sufficient protein or mineral
matter of the kinds to satisfy the needs of the pigs for
muscle and bone development. Although pigs of this
age when fed to such heavy market weights are capable
of using large amounts of carbohydrates, or fat-producing
foods, their requirements for protein, or growth-producing
foods are none the less imperative. An efficient use of
the ration is possible only when the supply of growing

Feeding and Care of Pigs 137

constituents is fed in quantities above a certain minimum,
or in larger amounts than are contained in corn. As
a consequence, the pigs in this experiment which were
restricted to a diet of straight corn were subjected to
a mild form of starvation, not so acute with pigs of this
development as occurs with those of younger age, the
effect of which was to lower the general vitality and
vigor and hence reduce their capacity and efficiency as
pork-producing machines.

Both lots of pigs were appraised by market experts at
the close of the experiment and valued at the same price
a hundredweight. Both lots were uniformly very fat.
Although the pigs which received the balanced ration
were more than 70 pounds heavier and had smoother
and more glossy coats of hair, those fed corn alone were
practically as well finished, and representing a more
popular weight, sold at the same price. A summary of
all similar data from other experiments in which well-
grown pigs were fed supports the conclusion that, as a
rule, the feeding of a balanced ration has little effect in
increasing the dressing percentage or enhancing the selling
price over pigs fed corn alone. This is because the corn
ration tends to check growth and stimulate or hasten
fat production. The chief benefits to be derived, there-
fore, from feeding a nitrogenous supplement with corn
to well-grown shotes which are being fattened for market
are in the faster gains, the earlier market, and the saving
of feed required to produce a given gain. These benefits
are amply sufficient to condemn the practice of feeding
corn alone.

The pigs fed in the above experiment averaged 135
pounds at the beginning of the test, and were well grown
and thin in flesh. They were probably late spring pigs

138 Pork Production

of the previous year. If the feeding of corn alone to pigs
of this development means such waste of feed and time,
one should expect the effects of such feeding on weanling
pigs to be very much more pronounced or disastrous.
That such is the case is the experience of every observant
feeder. Investigations show that young pigs restricted
to a diet of corn alone, especially when denied the oppor-
tunity of rooting, very early develop evidences of im-
perfect nutrition. The appetite becomes weak and
depraved, and they display a craving for earthy materials,
ashes, charcoal, cement, limestone, and the like. If some
of these sources of ash or mineral ingredients are not
supplied, especially if the water is deficient in salts,
evidences of starvation become prominent. They cease
to make gains, the coat becomes rough, the eyes dull,
and the gait uncertain. Not only are the rate and cost
of gains with young pigs out of all proportion to the results
obtained from well-balanced rations, but when long-
continued the effects may even result in the death of the
weaker individuals.

To show the possible effects of a ration of corn alone on
the size and strength of bone of growing pigs, Burnett
of the Nebraska Experiment Station made studies of
fundamental importance to the breeder and feeder.
Twenty pure-bred Duroc-Jersey pigs, averaging 62 pounds,
were divided into five equal lots of four pigs each. From
August 2, 1907, to January 3, 1908, a period of 154 days,
they were fed the following rations : Lot I, corn-meal
alone; lot II, 75 per cent corn-meal and 25 per cent
shorts; lot III, 25 per cent corn-meal and 75 per cent
skim-milk ; lot IV, 90 per cent corn-meal and 10 per cent
tankage; lot V, 90 per cent corn-meal and 10 per cent
bone-meal. During the first 84 days of the test, all the

Feeding and Care of Pigs

139

lots were on alfalfa pasture, which undoubtedly insured
a better showing for the pigs in lot I than would other-
wise have been possible. For the remainder of the time,
they were confined to the dry lot and the above rations.
The interesting results of this experiment are shown in
the following table :

TABLE XXXII. — THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT RATIONS ON
THE SIZE AND BREAKING STRENGTH OF BONE

(Neb. Exp. Sta., Bull. 107)

AVERAGE

RATIONS FED

AVERAGE
WEIGHT
OF GREEN
BONES IN
GRAMSI

AVERAGE
CIRCUM-
FERENCE
OF BONES
IN MILLI-
METERS

AVERAGE
THICKNESS
OF BONE
WALL IN
MILLI-
METERS

PERCENT-
AGE OF
MINERAL
MATTER
IN GREEN
BONE

BREAKING
STRENGTH

OF BONE3
PER 100#

LIVE
WEIGHT OF

PIGS

Ib.

Corn-meal, 100%

1097

73.

2.8

25.4

325

C orn-meal , 75 %

Shorts, 25%

1044

69.9

2.9

27.8

396

Corn-meal, 25%

Skim-milk 75%

1232

71.3

3.7

32.7

509

Corn-meal, 90%

Tankage, 10%

1219

73.6

3.7

35.5

580

Corn-meal, 90%

Ground bone, 10%

1196

71.6

4.1

37.2

681

Several striking facts stand out in these results. The
breaking strength of the bones of pigs fed skim-milk,
tankage, or ground bone with corn was from 56 to 109

1 The above figures were obtained by averaging the data for
the following bones of each pig : 2 femur, 2 tibia, 2 humerus, and
2 ulna and radius.

140 Pork Production

per cent greater than for the pigs fed corn alone. This
greater strength was not due to bone of larger apparent
size, but to a thicker bone- wall and a denser structure
of the bone itself. The figures show that the circum-
ference of the bones was not affected by the ration, but
the weight, thickness of wall, and percentage of mineral
matter present was very markedly affected. The addition
of 25 per cent of shorts to a corn ration would appear to
have little effect on the strength or composition of the
bone produced when compared with corn alone. This
result seems reasonable in view of the fact that shorts
contain a relatively small amount of mineral matter,
particularly calcium. Other studies by Burnett and
similar studies by Carlyle 1 and Forbes 2 have given
results which confirm those here reported.

This experiment supplies emphatic evidence of the
deficiency of corn as a bone-building feed. Chemical
analyses have made it known that this is chiefly due to
the extremely small amount of calcium or lime contained.
The practical effect of adding tankage or skim-milk was
not only to supply needed proteins, but also to furnish
the calcium and other inorganic elements in which corn
is so notoriously lacking. Although this experiment
does not prove directly that the feeding of corn alone
causes pigs to go off on their feet and legs, it supplies
very strong indirect evidence that this may be the case.
Other factors affect the ability of a hog to stand square
and strong on his legs and feet, but that the quality or
composition of the rations fed has an important influence
in supplying strength or weakness cannot be questioned
seriously. To develop a breeding herd noted for good

1 Wis. Exp. Sta. Bull. 104.

2 Ohio Exp. Sta. Bulls. 213 and 283.

Feeding and Care of Pigs 141

legs and sound pasterns and feet requires, therefore, not
only care in the selection of the breeding stock, but also
the feeding of rations during the growing period which
promote instead of prevent the development of strong
bone.

Although wheat, rye, barley, kaffir, and milo contain
somewhat more protein and ash than does corn, they
are very similar in their general feeding qualities. Like
corn, they have an excess of those constituents (carbo-
hydrates) which promote fat-production and retard
growth, and a deficiency of those materials (protein and
ash) which stimulate muscle and bone development.
The above experimental results from the feeding of corn
alone may, therefore, be taken as a fairly reliable in-
dication of the results to be obtained with any of these
grains when fed singly and alone.

Realizing the necessity of feeding with corn or other
home-grown grain feeds which tend to balance it by
furnishing protein and mineral matter, the hog-man is
confronted with the question of the most economical
method of supplying these necessary materials. There
are two available sources of feeds of this nature : forage
crops which may be grown on the farm, and so-called
nitrogenous or protein supplements which may be pur-
chased on the market. The use of one or both of these
classes of feeds in conjunction with the home-grown
grain is necessary for the most rapid or the most econom-
ical growth of the pig crop.

THE ADVANTAGES OF FORAGE CROPS

The attention which has been directed in recent years
by the experiment stations, extension lecturers, and the

142 Pork Production

agricultural press to the merits of forage crops as means
of balancing the corn ration and improving present
methods of pork production has had the effect of stimu-
lating interest and inquiry into the possibilities of these
crops and the place which they should occupy in a well-
organized plan of management for the hog farm. In the
following pages the results of experimental feeding tests
are presented together with the teachings which a careful
study of these results seems to justify.

Dry lot versus forage feeding.

In Table XXXIII are presented the summarized results
of eleven experiments 1 in which the dry lot method of
feeding pigs was compared with that of feeding on forage.
In all cases, the experiments began soon after the pigs
were weaned and continued throughout most of the
summer, covering an average period of 104 days,
Timothy was used in three of the tests, rape in four,
alfalfa in two, a mixture of rape, Canada field peas and
oats in one, and soybeans in one. In each experiment the
same grain rations were fed in the dry lot and on forage,
except in one of the Iowa tests when the proportion of
meat-meal to corn fed on forage was slightly less than that
fed in the dry lot. With but one exception, the pigs in
both the dry and forage lots were full fed ; i.e. given all
the grain they would eat. It should also be noted that
in every comparison the ration fed in the dry lot was
practically a balanced one.

In no case is there an experiment included in which corn
alone was fed. In other words, each experiment in-
cluded in this summary is a test of the balanced ration

1 Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 91 ; Kans. Exp. Sta. Bull. 192 ; Ohio
Exp. Sta. Bull. 242.

Feeding and Care of Pigs

143

fed in the dry lot and the same ration on forage. The
result of feeding as large a proportion of nitrogenous
supplement in the forage as in the dry lot was to supply,
in most cases, an excess of protein to the forage-fed pigs.

TABLE XXXIII. — SUMMARY — DRY LOT VERSUS FORAGE
FEEDING (Av. 11 EXPS.)

TOTAL
NUMBER
PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH

TEST

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN

AVERAGE
CONCEN-
TRATES RE-
QUIRED TO
PRODUCE
100 LB.
GAIN

AVERAGE
CONCEN-
TRATES
SAVED PER
ACRE
FORAGE

AVERAGE
AMOUNT
PORK AC-
CREDITED
1 ACRE
FORAGE

days

Ib.

Dry lot

104

.85

413.25

—

Forage

115

104

1.17

351.29

1102.42

266.77

The summarized statement of these experiments shows
that the pigs in the dry lot gained an average of .85 pound
daily, while those on forage gained 1.17 pounds. This
is a difference of practically -§- pound daily for each pig.
In other words, the pigs on forage were 33 pounds heavier
at the end of 104 days' feeding. When rapid gains and
an early market are sought by the feeder, the importance
of providing green crops is shown by the fact that the
pigs on forage were practically as heavy at the end of
2| months' feeding as were those in the dry lot at the
end of 3j months' feeding.

The average amount of concentrates (corn + supple-
ment) required to produce 100 pounds of gain was 413.25
pounds for the dry lots and 351.29 pounds for the forage
lots. The green feed consumed by the forage lots caused
an average saving of 62 pounds of concentrates in the
production of each 100 pounds of gain. Whether or not

144 Pork Production

the saving of this quantity of corn and supplement by
the forage eaten effected a saving in the actual cost of
producing a given gain may be considered more profitably
in the light of the figures given in the last two spaces of
the summary table.

An acre of forage in these experiments must be given
credit for producing an average of 266.77 pounds of pork,
or in effecting a saving of 1102.42 pounds of grain or
concentrates. The pork credited to each acre of forage
was determined from the original data by the following
method : The total pounds of concentrates fed the
forage lot was divided by the number of pounds of con-
centrates required to produce one pound of gain in the
dry lot. This gave the number of pounds of pork which
would have been produced in dry-lot feeding from the
concentrates actually fed in the forage lot. Then by
subtracting from the total gains made on forage the
calculated gains which would have been made in the dry
lot from the same concentrates, we get the gains which
must be credited the forage eaten. In other words, from
the same quantity of concentrates, pigs fed on one acre
of forage would have produced 266.77 pounds more pork
than those fed in the dry lot. The concentrates saved
by an acre of forage was calculated by multiplying the
number of pounds of pork credited to each acre of forage
by the pounds of feed required to produce one pound of
gain in the dry lot. To produce a gain of 266.77 pounds
in the dry lot, there would be required, according to these
figures, 1102.42 pounds of concentrates.

As a means of reducing the cost of producing gains in
growing pigs during the summer, therefore, the average
acre of the above forage crops had values as shown in the
following table :

Feeding and Care of Pigs

145

TABLE XXXIV. — AVERAGE VALUE OF AN ACRE OF FORAGE
IN REDUCING COST OF GAINS

When 1 pound of pork was
worth.

W
$13.34

§i
$16.01

7t
$18.67

8*
$21.34

9*
$24.00

When 1 pound of concen-
trates cost •

$11.02

1**

$13.77

11*
$16.53

1!*

$19.28

$22.04

When 1 pound of pork was
worth

10*

$26.67

11*
$29.34

13*

$34.68

15*

$40.01

16*

$42.68

When 1 pound of concen-

2i^
$24.79

21*

$27.55

3i
$33.06

31*

$38.57

4^
$44.08

The above table illustrates the usual method of express-
ing the money value of an acre of forage. It should be
clearly understood, however, that these values are de-
termined by the saving in the cost of producing the gains
solely, and do not include a valuation of the important
benefits derived from the faster gains and earlier market
finish, as well as other advantages. It may be profitable
to grow forage crops even though the rent of the land and
the cost of growing the crop are greater than the returns
gotten when expressed by the above method of valuation.

It should also be pointed out in this connection that
the effect of limiting the grain feed to pigs on forage at
the point where only fair gains are made, or so as to secure
the same gains on forage as are made in the dry lot, is to
increase the value of the crops when estimated by this
method. For example, if two lots of pigs, one in the dry
lot and one on forage, are fed the amounts of grain which
will insure the same average rate of gain in both lots, the
showing of the forage crop would be much better than
if both lots had been full fed for maximum gains. The
average results shown in Table XXXIII are less favorable

146

Pork Production

to the forage crops, therefore, than would be the case with
this common method of feeding.

With the method of full feeding, the benefits of the
forage crop are largely derived from the faster gains,
while with limited feeding on forage the benefits from
the crop are chiefly due to the saving effected in the grain
required to produce a unit of gain.

Feeding skim-milk on forage.

An exception is to be made to the usual results of dry
lot versus pasture feeding when skim-milk or buttermilk
is used as the nitrogenous supplement. These supple-
ments are so watery and so completely balance the de-
ficiencies of grain, that there appears to be no benefit
in faster or cheaper gains by allowing the pigs access to
a succulent forage crop. The addition of a bulky forage
to a ration of grain and milk would appear, in fact, to be
detrimental. This is shown by the results of experi-
ments made by Linfield at the Utah Experiment Station.1
The average of two tests made in different years is shown
in the following table :

TABLE XXXV. — SKIM-MILK ON PASTURE VERSUS SKIM-MILK
IN THE DRY LOT

RATIONS

AVERAGE
DAILY GAIN

PER PlQ

GRAIN AND MILK
TO PRODUCE 100 LB.
GAIN

Grain

Milk

Dry lot . .

Mixed pasture
and alfalfa .

Grain -f- skim-milk
or buttermilk
Grain -f- skim-milk
or buttermilk

Ib.

1.25

1.18

253

284

900
832

1 Bull. 70.

Feeding and Care of Pigs

147

Corn alone versus corn and forage.

In all of the experiments summarized in Table XXXIII,
the pigs in the dry lots were fed balanced rations. If corn
alone had been given in both the forage and dry lots, the
value of the forage in each case would have been greatly
increased. To illustrate the high valuation of the forage
crop when calculated on the basis of the cost of producing
gains with corn alone in the dry lot, the few available
experimental results are summarized and presented in
the following table.1 The value of these forage crops as
sources of protein and mineral matter, or as means of
balancing a ration of corn alone, is, also, strikingly shown
by these results.

TABLE XXXVI. — SUMMARY : CORN ALONE VERSUS CORN
AND FORAGE (Av. 3 Exps.)

TOTAL,

NUM-
BER
PIGS

AVERAGE
NUMBER
PIGS
GRAZED
PER ACRE

AVERAGE
LENGTH
OF TEST

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN

AVERAGE
AMOUNT
CORN RE-
QUIRED
TO PRO-
DUCE 100
LB. GAIN

AVERAGE
AMOUNT
CORN
SAVED BY
1 ACRE
FORAGE

AVERAGE
AMOUNT
PORK AC-
CREDITED
1 ACRE
FORAGE

days

Ib.

Dry lot

.59

699.0

—

Forage

1.25

359.1

3738.18

534.79

Although the experimental work presented in this
table is too meager to make generalizations possible, and
although the poor returns from corn alone are extreme,
the results are nevertheless suggestive. As would be
expected, the value of the forage crops in these experi-
ments was much greater than in those in which balanced

1 Kans. Exp. Sta. Bull. 192 ; Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 243 ; Ala.
Exp. Sta. Bull. 154.

148 Pork Production

rations were fed in the dry lot. The amount of pork
accredited each acre of forage here was almost exactly
double that shown in Table XXXIII. The difference
in the saving of grain effected was even greater. When
corn alone was fed, an acre of forage saved 3738 pounds
of grain, while when corn and a nitrogenous supplement
were given, an acre of forage saved 1102 pounds of feed.
The pigs in these experiments, like those in the previous
tests, were of spring farrow and full fed during the periods
of the tests.

That the usual forage crops supply considerable quan-
tities of food materials which are lacking in corn is also
shown by the summarized results in Table XXXVI. The
pigs obtaining forage in these experiments gained more
than twice as fast as did those receiving corn alone in the
dry lot, and the amount of corn fed for each 100 pounds'
gain was practically one-half. Although most forage
crops do not supply sufficient protein to balance straight
corn for pigs, they do furnish sufficient materially to
reduce the proportion of purchased supplements neces-
sary for productive rations.

Summary of benefits from growing forage crops.

Considering the teachings of practical experience as
well as the results of experimental studies, the following
advantages for forage crops may be enumerated :

1 . Pigs on forage make more rapid gains than do those
confined to the dry lot, other conditions being the same.
It has also been observed that forage-fed pigs are capable
of sustaining a rapid rate of gain for a longer period of
time. With balanced rations and full feeding, the average
rate of gain, as shown by the experimental results in Table
XXXIII, was increased 37 per cent. With corn alone and

Feeding and Care of Pigs 149

full feeding, the forage increased the rate of gain, as shown
in Table XXXVI, more than 111 per cent. The tonic
effects of the succulence, the laxative properties of the
green feed, and the variety of proteins and mineral ele-
ments supplied seem to be responsible for a state of
health and thrift which insures greater capacity for the
digestion and assimilation of food. It is probable, also,
that the greater freedom and more exercise, and the more
healthful conditions generally, contribute materially to
this increased vigor.

When feeding for the quickest development and the
earliest market, a ration that will stimulate rapid gains
is of the greatest importance. An extra gain of \ pound
daily would ordinarily mean a saving of more than two
months' time in the production of a 225-pound shote.
(See page 218.) In the development of young boars
and gilts, the breeder with forage crops may secure rapid
gains without the dangers of forcing which would be
necessary in dry-lot feeding.

2. Pigs which have been fed on forage crops during
the summer do better when placed in the dry lot than
those which have not had the advantage of green feeds.
The beneficial effects of the forage crops, in other words,
are not confined to the forage-feeding period alone, but
are noticeably maintained during the succeeding weeks
of dry-lot feeding. This is another reason why the
figures given in Table XXXIV do not represent the full
value of these crops. This desirable residual effect is
the result, no doubt, of the more vigorous state of health
brought about by the forage conditions and to the larger
capacity resulting from the consumption of the bulky
succulent feeds.

3. When corn, or other grain, is very high or un-

150 Pork Production

obtainable, a succession of forage crops during the summer
makes it possible, with the minimum of grain, to maintain
thrift and fair gains until the next crop is harvested.
Without these crops, the farmer is frequently forced to
the necessity of sacrificing his pig crop by marketing
them at very immature weights, or of carrying them
through under conditions injurious to health and fatal
to profits. The value of an acre of good forage in such
a situation as this, which is not uncommon, is very much
greater than that shown by the usual method of calcula-
tion.

4. Forage crops reduce the amount of grain required
to produce 100 pounds of gain. As indicated by the aver-
age of the experimental results shown in Table XXXIII,
one may expect, even when the pigs on forage are full fed
and those in the dry lot are given balanced rations, a
saving of 15 per cent, approximately, in the amount of
grain required to produce a given amount of pork. When
corn alone was full fed in both forage and dry lots, the
saving effected, as shown in Table XXXVI, was more than
48 per cent. With good forage crops, this saving alone
is usually sufficient to pay all the costs of providing the
crops. Under given conditions, the higher the price
of grain the more important does this saving become.
With higher prices for pork and the increased use of corn
and other grains for human consumption, any method of
pork production which will save grain becomes increas-
ingly important.

5. Another very inportant advantage resulting from
the growing of forage crops, especially in the corn-belt,
is due to the fact that a smaller quantity of commercial
protein feeds need be purchased in order to insure balanced
rations for the growing pigs. This is because these crops,

PLATE IV. — Above, A visible demonstration of the deficiencies
of corn alone for growing and fattening pigs ; below, A big smooth
gilt with only two pairs of good teats, an expensive luxury.

Feeding and Care of Pigs 151

especially the legumes and Dwarf Essex rape, contain
liberal amounts of protein and mineral matter. The new
growth of the ordinary cereal crops like oats, rye, and
barley are very much richer in these growing constituents,
also, than the same crops at maturity. Provision for
such crops, consequently, means a smaller cash outlay
for such feeds as tankage, meat-meal, shorts, middlings,
or oil-meal, and the more exclusive and larger use of corn
or other home-grown grains. The hog-man is, therefore,
made more independent of outside sources of feed supply.

6. Access to forage crops insures that the droppings
will be left where the land is certain to receive the full
benefits from the fertility contained. Contrasted with
the results of dry-lot feeding, where the droppings are
allowed to accumulate and waste away in the barnyard,
and to become a source of filth, infection, and disease,
this system effects a large and an increasingly important
saving. More than 85 per cent l of the fertility of the
feed eaten by a fattening pig is recovered in the manure.
Henry and Morrison 2 have calculated that the fertility
value of the manure produced by a 1000 pounds of pigs
in one year has a value exceeding $38, when the nitrogen
is valued at 18 cents, phosphoric acid at 4.5 cents, and
potash at 5 cents a pound. According to these figures,
the actual fertility value of the droppings produced by
an average pig during the summer would be about $2.
Feeding pigs on forage is a sure and certain method of
increasing rapidly the fertility of the land on which they
graze.

7. Finally, forage crops mean improved sanitary con-
ditions for the pigs. If for no other reason, all so-called

1 Warington : " Chemistry of the Farm," page 214.

2 " Feeds and Feeding," page 279.

152 Pork Production

permanent hog-lots should be plowed up frequently and
sown to crops. Not only will these lots be made to yield
food, but the complete aeration of the soil and the action
of the direct rays of the sun will insure the death of
parasites and disease germs more effectively and at less
cost than can be accomplished by any other known
method. Pigs on forage crops in contact with clean
earth are more thrifty and vigorous than those confined
to dry lots. The fundamental reason why pigs fed on
forage display such capacity for rapid gains is because
of this thrift. A condition of thrift in the growing market
pig is also essential for the production of the best quality
of pork, especially firm bacon. Without thrift, the pigs
intended for the breeding herd are lacking the first essential
for successful performance. The use of forage crops
insures the conditions which encourage the development
of vigor and constitution and eliminates many of the
conditions responsible for unthriftiness and disease.

CHAPTER VIII

CHOOSING A FORAGE CROP: EXPERIMENTAL
FEEDING TRIALS

THERE is no best single forage crop, or succession of
forage crops, for all farms and all seasons. Differences
in climate, rainfall, and soil make it obvious that a crop
well adapted to the South or West might prove an utter
failure in the North or East. Normal variations in
temperature and rainfall from year to year result, also,
in wide differences in the quality and value of any par-
ticular crop grown on the same soil in different years.
The value of a crop in any year is conditioned on the
favorableness of the season for that particular crop.
Furthermore, differences in the type or plan of manage-
ment followed on farms may require the use of forage
crops on some farms which would not be the most profit-
able when other systems of management are followed. For
these reasons, the selection of forage crops is first a ques-
tion of location and type of farming.

Essentials of an ideal forage.

In order that a forage crop may be the most valuable
for a given farm, it should possess as many desirable
individual characteristics as possible. Evvard 1 of the
Iowa Experiment Station has well summarized these
characteristics by naming the following as the essentials

* Bull. 136.
153

154 Pork Production

of an ideal forage for hogs: "(1) adaptability to local
soil and climate; (2) palatability ; (3) heavy yield of
digestible matter which is comparatively high in protein
and suitable growing ash ; (4) narrow nutritive ratio ;
i.e. the relation of digestible protein to digestible carbo-
hydrate equivalent should not be wider than 1:5, and
better still if as narrow as 1:2; (5) succulence ;
(6) afford pasture for a long grazing season; (7) ability
to endure tramping and grazing; (8) permanency;
(9) reasonable cost and ease of seeding; (10) capability
of furnishing quick pasturage any time during the growing
season; (11) leguminous characteristics."

MEDIUM RED CLOVER

Common red clover is one of the most valuable and
widely used forage crops for hogs. In the corn-belt
especially this crop is a fixture in the rotations practiced
on the best farms. Being a' legume it not only improves
the fertility of the soil by its nitrogen-gathering property,
but its abundant supply of protein and lime makes it
particularly valuable as a forage crop for young pigs.
Its richness in muscle and bone-building foods insures
better results with straight corn feeding than can be
obtained, as a rule, from the non-legumes. As an ally
to corn in pork production in the corn-belt, clover is
without a peer. When carefully handled, red clover will
supply grazing in a favorable season from June to No-
vember.

One of the disadvantages of red clover as a forage crop
is that it tends to become coarse and woody rather early
in the summer, especially in the second year and in a dry
season. It does not stand drought as successfully as

Choosing a Forage Crop 155

alfalfa or rape. For this reason, the supply of succulence
is not uniformly distributed throughout the summer.
Clover frequently winter-kills and is quite sensitive to
over-stocking. On some soils it is difficult to secure a
"catch," and being a biennial it requires seeding every
two years. The wide adaptability of red clover, however,
the important position which it occupies in successful
farming generally, and its feeding qualities, make it one
of the most popular of forage crops.

More specific information relative to the value of this
crop in comparison with other forages is to be found by
a study of the results of feeding trials conducted at the
experiment stations. The most important recent studies
are summarized and reported in the following pages.

Clover versus alfalfa.

These two premier forages have been compared in five
recent experimental feeding tests conducted at three
different corn-belt stations. In each trial the pigs used
were of spring farrow and the experiments began early
in the summer, covering an average period of 135 days.
Practically full corn rations were fed in all except one
trial in which three-fourths of a full ration was given.
In all but one of the experiments, a small proportion of
tankage was fed to supplement the corn. The results
are summarized and shown in Table XXXVII.

Although the pigs on clover made a shade faster gains,
those on alfalfa gained the most from a unit of grain fed.
Also, the alfalfa lots yielded the heavier cuttings of hay.
When alfalfa is available, feeders usually prefer it to
clover not only because of the results here shown, but also
because it furnishes a more uniform and constant supply
of forage throughout the summer.

156

Pork Production

TABLE XXXVII. — SUMMARY : CLOVER VERSUS ALFALFA
(Av. 5 Exps.) l

FORAGE

AVERAGE
NUMBER PIGS
PER ACRE

AVERAGE
LENGTH OF

TESTS

AVERAGE
DAILY GAIN
PER PIG

CONCENTRATES
EATEN FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN 2

Clover .

days

135

Ib.
1.175

Ib.
350

Alfalfa .

135

1.154

343

Clover versus rape.

The relative merits of these two crops have been tested in
six separate feeding experiments, the summarized results
of which appear in Table XXXVIII. In each trial the
pigs on clover were fed the same grain rations as were
those on rape. Pigs of spring farrow were employed and,
except in the Wisconsin trials, were confined to measured
areas of forage. The different experiments covered
periods ranging from 60 to 141 days.

TABLE XXXVIII. — SUMMARY : CLOVER VERSUS RAPE
(Av. 6 Exps.) 3

FORAGE

AVERAGE
NUMBER
PIGS PER
ACRE

AVERAGE
LENGTH
OF TESTS

AVERAGE
DAILY GAIN
PER PIG

CONCENTRATES
EATEN FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

Clover . . .
Rape . . .

18f

days

100
100

Ib.

1.122
1.071

Ib.
361
345

Exp. Sta. Bull. 136; Ind. Exp. Sta., unpublished
data; 111. Exp. Sta., unpublished data.

2 Average amount of hay cut from each acre — alfalfa, 3238
Ib. ; clover, 1215 Ib.

3 Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 136; 111. Exp. Sta., unpublished data;
Wis. Exp. Sta., 16th and 17th An. Rpts. ; Ind. Exp. Sta., unpub-
lished data.

CJwosing a Forage Crop 157

In four of the experiments out of the six here sum-
marized, the pigs on clover made the faster gains, while
in the other two the rape-fed pigs gained faster. In
each of the experiments, on the other hand, the pigs on
rape required less concentrated feed to produce a unit
of gain than did those on clover. Although rape is not
a legume and does not improve the soil in nitrogen-content,
it is richer than clover in protein. In some of these
experiments a small cutting of hay was taken from the
clover lots. The carrying capacity of these crops appears
to be about the same, both being very large when grown
on rich soil and good stands are obtained.

At the Missouri Experiment Station,1 Mumford and
Weaver, in tests made of clover in 1908 and 1910, pastured
an average of eleven pigs to the acre for 133 days. The
pigs were fed straight corn in quantities to secure a uniform
rate of gain of J pound daily. With this method of feed-
ing, 100 pounds of gain were secured from an average of
only 295 pounds of corn.

OTHER CLOVERS

Because of its good yielding powers and fine quality
of stems, alsike clover is probably the equal of medium
red clover as a forage crop. The fact that it does well on
acid soils too wet for ordinary clover is causing it to be
more generally grown in the corn-belt. Mammoth
clover is not as highly regarded, as a rule, as medium
red, chiefly because of the rank coarse quality as a forage.
It is a heavy yielder, however, and does well on thin sandy
soil. White clover is a persistent-growing perennial
which greatly adds to the value of permanent pastures

. 110.

158 Pork Production

of both the North and the South. In every section of
the country, some variety of clover is grown successfully
for forage purposes. Crimson clover is an annual possess-
ing wide adaptations, particularly suited to the South
Atlantic states. It provides valuable forage for hogs
during the winter. Varieties of Bur clovers are success-
fully grown and used as forage crops for pigs in the South
and West. They are considered valuable supplements
in Bermuda pasture. Lespedeza, or Japan clover, is one
of the most valuable legumes of the South. It is an
annual, but reseeds itself every year. It does especially
well on poor sandy soils and should be of large value as
a forage for pigs, either as a part of permanent pastures
or as a specially grown crop.

Investigations by Evvard and Kennedy of the Iowa
Station l would indicate that sweet clover, especially the
first year's growth, has considerable value as a forage
for pigs. When fed a ration of ear corn, with 10 per
cent meat-meal during the last 57 days of the period,
twenty-two 38-pound pigs were pastured on an acre of
sweet clover from June 22 to November 10. The good
results obtained are shown by the fact that the pigs made
an average daily gain of 1.02 pounds at a cost of 3.38
pounds of grain feed. The results secured from the same
plot by pasturing the second year's growth the succeeding
year, however, were very much less favorable. This
year the pigs made an average gain of only .53 pound
daily, while other pigs in the same experiment on rape
and alfalfa gained, with the same grain rations, more
than one pound daily. The poor results from the second
crop were attributed to the extremely coarse woody
nature of the growth. (See Table XL, page 161.)
i Bull. 136.

Choosing a Forage Crop 159

ALFALFA

Alfalfa is one of the most important swine forages.
When of good stand, it combines the merits of unusual
palatability and richness in protein and mineral matter
with heavy yielding powers, permanency, the ability to
furnish a uniform supply of forage through a long grow-
ing season, and exceptional ability to withstand the
effects of droughts. It is a deep-rooted perennial and
does best when the water-level is not too close to the
surface.

Alfalfa, however, is not without its faults as a forage
crop on every farm. Because it is such a valuable peren-
nial, it does not fit in with the usual crop-rotating systems
as does clover. Furthermore, alfalfa is not an easy crop
to grow successfully in many sections. Much time and
considerable expense are often the necessary preliminaries
to a good stand. If stocked too heavily, there is great
danger that the young shoots will be eaten and the crowns
permanently injured. The safest and perhaps the most
profitable procedure to follow is never to pasture so
heavily that at least one good cutting is not taken for hay.
Also, close cropping in the fall makes it very susceptible
to winter-killing. The value of alfalfa as a permanent
hay and forage crop is so great, however, that the rules for
its successful growth are being studied more carefully
and its culture widely extended.

Alfalfa versus rape.

Four experiment stations have studied more or less
extensively the relative merits of alfalfa and rape as
forages for pigs. In all, ten feeding experiments have
been made, the summarized results of which are given

160

Pork Production

in Table XXXIX. These trials covered periods of 80 days
for the shortest and 190 days for the longest period.
Three-fourths to full grain rations were fed, consisting
of either corn alone or corn supplemented with a small
proportion of tankage.

TABLE XXXIX. — SUMMARY : ALFALFA VERSUS RAPE

(Av. 10 Exps.) i

FORAGE

AVERAGE
NUMBER PIGS
PER ACRE

AVERAGE
LENGTH OF
TESTS

AVERAGE
DAILY GAIN
PER PIG

CONCENTRATES
EATEN FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

Alfalfa .'

days

128

Ib.

1.156

Ib.

348

Rape . .

123

1.102

343

It would appear from these average results that alfalfa
is a somewhat better forage crop than rape. Although
the pigs on rape required less grain for a unit of gain,
those on alfalfa made slightly faster gains. A small
but important difference in favor of the alfalfa is also
shown by the larger number of pigs carried on a given
area of forage. In five of the experiments, the alfalfa lots
yielded an average of 3680 pounds of cured hay to the acre.

At the Missouri Experiment Station,2 an average of
10.3 pigs, weighing 60 to 90 pounds at the beginning of
the experiment, were pastured 163 days on an acre of
alfalfa. The amount of corn required to produce 100
pounds of gain was 307, the pigs being fed the quantity
of corn which would maintain a uniform rate of gain of
f pound daily. Assuming, as did the authors of this

1 Kans. Exp. Sta. Bulls. 124 and 192 ; Iowa Exp. Sta., Eward,
Am. Society Animal Pro., 1913 ; 111. Exp. Sta., unpublished data ;
Ind. Exp. Sta., unpublished data.

2 Bull. 110.

Choosing a Forage Crop

161

bulletin, that 5.6 pounds of corn would have been re-
quired for each pound of gain made in the dry lot, the
acre of alfalfa would have a credit of 592 pounds of pork.
Assuming that the same pigs would have made a pound
of gain from 4j pounds of corn, the credit due to an acre
of alfalfa would be 416 pounds of pork.

Alfalfa versus sweet clover.

Forage experiments conducted at the Iowa Station 1
afford an opportunity of comparing alfalfa with second-
year sweet clover and a mixture of oats, Canadian field
peas, and rape. The pigs on the alfalfa and sweet clover
plots averaged at the beginning of the trial 18 J pounds
and were started on forage May 19. The pigs on the
mixture were turned in June 13 and averaged 26 pounds.
All lots were fed ear-corn and a very small proportion
of meat-meal. Full grain rations were fed only during
the last 100 days of the experiment. The results of this
trial are shown in Table XL.

TABLE XL. — ALFALFA VERSUS SWEET CLOVER (Second Year)
VERSUS MIXTURE CANADIAN FIELD PEAS, OATS, AND RAPE

FORAGE

NUMBER
PIGS PER
ACRE

LENGTH OP
TEST

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN PER
PIG

CONCEN-
TRATES
EATEN FOR
£ACH 100
LB. GAIN

Alfalfa . . .

days
180

76.
1 04

Ib.

345 2

Sweet clover (second
year)

150

376 3

Canadian field peas, oats,
and rape ....

160

1 15

351

1 Evvard and Kennedy, Bull. 136.

2 3838 pounds of alfalfa cut from each acre.

3 2384 pounds of sweet clover cut from each acre.

162 Pork Production

The pigs on the mixture of peas, oats, and rape made
faster gains than did those on alfalfa and a larger number
was grazed on a given area. The pigs on alfalfa, how-
ever, made their gains with the expenditure of less grain.
If the alfalfa plot also is credited with the nearly two tons
of hay cut to the acre, as well as the smaller cost of
growing the crop, it proves to be the more profitable.1
The results reported here for second-year sweet clover
would indicate that this crop cannot be used profitably
as a forage for pigs when the more standard crops are
available. Although the first season's growth after
seeding proved at the same station to be a good forage,
it is such a vigorous grower that the stalks become woody
and unpalatable very early in the second season. Good
results have been reported for second-year sweet clover,
however, when fall pigs are used and they are turned in
early enough in the spring to keep down the rank woody
growth.

DWARF-ESSEX RAPE

Rape is a quick-growing succulent annual, unsurpassed
by crops of this class as a forage for pigs. The plant is
unusually tender and succulent and is eaten with relish
and no waste. Although not a legume, it ranks with
alfalfa and the clovers as a cheap source of protein and a
balancer of corn. Rape is a very heavy yielder and pos-
sesses unusual carrying capacity. It may be heavily
stocked and intensively grazed for a short period or it
may be handled so that it will furnish grazing until
freezing. Planted in the fall, rape has proved a valuable

1 For rent, cost of seeding, labor, alfalfa cost $10.75 an acre ;
sweet clover, $9.20; and the mixture of peas, oats, and rape,
$13.37.

Choosing a Forage Crop 163

winter forage in the South. Although rape does best
in a cool moist season, it stands next to alfalfa in its
ability to withstand drought. It may be planted so
as to supply forage any time during the season, al-
though the earlier plantings yield heaviest. With timely
rains, rape continues to renew itself throughout the
summer if not pastured too closely. Alternating the
pigs on different lots insures, for this reason, the best
results.

Rape mixes well when sown with Canadian field peas,
oats, or clover. It is often seeded with oats, and will
come on and furnish valuable succulence after the grain
is harvested. If sown between the corn rows at the time
of last cultivation, it will insure better results when
hogging-down the corn. Rape may be sown broadcast
or drilled in rows 24 to 30 inches apart. The latter
method of seeding is usually to be preferred as it may
be cultivated, it will yield heavier, and the pigs will de-
stroy less by tramping. Pigs recently weaned should be
turned on when the plants are 14 to 16 inches high ; with
fall pigs, the growth should be, preferably, 16 to 18 inches
high.

Every year a few feeders report that their pigs refuse
to eat rape, but at none of the stations of the country
where experimental studies have been made of this forage
have any results been obtained which would tend to
support such a conclusion. Its tendency to cause sores
and blisters on thin-skinned pigs is not considered serious.
The trouble may be largely avoided by keeping the pigs
out while rain or dew is on the plants. Pigs badly
blistered have been successfully treated by washing or
spraying with a disinfectant; then greasing with lard or
vaseline,

164

Pork Production

Early versus late rape and other forages.

An experiment conducted during the summer of 1909
at the Iowa Station *• tested the relative merits of the
following forage crops: early-sown rape; late-sown
rape; a mixture of oats, clover, and rape; a mixture
of Canadian field peas, oats, and rape; and blue-grass
and timothy pasture. The rape in both lots was broad-
casted, the early planting being seeded May 4th and the
late July 5th. The mixtures in the other two lots were
drilled May 4th. A full ration of ear-corn was fed all
lots, supplemented during the last thirty days by the
addition of 10 per cent of meat-meal. The results are
shown in Table XLI.

TABLE XLI. — EARLY VERSUS LATE-SOWN RAPE VERSUS FOR-
AGE MIXTURES

CONCEN-

FOEAGE

No. PIGS
PER ACRE

LENGTH

PERIOD

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

TRATES
EATEN FOR
EACH 100
POUNDS

PORK CRED-
ITED 1 ACRE
OF FORAGE l

GAIN

Early-sown rape

147

.81

326

371

Late-sown rape . .

104

1.36

371

195

Oats, clover, and

rape 2 . . . .

147

.91

318

458

Canadian field peas,

oats, and rape . .

147

.85

339

419

Blue-grass and tim-

•

othy pasture . .

165

.72

393

* Bull. 136.

2 Mixture of 48 pounds of oats, 8 pounds of red clover, and 2
pounds of rape sown to an acre.

8 Figured on the basis that 4 pounds of grain would have been
required to produce 1 pound of gain under dry lot conditions.

Choosing a Forage Crop 165

With those lots fed for approximately the same length
of time, the mixture of oats, clover, and rape gave the
best results. In this lot the gains were fastest, the
amount of grain fed for each 100 pounds of gain made
was least, and the amount of pork credited to one acre
of forage greatest. Although the amount of grain re-
quired to produce 100 pounds of gain was greater in the
early rape lot than in the lot on oats, peas, and rape,
the gains were faster. As measured by the amount of
pork or concentrates credited to each acre of forage, the
latter crop was more profitable. The blue-grass and
timothy pasture gave returns very much less favorable
than the other forages, due, no doubt, to the fact that
this crop did not supply as much protein to balance the
straight corn fed during most of the experiment. The
value of a late planting of rape is well shown by these re-
sults. The more rapid daily gains in this lot as compared
with the early rape lot are probably to be explained by
the larger size of the pigs and also by the fact that straight
corn was fed for a shorter proportion of the time.

In the forage experiments at the Iowa Station in 1911,
rape alone proved slightly inferior to a mixture of oats, Ca-
nadian field peas, and rape. (See Table XLIV, page 169.)

Winter rape.

That rape is deserving of consideration as a winter
forage crop by the southern hog raiser was shown by
experiments conducted at the Alabama Experiment
Station by Gray, Summers, and Shook.1 Ten pounds
of rape seed were sown in drills 18 inches apart September
19. The soil was very poor and sandy. Pigs of average
quality, weighing 45 pounds, were turned in November 9,
i Bull. 168.

166

Pork Production

when the trial began. The experiment closed April 5,
covering a period of 147 days. The results are shown in
Table XLII.

TABLE XLII. — WINTER RAPE VERSUS DRY LOT

CONCENTRATES
FED

NUMBER
PIGS AND
AREA
GRAZED

AVERAGE
DAILY GAIN
PER PIG

CONCEN-
TRATES FED
FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

GRAIN AND
PASTURE
COST PER 100
LB. GAIN.1

pigs; a

Ib.

2 corn-meal -f

Dry lot

1 shorts,

full feed.

.84

520

$6.88

2 corn-meal +

Rape

1 shorts,

\ full feed.

5; I

.71

258

4.90

2 corn-meal -p

Rape

1 shorts,

\ full feed.

5; !

.54

165

4.13

In view of the fact that the pigs on rape received only
one-half grain rations or less, the gains made in the forage
lots were fairly good. The saving effected by rape in the
amount of concentrates required for a unit of gain was
such that its value in southern pork production would
seem assured.

COMBINATIONS I

CANADIAN FIELD
RAPE

PEAS, OATS, CLOVER,

As a rule, a mixture of two or more plants possessing
similar requirements in temperature and soil give a
heavier yield as a forage than any one of the crops grown

1 Corn 70 cents a bushel ; shorts at $30.00 a ton ; rape at $8.00
an acre.

Choosing a Forage Crop 167

separately. Also, a more uniform supply of succulence
may be provided by selecting for the combination crops
which make most of their growth in successive periods
of the summer. For these reasons, various mixtures
of the above crops are commonly planted and success-
fully used for forage purposes.

In the latitude of the northern corn-belt and farther
north, the Canadian field pea is a standard forage crop
for pigs. It is a rapid-growing legume, occupying the
same class as the alfalfa and the clovers in its ability to
furnish protein. Five or six weeks after planting it is
ready to use. It is a decided cool-weather crop and
does best when planted as early in the spring as the
ground can be worked, and should not be confused with
the cowpea, which is extensively grown in the South. It
is particularly sensitive to heat and wilts early in a dry
hot summer. It should always be grown with oats, or
some such crop, which will support the vines ; otherwise
considerable loss will result from tramping and mildew.
In the North the pigs are sometimes not turned in until
the pods are well filled, although the more common prac-
tice is to use it chiefly as a green crop by pasturing it
after the growth is about 10 inches high.

Forage mixtures for fall pigs.

In the summer of 1910, the Iowa Station 1 fed four lots
of fall pigs on different forage combinations. The forages
tested were made up of a mixture of oats and rape in
combination with red clover, hairy vetch, or Canadian
field peas in the first three lots, while in the fourth, a
mixture of oats and clover was alternately grazed with
rape.

i Bull. 136.

168

Pork Production

The crops were seeded April 4 by drilling in the follow-
ing proportions and quantities to the acre : Lot I, 48
pounds of oats, 8 pounds red clover, and 2 pounds rape ;
lot II, 48 pounds of oats, 30 pounds vetch, and 2 pounds
rape; lot III, 48 pounds oats, 90 pounds peas, and 6
pounds rape. The mixture of oats and clover for lot IV
was drilled in rows 8 inches apart. The rape was drilled
in rows 24 inches apart and given three cultivations.
The experiment began May 26 and closed November 11.
Each lot was fed a grain ration of ear-corn with about
7 per cent of tankage added. Full rations were fed
during only the last 85 days of the trial. The results
are shown in Table XLIII.

TABLE XLIII. — A COMPARISON OF CLOVER, HAIRY VETCH,
AND CANADIAN FIELD PEAS IN COMBINATION WITH OATS
AND RAPE FOR FALL PIGS.

CONCEN-

FOBAGE

NUMBER
PIGS PER

LENGTH OP

AVERAGE
DAILY GAIN

TRATES
EATEN FOR

ACRE

TEST

PER PIG

EACH 100

LB. GAIN

days

16.

Ib.

I. Oats, clover, and rape

168

1.22

445

II. Oats, vetch, and rape

168

1.21

447

III. Oats, peas, and rape

168

1.31

414

IV. Oats and clover al-

ternated with rape . .

168

1.17

460

All the pigs were extremely heavy at the close of the
experiment. For this reason the amount of feed required
to produce 100 pounds of gain was considerably greater
than that previously shown necessary for spring pigs.
Also, the pork credited to each acre of forage was less
than that usually obtained with younger pigs and similar
crops. Of these three forage mixtures, oats, vetch, and

Choosing a Forage Crop

169

rape proved the least profitable. The authors stated
that the vetch was of little value in the mixture. It
came on and made good growth in July and August,
but the pigs ate little of it. As the result of their observa-
tions, they strongly advise against the use of hairy vetch
as a hog pasture in Iowa. The returns in lot IV, in which
oats and clover were alternated with rape, were dis-
appointing. After the rape had been well eaten down
early in the season, the pigs were changed to oats and
clover. From late July until the end of the season, the
pigs were on the rape again, as the oats and clover fur-
nished practically no feed during this time.

Oats versus other forages.

In Table XLIV are shown the results of an experiment
at the Iowa Station 1 in 1911. In this test a comparison
was made of a mixture of oats, Canadian field peas, and
rape with oats alone, and with rape alone. The pigs
in all three lots were turned in June 13. At this date
the oats in the oats-alone lot were just beginning to head.

TABLE XLIV. — A COMPARISON OF OATS WITH OTHER FORAGES
FOR SPRING PIGS

CONCEN-

FORAQB

NUMBER OF
PIGS PER

ACRE

LENGTH OF
TEST

AVERAGE
DAILY GAIN
PER PIG

TRATES RE-
QUIRED FOR
EACH 100

LB. GAIN

days

Ib.

Oats

.63

365

Rape .

160

1 07

385

Oats, Canadian field peas,

and rape

160

1.16

370

Bull. 136.

170 Pork Production

The experiment was continued for each forage lot as
long as feed remained, the oats in the oats-alone lot being
exhausted 70 days earlier than the forages in the other
two. The pigs averaged 26 pounds when the experi-
ment began and were given full rations of ear-corn with
about 5 per cent of meat-meal.

Because of the exceptional number of pigs carried on
an acre of the rape, this forage proved to be the most
profitable. This lot was pastured at the rate of 30 pigs
an acre until September 11, when the number was increased
to 60. Seven extra pigs were added to the lot on oats,
peas, and rape for 30 days in the last part of the experi-
ment. The oats alone proved to be a poor forage with
this method of pasturing, although the volunteer growth
supplied considerable green feed during the late summer.

RYE

One of the most valuable qualities of green rye as a
forage crop is that it furnishes a supply of green succulent
material during the seasons when the ordinary forage
crops and pastures are of little or no value. The merit
of the crop is its availability during the fall, winter, and
spring, rather than in its large yielding or grazing capacity.
The benefits to be derived from a patch of rye are per-
haps expressed more largely in the increased health and
thrift in the breeding herd and an increased milk-flow
from the sows with pigs, than in the saving effected in
the cost of producing gains when growing or fattening
pigs for market. If planted early in the fall, rye will
supply green feed, in an open winter, until late the next
spring, if carefully grazed. If pastured lightly in the
spring and the pigs not allowed to remain on it late, it

Choosing a Forage Crop 171

will yield its normal harvest in grain. The pigs are often
allowed to remain on the land and the mature crop pas-
tured as ripe rye; or it may be pastured heavily in the
spring and the land early prepared and sown to other
forage crops. When broadcasted between the corn rows
in the late summer, rye supplies valuable succulence
for the shotes when "hogging-down" the corn, or for
grazing the breeding stock in the late fall and early
spring. Because of its very watery nature, green rye
causes rather extreme looseness of the bowels, which,
with young pigs, frequently develops into scours. Keep-
ing the pigs out of the rye when it is wet and limiting
the time they are allowed to graze will help in prevent-
ing the trouble.

Rye as a winter forage.

The possibilities in the use of rye as a winter forage
crop in those sections in which the winters are mild and
open are well demonstrated by experimental studies made
at the Kentucky Station.1 The results of a trial conducted
during the winter of 1910-11 are shown in the table on
the following page. This experiment began November
11 and closed April 8, covering a period of 147 days.

The results in this test, as shown by the rate of gain
and the grain required to produce a given gain, would
indicate that rye may be of considerable value as a winter
forage. Although young rye is fairly rich in protein, it
would seem that some form of protein supplement, like
tankage, should be fed for the most rapid or the most
economical gains. The rye was covered with snow for a
short part of the time in the winter.

i Bull. 175.

172

Pork Production

TABLE XLV. — WINTER RYE VERSUS DRY LOT FEEDING

FORAGE

GRAIN RATIONS FED

NUMBER
PIGS IN
EACH LOT

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT OF
PIGS

AVERAGE
DAILY GAIN
PER PIG

CONCEN-
TRATES RE-
QUIRED FOR
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

to.

376

Rye

10 corn-meal +
1 tankage.
Full feed

Ib.
48

Ib.

1.13

Rye

Corn-meal alone
Full feed

.85

480

Dry lot

10 corn-meal +
1 tankage.
Full feed

1.03

399

"Hogging down" ripe rye.

The following interesting comparison was made in an
experiment conducted at the Iowa Station in 191 1.1 One
plot of rye was "hogged down" by turning in the pigs
when it was ripe and the stalks beginning to crinkle
down, which was July 7. In the second lot a comparable
area of green rye was grazed from September 22 to
November 21. The pigs in the ripe rye averaged 69
pounds when turned in, while those on the green rye
averaged 36 pounds. The results are condensed in
Table XLVI.

The rye in lot I was very heavy and estimated to
yield 41 bushels to the acre. Although the rye grain
when properly supplemented is a good feed, the results
of this test would indicate that the practice of "hogging
down" the ripened crop is unprofitable. The authors
of the experiment stated it would have been much more

Bull 136.

Choosing a Forage Crop

173

profitable to have harvested and sold the rye on the
market than to have "hogged" it down. No corn was
fed in this lot, but enough meat-meal was given to insure
a balanced ration with the rye. The results of trials
conducted the next summer at the same station, when
corn was also fed to the pigs, again showed the practice
to be an unprofitable one.

TABLE XLVI. — "HOGGING DOWN" RIPE RYE VERSUS GREEN

RYE

FORAGE

CONCENTRATES
FED

NUMBER
OP PIGS
PER ACRE

LENGTH
OP TEST

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN PER

PT«

CENTRATE8
EATEN POR
EACH 100

LB. GAIN

days

. lb.

lb.

Ripe rye

.45 lb. meat-

meal daily

each pig

.269

169

(meat m.)

Green rye

Ear corn-j-

TS meat-meal

f full feed

.810

324

Somewhat better results were secured from "hogging
down" ripe rye by the Missouri Station l as indicated in
the table below, which shows the results of five succes-
sive years of experiment. The pigs were of average
grade and weighed 60 to 90 pounds when the trials began.
In addition to the rye, they received a hand-fed ration
composed of 6 parts corn to 1 of linseed-oil meal in quan-
tities sufficient to maintain an approximate daily gain
of | pound for each pig.

1 Bull. 110.

174 Pork Production

TABLE XLVII. — RESULTS FROM "HOGGING DOWN" RIPE RYE

YEAR

NUMBER
DATS
PASTURED

NUMBER
PIGS PER
ACRE

TOTAL
GAIN PER
ACRE

TOTAL CON-
CENTRATES
(Corn + Un-
seed M.) FED
PER ACRE

CON-
CENTRATES
FED FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

Ib.

1908 .

360

544

151

1909 .

318

544

171

1910 .

344

456

133

1911 .

539

1988

368

1912 .

179

288

160

Average

49.6

348

764

196

BLUE-GRASS : TIMOTHY

Although blue-grass has its largest use as a pasture for
cattle or horses on the average farm, it may be employed
profitably for the pigs during the seasons when the usual
forage crops are not available. In the corn-belt especially,
it has proved of large value as an adjunct to corn on those
farms on which the production of forage crops and the
feeding of balanced rations have been given little or no
consideration. It is particularly valuable in the spring
and fall as a reserve, or addition, to the regular forage
crops. It may be grown on land not suitable for the
production of other forage crops, it is permanent, cheap,
and will supply green feed for a long grazing period. The
yield and quality of blue-grass, like that of any other
forage crop, varies widely with the kind of soil on which
it is grown, the favorableness of the season, and the man-
agement given it. Timothy has some value as a forage
crop, but its supply of protein is below that furnished by
either blue-grass or rye.

Choosing a Forage Crop

175

Blue-grass and timothy versus clover and alfalfa.

In Table XLVIII are given the results of an experiment
conducted at the Iowa Station l in 1909 in which a pas-
ture of blue-grass and timothy was compared with alfalfa
in one case and clover in another. The pigs were of
spring farrow and weighed between 33 and 34 pounds
on June 4th when the test began. In addition to the
forage, the pigs of each lot were given a full feed of ear-
corn, supplemented during the last 39 days of the trial
by the addition of 10 per cent of meat-meal. The experi-
ment covered a period of 165 days, practically the entire
time from weaning to marketing.

TABLE XLVIII. — BLUE-GRASS AND TIMOTHY VERSUS CLOVER
AND ALFALFA

FORAGE

AVERAGE
NUMBER
PIGS PER
ACRE

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN PER
PIG

CON-
CENTRATES
TO PRODUCE
100 LB.
GAIN

CON-
CENTRATES
SAVED BY
ONE ACRE
FORAGE 2

PORK AC-
CREDITED
ONE ACRE
FORAGE 2

Ib.

#>.

Ib.

Blue-grass and

timothy .

13.9

.72

393.32

111.12

27.78

Alfalfa . . .

13.9

.99

367.23

746.40

186.60

Clover . . .

13.9

1.07

251.56

1195.12

298.78

Clover

13.9

1.07

354.55

1120.52

280.13

Considering that straight corn was fed in all lots except
for the last 39 days, the gains made were exceptionally
good. The amount of pork credited to each acre of
forage would undoubtedly have been greater if a small

1 Bull. 136.

2 Figured on the basis that 4 pounds of concentrates would
have been required for each pound of gain in dry lot feeding.

176

Pork Production

quantity of meat-meal had been fed earlier in the test.
The relative merits of the crops is well shown by the
rates of gain and the concentrates required to produce
100 pounds of gain. The superiority of the legumes,
clover and alfalfa, over the blue-grass and timothy is very
marked. Clover gave slightly better results in this
experiment than did alfalfa, although the authors of the
bulletin, as the result of other studies, rank it below
alfalfa in value. The uniformity of the results from the
two lots on clover testifies to the care exercised in mak-
ing the different lots comparable.

In Table XLIX are shown the results secured from
feeding spring pigs on blue-grass pasture at the Missouri
Station.1 In these tests enough of a grain ration consist-
ing of 6 parts corn and 1 part linseed-oil meal was fed to
secure a gain of approximately J pound daily.

TABLE XLIX. — RESULTS FROM PASTURING BLUE-GRASS

YEAR

NUMBER
DAYS
PASTURED

AVERAGE
NUMBER
PIGS PER
ACRE

TOTAL GAIN
PER ACRE

TOTAL CON-
CENTRATES
FED PER
ACRE

CONCEN-
TRATES FED
FOR EACH

100 LB.

GAIN

Ib.

1908

144

1400

7164

510

1909

144

1282

5612

430

1910

200

2112

8792

420

1911

196

11.34

1985

9323

470

1912 .

145

1445

6070

440

Average . .

165

1645

7392

450

These pigs weighed approximately 200 pounds on the
average at the close of the grazing seasons. A cost of

1 Bull. 110.

Choosing a Forage Crop

177

450 pounds of grain for each 100 pounds of gain may,
therefore, be considered as fairly satisfactory.

Although timothy is not a valuable forage crop for
pigs, it is sometimes profitable to make use of it for this
purpose. It is very succulent and palatable, but low in
its content of protein. It supplies considerably less
protein in proportion to its carbohydrates than does
either rye or blue-grass. As shown by experiments con-
ducted at the Iowa Station 1 in 1906, the feeding of pigs on
timothy gave fairly satisfactory results when compared
with dry lot feeding. In Table L are given the averages
for four lots on timothy and for comparable lots fed in
the dry yard. The pigs in both the dry and forage lots
were fed balanced rations.

TABLE L. — TIMOTHY VERSUS DRY LOT FEEDING
(Av. 4 Exps.)

NUMBER

AVERAGE

CONCEN-

PORK

PIGS
GRAZED TO
1 ACRE

INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

DAILY
GAIN PER
PIG

EATEN FOR
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

CREDITED
1 ACRE
FORAGE

Ib.

Dry lot . . .

—

.938

461

—

Timothy . .

1.240

406

197

SORGHUM — CANE

Sorghum is used more or less extensively as a forage
for swine in the southern part of the corn-belt and farther
south and in the semi-arid regions of the Southwest. Its
chief merit is its ability to furnish a heavy tonnage of
succulent feed in a dry hot season. It should be pas-

1 Bull. 91.

178

Pork Production

tured ordinarily while the plant is young and tender, or
when one to two feet tall, although it is sometimes allowed
nearly to mature before turning in. Results of feeding
trials conducted at the Alabama Experiment Station,1
however, showed that the latter method did not give prof-
itable returns for the crop. The following tabulated re-
sults were secured at the Missouri Experiment Station 2
when pastured early. The plants were one to two feet
high when the experiments began. The pigs were fed
balanced rations and were turned in when weighing
from 60 to 90 pounds each.

TABLE LI. — RESULTS FROM PASTURING SORGHUM

YEAR

NUMBER
DAYS
PASTURED

NUMBER
HOGS PER
ACRE

TOTAL GAIN
PER ACRE

TOTAL CON-
CENTRATES
FED PER
ACRE

CONCEN-
TRATES FED
FOR EACH
100 LB.
GAIN

1910 ....
1912 ....

105

14
16

Ib.
1412.
869.3

Ib.

6584
3112

Ib.
460
350

Average . . .

86.5

1140.6

4848

405

The chief fault of this crop as a forage is its coarseness
and its carbonaceous nature. It is more suitable for
cattle or sheep than it is for pigs.

SOYBEANS

Although primarily a southern crop, soybeans are
grown very successfully as far north as the corn-belt.
When conditions are favorable to good yields, it is of
value as a forage crop for pigs. When grown on inocu-

1 Bull. 143.

2 Bull. 110.

Choosing a Forage Crop 179

lated land it is a good soil builder, and its richness in
protein insures excellent results when foraged by pigs
fed corn. Being particularly a hot weather crop, it is
usually available in the late summer and fall. In the
South it will furnish considerable valuable forage and
much nitrogen for the soil when grown as a second crop
following grain. It may be pastured as a green forage
by turning in before the pods begin to form, or as a seed
crop by keeping the pigs off until the leaves begin to
turn and the seed to mature. The stiff woody nature of
the growth of most varieties would suggest that it could be
used more profitably for its seed than for its leaves. If
the seeds are allowed to mature, one acre of good beans
will furnish enough protein for grazing shotes to balance
four acres of 50-bushel corn. The bean itself contains
practically as much protein as linseed-oil meal. Its
value as a supplement to corn has encouraged the
practice of planting it with the corn which is to be
"hogged down." In seasons of sufficient rainfall, the
growth of beans is thought to have little effect on the
yield of corn.

Soybeans as a forage crop, however, has certain limi-
tations. It does not provide grazing through a long
period. When foraged chiefly as a seed crop, its use is
limited to the fall and early winter ; when used as a green
forage, it is not available until quite late in the summer.
Also, soybeans tend to produce soft pork. When pigs
grazing the mature beans are fed little or no additional
grain, as is commonly the practice in the South, the
carcasses will lack the firmness to escape dockage by the
packer. When followed by a month or more of corn
feeding, however, the effects are not noticeable with
pigs of the lard type.

180

Pork Production

Limited versus full feeding on soybeans.

At the Alabama Experiment Station 1 the feeding value
of soybeans as a forage crop was studied in experiments
covering three seasons. The results of these trials,
averaged, are shown in Table LII. The pigs were in
growthy condition weighing 40 to 45 pounds at the be-
ginning of the grazing periods, and possessed some im-
proved blood of the common lard breeds. In each year
the pigs were turned in about three or four weeks before
the beans themselves were ready to use, or about one
week after full bloom. The object was to begin grazing
early enough so that the leaves would not be lost, yet
late enough to permit most of the pods to fill. To handle
the crop successfully in this way, the authors cautioned
against heavy stocking at first.

TABLE LII. — SOYBEAN FORAGE FOR PIGS (Average of 3 years)

GRAIN FED

RATE OF
GRAZING

AVERAGE
NUMBER
DAYS
GRAZED

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN PER
PIG

CORN FED
FOR EACH
100 LB.
GAIN

GRAIN +
PASTURE
COST OF
100 LB.

GAIN2

Dry lot

Corn-meal

Ib.

.375

Ib.

609

$7.61

Soybeans

Corn-meal
I full feed

10 pigs
1 acre

1.102

2.59

Soybeans

Corn-meal
I full feed

10 pigs
1 acre

1.006

138

3.36

Soybeans

Corn-meal
£ full feed

10 pigs
1 acre

1.329

175

3.17

This is a demonstration in the possibilities of economical
pork-production in the South. The value of this crop

1 Bull. 154.

2 Corn at 70 cents a bushel ; pasture at $8.00 an acre.

Choosing a Forage Crop

181

not only as a soil builder, but as a furnisher of protein to
balance corn, is strikingly shown when the results of dry
lot feeding are compared with those from the forage
lots. There may be more economical methods of balanc-
ing corn in the South, but that this is one of them seems
clear. In the corn-belt, pigs foraging the mature soy-
beans ordinarily should receive a full ration of corn,
for otherwise the pigs will obtain an excess of protein
in their diet. The advisability of limiting the grain
fed when pigs are on forage in general is discussed in
Chapter IX.

Soybeans versus rape.

The value of soybeans when used as a green forage
crop for 45-pound pigs, when compared with rape, is
suggested by the results of an experiment conducted
at the Ohio Station.1 The pigs were turned in on the
forage crops July 15 when the plants were about ten
inches high and remained 77 days, or until November 10.
The results from these lots are shown in the following
table :

TABLE LIII. — SOYBEAN FORAGE VERSUS RAPE

FORAGE

NUMBER
PIGS AND
AREA
GRAZED

AVERAGE
GRAIN FED
DAILY PER
PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN PER
PIQ

CON-
CENTRATES
FED FOR
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

PORK
ACCREDITED
TO ONE
ACRE
FORAGE

Soybeans . .

Ib.

6 pigs,
i acre

Ib.

2.43

Ib.

.85

Ib.

285

Ib.

472.4

Rape . . .

6 pigs,
| acre

1.79

.80

224

666.8

Bull. 242,

182

Pork Production

The superiority of rape when the two crops are handled
under these conditions seems evident from the above
results.

At the Missouri Station,1 records were kept of the
returns in pork obtained from the Medium Yellow variety
of soybeans during four seasons. The pigs were turned
in after the pods were well formed and fed straight corn
in quantities equal to three-fourths of a full feed. The
results are shown in Table LIV.

TABLE LIV. — RESULTS FROM SOYBEAN FORAGE

YEAR

NUMBER
DAYS
PASTURED

AVERAGK

NUMBER
PIGS PER
ACRE

TOTAL
GAIN PER
ACRE

TOTAL
CORN FED
PER ACRE

CORN FED
FOR EACH
100 LB.
GAIN

1909 ....

Z&.

311

Ib.

1560

Ib.

503

1910 ....

298

588

197

1911 ....

9.7

287.3

672

230

1912 ....

26.

152

416

273

Average . . .

14.4

262

809

301

These results are not favorable to the soybeans when
grown and handled under these conditions. The un-
satisfactory returns obtained from an acre were explained
by the authors as being due largely to the difficulty of
securing a good stand. They recommend for best results
that the land be inoculated before the beans are sown.

COWPEAS

Much of what has been written concerning soybeans
as a forage crop will apply to the cowpea, particularly

i Bull. 110.

Choosing a Forage Crop 183

as regards its value as a soil-builder, its richness in pro-
tein as a feed, and its general adaptability to southern
conditions. Cowpeas are considered more strictly a
hay or forage crop, while soybeans are usually looked
on more as a seed crop. Any locality which can grow
cowpeas successfully has a valuable forage crop for pigs
during the late summer and fall. Because of its nitrog-
enous nature, pigs fed corn on cowpea forage require
no additional feed.

Cowpeas versus dry lot.

At the Alabama Station1 three lots of pigs were pas-
tured on cowpeas and one was fed in the dry lot. In
each forage lot two plantings of peas were provided, one
early and the second a month later. The peas were
practically mature when the pigs were turned in. The
pigs were of normal quality and weighed an average of
53 pounds when the test began, August 12. The experi-
ment covered a period of 60 days and ceased November 5.
The results are shown in the table on the following page.

The pigs on forage in this experiment made faster
gains than did those in the dry lot and there was a
saving of 367 pounds of grain in the production of 100
pounds of gain as a result of the forage eaten. But the
area of forage grazed was so large in each lot that the
charge of $8.00 an acre was sufficient to make the cost
of gains, in dollars and cents, greater than in the dry lot.
Although the cost of gain is but one of the factors which
must be considered in determining the actual profit or
loss, it is doubtful whether a yield sufficient only to
graze but little more than two pigs to the acre for 60
days would be profitable. The popularity of cowpeas
i Bull. 168.

184

Pork Production

as a forage crop in many states would suggest that better
yields are usually secured than were obtained for this
experiment.

TABLE LV. — COWPEAS VERSUS DRY LOT

TOTAL

FORAGE

GRAIN FED

NUMBER
PIGS AND
AREA
GRAZED

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN PER
PIG

GRAIN
FED FOR
EACH
100 LB.
GAIN

PASTURE

AND

GRAIN
COST OF
100 LB.

GAIN*

pigs

Ib.

Dry lot

9 corn-hl tankage

Full feed

5 pigs

.54

540

$7.16

Cowpeas

9 corn-f-1 tankage

5 pigs

i full feed

2£ acres

.97

159

8.35

Cowpeas

4 corn+1 shorts

5 pigs

\ full feed

1\ acres

.94

188

8.96

Cowpeas

Corn alone

5 pigs

\ full feed

2| acres

.90

173

8.80

In Table LVI are shown the results at the Missouri
Station 2 from grazing pigs on the Whippoorwill variety
of cowpeas during five different seasons. These pigs
were fed rations of straight corn at the rate of about
three-fourths of a full feed. From 1 to Ij bushels of seed
were drilled to the acre. Part of the peas were drilled
solid and part in rows 34 inches apart.

The dates on which the pigs were turned in during
the different years were as follows, in order, September
23, August 28, September 13, September 23, and Septem-
ber 21. In 1911 the season was very late and the peas
were pastured too early for best results. The crop of

1 Corn at 70 cents a bushel ; shorts at $36.00 a ton ; tankage
at $40.00 a ton ; and pasture at $8.00 an acre.

2 Bull. 110.

Choosing a Forage Crop

185

1912 was badly injured by an early frost. The small
returns in these two years are, therefore, the result of
inferior yields. In only two of the five years were the
pork returns satisfactory.

TABLE LVI. — RESULTS FROM PASTURING COWPEAS

YEAR

NUMBER
DAYS
PASTURED

AVERAGE
NUMBER
PIGS PER
ACRE

TOTAL
GAIN PER
ACRE

TOTAL
CORN FED
PER ACRE

CORN FED
FOR EACH
100 LB.
GAIN

Ib.

1908 ....

756

2200

330

1909 ....

502

1270

253

1910 ....

176

784

445

1911 ....

13.5

171.2

504

283

1912 ....

54.6

264

482

Average . . .

32.8

12.7

331.9

1004.5

358

PEANUTS; VELVET BEAN; CHUFAS

The peanut gives excellent results when the under-
ground seeds or nuts are foraged by pigs. It is a legume
adapted to the South, rich in nitrogenous matter, and of
unusual value in improving the soil for subsequent crops.
The nuts themselves are very rich in oil as well as pro-
tein. When the pigs are allowed to eat the nuts without
additional feed, the pork produced is soft and of inferior
quality. When fed corn, rice by-products, or other
carbonaceous feeds, however, the effect is not particu-
larly noticeable. Also, if pigs which have been fed exclu-
sively on peanuts are subsequently given a month or more
of corn feeding, sufficient firmness of the carcass would
seem to be assured. When grown for the purpose of
improving the soil and to furnish a reliable yield of pro-

186

Pork Production

tein feed for the pigs to harvest themselves, peanuts
appear to be one of the most valuable crops for produc-
ing pork economically in the South.

Peanut forage versus dry lot.

In Table LVII are presented the average results of
three years' experimental work done at the Alabama
Experiment Station.1 The peanuts were grown on poor
sandy soil. Two of the three crops were below 40 per
cent of an average yield. The pigs were turned in on
September 21, September 26, and October 11, respec-
tively, and were grazed an average of 53 days. A mix-
ture of coal, lime, and salt was fed the pigs in both the
peanut and dry lots.

TABLE LVII. — PEANUT PASTURE VERSUS DRY LOT (Average
of 3 years)

GRAIN RATIONS
FED

TOTAL
PIGS
EACH LOT

Av. INI-
TIAL WT.
PER PIG

Av. DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

Av. CORN
FED FOR
EACH
100 LB.
GAIN

CORN
SAVED BY
1 ACRE
PEANUTS

Ib.

Dry lot

Corn
Full feed

.69

611

Peanut

Corn

pasture

1 full feed

1.01

148

1028

This is a very good showing for peanuts, especially
when one remembers that succeeding crops, especially
cotton, are greatly benefited.

The velvet bean is another legume especially adapted to
the Gulf States. The following results of a feeding trial

1 Bull, 143.

Choosing a Forage Crop

187

conducted at the Alabama Station l suggest that a profit-
able method of utilizing this crop is to allow the pigs to do
the harvesting. In this experiment the beans were planted
in with corn, and the pigs turned in after the corn had
been shucked. Because of continual drought throughout
the season, the yield of cowpeas was very disappointing.
The pigs averaged 62 pounds when the test began October
4, which lasted 72 days, or until December 15.

TABLE LVIII. — VELVET BEAN VERSUS COWPEA FORAGE

FORAGE

GRAIN
RATIONS FED

NUMBER PIGS
AND AREA
GRAZED

AVERAGE
DAILY
* GAIN
PER PIG

CONCEN-
TRATES
FED FOR
EACH *
100 LB.
GAIN

PASTURE *
AND GRAIN
COST OF
100 LB.
GAIN

Dry lot

9 corn +1
tankage
Full feed

pigs : acres

Ib.
.84

Z6.

400

$5.30

Cowpeas

9 corn +1
tankage
£ full feed

5 1.1

.76

208

9.56

Velvet
bean

9 corn +1
tankage
1 full feed

5 1.9

1.23

170

5.29

Because of the protein nature of both the cowpea and
velvet bean forages, it is doubtful whether a protein
supplement is necessary, especially when only a half
ration of corn is fed. The velvet bean, nevertheless,
made an excellent showing in this experiment, especially
when the area grazed is credited with the corn as well
as the pork produced. When the mature velvet bean

1 Bull. 168.

2 Corn at 70 cents a bushel ; tankage at $40.00 a ton ; forage
at $8.00 an acre.

188

Pork Production

seed is fed, recent investigations indicate that it is not
eaten with sufficient relish to insure profitable gains.

In the following table is presented a summary of average
results obtained with different forage crops tested at the
Alabama Experiment Station. The experiments were
conducted in 1905-06, 1906-07, and 1907-08.

TABLE LIX. — SUMMARY OF AVERAGE RESULTS WITH DIFFER-
ENT FORAGE CROPS AT THE ALABAMA EXPERIMENT STATION

RATIONS FED

TOTAL
NUMBER
PIGS

AVERAGE
DAILY GAIN
PER Pia

FEED TO PRODUCE EACH
100 LB. GAIN

Concentrates

Pasture Area

Corn alone . .

Ib.

.69

Ib.

611

acre

Corn1
Peanut pasture

1.01

183

.44

Corn f,1
Cottonseed
meal f ,
Peanut pasture

1.00

158

.08

Corn
Sorghum pas-
ture . . .

.37

437

.57

Corn 1, cotton-
seed meal f,2
Sorghum pas-
ture . . .

.46

388

.26

Corn
Chuf a pasture

.72

305

.41

Corn
Soybean pasture

1.02

158

.28

Corn 1, cotton-
seed meal £
Sorghum soiled

.75

271

.13

1 These lots are not comparable.

2 Cottonseed meal is dangerous when fed for a longer period
than a month.

Choosing a Forage Crop

189

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FORAGE CROP PLANTINGS

For every farm there is probably a succession or rotation
of forage crops which is more suitable and valuable than
any other. It should be the purpose of every hog-raiser
to determine this. With the idea of supplementing the
records of experimental studies, there are given in the
following tables the forage crops which have been
recommended in the different states as being best
adapted to their respective conditions, together with
other useful information regarding rate of seeding, time
and rate of pasturing.

TABLE LX. — FORAGE CROPS FOR INDIANA J

CROPS

APPROXIMATE
DATE OF
SOWING

RATE OP
SOWING
PER ACRE

APPROXIMATE
TIME OP
PASTURING

NUMBER OP
100-LB. PIGS
PER ACRE

SERIES I
Oats . . .
Rape . . .
Rape . . .
Clover, red
or mam-
moth . .
Cowpeas or
soybeans.
Rye . . .

Mar. 20-Apr. 10
Apr. 1-15
Apr. 15-May 1

Mar. 25-Apr. 15

May 20- June 10
Aug. or Sept.

2-3 bu.
2-6 Ib.
2-6 Ib.

i to Hbu.
1 to H bu.

May 1-June 1
May 25-July 1
June 25-July 25

July 15-Sept. 1

Aug. 25-Oct. 15
Oct. 1 to freezing

8-12
12-20
12-15

8-10

12-18
10-15

SERIES II
Rye . . .
Rape . . .
Rape . . .
Rape . . .
Clover . .
Cowpeas
Rye . . .

Aug. or Sept.
Apr. 1-10
Apr. 20-30
Apr. 1-10
Mar. 25-Apr. 10
May 20-30
August

1 to H bu.
2-6 Ib.
2-6 Ib.
2-6 Ib.

£ to H bu.
1 to 1 % bu.

Apr. 1-May 15
May 15- June 15
June 15- July 15
July 10-Aug. 1
July 15-Sept. 1
Aug. 20-Oct. 10
Oct. 1 to freezing

8-10
12-20
12-20
12-20
8-10
12-18

SERIES III
Rape and
oats . .

Rape . . .
Rape . . .

Apr. 1-10

Apr. 20-May 1
Alternate between
previous sowings

2-4 Ib. rape
1£ bu. oats
2-6 Ib.
2-6 Ib.

May 15-June 15

June 10- July 15
July 15-Nov. 15

12-20

12-20
12-15

1 Fisher and King : Circ. 35, Ind. Exp. Sta.

190 Pork Production

TABLE LXI. — FORAGE CROPS FOR MISSOURI l

CROPS

APPROXIMATE DATE
OP SOWING

MONTH AVAILABLE
FOR PASTURE

NUMBER
OF HOGS
PER ACRE

Blue-grass ....

April

6- 8

Rye

August and September

8-12

Wheat

September and October

6-10

Blue-grass and white

clover ....

May

6-10

Clover

Previous spring

8-12

Oats and rape. . .

April 1-10

••

15-20

Alfalfa

Not less than 1 year old

15-20

Timothy ....

Previous year

8-12

Clover

Previous year

June

8-12

Alfalfa

Not less than 1 year old

15-20

Rape and oats . .

April 15-30

20-25

Blue-grass and white

clover ....

8-10

Clover and timothy .

Old, or spring sown

July

8-12

Alfalfa

1 year old

15-20

Rape

May 15— June 1

12-15

Sorghum ....

April 15-May 1

" •

20-25

Alfalfa

1 year old or over

August

12-15

Clover

Spring sown

8-12

Rape

April 1—10, grazed down

once

••

12-15

Sorghum ....

June 1-10

20-25

Alfalfa . - . . .

Previous year

Septembe

15-20

Rape

July, or April 15-30,

grazed down once

20-25

Blue-grass and white

clover ....

6-8

Cowpeas ....

June 15

12-20

Sorghum ....

July 1

••

20-25

Blue-grass and white

clover ....

October

5-7

Timothy and clover.

Spring

«<

8-10

Alfalfa

1 year old

12-15

Cowpeas ....

July in corn

12-15

Rye

August and September

8-10

Wheat

September

6-8

Blue-grass ....

November

6-8

Rye and crimson

clover ....

August and September

8-10

Rape

July and August, or

second growth

12-15

Clover

Spring

Alfalfa

10-12

Rye

August and September

December, January,

February and March

Wheat

September and October

Blue-grass ....

King : Vol. 7, No. 5 ; Mo. State Bd. Agr.

Choosing a Forage Crop

191

As the result of the experimental studies at the Mis-
souri Experiment Station, Mumford and Weaver recom-
mended the following rotation as being ideal for Missouri
conditions.

TABLE LXII. — FORAGE ROTATION FOR MISSOURI

YEAR

FIELD No. 1

FIELD No. 2

FIELD No. 3

FIELD No. 4

FIELD No. 5

First . .

Blue-grass

Rape, oats,
and clover

Clover

Sorghum

Corn and
cowpeas
Rape, oats,
and clover

Second .

Clover

Sorghum

Corn and
cowpeas

Third .

Sorghum

Corn and
cowpeas

Rape, oats,
and clover

Clover

Fourth .

Corn and
cowpeas

Rape, oats
and clover

Clover

Sorghum

TABLE LXIII. — FOUR-YEAR FORAGE ROTATIONS FOR NORTH

DAKOTA 2

YEAR

LOT I

LOT II

LOT HI

LOT IV

1st
First

Peas

Grain

Clover

Peas

Grain

Clover

Peas

Third

Grain

Clover

Peas

Fourth ... . .

Clover

Peas

Grain

2d
First

Brome

Rape

Peas

Corn

Second

Brome

Peas

Corn

Rape

Third

Brome

Corn

Rape

Peas

Fourth

Corn

Rape

Peas

Brome

1 Mumford and Weaver: Bull. 110, Mo. Exp. Sta.

2 Richards : N. Dak. Exp. Sta. Bull. 83.

192 Pork Production

TABLE LXIV. — PASTURE CROPS FOR SUB-HUMID DISTRICTS l

CROPS

APPROXIMATE DATE OP
SOWING

APPROXIMATE TIME OF
PASTURING

NUMBER
HOGS PER
ACRE

Winter wheat . .

Early in September

Oct. 15-Nov. 15,

5-8

Mar. 15-June 1

Clover ....

April, previous year

April 10-Dec. 1

8-15

Alfalfa ....

A previous year

April 15-Nov. 15

8-15

Kale or rape . .

April and May

June 15- Dec. 1

8-15

Rape and clover .

May 1

July 10-Nov. 15

6-14

Winter wheat . .

Early in May

June 1-Nov. 15

6-15

Wheat in corn

July 15-20

Sept. 15-Nov. 15

6-12

Stubble field . .

Aug. 25-April 1

TABLE LXV. — FORAGE CROPS FOR NORTH CAROLINA 2

CROPS

APPROXIMATE DATE
op SOWING

DATE OF SOWING
PER ACRE

APPROXIMATE TIME
OF PASTURING

Rye

Aug. 1-Dec. 1

Ubu.

Oct. 1-Apr. 20

Rye and crimson

Ibu.

clover ....

Aug. 1-Oct. 1

15 Ib.

Nov. 15-Apr. 25

Oats

Sept. 10-Nov. 15

U-2bu.

Nov. 1-July 15

Wheat

Sept. 15-Dec. 1

Ubu.

Nov. 30-July 15

Oats and vetch . .

Aug. 10-Oct. 1

Ubu.

£bu.

Nov. 15-Apr. 20

New Era cowpeas .

May 15-July 15

1 bu.

July 10-Oct. 15

Soybeans ....

May 15-July 15

Ibu.

July 15-Oct. 15

Carolina field peas

1 bu.

Apr. 15-June 15

and oats ....

Feb. 15-Mar. 1

1 bu.

Alfalfa

Sept. 1-Oct. 15

30 Ib.

May 20-Sept. 20

Bermuda grass . .

Mar. 15-May 15

Root-stocks

June 1-Aug. 15

Spanish peanuts . .

May 15-July 15

2 bu. in hills

Sept. 1-Dec. 15

Sweet potatoes . .

May 1-July 1

10,000 plants per

Sept. 15-Dec. 1

acre

Mangels ....

Apr. 20-May 15

4-5 Ib.

Oct. 15-Jan. 1

Chufas

Apr. 1-May 10

2bu.

Sept. 15-Jan. 1

Artichokes ....

Nov. 1-Feb. 20

3-5 bu.

Nov. 1-Mar. 1

Burr clover . . .

Sept. 1-Oct. 1

20 Ib. cleaned

40 Ib. burr

Dec. 1-Mar. 1

Red clover ....

Sept. 10-Oct. 15

15 Ib.

Apr. 1-June 15

Japan clover . . .

Apr. 1-May 15

25 Ib.

June 1-Sept. 15

White clover . . .

Sept. 1-Oct. 1

5-8 Ib.

Dec. 15-June 1

Rape . . .

Aug. 15-May 1

6 Ib.

8-10 weeks from

seeding

1 Hunter : Farmers' Bull. 599, U. S. Dept. Agr,

2 Curtis : Bull. 207, N. C. Exp. Sta.

Choosing a Forage Crop

193

TABLE LXVI. — SUCCESSION OF FORAGE CROPS FOR
ALABAMA l

CROPS

APPROXIMATE DATE
OP SOWING

RATE op SOWING
PER ACRE

NUMBER DATS
AFTER PLANT-
ING UNTIL
READY TO
GRAZE

FALL PLANT-

INGS:

Alfalfa . .

Sept. 1-Oct. 15

15-25 Ib.

90-120

Burr clover

Sept. 1-Oct. 1

15-20 Ib. cleaned

90-120

36 Ib. in burr

Oats . . .

Sept. 1-Nov. 1

li to 3 bu.

90-120

Rape . . .

Sept. 20-Oct. 15

4-6 Ib. drilled

60-75

5-10 Ib. broadcast

Rye . . .

Sept. 1-Nov. 1

U -2 bu.

90-120

Vetch . .

Sept. 1-Oct. 15

1 bu.

90-120

SPRING PLANT-

INGS:

Alfalfa . .

Feb. 25-April 1

15-25 Ib.

75-90

Chufas . .

Mar. 15- June 1

3-4 pks.

120-150

? bu. drilled

Cowpeas

May 1-July 10

1^ bu. broadcast

75-90

Japan clover

Mar. 1-Mar. 15

24 Ib.

60-75

Oats . . .

Feb. 1-Mar. 20

l?-3 bu.

75-90

Peanuts . .

May 1-June 30

1-2 bu. unhulled

90-120

4-6 Ib. drilled

Rape . . .

Mar. 1-31

9-10 Ib. broadcast

60-75

Sorghum

Apr. 1-June 30

U-2 bu.

60-90

\ bu. drilled

Soybeans .

Apr. 1-June 30

\\ bu. broadcast

90-120

1 Gray, Duggar, and Ridgway : Bull. 143, Ala. Exp. Sta.

CHAPTER IX

METHODS OF FEEDING ON FORAGE

THE question whether pigs fed corn or other home-
grown grains when on green forage should receive in
addition a nitrogenous supplement like tankage, shorts,
or linseed-oil meal, is one which demands the attention
of nearly all hog-raisers. Three important factors affect
this problem and should be considered before a decision
is reached. These are : first, the composition of the
forage, particularly as regards its supply of protein;
second, the age of the pigs; and third, whether a full
or a limited grain ration is fed. In addition, the price
of these supplements must be considered in every case.

THE COMPOSITION OF FORAGE CROPS

The ability of a forage successfully to balance a straight
grain ration depends on its richness in protein and the
quantity of forage eaten by the pigs. That some forage
crops contain more protein than others, and that the
same forage varies widely at different states of its growth,
are shown by the analysis presented in Table LXVII.

It is generally understood that the legumes — alfalfa,
clovers, soybeans, and cowpeas — are considerably richer
as a class in protein, in proportion to the amount of
carbohydrates, than are the non-legumes like rape,
green rye, blue-grass. An examination of this table,
however, will fail to show any great difference, especially

194

Methods of Feeding on Forage 195

when the analyses are made at the stages of growth when
eaten by the pigs. Rape is shown here to contain a
larger proportion of protein to carbohydrates than does
medium red clover, and as much as alfalfa. Blue-grass,
green rye, oats, and green wheat when grazed while young
and before jointing would appear to be in the same class
as rape. With advancing maturity, however, these crops,
excepting rape, rapidly lose their protein nature and be-
come as fattening in their proportions as corn.

The younger the pig, other things being equal, the more
protein does his system require. A forage supplying
sufficient protein to balance corn for fall pigs weighing
more than 100 pounds might require the addition of some
supplement for spring pigs weighing less than 100 pounds.
For the same reason, pigs farrowed in the spring require
less protein in the late summer than early in the summer.

When pigs are given a full ration of corn on forage,
they eat less forage both absolutely and relatively than
when the grain ration is limited to a three-fourths or
a half ration. The more intensive the grain feeding,
therefore, the greater the necessity of adding some meat-
meal, middlings, and the like, to the grain fed. When
young pigs are fed only a half grain ration on alfalfa,
it is very doubtful whether a supplement is warranted;
but when given a full feed of grain on alfalfa, a protein
supplement might be profitable.

EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING TRIALS

A consideration of practical feeding tests, however,
is necessary properly to supplement our limited knowl-
edge of the composition of the different forage crops and
the other factors involved. The advisability of giving

196

Pork Production

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Methods of Feeding on Forage

197

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198

Pork Production

a nitrogenous concentrate when pigs are fed on forage
will be suggested by the results of experiment station
studies tabulated in the following pages.

Supplements for pigs on rape.

In Table LXVIII are the results obtained at the Mis-
souri Experiment Station when pure-bred Poland-China
gilts on good rape forage were fed different rations. The
pigs were spring-farrowed and averaged 40 pounds in
each lot at the beginning of the test, which lasted 112
days.

TABLE LXVIII. — CORN VERSUS CORN AND A SUPPLEMENT
FOR PIGS ON RAPE x

RATIONS

FORAGE

AVERAGE DAILY
FEED PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN PER
PIG

CONCENTRATES
FED FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

4 eorn+
4 shorts -f
1 bran+
1 tankage

Rape

Ib,

3.50

Ib.

1.01

Ib.

348

9 corn+
1 Tankage

3.50

1.05

332

1 corn+
1 shorts

3.50

.96

364

1 corn +
4 skim-milk

1.88 corn
6.04 skim-milk

.98

193 corn
772 skim-milk

Corn alone

3.10

.80

390

These gilts averaged approximately 153 pounds when
the experiment closed. In all cases the feeding of a
supplement with the corn gave faster gains than when

1 L. A. Weaver : Poland-China Journal, July, 1917.

Methods of Feeding on Forage

199

the corn was fed alone. There was also a saving in the
feed required for each 100 pounds of gain. The ration
of 9 parts of corn and 1 of tankage proved the best.
With normal prices, this ration would give more profitable
results than corn alone.

Evvard of the Iowa Experiment Station l fed different
proportions of meat-meal or tankage with corn to spring
pigs on alfalfa and rape with the following interesting
results, as shown in Table LXIX.

TABLE LXIX. — BEST PROPORTION OP TANKAGE TO FEED
WITH CORN TO PIGS ON RAPE AND ALFALFA

RATIONS

FORAGE

AVERAGE
NUMBER
PIGS
PER ACRE

LENGTH
OP PERIOD

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN PER
PIG

CONCENTRATES
FED FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

Corn alone

Rape

days

160

Ib.
.81

Ib.

338 corn

\2\ corn-h
1 tankage

25.9

160

.93

316 com
25 tankage

8^ corn-|-
1 tankage

27.3

160

.96

311 corn
38 tankage

7 corn+
1 tankage

28.3

160

.96

309 corn
44 tankage

Corn alone

Alfalfa

44.4

190

.64

398 corn

13| corn
1 tankage

43.5

190

.94

329 corn
24 tankage

Regarding the advisability of feeding tankage or meat-
meal to pigs on rape, Evvard says : " Rape requires very
little if any supplement. Our experience indicates, and
the above figures are in line with this, that about 5 per

1 Proc. Am. Soc. Animal Nutrition : 1913.

200

Pork Production

cent as much meat-meal as corn is sufficient in the growing
and fattening of spring pigs while on rape."

The feeding of the 7 to 8 per cent of tankage with the
corn was profitable here with the pigs on alfalfa.

At the Ohio Station, one lot of pigs was fed corn alone
on rape, and a second corn and tankage on rape. These
pigs were spring farrowed and weighed about 44 pounds
each when the test began. The experiment lasted 77
days. The following table shows the results:

TABLE LXX. — CORN VERSUS CORN AND TANKAGE FOR PIGS
ON RAPE l

RATIONS

FOBAGE

AVERAGE
FEED DAILY
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY GAIN
PER PIG

CONCENTRATES
FED FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

Corn alone

Rape

Ib.

1.79

Ib.

.77

Ib.

231.8

9 Corn and |
1 tankage j .

1.79

.80

201.24 corn
22.36 tankage

The pigs in this experiment were fed a very limited
amount of grain and the rates of gain in the two lots
were practically the same. Twenty-two pounds of tank-
age effected a saving only of 30 pounds of corn. Straight
corn was, therefore, practically as efficient as corn and
tankage. At the usual prices, corn alone was the more
profitable ration. In interpreting the results of this
trial, one should remember that no more than half rations
were fed.

Amount of supplements on alfalfa.
In the following table are summarized the results of
one experiment conducted at the Kansas Experiment
1 Carmichael and Eastwood : Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 242.

PLATE V. — Above, Sows and pigs on alfalfa ; middle, Pigs in
clover ; below, Pigs in rape.

Methods of Feeding on Forage

201

Station and two at the Nebraska Station. The pigs
in the Kansas experiment averaged 32 pounds when the
test began and in the Nebraska experiments 39 and 68
pounds respectively. Full grain rations were fed in the
former; while practically one-half rations were fed in
the first Nebraska experiment.

TABLE LXXI. — CORN ALONE VERSUS CORN AND A SUPPLE-
MENT FOR PIGS ON ALFALFA *

RATIONS

FORAGE

NUMBER
PIGS

AVERAGE
FEED
DAILY

PER PlQ

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

CONCEN-
TRATES RE-
QUIRED FOR
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

Corn alone

Alfalfa

Ib.

2.48

Ib.
.649

Ib.

384

Corn 62% 1
Shorts 30% |
Tankage 8% j

4.29

1.222

351

Corn alone

Alfalfa

21b.
per cwt.

.63

173

3 corn 1 shorts

.53

196

95% corn \
5% tankage/

Alfalfa

—

1.03

345

90% corn \
10% tankage/

—

1.03

349

The results from these experiments appear contra-
dictory. Just why the pigs fed corn alone in the first
experiment did not eat more and gain faster is not clear.
When weanling pigs are fed half rations on good alfalfa
pasture, the results of the first Nebraska experiment
would indicate that the addition of a protein supplement

1 Kans. Exp. Sta. Bull. 192, Wright. Neb. Exp. Sta. Bull
99 and 94, Snyder and Burnett.

202

Pork Production

is altogether unnecessary. The composition of green
forage makes this seem reasonable. In the second
Nebraska experiment, 5 per cent of tankage with corn
proved as efficient as 10 per cent.

Supplements for pigs on winter rye.

Two experiments at the Kentucky Experiment Station
were calculated to answer the question as to whether
it was necessary to feed a nitrogenous supplement with
corn to young pigs on winter rye. The pigs in both trials
averaged about 48 pounds at the beginning. The experi-
ments began in November and closed in May and April,
respectively.

TABLE LXXII. — CORN ALONE VERSUS CORN AND SOYBEANS
OR TANKAGE FOR PIGS ON WINTER RYE *

AVERAGE

CONCENTRATES

FORAGE

RATIONS

NUMBER
OF PIGS

FEED
DAILY

DAILY
GAIN PER

REQUIRED TO
PRODUCE

PER PIG

PIG

100 LB. GAIN

Ib.

Jb.

Corn-meal

Winter rye

3.21

.78

411

6 corn-meal -f-

<« it

3.58

.98

365

1 soybean meal

Corn-meal

Winter rye

4.09

.85

480

10 corn-meal +

" "

4.25

1.13

376

1 tankage

In these experiments it was profitable to feed the
soybeans and tankage. Although young rye is very
rich in its content of protein, the quantity of forage
eaten on the dry matter basis, especially during the

* Good : Ky. Exp. Sta. Bull. 175.

Methods of Feeding on Forage

203

winter, would seem to be insufficient to supply the re-
quirements of the pigs when given a full feed of corn.

Supplements for pigs on timothy and blue-grass.

An experiment conducted at the Iowa Experiment
Station compared a ration of corn alone with one made
up of 2 parts corn and 1 shorts, and another of 5 parts
corn to 1 meat-meal, for 59-pound pigs on timothy pas-
ture. A fourth lot of pigs on red clover was fed corn
alone. The experiment covered a period of 112 days,
beginning July 24 and closing November 13. The results
are shown in the following table :

TABLE LXXIII. — CORN ALONE VERSUS CORN AND A SUPPLE-
MENT FOR PIGS ON TIMOTHY 1

AVERAGE

CONCENTRATES

RATIONS

FORAGE

NUMBER
OF PIGS

FEED
DAILY

DAILY
GAIN PER

REQUIRED TO
PRODUCE

PER PIG

PIG

100 LB. GAIN

Ib.

2 corn-f

1 shorts

Timothy

4.50

1.12

400.90

5 corn +

1 meat-meal

5.48

1.37

409.60

Corn alone

4.17

.92

451.40

Corn alone

Clover

4.97

1.19

416.10

The pigs given meat-meal with their corn were approxi-
mately 50 pounds heavier at the close of the experiment
than were those fed corn alone on timothy. Not only
did these pigs gain faster, but less feed was required to
produce a given gain. One pound of meat-meal replaced

1 Kennedy and Robbins : Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 91.

204

Pork Production

1.6 pounds of corn. With normal prices for feed, this
would not mean a saving in the actual cost of producing
100 pounds of gain, but the heavier weight and the quicker
market finish of those fed meat-meal would insure a
profit. A smaller proportion of meat-meal would prob-
ably have been more profitable. The pigs fed shorts
with their corn made somewhat faster gains than those
given corn alone, but with the usual prices the cost of
gains was no cheaper.

It is apparent from these results that when rapid gains
and a quick market finish are especially desired, the feed-
ing of a nitrogenous supplement might be profitable.
The excellent showing of the pigs on clover compared with
the other lots is about what would be expected from a
knowledge of its composition.

The best proportion of tankage to feed with corn to
48-pound pigs when on a pasture of blue-grass and timothy
was tested in an experiment at the Ohio Experiment
Station1 lasting 140 days. The results are shown in
Table LXXIV.

TABLE LXXIV. — THE BEST PROPORTION OP TANKAGE TO
FEED WITH CORN ON BLUE-GRASS AND TIMOTHY l

AVERAGE

CONCENTRATES

RATIONS

FORAGE

NUMBER

OF PlGS

FEED
DAILY

DAILY
GAIN PER

REQUIRED TO
PRODUCE 100 LB.

PER PIG

PIG

GAIN

Ib.

9 corn and

Blue-grass

1 tankage

and timothy

4.71

1.25

375.3

19 corn and

1 tankage

4.62

1.19

389.4

1 Cannichael and Ridgway : Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 242.

Methods of Feeding on Forage

205

The green feed available for these pigs was not abun-
dant at any time. The difference in the rate of gain,
and the amount of total concentrated feed required to
produce 100 pounds of gain in the two lots was very
small, though favoring slightly those fed the larger
proportion of tankage. With corn figured at 56 cents
a bushel and tankage 48 dollars a ton, the pigs fed the
smaller proportion of tankage made the cheaper gains.
One hundred pounds of gain on the 10 per cent of tankage
ration cost $4.28, while on the 5 per cent tankage ration
the cost was only $4.17, a difference of 11 cents.

Corn alone on clover.

At the Iowa Experiment Station one lot of pigs on
medium red clover was fed a ration of straight corn,
while a second similar lot on clover was given corn with
10 per cent meat-meal added. The experiment began
June 20 and closed November 10, covering a period of
141 days. The pigs were given full rations during the
last 85 days only. The results of this test are shown in
Table LXXV.

TABLE LXXV. — CORN ALONE VERSUS CORN AND TANKAGE
FOR PIGS ON CLOVER l

RATIONS

FORAGE

NUMBER
OF PIGS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

CONCENTRATES
FED FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

Corn alone

Medium
red clover

Ib.
39

Ib.
.84

Ib.

370.63

9 Corn
1 Tankage

1.13

334.10

1 Eward, Kildee, and Kennedy : Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 136.

206

Pork Production

With 56-cent corn and $40 a ton tankage, the cost of
producing 100 pounds of gain would be practically the
same on the two rations. The more rapid gains of those
fed tankage, however, would indicate that the tankage
feeding would be profitable when an early finish is de-
sirable.

Oats, Canadian field peas, and rape.

Another experiment at the same station sought to de-
termine the best proportion of meat-meal to feed pigs
while grazing a forage mixture of oats, Canadian field
peas, and rape. These pigs were full fed during the last
100 days only, although receiving liberal rations during
the first 60 days. The experiment began June 13 and
lasted 160 days. The results are shown in Table LXXVI.

TABLE LXXVI. — BEST PROPORTION OP MEAT-MEAL TO FEED
WITH CORN TO PIGS ON A MIXTURE OP OATS, CANADIAN
FIELD PEAS, AND RAPE l

RATIONS

FORAGE

NUMBER
OP PIGS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

CONCEN-
TRATES
FED FOR
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

19 corn and
1 meat-meal .

Oats, Cana-
dian field
peas, and rape

Ib.
26

Ib.

1.15

Ib.

351.44

9 corn and
1 meat-meal .

1.16

367.41

In this experiment, the smaller proportion of meat-
meal produced the cheaper and more economical gains,
and practically as rapid.

1 Eward, Kildee, and Kennedy : Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 136.

Methods of Feeding on Forage

207

General summary.

In the absence of more definite information regarding
the best proportion of nitrogenous supplements to feed
with corn or other similar grains under different con-
ditions, the following general summary of suggestions
is made in Table LXXVII. These suggestions are
largely based on the foregoing experimental studies and
take account of the age of pigs, the composition and
quality of the forage crops, and whether full or limited
grain rations are fed. To simplify the statement, the
proportion of protein supplement recommended is stated
in terms of tankage or meat-meal containing 55 to 60
per cent of protein. By reference to Table CXXII, page
279, the amount of shorts, middlings, linseed-oil meal,
and the like, which would supply approximately the same
proportion of protein in the ration, can be determined.

TABLE LXXVII. — SHOWING PROPORTION OP NITROGENOUS SUP-
PLEMENTS TO FEED WITH CORN TO PIGS ON FORAGE

FORAGE

FOR PIGS WEIGHING LESS
THAN 100 POUNDS

FOR PIGS WEIGHING MORE
THAN 100 POUNDS

When fed full
grain rations
for rapid
gains

When fed lim-
ited grain ra-
tions for mod-
erate gains

When fed full
grain rations
for rapid
gains

When fed lim-
ited grain ra-
tions for mod-
erate gains

When on alfalfa, clover,
Canadian field peas,
rape, or a mixture of
any of these with oats

5-10%
Best grade
tankage or
meat-meal

0-5%
Best grade
tankage or
meat-meal

None

When on blue-grass,
timothy, green rye,
oats, sorghum, or
similar forages

8-12%
Best grade
tankage or
meat-meal

6-8%
Best grade
tankage or
meat-meal

0-5%
Best grade
tankage or
meat-meal

When on fairly mature
soybeans, cowpeas, or
peanuts

None

208 Pork Production

It will be noted that there is a considerable range in the
proportion of supplement recommended for a given
group of forages and for pigs of a given weight and system
of feeding. This is because of the normal variations
which occur in the abundance and quality of forage
supplied by a given crop in different years, as well as the
normal differences in composition which exist between
the forages of the same group. It frequently happens
that the crop is so much below average that the de-
sired rate of gain can only be secured by a larger pro-
portion of supplement even than the maximum figure
recommended in the table. On the other hand, when
the forage is abundant and palatable, the smaller pro-
portions will be sufficient because of the larger quantity
of the protein-rich forage eaten.

Another reason why exact quantities cannot be stated
is because of the variations which may occur from year
to year in the relation of the price of corn and the price
of supplements in general. When grain is cheap and
supplements relatively high, a smaller proportion of
supplement to grain will be more profitable than when
grain is high and the commercial supplements cheap.
When barley, rye, wheat, or oats, or any mixture of these
is fed, a slightly smaller proportion of the protein supple-
ment is required than when corn is used.

FEEDING A GRAIN RATION TO PIGS ON FORAGE

The digestive apparatus of the pig is so limited in
capacity that he is unable to make even moderate gains
on green forage alone. Pigs weighing less than 100
pounds fail to maintain their weight on ordinary pastures,
especially if they have previously been fed some grain.

Methods of Feeding on Forage 209

Thrifty growthy shotes weighing 100 pounds or more will
ordinarily do just a little better than maintain their
weight when on the best of forages. Thin mature sows
will hold their own on good pasture and will make a gain
of as much as a half pound daily on alfalfa, clover, or
rape. Much depends, however, on their condition,
previous feeding, and the quality of the forage. Al-
though well-grown thrifty pigs may maintain their
weight on good forages alone for a period of several
months, they lose condition, take on a rough appearance,
and become extremely "pot-bellied" in appearance.
They apparently grow in bone and stature, but lose in
weight and fat.

The problem of the feeder, however, is not one of main-
tenance but of production. He is concerned, not with
the cost of maintaining his pigs at a constant weight,
but with the cost of producing the gains which will insure
market finish or breeding development. An important
principle to remember at this point is that it is only that
part of the ration fed above maintenance which is avail-
able for growth or fat production. In the production
of pork, therefore, the returns from the entire ration are
determined by the quantity fed in excess of the main-
tenance requirements. Some grain is necessary if con-
tinuous gains are made. Just how much grain should be
fed while the pigs are on forage in order to insure the
greatest economy of production, all factors considered,
is the question to which we will now give our attention.

Pigs intended for market

In the production of market pigs, the problem of decid-
ing whether full or limited grain feeding, with good forages,

210 Pork Production

is the most suitable and profitable for a given farm should
first be considered in its larger aspect; namely, with
reference to the primary purpose for which the hogs are
produced and the general system of feeding which best
suits the plan of management followed for the farm as
a whole. This phase of the question has already been
discussed in the earlier pages of Chapter VII.

The other considerations which affect the problem
more directly are the rate and cost of gains during the
forage season ; the rate and cost of gains during the
dry lot feeding period ; the proportion of old and new
corn used in full as against limited feeding while on forage ;
and the time of marketing as affected by limited versus
full feeding while on forage.

Rate and cost of gains during forage season.

Most of the experimental work done to help solve the
question of whether a full or a limited ration on forage
was the most efficient and profitable has been confined
to a study of the forage period only, rather than for the
entire period from weaning to the time market weights
had been attained. Since 1904, fifteen separate experi-
ments l of this kind have been conducted in which twenty-
five comparisons of limited versus full grain feeding have
been made. A careful study of the results furnished by
these practical tests, considered individually and col-
lectively, supports the following conclusions :

(1) The more liberal the grain feeding, the faster were
the gains. Maximum gains were made only when full

i Neb. Exp. Sta. Bull. 99 ; Kans. Exp. Sta. Bull. 192 ; Ala.
Exp. Sta. Bull. 147 ; Iowa Exp. Sta. Circ. Letter ; Ohio Exp.
Sta. unpublished data ; 111. Exp. Sta., Circ. Letter ; Ind. Exp.
Bta., unpublished data.

Methods of Feeding on Forage

211

rations were fed. In all the experiments there was no
exception to this result.

(2) The feeding of but one-fourth a full grain ration
secured a gain of as much as \ pound daily only when
the pigs were on the best of forage. It would seem that
the gains made on limited rations, especially when fed
one-half full feed or less, are more largely dependent on

GRAIN

FIG. 9. — Relation of intensity of feeding spring pigs on forage to the
rate of gain.

the quality and abundance of the forage than are the
gains made by pigs fed the heavier grain allowances.

A summary study of the gains made in these experi-
ments seemed to justify the expectation that good spring
pigs on first-class forage crops will, when fed limited
rations, make gains closely approximating those in-
dicated in Fig. 9.

(3) With respect to the amount of grain consumed for
each 100 pounds of gain made by the pigs on the different
rations, a survey of the experimental results referred to

212

Pork Production

above indicated that, as a rule, the heavier the grain
allowance the larger was the grain consumption for a
unit of gain. The exceptions to this rule were when the
pigs were fed such a limited ration that their daily gains
were less than f pound, and in other cases, when the
quality or abundance of the forage was not up to stand-
ard. This conclusion is expressed graphically in Fig. 10,
which is based on the summarized results of these studies.

Itf

j5
o°S

I *-». / A.W.

"RATE OT GAIM.

\L Lua.

O?? Wore

FIG. 10 — Relation of the rate of gain made by pigs on forage to the
amount of concentrates required for each one hundred pounds gain.

Rate and cost of gains during the entire feeding period.

It is not possible to say from the figures just considered
which is more profitable, a limited or a full grain ration.
This is true because pigs fed during the summer on
limited rations do not reach marketable weights by the
end of the forage season, in consequence of which there
is necessitated a longer subsequent period of dry lot
feeding for those fed the restricted rations. Since the

Methods of Feeding on Forage

213

number of pounds of grain required to produce a unit
of gain is greater for pigs fed in the dry lot and at
heavier weights than for pigs on forage and of lighter
weights, it is necessary to feed the different lots to the
same market weight before a reliable comparison can
be made.

A study of the results of three series of experiments
recently made at the Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana stations,1
together with the results of experiments covering the
forage period only, indicate that we may expect results
under the average of good farm conditions closely approxi-
mating those shown in Table LXXVIII.

TABLE LXXVIII. — RATE OF GAIN AND FEED REQUIRED FOR
EACH 100 POUNDS GAIN DURING FORAGE AND DRY LOT
PERIODS

METHOD OF
FEEDING ON
FORAGE

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FORAGE

AVERAGE
WEIGHT
PER PIG
AT END

FORAGE
PERIOD

CONCEN-
TRATES
FOR EACH
100 LB.
GAIN ON
FORAGE

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG,
DRY LOT
PERIOD

NUMBER
DAYS
DRY LOT
FEEDING

CONCEN-
TRATES
FOR EACH
100 LB.
GAIN
ENTIRE
PERIOD

Ib.

days

Ib.

| full feed, or

1 % weight

daily . .

.45

285

1.25

104

505

| full feed, or

2% weight

daily . .

.65

120

295

1.25

43^

I full feed, or

3% weight

daily . .

.90

150

335

1.25

400

Full feed . .

1.25

193

365

1.25

400

1 Eward and Dunn, Iowa Exp. Sta., Giro. Letter ; W. J.
Carmichael, 111. Exp. Sta., Circ. Letter; Skinner and Smith,
Ind. Exp. Sta., unpublished data.

214

Pork Production

In Table LXXIX the actual amount of concentrates
which would be fed in the forage and dry lot periods is
calculated from the above figures. The results are stated
in terms of shelled corn and tankage, and assume that
the latter makes up 8 per cent of the ration, on the average.

TABLE LXXIX. — EFFECT OF LIMITED VERSUS FULL FEEDING
ON FORAGE ON THE TOTAL AMOUNT AND PROPORTION OF
OLD AND NEW CORN REQUIRED FROM 40 TO 225 POUNDS
WEIGHT

METHOD OP FEED-
ING ON FORAGE

OLD CORN EATEN
ON FORAGE

NEW CORN EATEN
IN DRY LOT

TOTAL
BUSHELS
SHELLED
CORN

TOTAL
POUNDS
NUM-
BER 1
TANKAGE

Number
bushels

Per Cent
entire
amount

Number
bushels

Per Cent
entire
amount

i full feed, or
1 % weight
daily . .

2.57

12.78

15.35

| full feed, or
2% weight
daily

3.88

9.34

13.22

f full feed, or
3 % weight
daily . .

6.05

6.11

12.16

Full feed . .

9.17

2.99

12.16

*The above table serves to illustrate the important
principle that as the intensity of grain feeding increases
from a limited to a full ration on forage, the propor-
tion of old to new corn fed increases. In other words,
full rations during the summer on forage necessitate a
large use of old corn and permit of only a minimum
use of the cheaper new corn; while the feeding of
limited rations during the summer results in a minimum

Methods of Feeding on Forage

215

use of old corn and a maximum use of new corn. Pigs
farrowed March 1st will ordinarily reach market weights
six weeks before pigs farrowed April 1st. With the best
grade of pigs and abundant forage, even April pigs will
frequently make the gains which will enable their market-
ing direct from the forage field.

In total feed consumed, the results show a saving of
more than a bushel of corn for each pig by feeding full

•SZ
SO
48

JAN. Fee. MAR. AP*. MAY JUNE. JucrXloe. SEPT. OCT. NOK Dec

FIG. 11. — Monthly price fluctuations of No. 2 corn on Chicago market,

1903-1914.

or three-fourths full rations while on forage than when a
half ration or less was given. The total feed consumed
in the different systems of feeding does not, however,
give a reliable basis for the determination of the feed
cost of production, since new corn is cheaper than
old. For this reason, the actual cost for the limited-
fed pigs is less than these figures by themselves would
suggest.

216 Pork Production

The variation in the price of corn during the different
months of the year is shown in Fig. 11. This curve
is based on the actual price of standard No. 2 corn on the
Chicago market for the ten-year period from 1903 to 1914,
inclusive. According to this curve, the average forage-
feeding period of June 15 to October 15 comes when the
price of corn is high. The average price for these months
was 61.6 cents a bushel, while for the immediate succeeding
four months it was 55 j} cents, a difference of 6.1 cents
a bushel. Actually there is a greater spread than this
on the farm, because the feeding of new corn commences
very much earlier than the marketing of new corn, or
before its presence on the market can be felt. The farm
price of new corn for November and December is probably
lower, therefore, than is indicated by the above curve.
The actual feed cost of production stated in dollars and
cents would be less, therefore, for the pigs fed three-
fourths ration while on forage than for those given the
full rations.

Time of marketing as affected by system of feeding.

There still remains an additional point which must
be noted. Pigs which are full fed on forage reach market-
able weight earlier than do limited-fed pigs, and the early
market is usually the better one. For the twelve years
from 1905 to 1916, the average price of hogs on the Chicago
market in September and October was approximately
57 cents a hundred higher than in December and January.
From year to year, the pigs fed the more liberal rations
on forage have the advantage of selling at a time when
the supply is relatively low and the price high (see Chapter
XVI). This advantage, however, will hold only so long
as the great bulk of the spring pig crop is marketed in

Methods of Feeding on Forage 217

December and January as at present. According to the
figures in the above table, a difference in selling price of
only 7.6 cents a hundredweight in favor of the full-fed
pigs as compared with those receiving three-fourths
rations would be sufficient to make up for the difference
between them in the cost of production.

In Fig. 12 are shown the weight curves of pigs
from birth to the weight of 225 pounds when fed full and
limited rations on forage. The attempt is here made to
show graphically the effect of different systems of feeding
during the summer on the gains in weight and the time
of marketing. All the pigs are assumed to gain 1.25
pounds daily during the dry lot periods.

Summary and conclusions.

The feeding of limrted grain rations to pigs on forage
during the summer results in the following advantages:
1. Pigs fed a limited ration make a minimum use of ex-
pensive old corn and a maximum use of the cheaper new
corn in producing the necessary gains. This is its most
important advantage. 2. The amount of grain required
to produce a unit of gain while the pigs are on forage is
usually less with limited than with full rations. 3. The
feeding of limited rations during the summer fits in well
with the practice of hogging-down corn in the fall and is
adapted to the production of pigs suitable for following
cattle during the winter.

The important advantages of full feeding on forage
may be enumerated as follows: 1. Pigs fed full grain
rations on forage make faster gains during the summer
than do pigs receiving limited rations. In consequence
they are ready for an earlier market, the risks from
disease and other sources of loss are reduced, the money

218

Pork Production

Methods of Feeding on Forage 219

invested in the pigs is made available sooner, and expense
for labor and winter equipment is spared. 2. The
length of the dry lot feeding period is reduced to a mini-
mum when full grain rations are fed during the summer.
Pigs farrowed in February and March may be marketed
direct from the forage field. 3. Less total concentrates
are required in the production of a 225-pound market
pig when full or three-fourths full rations are fed on
forage than with more limited rations. Between three-
fourths rations on forage and full rations there seems to
be no consistent difference. When the forage supply
throughout the summer is excellent, slightly less total
concentrates will probably be required with three-fourths
than with full ration. 4. Although old corn is more
expensive than new, under normal conditions in the corn-
belt the actual money cost of growing and fattening a
225-pound market pig is less with full or three-fourths
rations than when more limited grain rations are fed.
5. An important advantage for the method of full feeding
during the summer arises from the better price usually
received for the earlier marketed pigs.

Considering the grain cost of production, the time
required by the pigs to attain market weight, and the
selling price as affected by early or late marketing, the
advantages seem to lie with the system of feeding which
supplies either full or three-fourths grain rations while
the pigs are on forage. The only justification for the
practice of feeding less than three-fourths rations during
the summer to pigs intended for direct marketing would
seem to be, therefore, the scarcity or abnormally high
price of corn and suitable corn substitutes.

This conclusion, it should be understood, applies only
to farm conditions in which the pigs are produced mainly

220 Pork Production

for the purpose of marketing corn. Pigs intended for
following cattle during the winter ordinarily should not
be fed full rations in the summer. Also, the business of
producing feeder or stocker pigs has already developed
to some magnitude in localities which do not produce
much corn, but where suitable growing feeds are available.
Obviously the best practice for such conditions is to feed
only the amount of grain which will promote fair gains
and maintain thrift. Such conditions usually impose the
limited-feeding system.

Pigs intended for the breeding herd

In the feeding of market pigs, the objects are economy
and rapidity of production. In the feeding of pigs intended
for the breeding herd, the primary object is the produc-
tion of a strong well-balanced breeding development, with
size. Although economy of production is essential with
breeding as with market pigs, it is secondary in importance.

Possible dangers from full feeding.

The question of whether constitution and breeding
development are better promoted by full feeding on
forage, or by the use of limited grain rations, is one which
practical experience must be largely depended on to
answer. The central question is concerned with the
dangers which may attend full and unlimited grain feed-
ing, in excessive fatness, "blind" teats, broken-down
pasterns, and the failure to develop in a manner to insure
reliable breeding traits with approaching maturity.

Conditions which affect the problem.

Breeding gilts and young boars may be injured per-
manently by the practice of feeding full grain rations

Methods of Feeding on Forage 221

during the summer. This is the verdict of the breeder
who has been a careful and observant feeder. There
are, of course, exceptions to this rule. When the forage
is especially abundant and of good quality, and when
the pigs are of the type which tend more to growth and
late maturity than to fat production and early maturity,
the little danger which may attend full feeding may be
overbalanced by the advantages resulting from larger
size, quicker and better sales of the pigs in the fall, or a
larger and more attractive appearance at maturity.
When the grain ration fed, also, is one which tends
more to the production of growth than the formation
of fat, and when considerable quantities of bulky
feeds like ground oats, chopped alfalfa hay, or wheat
bran are fed, the probability of danger is still further
reduced.

The system adopted by the breeder, then, is a question
of judgment based on a careful consideration of the quality
and abundance of the forage available, the type of his
pigs, the character of the ration which he determines is
best and most economical to feed, and the advantages
which may come from good size and development at an
early age. In addition, constant observation during
the summer must be depended on promptly to correct
any mistake in judgment which may have been made in
the system of feeding previously adopted.

Summary and conclusion.

A safe procedure which will permit good growth and
maximum breeding development is suggested by the fol-
lowing recommendations based on successful practice :

1. WThen full grain rations are fed, or when the self-
feeder is employed, it is essential that the grains be

222 Pork Production

lightened up by the addition of some bulky feed like
ground oats, fine quality of cut alfalfa or clover hay, or
wheat bran. The proportion of these feeds should be
determined and frequently regulated according to the
degree of fatness of the pigs and the amount of exercise
which they are taking. To avoid the evils of excessive
fatness and inactivity, constant observation is required
on the part of the feeder.

2. Under most conditions, best results can probably
be secured by hand-feeding. By limiting the amount of
grain to no more than three-fourths as much as will be
eaten at any time, or a little less, the quantity of forage
eaten and the amount of rustling done can be more
accurately and as conveniently regulated by hand-feeding
as when the self-feeder is depended on. With two-
thirds to three-fourths full rations and good forage crops,
the pigs will grow fast without running the danger of
becoming too fat.

3. Breeding pigs which are to be shown should, of
course, be pushed from the start ; but most of the pushing
should be done in July and August rather than in May
and June. The financial value of show winnings is such
that the pedigree breeder feels justified in intensive feed-
ing even though the future breeding value of the gilt or
boar is jeopardized.

4. Young boars and future breeding gilts are not
injured by a reasonable amount of fat. Thrifty growthy
pigs are never thin. Fine-boned pigs which are too early
disposed to fat formation are not the kind the breeder
should raise. Much of the injury assigned to excessive
feeding can be assigned more properly to a wrong ideal
of type in breeding.

Methods of Feeding on Forage 223

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE PIGS IN THE SUMMER

Sanitation.

The best results from any system of feeding are possible
only when the pigs are under conditions which tend to
promote health and thrift. This means that sanitary
yards, clean drinking water, comfortable quarters, and
a reasonable amount of exercise must be provided. The
forage-crop system of feeding furnishes the conditions
which make these essentials easy of attainment on the
average farm.

The pigs must be kept free from worms and lice if
health is maintained and every pound of feed eaten is
to count in the production of profitable gains. The
health of the pig crop must also be guarded by reducing
as much as possible the dangers of cholera infection.
The prompt administration of the serum treatment
(Dorset-Niles) is the only known way of reducing the
loss when cholera comes. If the pigs have already been
rendered permanently immune by the double method of
treatment, worry of possible cholera losses may cease
(see Chapter XX).

Ringing.

Although it is the nature of a hog to root, his disposi-
tion toward an excessive amount can be curbed by the
feeding of balanced rations, by providing a constant
supply of green forage, and by having a mixture of salt,
ashes, and charcoal constantly available. Under ideal
conditions it is doubtful whether the pigs intended for
early market should be rung at all. In any case, it
should not be resorted to unless necessary to save valu-
able sod. Although pigs that have been properly rung

224 Pork Production

suffer little inconvenience, it is also true that when care-
lessly performed it may be the cause of much annoyance
or even suffering. Sore noses, the result of setting the
rings too deep, or the use of rings which are too small,
are often the cause for the failure of pigs to do well in
the feed yard.

The morning feed of the pigs should be reduced materi-
ally the day they are to be rung, as the driving and ex-
citement will tend to "upset" their digestive functions
if full of feed. A home-made trap which catches and
holds the pigs by the neck is a very practical and efficient
method of securing them. This should be placed in the
doorway of a pen and the pigs directed to it with hurdles,
if a permanent chute is not a part of the equipment.

One ring placed in the center of the upper rim will be
sufficient ordinarily for shotes, although three, one in
the center and one on either side, are frequently neces-
sary for old sows. The old-fashioned ring which joins
in the flesh of the nose is objected to by some on the
ground that it more frequently causes excessive soreness,
than the so-called fish-hook ring. A criticism sometimes
made of the latter, however, is that the connection of the
ring offers too much opportunity for the accumulation of
mud balls. The size of the ring should be such that when
it is set at the correct depth the flesh will not be pinched
or drawn. The ring should enter a little way back of
the cartilaginous rim of the snout.

Shade and water.

The importance of shade and plenty of cool water
during the summer is such as to warrant more attention
than it usually receives. In the absence of natural
shade, artificial shades should be provided, constructed

Methods of Feeding on Forage

225

in a way which permits the free passage of the air through
them. Raised board floors will be cleaner and more
free from dust than will dirt floors. Individual houses
which are made with the sides hinged at the top so that
they may be swung open make good summer shelters.
The feeder who keeps his pigs well supplied with cool
wrater in hot weather will secure gains when as good a
feeder, careless about this point, will fail.

FEED COST OF RAISING THE PIG TO MARKET WEIGHT
OR BREEDING AGE

In the following tables the feed cost of growing and
finishing the market pig and of developing the gilt to
breeding age is calculated. The figures are based on
experimental feeding results previously considered and
assume in the case of the pigs fed on forage during the
summer that they were grazed at the average rate of
fifteen to the acre.

TABLE LXXX. — COST OF FEEDING WEANLING PIG TO
MARKET WEIGHT (35 TO 225 POUNDS)

I. With forage crops during the summer.

TOTAL

POUNDS OF

CONCEN-
TRATES, OR
NUMBER OF

TOTAL COST OF CONCEN-
TRATES

TOTAL FORAGE CROP
CHARGE

TOTAL
FEED
COST

FEED UNITS

REQUIRED

at 1 ^per Ib. ..$ 7.60

at $10 per acre $ .67

$ 8.27

atl^perlb. .. 9.50

at $10 per acre .67

10.17

760

atl^perlb. .. 11.40

at $12 per acre .80

12.20

atlf^perlb. .. 13.30

at $12 per acre .80

14.10

at 2 ^perlb. .. 15.20

at $14 per acre .92

16.12

at 2^ per Ib. . . 19.00

at $15 per acre 1.00

20.00

226

Pork Production

TABLE LXXX. — Continued
II. Under dry lot conditions.

TOTAL
POUNDS OF
CONCEN-
TRATES, OR
NUMBER OF
FEED UNITS
REQUIRED

TOTAL FEED COST

$ 8.93

at Ijff per Ib

11.16

893

at lf?< per Ib. .....

13.39

at \H per Ib

15.63

at 2 ^ per Ib

17.86

at 2|f< per Ib

22.32

TABLE LXXXI. — FEED COST OF RAISING THE BREEDING
GILT (35 POUNDS TO 200 POUNDS)

I. With forage crops during the summer.

TOTAL

TOTAL COST OF CONCEN-
TRATES

TOTAL FORAGE CROP
CHARGE

POUNDS OF

CONCEN-
TRATES, OR
NUMBER OF

TOTAL
FEED
COST

FEED UNITS

REQUIRED

at 1 ^ per Ib. .

.$ 5.77

at $10 per acre

$ .67

$ 6.44

at H^perlb. .

. 7.21

at $10 per acre

.67

7.88

577

at l^perlb. .

. 8.65

at $12 per acre

.80

9.45

at If^perlb. .

. 10.10

at $12 per acre

.80

10.90

at 2 t per Ib. .

. 11.54

at $14 per acre

.92

12.46

at 1\t per Ib. .

. 14.42

at $15 per acre

1.00

15.42

Methods of Feeding on Forage

227

TABLE XXXI. — Continued

II. Under dry lot conditions.

TOTAL
POUNDS OF
CONCEN-
TRATES, OR
NUMBER OF
FEED UNITS
REQUIRED

TOTAL FEED COST

1 1 per Ib

$ 6.80

ji^4 p@j« }J3

850

680

1^-ff per Ib

1020

Hi per Ib.

11.90

2£ per Ib

13 60

2H Der Ib.

17.00

CHAPTER X

HOGGING-DOWN CORN

AT one time "hogging-down" corn was looked on by
most farmers as a shiftless wasteful method of feeding;
but the many advantages of this method of harvesting
a part of the corn crop, as well as the good results in
gains made by the hogs, has caused the practice markedly
to increase during the last ten or fifteen years. The
increasing scarcity of labor and the favorable reports
from experimental tests have largely been responsible
for a change in attitude among those farmers who formerly
looked on the practice with disfavor.

VERSUS YARD FEEDING

The experimental studies at the Minnesota and Iowa
Experiment Stations * have demonstrated that pigs
do as well, and a little better, when harvesting their own
corn as when the corn is husked in the usual way and
fed to them at the barn. In Table LXXXII are the
results of four direct comparisons of the "hogging-down"
and the common yard, or dry lot, methods of feeding.

In the two Minnesota experiments, shorts were fed
in each lot at the rate of 1 part shorts to about 4 parts
of corn. In each of these tests, also, the pigs eating
the standing corn had rape in addition, the result of

iQaumnitz, Wilson, Bassett, Minn. Exp. Sta. Bull. 104.
Eward, Kennedy, Kildee, Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 143.

228

Hogging-down Corn

229

broadcasting in the corn at the rate of 3 pounds of seed
to the acre just before the last cultivation. The fact
that the yard-fed pigs did not have access to a forage
crop would naturally tend to insure more rapid and
economical gains for the field-fed pigs. In the first Iowa
experiment, no supplement was fed in either lot ; in the
second, sufficient meat-meal was supplied in each lot
to make up approximately 10 per cent of the gain eaten.

TABLE LXXXII. — HOGGING-DOWN CORN VERSUS YARD FEED-
ING (Minn, and Iowa Experiment Stations)

METHOD OF
FEEDING

AVERAGE SUP-
PLEMENT FED
DAILY

NUMBER PIGS
AND AREA
GRAZED

NUM-
BER
DAYS

AVER-
AGE
DAILY
GAIN

PER PIG

CONCENTRATES l
REQUIRED FOR
EACH 100 POUNDS
GAIN

Minn. 1905
Yard fed . .

Hogging-down

1 Ib. shorts per
cwt.
1 Ib. shorts per
cwt.

13 pigs
26 pigs
3 acres

.98
1.30

831 corn2
169 shorts
696 corn 2
139 shorts

Minn. 1906
Yard fed . .

Hogging-down

1 Ib. shorts per
cwt.
1 Ib. shorts per
cwt.

8 pigs
32 pigs
3 acres

51
51

1.09
1.44

573 corn
146 shorts
532 corn
103 shorts

Iowa, 1911
Yard fed . .
Hogging-down

None
None

10 pigs
10 pigs
TS acre

.62
.42

608.5 corn
721.5 corn

Yard fed . .
Hogging-down

.51 Ib. meat-
meal per pig
.51 Ib. meat-
meal per pig

10 pigs
10 pigs
i9<j acre

60
58

1.17
1.23

356 corn
41 meat-meal
365.1 corn
43.7 meat-meal

Averages
Yard fed . .

Hogging-down

Total 41 pigs

Total 78 pigs
7/5 acres

.965
1.097

389.21 concen-
trates
371.47 concen-
trates

1 Corn was figured on the shelled basis.

2 Green weight of corn, not shrunk.

230

Pork Production

No forage was supplied in either of these comparisons.
The pigs in the first Minnesota experiment averaged 147
pounds, and in the second 125 pounds, when they went
into the experiments. In both the Iowa tests, the pigs
weighed at the beginning approximately 69 pounds. The
Minnesota pigs were turned in November 29 and 9
respectively in the two experiments, and the Iowa pigs,
September 19.

The averaged results of these four comparisons show
the reliability and economy of the hogging-down system
of feeding corn when well managed. With but one
exception, namely, the first Iowa experiment, the pigs
harvesting their own corn gained faster than did those
fed in the usual way. In this comparison no supplement
of any kind was fed. The authors of the experiment
attributed the exceptionally poor gains made in this lot
to the fact that the poor appetites of the pigs made it
necessary to continue them in the field until December
4th to get them to clean up, at which time the weather
had become bad and the field muddy.

TABLE LXXXIII. — EXPERIENCE OF 177 FARMERS WITH
" HOGGING-DOWN" CORN AS COMPARED WITH DRY LOT
AND PASTURE FEEDING l

IN HOGGING-DOWN CORN GAINS ARE

NUMBER REPORT-
ING

PER CENT REPORT-
ING ON EACH COM-
PARISON

More rapid

141

79672

More economical

105

59.32

But little different

5.65

Less rapid

1 69

Less economical

1 Evvard, Kennedy, Kildee, Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 143.

2 Some reported on more than one comparison.

Hogging-down Corn 231

As shown by the data in the preceding table, the expe-
rience of the practical feeder coincides with the results of
experiment station studies. These figures were obtained
by the Iowa Station in response to inquiries addressed
to farmers who had experience with the hogging-down
method of feeding.

Granting that the pigs gain as rapidly and as eco-
nomically when hogging-down corn, as when fed from the
scoop shovel or trough, the saving in labor alone would
be sufficient to guarantee popularity for this method.
The average cost of husking and marketing a bushel of
corn as estimated by 148 farmers interviewed by the
Iowa Experiment Station was 8.81 cents. The cost
of husking alone is now 8 to 10 cents a bushel.

Other important advantages to which practical feeders
testify are the following : Cribbing space is saved ; the
hogs develop strong constitutions and are in good condi-
tion for following cattle or for a short finishing feed in
the dry lot ; the droppings are left where they will do the
most good, which insures cleaner yards at the barn and
better prospects for the succeeding crop; and, when
hogging-down is practiced, a poor stand of corn may be
supplemented most advantageously by sowing rape or
other forage crop at the time of last cultivation, thus insur-
ing a larger return in pork or feed from a given area.

SUPPLEMENTAL FORAGE CROPS

In order that satisfactory results may be obtained
from hogging-down corn, it is necessary that a nitrogenous
supplement be provided either in the form of a commer-
cial concentrate or a forage crop. The crop may be
grown in with the corn or in the field adjacent to it. The

232

Pork Production

forages most highly recommended are alfalfa, clover,
rape, green rye, pumpkins, soybeans, and cowpeas. Ex-
cepting alfalfa and clover, these crops are often planted
in the field with the corn. When the stand of corn is
good and the rainfall favorable, a good yield of forage
may be expected. In case the stand of corn is below
average and weather conditions are favorable during
the growing months, the yield of forage should be
abundant.

TABLE LXXXIV. — SUPPLEMENTAL FORAGES FOR HOGGING-
DOWN CORN (Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 143)

AVER-

ESTI-

PORK

COMPARA'

YEAH

AGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT

AGE
DAILY
GAIN

PER

MATE
YIELD
OF CORN

PER

PRO-
DUCED

ONE

COST OF
GROWING
CROPS 1

TIVE
COST2 OF

PRODUC-
ING 100

PIGS

PIG

ACRE

LBS.GAIN

Ib.

bu.

Ib.

Soybeans forage

1909

1.573

619

$14.48

$2.34

Cowpeas forage

1909

1.216

504

14.48

2.87

Rape and pump-

kins . . .

1910

.931

651.7

12.15

1.86

Soybeans forage

1910

.828

483.8

14.48

2.99

Canada field

peas forage

1910

.706

333.8

14.75

4.42

Hairy Vetch for-

age ...

1910

.418

292.8

17.15

5.85

None ....

1911

.420

46.02

357.2

11.15

3.14

Meat-meal 10%

1911

1.230

50.53

795.0

19.32 3

2.43

Soybeans forage

1911

.840

38.64

504.4

14.48

2.87

Green rye and

10% meat-

meal . . .

1911

1.44

42.69

789.6

21.203

2.69

1 Includes cost of both corn and forage.

2 These figures determined by charging the corn at the actual
cost of production, $11.15 an acre, rather than at the market
price of the grain in the field.

3 This includes the cost of the meat-meal purchased.

Hogging-down Corn 233

The Iowa Experiment Station 1 has done some use-
ful work along the line of determining the most valu-
able forages to grow in Iowa cornfields which are to be
hogged-down. These trials were conducted during the fall
of 1909, 1910, and 1911. In 1909 the pigs were turned
into the corn on September 14 ; in 1910 on September 9,
excepting the lot with Canadian field peas for forage
which was started July 29 ; and in 1911 on September 19.
The plan was to turn the pigs in as soon as the corn was
well dented. The pigs on the Canadian field peas in
the 1910 experiment were started at the unusual date of
July 29 because the peas were ripe at that time. The
various lots were in the corn-fields from 42 to 76 days.
The results obtained from the different crops are shown
in the preceding table.

These results are interesting as well as instructive.
In the 1909 experiment, soybeans proved themselves
a more profitable crop than cowpeas as shown by the
rate of gain, total pork produced by an acre of corn and
forage, and the cost of the gains. Of the forages tested
in the fall of 1910, rape and pumpkins demonstrated their
superior qualities. This crop was mostly rape since an
average of only forty pumpkins were produced to the
acre. The pigs in this lot made faster and cheaper
gains and produced considerably more pork from an
acre than did those on any of the other forages tested.
The authors say concerning the merits of this crop : " Tak-
ing everything into consideration on this corn-rape-
pumpkin area, — the high yield of corn, the good stand
of rape with a few pumpkins, the special adaptability of
rape as a supplement to corn, the palatability of both
rape and pumpkins combined with the vermifugal or
1 Eward, Kennedy, and Kildee, Bull. 143.

234 Pork Production

worm-expelling properties of the pumpkin seed, and
the succulence of the two crops, — the reasons for the
superiority of this combination are clear." Soybeans gave
good results again in 1919, but the returns from the
Canadian fields pea and the hairy vetch were not a credit
to these crops. The fact that Canadian field peas are
a cool weather crop, requiring a very short growing
season, makes it ill-adapted for planting in corn. The
yield of vetch was luxurious, but the unpalatable nature
of the plant for hogs resulted in insufficient consump-
tion for good gains, and the heavy yield materially
reduced the supply of moisture and plant-food avail-
able for the corn. The authors of the experiment con-
sidered hairy vetch an utter failure for "hogging-down"
purposes.

In 1911 four fields of corn were again "hogged-down,"
two of which only contained forages. Soybeans were
grown in one and rye in the other. The results were
very much in favor of the green rye when supplemented
by the addition of a small quantity of meat-meal. The
large amount of pork produced by an acre of the corn and
rye forage was in part the result of the smaller yield of
corn in the lot containing the soybeans. The pigs receiv-
ing no supplement, either in the form of a forage or a
concentrate, made extremely unsatisfactory gains. The
lot which received approximately 10 per cent as much
meat-meal daily as it ate of corn gained nearly three
times as rapidly, and from the same area of corn pro-
duced more than double the quantity of pork. It is
apparently just as necessary properly to supplement
standing corn as it is corn fed in the ordinary way. The
effect of growing the forage in with the corn on the yield
of corn is also suggested by these results.

Hogging-down Corn

235

The method and rate of planting, and the actual cost
of growing the forage crops tested in these experiments,
are shown in the following table :

TABLE LXXXV. — ACRE COST OF GROWING FORAGE SUPPLE-
MENTS *

SUPPLEMEN-
TARY CROPS

YEAR
USED

WHEN PLANTED

RATE OF
SEEDING,
LB.

CROP CHARGES

Seed

Seeding

Total

Dwarf Essex

1910

Last cultiva-

rape

tion

$.24

$.16

$.40

Rape and

1910

Rape, last

pumpkins

cultivation,

R. .24

.41

1.00

pumpkins

P. .35

after corn

was up

Winter rye

1911

Drilled in

after last

136.5

2.73

.60

3.33

cultivation

Soybeans

1909

Drilled, corn-

1910

planting

45.5

2.73

.60

3.33

1911

time

Cowpeas

1909

Drilled, corn-

1910

planting

45.5

2.73

.60

3.33

time

Canadian

1910

Drilled, corn-

field peas

planting

60.

3.00

.60

3.60

time

Hairy vetch

1910

Drilled, corn-

planting

45.

5.40

.60

6.00

time

The best forage crop to grow for supplementing corn
which is to be hogged-off must be decided by each feeder
for himself after considering his general scheme of manage-
ment and the forages of proved value best adapted to his
soil and climate. For sowing in corn, the above experi-
ments give rape and rye high valuations for conditions
similar to those of central Iowa. Farther south soybeans
1 Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 143.

236 Pork Production

and cowpeas will undoubtedly give better results than
in these trials.

Whether or not it is better to grow the forage in with
the corn or adjacent to it, is a point undetermined. Much
depends on the particular conditions. A well-balanced
rotation for the farm will ordinarily provide sufficient
clover or other legume to make seeding in with the corn
unnecessary.

FIELD MANAGEMENT

Pigs which have been receiving all the grain they will
eat should be accustomed gradually to new corn and full
feeding before they are turned into the standing corn.
This is especially true if much of the corn is down and
the pigs are well grown. Ordinarily, the corn should be
well dented before hogging-down begins.

Well-grown shotes farrowed in the spring are best
adapted to this method of feeding, and they will gain
faster and clean up the corn more thoroughly if they are
not fat when turned in. Gilts intended for the breeding
herd should be watched closely and removed before there
is evidence of over-fatness. Brood sows which are not
nursing fall pigs may be used to advantage for cleaning
up after the shotes, or for breaking down the corn for
pigs which are too light to do this for themselves. They
should not, however, be allowed to become so heavy that
their breeding qualities are impaired.

The acreage of corn to set aside for hogging-off will be
determined chiefly by the number and size of the pigs and
the yield of the corn. No larger area should be planned
than can be thoroughly eaten before the bad weather of
early winter sets in. This will mean a grazing period of
fifty to sixty days on the average. Some farmers believe

Hogging-down Corn

237

in limiting the area grazed at one time so that each field
is cleaned up in fifteen to twenty days. Although this
means more labor and expense for fencing, experience
favors the method, especially when the season is wet and
the soil sticky. In a dry fall, there is thought to be little
gained by confining the pigs to limited areas for short
periods. Twenty-six-inch woven wire set on light posts
which may be driven two rods apart will usually be the
most economical and satisfactory method of temporarily
fencing the areas used.

The following table l gives the approximate number of
days required to hog-off an acre of corn by a given num-
ber of 125-pound pigs.

TABLE LXXXVI. — SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF
DAYS REQUIRED TO HOG-OFF AN ACRE OF CORN BY A GIVEN
NUMBER OF PIGS WEIGHING 125 POUNDS

WITH CORN SHRUNK TO JAN. 1 AND YIELDING

NUMBER OF

AVERAGE
WEIGHTS

PIGS

OP PIG

Bu.

per

Acre

Will keep 10

Ib.

days

pigs . .

125

22.5

26.2

33.7

37.5

41.2

45.0

48.7

52.5

Will keep 20

pigs . .

125

11.2

13.1

16.8

18.7

20.6

22.5

24.3

26.2

Will keep 30

pigs . .

125

7.5

8.7

11.2

12.5

13.7

15.0

16.2

17.5

Will keep 40

pigs . .

125

5.6

6.5

7.5

8.4

9.3

10.3

11.2

13.2

14.1

Will keep 50

pigs . .

125

4.5

5.2

6.0

6.7

7.5

8.2

9.0

9.7

10.5

Will keep 60

pigs . .

125

3.7

4.4

5.0

5.6

6.2

6.8

7.5

8.1

8.7

Will keep 70

pigs . .

125

3.2

3.7

4.3

4.8

5.3

5.8

6.4

6.9

7.5

Will keep 80

pigs . .

125

2.8

3.3

3.7

4.2

4.6

5.1

5.6

6.1

6.5

1 Gaumnitz, Wilson, and Bassett, Bull. 104, Minn. Exp. Sta.

238

Pork Production

The carrying capacity of an acre of corn as given by
the Iowa Experiment Station 1 is somewhat greater than
that estimated above, as shown in the following table :

TABLE LXXXVII. — CARRYING CAPACITY OF AN ACRE OP
STANDING CORN

Average weight of pigs at the beginning, 125-150 Ib.

BUSHELS TO
THE ACRE

30 DAYS

60 DAYS

90 DAYS

120 DAYS

14-15

6-7

4-5

18-19

8-9

5-6

21-22

10-11

6-7

4-5

26-27

12-13

7-8

5-6

In order that the pigs make satisfactory gains, they
must be supplied with water that is pure and easily
accessible. Portable sanitary watering devices are espe-
cially convenient when the field is not within easy distance
of the barn. Also, the pigs must have a comfortable
place to sleep in order to do well. With no protection,
a chilly rain in the late fall will undo a week's feeding.
Movable cots or temporarily constructed sheds may be
provided at little expense of time or labor. Although
a labor saver, the hogging-down method of feeding
requires that constant attention be given to the essentials
of good care and management if best results are to be
obtained.

1 Eward, Kennedy, and Kildee, Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 143.

CHAPTER XI

FATTENING PIGS IN THE DRY LOT (THE
USE OF NITROGENOUS OR PROTEIN SUP-
PLEMENTS)

BEFORE the pig crop is ready for market, a more or less
extensive period of dry lot feeding is usually necessary.
Early spring pigs which have been liberally fed during
the summer on good forage crops, or those which have
" hogged-down " corn until December, usually have the
weight and condition which make a long feed unnecessary.
Pigs which have been farrowed late, on the other hand,
and have received little grain during the summer, require
a rather extended period of dry lot feeding before attain-
ing the weight and finish desired by the market. The
average spring pig does not reach market until December
or January, which means a feeding period of sixty to
ninety days.

One of the easiest classes of live-stock on the farm to
feed successfully is the well-known pig which is being
fattened for market. The problem of accomplishing this
most economically is rendered complex only by the great
variety of feeds available and the variations which occur
from year to year in the price of these feeds.

The most profitable ration to feed in any year should be
determined ordinarily by the supply and price of home-
grown grains and the availability and cost of the different
nitrogenous or protein supplements on the market.
Usually, although not always, corn or some other home-

239

240 Pork Production

grown grain should be used as the basis of the fattening
ration. Although these dry-lot fed pigs have the age
which makes their requirements for protein and mineral
matter less than during the summer, their demands for
growing constituents are nevertheless greater than can
be supplied by corn or any other grain alone. A ration
that is both cheap and balanced is necessary to insure
economical gains and a quick market finish.

In dry lot feeding, the supply of protein with which to
balance the home-grown grains must be obtained largely
in the form of commercial by-products, known generally
as nitrogenous or protein supplements. Owing to the
increasing use of grain for human consumption and the
higher prices for pork products, these feeds have assumed
a position of much greater importance than formerly
when prices were lower. The necessity of feeding a
supplement with the grains has been determined by
numerous experimental studies at the state experiment
stations, as well as by the accumulated experiences of
practical feeders.

DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS

The by-products of the dairy are more highly prized
by hog-men than perhaps any other form of protein
supplement. The value of skim-milk and buttermilk
is such as to make pork production a valuable adjunct
to profitable dairying when either of these products are
available for swine feeding. Although 100 pounds of
skim-milk or buttermilk contain less than 10 pounds of
dry matter, this latter is so rich in easily digested proteins
and mineral constituents of the kinds needed as to make
them unusually efficient as means of balancing the grains.

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

241

In the table below are summarized the results of seven
feeding experiments in which rations of corn and skim-
milk or buttermilk were compared with rations of corn
alone. In two of the experiments, those at South Dakota
and Ohio, the pigs in both lots had access to a blue-grass
pasture, which resulted in a better showing for the lots
fed corn alone than would have been the case if they had
been confined to dry lots. In the other five, all lots were
fed in dry yards. These results represent work from
seven different stations and involved the use of a total of
106 pigs averaging a little over 100 pounds when the
experiments began.

TABLE LXXXVIII. — SUMMARY : CORN ALONE VERSUS CORN
AND SKIM-MILK OR BUTTERMILK* (Av. 7 Exps.)

AVERAGE DAILY
RATION

TOTAL
NUMBER
OF PIGS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
FINAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FEED TO PRODUCE
100 LB. GAIN

5.09 corn

ft.

106.42

Ib.

184.61

Ib.

1.04

Ib.

492.88 corn

5.09 corn
12. 58 buttermilk
and skim-milk

108.38

229.46

1.66

302.07 corn
799. 40 buttermilk
and skim-milk

The sum total of this evidence as expressed in the
summary table gives to skim-milk and buttermilk
unusually high valuations. The fifty-three pigs which
received either skim-milk or buttermilk with their corn
gained 59.61 per cent faster than did those receiving corn
alone. This was sufficient to effect a saving of 36 days

1 Ind. Exp. Sta. Bull. 137 ; S. Dak. Exp. Sta. Bull. 136 ; Dem.
Exp. St. Joseph Stock Yds. Co. ; Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 209 ;
Neb. Exp. Sta. Bull. 107; N. H. Exp. Sta. Bull. 113; Tex. Exp.
Sta. Bull. 131.

242 Pork Production

in the time required to produce 100 pounds of gain. The
average weight at the close of the experiments was 229
pounds for those fed skim-milk or buttermilk, and 184
pounds for those fed corn alone. To have made the
latter as heavy when sold as those fed the milk rations,
it would have been necessary to have continued them
on feed 43 days after the experiments closed.

Not only were the gains faster for those fed milk, but
they were also cheaper. The feeding of 799.4 pounds of
buttermilk or skim-milk resulted in a saving of 190.81
pounds of corn; or in other words, 4.18 pounds of milk
had the equivalent value of 1 pound of corn. On the basis,
then, of the average result of these seven experiments, the
value of skim-milk or buttermilk in reducing the cost of
gains when corn alone is fed would be as shown in the
following table :

TABLE LXXXIX. — MONEY VALUE OP SKIM-MILK OR BUTTER-
MILK WHEN FED WITH CORN TO FATTENING PIGS

When a bushel of corn is worth
100 pounds of skim-milk or
buttermilk are worth . . .

29.9*

35.9*

41.9*

$1.12

47.8*

$1.26
53.8*

$1.40
59.8*

$1.54

71.8*

$1.68

77.7*

According to these valuations, therefore, the price of
a bushel of corn divided by 2.34 will give the value of 100
pounds of skim-milk or buttermilk when fed under these
conditions.

These values, it should be understood, are based entirely
on the saving of corn required to produce a given gain.
They do not include the important additional advantage
of more rapid gains and the earlier market finish which also
resulted from their use. On the other hand, these figures
do not mean that the feeder can necessarily afford to pay

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

243

these prices for skim-milk or buttermilk, since it might
be possible for him to balance his corn more cheaply
by the purchase of a protein supplement in some other
form. He can afford to pay these prices only when there
is no cheaper source of protein available.

In the average ration above, 2.47 pounds of skim-milk
or buttermilk were fed with each pound of corn. If
a larger proportion had been used, the value of the milk
would have been less than is shown by these figures.
On the other hand, if less than 2.47 pounds of milk had
been fed with each pound of corn, a larger credit and a
higher valuation would have resulted.

This principle is illustrated by the results of feeding
trials conducted by Henry 1 at the Wisconsin Experiment
Station. In these experiments a total of 88 pigs, averag-
ing a little more than 100 pounds at the beginning, were
used, with the results shown in the following table :

TABLE XC. — SKIM-MILK AND CORN-MEAL REQUIRED FOR 100
POUNDS OF GAIN BY PIGS

PROPORTION OF SKIM-MILK TO CORN-MEAL

FEED TO
PRODUCE
100 LB. GAIN

MILK TO
REPLACE 2
100 LB. CORN

1# corn with 1 to 3 Ib. milk . . .

Ib.

321 corn
585 milk

Ib.

327

1# corn with 3 to 5 Ib. milk . . .

265 corn
1048 milk

446

1# corn with 5 to 7 Ib. milk . . .

250 corn
1434 milk

574

1# corn with 7 to 9 Ib. milk . . .

207 corn
1616 milk

552

1 Wis. Rpt. 1895 ; Henry and Morrison's " Feeds and Feeding."

2 Figured on the basis that 500 Ib. of corn alone would have
been required to produce 100 Ib. of gain.

244

Pork Production

The smaller the proportion of milk fed with the corn,
the greater was its value a pound.

From 2 to 3 pounds of milk to 1 pound of corn are
required to make the ration balanced and most pro-
ductive of rapid gains for growing and fattening pigs.
However, when the supply of milk is abundant and cheap,
a larger proportion than 3 to 1 will often be profitable,
especially when grain is scarce and high in price. When
the supply of milk is limited, however, smaller proportions
will be necessary and will give, as a rule, the most eco-
nomical results, especially when grain is abundant and
relatively cheap.

Buttermilk versus skim-milk.

As indicated by the following table showing the average
composition of buttermilk and skim-milk, one would
expect them to be equally efficient as supplements to the
ordinary grains in pig feeding.

TABLE XCI. — COMPOSITION OF BUTTERMILK AND SKIM-MILK 1

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIMENTS IN

TOTAL DRY
MATTER IN
100 LB.

100 LB.

NUTRITIVE
RATIO *

Proteins

Carbo-
hydrates

Fats

Ib.

Buttermilk . .

9.4

3.4

4.9

0.1

1:1.5

Skim-milk . .

9.9

3.6

5.1

0.2

1:1.5

Buttermilk is, as a rule, more variable in composition
and feeding value than is skim-milk, due to the fact that

1 Appendix, Henry and Morrison's " Feeds and Feeding."

2 Determined by dividing the digestible carbohydrates plus
2£ times the digestible fats, by the digestible proteins.

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

245

considerable wash water is often incorporated with it.
The average of all tests, however, indicates that they
are of quite equal feeding value. This is illustrated by
two trials conducted by Wilson at the South Dakota
Experiment Station, the average results of which are
shown in Table XCII.

TABLE XCII. — BUTTERMILK VERSUS SKIM-MILK FOR FATTEN-
ING PlGS1

AVERAGE

RATIONS FED

NUMBER
PIGS

INITIAL
WEIGHT

FINAL
WEIGHT

DAILY
GAIN

FEED TO PRODUCE
100 POUNDS GAIN

PER PIG

Ib.

Corn +

315 corn

buttermilk

92.5

195.5

1.66

864 buttermilk

Corn +

312 corn

skim-milk

92.0

193.5

1.65

859 skim-milk

Skim-milk and buttermilk versus other supplements.

The feeding value of skim-milk was compared with that
of other standard protein supplements in two experiments
conducted at the Indiana Experiment Station by Skinner
and Cochel. The proportion of supplement fed in each
lot was such as to make all rations equally balanced, or
to give them a nutritive ratio of 1 : 7.4. There were five
pigs in each lot in the first experiment, and six in the
second. The results are shown in Table XCIII.

In both experiments skim-milk proved to be the most
efficient and profitable supplement with which to balance
corn. In each case the gains were faster and the cost of
producing 100 pounds of gain cheaper than with any of

1 S. Dak. Exp. Sta. Bull. 136.

246

Pork Production

the other feeds. The gains in the second experiment
were not as satisfactory as in the first because of the
excessive heat in July and also because the pigs in this
experiment had been fed more liberal grain rations pre-
vious to the test.

TABLE XCIII. — SKIM-MILK VERSUS OTHER PROTEIN SUPPLE-
MENTS FOR FATTENING PIGS *

I. — Apr. 10-June 9, 1909 — 60 days

AVERAGE

COST OF

RATIONS

INITIAL
WEIGHT

FINAL

WEIGHT

DAILY
GAIN

FEED TO PRODUCE
100 LB. GAIN

PRODUCING
100 LB.

PER PIG

GAIN 2

ft.

Ib.

8 corn-meal +

333.4 corn

1 linseed-oil meal

112.4

217.4

1.75

4 1.6 linseed-oil meal

$3.63

7 corn-meal +

321.13 corn

1 soybean meal

113.8

223.2

1.82

45.87 soybean meal

$3.57

15 corn-meal -f-

359.07 corn

1 tankage

116.6

226.8

1.83

23.93 tankage

$3.71

1 corn-meal +

180.50 corn

1 middlings

115.4

234.0

1.97

180.50 middlings

$3.88

1 corn-meal +

297 corn

li skim-milk

113.6

235.2

2.02

445 skim-milk

$3.56

II. — June 19-Aug. 18, 1908 — 60 days

8 corn-meal +

400 corn

1 soybean meal

105.6

160

.90

50 soybean meal

$6.16

8 corn-meal -f-

414 corn

1 linseed-oil meal

106.0

165

.98

51 linseed-oil meal

$6.36

1 corn-meal +

267 corn

1$ skim-milk

105.5

211.6

1.76

400 skim-milk

$4.60

1 Ind. Exp. Sta. Bull. 137.

2 Prices charged for feeds were as follows : I. — corn-meal,
$18 a ton ; linseed-oil meal and soybean meal, $30 a ton ; tank-
age, $40 a ton ; middlings, $25 a ton ; skim-milk, 20 cents a hun-
dredweight. II. — corn-meal, 80 cents a bushel ; linseed-oil meal
and soybean meal, $30 a ton ; skim-milk, 25 cents a hundred-
weight.

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

247

At the Ohio Experiment Station,1 two series of experi-
ments were conducted for the purpose of comparing
skim-milk and tankage as supplements to corn, and of
determining the best proportion of skim-milk to feed with
corn. Both trials were under dry Jot conditions. In the
lots where the corn and skim-milk were fed, ad libitum,
the corn was given twice daily and the skim-milk three
times. With each feed they were given all they would
take in two hours. The results of the two trials ara
averaged and appear in Table XCIV.

TABLE XCIV. — DIFFERENT PROPORTIONS OF SKIM-MILK WITH
CORN FOR FATTENING PIGS (Av. 2 Exps.)

RATIONS,
PROPORTIONS
BY WEIGHT

TOTAL

NUM-
BER
PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH

EXPERI-
MENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

AVERAGE FEED
EATEN FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

9 corn
1 tankage

days

Ib,

Ib.
.864

Ib.
369 corn
41 tankage

1 corn
1 skim-milk

1.058

326 corn
326 skim-milk

1 corn
3 skim-milk

1.176

261 corn
789 skim-milk

1 corn
5 skim-milk

1.299

226 corn
1128 skim-milk

Corn and skim-
milk (both
ad lib.)

1.573

185 corn
1445 skim-milk

In each experiment the lots fed the skim-milk made
considerably faster gains than those fed the tankage.

1 Robison, Bull. 316.

248

Pork Production

The larger the proportion of skim-milk given, also, the
more rapid were the gains, but the value of the skim-milk
in reducing the amount of corn required to produce 100
pounds of gain was greatest when the smaller proportions
were fed (see Table XC, page 243). With an abun-
dant and cheap supply of skim-milk available, it would
be profitable to feed the larger proportions.

Skim-milk or buttermilk versus tankage.

Summarizing the results from all the experiments in
which skim-milk or buttermilk were compared with
tankage for fattening pigs, the average results are stated
in Table XCV.

TABLE XCV. — SUMMARY : SKIM-MILK OR BUTTERMILK VER-
SUS TANKAGE AS A SUPPLEMENT TO CORN FOR FATTENING
PIGS (Av. 8 Exps.)

AVERAGE RATION, PROPORTIONS
BY WEIGHT

AVERAGE
DAILY GAIN
PER PIG

FEED EATEN FOR EACH
100 POUNDS GAIN

10.6 corn
1 tankage

Ib.

1.202

Ib.
378.38 corn
35.74 tankage

1 corn
2.6 skim-milk or butter-
milk

1.518

287.20 corn
753.25 skim-milk or but-
termilk

According to these averages, 753.25 pounds of skim-
milk or buttermilk replaced or were equivalent to 91.18
pounds of corn and 35.74 pounds of tankage. As based
on the amount of feed required to produce 100 pounds of
gain, then, skim-milk and tankage would have the relative
values shown in Table XCVI.

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

249

TABLE XCVI. — VALUE OF SKIM-MILK OR BUTTERMILK
AFFECTED BY THE PRICE OF CORN AND TANKAGE

When corn and tank-
age cost ....

Corn 56^
per bushel
Tankage
$40 per
ton

Corn 70f<
per bushel
Tankage
$50 per
ton

Corn 84«f
per bushel
Tankage
$60 per
ton

Corn 98f<
per bushel
Tankage
$70 per
ton

Corn $1.40
per bushel
Tankage
$100 per
ton

Skim-milk or butter-
milk is worth . .

21.6f$ per
cwt.

27.0 i per
cwt.

32 .4 i per

cwt.

37.8 i per
cwt.

54.0?i per
cwt.

These figures mean that, with the above ratio of
prices between corn and tankage, the value of skim-milk
or buttermilk was 10.8 per cent of that of tankage. Or,
stated in another way, 100 pounds of skim-milk or butter-
milk was worth 54 per cent of the value of a ton of tankage
divided by 100.

The above valuations of skim-milk and buttermilk are
wholly determined by the saving effected in the feed
required to produce a unit of gain. They do not include
a valuation of the 26 per cent faster gains made on the
rations containing the dairy products. For this reason,
therefore, skim-milk and buttermilk have somewhat
higher values than shown by these figures.

All the experiments with fattening pigs in the dry lot
tend to show the feeding value of skim-milk and butter-
milk to be out of all proportion to the amount of dry
matter which they furnish. The great merit of these
two products must be assumed to lie, therefore, in the
kind or quality of the proteins and mineral compounds
rather than in their amounts. Their palatability and
digestibility contribute also to their efficiency.

Whey.

As shown in Table XCVII, whey is even more watery
in composition than skim-milk or buttermilk. Further-

250

Pork Production

more, the dry matter which it does carry contains con-
siderably less protein. A pound of skim-milk furnishes
on the average more than four times as much protein
as an equal amount of whey. Due to the differences
in methods employed in the manufacture of cheese, whey
is quite variable in composition and value.

TABLE XCVII. — COMPOSITION OF WHEY COMPARED WITH
SKIM-MILK l

TOTAL DRY
MATTER IN
100 LB.

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN 100 LB.

NUTRITIVE
RATIO

Proteins

Carbohydrates

Fats

Skim-milk

9.9

3.6

5.1

1:1.5

Whey . .

6.6

0.8

4.7

1:6.8

Day of the Ontario Agricultural College conducted two
experiments in which sweet and sour whey, with meal,
was compared with meal alone. The averaged results
of these two trials are shown in Table XCVIII. Two
pounds of whey were fed with 1 pound of meal, which
was made up of shorts, barley, and wheat or peas.

TABLE XCVIII. — WHEY AND MEAL VERSUS MEAL ALONE 2

RATIONS

AVERAGE DAILY
GAIN PER PIG

FEED TO PRODUCE
100 LB. GAIN

Meal alone

Ib.

1.43

Ib.

493.5 meal

Meal + sweet whey ....

1.76

381 meal
860 whey

Meal -f- sour whey

1.78

382 5 meal

818.5 whey

1 Appendix, Henry and Morrison's "Feeds and Feeding."

2 Ont. Agr. Coll. Rpt., 1896.

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot 251

The pigs fed whey gained faster and required less meal
for a given gain than did those given the meal mixture
alone. The results also show that sour whey was as
valuable as sweet.

The quantity of whey required to replace 1 pound of
concentrates in the production of gains with fattening
pigs has been determined by Day 1 at the Ontario Agri-
cultural College and Henry 2 at the Wisconsin Experiment
Station. The figure obtained at the Ontario Station is
the average result of three trials in which 2j to 6 pounds
of whey were fed with each pound of a meal mixture
containing 50 per cent of shorts. The result at the
Wisconsin station is the average of ten trials in which
2 to 10 pounds of whey were fed with each pound of
combination of equal parts corn-meal and shorts. At
the Ontario Station, 9.88 pounds of whey were required
to replace 1 pound of meal. At the Wisconsin Station,
7.58 pounds of whey were required to replace 1 pound
of meal.

The whey used in the Wisconsin trials was reported to
contain more than the average percentage of butter-fat,
which accounts for its higher value. As reported by
Henry and Morrison,3 pig-feeding experiments conducted
at the Copenhagen, Denmark, Experiment Station give
12 pounds of whey the value of 1 pound of mixed grain.
Since 4.18 pounds of skim-milk or buttermilk was shown
to be equivalent to 1 pound of corn, it would seem that
whey has less than one-half the feeding value of skim-
milk or buttermilk.

Two experiments by Day with fattening pigs, covering
periods of 104 and 90 days, showed that ordinary whey

1 Ont. Agr. Coll. Rpt., 1909. 2 Wis. Exp. Sta. Rpt., 1891.

3 "Feeds and Feeding."

252 Pork Production

is on the average 33 per cent more valuable than separated
whey. The same experimenter also proved that pas-
teurized whey was equal to ordinary whey in feeding value.
Due to the fact that whey is not so rich in protein as
skim-milk or buttermilk, it is not so effective in balancing
corn. The best results from feeding whey are obtained,
therefore, when it is combined with a meal or grain
mixture containing more protein than corn alone.

Precautions in feeding dairy products.

Although sour skim-milk is as valuable as sweet, except
for very young pigs, it is important when feeding it in
this condition that its degree of sourness or acidity be
as uniform as possible from day to day. Feeding milk
which is nearly sweet one day and clabber the next is
a common cause of scours, which mean a halt in the gains
and a waste of feed. Also, very much better results may
be expected when the milk is supplied daily at regular
intervals and in uniform amounts. In feeding dairy
products, it is essential for best results that special meas-
ures be taken to keep the pails, cans, and other receptacles
thoroughly clean. Sour, filthy utensils, especially when
combined with careless irregular methods of feeding, may
counteract entirely the beneficial effects of the feeds
themselves.

Dairy by-products should in all cases be subjected to
a high temperature for a sufficient length of time to kill
all disease germs before being fed. In case it is not
required by law, it should be insisted on by the indi-
vidual feeders when the creamery or cheese factory is
patronized. This process, known as pasteurization,1
is especially necessary to guard against tuberculosis in
1 150° F. for twenty minutes, or 185° F. for less time.

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot 253

the pigs fed milk coming from infected herds. Although
the disease, when present, rarely develops to the stage
where detection is possible in the live animal, inspection
after slaughter may result in the condemnation of the
carcass in whole or in part.

At the Iowa Experiment Station,1 80 pigs were divided
into two equal lots and fed for a period of 196 days rations
of grain and skim-milk. Lot I was fed skim-milk con-
taining virulent bacilli of tuberculosis artificially added
and lot II an equal quantity which had been pasteurized
at a temperature of 200° F. At the end of the test, both
lots of pigs appeared equally healthy, although those
receiving the clean milk gained a little faster than those
getting the tubercular milk. The results of the post
mortem inspection, however, were as follows : Of the 40
head fed tubercular skim-milk, all were affected with
tuberculosis; of the 40 head receiving the pasteurized
skim-milk, only two were infected. In the first lot 30 per
cent of the carcasses only were fit for human consumption,
45 per cent were fit only for lard, and 45 per cent were
entirely unfit for food or the making of food products.

This practical test demonstrated conclusively that pigs
fed skim-milk containing the germs of tuberculosis may
in a relatively short time develop the disease sufficiently
to necessitate condemnation of the carcass for food.

Out of a total of 7,343,746 hogs slaughtered under
Government inspection at the Chicago market in 1916,
24,526, or .33 per cent, were condemned for tuberculosis
as inedible.2 It is the general claim of packers that
nearly 1 per cent of all hogs killed are condemned in whole

1 Kennedy, Bobbins, Bouska, Bull. 92.

2 H. R. Smith, Live-stock Commissioner, Chicago Live-stock
Exchange.

254 Pork Production

or in part because of this disease, and, further, that the
greatest loss is among hogs coming from the more highly
developed dairy districts. With the present method of
sale, this loss is borne by the packer, who has no direct
way of protecting himself.

The seriousness of tuberculosis is so threatening to the
live-stock interests as a whole, as well as to human health,
that the hog-raiser is under special obligation to do his
part in helping to control or permanently eradicate the
disease. He can cooperate in this campaign by refusing
to feed unpasteurized milk coming from untested herds.

PACKING-HOUSE BY-PRODUCTS

Next to skim-milk and buttermilk, the by-products
of the slaughter- and packing-house have come to be
regarded by swine-men as of special value and efficiency.
These include tankage or meat-meal, blood-meal or dried
blood, and various combinations of meat scrap and bone.
In the table on the following page is shown the average
composition of the more common feeds of this class.

These products as a class are characterized by the
absence of carbohydrates and by extreme richness in
protein and mineral matter. Compared with corn,
they are the very opposite in composition.

Digester tankage, usually sold under the name of
feeding tankage, tankage, or meat-meal, is the most exten-
sively employed of any of these products. It largely
represents the residue of the grease tanks plus varying
amounts of blood, meat, bone, and the residue from
evaporated tank water. This material is thoroughly
cooked in large tanks under high steam pressure, after
which the water and grease are drawn off and the remain-

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

255

ing contents subjected to hydraulic pressure, then dried
and finely ground. As manufactured by well-equipped
plants, feeding or digester tankage is a high-grade product
very uniform in feeding qualities, and not to be confused
with fertilizer tankage. Feeding tankage manufactured
at small slaughtering establishments and serum plants is
often less uniform in comparison, owing largely to the
varying degree of thoroughness with which the fat or
oil has been removed.

TABLE XCIX. — COMPOSITION OP MEAT AND BONE
PRODUCTS l

FEED

TOTAL DRY
MATTER IN
100 LB.

TOTAL DIGESTIBLE
NUTRIENTS IN 100 LB.

ASH

NUTRI-
TIVE
RATIO

Protein

Carbohy-
drates

Fats

Tankage over 60%

protein . . .

92.6

58.7

12.6

10.5

1:0.5

Tankage 55-60%

protein . . .

92.5

54.0

12.7

13.6

1:0.5

Tankage 45-55%

protein . . .

92.5

48.1

13.7

19.7

1 : 0.6

Tankage below

45% protein

93.5

37.6

16.7

22.6

1: 1.0

Dried blood . .

90.3

69.1

0.9

3.3

1 : 0.03

Meat- and bone-

meal ....

94.0

37.0

11.0

36.8

1 : 0.7

Meat- and bone-

meal ....

93.4

30.9

9.8

45.8

1:0.7

Pork cracklings .

95.0

52.4

32.6

2.3

1: 1.4

Corn ....

89.5

7.5

67.8

4.6

1.5

1 : 10.4

Due to the fact, that tankage is cooked under 40 pounds
steam pressure for several hours, it is to be considered
a strictly sterile product free from disease germs when it
comes from the factory. Being dried to an 8 per cent

1 Appendix, Henry and Morrison's "Feeds and Feeding."

256

Pork Production

moisture basis reduces, also, the chances of contamination
later. The uncooked by-products from slaughterhouses
are to be regarded, on the other hand, as highly dangerous.

Corn alone versus corn and tankage.

Probably no protein feed on the market has been as
extensively studied as has tankage. In Table C are
summarized the results of fifteen individual feeding experi-
ments conducted at six different experiment stations.
Each experiment reported was a test of a combination
of corn and tankage against corn alone when fed in the
dry lot to pigs averaging approximately 138 pounds
when the experiments began. In practically all the tests,
so-called number one tankage, containing from 55 to 60
per cent of protein, was used.

TABLE C. — SUMMARY : CORN ALONE VERSUS CORN AND
TANKAGE OR MEAT-MEAL 1 (Av. 15 Exps.)

AVERAGE DAILY
RATION PER PIG

TOTAL
NUMBER
PIGS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
FINAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FEED EATEN FOR
EACH 100 LB. GAIN

5.94 corn . .

109

Ib.

136.7

Ib.

215.8

Ib.
1.115

Ib.

545.9 corn

6.54 corn .
.705 tank, or
meat-meal

160

138.7

262.1

1.740

380.2 corn
40.2 tank, or
meat-meal

The deficiency of a ration of corn alone was emphati-
cally shown by the result of every one of these practical
feeding tests. The results in both rate and cost of
gain show up in strong contrast when compared with the
balanced combination of corn and tankage.

1 Ind Exp. Sta. Bull. 137 ; Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 91 ; Neb. Exp.
Sta. BuU. 147 ; Mo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 65 ; Kans. Exp. Sta. Bull.
192 ; Ohio Exp. Sta. BuU. 209.

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

257

The averaged results as given in the summary table
show that the pigs fed corn and tankage gained more
than 56 per cent faster than did those fed corn alone,
and were 46 pounds heavier at the close of the average
feeding period. The fact that the pigs fed corn and
tankage ate 1.3 pounds of feed daily in excess of that
consumed when corn alone was fed, testifies to the palata-
bility of this feed.

Not only were the gains faster, but they were also made
on less feed. The feeding of 40.21 pounds of tankage
had the effect of saving an average of 165.74 pounds of
corn. In other words, as fed in these experiments,
1 pound of tankage in the balanced ration had the value
of 4.12 pounds of corn in the ration of corn alone. This
does not include the credit due the tankage for the faster
gains and earlier market finish, but is based alone on the
saving of corn effected in the production of a given gain.
The money value of tankage in reducing the cost of
gains, then, when fed under the average conditions repre-
sented in these experiments, would be as given in the
following table :

TABLE CI. — MONEY VALUE OF TANKAGE OR MEAT-MEAL WHEN
FED WITH CORN TO FATTENING PIGS

When a bushel of

corn is worth .

56jf

70£

84^

98 £

$1.26

$1.40

A ton of tankage

is worth . .

$82.40

$103

$123.60

$144.20

$185.40

$206

If no other supplements were available, the feeder
could afford to pay these extreme prices for the best
grade of tankage rather than feed corn alone. With the

258

Pork Production

competition of other forms of protein supplements on the
market, however, it is not necessary nor wise to pay these
prices. The price one can afford to pay must be deter-
mined by the relative value of tankage and other suitable
supplements. The most direct and satisfactory way of
making this comparison is by the aid of the carefully
conducted practical feeding experiment.

Tankage versus linseed-oil meal.

Direct comparison of tankage and linseed-oil meal
(old process) for finishing pigs in the dry lot has been
made in eight recent experiments. In each test the pigs
were fed to market weights, which required an average of
74 days' feeding. The summarized results of these
studies are shown in Table GIL

TABLE CII. — SUMMARY : TANKAGE VERSUS LINSEED-OIL MEAL

(Av. 8 Exps.) l

AVERAGE RATION, PRO-
PORTIONS BY WEIGHT

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT

PER PlO

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN

PER PlQ

AVERAGE FEED CONSUMED
FOR EACH 100 LB. GAIN

7.6 corn . . .
1 linseed-oil meal

lb.
119

lb.

1.505

lb.

362.52 corn
47.65 linseed-oil meal

15.4 corn
1 tankage . . .

119

1.581

378.82 corn
24.53 tankage

The summarized results show up in favor of the tankage
rations, both in rate of gain and total feed required to pro-
duce a given gain. Furthermore, but little more than half
as much tankage was fed as oil-meal, which permitted the
use of a larger proportion of corn in the tankage rations.

1 Ind. Exp. Sta. Bull. 137 and 126; Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 213;
Neb. Exp. Sta. Bull. 147.

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

259

As calculated from the averaged quantity of corn and
supplement required to produce a unit of gain in these
eight experiments, tankage and linseed-oil meal would have
the following relative money values :

TABLE CUT. — VALUE OF TANKAGE AS AFFECTED BY THE
PRICE OF CORN AND LINSEED-OIL MEAL

Corn 56^

Corn 7Q£

Corn 84£

Corn 98£

Corn $1.40

When corn and lin-
seed-oil meal are

per bushel
Linseed-oil

worth

meal $30

meal $40

meal $45

meal $50

meal $75

per ton

Tankage is worth

$44.98 per
ton

$61.08 per
ton

$67.47 per
ton

$73.86 per
ton

$112.46 per
ton

Tankage versus wheat shorts or middlings.

The problem of choosing between wheat shorts or
middlings and tankage, in obtaining the supply of pro-
tein with which to balance corn for fattening pigs in the
dry lot, is one demanding annual consideration. To
give information regarding the relative efficiency of
these two supplements, the results of six practical feeding
tests are summarized in Table CIV. These experi-
ments covered an average period of 74 days, and the
pigs were generally fed to finished market weights.

These results show that a balanced ration of corn and
tankage was more palatable than one of corn and shorts
or middlings. This was true in every experiment but
one. The pigs fed tankage made average daily gains of
J pound in excess of those given shorts or middlings.
The reliability of these results, however, is affected, no
doubt, by the extreme variation of the proportions in
which the shorts or middlings were fed in the different
experiments. Usually it is necessary to feed 1 part of

260

Pork Production

shorts or middlings to 1 of corn in order to have as much
protein in the ration as is supplied by a combination of 10
parts of corn and 1 of tankage. From the standpoint of
the farmer, that supplement which is richest in protein
and which consequently permits of the use of a larger
proportion of corn in the ration, is always to be preferred.

TABLE CIV. — SUMMARY : TANKAGE VERSUS WHEAT SHORTS
OR MIDDLINGS (Av. 6 Exps.) 1

AVERAGE RATION, PROPOR-
TIONS BY WEIGHT

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN PER
PIG

AVERAGE FEED CONSUMED
FOR EACH 100 LB. GAIN

63.2 % corn ....
36.8 % shorts or mid-
dlings . .

Ib.

115

Ib.

1.396

Ib.
272.12 corn
158.36 shorts or mid-
dlings

90.5 % corn ....
9.5 % tankage . .

115

1.570

352.37 corn
36.79 tank

The relative values of tankage and shorts or middlings
as determined by the average quantity of these feeds re-
quired to produce 100 pounds of gain, are calculated and
shown in Table CV.

TABLE CV. — VALUE OF TANKAGE AS AFFECTED BY THE PRICE
OF CORN AND WHEAT SHORTS OR MIDDLINGS

When corn and shorts
or middlings are
worth

Corn 56
per bushel
Shorts $25
per ton

Corn 70*<
per bushel
Shorts $30
per ton

Corn 84t
per bushel
Shorts $40
per ton

Corn 981
per bushel
Shorts $45
per ton

Corn $1.40
per bushel
Shorts $60
per ton

Tankage is worth .

$63.98 per
ton

$74.60 per
ton

$106.74 per
ton

$11 7.34 per
ton

$149.20 per
ton

1 Ind. Exp. Sta. Bull. 137 ; Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 213 and 209;
Kans. Exp. Sta. Bull. 192 ; Neb. Exp. Sta. Bull. 147.

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

261

Corn and tankage versus corn, shorts, and tankage.

Although tankage is proved to be a more efficient
supplement to corn than shorts or middlings, and more
economical with the usual prices, a combination of tank-
age and shorts is superior to tankage alone. Three experi-
ments conducted by Weaver at the Missouri Experiment
Station and three by Wright at the Kansas Station give
rather conclusive evidence in support of this. In all
these tests the two rations were fed to fattening pigs in
the dry lot, and the experiments closed when approximate
market weights had been attained. The summarized
results of these six experiments, which covered an average
period of 63 days, are shown in Table CVI.

TABLE CVI. — SUMMARY : CORN AND TANKAGE VERSUS CORN,
SHORTS, AND TANKAGE 1 (Av. 6 Exps.)

RATIONS PBOPORTIONS BY
WEIGHT

AVERAGE DAILY
GAIN PER PIG

FEED CONSUMED FOR
100 LB. GAIN

91.15% corn .

Ib.

411 65 corn

8.85% tankage ....

1.560

40.01 tankage

67.03% corn . . .

293 01 corn

25.39% shorts ....
7.58% tankage ....

1.793

111.02 shorts
33.14 tankage

The pigs fed an average of 25 per cent of shorts with
corn and tankage gained daily .23 of a pound faster than
those not receiving shorts. In each of the six tests the
consumption of feed was greater and the gains faster
with the former ration. In the corn and tankage ration,
a total of 451.66 pounds of feed was required to pro-
duce 100 pounds of gain, and in the corn, shorts, and

i Mo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 144 ; Kans. Exp. Sta. Bull. 192.

262

Pork Production

tankage ration, a total of 437.17 pounds. As determined
by the feed required to produce 100 pounds of gain,
111 pounds of shorts were equal to 118.6 pounds of corn
and 6.87 pounds of tankage.

The rations containing shorts could, no doubt, have
been made cheaper without sacrificing palatability or
balance, by increasing somewhat the proportion of corn
and reducing that of shorts.

Tankage versus soybean meal.

Eight experiments conducted at four experiment
stations give information regarding the relative values
of tankage and soybean meal when fed to balance corn
for fattening pigs. In each of the tests here summarized,
the corn was fed as meal and the soybeans ground. The
experiments covered an average period of 70 days. A
compilation of the results obtained is shown in the sum-
mary, Table CVII. .

TABLE CVII. — SUMMARY : TANKAGE VERSUS SOYBEAN MEAL

(Av. 8 Exps.)1

AVERAGE RATION, PROPOR-
TION BY WEIGHT

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN PER
PIG

FEED CONSUMED FOR
EACH 100 LB. GAIN

79.8% corn ....
20.2% soybean meal .

tb.
121

Ib.

1.435

Ib.

346.74 corn
69.92 soybean meal

87.8% corn ....
12.2% tankage . . .

122

1.590

348.08 corn
42.50 tankage

The pigs fed an average of 12 per cent tankage in their
ration gained faster than those receiving a ration con-

i Ind. Exp. Sta. Bull. 137 ; Ohio Exp. Sta. Bulls. 209 and 213 ;
Kans. Exp. Sta. Bull. 192 ; Ky. Exp. Sta. Bull. 175.

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

263

taining 20 per cent of soybean meal. This was true in
every experiment but one, in which the gains were prac-
tically the same. Since tankage contains nearly double
the quantity of protein, 1 pound of tankage is about as
effective as 2 pounds of soybean meal in balancing a
corn ration. As a rule in these experiments, tankage
proved to be the more palatable.

In feed required to produce 100 pounds of gain, 42.5
pounds of tankage and 1.34 of corn were equivalent to
69.92 pounds of soybean meal. This would give for
tankage and soybean meal the relative values shown
in Table CVIII.

TABLE CVIII. — VALUE OF TANKAGE AS AFFECTED BY PRICE
OF CORN AND SOYBEANS

When corn and soy-
bean meal are
worth

Corn 56^
per bushel
Soybean
meal $30
per ton

Corn 70i
per bushel
Soybean
meal $40
per ton

Corn 84£
per bushel
Soybean
meal $45
per ton

Corn 98£
per bushel
Soybean
meal $50
per ton

Corn $1.40
per bushel
Soybean
meal $75
per ton

Tankage is worth .

$48.72 per
ton

$65.02 per
ton

$73.08 per
ton

$81.16 per
ton

$121.81 per
ton

Summary.

The sum total of all the experimental evidence con-
sidered in the preceding pages supports the conclusion
that high-grade tankage or meat-meal stands next to
skim-milk as a supplement to corn for fattening pigs
in the dry lot. For feeding pigs on forage there is every
reason to believe that its relative efficiency is as great.
Like skim-milk tankage is an animal food, and chemists
have determined that the proteins contained in animal
foods comprise a more suitable combination of muscle-
building constituents than is contained, as a rule, in the

264 Pork Production

proteins from vegetable sources. Another reason why
tankage is highly efficient for balancing corn is because
of its extreme richness in ash or bone-building material.
Furthermore, a large part of this ash is calcium or lime,
which is present in very meager amounts in corn. Tank-
age is a mild laxative when fed in small amounts and tends
to promote a healthful condition generally.

LINSEED-OIL MEAL

Linseed-oil meal is the ground residue after the oil
has been extracted from flaxseed. There are two methods
of removing this oil, known as the old and the new process.
Woll 1 describes the methods of manufacture as follows :
"By the former method the cleaned and ground seeds
are placed in large linen bags and subjected to heavy
pressure until the residue forms cakes about one inch
thick and about 13 by 32 inches. The cakes are broken
into small pieces or ground to a fine meal, usually the
latter, which is generally sold as old-process linseed-oil
meal, or simply oil meal. In the new process of manu-
facture the flaxseed is ground, and heated to about 160° F.,
and is then placed in large percolators which hold about
1000 bushels or more. The seed is treated repeatedly
with naphtha until practically all the oil is dissolved.
Live steam is then introduced into the percolators and
the naphtha gradually driven out of the mass. The meal
is transferred to steam-heated driers, and, when dried,
elevated to the meal bins and sacked."

There is little difference in the value of these feeds
suggested by the figures given in the composition table.
The chief difference is that the old-process meal contains

1 "Productive Feeding of Farm Animals."

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

265

about 4 per cent more fat than the new process. Old-
process meal, however, is much the more popular and
generally used feed. In practically all the experiments
here reported, the old-process meal was employed.

TABLE CIX. — COMPOSITION OF OLD AND NEW PROCESS
LINSEED-OIL MEAL*

TOTAL DRY
MATTER IN
100 LB.

TOTAL DIGESTIBLE
NUTRIENTS IN 100 LB.

ASH

NUTRITIVE
RATIO

Protein

Carbo-
hydrates

Fats

Old-process
linseed-oil meal

Ib.

90.9

Ib.

30.2

Ib.
32.6

Ib.
6.7

Ib.

5.4

1:1.6

New-process
linseed-oil meal

90.4

31.7

37.9

2.8

5.6

1:1.4

Corn alone versus corn and linseed-oil meal.

In Table CX are shown the summarized results of
four experiments in which rations of corn alone were fed
against corn with linseed-oil meal added. The tests
were conducted under dry-lot conditions and covered
an average period of 90 days.

TABLE CX. — SUMMARY : CORN ALONE VERSUS CORN AND
LINSEED-OIL MEAL (Av. 4 Exps.)

AVERAGE RATION,
PROPORTIONS BY
WEIGHT

TOTAL
NUMBER
PIGS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FEED EATEN FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

Corn alone . .

Ib.
115

Ib.

.916

Ib.
532.82 corn

6.6 corn,
1 linseed-oil meal

117

1.453

357. 12 corn
54.42 linseed-oil meal

1 Appendix, Henry .and Morrison's " Feeds and Feeding."

266

Pork Production

Balancing the corn with linseed-oil meal had the effect
of enhancing the palatability of the ration, increasing
the consumption of feed, and in stimulating more rapid
gains. The pigs fed linseed-oil meal with their corn
were on the average 50 pounds heavier at the end of the
average feeding period of 90 days.

A unit of gain was also made on less feed. The feeding
of 54.42 pounds of linseed-oil meal had the effect of saving
175.70 pounds of corn. With corn worth 56 cents a,
bushel, this would mean a valuation of $64.56 for a ton
of linseed-oil meal when fed under the conditions of these
experiments. An exaggerated value, however, is given
to linseed-oil meal by this method of determination. A
more reliable test is obtained by comparing it with other
protein supplements of the same class.

Linseed-oil meal versus tankage.

On page 258 is given a summarized statement of the
results of eight practical feeding experiments in which
rations of corn and linseed-oil meal were compared with
those of corn and tankage. As determined by the amount
of feed required to produce 100 pounds of gain in these
experiments, the money value of linseed-oil meal would
be as shown in Table CXI.

TABLE CXI. — VALUE OF LINSEED-OIL MEAL AS AFFECTED BY
THE PRICE OF CORN AND TANKAGE

When corn and tank-
age are worth . .

Corn 56£
per bushel
Tankage
$40 per
ton

Corn 70t
per bushel
Tankage
$50 per
ton

Corn 84fS
per bushel
Tankage
$60 per
ton

Corn 98j5
per bushel
Tankage
$70 per
ton

Corn $1.40
per bushel
Tankage
$100 per
ton

Linseed-oil meal is
worth

$27.43 per
ton

$34.29 per
ton

$41.14 per
ton

$48.00 per
ton

$68.58 per
ton

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

267

To balance a corn ration, 1 pound of tankage will go
nearly as far as 2 pounds of linseed-oil meal. In the
above experiments the following average proportions
by weight were fed : 7.6 parts corn to 1 of linseed-oil
meal and 15.4 parts of corn to 1 of tankage.

Linseed-oil meal versus wheat shorts or middlings.

The feeding qualities of linseed-oil meal as compared
with shorts or middlings have been studied in six different
experiments. Only those in which the shorts rations
were fed in the proportion of one or more parts of shorts
or middlings to two of corn are included, since a smaller
amount does not furnish a well-balanced ration. The
results of these experiments, which were all with fatten-
ing pigs in the dry lot, are summarized in Table CXII.

TABLE CXII. — SUMMARY: LINSEED-OIL MEAL VERSUS WHEAT
SHORTS OR MIDDLINGS (Av. 6 Exps.) l

AVERAGE RATION, PROPOR-
TIONS BY WEIGHT

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN PER
PIG

AVERAGE FEED EATEN PER
100 LB. GAIN

1.13 corn
1 middlings . . .

Ib.
110

Ib.

1.286

Ib.

238.45 corn
201.59 middlings

5.33 corn
1 linseed-oil meal

109

1.564

325. 16 corn
60.98 linseed-oil meal

With but one exception, the pigs in these experiments
given the average ration of 5.33 parts of corn to 1 of
linseed-oil meal ate more feed and gained faster than
those fed the average ration of 1.13 parts of corn to 1 of

*Ind. Exp. Sta. Bull. 137; Mo. Exp. Sta. Bulls. 65 and
67 ; Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 213.

268

Pork Production

middlings. The pigs eating the former ration made a
daily gain of more than J pound in excess of that gained
by the pigs fed the middlings.

Another important advantage of linseed-oil meal
over shorts or middlings was that a larger proportion of
the ration was corn. In order to supply as much protein
as was contained in the ration of 5 parts corn and 1 part
of linseed-oil meal, it would be necessary to feed 1 pound
of shorts or middlings with each pound of corn.

A smaller amount of total feed was consumed in the
production of a given gain, also, with the linseed-oil meal
ration than with the ration containing middlings. Based
on the feed required to produce 100 pounds of gain, as
given in the summary table, linseed-oil meal would have
the valuations shown in Table CXIII.

TABLE CXIII. — VALUE OF LINSEED-OIL MEAL AS AFFECTED
BY THE PRICE OF CORN AND WHEAT SHORTS OR MIDDLINGS

When corn and mid-
dlings are worth .

Corn 56f(
per bushel
Middlings
$25 per
ton

Corn 7Qt
per bushel
Middlings
$30 per
ton

Corn 84^
per bushel
Middlings
$40 per
ton

Corn 98*<
per bushel
Middlings
$45 per
ton

Corn $1.40
per bushel
Middlings
$60 per
ton

Linseed-oil meal is
worth

$55. 18 per
ton

$64.85 per
ton

$91.04 per
ton

$100.71 per
ton

$129.70 per
ton

If the addition of shorts or middlings to a ration of
corn and tankage has the effect of improving its value
and efficiency, there is reason to believe that a combina-
tion of corn, shorts or middlings, and linseed-oil meal
would be an improvement over corn and linseed-oil meal
alone, although there is no evidence except general expe-
rience to support it. A ration of 8 parts of corn, 2 parts
shorts or middlings, and 1 part linseed-oil meal, by weight,

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

269

would probably stimulate more rapid and as cheap
gains as one of 6 parts corn and 1 of linseed-oil meal.

Linseed-oil meal versus soybean meal (ground soybeans) .

The Indiana and Ohio experiment stations have con-
ducted four experiments in which rations of corn and
linseed-oil meal were compared with rations of corn and
soybean meal. Although soybeans have not been used
extensively as a supplement to corn for fattening pigs
in the dry lot, the results of these practical feeding tests
would indicate their value when available for feeding
purposes. Soybean is a legume and offers a most valuable
source of home-grown protein in many sections of the
United States. A tabulation of the results of these
experiments is summarized in Table CXIV.

TABLE CXIV. — SUMMARY : LINSEED-OIL MEAL VERSUS
SOYBEAN MEAL (Av. 4 Exps.) l

AVERAGE RATION, PROPOR-
TIONS BT WEIGHT

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN PER
PIG

FEED CONSUMED FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

5.8 corn
1 soybeans ....

Ib.

105

Ib.

1.435

Ib.

320.81 corn
55.04 soybeans

6.1 corn
1 linseed-oil meal . .

105

1.410

339.93 corn
54 96 linseed-oil meal

These results indicate that a ton of ground soybeans
has practically the same value as a ton of linseed-oil meal.

Summary.

The results of all the experimental studies in which

linseed-oil meal has been fed in comparison with the

1 Ind. Exp. fcta. Bulls. 126 and 137; Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 213.

270 Pork Production

other standard protein supplements would indicate that
it occupies a position next to tankage in feeding value.
In most cases the rations of corn and linseed-oil meal did
not prove so palatable nor so productive of rapid gains as
did those of corn and skim-milk or corn and tankage.
Generally, the feed cost of producing a unit of gain,
also, was greater with the linseed-oil meal rations. Lin-
seed-oil meal and soybean meal were shown to have prac-
tically equal value. Compared with rations of corn and
wheat shorts or middlings, the linseed-oil meal and corn
rations ordinarily proved more efficient in stimulating
rapid and cheaper gains.

In addition to supplying needed proteins, linseed-oil
meal is a natural laxative. In the absence of wheat
bran or succulent feeds, it possesses large value when fed
in small quantities to brood sows, boars, and gilts. Be-
cause of its regulative properties, its value for breeding
stock generally is probably much greater than when
measured solely by fattening experiments.

BY-PKODUCTS FROM THE MANUFACTURE OF WHEAT FLOUR

In the manufacture of flour from wheat, enormous quanti-
ties of by-products become annually available for feeding
purposes. Excepting bran and screenings, these feeds are
more generally fed to swine than to other classes of stock.

Wheat bran represents the outer and woody coat of
the wheat berry plus small and varying quantities of
adhering flour particles. The bran manufactured in the
modern flour mill is more flaky, lighter in weight, and
more free of starch or flour particles than that coming from
mills where the separation of the white flour is less com-
plete. Standard wheat middlings or shorts represent the

PLATE VII. — Above, Pigs on the self-feeder; below, A practical
convenience in hand-feeding.

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

271

finer parts of the bran layers together with considerable
amounts of adhering starch or flour grains. Brown mid-
dlings is a term sometimes employed also to designate this
feed. Red-dog or dark feeding flour comprises the germ
of the wheat, considerable flour, and small quantities of
fine bran. It is low grade flour. So-called white or flour
middlings represent a product intermediate in grade be-
tween standard middlings or shorts and red dog flour ;
that is, it contains less bran and more flour than the
former, and less flour and more bran than the latter. It
is equivalent to a mixture of the two. Shipstuffs, some-
times designated wheat mixed feed, is a collective name
for the entire and ungraded mill run, all the by-products
being run together. Wheat screenings are the weed
seeds, shrunken and broken kernels obtained in the pro-
cess of cleaning and grading wheat preparatory to milling.
In Table CXV is shown the average composition of
each of these by-products, together with that of corn
for the purpose of comparison.

TABLE CXV. — COMPOSITION OP WHEAT FLOUR
BY-PRODUCTS l

FEED

TOTAL DRY
MATTER IN
100 LB.

TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRI-
ENTS IN 100 LB.

ASH

NUTRI-
TIVE
RATIO

Protein

Cabohy-
drates

Fats

Bran ....

89.9
89.6

89.3

88.9
89.8
89.5

12.5
13.4

15.7
14.8
9.6
7.5

41.6
46.2

52.8
56.5
47.3
67.8

3.0
4.3

4.3
3.5
3.6
4.6

6.3
4.4

3.7

2.5
3.9

1.5

1:3.9
1:4.2

1:4.0
1:4.4
1: 5.8
1 : 10.4

Standard mid-
dlings (shorts) .
White or flour
middlings . .
Red-dog flour . .
Screenings . . .
Corn

1 Appendix, Henry and Morrison's "Feeds and Feeding.'

272 Pork Production

As a class, these by-products contain much smaller
proportions of protein to carbohydrates and fats than
does skim-milk or buttermilk, tankage, or linseed-oil
meal. They occupy an intermediate position between
the carbonaceous grains on the one hand and the more
concentrated and richer protein or nitrogenous feeds
on the other. The quantity of these which it is neces-
sary to feed, consequently, in order successfully to balance
corn is considerably greater than when the richer protein
feeds are used. Bran and middlings or shorts are high
in their content of ash or mineral matter. The particular
kinds of mineral elements supplied, however, are not the
ones most needed to make up for the mineral deficiencies
of corn. They are not so valuable as bone-making feeds,
therefore, as their composition might suggest.

Standard wheat middlings or shorts are the most exten-
sively employed of any of these by-products for fattening
pigs. It is a feed which the successful swine grower is
rarely without. Wheat bran is better suited to breeding
stock than to growing or fattening pigs. Its bulk and
laxative properties make it especially valuable when used
as a part of the winter rations for the brood sows and boars.
For young pigs and fattening shotes, it is too bulky to be
economical or productive of rapid gains. Screenings also
contain more fiber than pigs can accommodate successfully.

The practical value of wheat shorts or middlings as a
furnisher of protein with which to balance corn for fatten-
ing pigs is shown by the results of six experiments
summarized in Table CXVI. In each test one lot of pigs
was fed corn alone, and a second similar lot shorts or
middlings in the average proportion of 1 pound of the
supplement to 1.39 pounds of corn. The feeding periods
lasted an average of 81 days.

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

273

TABLE CXVI. — SUMMARY : CORN ALONE VERSUS CORN AND
WHEAT SHORTS 'OR MIDDLINGS (Av. 6 Exps.) L

AVERAGE RATION
PROPORTIONS BY
WEIGHT

TOTAL
NUMBER
PIGS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FEED EATEN FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

Corn ....

Ib.

108

Ib.
.797

Ib.

554.68 corn

1.39 corn . . .
1 shorts or mid-
dlings . . .

105

1.156

258.18 corn
184.76 shorts or mid-
dlings

In every instance in which the shorts or middlings were
fed, the gains were faster and the total feed requirement
for producing 100 pounds of gain less. Here again are
demonstrated the deficiencies of a ration of corn alone
for well-grown fattening pigs. For producing 100 pounds
of gain, 184.76 pounds of shorts or middlings effected
a saving of 296.50 pounds of corn. That is, this quantity
of shorts or middlings fed in the balanced ration replaced
or was the equivalent of 296.50 pounds of corn fed in the
corn-alone ration. The value of the shorts or middlings
in reducing the cost of gains compared with that of corn
alone, then, would be as shown in Table CXVII.

TABLE CXVII. — MONEY VALUE OF WHEAT SHORTS OR MID-
DLINGS WHEN FED WITH CORN TO FATTENING PIGS

When corn cost . .

56^ per
bushel

70ff per
bushel

84^ per
bushel

98jf per
bushel

$1.40 per
bushel

Wheat shorts or mid-
dlings are worth .

$32.08 per
ton

$40.11 per
ton

$47.98 per
ton

$56.17 per
ton

$80.24 per
ton

1 Neb. Exp. Sta. Bull. 107 ; Ohio Exp. Sta. Bulls. 209 and
213; Mo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 65; Ind. Exp. Sta. Bull. 108.

274

Pork Production

These figures indicate that one could afford to pay these
prices rather than feed corn alone. Owing to the fact,
however, that other protein supplements are available on
the market, the real money value of shorts or middlings
is dependent on the prices of the feeds with which they
must compete.

Shorts or middlings versus skim-milk or buttermilk.

At four experiment stations, feeding trials have been
conducted in which rations of corn and shorts or middlings
were compared with those of corn and skim-milk or
buttermilk for fattening pigs in the dry lot. In each
trial the corn was fed as a meal and in the form of a slop.
The summarized results from these experiments are
shown in Table CXVIII.

TABLE CXVIII. — SUMMARY : WHEAT SHORTS OR MIDDLINGS
VERSUS SKIM-MILK OR BUTTERMILK (Av. 4 Exps.) x

AVERAGE

AVERAGE RATION, PRO-
PORTIONS, BT WEIGHT

NUMBER

INITIAL
WEIGHT

DAILY
GAIN

FEED EATEN FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

PER PIG

Ib.

1 corn

249 56 corn

2.15 skim-milk or

buttermilk .

99.0

1.867

536 91 milk

1. 12 corn ....

234.28 corn

1 middlings . . .

101.2

1.260

208.38 middlings

In each case the milk ration proved the more palatable
and productive of rapid gains. The pigs receiving skim-
milk or buttermilk gained daily .6 of a pound faster and

1 Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 209 ; Mo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 79 ; Pa. Exp.
Sta. Bull. 9 ; Ind. Exp. Sta. Bull. 137.

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

275

weighed nearly 50 pounds heavier at the close of the
experiments.

The amount of feed required to produce 100 pounds of
gain shows 208.38 pounds of shorts or middlings to have
the value of 15.28 pounds of corn and 536.91 of skim-
milk or buttermilk. This would result in giving to shorts
or middlings the values shown in Table CXIX.

TABLE CXIX. — VALUE OF WHEAT SHORTS OR MIDDLINGS
AS AFFECTED BY THE PRICE OF CORN AND SKIM-MILK OR
BUTTERMILK

When corn and
skim-milk or
buttermilk are
worth ....

Corn 56j<
per
bushel
Milk 20^
percwt.

Corn 70jf
per
bushel
Milk 25t
per cwt.

Corn 84j<
per
bushel
Milk 3Qt
per cwt.

Corn 84£

bushel
Milk 35£
per cwt.

Cora 98f£
per
bushel
Milk 40f<
per cwt.

Corn $1.40
per bushel
Milk 50^
per cwt.

Shorts or mid-
dlings are worth

$11.77

per ton

$14.71
per ton

$17.66
per ton

$20.23
per ton

$23.17
per ton

$30.38 per
ton

Summary.

When measured solely by the results of these experi-
ments, shorts or middlings did not prove as efficient
for balancing corn as did skim-milk, tankage, or linseed-
oil meal. There was more variation in the showing
by this ration in the different experiments, also, than
was true of the other rations. This was probably be-
cause the quality of shorts or middlings varies consider-
ably from time to time, especially that produced by mills
in different sections. The tendency, also, to use the term
shorts or middlings to designate any of these products
ranging in quality from bran or shipstuff on the one side
to flour middlings or red-dog flour on the other, may have
been responsible for the excellent showing of this ration in
some of these experiments and its very ordinary showing

276

Pork Production

in others. The most serious criticism against the use of
standard shorts or the finer grades of middlings as exclu-
sive supplements, however, arises from the large amount
or proportion necessary to feed in order properly to
balance a straight corn ration. The largest value of
these feeds as a class is probably derived from their use
in conjunction with other supplements richer in pro-
tein, and as a basis for slops in feeding show and breeding
stock.

GENERAL SUMMARY

Believing that a summarized statement showing the
value of standard protein-rich supplements for balancing
a ration of straight corn for fattening pigs in the dry lot
would be of interest, the data given in the preceding
tables of this chapter are brought together in Table
CXX. These averages are based on the results of
thirty-five experiments comparing rations of corn alone
and corn with a protein supplement added. A total
of 594 pigs, averaging 118 pounds at the beginning of
the tests, was involved.

TABLE CXX. — CORN ALONE VERSUS CORN AND A PROTEIN
SUPPLEMENT

AVERAGE

PORK

RATIONS

DAILY
GAIN PER

FEED EATEN FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN1

PRODUCED
WITH EACH

PIQ

56 LB. FEED

Ib.

Corn alone ....

.964

544.06 corn

10.29

Corn and protein sup-

436.23 corn and sup-

plement ....

1.462

plement

12.84

1 Skim-milk and buttermilk reduced to basis of other supple-
ments by dividing by 5.

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

277

The preceding table teaches a valuable lesson. For prac-
tical use, however, it is more interesting than valuable.
More specific information is required to settle the ques-
tion of the most effective and economical supplement to
buy to balance corn for fattening pigs. To help answer
this question, the summarized results of all the previously
considered experiments in which two standard protein
supplements were compared are averaged and brought
together in Table CXXI.

TABLE CXXI. — THE RELATIVE VALUE OF STANDARD PROTEIN
SUPPLEMENT FOR FATTENING PIGS IN THE DRY LOT

RATIONS, PROPORTIONS
BY WEIGHT

AVERAGE
DAILY GAIN
PER PIG

FEED EATEN FOR
EACH 100 I.E. GAIN

NUMBER OF

EXPERIMENTS

1.13 corn
1 wheat shorts or
middlings

Ib.

1.286

Ib.

238.45 corn
201.59 shorts

5.33 corn
1 linseed-oil meal

1.564

325.16 corn
60.98 linseed-oil
meal

6.1 corn
1 linseed-oil meal

1.410

339.93 corn
54.96 linseed-oil
meal

5.8 corn
1 ground soybeans

1.430

320.81 corn
55.04 soybeans

7.6 corn
1 linseed-oil meal

1.505

362.52 corn
47.65 linseed-oil
meal

15.4 corn
1 tankage or meat-
meal

1.581

378.82 corn
24.53 tankage

10.6 corn
1 tankage

1.202

387.77 corn
30.48 tankage

1 corn
2.6 skim-milk or
buttermilk

1.518

325.00 corn
584.50 milk

278 Pork Production

In Table CXXI, only the two rations included
within the same two double lines are comparable. In
the first section linseed-oil meal is compared with
shorts or middlings, the former supplement, based on
the averages of six experiments, giving the better results.
In the second section, linseed-oil meal and soybean meal
are compared, the results indicating almost equality of
value. In the same way tankage is proved slightly
superior to linseed-oil meal as a supplement to corn as
shown in the third section, and skim-milk or buttermilk
superior to tankage in the fifth or last part of the table.
The reasons why the results of the corn and tankage
ration as shown in the last part of the table are not as
favorable from the same ration when it was compared with
corn and linseed-oil meal, are probably due to one or
more of the following factors : the age or thrift or breed-
ing of the pigs, the length of the experiments, or the fa-
vorableness of the weather or other general conditions.

Owing to the variation in the amount of protein con-
tained by the different nitrogenous supplements, some
must be fed in larger amounts than others. In some
of the rations included in this summary, the amount
of supplements fed was excessive, while in the others
less was fed than necessary to insure an adequate supply
of protein. The relation between the price of corn and
that of the supplement, and the relation of feed to pork
prices, is probably the reason for the variations noted.

In Table CXXII is stated the proportions in which it
is necessary to feed the different supplements in order
to supply approximately the same proportion of pro-
tein in a corn ration. Under average conditions, the
experimental feeding trials already studied would indi-
cate that a nutritive ration of 1 : 6.35-6.50 (that is,

Fattening Pigs in the Dry Lot

279

1 part of digestible protein to 6.35 to 6.50 parts of digest-
ible carbohydrate equivalents in the ration) is approxi-
mately correct for fattening pigs in the dry lot.

TABLE CXXII. — THE PROPORTION OF THE DIFFERENT PRO-
TEIN SUPPLEMENTS REQUIRED TO BALANCE CORN FOR GROW-
ING AND FATTENING PIGS l

PROTEIN SUPPLEMENT

PER CENT OF
SUPPLEMENT

PER CENT OP
CORN

NUTRITIVE
RATIO

Tankage or meat-meal
(55-60% protein) . .
Linseed-oil meal (o.p.)
Soybeans ....

9
17
18

91
83

1 : 6.42
1 : 6.31
1 : 6.47

Standard wheat shorts or

1 : 6.51

Skim-milk

1 : 6.32

Buttermilk

1 : 6.43

1 Calculations are based on the feed compositions as given in
Henry and Morrison's "Feeds and Feeding."

CHAPTER XII

OTHER CEREAL GRAINS FOR GROWING
FATTENING PIGS

AND

WHERE corn can be grown as in the corn-belt proper,
it probably will continue to be the main reliance in pork
production. In those sections in which corn is not grown
extensively, however, other cereal grains must be de-
pended on largely as the basis for the growing and fatten-
ing rations. Even within the corn-belt, it is sometimes
profitable to substitute in whole or part some one of
these cereals for corn.

The composition of those cereal grains employed more
or less extensively is shown in Table C XXIII.

TABLE CXXIII. — COMPOSITION CEREAL GRAINS 1

GRAIN

TOTAL DRY
MATTER IN

100 LB.

TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRI-
ENTS IN 100 LB.

ASH

NUTRI-
TIVE
RATIO

Protein

Carbohy-
drates

Fats

Corn • .

89.5
90.7
89.8
90.6
90.8
91.3
88.2
89.3
87.3
89.2
90.1

7.5
9.0
9.2
9.9
9.7
9.5
9.0
8.7
7.5
9.3
8.5

67.8
66.8
67.5
68.4
52.1
63.2
65.8
66.2
66.2
66.6
67.0

4.6
1.6
1.5
1.2
3.8
1.7
2.3
2.2
2.6
2.5
3.3

1.5
2.7
1.9
2.0
3.5
3.7
1.7
2.8
1.9
1.5
1.9

10.4

7.8
7.7
7.2
6.3
7.1
7.9
8.2
9.6
1 7.8
1 8.8

Barley ....
Wheat ....
Rve .

Oats

Emmer (Spelt) .
Kafir ....
Milo

Sorghum . . .
Feterita ....
Kaoliang . . .

Appendix, Henry and Morrison's

280

Feeds and Feeding."

Other Cereal Grains for Growing Pigs 281

All these cereals are rich in carbohydrates, mostly
starch, and poor in protein and ash. With the exception
of oats and emmer, they are highly concentrated and
better suited to fattening than to growing animals. Al-
though similar in composition as expressed by the usual
chemical analysis, each possesses peculiarities in taste,
physical properties, and chemical make-up which affect
its usefulness as a swine-feed.

BARLEY

Perhaps barley is more widely used for swine-feeding
than any other grain. In Canada, Great Britain, and the
continental European countries, it is largely depended
on in the production of the finest quality of bacon. In
the West and Northwest, barley is generally used and
highly thought of, fed alone with supplements or in com-
bination with other grains.

Barley versus corn.

In Table CXXIV have been brought together results
of American pig-feeding experiments in which rations
containing barley were compared with those including
corn. In all cases both cereals were fed ground, and
commonly in the form of a thick slop.

In every instance the pigs fed the corn ration made
faster gains than with the barley. Considering only
the three experiments in which a direct comparison of
barley and corn is possible, the gains made on the corn
rations were on the average 18 per cent faster than those
on the barley. For producing the same gain, 100
pounds of corn proved equivalent to 120 pounds of
barley.

282

Pork Production

TABLE CXXIV. — BARLEY VERSUS CORN FOR GROWING AND
FATTENING PIGS

GRAIN

SUPPLE-
MENT

NUM-
BER
PIGS
EACH
Lor

LENGTH

TEST

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FEED EATEN
FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN
(not including
hay)

STATION

AND

AUTHOR

days

Ib.

Corn

Wheat

shorts

138

1.50

347 corn

N. Dak.

92 shorts

Bull. 84

Shepperd

Barley

136

1.23

458 barley
116 shorts

and
Richards

Corn

Alfalfa

147

1.02

389 corn

Wyoming

meal

97 alfalfa

Bull. 107

meal

Barley

••

140

.98

400 barley

Faville

100 alfalfa

meal

Corn

Alfalfa

148

1.01

442 corn

Nebraska

hay

Bull. 124

Snyder

$ Corn

148

.96

494 corn

and

i Barley

and barley

Burnett

Corn

Alfalfa

1.02

470 corn

Nebraska

hay

Bull. 99

Emmer

.77

618 emmer

Snyder

and

Barley

.81

590 barley

Burnett

Corn

Alfalfa

160

1.53

470 corn

Nebraska

hay

Bull. 99

i Corn

146

1.35

482 corn

Snyder

i Emmer

and emmer

and

Burnett

i Corn

155

1.45

463 corn

* Barley

and barley

Being richer in protein and mineral matter, a ration of
barley alone may be regarded as less objectionable for
young and growing pigs than one of corn alone. For
fattening shotes of the lard type, and in rations which
are properly supplemented, on the other hand, corn
will usually give better results than barley.

The results of the two Nebraska experiments indicate

Other Cereal Grains for Growing Pigs

283

that emmer is somewhat less valuable than barley, prob-
ably due to its containing a high percentage of fiber.

To give the best results in rapid and economical gains,
however, barley must be supplemented properly when fed
to growing or fattening pigs. This principle is illus-
trated by the results of an experiment conducted by
Faville l at the Wyoming Experiment Station as shown
in Table CXXV.

TABLE CXXV. — BARLEY VERSUS BARLEY PLUS MEAT-MEAL
FOR FINISHING FATTENING PIGS

RATION, PROPOR-
TIONS BY WEIGHT

NUMBER
PIGS
EACH
LOT

LENGTH

TEST

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FEED EATEN FOB
EACH 100 LB.
GAIN

Barley meal .

days

Ib.

146

Ib.

413 barley

9 barley meal
1 meat-meal

1.74

333 barley
37 meat-meal

Barley rations for bacon-production.

The work of Day at the Ontario Agricultural College
and Grisdale of the Central Experimental Farms at
Ottawa has demonstrated conclusively the superiority
of barley over all other cereal grains for the production
of bacon of the highest quality. Although corn produces
lard of good firmness, color, and texture, the results of
Canadian experiments generally show its inferiority for
the production of firm bacon. In Table CXXVI are the
results of experiments comparing barley and corn for
feeding pigs intended for bacon-production.

1 Bull. 114.

284

Pork Production

TABLE CXXVI. — BARLEY RATIONS FOR BACON-PRODUCTION

jjji 0

RATIONS, PROPOR-
TIONS BY WEIGHT

H
5
1

!«

FEED EATEN FOR
EACH 100 POUNDS
GAIN

STATION AND
AUTHOR

a H

days

Ib.

Z6.

Ib.

Cen. Exp.

Corn -meal

112

.87

416 corn

Farms,

Barley meal

112

1.00

435 barley

Bull. 33,

Grisdale

1 corn-meal \

1°

110

817

f432 corn and

1 w middlings J

\ middlings

1 barley meal 1
1 w. middlings J

140

—

.841

f 430 barley and
\ middlings

4 barley meal V
1 w. middlings J

120

.789

/ 458 barley and
\ middlings

2 barley meal 1
2 corn-meal- \

120

.762

[ 478 barley,
\ corn, and

Annual

1 w. middlings j

[ middlings

Report

1QOO

2 barley meal 1
2 oat meal >
1 w. middlings j

120

.645

{ 526 barley,
{ oats and
[ middlings

Ont. Agr.
College,
Day

2 barley meal 1
2 roots(cooked) >
1 w. middlings J

120

.850

f 397 meal
\ 361 roots

2 barley meal ]

2 roots
(uncooked) j

120

.807

f 423 meal
\ 374 roots

1 w. middlings J

Contrary to the results of experiments conducted in the
states and reported in Table CXXIV, the rations contain-
ing barley in the Canadian experiments produced faster
gains with less feed than did those containing corn. The
contradiction in the two sets of results is probably to be

Other Cereal Grains for Growing Pigs 285

explained by a difference in the quality of corn and barley
fed. Examination of the carcasses showed the corn-fed
pigs to be decidedly inferior to the barley-fed animals.

Regarding the suitability of barley for bacon-produc-
tion Day 1 says : " Barley is a noted hog food in Europe ;
but some feeders in this country do not look upon it with
favor. We have secured excellent results from barley,
however, both in the amount of gain and the quality of
bacon. For young pigs it should be mixed with wheat
middlings, a very little barley being used at first, and
the quantity gradually increased. For older pigs peas
or wheat may be added. Some succulent food, such as
roots or green feed, should always be fed with it ; and
skim-milk makes a great improvement. It is not gen^
erally regarded with favor as a food for breeding sows."

WHEAT

The demand for wheat flour in this country and abroad
leaves little sound wheat available for feeding purposes.
Occasionally, however, through the scarcity of old corn
and a large wheat crop, this cereal is available at a price
more commensurate with its feeding value. At such
times the corn-belt feeder especially desires to know the
relative merits of wheat and corn, and the method of
feeding wheat most likely to give the best results.

Wheat versus corn.

Plumb and Anderson 2 at the Indiana station and
Snyder and Burnett 3 at the Nebraska station have con-
ducted feeding trials in which the dry unground wheat
was compared with shelled corn. In the Indiana experi-

1 Ont. Agr. Coll. Bull. 129. 2 Bull. 67. 3 Ibid. 167.

286

Pork Production

ment skim-milk was fed as a supplement, and in the
Nebraska experiment access to alfalfa hay was given.
The results of these are averaged and reported in Table
CXXVII.

TABLE CXXVII. — WHOLE WHEAT (dry) VERSUS SHELLED
CORN (dry) (Av. 2 Exps.)

GRAIN

TOTAL,
NUMBER
PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH OF
EXPERIMENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL,
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

CONCENTRATES
EATEN FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

Days

tb.

Ib.

Shelled corn .

101

77.4

1.135

390 corn

Whole wheat

101

76.6

1.020

432 wheat

In both these experiments, better results were obtained
with shelled corn than with whole wheat. The fact
that wheat is hard to masticate, that it tends to become
gummy and form a pasty mass when chewed, is probably
responsible for its poor showing in these tests.

TABLE CXXVIII. — GROUND WHEAT VERSUS GROUND CORN
(Av. 6 Exps.)

RATIONS

TOTAL
NUMBER
PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH OF
EXPERIMENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

CONCENTRATES
EATEN FOR
EACH 100 LB.
GAIN

days

tb.

Ib.

Ground corn .

110

100

1.136

522.6

Ground wheat

110

102

1.291

474.4

To determine the relative merits of ground wheat
and ground corn, fed as a thick slop, the averaged results
of six experiments conducted at the Missouri,1 Ohio,2
1 Weaver, Bull. 136. 2 Eastwood, Bull. 268.

Other Cereal Grains for Growing Pigs 287

and Nebraska,1 experiment stations are summarized
in Table CXXVIII. In three of the experiments the
grains were fed alone, while in the other three protein
supplements were given in the same proportion in both
rations.

In every experiment contributing results in the above
table, the gains were faster on the wheat than on the corn
rations; and, with the exception of one experiment, a
unit of gain was made on less feed. The averaged results
showed the pigs on the wheat rations to have gained
13.6 per cent faster; and for producing a given gain,
100 pounds of wheat proved equivalent to 110 pounds of
corn. For growing pigs, however, shelled corn is as
efficient as ground corn (see page 339) . Since it is neces-
sary to grind wheat, the advantage of wheat over corn
when available at the same price is largely offset by the
expense of grinding.

Wheat versus one-half wheat and one-half corn.

Four experiments by Weaver 2 at the Missouri Experi-
ment Station gave uniformly better results from ground
wheat alone than from a mixture of equal parts of ground
wheat and ground corn, both when the grains were fed
alone and when supplemented with tankage. The
average daily gain on the wheat-alone ration was 1.385
pounds and on a mixture of the two grains 1.31 pounds,
and the total feed required to produce 100 pounds of
gain 476 and 503 pounds, respectively. The thirty-six
pigs averaged about 97 pounds at the beginning of the
experiments, which covered an average period of 120 days.

On the other hand, Henry,3 at the Wisconsin Station

1 Smith, Bull. 75. 2 Bull. 136.

3 Wis. An. Rpt., 1894.

288

Pork Production

in three experiments with eighteen pigs averaging 159
pounds, obtained slightly but uniformly better results
from the mixture of equal parts ground wheat and ground
corn than from ground wheat alone, both rations in each
experiment being unsupplemented. High-grade wheat
was used at both stations and the rations fed in the form
of a thick slop. The averaged data of all seven experi-
ments at both stations give results which favor very
slightly the wheat-alone ration.

Dry whole wheat versus soaked whole wheat.

The results of three experiments, involving thirty-
eight pigs, give information regarding the advantage
of soaking whole wheat. Two were conducted at the
Nebraska l Experiment Station and one at the Indiana
station.2 In one of the Nebraska trials, the pigs were
given in addition to the wheat access to alfalfa hay, of
which they ate very little. The essential results are
averaged and shown in Table CXXIX.

TABLE CXXIX. — DRY WHOLE WHEAT VERSUS SOAKED
WHOLE WHEAT (Av. 3. Exps.)

RATION

TOTAL
NUMBER
PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH OF
EXPERI-
MENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

CONCEN-
TRATES
EATEN FOR
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

days

Ib.

Dry whole wheat .

.89

500

Soaked whole wheat

.94

478

1 Snyder and Burnett, Neb. Exp. Sta. Bull. 147 ; Smith, Neb.
Exp. Sta. Bull. 75.

2 Plumb and Anderson, Ind. Bull. 67.

Other Cereal Grains for Growing Pigs 289

In each experiment the results in rate and economy
of gain were in favor of the soaked wheat. With neither
ration, however, were the results satisfactory.

Soaked whole wheat versus soaked ground wheat.

Accumulated studies by the experiment stations of
the country have proved rather conclusively that wheat
must be ground for the best results. In Table CXXX
the results of five experiments are summarized when
soaked whole wheat was fed one lot of pigs and soaked
ground whole wheat another lot. The wheat was soaked
twenty-four to forty-eight hours. Tankage was fed as a
supplement in one experiment and alfalfa hay in a second.
In the other cases no protein feeds were used. In one
of the trials the wheat fed had been frosted.

TABLE CXXX. — SOAKED WHOLE WHEAT VERSUS SOAKED
GROUND WHEAT (Av. 5 Exps.) l

RATIONS

TOTAL
NUMBER
PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH OF
EXPERIMENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

CONCENTRATES
EATEN FOR
EACH 100 LB.
GAIN

Soaked whole
wheat . .

days
81

Ib.

135

Ib.

1.118

Ib.

538

Soaked ground
wheat . .

136

1.354

442

For producing a given gain, 100 pounds of soaked
ground wheat is shown here to have the value of 121
pounds of soaked whole wheat. In addition, the pigs

1 Grisdale, Central Exp. Farms, Canada, Bull. 33 ; Bliss and
Lee, Neb. Exp. Sta. Bull. 144 ; Snyder and Burnett, Neb. Exp.
Sta. Bull. 147 ; Good and Smith, Ky. Exp. Sta. Bull. 75.

290

Pork Production

fed the ground wheat gained 21 per cent faster than those
fed the whole wheat.

Wheat alone versus wheat and a protein supplement.

Like corn, wheat must be supplemented with a feed
rich in nitrogenous material if the most rapid and eco-
nomical gains are made. This is demonstrated by the
results of six experiments, summarized in Table CXXXI.
In all of the trials but one, the wheat was ground and fed
as a slop ; in five of the trials 5 to 8 per cent of tankage
was fed in the supplemented ration, and in the other
50 per cent of wheat shorts.

TABLE CXXXI. — WHEAT ALONE VERSUS WHEAT AND A
PROTEIN SUPPLEMENT1 (Av. 6 Exps.)

RATIONS

TOTAL

NUM-
BER
PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH

OF
EXPERI-

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

TOTAL CON-
CENTRATES
EATEN
FOR EACH
100 LB.

GAIN

days

Ib.

Wheat alone ....

106

1.158

475

Wheat and supplement

106

1.356

437

Frosted versus sound wheat.

In practically all the experiments thus far considered
with wheat, the grain fed was sound and marketable.
Wheat which has been injured while in the dough stage
by hot winds or frost or damaged by excessive rains during
harvest, is considered to have a lower feeding value than
wheat which has been properly filled or been uninjured.

1 Weaver, Mo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 136 ; Good and Smith, Ky.
Exp. Sta. Bull. 190 ; Bliss and Lee, Neb. Exp. Sta. Bull. 144 ;
Clark, Mont. Exp. Sta. Bull. 89.

Other Cereal Grains for Growing Pigs

291

Likewise "salvage" wheat, which has been more or less
damaged by elevator fire, is no doubt less valuable than
sound wheat in direct proportion to the degree of injury
done.

An experiment conducted at the Montana Experiment
Station by Clark 1 suggests the feeding qualities of frosted
as contrasted with good wheat. The wheat for both
lots of pigs was ground and fed without supplements, in
the form of a slop. The results are shown in Table
CXXXII.

TABLE CXXXII. — FROSTED WHEAT VERSUS SOUND WHEAT

RATIONS

LENGTH

EXPERI-

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT

AVERAGE
FINAL
WEIGHT

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN

FEED
EATEN FOR
EACH

MENT

PER PIG

GAIN

days

Ib.

Frosted wheat . .

149

194

.92

560

Sound wheat . . .

150

199

1.01

532

In this experiment, 100 pounds of sound wheat were
equal to 105 pounds of frosted wheat. The pigs receiv-
ing the sound grain also gained 9.7 per cent faster.

RYE

The composition of rye would suggest that its feeding
value for growing and fattening pigs would be equal
if not superior to that of corn. The results of a few
experimental feeding tests, however, prove rather con-
clusively that its value is a little less than corn. The
results of an experiment by H. R. Smith 2 at the Nebraska

Bull. 89.

Ibid., 75.

292

Pork Production

Experiment Station are shown in Table C XXXIII. In
each lot the grain was fed ground without a supplement
and in the form of a slop.

TABLE CXXXIII. — GROUND RYE VERSUS GROUND CORN

GRAIN

NUMBER
PIGS

LENGTH
OF EXPERI-
MENT

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FEED
EATEN FOR
EACH
100 LB.
GAIN

days

Ib.

Ground corn . . .

110

.71

609

Ground rye . . .

107

.67

624

Although the pigs were occasionally given lime and
charcoal, the gains were hardly satisfactory in either lot.
The corn-fed pigs gained faster, however, than the rye-
fed, 100 pounds of the former being equal to 102 pounds
of rye in the production of a unit of gain. The rye was
eaten with less relish and in slightly smaller amounts
than was the corn. Owing to the difficulty of masti-
cating rye successfully, it must be ground for best results.

At the experimental substation at North Platte, Ne-
braska, Snyder and Burnett1 conducted three pig-feed-
ing experiments in which rye was compared with wheat.
In two of the trials the grains were fed soaked and without
grinding, and in one the grains were both soaked and
ground. The pigs in two of the tests had access to
alfalfa hay in a rack, while in the other experiment the
grains were fed alone. The results of these three experi-
ments are shown in Table CXXXIV, the first part of
which gives the average of the two trials.

1 Bull. 147.

Other Cereal Grains for Growing Pigs 293

TABLE CXXXIV. — RYE VERSUS WHEAT

LENGTH

AVERAGE

AVERAGE TOTAL

RATIONS

NUMBER
OF PIGS

EXPERI-

INITIAL
WEIGHT

DAILY
GAIN

FEED EATEN FOR
EACH 100 LB.

MENTS

PER PIG

GAIN

days

tb.

Ib.

Whole wheat —

504 wheat

soaked . . .

107.5

1.05

10 alfalfa hay

Whole rye —

546 rye

soaked . . .

109.9

.88

12 alfalfa hay

Ground wheat —

425 wheat

soaked . . .

123

1.39

10 alfalfa hay

Ground rye —

572 rye

soaked . . .

123

.83

23 alfalfa hay

In all cases the wheat gave better results than the rye,
especially when both were ground. Averaging the results
from all three trials, 100 pounds of wheat proved equal to
116 pounds of rye in the production of a given gain. The
rate of gain, also, was approximately 35 per cent faster
on the wheat than on the rye rations.

According to Henry and Morrison,1 extensive experi-
ments in Denmark have shown rye meal to be slightly
less valuable than corn-meal, and about equal to barley
meal in the production of pork. The bacon from rye-
fed pigs was good, though not so satisfactory as when
it was fed in combination with other grains. Rye bran
and rye middlings, on the other hand, produced bacon
of a very inferior quality.

OATS

Although oats are an excellent feed for brood sows
and other hogs not receiving full fattening rations, they

1 "Feeds and Feeding," 1915.

294

Pork Production

are too bulky to give satisfactory results when fed to
growing pigs and fattening shotes. A hundred pounds
of oats contain 15.3 pounds less of digestible nutrients
than the same amount of corn. Corn contains 2 per
cent of woody fiber, while oats contain 10.9 per cent.
This is the principal reason why oats are less digestible
than corn and too bulky for pigs fed for rapid gains.

Oats versus corn.

Two experiments by Eastwood 1 at the Ohio Experi-
ment Station furnish a very reliable test for contrasting
the results from feeding corn and oats to growing pigs.
The averaged figures are stated in Table CXXXV.

TABLE CXXXV. — OATS VERSUS CORN
(Av. 2 Exps.)

RATIONS, PROPORTIONS
BY WEIGHT

TOTAL
NUMBER
PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH OF
EXPERI-
MENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FEED EATEN
FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

9 ground corn .
1 tankage . . .

days

105

Ib.

103

Ib.

1.63

Ib.

381.78 corn
42.42 tank.

9 ground oats
1 tankage . . .

105

1.04

480. 10 oats
53.34 tank.

In these experiments the corn-fed pigs gained .59 pound
daily faster than the oat-fed animals. The amount of
feed required to produce 100 pounds of gain showed
100 pounds of corn equal to 125 pounds of oats. In
addition, a smaller quantity of tankage was eaten for a
unit of gain by those fed corn.

Experiments by Henry 2 at the Wisconsin Experiment
1 Bull. 268. 2 Wis. An. Rpt., 1889.

Other Cereal Grains for Growing Pigs

295

Station and Eastwood l at the Ohio Station indicate that
as the proportion of oats in the ration is increased the
efficiency of the ration is reduced. The detailed results
of these experiments are shown in Table CXXXVI.

TABLE CXXXVI. — THE EFFECT OF FEEDING DIFFERENT
PROPORTIONS OF OATS WITH CORN

RATIONS, PROPOR-
TIONS BY WEIGHT

NUMBER
PIGS

LENGTH
OF EX-
PERIMENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FEED EATEN FOR
EACH 100 LB. GAIN

1 whole oats
2 corn-meal

days

Ib.

115

Ib.

.82

Ib.

164 oats
328 corn

2 whole oats
1 corn-meal

115

.68

376 oats
188 corn

1 ground oats
2 corn-meal

115

1.27

134 oats
268 corn

2 ground oats
1 corn-meal

115

1.03

286 oats
143 corn

3 ground oats
6 ground corn
1 tankage

152

1.57

137.4 oats
274.8 corn
45.8 tankage

6 ground oats
3 ground corn
1 tankage

148

1.49

283.9 oats
141.9 corn
47.3 tankage

In every instance, as the proportion of oats was in-
creased, the feed consumption and the rate of gain de-
creased. In the first Wisconsin experiment, when the oats
were unground, 100 pounds of corn-meal proved equal to
151 pounds of whole oats. When the oats were ground,
100 pounds of corn were equivalent to 121 pounds of oats.
The results of the Ohio experiment showed 100 pounds of
corn equal to 110 pounds of oats in producing a given
1 Bull. 268.

296 Pork Production

gain. In addition, a larger amount of tankage was eaten
for a given gain in the ration containing the larger pro-
portion of oats. The two Wisconsin experiments suggest
what general practice has confirmed, viz., that oats must
be ground for best results.

Like other grains, oats vary considerably in feeding
value. As a rule, that produced in Canada and the
northern states is heavier and consequently higher in
feeding value than that grown farther south.

KAFIR, MILO, CANE

Feeding experiments generally have shown that kafir,
milo, and cane, or sweet sorghum, are not as efficient as
corn. Because of the adaptability of these crops to
semi-arid conditions, however, their usefulness in pork
production is large.

Kafir versus corn.

Wheeler 1 at the Kansas Station conducted two short
experiments in which kafir meal and corn-meal were
compared for fattening pigs in the dry lot. In each test
the grains were supplemented with ground soybeans.
The figures in Table C XXXVII show the averaged
results.

These results indicate that kafir ranks close to corn as
a fattening feed. The difference here shown, however,
would probably have been more favorable to the corn
ration if the amount of feed in one of the experiments
had not been limited. Kafir as a rule is less palatable
than corn, and with unrestricted rations, considerably
more corn than kafir is consumed.

* Bull. 192.

Other Cereal Grains for Growing Pigs

297

TABLE CXXXVII. — KAFIR MEAL VERSUS CORN-MEAL
(Av. 2 Exps.)

RATIONS, PROPORTIONS
BY WEIGHT

TOTAL
NUMBER
PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH
OF EX-
PERIMENT

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FEED
EATEN FOR
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

4 kafir meal
1 soybean meal . .

days

Ib.

159

Ib.

1.23

Ib.

506

4 corn-meal
1 soybean meal .

155

1.26

494

Cane, milo, kafir, kaoliang, andfeterita versus corn.

The results of two rather extensive experiments con-
ducted at the Hays Branch Experiment Station, Kansas,1
where grains adapted to the western part of the state were
compared with corn, are detailed in Table C XXXVIII.

TABLE CXXXVIII. — A COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT GRAINS
FOR FATTENING PIGS

GRAINS

NUMBER
PIGS

LENGTH OF
EXPERIMENT

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

TOTAL FEED
EATEN
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

Sorghum (cane) .
Milo

days

60
60

Ib.
125
124

Ib.

1.70
1.70

Ib.
440
390

Kafir ....
Corn ....

10
10

60
60

125
125

1.80
2.00

390
370

Kaoliang . . .
Milo

10
10

74
74

140
140

1.31
1.43

572
523

Kafir ....
Feterita . . .
Corn ....

10
10
10

74
74
74

140
140
140

1.40
1.36
1.46

534
549
514

1 First table — Wright, Bull. 192. Second table — Cochel,
Kansas Industrialist, May, 1915, and Henry and Morrison's
"Feeds and Feeding."

298

Pork Production

In both experiments the grain fed in each lot was supple-
mented by 30 per cent shorts and 5 to 8 per cent tank-
age. In all cases, also, the grains were reduced to a meal.

In both experiments the corn ration produced the most
rapid gains, with the least total feed consumed for a unit
of gain. But the excellent showing of the other grains
should furnish much encouragement to the hog-raiser
who cannot grow corn successfully, but does produce
these other crops in quantity.

On the average, the results showed milo and kafir to
be practically equal in feeding value, both grains being
considerably superior to either kaoliang or feterita. In
the first experiment sorghum produced as rapid gains as
milo, but with the latter more feed was required for a
unit of gain.

In an experiment at the Nebraska Experiment Station,
Snyder and Burnett l compared rations of corn and cane,
with a combination of both, fed in each case with 10 per
cent chopped alfalfa hay.

TABLE CXXXIX. — SORGHUM VERSUS SORGHUM AND CORN

GRAINS

NUMBER
OF PIGS

LENGTH OF
EXPERI-
MENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL,
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN

PER PlOJ

GRAIN
EATEN FOR
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

Corn ....

days

H>.

141

Ib.

1.69

#>.

386

£ corn
£ cane (sorghum)

140

1.43

442

Cane (sorghum) .

140

1.15

548

The combination of cane and corn gave very much
better results than cane alone.

i Bull. 124.

Other Cereal Grains for Growing Pigs

299

Kaoliang meal and corn-meal were compared by
Wilson l at the South Dakota Experiment Station in
two trials, results of which are averaged in Table CXL. In
one of the experiments the grains were fed alone, while
in the other the pigs were given access to alfalfa hay
in a rack.

TABLE CXL. — KAOLIANG MEAL VERSUS CORN-MEAL
(Av. 2 trials)

GRAINS

TOTAL
NUMBER

AVERAGE
LENGTH
OF EX-

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN

GRAIN
EATEN FOR
EACH 100

PERIMENTS

PER PIG

LB. GAIN

days

Ib.

Kaoliang meal . .

207

.925

621

Corn-meal . . .

196

1.255

492

Very fair gains were made on the kaoliang ration,
but the amount of feed required to produce 100 pounds
of gain was excessive.

1 Bull. 157.

CHAPTER XIII

CORN SUBSTITUTES AND OTHER BY-PROD-
UCTS FOR GROWING AND FATTENING PIGS

A TIME may come, even in the corn-belt, when corn
will be regarded as too valuable to make its general use
for live-stock feeding either patriotic or profitable. It
may be many years under normal conditions before this
situation is realized, but the more or less restricted area
of the corn-belt, the rapid increase in the use of corn
for human food and other commercial purposes, and the
rate at which the population of the country is increas-
ing in density, are conditions which point to an increas-
ing scarcity of all cereal grains for feeding purposes in the
future.

CORN BY-PRODUCTS

The three most commonly used corn by-products for
pig-feeding #re hominy feed, corn feed meal, and corn
germ meal. In addition, gluten feed and gluten meal have
been employed to a limited extent.

Hominy feed.

This by-product is officially designated either hominy
feed, hominy meal, or hominy chop. It is tentatively de-
fined as follows by the Association of Feed Control Officials
of the United States : " A kiln-dried mixture of the mill
run bran coating, the mill run germ, with or without a

300

Corn Substitutes for Growing Pigs

301

partial extraction of the oil, and a part of the starchy
portion of the white corn kernel obtained in the manu-
facture of hominy, hominy grits and corn germ meal
by the degerminating process." Yellow hominy feed is
identical to the above except that it is manufactured
from yellow corn.

Hominy feed has a composition very similar to corn
and is to be regarded, therefore, as a substitute and not
a supplement for corn. Being low in protein and rich
in carbohydrates, it must be balanced, like corn, by the
addition of a feed rich in protein if satisfactory results
are obtained from it.

From 1909 to 1911, Skinner and King of the Indiana
Experiment Station l conducted seven trials in each of
which corn-meal and hominy meal were compared for
fattening pigs in the dry lot. In three of the experi-
ments, 33 per cent of shorts was fed to balance the rations
and in four 5 per cent of tankage. In all cases the rations
were hand-fed in the form of a thick slop. The sum-
marized results are shown in Table CXLI.

TABLE CXLI. — HOMINY MEAL VERSUS CORN-MEAL
(Av. 7 trials)

RATIONS

TOTAL
NUMBER
PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH
OF EX-
PERIMENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

TOTAL
FEED
EATEN FOR
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

days

Ib.

Corn-meal and sup-

plement ...

112

.96

514

Hominy meal and

supplement . . .

110

1.15

429

Bull. 158.

302

Pork Production

In each of the seven experiments, the pigs fed the
hominy meal gained faster, and with a smaller expendi-
ture of feed for a unit of gain, than did those fed the corn-
meal. On the average, the gains from the former ration
were nearly 20 per cent faster, and 100 pounds of the
hominy ration equaled 119 pounds of the corn ration.

More recent feeding experiments, however, show a
higher feeding value for corn than for hominy. Five
trials at the Iowa Experiment Station and two at the
Indiana Station since 1916 gave uniformly better results
from corn than from hominy, the averaged conclusions
of which are shown in Table CXLII. In four of the Iowa
experiments the pigs had access to blue-grass pasture,
and in one they were on rape. In the Indiana trials
the pigs were fed in dry lots. Shelled corn was fed in
five of the trials and ground corn in two. In all cases
the feeds were properly supplemented in self-feeders.

TABLE CXLII. — HOMINY MEAL VERSUS CORN FOR GROWING
AND FATTENING Pias1

(Av. 7 trials)

RATIONS

TOTAL
NUMBER
Piaa

AVERAGE
LENGTH

EXPERI-
MENT

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

CONCEN-
TRATES
EATEN
FOR EACH
100 LB.
GAIN

days

Ib.

Corn and supplement .

1.396

398.9

Hominy and supplement

1.289

421.3

In every one of the experiments here summarized, a
smaller total amount of feed was required to produce

1 Eward and Dunn, Iowa Exp. Sta. Circ. letter ; Skinner and
Starr, Ind. Exp. Sta., Circ. letter.

Corn Substitutes for Growing Pigs 303

100 pounds of gain with the corn than with the hominy
ration. In every instance but one, also, the rate of gain
was faster on the corn ration. On the average, 100
pounds of the corn was equivalent to 105 pounds of the
hominy ration. A slightly smaller proportion of supple-
ment was eaten, however, by the pigs receiving the
hominy. The rate of gain was, on the average, practi-
cally 8 per cent faster on the corn ration.

A modification of the methods of manufacturing
hominy feed is probably responsible for the failure of
this product to give as good results in these recent experi-
ments as it did in those reported in Table CXLI. The
analyses of the hominy used in the Indiana trials showed
that the feed contained more fat and less fiber than that
in the 1917 and 1918 experiments. The germ which
formerly went into the hominy entire is now usually
pressed for its oil and the remaining product either put
back with the other by-products or sold alone as corn
germ meal.

Corn feed meal.

The Association of Feed Control Officials of the United
States defines this product as follows : " Corn Feed Meal
is the by-product obtained in the manufacture of cracked
corn, with or without aspiration products added to the
siftings, and is the by-product obtained in the manu-
facture of table meal from the whole grain by the non-
degerminating process." This is a relatively new feed and
the processes in its manufacture are probably not uniform.

Analyses of this feed indicate that it is similar to corn
in composition, but a little richer in protein and fiber
with a little less of nitrogen-free-extract. Like hominy,
it must be fed with a protein supplement for good results.

304

P'ork Production

In two series of experiments at the Indiana Experi-
ment Station in 1917-18, Skinner and Starr l made four
comparisons of different corn feed meals with corn for
fattening well-grown shotes in the dry lot. In each trial
the corn was ground. The rations in all cases were supple-
mented with tankage, the feeds being supplied in separate
compartments of a self-feeder. The summarized results
are shown in Table CXLIII.

TABLE CXLIII. — CORN FEED MEAL VERSUS CORN-MEAL FOR
FATTENING PIGS

(Av. 4 trials)

RATIONS

TOTAL,

NUMBER

PlG8

AVERAGE
LENGTH
OP EX-
PERIMENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

TOTAL
FEED
EATEN FOR
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

days

Ib.

Corn and tankage .

130

1.81

467

Corn feed meal and

tankage . .

130

1.89

439

The three brands of corn feed meal in the first experi-
ment gave very uniform results. In every case the pigs
fed this corn substitute gained a little faster than they did
on corn, while the average amount of feed required to
produce 100 pounds of gain was also less. These results
indicate that corn feed meal is practically equal to corn
when fed under the conditions of this experiment.

Corn germ meal.

This by-product was formerly referred to as germ oil
meal, which is obtained in the manufacture of starch,

1 Circ. letters.

Corn Substitutes for Growing Pigs

305

glucose, and other corn products. It represents the germ
layer of the -corn kernel from which part of the oil has
been extracted. Two methods are employed in the
separation of the germ from the kernel. In the manu-
facture of starch, the germ is usually removed by the use
of a weak water solution of sulfur ous acid, while in the
making of hominy it is removed by mechanical processes.
Chemical analysis of the feeds in the first Indiana feed-
ing trial showed that the corn germ meals were consider-
ably richer in protein than corn, and further, that the
starch corn germ meal contained 6 per cent more protein
than the hominy corn germ meal. Judging from the
chemical analyses given in the following table, both feeds
contain sufficient protein to dispense with the use of any
supplement.

TABLE CXLIV. — COMPOSITION OF CORN GERM MEALS AND
CORN (From Ind. State Chemist)

FEEDS

WATER

PROTEIN

CARBOHYDRATES

FATS

ASH

Crude
fiber

Nitrogen-
free-extract

Starch
Corn germ meal .

9.3

24.6

8.6

45.3

10.1

2.1

Hominy
Corn germ meal .

4.6

18.5

7.1

56.2

6.3

7.3

Corn-meal . . .

11.5

9.4

2.0

71.5

4.1

1.5

Preliminary investigations by Skinner and Starr 1 at
the Indiana Experiment Station suggest the possibilities
in the use of corn germ meal as a substitute for corn. Two

1 Circ. letter.

306

Pork Production

experiments were conducted with the results shown in
Table CXLV. The pigs used were well-grown shotes
which were confined to dry lots during the trials. In
all cases each feed was given in a, separate compartment
of the self-feeder unless stated otherwise in the table.
The corn germ meal from the starch factories is referred to
in these experiments as starch corn germ meal, while that
from the hominy mills is called hominy corn germ meal.

TABLE CXLV. — CORN GERM MEAL AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR

CORN

Ind. Exp. Sta. Aug. 10-Oct. 9, 1917 — 60 days.

RATIONS, SELF-FED, FREE
CHOICE

NUMBER
PIGS

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN PER
PIG

FEED EATEN FOR EACH 100 LB.
GAIN

Starch corn germ meal .

Ib.

.28

Ib.
884.6 starch corn germ meal

Starch corn germ meal
Corn-meal

1.65

55.6 starch corn germ meal
390.1 corn-meal

Starch corn germ meal
Tankage

675

327.4 starch corn germ meal
251 5 tankage

Hominy corn germ meal

1.50

419 hominy corn germ meal

Corn-meal
Tankage . .

1 80

711 corn-meal
41 tankage

Ind. Exp. Sta. Nov. 6, 1917-Jan. 10, 1918 — 65 days

Starch corn germ meal .

.03

8973 starch corn germ meal

Mixture 1 part starch
corn germ meal and
1 part corn-meal . .

.75

280 starch corn germ meal
280 corn-meal

Mixture 1 part starch
corn germ meal and
3 parts corn-meal .

1.35

199 starch corn germ meal
595 corn-meal

Hominy corn germ meal

1.23

530 hominy corn germ meal

Corn-meal
Tankage

1 83

488 corn-meal
27.4 tankage

Corn Substitutes for Growing Pigs 307

In both experiments the pigs receiving the starch corn
germ meal alone did little more than maintain themselves.
On the other hand, the gains by the pigs receiving the
hominy corn germ rneal were on the average 1 .36 pounds
daily. Feeding both starch corn germ meal and corn in
separate compartments of the self-feeder resulted in the
pigs eating very little of the former. When it was fed
with tankage, free-choice, the pigs ate nearly as much
tankage as they did starch corn germ meal.

The unsatisfactory results obtained in these trials
from feeding corn germ meal as maunfactured by the
starch factories were obviously due to its unpalatability.
The use of acid in loosening the germ layer in its manu-
facture was believed to be the reason why it was not eaten
with relish. Hominy corn germ meal proved to be nearly
as palatable as corn.

Corn gluten meal and corn gluten feed.

The part of the corn kernel which remains after the
removal of most of the starch, germ, and bran in the manu-
facture of corn-starch and glucose is officially named
corn gluten meal. It contains most of the corn gluten.
It may or may not contain the so-called corn solubles
which represent the part of the protein and mineral
phosphates which go into solution in the processes of
separation. Corn gluten feed is the same as corn gluten
meal with the bran added. Gluten feed is consequently
more bulky and less digestible than gluten meal.

Gluten feed contains from 17 to 25 per cent of protein,
and gluten meal from 27 to 36 per cent. Although
sufficiently rich in protein to suggest large usefulness
for balancing a corn ration, they have never proved popu-
lar in practice, and are generally regarded as being more

308

Pork Production

palatable and appropriate for cattle than for hogs. Very
much more gluten feed is sold than gluten meal.

In 1917 Evvard and Dunn l at the Iowa Experiment
Station conducted feeding trials in which 45- to 50-pound
pigs on rape were fed rations in which gluten feed was
used both as a supplement to and a substitute for corn.
The results from five of the rations in which all of the
feeds were supplied separately in self-feeders are shown
in Table CXLVI.

TABLE CXLVI. — GLUTEN FEED AS A SUBSTITUTE AND A SUP-
PLEMENT TO CORN FOR FATTENING PIGS ON RAPE

RATIONS, SELF-FED,
FREE CHOICE

NUMBER

OF PlGS

LENGTH
OF EX-
PERIMENT

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FEED CONSUMED
FOR EACH 100 LB.
GAIN

Corn ....

days

Ib.

.84

Ib.

341 corn

Gluten feed . .

.70

372 gluten feed

Corn ....
Tankage . . .

1.25

309 corn
40 tankage

Gluten feed
Tankage . . .

.86

330 gluten feed
67 tankage

Corn
Gluten feed . .

.78

331 corn
22 gluten feed

The rations in which gluten feed was given alone, and
also with tankage, did not give as good results as did
corresponding rations in which corn was fed. In fact,
corn alone gave better results than the ration of gluten
feed and tankage or of gluten feed and corn. The
authors concluded that for growing and fattening pigs
fed full rations on forage, the gluten feed contained too

i Ciro. letter.

Corn Substitutes for Growing Pigs 309

much fiber to be satisfactory. Chemical studies have
indicated, also, that the kind of proteins and ash or
mineral ingredients contained in corn by-products gen-
erally are not of a nature most effectively to balance
the deficiencies of corn itself.

PEANUTS

Peanuts are a valuable hog forage crop in the South.
(See Chapter XVIII .) The seed when fed alone, however,
produces very soft pork which is sharply discriminated
against by the packer. The use of peanuts for the
production of oil has largely developed in recent years,
and has resulted in two by-products which promise con-
siderable value for pork-production, especially in the
South. These are peanut oil meal and unhulled peanut
oil feed. Peanut oil meal is merely the hulled and ground
peanut minus most of the oil. Unhulled peanut oil feed
is the unhulled and ground peanut minus the oil. The
latter sometimes goes by the name ground whole pressed
peanuts.

Peanut oil meal as a supplement to milo.

At the Texas Experiment Station, Burk l studied the
value of these peanut by-products when fed as supple-
ments to milo chop to fattening pigs in the dry lot. The
peanut meal contained 42 per cent protein, about the
same as cottonseed meal, and 8.3 per cent fiber. The
ground whole pressed peanuts contained 36 per cent
protein and 22 per cent fiber. The rations were hand-
fed and the quantity of the mixed ration given was gov-
erned by the appetite of the pigs. The results are shown
in Table CXLVII.

* Bull. 201,

310

Pork Production

TABLE CXLVII. — PEANUT OIL MEAL AND UNHULLED PEANUT
OIL FEED AS SUPPLEMENTS TO MILO

RATIONS, PROPORTIONS
BY WEIGHT

NUMBER
OF PIGS

LENGTH
OF EX-
PERIMENT

AVERAGE
INITIAL,
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

TOTAL FEED
EATEN FOR
EACH 100 LB.
GAIN

Milo chops l . .

days

Ib.
124.6

Ib.

.727

Ib.

648

6 milo chops
1 cottonseed meal

125.8

1.260

417

10 milo chops
1 meat meal .

124.8

1.180

455

7 milo chops,
1 peanut meal

125.6

1.210

434

2% milo chops
1 ground whole
pressed peanuts

125.8

1.228

428

1 milo chops
1 peanut meal

77 •

129.6

1.424

368

The pork produced by the peanut rations was pro-
nounced satisfactory by the packers. As indicated by
the rate and economy of gains, the peanut feeds made an
excellent showing. That milo is too carbonaceous to
give good results when fed alone is strikingly shown by
comparing the gains on this ration with those made in
the lots in which protein supplements were fed. The fact
that the milo rations when balanced with peanut meal
or ground whole pressed peanuts produced faster gains
with less feed than the ration balanced with meat-meal
(tankage), is a strong testimony of the feeding value of
these by-products. No injurious or poisonous effects
whatever were noted among the pigs fed this proportion
of cottonseed meal. (See p. 317.)

1 Milo chops = coarsely ground milo seedg.

PLATE VIII. — Above, Champion pen Duroc-Jersey barrows,
International 1918 ; below, 1. Carcass of a model bacon hog. (Bull.
10, Dept. of Agr., Dominion of Canada.) 2. Number 1 Wiltshire
side (Bull. 10, Dept. of Agr., Dominion of Canada) ; 3. Pork cuts,
lard hog (Bull. 147, 111. Exp. Sta.) ; 1. Long-cut ham; 2. Loin; 3.
Belly ; 4. Picnicbutt ; 5. Boston butt ; 6. Jowl ; 7. Hock ; 8. Fat back ;
9. Clear plate ; 2, 8. Back ; 2, 3, 8. Side ; 4, 7. Picnic shoulder ; 5, 9.
Shoulder butt ; 8, 9. Long fat back ; 4, 5, 7, 9. Rough shoulder.

Corn Substitutes for Growing Pigs

311

Peanut meal versus linseed-oil meal versus tankage.

Evvard l of the Iowa Station fed peanut meal in com-
parison with other supplements to growing pigs on blue-
grass. The feeds in each lot were supplied separately
in self-feeders. Each lot of pigs was fed to the average
weight of 165 pounds before the experiment for that lot
closed. The rations and the gains are shown in Table
CXLVIII.

TABLE CXLVIII. — PEANUT MEAL VERSUS LINSEED-OIL MEAL,
TANKAGE, AND OAT-MEAL AS SUPPLEMENTS TO CORN

RATIONS, SELF-FED
FREE-CHOICE

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

DAYS TO
REACH
WEIGHT
OF 165 LB.

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN PER
PIG

FEED EATEN FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

Shelled corn 2
Tankage

Ib.
1.41

323 corn
40 tankage

Shelled corn
Linseed-oil meal

104

1.14

362 corn
21 linseed-oil m.

Shelled corn
Peanut meal

1.33

281 corn
88 peanut meal

Shelled corn
Oat-meal 3

100

1.19

288 corn
76 oat-meal

The peanut meal gave results in this experiment second
only to tankage. The author of the experiment calcu-
lated the peanut meal to have a money value of $64.20
a ton when corn is valued at $1.12 a bushel and tankage
at $100 a ton, when fed under the conditions of this experi-
ment. The peanut meal was more palatable than the

1 Circ. letter.

2 Average for two lots fed different brands of tankage.

3 A by-product in the manufacture of oat-meal, probably the
same as oat middlings or oat shorts.

312 Pork Production

linseed-oil meal or oat-meal. The oat-meal by-product
gave very good results, but was not eaten with relish,
especially in the first part of the experiment.

RICE PRODUCTS

In the manufacture of table rice, three by-products
are produced — rice bran, rice polish, and rice hulls.
The last feed contains an average of about 35 per cent
fiber and is too bulky and hard to digest to be suitable
in any quantity for pig-feeding. Rice bran, also, con-
tains from 12 to 16 per cent fiber and is consequently
more bulky than wheat bran. Both rice bran and rice
polish are rather extensively used in the South. Being
carbonaceous like corn, they require about the same pro-
portion of protein feeds in order to insure the best results.

Rice bran and rice polish versus corn.

Dvorachek and Fowler l of the Arkansas Experiment
Station conducted four feeding experiments in each of
which rice bran and rice polish were compared with corn
chops (ground corn) for fattening pigs in the dry lot.
On one of the trials the feeds were each given without
supplement. In the other three from 9 to 10 per cent
of the rations was tankage. The results of these four
experiments are averaged in Table CXLIX.

The author of the experiments stated that none of the
pigs fed the rice products showed evidences of imperfect
nutrition. He also stated that rice bran, due to its tend-
ency to become rancid in hot weather, could not be fed
economically during the summer. It was also criticized
for being too bulky to insure a good finish on fattening

i Bull. 128.

Corn Substitutes for Growing Pigs

313

pigs. Despite these faults, however, rice bran gave
very good results in these experiments. Although the
rice polish was not so palatable as the corn, especially
in the latter stages of fattening, and although it caused
severe scouring when not soaked from twelve to twenty-
four hours before feeding, the pigs made faster and more
economical gains than did those fed corn chops.

TABLE CXLIX. — RICE BRAN AND RICE POLISH VERSUS
CORN CHOP (Av. 4 Exps.)

FEEDS

TOTAL
NUMBER
PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH
OF EX-
PERIMENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL,
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

TOTAL
FEED
EATEN FOR
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

Corn chops and sup-
plement . . .

days

Ib.

106

Ib.

1.290

Ib.

426

Rice bran and sup-
plement . . .

106

1.255

445

Rice polish and sup-
plement . . .

106

1840

360

Extensive studies by Duggar l at the Alabama Experi-
ment Station in which rations containing corn-meal as
the basis were compared with those containing rice polish
showed uniformly faster and usually cheaper gains
from the rice polish than from the corn-meal. The
averaged results showed 373 pounds of rice polish equiva-
lent to 474 pounds of corn-meal.

Rice bran versus peanuts and corn.

Additional evidence on the feeding value of rice bran is
furnished by an experiment by Burns.2 This test was

122. * Ibid., 131.

314

Pork Production

divided into two periods with an intervening interval of
14 days. The corn chops and the rice bran were soaked
twenty-four hours before feeding. Part of the time
the peanuts were fed on the vines and the remainder
they were removed from the vines before feeding. The
rations fed and the results for each period are shown
separately in Table CL.

TABLE CL. — RICE BRAN VERSUS PEANUTS VERSUS CORN
FOR FATTENING PIGS

RATIONS, PROPORTION
BY WEIGHT

NUMBER
OF PIGS

LENGTH

PERIOD

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN PER
PIG

FEED
EATEN FOR
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

days

Ib.

I. Corn chops l

41.6

.21

966

II. Rice bran

41.6

.73

384

III. Whole peanuts

43.3

.67

296

4 Corn chops

I. 4 Rice bran

1 Tankage

63.6

1.06

236

II. 4 Corn chops

4 Rice bran

118.3

1.24

270

III. 1.9 Corn chops

1 Peanuts

105.0

1.58

188

In the first period the rate of gain was not satisfactory
in any of the lots, particularly when corn chops were fed.
The pigs on corn during this period ate the least feed
and made the smallest gains of any. The feed required
to produce 100 pounds of gain was also abnormally high
on this ration. The marked improvement in the rate
of gain shown here by all lots in the second period is
evidence of the improved palatability and value of a

1 Corn chops = coarsely ground corn.

Corn Substitutes for Growing Pigs 315

ration containing a variety of feeds and properly balanced.
This applies especially to the rations fed to lots I and
II. The total feed required to produce 100 pounds of
gain during the second period was abnormally small.
Ordinarily the feeder cannot expect such economical
gains.

The experts who examined the carcasses of the different
lots pronounced the meat produced on the corn ration
very good, firm and solid. The carcasses from lot II,
fed rice bran chiefly, were said to be very poor, soft, and
thin. The meat produced by lot III, those fed largely
on peanuts, was described as follows : " very poor, very
soft and what we term oily ; the meat was very soft and
flabby."

The most obvious conclusions to be drawn from these
results are : first, that an exclusive corn or rice bran ration
is not economical ; second, that rice bran is at least equal
to corn in feeding value ; and third, that so large a pro-
portion of peanuts in the ration will seriously affect the
quality and selling value of the meat.

COWPEAS AND SOYBEANS

The seeds of cowpea and soybean are rich in protein
and are valuable, therefore, for balancing carbonaceous
feeds like corn. Soybean seed usually contains more
than 30 per cent protein, and cowpeas about 24 per cent.

Cowpeas versus corn.

In Table CLI are the results of pig-feeding experiments
conducted at the Alabama Experiment Station in which
the value of cowpeas as a whole and a partial substitute
for corn was determined. The rations fed and the results

316

Pork Production

are presented separately for each experiment. In all
cases the corn and cowpeas were fed ground.

TABLE CLI. — GROUND COWPEAS VERSUS CORN-MEAL FOR
FATTENING PIGS

TOTAL

RATIONS, PROPOR-

NUM-

LENGTH
OF EX-

AVERAGE
DAILY

FEED
EATEN

STATION AND

TIONS BY WEIGHT

PERI-

GAIN PER

FOR EACH

AUTHOR

MENTS

PlQ

100 LB.

GAIN

days

Ib.

Corn

.74

478

Ala. Bull. 143,

J corn )
^ cowpeas J

.93

395

Gray, Duggar, and
Ridgway

Corn

119

.46

487

Cowpeas

119

.59

481

Ala. Bull. 83

i corn 1

119

.62

433

Duggar

\ cowpeas J

Corn

.32

806

Ala. Bull. 93

\ corn 1
\ cowpeas j

.51

528

Duggar

f sweet potatoes j
\ cowpeas j

.39

1334

Ala. Bull. 93

\ corn {

.77

400

Duggar

2 cowpeas J

In every instance the combination of corn and cowpeas
gave better results than corn alone. The rate of gain
on the corn rations averaged .506 pound daily, and on
the ration of one-half cowpeas .686 pound daily, an in-
crease of more than 35 per cent. Cowpeas alone did not
give satisfactory results. While corn is excessively car-
bonaceous for growing and fattening pigs, cowpeas are
unnecessarily rich in protein when fed alone. From the
nature of their composition, a combination of both would
be expected to give better results than either alone.
Where cowpeas are not grown extensively, a ration of
4 to 5 parts of corn to 1 of cowpeas would probably give

Corn Substitutes for Growing Pigs

317

more economical results than when a larger proportion
of peas is fed.

Corn alone versus corn and soybeans.

In Table CXIV, page 269, soybeans are shown to have
practically the same value as linseed-oil meal in corn
rations for fattening pigs. For further information, ex-
periments comparing corn alone and corn and soybean
meal are summarized in Table CLII.

TABLE CLII. — CORN ALONE VERSUS CORN AND SOYBEAN
MEAL1 (Av. 3 Exps.)

RATIONS, PROPOR-
TIONS BY WEIGHT

TOTAL
NUMBER
OF PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH OF
EXPERI-
MENT

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FEED EATEN FOR
EACH 100 LB.
GAIN

Corn-meal . .

days

Ib.

124

Ib.

.95

Ib.
594. corn

3 57 corn-meal
1 soybean meal

125

130

345.4 corn
96.5 soybeans

Fed against corn alone, the corn and soybean ration
increased the rate of gain by more than J pound daily
for each pig and reduced by 152 pounds the total amount
of feed required to produce 100 pounds of gain. As fed
in these experiments, 100 pounds of soybean meal with
corn has the value of 257 pounds of corn when fed alone.

COTTONSEED MEAL

Cottonseed meal should be regarded by all swine-men
as a highly dangerous feed. If given in limited amounts

1 Skinner, Ind. Exp. Sta. Bull. 108 ; Wheeler, Kans. Exp.
Sta, Bull. 192 ; Good, Ky. Exp. Sta. Bull. 175.

318 Pork Production

as a supplement to corn or other carbonaceous feeds, and
for a limited period, usually not to exceed thirty or forty
days, excellent results may be secured from its use. Din-
widdie 1 expresses the conviction, with much experi-
mental evidence to support it, that cottonseed meal can
be fed indefinitely provided the amount does not exceed
^ pound daily for a pig weighing 50 to 75 pounds, or
^ pound daily for one weighing 75 to 100 pounds, or
^ pound daily for an animal weighing 100 to 150 pounds.
Numerous experiments 2 have shown satisfactory and
profitable results from the limited use of cottonseed meal
for a short fattening period. On the other hand, other
investigators after successive and continuous efforts to
discover a practical and safe method of feeding it have
announced with emphasis their conviction that cotton-
seed or cottonseed meal could not be fed in any form,
for even a limited period, without running a serious risk
of loss.

The following condensed statement by Henry and
Morrison 3 may be accepted at this time as a reliable
summing-up of the numerous and extensive studies which
have been made of this feed by the experiment stations
of the country :

"As now prepared, cottonseed meal is poisonous to
swine. All the various proposed ways for safely feeding
this meal have failed under careful and continued tests.
Pigs thrive at first on the meal, but usually in from 4 to
6 weeks some die — not all, as a rule, but so many that
all possible profits from the use of this feed are lost. A
few feeders continue to use the meal, experience enabling

1 Ark. Exp. Sta. Bull. 85.

2 Rommel, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind., Bull. 47.

3 "Feeds and Feeding," 1915.

Corn Substitutes for Growing Pigs 319

them to avoid most of the losses. If cottonseed meal is
not fed continuously for over 40 days and does not form
over one-fourth of the ration, and if pigs are freely supplied
with green forage or grazed on pasture, the risk from this
feed is slight. It is considered safe to have pigs follow
steers which are being fed cottonseed meal, for the meal
does not seem to be poisonous after passing through the
cattle. Care should always be taken that the steers do
not throw so much meal out of the feed boxes that the
pigs may be poisoned by eating such waste meal."

Although a considerable number of pigs are commer-
cially fattened every year on distillery slops as they
come direct from the factory, the dried products are gen-
erally to be regarded as not well adapted to swine. Dried
distillers' and brewers' grains are high in their content
of fiber, which is the principal reason why they are not
suitable when fed in any quantity to growing and fatten-
ing pigs. In addition, they are not very palatable. How-
ever, they are nitrogenous, carrying as much as 23 to
27 per cent protein, and when fed in small proportions
with corn, better results are usually obtained than from
corn alone.1

MOLASSES

To determine the possibility of partially substituting
cane, or black-strap molasses for corn, Burns 2 conducted
at the Texas Station a dry lot feeding experiment with
three groups of pigs. This test was prompted by the
increasing price of corn and the similarity in chemical

i Ky. Exp. Sta., Bull. 190. 2 Bull. 131.

320

Pork Production

composition of corn and molasses. The rations fed each
lot and the results are reported in Table CLIII.

TABLE CLIII. — BLACK-STRAP MOLASSES AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR

CORN

RATIONS, PROPOR-
TIONS BY WEIGHT

NUMBER
OF PIGS

LENGTH
OF EX-
PERI-
MENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FEED EATEN
FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

1 corn chops
1 molasses

days

127

Ib.

.90

Z6.
487 corn
466 molasses

3 corn chops
1 molasses

121

1.45

449 corn
145 molasses

Corn chops

114

1.66

522 corn

The results showed the ration of corn alone superior
to either ration containing the molasses. The ration in
which the smaller proportion of molasses was fed pro-
duced faster and cheaper gains than the one containing
the larger proportion. Since molasses is a carbonaceous
feed like corn, all the rations lacked balance, or protein.
Burns expressed his belief that molasses feeding would be
attended with better results when a protein supplement
like skim-milk or tankage is fed along with a combina-
tion of corn and molasses.

The results of an experiment by Clark 1 at the Utah
Experiment Station would indicate that beet molasses
may be fed with profit to fattening well-grown shotes.
In this experiment rations containing sugar-beets, wet
beet pulp, and molasses were fed with wheat shorts.
The daily rations and the results are shown in Table
CLIV.

1 Bull. 101.

Corn Substitutes for Growing Pigs

321

TABLE CLIV. — SUGAR-BEET MOLASSES FOR FATTENING
WELL-GROWN SHOTES

AVERAGE

AVERAGE DAILY RATION

OF Ex-

INITIAL
WEIGHT

DAILY
GAIN

FOOD EATEN FOR EACH
100 LB. GAIN

PER PIG

days

Ib.

7.6# shorts . . .

130

1.7

444 shorts

3.2# shorts . . .

268 shorts

8.3# sugar-beets .

130

1.2

697 sugar-beets

3.3# shorts . . .

275 shorts

12.3# wet beet pulp

130

1.2

1030 wet beet pulp

3# shorts . . .

186 shorts

9.4# wet beet pulp

600 wet beet pulp

4.4$ beet molasses

130

1.6

281 molasses

The pigs given the beet molasses ration gained 22 per
cent faster than those fed the same ration without the
molasses, and almost as fast as those fed shorts alone.
For producing a unit of gain, approximately 127 pounds of
beet molasses had the value of 100 pounds of shorts. In
the ration containing the sugar-beets, 396 pounds of beets
proved equivalent to 100 pounds of shorts, while 609
pounds of the wet beet pulp was equal to 100 pounds of
shorts.

Beet molasses as fed by Clinton l at the Cornell Station
was not very palatable and had a tendency to cause
scours.

KOOTS : TUBERS

As a class, roots and tubers contain from 70 to more
than 90 per cent of water. Because of this they are too
bulky for fattening pigs except when fed in relatively

i Bull. 199.

322

Pork Production

small amounts and as adjuncts to a meal or grain ration.
As a class, also, they are carbonaceous in nature. Most
of those generally used for pig-feeding contain smaller
proportions of protein than corn. The succulent quality
of roots insures a laxative effect for the rations in which
they are fed. This is the chief reason for their beneficial
results when fed to breeding stock during seasons when
pasture is not available.

TABLE CLV. — VALUE OF ROOTS FOR FATTENING PIGS l
(Av. 8 Exps.)

AVERAGE DAILY
RATION

TOTAL
NUM-
BER
PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH

EXPERI-
MENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FEED EATEN FOR
EACH 100 LB. GAIN

5.4# concentrates

days
88

tb.

Z6.

1.2

499 concentrates

3.6# concentrates
5.6# roots . . .

1.0

358 concentrates
631 roots

Experimental studies to determine the value of the
different roots for fattening pigs are more or less frag-
mentary in extent, many of them being inconclusive so far
as showing any considerable merit for these feeds. As a
general proposition, it may be said that the addition of
roots to a meal or grain ration does not hasten the rate of
gain, but does result in a saving in the amount of meal
or grain required to produce a unit of gain. This is
shown by a compilation of experimental data by Henry
and Morrison 2 shown in Table CLV. These figures

1 Clark, Utah Exp. Sta. BuU. 101; Lazenby, Ohio Rpt.,
1884 ; Plumb and Van Norman, Ind. Exp. Sta. Bulls. 79 and
82 ; Robertson, Ottawa Exp. Farms, Rpt. 1891 ; Sanborn, Utah
Rpt., 1891 ; Shaw, Mont. Exp. Sta. BuU. 27.

2 " Feeds and Feeding," 1915.

Corn Substitutes for Growing Pigs 323

represent the average results of eight experiments in
which rations of concentrates alone were compared with
the same rations with roots added.

On the average, the 631 pounds of roots fed for each
100 pounds of gain saved 141 pounds of concentrates.
This would give 447 pounds of roots the value of 100
pounds of concentrates. The roots fed did not contain
an average of more than 15 per cent of dry matter, while
the concentrates had about 90 per cent. In these experi-
ments, then, 100 pounds of dry matter in roots had the
value, approximately, of 134 pounds of dry matter in the
form of concentrates.

Sweet potatoes.

In the South, sweet potatoes furnish a heavy yield of
fairly palatable feed suitable for finishing pigs for market.
The general practice is to allow the pigs to forage them
during the fall and early winter. In order to secure
satisfactory results, the pigs should receive in addition
a fair allowance of grain. Since sweet potatoes contain
extremely meager quantities of protein, best results
are secured when the tubers are properly supplemented
by the addition of a nitrogenous supplement.

Earle and Orr x of the Alabama Station conducted a
short experiment in which the sweet potatoes were har-
vested by hand and fed to pigs confined to the dry lot.
One group of pigs was fed corn and the other sweet
potatoes with the results shown in Table CLVI.

The sweet potatoes, hand-fed, did not give satisfac-
tory results in this test, but the number of pigs in each
lot was such that the results cannot be considered con-
clusive. The authors of the experiment concluded that

i Bull. 93.

324

Pork Production

sweet potatoes could not be profitably grown, stored,
and fed to pigs by hand.

TABLE CLVI. — SWEET POTATOES, HAND-FED, VERSUS CORN

RATIONS, PROPORTIONS
BY WEIGHT

NUMBER
OF PIGS

LENGTH
op EX-
PERIMENT

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FEED
EATEN FOR
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

DRY
MATTER
EATEN FOR
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

f sweet potatoes .
i ground cowpeas

days

Z&.
.391

Ib.

1334

».

600

£ corn-meal . .
| ground cowpeas

.775

400

360

That sweet potatoes will give fairly good results when
the pigs are allowed to do the harvesting is indicated by
an experiment by Newsman and Pickett 1 at the South
Carolina Experiment Station. In this trial, pigs averag-
ing 162 pounds at the beginning made an average daily
gain of .86 pound on sweet potatoes alone, the experi-
ment covering thirty-three days. In the same trial, a
similar group of three pigs fed corn alone gained 1.39
pounds daily. The amount of feed required to produce
100 pounds of gain was 3245 pounds of sweet potatoes
and 602 of corn respectively. The authors estimated the
yield of sweet potatoes and concluded that one acre could
be credited with 369 pounds of pork. At the Alabama
Experiment Station, Duggar 2 fed two shotes grazing
sweet potatoes a grain ration of 2 parts corn and 1 part
ground cowpeas. In the thirty-three days of the trial,
the pigs made 100 pounds of gain from 313 pounds of
the grain mixture, which indicated only fair returns
from the sweet potatoes eaten in addition.

i Bull. 122. 2 Ibid., 122.

Corn Substitutes for Growing Pigs

325

Potatoes.

When potatoes are extremely cheap, they may be fed
profitably to fattening pigs if cooked and properly supple-
mented. Potatoes are one of the feeds which require
cooking. Raw potatoes are not eaten with relish and
fail to maintain pigs when given alone.1 The necessity
of feeding some nitrogenous supplement is shown by the
fact that potatoes contain a smaller proportion of pro-
tein than corn.

The value of cooked potatoes for finishing well-grown
shotes in the dry lot is indicated by the results of two
experiments conducted at the Wisconsin Experiment
Station by Henry.2 In each trial corn-meal alone was
fed to one group of pigs, and a mixture of 1 part c<5rn-
meal and 3 parts cooked potatoes to a second similar group.
A minimum of water was used in cooking the potatoes so
that none of the liquid was lost. The weight of the
cooked potatoes with liquid just equaled that of the raw
potatoes. The averaged results of these two experi-
ments are shown in Table CLVII.

TABLE CLVII. — COOKED POTATOES FOB FATTENING PIGS
(Av. 2 Exps.)

RATIONS, PROPORTIONS
BY WEIGHT

TOTAL

NUM-
BER OF
PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH

EXPERI-
MENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT

PER PlQ

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

FEED EATEN
FOR EACH 100
LB. GAIN

days

Ib.

Corn-meal .

229

1.668

439 corn

1 corn-meal . .

262 corn

3 cooked potatoes

232

1.499

788 potatoes

1 Grisdale, Ottawa Exp. Farms, Bull. 57.

2 Wis. Exp. Sta., An. Rpt., 1890.

326 Pork Production

The pigs were well grown and made unusually rapid
gains considering that neither ration contained a protein
supplement. In these experiments, 788 pounds of cooked
potatoes had the effect of saving an average of 177 pounds
of corn-meal, although reducing slightly the rate of gain.
This would indicate that 445 pounds of cooked potatoes
were equivalent in value to 100 pounds of corn-meal.
The summarized results of all experiments made at
Copenhagen (Denmark) Station by Fjord, and reported
by Henry and Morrison,1 gave 400 pounds of cooked pota-
toes the value of 100 pounds of mixed grain. Grisdale2
reports a fair quality of bacon produced from a ration of
100 pounds of cooked potatoes with 20 pounds of meal.

Other roots.

Sugar-beets and mangels are considered the best roots
for swine-feeding in Canada and the western states.
Grisdale 2 concludes that carrots are not as palatable
nor as good keepers as mangels or suger-beets. Sugar-
beets are more palatable than mangels, although the
latter are especially recommended for brood sows. A
good quality of bacon is produced on rations containing
roots. Clark3 at the Montana Experiment Station
found that pigs refused to eat turnips and rutabagas
when fed raw. French 4 of the Oregon station found that
162-pound pigs failed to gain when grazed on artichokes
and given no other feed. When the pigs were given a
ration of ground wheat and oats, however, they made
an average daily gain of .81 pound with an expenditure
of 310 pounds of grain for each 100 pounds of gain made.

1 "Feeds and Feeding," 1915.

2 Ottawa Exp. Farms, Bull. 51.

' Bull. 27. 4 Ibid., 54.

Corn Substitutes for Growing Pigs 327

CONDIMENTAL STOCK FOODS

Condimental stock foods or feeds, sometimes called
proprietary stock foods, are usually mixtures made up of
one or more common feed stuffs like wheat bran, wheat
middlings, linseed-oil meal, dried blood, cottonseed meal,
with a base, filler, or diluent of grain screenings, ground
oat hulls, corncob meal, peat or peanut hulls, to which
have been added certain condiments, herbs, and drugs,
such as common salt, Epsom salts, Glauber's salts, gentian,
charcoal, ginger, fenugreek, anise, saltpeter, copperas,
as "tonics," "regulators," "appetizers," "conditioners,"
and so on.1

Experimental feeding trials.

In view of the fact that the manufacturers of these
products make large claims concerning their value when
fed in rather minute quantities with the regular rations,
and due to the fact, also, that their cost is high and their
use quite common, a detailed study was made of all
American and Canadian pig-feeding experiments in which
various brands of stock-foods had been fed. In all, eight
experiments have been made which involved the use of a
total of 261 pigs averaging approximately 110 pounds
when the trials began. The experiments were conducted
under dry-lot conditions, excepting those made at the
South Dakota Station. In two of these trials the pigs
had access to limited areas of rape, and in one, both
groups of pigs were on blue-grass. The length of the
average feeding period was 77 days. The stock foods were
purchased on the open market and fed in each case
according to the manufacturer's directions. In Table

1 Jones and Proulx, Ind. Exp. Sta. Bulls. 177 and 216.

328

Pork Production

CLVIII comparable results have been brought together
so that the evidence furnished by these experiments
would be more clear for practical interpretation.

TABLE CLVIII. — SUMMARY : VALUE OF CONDIMENTAL STOCK
FOODS FOR FATTENING PIGS

RATIONS

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN

PEB PlQ

TOTAL, FEED
EATEN FOR
EACH 100 LB.
GAIN

COST OP
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

NUMBER OF EX-
PERIMENTS

Grain alone .

Ib.

1.152

Ib.

547

$5.07

Average
6 experiments

Grain alone +
Stock food . .

1.233

522

5.34

Balanced ration
Balanced ration
+ Stock food .

1.315
1.243

404
409

3.49
4.47

Average
2 experiments

Balanced ration

1.989

412

4.70

Average
2 experiments

Grain alone -f-
Stock food . .

1.496

550

5.74

The averaged results from the six experiments in
which corn alone was compared to corn with a stock-
food added, showed that the latter increased the rate
of gain 7.03 per cent and reduced the total amount of
feed (including the stock-food) required for a given gain
by 4.57 per cent. The actual money cost of producing
100 pounds of gain, however, was 27 cents less for those
fed the ration of corn alone.

In two of the experiments, a balanced ration was com-
pared with the same ration with a stock-food added. In
this case the balanced ration without the stock-food pro-
duced 5.79 per cent faster gains, required 1.22 per cent
less feed for a unit of gain, and produced 100 pounds of
increase at a saving of 98 cents.

Corn Substitutes for Growing Pigs 329

When a well-balanced ration was compared with one
of corn alone with stock-food added, the balanced ration
produced 32.95 per cent faster gains, required 25.09 per
cent less feed to produce the same gain, and made a money
charge of $1.04 less for producing 100 pounds of gain
than the ration of corn and stock-food.

It would appear, then, from these results that the
addition of a stock-food to an unbalanced ration like
corn alone for fattening pigs is hardly justified, even
under assumed conditions in which no protein feeds are
available. Although increasing perceptibly the rate of
gain, the actual money cost of a unit of gain was increased
27 cents for every 100 pounds. The answer given by
these results to the question whether it pays to feed a
stock-food if the pigs are already receiving a balanced
ration is clearly in the negative. The mere addition
of a stock-food to such a ration seems to have the effect
of reducing the rate of gain and increasing the cost. And
finally, when a ration of corn and stock-food, which is
altogether too common, is compared with a balanced
ration of corn and a standard protein feed, the results
are in wide contrast. They pointedly suggest that the
money spent for stock-foods would be better used if
invested in some good nitrogenous feeol of proven worth.
So far as the evidence of actual experimental feeding
tests is concerned, therefore, there seems to be no ground
on which the use of condimental stock-foods for fatten-
ing pigs can be justified in practice.

Medicinal properties.

Of the 101 drugs discovered in stock-foods and studied
by Beal and Rose,1 68.7 per cent were found to have dis-

1 Purdue Univ. thesis, 1914.

330 Pork Production

tinct medicinal properties. The other 31.3 per cent did
not possess these properties worthy of mention. Of the
former class, 41 had a tonic action, stimulating digestion
and body vigor ; 20 had diuretic properties, i.e., stimulated
the action of the kidneys; 18 were laxatives, promoting
bowel action; 10 were vermifuges or worm expellants;
and 8 were astringents.

Street l of the New Jersey Station made a compre-
hensive microscopical and chemical analysis of fifty
different brands of condimental feeds and condition
powders sold in New Jersey in 1904. From this study,
and a review of the results of feeding experiments, he
came to the following conclusions :

1. "A loss of appetite, or a run-down condition, in-
duced by over-work or insufficient feed, may often be
remedied by the use of a stimulating or tonic food, the
ingredients for making which the feeder should always
keep at hand. In the majority of cases simply a change
of food will bring about the desired effect, but when this
is ineffective a liberal use of common salt in the ration
will generally prove beneficial.

2. "The claims of the manufacturers of condimental
feeds, when not preposterous, are exaggerated and mislead-
ing. No one feed, however skillfully compounded, can
serve as a remedy for all ailments of all classes of live-stock.

3. "Instead of being prepared according to scientific
formulas, as claimed, many of the condimental feeds are
heterogeneous mixtures, with little regard to the require-
ments of the animal, and in certain cases the drugs used
have a counteracting effect on each other.

4. "Even where effective drugs have been used, the
amount of the mixture to be given to the animal, accord-

i Bull. 184.

Corn Substitutes for Growing Pigs 331

ing to the instructions of the maunf acturers, is generally so
small that no possible benefit can be expected from its use.
5. " Assuming that the condimental feeds are scientifi-
cally prepared mixtures of useful and effective ingredients,
and their use as directed would confer upon the animal
the benefits claimed, their excessive cost would pro-
hibit their use by the careful and economical feeder.
Such ingredients, which they contain and which might
be of benefit, any feeder can obtain and mix for at from
one-tenth to one-twentieth the cost of the prepared foods.
He would have the added advantage of knowing just
what drugs he was administering to his animals and could
give them such quantities of the needed medicines as
veterinary experience has shown to be necessary."

Effect on digestion.

Stock foods do not improve the digestibility of the
rations in which they are used, according to the results
obtained in actual digestion trials by Michael and Ken-
nedy at the Iowa Station.1 In this experiment four groups
of pigs were fed. Corn alone was given to one lot, and
corn and a stock-food to each of the other three lots. The
effect of the stock-foods on the digestibility of the organic
matter is shown in the following table :

TABLE CLIX. — THE EFFECT OF STOCK-FOODS ON THE DI-
GESTIBILITY OF CORN

RATION FED

PER CENT OP ORGANIC
MATTER DIGESTED

89.84

^Corn-f Standard stock-food ....
Corn -f~ Iowa stock-food ...

89.74
89.60

Corn -j- International stock-food . . .

89.25

. 113.

332 Pork Production

Conclusions.

Growing and fattening pigs do not do well when re-
stricted to a diet of straight corn, especially when con-
fined to insanitary dry lots. Young pigs particularly
lose condition, fail in appetite, and take on a more or
less haggard and serious appearance. Neither do pigs
do well when full of worms. Such pigs as these need
the tonic of a balanced ration. Their digestive systems
should be regulated by giving them access to forage crops
in season, or by feeding a small amount of some feed
possessing laxative properties, like linseed-oil meal or
wheat bran. A reliable conditioner is obtained by a
sensible combination of good feed and water and clean
quarters. Worms can be dislodged more effectively by
the use of standard veterinary formulas, given in proper
sized doses, than by the use of a general corrector. The
best appetizer is a healthy body, properly nourished on
complete and well-balanced rations and free from internal
or external parasites. Appetite is something which
comes from within, and does not require artificial stimu-
lation in a healthy animal, especially in a pig.

CHAPTER XIV

PREPARATION OF FEEDS AND METHODS OF
FEEDING

THE idea underlying the practice of grinding, shelling,
soaking, or cooking feed for pigs is that the special prep-
aration will result in improving its palatability, hence
increasing consumption and hastening gains, or that it
will insure more complete digestion, thus resulting in
less waste of feed and greater economy of gains. But
these special methods of preparation necessitate more
or less expense for labor, machinery, and equipment.
Before any method of preparation is justified, therefore,
it must be shown that the increased rate and economy
of gains which may result are sufficient to pay this extra
feed cost.

CORN

Grinding corn.

Numerous and extensive feeding experiments in which
ground corn has been fed against ear and shelled corn
have been made at the Wisconsin, Iowa, and Indiana
Experiment stations. The advisability of grinding will
be determined by a study of these results, the Wisconsin
trials being considered first.

In Table CLX appear the average results of ten years
of experimental work at the Wisconsin Station 1 as com-

i An. Rpt., Wis. Exp. Sta., 1906.
333

334

Pork Production

piled by Henry and Morrison.1 A total of eighteen
separate experiments, involving the use of 280 pigs, was
involved in this study. The pigs averaged 175 pounds
at the beginning of the trials, which covered feeding
periods ranging from 63 to 98 days. The experiments
were made during the winter and in each case old corn
only was used. One lot of pigs was fed ground corn and
another similar lot shelled corn. In all the experiments
the corn was supplemented with wheat middlings in the
ratio of 2 parts corn to 1 part wheat middlings. The
shelled corn was fed alone and dry, and the middlings
were mixed and fed wet with a small quantity of water.

TABLE CLX. — GROUND CORN VERSUS SHELLED CORN FOR
FATTENING PIGS

(Av. 18 Exps.)

RATIONS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

TOTAL
GAIN

ALL PIGS

AVERAGE
TOTAL FEED
EATEN FOR
EACH 100 LB.
GAIN

Ib.

Shelled

corn and wheat

middlings

175

13,828

501

Ground

corn and wheat

middlings

175

15,891

471

As a rule, these experiments were with large well-grown
pigs fed to rather heavy weight. The averaged results
show the rate of gain to have been increased practically
15 per cent by grinding, and the amount of feed required
to produce 100 pounds of gain reduced practically 6 per
cent. These results were quite consistently shown in the
individual experiments.

" Feeds and Feeding," p. 574.

Preparation of Feeds

335

Soaking and grinding corn.

Kennedy and Robbins 1 of the Iowa Experiment Station
conducted a total of seven experiments in each of which
four groups of pigs were fed on the following rations,
dry ear-corn, soaked shelled corn, dry corn-meal (fed dry),
and soaked corn-meal. The experiments were run during
the summer and fall. Corn grown the preceding year
was used, except in four of the trials when new corn was
fed in the last part of the trials for an average period of
48 days. In four of the experiments the pigs had access
to blue-grass and timothy lots, while in the other three
they were confined to dry lots. In all cases except one,
a small quantity of meat-meal was fed as a supplement.
The results are averaged in Table CLXL

TABLE CLXI. — GRINDING VERSUS OTHER METHODS OF PRE-
PARING CORN FOR FATTENING PIGS

(Av. 7 Exps.)

RATIONS

TOTAL
NUMBER
OF PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH

EXPERI-
MENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

AVERAGE
TOTAL
FEED
EATEN FOR
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

Dry ear corn . . .

dayt

138

».
103

tf>.

1.271

Jb.
445 3

Soaked shelled corn 2

138

103

1.353

441

Dry corn-meal

138

103

; 1.286

473

Soaked corn-meal

138

103

j 1.383 i

469

In these experiments, the unground corn gave better
results than the shelled corn fed in the Wisconsin trials.
Although the gains were not so rapid, less feed was required

i Bull. 106. 2 Soaked 12 or 24 hours.

J Calculated on the shelled-corn basis.

336 Pork Production

to produce a unit of gain with ear-corn than with corn-meal
either dry or soaked. A study of the individual experi-
ments shows this to have been the case particularly when
lighter pigs were fed. In four of the experiments in
which 48-pound pigs were used, the gains were both
more rapid and economical on ear-corn than on either
ration containing corn-meal. Considering both rate
and economy of gains, soaked shelled corn was the most
profitable ration fed.

Based on observations made during the progress of the
experiments and the final results, the authors made the
following deductions : Young pigs masticate whole corn
more thoroughly than do older hogs. Young pigs do not
relish dry corn-meal as do older hogs. Soaking corn is
more advantageous for 200-pound hogs when on pasture
than when in the dry lot. Shelled corn soaked twelve
hours is better than that soaked twenty-four hours.
Hogs under 200 pounds in weight made the most economi-
cal gains when their corn was fed in the form of dry ear-
corn, although shelled corn soaked in water twelve hours
made slightly faster gains. Hogs over 200 pounds in
weight made more economical gains on shelled corn soaked
in water twelve hours than on dry ear-corn or corn-meal
in either form, and the gains on soaked shelled corn
were nearly as rapid as on any of the other forms in which
corn was fed. The amount of corn saved by shelling
and soaking for hogs of this weight varied from 4.1 per
cent to 7.4 per cent, being highest for hogs on pasture.

Ear-corn versus shelled corn versus ground corn.

At the Indiana Experiment Station, King l conducted
a series of eight feeding experiments during 1911 and
1 Proc. Am. Society Animal Production, 1914.

Preparation of Feeds

337

1912 to determine the effect of shelling or grinding corn
as influenced by the age or weight of the pigs fed. One
group of pigs was fed dry ear-corn, another dry shelled
corn, and a third corn-meal wet by pouring on water at
feeding time. Each ration was balanced by feeding tank-
age once daily in the form of a thin slop. In two of the
experiments a small quantity of shorts was given with
the tankage. The trials were conducted under dry lot
conditions, the individual experiments being continued
until all the pigs had attained approximate market
weights. The average initial weight of the three lots of
pigs fed in the different tests was as follows, — 52#, 56#,
86#, 102#, 156#, 159#,211#,and 218#, this variation being
for the special purpose of affording a means of studying the
effects of weight on the economy of the two methods of
preparation. The average results of all eight experi-
ments, shown in Table CLXII, will first be considered.

TABLE CLXII. — GROUND CORN VERSUS SHELLED CORN VERSUS
EAR-CORN FOR FATTENING PIGS

(Av. 8 Exps.)

RATIONS

TOTAL
NUMBER
OP PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH

EXPERI-
MENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

AVERAGE
TOTAL FEED
EATEN FOR
EACH 100
LB. GAIN

days

Ib.

Dry ear-corn . . .

113

130

1.237

431 !

Dry shelled corn . .

113

130

1.241

442

Wet corn-meal . .

113

130

1.364

416

The averaged results show that less feed was required
for a unit of gain with ear-corn than with shelled corn,

1 Calculated on shelled basis,
z

338

Pork Production

the rate of gain being practically the same. Grinding
the corn and feeding it wet had the effect of increasing
the rate of gain 10 per cent over ear or shelled corn and
of reducing by 4.7 per cent the amount of feed required
for a unit of gain.

General average results from grinding.

Summarizing the results from all the Iowa and Indiana
experiments in which dry ear-corn was compared with
corn-meal fed wet or after soaking, the results appear in
Table CLXIII.

TABLE CLXIII. — SUMMARY : EAR-CORN VERSUS GROUND
CORN FOR FATTENING PIGS

(Av. 15 Exps.)

RATIONS

TOTAL
NUMBER
op PIGS

AVERAGE
LENGTH
OF EX-
PERIMENTS

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN
PER PIG

AVERAGE
TOTAL FEED
EATEN FOR
EACH 100 LB.
GAIN

days

Ib.

Dry ear-corn

135

125

117

1.253

437

Wet or soaked

ground corn .

135

125

117

1.372

441

These results show that the rate of gain was increased
9.5 per cent by grinding and feeding the corn either wet
or soaked. The amount of the ration required to pro-
duce a unit of gain, however, was 9.1 per cent less for
ear than for ground corn.

If the average results of the eighteen trials at the Wis-
consin Station, Table CLX, are included with these
averages, it is found that grinding effected a saving of
3.09 per cent when compared with shelled corn or corn fed
on the ear. These results, then, based on the averages

Preparation of Feeds

339

of thirty-three experiments in which pigs of all ages and
degrees of fatness were used, do not show a sufficient
saving in feed by grinding to pay for the cost of the prep-
aration.

Value of grinding as affected by age and finish of pigs.

The effect of grinding corn for pigs can be interpreted
more accurately, however, if the results for the lighter
pigs are placed in one group and those from the heavier
animals in another. King arranged the results of the
eight Indiana trials in this way as shown in Table CLXIV.

TABLE CLXIV. — EFFECT OF WEIGHT AND CONDITION ON THE
ECONOMY OF GRINDING CORN FOR FATTENING PIGS

AVEKAGE

AVERAGE

TOTAL FEED

INITIAL

CONDITION OF

DAILY

EATEN FOR

WEIGHT

CORN FEED

GAIN

EACH 100 LB.

PER PIG

GAIN

Ib.

First period

Ear-corn

.826

393

3 months

Shelled corn

.806

398

Ground corn

.826

393

Second period

Ear-corn

1.263

444

3 months

180

Shelled corn

1.266

452

Ground corn

1.390

425

The percentage of feed saved by grinding during the
two feeding periods is shown in Table CLXV.

TABLE CLXV. — SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF FEED SAVED BY
GRINDING

FIRST PERIOD

SECOND PERIOD

Percentage saved
Percentage saved

over ear-corn
over shelled corn

0
1.3

4.3
6.0

340 Pork Production

It would appear from these results that growing and
fattening pigs, up to a weight of about 150 pounds, do
as well on unground as on ground corn. Pigs during the
last three months of their market preparation, however,
seem to gain faster and more economically on ground
corn than on either ear or shelled corn. A study of the
detailed results by successive months of these experi-
ments shows that the heavier and fatter the pigs be-
come, the greater is the advantage of grinding. This
rule is also suggested and largely confirmed by the results
of the Iowa experiments.

General conclusions.

The following general conclusions appear to be justified
by all the experimental results considered :

1. There is no advantage in feeding dry shelled corn
over ear-corn, so far as rate and economy of gains are
concerned.

2. Pigs receiving shelled corn soaked twelve hours
make faster gains with slightly less feed than do pigs
fed ear-corn. This is particularly true for older pigs
during the latter months of fattening and when they are
on grass or forage crops.

3. Ear-corn or dry shelled corn will, as a rule, give as
rapid and more economical gains with pigs weighing less
than 150 pounds as will ground corn fed wet or soaked.
Pigs weighing from 150 pounds up to market weights, how-
ever, will usually gain faster with from 4 to 6 per cent less
feed for a unit of gain, when on ground corn fed wet or
soaked than when on ear or dry shelled corn.

4. When corn is ground, it should be wet or soaked
before feeding. Dry corn-meal does not seem to be
relished, especially by young pigs.

Preparation of Feeds 341

5. Corn and cob-meal (ground ear-corn) is too bulky
and hard to digest to make it at all suitable for growing
or fattening pigs.

6. In general, pigs experience a temporary check in
gains when for any reason a change is made from soaked
or ground corn to ear-corn.

The actual estimated cost of shelling and grinding a
bushel of corn at the Iowa Station 1 in 1907 and 1908 was
as follows : for shelling, 1 cent ; for shelling and grinding,
3 cents; for grinding fine corn and cob-meal, 6 cents.
The charge made by mills for shelling and grinding corn
at the present time (1918) is around 10 cents a bushel.

SMALL GRAINS

Grinding and soaking.

When wheat, oats, rye, barley, kafir, milo, and other
small grains are fed to pigs unground, a larger proportion
passes through undigested than when whole corn is fed.
For this reason and also because the whole small grains
are not eaten with relish, experiments generally show a
very much larger saving from grinding small grains than
from grinding corn. In fact when grinding is at all
possible, small grains should not, as a rule, be fed in any
other condition. The ground grains may be expected
to give better results, also, when given wet or soaked
than when fed dry. When grinding is not possible,
small hard grains should be soaked for at least twelve
hours.

These general conclusions are based on the results of
feeding tests conducted at the various experiment stations
of this country and Canada. After a thorough compila-

i Bull. 106.

342 Pork Production

tion of the experimental data available on this question
in 1904, Rommel l concluded that approximately 12.26
per cent of the small grains is saved by grinding.

Cooking.

As the result of numerous practical feeding tests, it has
been definitely established that the old-time practice
of cooking feed for pigs is a detriment rather than a bene-
fit. A compilation of the results of seventeen experiments
by Henry and Morrison 2 in which corn, barley, peas,
and various combinations of these were fed cooked and
uncooked, showed in every instance but one an actual
loss from cooking. The averaged results showed 100
pounds of uncooked grain equal to 114 pounds of cooked
grain.

Cooking feed for swine may be justified and even bene-
ficial under certain special conditions, however. In
fitting hogs for show, a few breeders believe that the
highest condition of bloom is facilitated by cooking the
feed, although, no doubt, the tendency is to exaggerate
the benefits. Sick animals or those out of condition may
be helped, also, by an occasional ration of cooked feeds.

Proportion of water in slop.

Although ground grains give a little better results when
fed wet than dry, the proportion of water in the slop does
not appear to be important except when excessive quanti-
ties are supplied. This is indicated by the results of a
trial made by Plumb and Van Norman 3 at the Indiana
Station as shown in Table CLXVI.

1 Bur. An. Ind., U. S. Dept. Agr., Bull. 47.

2 " Feeds and Feeding," p, 576, 1915. 3 Bull. 8$.

Preparation of Feeds

343

TABLE CLXVI. — THE EFFECT OF THE PROPORTION OF WATER
IN THE SLOP

NUMBER
OF PIGS

LENGTH
OF EXPERI-
MENT

AVERAGE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
PER PIG

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN PER
PIG

FEED
EATEN FOR
EACH
100 LB.
GAIN

Corn-meal and

days

Ib.

shorts (dry)

147

1.08

359

1 corn-meal and

shorts

1 water . . .

147

1.10

380

1 corn-meal and

shorts

2 water . . .

147

1.10

374

1 corn-meal and

shorts

3 water . . .

147

1.05

375

In this experiment, slightly more economical results
were obtained from the ration when fed dry than when
given as a slop. The rate and economy of gains were
not materially affected by increasing the proportion of
water to dry feed from one to three.

METHODS OF FEEDING

Successful feeding of any class of live-stock involves
not only the selection of a suitable combination of feeds,
but also the application of the ration with judgment and
a constant regard to the little things which may become
large in importance if ignored.

Hand feeding.

The amount of the ration supplied at each feed merits
special care when full rations are given. It is better to

344 Pork Production

under-feed than to over-feed. In order to maintain a
keen appetite, to avoid sour troughs, and to insure the
most rapid gains and the fewest setbacks, a little less
should be fed at each time than would actually be eaten.
A good hog-raiser takes more time in feeding his pigs
than is necessary merely to throw them their rations;
he watches them eat and notes how they "clean up."
When the weather is extremely hot, they will want less
feed than when it is cool. Feeding three times a day is
practicable when maximum gains are desired.

When feeding limited rations, it is particularly impor-
tant that ample trough room be provided so that every
pig receives his share. This is especially true when the
pigs are of unequal size. So far as practicable, the pig
crop should be graded so that only those of about equal
strength are together. Like most stock, pigs must be
fed regularly if the best results are obtained. Careless
methods and irregular habits on the part of the feeder
are perhaps more often responsible for the failure of the
pigs than almost any other factor.

The pigs must be healthy and thrifty to respond
properly to good rations. It is, therefore, of considerable
importance when feeding a group of pigs to make certain
that their supply of water is abundant, easily accessible,
and pure, that they are free from worms and lice, and
that their sleeping quarters are clean and comfortable.

The self-feeder.

This device makes it possible for the pigs to feed them-
selves. The feeds are supplied in bulk or quantity suffi-
cient to last several days or a week, the pigs being given
their individual liberty to eat as often as they wish and
as much at any time as their appetites dictate or their

Preparation of Feeds 345

capacities permit. Compared with the ordinary' method
of hand-feeding, the self-feeder makes two important
changes : instead of receiving their feed in measured
amounts and at regular intervals, the pigs have their
individual freedom regarding both the time of eating and
the amount consumed.

In addition to these two features, the self-feeder intro-
duces a third. The several feeds supplied in the self-
feeder are usually placed in separate compartments, in
consequence of which the pig is permitted free choice
of the kind and amount of each feed. Corn or some other
grain is placed in one compartment or feeder and a ni-
trogenous or protein supplement in another. Frequently,
also, charcoal, wood-ashes, lime, and salt are supplied in
other compartments, mixed together or fed separately.
In other words, this feature of the self-feeder gives each
pig the opportunity of balancing his own ration. When
the feeds are supplied separately in this way, the method
of feeding is usually designated as "self-fed, free-choice,"
or "cafeteria" style.

The common practice of hauling out on the pasture a
wagon-load of ear-corn and then scooping out an allow-
ance each day sufficient to keep feed before the pigs all
the time, is in reality a type of self-feeding. Although a
few hog-men can be found here and there who have
practiced for many years the present method of self-
feeding, its general use is comparatively recent. The
present general interest had its beginning with the ex-
perimental studies by Evvard at the Iowa Experiment
Station and by Weaver at the Missouri Experiment
Station, which were begun in 1914. Since then a number
of other stations have undertaken and completed exten-
sive tests of the self-feeding system.

346

Pork Production

Self-feeding versus hand-feeding.

In Table CLXVII the results of twenty-four separate
comparisons of self-feeding and hand-feeding are sum-
marized. These experiments were conducted at five
different experiment stations x and involved the use of
433 pigs averaging approximately 70 pounds in weight
when the trials began. On the average, the experiments
covered a period of 101 days, the shortest being 42 and
the longest 193 days. In eleven of the trials the pigs
were on forage, and in thirteen in dry lots. In each case,
the hand-fed pigs were given full rations and the propor-
tion of supplements fed determined by the usual methods.
In each case but one, the self-fed pigs were given their
feeds in separate or individual compartments of the feeder.
In this case corn was fed in one compartment and a
mixture of middlings and tankage in the other, thus per-
mitting only a partial "free-choice" in selecting the feeds.

TABLE CLXVII. — SUMMARY : HAND-FEEDING VERSUS SELF-
FEEDING (FREE CHOICE) (Av. of 23 Exps.)

AVERAGE

TOTAL

AVERAGE

TOTAL CONCEN-

METHOD OF FEEDING

NUM-
BER OF

LENGTH OF
EXPERI-

INITIAL
WEIGHT

DAILY
GAIN

TRATES CON-
SUMED FOR

PIGS 2

MENTS

PER PIG

EACH 100 LB.

GAINS

days

ft.

Ib.

Hand-fed . . .

217

101

1.260

395

Self-fed, free choice

216

101

1.375

390

1 Evvard and Dunn, Iowa Exp. Sta., Circ. letter; Weaver,
Mo. Exp. Sta. Bui. 144; W. J. Carmichael, 111. Exp. Sta.,
Circ. letter; B. E. Carmichael and Robison, Ohio Exp. Sta.,
letter ; Snyder, Neb. Exp. Sta. Bull. 165.

8 Assuming five pigs in each lot of the Iowa experiments
where number was not stated.

3 Wheat instead of corn was fed in one experiment.

Preparation of Feeds 347

As a general rule, the self-fed pigs ate more and made
faster gains than those which were hand-fed. In nine-
teen of the trials, the self-fed pigs gained the faster,
while in five the hand-fed pigs made the quickest gain.
According to the summary table, the average daily gain
of the self-fed pigs was more than 9 per cent faster than for
the hand-fed animals.

There was more difference in the rate of gain from the
two methods of feeding than in the amount of feed re-
quired to produce a given gain. On the average, the self-
fed pigs ate 1.26 per cent less concentrates for a unit of
gain than the hand-fed ones. In these trials a smaller
proportion of tankage and shorts was eaten, also, by those
receiving their rations in the self-feeder, "free-choice"
style.

These figures appear to supply rather convincing evi-
dence in favor of the self-feeder when it is the intention
to push the pigs for an early market. When the saving
of labor is also considered, the practicability of this
method of feeding would seem to be established, espe-
cially when the feeds offered are the same as those sup-
plied in the above experiments, corn, wheat middlings or
shorts, and tankage.

With these feeds at least the self-fed pigs ate no more of
the expensive nitrogenous or protein supplements than
was necessary to balance the corn. Also, the gains
would indicate that their consumption of these feeds
was ample in satisfying their body needs. That the
appetite or instinct of the pig cannot always be depended
on, however, to insure the minimum consumption of
protein feeds for economy of gains, is also probably
true. When the grain or other carbohydrate feed offered
in a self-feeder is less palatable than the particular protein

348 Pork Production

feed supplied, the tendency is for the pigs to consume a
larger amount of the latter than is necessary for balance,
or desirable from the standpoint of economy (see Table
CXLV, page 306). This is particularly important when
the grains are relatively cheap and protein supplements
high. With corn as the principal carbohydrate feed,
however, there will be little disposition on the part of the
pig to eat more tankage or mill feeds than necessary to
supply the necessary balance.

Summary and conclusions.

The important advantages of the self-feeding method
of growing and fattening pigs for market may be enumer-
ated as follows :

1. Self-fed pigs usually eat more and gain faster than
do hand-fed pigs. This is perhaps its most valuable
feature.

2. Pigs on self-feeders make as much gain from a
given amount of feed as do hand-fed animals.

3. The self -feeding method is a labor-saver, especially
for pigs which are out on pasture or forage crops.

4. When the carbohydrate and protein feeds are sup-
plied in separate compartments, i.e., "free-choice" style,
as is customary, the pigs may be depended on to eat
sufficient protein to satisfy their physiological needs.
When corn or other equally palatable carbonaceous feed
is given, the pigs will eat no more of the expensive protein
feeds than is necessary for balance or economy of gains.

Few disadvantages attend the self-feeding method
when used with judgment and care and when maximum
gains are desired. However, a few points must be ob-
served if the best or even satisfactory results are secured.

1. The self-feeding method is not adapted to the feed-

Preparation of Feeds 349

ing of any class of swine v/hen rapid gains are not desired.
The question of the adaptability of the self-feeder is
largely one of the advisability of full feeding.

2. For satisfactory results in self-feeding, it is neces-
sary that both carbonaceous and protein feeds be sup-
plied, and that these feeds be palatable. If the carbo-
hydrate feed is not well liked and the protein is expensive,
it will be best to mix the two in the proper proportion,
thus eliminating the "free-choice" feature.

3. The self-feeder does not relieve one of all the work
or responsibility in feeding. The "feeder" should be
visited daily. The spaces which regulate the flow of
feed should be carefully adjusted so that no feed is wasted,
all the compartments of the feeder must be kept open and
feeding all the time, and the caked mud should be re-
moved frequently from the troughs. The feeder should
not be set in a mud hole, but rather on a concrete or board
floor; and it should be located in the shade in summer
and a warm protected place in winter. To make the
self-feeding system for fattening pigs complete and most
efficient, a feeder containing salt, charcoal, and wood-
ashes or lime should be provided, especially when the pigs
are confined to the dry lot.

CHAPTER XV

THE COST OF PRODUCING PORK

IN this chapter are brought together the several deter-
minations which have been made in the previous chapters
on the feed costs of maintaining the breeding herd and
growing and finishing the market pig. To these have
been added the cost for labor, interest, depreciation and
insurance on equipment, and other charges. With these
data, the attempt has been made to determine the actual
cost of production under corn-belt conditions.

TABLE CLXVIII. — SHOWING THE COST OF PRODUCING THE
FINISHED 225-PouND PIG EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF CORN

RATIO BETWEEN

SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT

TOTAL
COST

FEED
COST

LABOR
COST

OTHER
COST

COST OP 100 LB.
LIVE PORK AND
THE PRICE OP A

BUSHEL OP CORN

A. When produced

by gilts only, 5

pigs raised to the

litter

25.91

18.24

2.03

5.64

11.51:1

bu.

B. When produced

by mature sows

kept until four

years old, one lit-

ter annually, 7

pigs raised to the

Utter

25.29

18.05

1.62

5.62

11.24:1

bu.

350

PLATE IX. — Above, Location of wholesale cuts of lard hog. 1.
Head; 2. Shoulder; 3. Loin; 4. Belly; 5. Ham; below, Points of
the hog; 1. Snout; 2. Eyes; 3. Face; 4. Ears; 5. Jowl; 6. Neck;
8. Foreleg; 9. Hindleg; 10. Breast; 11. Chest line; 12. Back;
13. Loin; 14. Side; 15. Tail; 16. Fore flank; 17. Hind flank; 18.
Fore arm; 19. Rump; 20. Belly; 21. Ham; 22. Stifle; 23. Hock;
24. Pastern ; 25. Dewclaw ; 26. Foot.

The Cost of Producing Pork

351

TABLE CLXVIII. — Continued

RATIO BETWEEN

SYSTEM OP MANAGEMENT

TOTAL
COST

FEED
COST

LABOR
COST

OTHER
COST

COST OF 100 LB.
LIVE PORK AND
THE PRICE OP A

BUSHEL OF CORN

C. When produced

by mature sows

kept until four

years old, three

litters every two

years after ma-

turity, 7 pigs

raised to the

litter

24.58

17.73

1.47

5.38

10.93 : 1

bu.

D. When produced

by mature sows

kept until four

years old, two

litters annually

after maturity, 7

pigs raised to the

litter

24.16

17.56

1.37

5.23

10.74 : 1

bu.

The final result of these studies is summarized in Table
CLXVIII, in which the cost of production is expressed
in terms of corn.

The methods employed in arriving at these results, and
the data on which the determinations are based, appear
in the following pages :

I. Feed cost of growing and finishing the market pig

(35-225 Ib.) :
1. With good forage crops, —

(a) 760 feed units or pounds of concentrates

(6) One-fifteenth acre good forage @ $12.00 per

acre 80

Total feed costs . .12.20

352 Pork Production

2. Under dry lot conditions, —

893 feed units or Ib. of concentrates @ \%i

perlb $13.39

II. Other costs of growing and finishing the market

pig:
(a) Vaccination 75

(6) Interest on average value of pig for 8 mo.

($12 ©5%) 40

general equipment 2.00

(d) Risk of loss (2%) 24

Total other costs 3.39

Total feed and other costs of growing and finishing

the market pig 15.59

To the above must be added the cost of the pig
at weaning time. This will be influenced prin-
cipally by the system of breeding followed and
the number of pigs raised to the litter.

WHEN PHODUCED BY GILT. AFTER WEANING HER LITTER

GILT is FATTENED AND SOLD FOR PORK
I. Feed cost of raising the sow pig to breeding age

(35 to 200 Ib.) :
(a) 577 feed units or pounds of concentrates @

1M perlb $8.65

(6) One-fifteenth acre good forage @ $12.00 per

acre 80

Total feed costs 9.45

II. Cost of feeding gilt from breeding to farrowing
time (567 feed units or pounds of concentrates
®\U perlb.) 8.50

III. Cost of feeding sow (gilt) and nursing litter (713

feed units or pounds of concentrates @ 1 ty per Ib. ) 10. 70

IV. Other costs of raising gilt and maintaining her to

17 mo. of age :

(a) Charge for sow pig (estimated) ..... 5.00
(&) Interest on average value of gilt (17 mo. @

5%) 1.41

(d) Charge for vaccination 75

(e) Interest, depreciation, and insurance on gen-

eral equipment 6.00

The Cost of Producing Pork 353

(/) Service fee $ 2.00

(0) Labor 10.00

Total other costs 25.76

Total feed plus other costs of litter, at weaning

time 54.41

V. Value of gilt for pork (300 Ib. @ $9.08 per cwt.

minus cost of 50 Ib. gain @ $7.53 per cwt.) . . 23.49

Total cost of weaned litter produced by gilt . . 30.92
The total cost of each pig would, therefore, be as

follows :

1. With 4 pigs raised to the litter 7.73

• 2. " 5 " " " " " 6.18

3. " 6 " « « « ".,.... 5.15

4. " 7 " " 4.42

WHEN PRODUCED BY MATURE Sows KEPT UNTIL FOUR YEARS
OLD AND YIELDING ONE LITTER ANNUALLY. AFTER WEAN-
ING HER FOURTH LITTER SHE is FATTENED AND SOLD FOR
PORK
I. Feed cost of raising the sow pig to breeding age

(35-200 Ib.) $9.45

II. Cost of feeding gilt from breeding to farrowing time 8.50

III. Cost of feeding sow (gilt) and nursing litter . . 10.70

IV. Cost of feeding open yearling sow six months dur-

ing summer (300 feed units or pounds of con-
centrates @ 1%£ per Ib. plus pasture charge,

$1.50) 6.00

V. Cost of feeding pregnant sow during three winters
(1605 feed units or pounds of concentrates @
l^perlb.) 24.07

VI. Cost of feeding sow and three nursing litters (2377

feed units or pounds of concentrates @ 1%$ per

Ib.) 35.66

VII. Cost of maintaining open sow during two summers
of six mo. (98 feed units or pounds of concen-
trates @ \H per Ib. plus $6.00 forage charge) . 7.47
VIII. Other costs of raising and maintaining brood sow
four years :

(a) Charge for sow pig (estimated) 5.00

(6) Four years interest on average value of sow

($40.00 @ 5%) 8.00

(d) Charge for vaccination 75

354 Pork Production

(e) Interest, depreciation, and insurance on gen-
eral equipment for four years $24.00

(/) Four service fees 8.00

(g} Labor for four years 40.00

Total feed plus other costs of four litters at weaning

time 190.00

IX. Value of sow for pork (425 Ib. @ $8.78 per cwt.

minus cost of 75 Ib. gain @ $7.87 per cwt.) . . 31.40
Total cost each weaned litter produced by mature

sow raising one litter annually 39.65

The total cost of each weaned pig would, therefore,

be as follows :

1. With 5 pigs raised to the litter 7.93

2. " 6 " " " " " 6.63

3. " 7 " " " " " 5.66

4. " 8 " " " " " 4.96

WHEN PRODUCED BY MATURE Sows KEPT UNTIL FOUR YEARS
OLD AND YIELDING THREE LITTERS EVERY Two YEARS
AFTER MATURITY (TOTAL OF 5 LITTERS). AFTER WEAN-
ING HER FIFTH LITTER SHE is FATTENED AND SOLD FOR PORK
I. Feed cost of raising the sow pig to breeding age

(35-200 Ib.) $9.45

II. Cost of feeding gilt from breeding to farrowing

time 8.50

III. Cost of feeding the sow (gilt) and nursing litter . 10.70

IV. Cost of feeding open yearling sow six months dur-

ing summer 6.00

V. Cost of feeding pregnant sow during three winters 24.07
VI. Cost of feeding pregnant sow during one summer
(76 feed units or pounds of concentrates at \\$.

per Ib. plus $3.00 pasture charge) 4.14

VII. Cost of feeding sow and four nursing litters (3170
feed units or pounds of concentrates @ I \i per

Ib.) 47.55

VIII. Cost of maintaining open sow during one summer
of six mo. (49 feed units or pounds of concen-
trates @ \\i per Ib. plus $3.00 forage charge) . 3.73
IX. Other costs of raising and maintaining brood sow
four years :

(a) Charge for sow pig (estimated) 5.00

(6) Four years interest on average value of sow

($40 @ 5%) 8.00

The Cost of Producing Pork 355

(d) Charge for vaccination 75

(e) Interest, depreciation, and insurance on gen-

eral equipment for four years 24.00

(/) Five service fees 10.00

(g) Labor for four years . 45.00

Total feed plus other costs of five litters at weaning

time 209.69

X. Value of sow for pork 31.40

Total cost each weaned litter produced by mature

sow raising three litters every two years after

maturity 35.66

The total cost of each weaned pig would, therefore,

be as follows :

1. With 5 pigs raised to the litter 7.13

2. " 6 " " " " " 5.94

3. " 7 " " " " " 5.07

4. " 8 " « « « » 4.46

WHEN PRODUCED BY MATURE Sows KEPT UNTIL FOUR YEARS
OLD AND YIELDING Two LITTERS EVERY YEAR AFTER
MATURITY (TOTAL OF 6 LITTERS). AFTER WEANING HER
SIXTH LITTER SHE is FATTENED AND SOLD FOR PORK
I. Feed cost of raising the sow pig to breeding age

(35-200 Ib.) $9.45

II. Cost of feeding gilt from breeding to farrowing

time 8.50

III. Cost of feeding sow (gilt) and nursing litter . . 10.70

IV. Cost of feeding open yearling sow six months dur-

ing the summer 6.00

V. Cost of feeding pregnant sow during three winters 24.07
VI. Cost of feeding pregnant sow during two summers
(152 feed units or pounds of concentrates @ 1%£

per Ib. plus $6.00 pasture charge) 8.28

VII. Cost of feeding sow and five nursing litters (3962
feed units or pounds of concentrates @ 1 \ i per

Ib.) 59.43

VIII. Other costs of raising and maintaining brood sow
four years :

(a) Charge for sow pig (estimated) 5.00

(6) Four years interest on average value of sow

356

Pork Production

(d) Charge for vaccination $ 0.75

(e) Interest, depreciation, and insurance on gen-

eral equipment for four years 24.00

(/) Six service fees 12.00

(0) Labor for four years 50.00

Total feed plus other costs of six litters at wean-
ing time 229.38

IX. Value of sow for pork 31.40

Total cost each weaned litter produced by mature
sow raising two litters every year after matur-
ity 33.00

The total cost of each wearied pig would, there-
fore, be as follows :

1. With 5 pigs raised to the litter 6.60

2. " 6 " " " " " 5.50

3. " 7 " """"....«.. 4.71

1 " Q '* *' <( " " A 1O

A summarized statement of the cost of the pigs at
weaning time when produced according to these four
systems of management is shown in Table CLXIX.

TABLE CLXIX. — SHOWING ENTIRE COST OF THE INDIVIDUAL
PIG AT WEANING TIME

SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT

NUMBER OF PIGS RAISED TO THE LITTER

45678

A. When produced by gilts
only

$7.73

$5.15

$4.42

B. When produced by mature
sows kept until 4 yr. old,
one litter annually . . .

7.93

6.61

5.66

$4.96

C. When produced by mature
sows kept until 4 yr. old,
three litters every two years
after maturity

7.13

5.94

5.07

4.46

D. When produced by mature
sows kept until 4 yr. old,
two litters every year after
maturity

6.60

5.50

4.71

4.12

The Cost of Producing Pork

357

Combining now the cost of growing and finishing the
pig with the cost at weaning time, the entire cost of the
finished 225-pound market pig is shown in Table CLXX.

TABLE CLXX. — SHOWING THE ENTIRE COST OF THE FINISHED
225-PouND MARKET PIG

SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT

NUMBER OF PIGS RAISED TO THE LITTER

A. When produced
by gilts only

$23.32
or
10.36
per cwt.

$21.77
or
9.67
per cwt.

$20.74
or
9.21
per cwt.

$20.01
or

8.89
per cwt.

B. When produced
by mature sows
kept until four
years old, one litter
annually

23.52
or
10.45
per cwt.

22.20
or
9.86
per cwt.

21.25
or
9.44

per cwt.

$20.55
or
9.13

per cwt.

C. When produced
by mature sows
kept until four
years old, three lit-
ters every two years
after maturity

22.72

or
10.09
per cwt.

21.53
or
9.57
per cwt.

20.66
or
9.18
per cwt.

20.05
or
8.91
per cwt.

D. When produced
by mature sows
kept until four
years old, two lit-
ters annually after
maturity

22.19
or
9.86
per cwt.

21.09
or
9.37
per cwt.

20.30
or
9.02
per cwt.

19.71
or

8.76
per cwt.

Not all of the expense of producing pork is represented
by the cost of the feed eaten. If the items of expense
are grouped under the headings feed, labor, and other
costs, the distribution will be as it appears in Table
CLXXL

358

Pork Production

TABLE CLXXI. — SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF COSTS IN PRO-
DUCING THE FINISHED 225-PouND MARKET PIG

SYSTEM OP MANAGEMENT

FEED COST

LABOR COST

OTHER

COSTS

A. When produced by gilts only,
5 pigs raised to the litter . . .

70.39%

7.85%

21.76%

B. When produced by mature
sows kept until four years old,
one litter annually, 7 pigs raised
to the litter

71.35%

6.43%

22.22%

C. When produced by mature
sows kept until four years old,
three litters every two years after
maturity, 7 pigs raised to the
litter

72.12%

6.00%

21.88%

D. When produced by mature
sows kept until four years old,
two litters annually after matu-
rity, 7 pigs raised to the litter .

72.66%

5.69%

21.65%

In figuring the feed cost of producing the finished
market pig, feed was charged at the rate of 1^ cents for
each feed unit, or the equivalent of one pound of con-
centrated feed such as corn. Charge for forage was at
the comparable rate of $12 an acre. At this rate a bushel
of corn would cost 84 cents. If it is assumed that the
rates used in figuring the labor and other costs were
about on a par with 84-cent corn, it would be possible to
express the entire cost of the finished market pig in terms
of corn. This has been done with the interesting result
shown in Table CLXVIII. In this table is also shown the
ratio between the actual cost of 100 pounds of finished
pork on foot and the value of a bushel of corn as deter-
mined by the results of this study. A ratio of 11.51 to 1,

The Cost of Producing Pork 359

for example, means that the actual cost of producing
100 pounds of live hog was found to be equal to eleven
and fifty-one hundredths times the cost of a bushel of
corn, when the system of management used was as given
in A.

General observations.

In interpreting the results of this study, it is important
to note the systems of management employed, the methods
of feeding practiced, and the prices charged for feed,
labor, and other expenses. It is particularly important
to recollect that the concentrated feeds were charged at
the rate of Ij cents a pound, the roughages used having
been reduced to their concentrate equivalents according
to the valuations in the Scandinavian Feed Unit system.

The conditions as a whole under which the experiments
were conducted and on which these calculations were largely
based were, no doubt, superior to the average farm condi-
tions. Sows and pigs selected for experimental feeding
must be thrifty and as uniform as possible in feeding
qualities. This results in the exclusion of those indi-
viduals which tend to pull down the average performance,
or make the results from comparable groups less reliable.
First-class forage crops were generally used also, and the
number of pigs carried by each acre was large. On the
other hand, the rations fed the brood sows were liberal
and the charges for equipment and upkeep were un-
doubtedly higher than on the average hog farm. Further-
more, the good breeder may maintain a class of brood
sows which will continue to be reliable breeders for a
longer period than four years. On the whole, the condi-
tions were probably comparable with the average of the
best.

360 Pork Production

The figures in the above tables afford an opportunity
of comparing the cost of the finished market pig under
four general systems of production. In making this
comparison with the idea of determining the most profit-
able system to follow, however, several important con-
siderations should be made. The first is that the gilt
does not produce nor raise, on the average, as large litters
as the mature sow. The number of pigs farrowed
normally increases up to and including the fourth litter
(see Fig. 8, page 99). A second important fact is
the impossibility of having as early pigs when gilts are
exclusively depended on as when more mature sows are
used. This means a later and usually a lower market for
pigs farrowed by gilts. More important in the long run,
probably, is the difficulty of improving, or even of main-
taining, a high average of breeding performance when
gilts only are employed. The exclusive use of gilts for
the production of the pig crop sacrifices the opportunity
of improving the herd by selection based on breeding
performance. Too often, also, sole dependence on gilts
results in a deterioration of the herd in size and feeding
capacity.

The figures emphasize strongly the importance of raising
two litters every year from mature sows. Two litters
every year after maturity resulted in an average reduc-
tion of 45 cents a hundred in the cost of production as
compared with the system of raising only one litter
annually.

Finally, the importance of the size of the litter as a
factor in economy of production is strikingly emphasized
by the results. With the smallest number of pigs to the
litter, the average cost of production was practically $1.25
a hundredweight greater than when the largest number

The Cost of Producing Pork 361

was produced, and the range of variation was only three
pigs to the litter. On the whole, it would seem that large
litters and reliable breeding qualities on the part of the
female herd represent a point which merits special atten-
tion in producing pork economically.

CHAPTER XVI
MARKETING AND MARKETS

SUCCESS with hogs involves not only economical pro-
duction, but also successful marketing. The responsibili-
ties of the producer do not end until the finished market
pigs pass over the scales into the possession of the buyer.
Since the producer has to pay the bill, the cost of market-
ing the live animal must be included with that of produc-
tion before a determination of actual profits is possible.

For the most successful marketing, one should have
knowledge of the methods and cost of shipping, familiarity
with the system of classifying and grading hogs at the
large markets, an understanding of general market condi-
tions, and the factors which affect the supply and price
of hogs at the dominant market centers. A rather brief
consideration will be given in this chapter to the more
important features of each one of these points.

MARKETING

Three general methods or avenues are open to the
farmer for disposing of his hogs; namely, through the
large public stock yards and packing centers ; through the
local butcher or small packer ; and in the form of farm or
home-cured meats.1 The larger part of the hogs pro-

1 L. D. Hall, F. M. Simpson, and S. W. Doty : Rpt. 113, U. S.
Dept. Agr. Meat Situation in the United States, Part V, " Costs
and Methods of Marketing Livestock and Meats." All the
figures given on marketing, unless otherwise indicated, are taken
from this report.

362

Marketing and Markets 363

duced in the corn-belt find their way directly or indirectly
to the large slaughtering or packing centers. In the
cotton states, in New England, and the western range
states, on the other hand, the hogs are generally disposed
of locally to retail butchers, or slaughtered at home and
the meat cured or sold in the carcass fresh. For the
entire country, the Bureau of Census 1 gives the following
estimates for all hogs slaughtered in 1909 : 63.6 per cent
were killed in large slaughtering and meat packing estab-
lishments, 7.5 per cent in retail slaughter houses, and
28.9 per cent on the farms where grown.

Shipping.

Of the hogs shipped from the corn-belt, 23 per cent is
handled by the owners, while most of the remaining
number is shipped by local dealers or shippers. In some
districts, particularly in Minnesota, community live-
stock shipping associations are performing a useful
function in enabling the man with a few hogs to be inde-
pendent of the local dealer or shipper and in giving him
the advantages of a larger market at a minimum cost.
Comparatively few hogs are purchased in the country by
packer representatives or buyers.

When practicable, it is advisable for the producer to
ship his own hogs. He will be more certain to receive
what his animals are worth on the market than he will
by selling to a shipper. The average margin received by
the local shipper or buyer for handling hogs in the principal
pork-producing states in the corn-belt was 62 cents a hun-
dredweight. Another important advantage in the farmer
shipping his own hogs is the opportunity afforded for
studying market requirements and the methods employed
1 Bull, of the 13th Census, 1910.

364 Pork Production

by the packer in handling and disposing of the products.
Most of the knowledge which can be gained at the large
market centers is indispensable to the feeder in more
correctly interpreting market conditions, for the most
intelligent reading of market reports, and in knowing the
weight and type of hog for which the highest prices are
commonly paid in the different seasons of the year.

In shipping hogs to market, every effort should be made
to prevent abnormal shrink or loss in transit, and to arrive
at the yards at a time and with the hogs in such condition
that their most favorable presentation to the buyer will
be assured. Unfortunately all the conditions which have
much to do in guaranteeing these results are not under
the control of the shipper ; the railroads and the weather
play very important parts. The shipper can do much,
however, to help avoid delays and prevent heavy shrink.

The freight agent should be interviewed early and the
cars ordered in time to insure their delivery when wanted.
No very radical change should be made in the rations fed
the hogs two or three days before loading. Hogs which
have been on grass or forage, however, will shrink less if
confined to the dry lot a week before shipping. Those
which have been fed largely on slops should have their
rations gradually changed to dry feed, mostly corn.
Hogs ship much better when empty than when full of
feed, especially in hot weather. They should not have
their regular ration just before hauling to the shipping
point. They should have a rest if possible before being
loaded on to the cars. The advisability of feeding at the
local shipping point before loading or while in transit
should be determined by the distance to market. It is
very doubtful whether much feed should be given the day
of loading, however, if the hogs are due to arrive at the

Marketing and Markets 365

market within twenty-four hours after leaving their
home yards.

The cars should be thoroughly cleaned before loading.
Half rotted straw or manure should not be used for
bedding, but clean straw in winter and preferably sand,
if available, in summer. Sawdust, hay, cinders, gravel,
and coal are also quite generally employed. Overloading
in hot weather is fatal. They will ride better if the
car is just comfortably full when the hogs are lying
down. The average number of hogs to a car arriving
at the Chicago yards in 1915 was seventy-six, and at
Kansas City eighty-two. About 18 per cent of the
stock cars owned by the railroads in 1908 were double-
deck cars.1

In driving and loading, the hogs should not be hurried
or excited. Crippled hogs sell at a discount of $1.00 a
hundred. Marks and lumps on hogs, the result of kicks,
beatings, or injury in loading or in transit, spoil the appear-
ance and value of the carcass and affect the selling price
proportionally. Because of the fright and worry caused
by rough handling and jostlings while on the cars, the
shipper should be prompt to protest against any unneces-
sary switching and general rough treatment when stops
are made and additional cars are taken on.

In hot weather the hogs should be hosed as often as
possible before loading and in transit. Facilities for this
should be demanded at division points. If the haul is
longer than thirty-six hours, the amended Federal twenty-
eight-hour law requires that stock be unloaded for rest,
feed and water, which frequently works a hardship on
the shipper. An ingenious method of saving the hogs in

1 Frank Andrews : " Cost and Method of Transporting Meat
Animals," U. S. Dept. Agr., Year Book, 1908.

366 Pork Production

extremely hot weather is that of suspending from the car
roof sacks containing large cakes of ice, the movements of
the car being sufficient to distribute the cold drip. At
some future time the railroads may equip their hog-cars
with artificial sprinkling devices. Such an improvement
would result in a tremendous saving during the hot months
of the summer. In winter it is a good plan to protect
the hogs from the cold winds by nailing a few strips of
heavy building paper on the inside of the car, especially
on the windward side.

Selling.

The responsibility of the commission firm to which the
shipment has been consigned begins when the hogs arrive
at the market. The employees of the stock yards com-
pany and the commission firm's helpers, or yardmen, will
see that the hogs are unloaded and yarded. After a short
rest, the hogs should be watered and fed. A good fill is
essential not only to reduce the natural shipping shrink,
but also because the hogs will be more contented and
rest better before the buyers begin to arrive. Unusual
efforts to gain weight by an abnormal fill may reduce the
shrink, but it will also have the effect of lowering the price
bid. On the Chicago market, the seller has the privilege
of saying when the hogs shall be weighed. As a conse-
quence of this understanding between the buyer and
seller, the hogs are put over the scales when in the judg-
ment of the shipper and salesman they have eaten and
drunk their fill and when further delay would mean a
loss of weight. A good hosing when the weather is not
too cold will help greatly in giving the hogs a better
appearance. The owner should be with his hogs early
and until they are sold and weighed, but the judgment of

Marketing and Markets 367

his commission man should be largely depended on in all
matters pertaining to their care and sale.

Costs of marketing.

The various items entering into the expense of shipping
and selling a load of hogs at one of the large market
centers may be grouped as follows : (1) cost of hauling to
local shipping point ; (2) cost of loading on to car, includ-
ing bedding and feed ; (3) freight ; (4) shrink ; (5) com-
mission, yardage, feed, and the like. These costs of course
vary widely, depending chiefly on the distance to market.
The charges assigned below to each of these items are
largely based on investigations made in 1909 and later by
the Office of Markets and Rural Organization of the
United States Department of Agriculture.1

1. Cost of hauling in wagon (average dis-

tance of 5 miles) $1.44 per wagon load

2. Cost of loading on cars, including cost

of bedding and feed 2.00 per car

3. Freight (maximum rates, single-deck

cars, Central Association, Interstate
Commerce ruling, Jan. 1915 ; mini-
mum weight for single-deck cars,
17,000 pounds)
(a) distance 100 miles . 13.22^ to 13.80 £ per cwt.

(6) 200 '

(d) " 400 "

(e) " 500 "

4. Shrink (estimated average)

16.96^to 18.11 j£
19.84 £ to 20.99^
22.71^ to 25.30^
25.59^ to 28.17 1
3 per cent

5. Commission,

(a) for single-deck car $ 8.00 per car

(6) for double-deck car 12.00 "

6. Yardage 8i per head

7. Feed — corn $1.25 per bushel

1 L. D. Hall, F. M. Simpson, and S. W. Doty, Bull. 113.

368 Pork Production

Assuming an average haul of 250 miles and seventy-
six hogs to the car, the total cost of marketing would be
$1.60 a head, or approximately 70 cents a hundredweight
for a 225-pound hog.

Shipping hogs by motor truck.

The use of the motor truck for hauling hogs is an
interesting recent development in marketing methods.
A large proportion of the receipts at the smaller markets
now come in by auto, covering distances often more than
100 miles. During the first six months of 1918, the num-
ber of hogs arriving at the larger Omaha market numbered
92,780, equivalent to eight carloads for each market day.
This was an increase of 180 per cent in the number
marketed by this method over the corresponding period
of 1917.1

MARKET CLASSES

The daily run of hogs at any large market center, espe-
cially in midsummer, is made up of individuals of all
ages and weights, in all degrees of condition or finish,
feeders and fat hogs, stags, old sows, boars, and pigs, as
well as prime well-finished fat barrows. In handling such
a mixture, some system of classification and grading is
obviously necessary in order to facilitate trade and the
accurate reporting of market prices. It is highly desir-
able that the producer be acquainted with this classifica-
tion and the standard trade terms used in connection
with it. A correct interpretation of market reports is,
in fact, impossible without it.

The following outline of market classes is given by

1 Bur. Markets, U. S. Dept. Agr., News Letter, July 3, 1918.

Marketing and Markets 369

Dietrich l as representative of the classifications made on
the Chicago market and followed more or less closely at
other centers. Primarily the classification is on the basis
of the use to which the hogs are put by the packer, and
secondarily, on a basis of weight :

CLASSES SUB-CLASSES

1. Prime heavy hogs, 350-500 Ib None

\ Heavy butchers, 280-350 Ib.

2. Butcher hogs, 180-350 Ib. < Medium butchers, 220-280 Ib.

[ Light butchers, 180-220 Ib.
f Heavy packing, 300-500 Ib.

3. Packing hogs, 200-500 Ib. \ Medium packing, 250-300 Ib.

[ Mixed packing, 200-280 Ib.
English, 160-220 Ib.

Light light, 125-150 Ib.

5. Pigs, 60-125 Ib.

6. Roughs

7. Stags

8. Boars

Roasting pigs, 15-30 Ib.
Feeders

9. Miscellaneous

Governments
Pen holders
Dead hogs

The hogs included in each one of these subclasses are
graded according to their killing qualities as indicated
by their form, condition, and quality. The terms used
for grading are prime, for the best, choice, good, common,
and inferior. The Prime Heavy class contains only one
grade, prime. Butcher hogs and Bacon hogs are largely
of the better grades, while Packing hogs, Light Mixed,
and Light Lights range from inferior to good only in
grades.

1 HI. Exp. Sta. Bull. 97.
2s

370 Pork Production

Prime heavy hogs.

As the name indicates, the hogs included in this class
must be thick fat and heavier than is common. In
addition they must be smooth and well finished. The
class is largely made up of barrows, but a few "clear"
sows (not seedy or shelly) may be included. They are
sometimes designated as "Heavy Loin hogs," "Fat
Backs," or merely "Prime Heavies." Owing to the
increased cost of production and the growing tendency
for the market to prefer the medium and lighter weights,
comparatively few hogs are now fed to these weights.
Most of the hogs in this class weigh from 350 to 400
pounds.

Prime Heavy hogs dress on an average of 82 to 84 per
cent chilled carcass to live weight, head on and leaf lard
in.1 Chilled carcasses weigh about 2^ per cent less than
green or warm carcasses. Hogs of this class are chiefly
used for making heavy loins, fat backs, dry salt bellies,
skinned hams, picnic hams, Boston butts and plates.
With certain market demands, however, they are cut
into the same products as heavy packing hogs.

Butcher hogs.

Hogs of this class weigh from 180 to 350 pounds, being
redivided into the subclasses, heavy, medium, and light,
according to their weight. In each of these subclasses
they are designated prime, good, or common according to
their killing qualities as indicated by their quality, condi-
tion, and form. This class as a rule is largely made up
of barrows from six to twelve months of age, although

1 The figures on dressing percentage of the different classes
of hogs given in this section were supplied by Wilson & Co.,
Chicago.

Marketing and Markets

371

"clear" young sows which have never produced pigs may
be included. Medium to light weight butcher hogs are
the most popular and highest selling hogs on the market.
From 25 to 30 per cent of all hogs coming to the market
are of this class.

As the name suggests, butcher hogs are largely depended
on to supply the demand for fresh pork. They are usually
divided into the following cuts, — fresh loins, fat backs,
Boston butts, New York shoulders, short cut hams, clear
bellies, and extra clears. According to the records of
Wilson and Company, butcher hogs kill out as follows :

TABLE CLXXIL — AVERAGE DRESSED YIELDS OF BUTCHER

HOGS

LIVE WEIGHT

CHILLED DRESSED
WEIGHT, HEAD ON
LEAP LARD IN

CHILLED DRESSED
WEIGHT, HEAD OFF
LEAF LARD OUT

Heavy butchers .
Medium butchers
Light butchers .

280-350 Ib.
220-280 Ib.
180-220 Ib.

80-82%

78-80%
77-97%

72-74%
70-72%
69-71%

Packing hogs.

Packing hogs may weigh all the way from 200 up to
500 pounds. As a class it is made up principally of sows
which have done service as breeders. Extremely rough
barrows, too coarse in quality to go as butcher hogs, and
good stags, are also included in this class. The grades
range from inferior to good. About 40 per cent of all the
hogs coming to the Chicago market belong to this group.
Packing hogs generally are deficient in quality and too
heavy to be suitable for use as fresh or smoked meats.
As the name indicates, they are ordinarily packed as

372

Pork Production

barreled pork or dry salt meats, the hams being made
into "short cuts" and the shoulders into picnic hams and
Boston butts. They are usually dressed with the heads
off and the leaf lard out. The following represents the
average dressed yields :

TABLE CLXXIII. — AVERAGE DRESSED YIELDS OF PACKING

HOGS

LIVE WEIGHT

CHILLED DRESSED
WEIGHT, HEAD ON
LEAF LARD IN

CHILLED DRESSED
WEIGHT, HEAD OFF
LEAF LARD Our

Heavy packing hogs
Medium packing
hogs
Light packing hogs

300-500 Ib.

250-300 Ib.
200-280 Ib.

81-83%

79-80%

77-78%

73-75%

71-72%
69-70%

Sows which are "piggy" are sold subject to a dockage.
In some markets it is the custom to apply a dockage of
20 to 40 pounds regardless of any signs of pregnancy. At
the Chicago market, however, sows are not subject to
dock unless they are noticeably advanced in pregnancy.

Light hogs.

This class is made up of young light weight barrows and
"clear" sows, ranging in weight from 125 pounds, the
minimum for Light Lights, to 220 pounds for the heavier-
Light Mixed or Bacon hogs, and in age from five to eight
months. Variations in type and condition are chiefly
responsible for the three subclasses, Bacon hogs, Light
Mixed, and Lights. In 1904 it was estimated that 15
per cent of all the hogs coming to the Chicago market
were of this class. What are commonly termed "ship-
pers" and "singers" are of this group.

Marketing and Markets

373

The Bacon subclass includes all smooth barrows and
"clear" sows of proper weight which approximate the
bacon type. Since few hogs of strictly bacon type are
produced in the corn-belt, the class is chiefly made up of
medium to thin hogs of lard type breeding. The better
hogs in this subclass go as English bacon, while those
lacking somewhat in type and the proper condition
classify as United States bacon. Bacon hogs are dressed
either for English bacon or premium bacon and short or
long cut hams and shoulders.

The subclass, Light Mixed, contains a miscellaneous
mixture similar, except as to weight, to the mixed packing
subclass. Light Lights are similar to the Light Mixed
except as to weight. These two subclasses are usually
dressed with head on and leaf lard in and are principally
shipped East and sold as fresh meat by the retail trade.

Following is the average dressed yields of light hogs as
reported by Wilson & Company :

TABLE CLXXIV. — AVERAGE DRESSED YIELDS OF LIGHT HOGS

LIVE WEIGHT

CHILLED DRESSED
WEIGHT, HEAD ON
LEAP LARD IN

CHILLED DRESSED
WEIGHT, HEAD OFF
LEAF LARD OUT

Bacon hogs .
Light mixed hogs .
Extra light . . .
Shipper hogs . .

160-220 Ib.
150-220 Ib.
125-150 Ib.
100-200 Ib.

76-77%
75-76%
74-75%
72-76%

68-69%
67-68%
66-67%
64-68%

Pigs.

This class includes pigs which weigh 60 to 125 pounds.
With more weight and finish they would be butcher hogs.
Pigs are too young to furnish meat which will cure well,

374 Pork Production

and are generally sold by the packer to retail dealers who
dispose of the carcasses in the form of chops, boiling
pieces, and other fresh cuts, the trimmings being used for
sausage. It is estimated that around 10 per cent of all
the hogs coming to the Chicago market are of this class.
With the general use of hog cholera serum, many of the
thin pigs which now come to market find their way im-
mediately to the feeding plant of the professional feeder.
Pigs dress out about as follows :

TABLE CLXXV. — AVERAGE DRESSED YIELD OF PIGS

LIVE WEIGHT

CHILLED DRESSED
WEIGHT, HEAD ON
LEAP LARD IN

Shipper pigs

20-100 Ib.

62-72 %

Roughs.

A few hogs coming to market are so inferior in form,
condition, and quality that they cannot be included even
with the poorer grades of packing hogs and are given the
descriptive name, Roughs. The meat is very coarse in
quality and is used by the cheaper trade for both packing
and fresh meat purposes.

Stags.

Stags are castrated boars and sell with a dockage of
80 pounds. Due to the dock and their heavy weight and
high condition, the quoted prices for stags are sometimes
as high as for packing and even butcher hogs. A dockage
of 80 pounds on a 480-pound stag is equivalent to a reduc-
tion of If cents a pound when stags are quoted at $10 a
hundredweight. If not too staggy in appearance, they

Marketing and Markets 375

may sell in the packing class. Their carcasses are usually
disposed of in the same manner as those of packing hogs.

Boars.

Boars are sold without dockage, due to which, together
with the coarse quality and strong flavor of some of the
meat, they sell from $4 to $5 a hundred less than the
better classes. The pork is largely used for the manu-
facture of sausage. Due to their low selling price, it is
more profitable for the farmer to castrate the boars, then
fatten and sell as stags, than it is to sell them entire.

Miscellaneous classes.

Roasting pigs usually weigh from 15 to 30 pounds and
are dressed with head and feet on. During the holiday
season they may sell at fancy prices, being handled very
much in the same way as poultry. At other seasons they
sell at a sacrifice to the grower.

Although the larger number of pigs now handled as
Feeders do not pass through the stockyard centers, never-
theless the number found here in the summer and fall
has greatly increased during the last few years. It is a
class which is beginning to assume considerable impor-
tance.

Governments are hogs which have failed to pass the first
government inspection, which occurs before the hogs are
weighed. They show evidence of sickness or unsoundness
which require them to be slaughtered under special inspec-
tion. If the carcass is found to be unsafe for human food,
it is condemned and tanked, the products being used in
the manufacture of grease and fertilizers.

Dead hogs which arrive at the yards amount to about
.40 per cent of the receipts. These hogs are tanked under

376 Pork Production

the supervision of a government inspector and the products
disposed of to the manufacturers of soap, grease, and
fertilizers.

SUPPLY AND PRICE FLUCTUATIONS AND THEIR USUAL
CAUSES

Like any other commodity bought and sold on the open
market, the price of hogs in general is the reaction of the
demand for pork on the supply of hogs. According to
this law of supply and demand, when the supply of hogs
increases and the demand for pork remains constant the
price goes down ; and when the supply decreases and the
demand is constant the price rises. In the same way,
when the supply of hogs is constant, an increase in the de-
mand for pork tends to increase the price, while a falling
off in the demand tends to lower the price. These are
the natural and inevitable results when the market is
open and competition among buyers is free.

In the following pages, a brief analysis is made of the
principal factors which affected the supply and price of
hogs on the Chicago market, during the ten-year period
from 1905 to 1914 inclusive. The Chicago market is
selected for this study because it is the largest and because
the prices paid there, with freight rates, determine the
prices paid at other market centers. Its dominant
position is shown by the fact that practically 28 per
cent of all the hogs received at the fourteen principal
markets of the country in 1915 was credited to the
Chicago yards. The receipts at the different markets
were as follows : 1

1 Chicago Daily Farmers' and Drovers' Journal, Year Book
of Figures, 1917.

Marketing and Markets

377

MARKET

RECEIPTS

MARKET

RECEIPTS

Chicago . .
Omaha . .
St. Louis
Kansas City
Indianapolis
St. Paul . .
East Buffalo

7,652,071
2,642,973
2,591,768
2,530,730
2,435,319
2,155,201
1,769,920

Sioux City .
St. Joseph
Milwaukee
Oklahoma City
Wichita . .
Fort Worth .
Denver . .

1,768,818
1,697,842
583,071
484,842
479,469
463,879
343,653

Monthly variations in the supply.

In Fig. 13 curves are plotted which show graphically
the actual supply of hogs by months for each of the ten
years and the average monthly supply for the entire ten-
year period. These curves have two rather significant
features. The curves for the different years are remark-
ably uniform in their direction, and in practically every
year the period of heavy runs falls in December and
January and the light runs in April and September.
From September on to January, the supply rises rapidly
and regularly.

It will now be considered why the supply of hogs varies
from month to month throughout the year. The uniform-
ity in the direction of the curves for the different individual
years suggests the probability that these seasonal varia-
tions are the result of factors which are quite constant
from year to year.

The heavy run of hogs which is common in December,
January, and February is due to the fact that this is the
normal time for the marketing of pigs farrowed the pre-
ceding spring. About 75 per cent of the hogs coming to
the Chicago market are spring or summer farrowed. In
1916 the Bureau of Crop Estimates reported that 60 per
cent of the pigs born each year are farrowed in March,
April, and May. The general practice is to feed old corn

378

Pork Production

Marketing and Markets 379

rather sparingly during the summer and to depend largely
on the cheaper new corn for most of the gains. As shown
in Fig. 11, page 215, the price of corn is highest in August
and September and lowest in December, January, and
February. In addition to the effect of cheap corn, the
use of pigs for hogging-down corn and for following cattle
during the winter tend to retard the marketing of the
previous spring crop.

The supply from January to April rapidly and quite
regularly diminishes under normal conditions. This is
the natural result of the heavy liquidations taking place
in the preceding months. The low run during April is
the logical consequence of the effort to reduce stock be-
fore the assessor arrives, the readjustments required on
rented farms at moving time, and the desire to sell all
marketable stock before the rush of spring work com-
mences.

Fall pigs are normally ready for market in May and
June and hence the rise in the supply during these months.
This is the time also when the culls from the breeding
herd begin to arrive following a brief period of fattening.
The risk of loss from shipping in hot weather and the in-
creasing scarcity and price of corn are also important
factors resulting in a larger supply during the early summer
and a consequent diminishing supply from June to Septem-
ber.

A study of the individual supply curves shows few varia-
tions from the average. Such differences which are to be
noted are usually the result of special conditions or influ-
ences which tend to effect a change of plan from the regu-
lar time of marketing. The following are some of the more
common of these influences : a partial failure of the corn
crop over a considerable area of the corn-belt ; the present

380 Pork Production

and prospective price of corn and hogs ; cholera epidemics ;
difficulty of obtaining cars for shipments ; unusual weather
conditions ; strikes and labor troubles at the large indus-
trial centers.

From the standpoint of the packers, a more uniform
supply of hogs from month to month throughout the year
would make possible greater efficiency and economy in
handling the pork products. Their labor would be more
regularly employed, the capacity of their plants would
be greatly increased, and more reliable service by the
railroads in distributing their products would be assured.
Since the perfection of refrigeration, in 1880, the packers
are in position to handle as many hogs in summer as in
winter.

In the interests of the farmer, a more uniform supply
of hogs on the market throughout the year would give the
packers and other buying agents less power over the
market. When the large runs accumulate in December
and January, the opportunity to break the market is a
chance which the buyers do not neglect. The result is
that the bulk of the packers' supplies are purchased when
the runs are heaviest and the prices lowest. Since supplies
during the summer are relatively light, the buyer pays
high prices for hogs only when his purchases are fewest.
These are advantages which the packers would not enjoy
if the monthly runs were more uniform.

The conditions on the farms where the hogs are produced
and raised for market do not promise, however, any radical
change in time of marketing. There are a few tendencies
however, which operate in that direction. A larger number
of February and March pigs are being produced now than
formerly ; the use of the self-feeder in growing and fatten-
ing market pigs is becoming more general ; there is an in-

Marketing and Markets 381

creasing appreciation of the value of forage crops; and
the number of fall pigs produced is increasing. The
effect of these influences will tend to equalize somewhat the
summer and winter receipts.

Variations in the daily supply.

A prominent feature at the large central markets is the
tendency for the week's shipments to accumulate and fall
on Mondays and Wednesdays. In 1915 the hogs arriving
at the Chicago yards were distributed throughout the week
as follows : * on Mondays, 24 per cent ; on Tuesdays, 14 ;
on Wednesdays, 23; on Thursdays, 19; on Fridays, 13;
and on Saturdays, 4. In the case of cattle, there was
even a greater tendency for congestion on Mondays and
Wednesdays.

It is generally conceded by both buyers and commission
men that the market would be less erratic if shipments
were more uniformly distributed throughout the first five
working days of the week, and that there would be a large
saving from increased efficiency in handling the stock
at the yards and packing plants. From the shipper's
viewpoint, there is no question but that a more regular
supply would be advantageous. Sharp breaks in the mar-
ket, the evil result of glutted yards, would be less frequent
and a more stable market result.

The custom of loading for the Monday and Wednesday
markets seems to have been due to the failure of the rail-
roads to provide through service for large shipments on
other days. The packer suffered from the same restric-
tions in getting the products to "his numerous distributing
centers and to seaboard ports. To correct the evils grow-

1 Bur. Crop Estimates, U. S. Dept. Agr., Monthly Crop Rpt.,
Vol. 2, 1916.

382

Pork Production

ing out of this custom, the Bureau of Markets of the
United States Department of Agriculture, on the au-
thority granted by Congress, inaugurated for the war
period the zone system of loading for stock consigned to
the Chicago market. This regulation went into effect
December 10, 1917. The effect of this control on the
distribution of receipts of hogs and cattle throughout the
week is indicated by the figures in Table CLXXVI.

TABL3 CLXXVI. — AVERAGE PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OP
WEEKLY RECEIPTS, MARCH 11 TO JUNE 15, 1918

YEAR

MON.

TUES.

WED.

THURS.

FRI.

SAT.

Cattle

1917

35.2

10.4

37.0

11.6

4.3

1.5

1918

29.4

24.3

11.9

21.9

9.1

3.4

Hogs

1917

31.3

10.6

21.6

16.0

13.1

7.4

1918

29.1

16.1

12.6

18.7

16.1

7.4

That the better distribution of receipts did not in the
earlier stages of this regulation bring about a more stable
market was no doubt due to the very abnormal conditions
created by the war, and more particularly to the irregu-
larity with which the buying orders for the Government
and Allies were put into the hands of the packers.

Variations in the yearly supply.

Reference to Fig. 17 will show the variations in the re-
ceipts of hogs on the Chicago market which are common
from year to year. It is to be noted that years of heavy
supply tend both to be preceded and followed by years of
light supply. It would appear that periods of heavy and
light production are separated by intervals of two to three

Marketing and Markete 383

years ; and that years of high production tend to succeed
one another every four to five years.

The chief cause of these yearly fluctuations is, no doubt,
the relation between the price of corn and that of hogs.
In other words, the chief stimulant to increased production
is to be found in the profits derived by the producer the
preceding year. Increased production tends to follow
the year when the price of hogs is high compared with the
price of corn. In 1908 the price of corn was high and the
price of hogs low. The effect on production is shown by a
reduction of a million and a half head in the receipts in 1909,
followed by another million in 1910. In 1910 hogs were
high and corn relatively cheap. The result was a greatly
increased production in 1911. According to the report
of the commission appointed by the Food Administration
to investigate the cost of producing hogs,1 the average
ratio between the price of hogs a hundredweight and the
price of corn a bushel was 11.67 for the ten-year period
from 1907 to 1916 inclusive.2 During this period, in other
words, 100 pounds of live hogs sold for 11.67 times as much
as a bushel of No. 2 corn on the Chicago market. The
recommendations of this committee were based on the
ascertained principle that when a ratio less than 11.67
exists between the price of hogs and that of the corn
which was fed into them, production is discouraged
and the supply reduced; and when a wider ratio than
11.67 exists, production is stimulated and the supply of
hogs increases.

1 John M. Eward, Lawrence P. Funk, N. H. Gentry, W. A.
Williams, J. H. Skinner, Tait Butler, E. W. Burdie.

2 This method of determining cost of production was sug-
gested by the previous studies of "Wallaces' Farmer" of Des
Moines, Iowa,

384 Pork Production

Weight as a factor in supply.

The variations in the average weight of hogs by months
throughout the year for the twelve-year period from 1905
to 1916 inclusive are seen in Fig. 14. From January to
August the weight quite regularly increases, and from
August to November there is a rapid decline in weight.
During November and December the weights are light
because the receipts are largely made up of spring pigs,

250,

-I*1

0
^220

•J

O
<2/0
K
g
**ZOC

^•^••i

dAM. Fes MAR APR A/AV Jt/*e Juw. AUG. «5epr OCT. No* DEC.

FIG. 14.

Average monthly variations in the weight of hogs on the
Chicago market from 1905 to 1916.

many of which are not finished. From January on the
weight increases as the age of the pigs marketed increases.
June weights, on the average, are no heavier than May
weights, probably because of a large proportion of fall
pigs. The extra heavy weights during the late summer
and early fall are largely due to the marketing of old sows
and stags and well-finished fall pigs. The rapid decline
in weight during the fall is largely to be explained by the

Marketing and Markets

385

light weight of the first marketed spring pigs, many of
which havebeen rushed to market because of cholera scares.
As it happens, the average weight of the hogs marketed
is heaviest in those months when the receipts are lightest.
The variations in weight, therefore, tend to equalize the
supply of hogs during the different months of the year.

As shown in Fig. 15, the average weight of market hogs
varies widely from year to year. The principal factor

<Q 240
X

to
Szzc

^2*

ti
^ZfO

1305 'O6 '07 '06 '09 >O >/ 'lZ 'A3 '/4 '/5 . '/6

FIG. 15. — Average annual weight of hogs on the Chicago market from
1905 to 1916.

responsible for this is the relation which exists between the
price of corn and that of hogs. When hogs are high and
corn relatively cheap, every pig in the corn-belt will be
held and fed to full market weight ; and on the other hand,
when hogs are cheap and corn high and rising, the natural
result is that the pigs are sent to market in an unfinished
condition and the corn sold for cash. The record annual
weight of hogs marketed in 1910 is a striking illustration
2c

386 Pork Production

of this principle. High absolute prices for corn seem to
cause the marketing of unfinished pigs, even though the
price of hogs for the time being is correspondingly high.
From year to year, weights average lowest in those years
when the receipts are highest. The factor of weight, con-
sequently, tends to equalize the supply from year to year,
as it does from month to month.

Seasonal variations in price.

The average prices paid for light and heavy hogs by
months on the Chicago market during the ten-year period
from 1905 to 1914 inclusive, are shown graphically in
Fig. 16. The average supply curve is also given for pur-
poses of comparison. According to these curves for light
and heavy hogs, hogs sell highest in September and April
and lowest in December and January. Winter prices are
relatively low and summer prices high. The more im-
portant of the causes responsible for these typical price
variations throughout the year will now be considered.

That an intimate relationship exists between the price
of hogs in any month and the supply, is clearly apparent
on a comparison of the price and supply curves in Fig. 16.
The price of hogs is highest, on the average, in those
months when the average supply is lowest ; and when the
supply is heaviest, the price is lowest. Exceptions to
this rule are occasionally to be found, of course, in indi-
vidual months, notably, for example, during the closing
months of 1909 and the early months of 1911. The ex-
ceptions, however, are temporary and more apparent than
real. In the long run, a deficiency in the supply of live
hogs is bound to increase prices, while a surplus of live
hogs is certain to reduce them.

In the summer and early fall, heavy weight hogs pre-

Marketing and Markets

387

dominate on the market, particularly during July, August
and September ; and in the winter light weights predomi-
nate. In addition, the packer's demand is for heavy hogs
in winter and for light hogs in summer. The effect of
both supply and demand, therefore, is to cause light hogs

THOUSANDS.

LIGHT Moss
Hc/w

'6.**
JAN. Fes. MAR. APR. MAY. JUNE. .«Ji/z.v. AUG.

***«

OCT. Nov. DEC.

FIG. 16. — Curves showing the average monthly price of light and heavy
hogs on the Chicago market from 1905 to 1914.

to sell at a premium during the summer, and heavy hogs
at a premium in the winter.

The supply of hogs on the market for any month, how-
ever, is not the only factor influencing the price : the de-
mand for pork is also to be reckoned with. As a general
proposition, it may be said that consumption of pork is
heavier in winter than in summer. When the general
economic conditions are constant throughout the year,
and the price of pork normal, variations in demand and

388 Pork Production

consumption in the different months are largely the result
of temperature. The prosperity of the southern farmer,
or the condition of the cotton crop, is an important factor
influencing the demand for pork during the summer. The
effect of general economic conditions, and the price of
pork, is to influence the demand, but quite independent
of any given season.

Prices of dressed hogs, and wholesale and retail cuts,
seem to follow quite closely the price- of hogs. As a rule,
a rise or fall in the price of live hogs is followed in one or
two months by a rise or fall in the price of fresh pork cuts.
Prices of cured products, smoked hams and bacon, and
the products on which futures are bought and sold on the
board of trade, short ribs, mess pork, and lard, follow the
general trend of live hog prices, but are less sensitive to
the seasonal fluctuations than are the fresh cuts.1

Yearly variations in price.

In Fig. 17 the average annual price of hogs on the
Chicago market is shown by a plotted curve for the years
from 1905 to 1916 inclusive. The supply curve for the
same period of time is also shown. At the bottom of the
figure the average price of No. 2 cash corn on the Chicago
market is indicated for each year.

Like the supply, the price of hogs is subject to wide
fluctuations from year to year. Under normal conditions,
years of high prices tend to be preceded and followed by
years of low prices.

That variation in supply is the chief and fundamental
factor which determines the average price of hogs from

1 L. D. Hall, F. M. Simpson, and S. W. Doty : "Methods and
Cost of Marketing Livestock and Meats," U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Rpt. 113.

Marketing and Markets

389

year to year seems to be conclusively shown by these
curves. From 1905 to 1911, the direction of the supply
and price curves is in exact opposition. In 1916 a marked
increase in both receipts and price is noted, due to the
greatly increased demand occasioned by war.

The general demand for pork products exerts an im-
portant influence on the price of hogs from year to year.

MILLIONS. PER CWT.

SUPPLY CURVC "

g °

^_ _,^

fc fl

'& t

SUPPJ.Y <
si C

>• !•

\
\

-T^

1 rf

^*<<

lU
- CD

6 <,

(

* ^

Y2*R. 'OS '06 *O7 '08 tO VO '// '/2 '/3 '/4 '/5 */6

No.Z SOt 4&i <53* 6Q* 67* ^Q* 53* 63* 62^ 7O* 734 Q34

FIG. 17. — Curves showing the average annual price and supply of hogs
on the Chicago market from 1905 to 1916.

The effect of the rapid increase in the population of the
country has been to reduce the per capita number of swine.
For many years there has been a steady and persistent
decline in the number of swine per capita of the popula-
tion. In 1840 it was 1.54 hogs per capita, and in 1910, .75.
The effect of this growing shortage is in the direction of
higher prices.

300 Pork Production

The most important factor in the demand for any year
is probably to be found in the general economic conditions
which prevail throughout the country. More pork is
eaten when business is good, when labor is regularly em-
ployed and well paid, than when times are hard and labor
employment is uncertain and wages low. Another fact
which exerts an important influence on demands is that
more pork is eaten when the price is relatively low than
when it is high. The maximum price of pork is ordinarily
limited just below the point where the average consumer
cannot afford to eat it.

CHAPTER XVII

JUDGING

A GOOD judge of hogs possesses the most valuable asset
necessary for success as a breeder. The breeder or feeder
who is not a reliable judge cannot succeed in the hog busi-
ness regardless of the advantages he may enjoy in equip-
ment, financial backing, or other favorable conditions.
Good judges, however, are not born as such, and the in-
dividual must have training and experience before he is
competent.

An important part of the training necessary consists
in gaining an appreciation of the essential duties or func-
tions which the different classes of hogs have to perform.
The best finished fat barrow, for example, is the one which
not only has been a good feeder, but which will dress out
the most profitably as a killer. A knowledge of the
butcher's requirements is necessary as a foundation for
the formation of correct ideas of the fat or bacon hog
type. For the same reason, the ideal of brood sow type
should be based on an experienced understanding of the
work she has to do. Any conception of type which is not
consistent with reliable breeding performance is fatal to
the future of the herd or breed. An appreciation of this
fundamental principle is important, for it will promote
stability of judgment and reasonable independence towards
temporary fads and the demands for extremes in type.

391

392 Pork Production

TYPES OF HOGS

With respect to type, all hogs are roughly divided into
two classes, known respectively as the lard type and the
bacon type. The efforts of the breeder to furnish the
finest bacon have resulted in the evolution of the bacon
hog ; while the efforts of the breeder to produce a profit-
able feeding hog possessing the maximum of lard-produc-
ing tendencies have resulted in the modern lard hog. Dif-
ferences between these two primary types are due, there-
fore, to the essential variation in the market demands
which were responsible for their creation.

The lard type of hog has been developed to his highest
degree of perfection in the corn-belt, because corn is essen-
tially a fat or lard-producing food. But it is not correct
to say that the modern lard type is the sole result of corn
feeding ; the development of this type has been brought
about by the selection for breeding purposes of those indi-
viduals which responded favorably to corn-belt conditions.
It is a matter of good fortune that the market should
prefer the type of hog which the farmers of the corn-belt
are best qualified by natural advantages to produce.

The bacon type of hog, on the other hand, has found its
highest development in an environment which supplies
a variety of feeds less fattening in their qualities than corn.
In Canada, where the bacon type is generally produced,
peas, barley, and oats are the grains on which chief reliance
is placed. With these advantages and the continued se-
lection for the type which produces high-grade British
bacon, the Canadian farmer has developed and main-
tained a hog conforming to the standard of the bacon
type.

Judging

393

JUDGING THE FINISHED FAT BARROW OF THE LARD TYPE

Market requirements.

On the daily market, highest prices are paid for the
kind of hog which the daily records of the buyers have
shown to be the best killers. From the butcher or packer's
point of view, a good killer is one which furnishes a carcass
yielding a high percentage of dressed to live weight, of
suitable weight and condition, correct in shape, and pos-
sessing fine quality of fat and lean.

High dressing percentage is of special importance be-
cause of the influence it exerts on the price which the
buyer can afford to pay for the live hog. The average
market hog dresses about 74 per cent of chilled carcass to
live weight, while the average grade of the medium-weight
butcher hogs will dress about 78 per cent. The first prize
carcasses at the last four International Livestock Exposi-
tions (1913, '16, '17, and '18) represented an average of
85 per cent of carcass to live weight, the highest being 92
and the lowest 80.85 per cent.

The importance of dressing percentage as a factor in
determining selling price is brought out by the figures
presented in Table CLXXVII. These calculations were
made on the basis of a 10-cent market and a live weight
of 225 pounds. The carcasses from the low dressing hogs
were assumed to have the same value a pound as the
heavier dressing carcasses.

TABLE CLXXVII. — THE RELATION OF DRESSING PERCENT-
AGE TO SELLING VALUE ON FOOT

Dressing percentage . .

Relative value per pound

on foot

10.71^

11.43 ?f

12.14«f

394 Pork Production

These figures mean that if hogs weighing an average of
225 pounds and dressing 70 per cent are worth 10 cents
a pound, hogs of the same weight dressing 75 per cent are
worth 10.71 cents a pound, and so on. That is to say, for
every increase of 1 per cent in dressing yield, the selling
value on foot is enhanced between 14 and 15 cents a hun-
dredweight.

In actual practice, such wide variations in dressing per-
centage as given in this table are not common with hogs
of the same weight. Variations in dressed weights are
due chiefly to differences in weight, condition, and fill.
The supply and demand for lard on the one hand, and for
fresh pork cuts on the other, are largely responsible for
the failure of the selling price of live hogs always to har-
monize with the dressing percentage.

The weight, condition, shape, and quality of the carcass
also bear an intimate relationship to the price which the
buyer can afford to pay for the hog on foot. With respect
to weight, the carcasses in greatest demand are furnished
by butcher hogs weighing from 200 to 260 pounds alive.1
The most profitable cutting carcasses are broad, thick, and
of medium length, symmetrical in shape, even in their
lines, and uniform in width and thickness. There should
be no tendency towards stagginess, shown by coarse and
extra heavy shoulders, the loin should not be weak nor
the hams light. The carcass as a whole should present a
plump smooth surface, the skin being thin and free from
creases, blotches, or bruises. The fat covering should
be thick and of uniform depth. After chilling the fat
should be firm and ivory white, rather than yellow,
stringy, or oily. The lean meat should be bright and fine-

1 B, R. Gentry, general hog buyer, Armour & Co.

Judging 395

grained, rather than dark and coarse.1 These desirable
features mean that the carcass will yield the high-priced
market cuts with a minimum of trimming ; that the
shrinkage in curing the hams and bacon will be small ;
and that the flavor, quality, and general attractiveness of
the cuts, both cured and fresh, will be of the best — all
of which mean a caracass whose products command the
highest prices in the open market.

A compilation by E. R. Gentry 2 of the killing records
of medium-weight butcher hogs dressed by Armour and
Company gives the following average percentages of the
different cuts and products :

r<TTm PER CENT OP

LIVE WEIGHT

Hams 12.50

Shoulders 10.50

Belly bacon 11.50

Fat backs 9.95

Loins 9.75

Prime steam lard 12.50

Tenderloins, spareribs, tails, snouts, etc. . . 6.50

Total dressed carcass 73.20

Leaf fat 2.80

Casings, heart, liver, cheek meat, etc. . . 12.00

Total edible products 88.00

Moisture and fecal matter 12.00

Total 100.00

The score-card.

The score-card represents the efforts of the live-stock
judge to describe in detail the perfect animal. In addi-
tion, the effort is made to assign each detail a value which
correctly indicates its importance when considered in rela-
tion to the whole. The arrangement of the score-card is

1 L. D. Hall, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 147.

2 Progressive Hog Raising, Armour & Co.

396

Pork Production

such that a systematic and detailed examination of the
animal is facilitated. Blank spaces are usually provided
in which the scorer may record his ratings for the different
"points" or details.

The score-card method of selecting animals or of judging
groups or classes is not a practical one, owing chiefly to
the time required. Its general use is impracticable also
because few are sufficiently expert in its use to do con-
sistently accurate work with it. But the fundamental
reason why the score-card result must always be subject
to review is because a given "point" may be so faulty
that its importance in relation to the individual as a whole
is enhanced far beyond the number of credit points assigned
it by the score-card. As an expression of a standard of
perfection and as a means of preliminary study, however,
the score-card has proved itself of great value in teaching
the rudiments of live-stock judging to the beginner.

SCORE-CARD FOR MARKET HOGS OF THE LARD TYPE

SCALE OP POINTS

STANDARD

STUDENT'S
SCORE

GENERAL APPEARANCE — 30 per cent

1. Weight — score according to age . .
2. Form — deep, broad, medium length,
smooth, compact, symmetrical ;
standing squarely on mediumly short

4
10

3. Condition — fat, well finished; deep,
even, firm yet mellow covering ; free
from rolls or flabbiness
4. Quality — hair smooth and fine ; bone
of medium size, clean, and strong;
smooth, refined general appearance;
free from creases and wrinkles . . .

10
6

Judging

397

SCALE OF POINTS

HEAD AND NECK — 8 per cent
5. Snout — medium length, not coarse
Eyes — able to see ; prominent, clear,
not obscured by fat ......

Face — short and clean ; cheeks full

8. Ears — fine, medium size, attached neatly

9. Jowl — full, firm, neat, free from

wrinkles ..........

10. Neck — short, full, smooth to shoulder .

FOREQUARTERS — 12 per cent

11. Shoulders — broad, deep, smooth, com-

pact on. top .........

12. Breast — full, smooth, neat .... 2

13. Legs — straight, short, strong ; bone

clean, hard ; pasterns short, strong
upright ; feet medium size .... 2

BODY — 33 per cent

14. Chest — deep, wide, full ; large girth . 4

15. Sides — medium length, deep, straight,

smooth; free from creases and
wrinkles . . . . ...... 8

16. Back — broad, uniform in width,

strongly arched; thickly and evenly
covered ..........

17. Loin — wide, thick, strong ; same width

as back .......... 9

18. Belly and Underline — straight, smooth,

firm, flanks low and full ..... 6

HINDQUARTERS — 17 per cent

19. Rump — long, wide, evenly fleshed ; not

steep ........... 3

20. Hams — long, thick, wide, deep, plump,

firm ; not baggy ....... 9

21. Legs — straight, short, strong; bone

clean, hard ; pasterns short, strong,

_ upright ; feet medium size . . . . 2

Total 100

STANDARD

STUDENT'S
SCORE

Pork Production

It will be noted that this score-card is divided into two
parts. In the first part, under general appearance, the
essential points or features are taken up in a general way,
while in the remaining sections the details are each given
separate consideration.

Weight (4 per cent) . — In scoring weight, it is customary
to consider both the butcher's and feeder's requirements.
From the butcher's or packer's standpoint, the most de-
sirable market weights range from 200 to 275 pounds.
From the standpoint of the feeder, the pig which has made
the most rapid gains and is heaviest for his age is the most
profitable, other things being equal. The following
weights for fat barrows may be regarded as about ideal
from the producer's point of view under conditions of in-
tensive feeding : at six months, 200 pounds ; at nine months,
300 pounds ; and at twelve months, 400 pounds. Heavy
hogs dress higher than light ones, largely because they are
usually fatter and more mature in conformation. The
following yields were furnished by Swift and Company,
Chicago, as representative of hogs of good average quality
as they come to their plant :

LIVE WEIGH

30-60 pou
125-150
150-200
200-225
225-250
250-300
300-400
400-500

PER CE
r CHILLED
TO LIVE

nds . . . 60-64 p

NT OF
2\HCA

WEIGI
er ce

88
IT

These yields included the head and leaf fat. Chilled
carcasses weigh 2| per cent less than warm or fresh car-
casses, on the average. Show barrows will dr^s$ from 3
to 5 per cent higher than these figures.

Judging 399

Form (10 per cent). — The ideal fat barrow should first
impress one by his symmetry and compactness of form.
He should be deep from end to end, with a nicely arched
top line and a straight trim underline. He should have
great width of top, with an abrupt square spring of rib,
rather than one which falls gradually from the middle
line of the back. He should be uniform in width from the
shoulders clear back to the base of the hams. His side
lines should be straight and the width of back and loin
carried down as uniformly as possible to the belly line.
His jowl should be full, but not heavy or pendent, and the
head just medium in size. The legs should be straight and
strong and set squarely under each corner of the body.
Such conformation means a high proportion of dressed
to live weight, a maximum development in the more val-
uable parts, and a minimum amount of trimming in the
preparation of the various cuts for market.

Condition (10 per cent). — The conformation of the ideal
fat hog just described is in large part the result of high
condition. From the strictly lard or fat hog standpoint,
the fatter a barrow is the better, provided the fat is
smoothly laid on and of desirable firmness. The covering
over the back, loin, and rump should be particularly deep
and uniform in its thickness. There should be no tend-
ency for the fat to accumulate about the jowl, underline,
and lower hams at the expense of covering on top. A
general tendency to flabbiness and softness along the lower
lines, unevenness of covering along the back, and a general
inability to move about with ease are evidence of an over-
done condition. Lack of finish or condition is shown by a
general lack of thickness and plumpness in form, and lack
of depth and mellowness in the covering over the back
and loin. High condition in the finished fat or lard hog

400 Pork Production

is desired chiefly because of the market demand for lard,
and also because of its relation to high dressing per-
centage.

Quality (6 per cent). — Quality is fineness of texture as
opposed to coarseness. The fat hog should show quality
and refinement in every line and feature. His hair should
be fine, straight, and lie close to the body. The bone
should be medium in size, hard, and clean-cut in appear-
ance. The head should be light, the features refined, and
the ears light. The skin should be soft and healthy and
there should be an entire absence of any tendency to
creases. Deep creases about the shoulders and along
the sides should be regarded as serious, as should general
coarseness of features. Quality is important in the fat
hog because fine quality on foot indicates fine texture of
the meat on the block. It is important also as it indicates
a minimum development of the cheaper parts of the car-
cass and a high dressing percentage. Weight, form, condi-
tion, and quality are the general points on which decisions
are based in judging finished fat hogs. The remaining
parts of the score-card permit of a consideration of these
same points as applied to the separate details.

Head and neck (8 per cent) . — The head and neck con-
stitute a rather unimportant part of the fat hog. To the
butcher the head is cheap meat at best and the more re-
fined, therefore, the better. A broad head, short neck,
and snout are usually associated with a broad back and
loin and deep, heavy hams. Quality and refinement in
these features are desirable because they indicate fine
grain in the carcasses and light offal waste.

Forequarters (12 per cent). — The shoulders are the most
important part of the forequarters. This is indicated on
the score-card by the large credit of eight points given it.

Judging 401

It is particularly important that the shoulders be smooth
and compact on top and free from any tendency to rough-
ness or creases along the sides. The shoulders should be
deep also and the breast full and the legs wide apart.

Body (33 per cent) . — All parts of the body are impor-
tant to the butcher because together they represent the
largest part of the dressed carcass. A broad, thick,
strongly arched back, deep smooth sides, and a trim,
straight, muscular underline are the most important
features to be desired. Perhaps the most common and
serious faults are a heavy paunch and "wasty" underline,
"fish" back, weak loin, and creases just back of the
shoulders on the sides.

Hindquarters (17 per cent) . — The hams represent the
principal parts of the hindquarters. The rump is a part
of the ham cut. The width of the rump and the thickness
of the hams should be the same as the width of the back
and loin. The hams should not be soft and baggy, but
long, full, deep, and muscular. They should also be broad
or wide, and well covered in the region of the stifles.
The legs should be straight, strong, and set well apart.

JUDGING THE FINISHED BARROW OF THE BACON TYPE

Market requirements.

The English market sets the standard for high-grade
bacon and is extremely critical and discriminating. The
manufacturers of British bacon are, therefore, closely
restricted in regard to the kind of hog which they can
profitably use and the methods employed in curing it.
Most of the bacon exported by Canada is in the form of
the Wiltshire side (Plate VIII), which is especially de-
signed to meet the English demands. The requirements

402 Pork Production

in a number one Wiltshire side may be enumerated as
follows: First, the side when it comes out of the salt
must be firm and hard ; second, the side must contain a
maximum of lean meat of fine grain and color, mixed with
and covered by just the right amount of fat; third, the
carcass or side must possess the desirable shape ; fourth,
it must be within the limits of weight ; and fifth, it should
be heavy in proportion to the live weight.

Of these points it is most important that the bacon be
firm. Softness is claimed to be the most common and
serious fault. Day, while at the Ontario Agricultural
College, made numerous experiments to determine the
causes of soft bacon.1 At the conclusion of his study, the
following were given as the most frequent : unthriftiness
of the pigs due to insanitary conditions, or a faulty or
unbalanced ration ; not finished in condition ; and an
exclusive corn ration for an extended time during the
growing period. A moderate amount of exercise, a
balanced ration of mixed grains with dairy by-products,
and general thriftiness and health all tended to produce
firm bacon. Barley, either alone or with oats or middlings,
produced bacon of the very best quality.

" A streak of fat and a streak of lean" expresses well
one of the essentials of good bacon. The lean must also
be fine in texture and bright in color. The fat in addi-
tion to being firm and white must be even and uniform
in depth, from Ij to 2 inches along the back and loin.
The carcass should be long, especially between the top
of the shoulder and the ham, and uniform in width and
thickness from end to end. The most valuable retail

1 Bull. 10, The Production of Bacon for the British Market ;
Dominion of Canada, Dept. Agr., Branch of the Live-stock
Commission,

Judging

403

cuts from a Wiltshire side are from the side proper, in
the region of the loin, back, and the fore or bottom part
of the bacon proper, hence the demand for long, deep sides
and light hams and shoulders. The cheapest cuts are from
the lower shoulder and lower ham. Rough heavy shoulders,
baggy hams, rough skin, and too much fat are, next to
softness, the most common causes for disqualification.

The most desirable weights are produced by pigs weigh-
ing from 180 to 195 pounds alive. High dressing per-
centage is important with bacon as with fat hogs, but
variations are quite secondary as a factor in the price paid
for the live animal. Because of the differences in size,
type, and condition, good bacon hogs usually dress from
3 to 5 per cent less than good barrows of the fat type.

Score-card for bacon hogs.

To satisfy these market requirements, the bacon hog
must conform closely to the ideal as expressed by the
description given in the following score-card, which is
by G. E. Day : 1

SCORE-CARD FOR MARKET HOGS OF THE BACON TYPE

SCALE OF POINTS

STANDARD

STUDENT'S
SCORE

GENERAL APPEARANCE — 35 per cent

1. Size — well developed for age . . .
2. Form — long; smooth, all parts pro-
portionately developed so as to give
the impression of a well-balanced,
strongly built animal. Top line,
strong; underline, straight; belly,

5
10

Productive Swine Husbandry."

404

Pork Production

SCALE op POINTS

STANDARD

STUDENT'S
SCORE

3. Quality — hair fine ; skin smooth,

showing no tendency to wrinkle;
bone, clean and strong; but not
coarse ; flesh, firm and smooth, with
no flabbiness at jowl, fore-flank, belly
or ham

4. Condition — well covered with firm

flesh, especially along the back and
loin, but not heavily loaded with fat

5. Style — active and sprightly, walking

without a swaying movement, and
standing well up on toes ....

HEAD AND NECK — 8 per cent

6. Snout — medium length and moder-

ately fine

7. Face — broad between eyes ; poll broad

and full

8. Eyes — good size, full, and bright . .

9. Jowl — fair width and muscular, but

very neat, showing no flabbiness . .

10. Ears — moderately thin, and fringed

with fine hair

11. Neck — medium length and muscular,

but possessing no tendency to arch on
top .

FOREQUARTERS — 13 per cent

12. Shoulders — smooth, somewhat rounded

from side to side over top, and very
compact; no wider than back, and
not running back on side so as to
shorten distance between shoulders
and ham

13. Breast — good width and full . . .

14. Fore legs — set well apart, medium

length and straight; pasterns up-
right ; bone, clean and strong ; feet,
medium size and strongly formed

10
6

Judging

405

SCALE OF POINTS

STANDARD

STUDENT'S
SCORE

BODY — 30 per cent

15. Back — medium width, rising slightly
above the straight line, and forming
a very slight arch from neck to root
of tail

16. Loin — wide as rest of back, strong
and full, but not unduly arched .
17. Ribs — good length and moderately
arched

5
4

18. Side — fairly deep ; long, smooth, and
straight between shoulder and ham;
a straight edge laid over shoulder
point and ham should touch the side
throughout

19. Heart girth — full, but not flabby at
fore flanks, filled out even with side
of shoulder; there should be no
tucked-up appearance back of fore
legs nor droop back of shoulder top .
20. Flank — full and low

5
2

HINDQUARTERS — 14 per cent

21. Rump — same width as back ; long and
slightly rounded from a point above
hips to tail ; and somewhat rounded
from side to side over top ....
22. Ham — full without flabbiness ; thigh,
tapering towards hock without
wrinkles or folds, and carrying flesh
well down towards hock
23. Hind legs — medium length ; hocks set
well apart, but not bowed outward ;
bone, clean and strong; pasterns,
upright; feet, medium size and
strongly formed

4
6

Total

100

406 Pork Production

JUDGING BREEDING HOGS OF THE LARD TYPE

In judging breeding hogs, the essential duties which
they have to perform should be kept uppermost in mind.
To judge the brood sow by fat barrow standards is to
neglect to consider many of the features most closely
associated with breeding performance. This is true of
breeding animals in show condition as well as for those
in ordinary flesh.

The breeder's requirements.

The duties of the brood sow are much more complex
than those of the finished barrow ready for market.
First, and most important, the brood sow should be a
prolific and regular breeder; second, she should be able
to produce the kind of pigs which meet the demands of the
feeder with regard to their ability to make rapid gains
and the disposition to be finished or mature at market
age ; and third, she should produce a type of pig which
will give the maximum returns as a killer when he goes
to the butcher or packer. These statements #pply also
to the boar. Every breeder is striving to produce the
type of hog which he believes will be most successful
in meeting these demands.

A standard of excellence.

Breeders are not agreed on what constitutes the ideal
type of hog. Even those who profess allegiance to the
same breed differ in what they believe to be the best and
most profitable type to produce. The essential differences
between the various breeds of lard hogs are due chiefly
to the varying emphasis placed by the breeders on the
fundamental requirements, breeding qualities, feeding
qualities, and killing qualities. Although there are breed

Judging

407

differences, and although individual strains and herds
show dissimilar types, it is also true that in most points
there is great unanimity of view. There is no better
evidence of this than is furnished by the striking similarity
of the respective breed champions at any large show.

The description given in the following score-card
attempts to express accurately the essential features of an
ideal brood sow, irrespective of color, set of ear, dish of
face, or other breed type features. The plan of the
score-card follows closely the method of description em-
ployed by the National Association of Expert Swine
Judges and the ideal expressed is based on the type as
it is exhibited by the best specimens of our different
lard breeds.

SCORE-CARD FOR BROOD Sows OF THE LARD TYPE

SCALE OF POINTS

STANDARD

STUDENT'S
SCORE

1 . Size — score according to condition and

age 10

2. Head — wide between the eyes ; face

moderately dished, medium in length,
refined and feminine 4

3. Eyes — full, prominent, clear ....

4. Ears — medium size ; strong knuckle ;

fine quality

5. Neck — full, slightly arched, short;

free from creases ; blending smoothly
with shoulders

6. Jowl — full, firm, smooth, neat ... 2

7. Shoulders — compact, smooth ; broad,

deep, full; blending smoothly with

neck, back, and sides 6

8. Chest — deep, full, large girth ; wide at

base .... 8

408

Pork Production

SCALE OP POINTS

9. Back and Loin — strong, evenly arched ;
wide spring of rib, uniform in width ;
smooth, mellow covering ....

10. Sides — deep, long, full, straight with

shoulders and ham; smooth, even,
free from creases or wrinkles . . .

11. Belly and Flanks — belly broad, full,

neat ; teats sound, prominent, numer-
ous, symmetrically placed ; flanks
low and full

12. Rump and Ham — rump wide, same

width as loin, % long, full, rounding,
sloping gradually from loin to tail;
hams long and deep, wide, thick,
plump, muscular, firm, smooth ; stifles
well covered; junction of hams low
and full

13. Feet and Legs — : legs medium length,

straight and set squarely under each
corner of the body; bone of ample
size, clean cut and hard, showing
quality, substance, and strength ;
pasterns straight, nearly upright,
strong; toes short, sound, squarely
placed, equal size

14. Tail — medium size and length, nicely

curled, tapering ; indicative of suffi-
cient size and quality

15. Coat — fine, straight, thick, smooth,

glossy, lying close to body, evenly
distributed

16. Skin — healthy, soft, clear, smooth, free

from excessive scurf or scales . . .

17. Action and Style — action free and easy,

legs carried straight forward ; attrac-
tive carriage

18. Disposition — easy to handle, gentle,

active, lively

19. Symmetry and Balance of Points

Total

STANDARD

100

STUDENT'S
SCORE

Judging

409

By making the following substitutions or changes the above
score-card may be used for the boar :

SCALE OF POINTS

STANDARD

STUDENT'S
SCORE

2. Head — wide between the eyes ; face
moderately dished, medium in length ;
strong and masculine .

5. Neck — full, slightly arched, short,
strong; free from creases; blending
smoothly with shoulders ....
8. Chest — Give 10 instead of 8 points
11. Belly and Flanks — belly broad, full,
trim ; rudimentaries prominent ;
flanks low and full

2
10

IMPORTANT GENERAL POINTS IN JUDGING

In actual judging, the details of the score-card may be
appropriately grouped under the following general heads :
(1) Size, (2) form, (3) feet and legs, (4) condition,
(5) quality, and (6) sex characteristics and disposition.
The importance and significance of these fundamental
points will now be more fully considered.

Size.

The size should be judged according to the age and con-
dition of the individual. Mature sows in good breeding
condition should weigh 500 to 550 pounds, and mature
boars 600 to 650 pounds; sows eighteen months old in
good breeding condition, 425 to 450 pounds, and boars
500 to 550 pounds ; gilts and boars twelve months of age
and in thrifty growing condition, 375 to 400 pounds.
Mature sows and boars in show condition should weigh
about 150 to 200 pounds more than when in breeding

410 Pork Production

condition; yearling sows and boars about 100 pounds
more and gilts and young boars twelve months old about
50 pounds more. Larger sizes are not objectionable if
accompanied by quality, symmetry and smoothness of
form, and activity.

There is good reason for this large size. Breeding
animals should be large because the ability of the pig to
make rapid gains is very largely determined by the size
of its parents. Within reasonable limits, the larger the
parents the faster the gaining capacity of the pigs. The
demand for larger size in most of our lard breeds of swine
originated with the farmers who insisted on having pigs
to feed which had something besides refinement and
early maturity to recommend them. This is the justifica-
tion of the 500-pound sow in the face of the market de-
mand for a 250-pound pig.

That some breeders are going to the extreme in the
matter of size is undoubtedly true. The danger comes
from seeking extreme size without at the same time in-
sisting on its necessary complement of smoothness and
sufficient early maturity. The fact that large size and
quality seem opposed to each other when either is de-
veloped to an extreme degree makes the attainment of
the ideal size with quality extremely difficult. That it
is not impossible, however, is demonstrated by the best
individual specimens at our state and national shows.

Form.

The form should also be judged according to the age
and condition of the individual. The body should be
deep and of good length (the sow should be a little longer
in the middle than the boar) ; the back should be strong
and well arched, the line of arch being regular from neck

Judging 411

to tail ; the flank should be low and full, and the length
of the legs medium. The shoulders should be smooth
and compact; the back and loin broad, showing great
spring of rib ; there should be no doubt about where the
back and loin stop and the sides begin. There should
be great uniformity of width from the front of the shoulders
clear back to the base of the hams, along the middle
and bottom lines as well as along the top. The heart
girth should be full and the sides straight and even ; the
hams should be long, deep, wide, and thick. The head
should be broad and the snout of medium length. The
eyes should be large, prominent, and clear; the neck
short, full, and joining smoothly with the shoulders on
top and along the sides. All these parts should be joined
together in a manner to give great symmetry and smooth-
ness of form.

The sow or boar in breeding condition should not appear
so lowset nor so thick as the same individual in show condi-
tion. Defects in conformation are more apparent when
the animal is medium in flesh than when fat. For this
reason it is important that the judge in the show-ring
correctly estimate the effect of fat on the appearance and
form.

The ideal type or form of the brood sow is the one
which best qualifies her for the work she has to do. The
form here described is one which permits of regular breed-
ing habits and at the same time insures constitution and
feeding capacity in her pigs, and their ability to top the
market when sold to the butcher.

Form or type seems to be more or less influenced by
size. Extreme size frequently means extreme length of
leg and lack of thickness or spring of rib. It is also too
often associated with a slack heart girth, flat rump, and a

412 Pork Production

general lack of symmetry. On the other hand, the small
kinds tend towards the extremely short, thick, "dumpy"
type, inclining their pigs more to fat and early maturity
than to bone development and growth. To a large extent
this is probably due, not so much to the fact that symmetry
of form and large size are necessarily opposed to one
another, but because of the tendency of the breeder to
neglect the form in his constant effort to obtain size. A
wide spring of rib and a balanced symmetrical conforma-
tion are possible in individuals of great size. If individ-
uals possessing this desirable combination can be pro-
duced, it means that whole herds of this type are possible.

Feet and legs.

In the mature sow and boar, the legs should be of
medium length, neither too short nor too long. Pigs
should appear a trifle upstanding. The bone should not
be fine, but medium to large in size, and clean cut, hard,
and strong in appearance. The legs should be straight
viewed from the side, front, or rear, attached squarely
under each corner of the body, and particularly strong
at the hocks, knees, and pasterns. The pasterns should
be short also, and the feet strong and symmetrically
shaped.

Breeders who select for fine bone in their hogs usually
lose size, constitution, and general ruggedness. And,
on the other hand, those who value heavy bone as a merit
in itself are in danger of sacrificing quality, smoothness,
and early maturity. Since the ideal hog must have
size with quality, and ruggedness with smoothness and
early maturity, the wise course for the breeder to pursue
would seem to be one which lay between these two ex-
tremes.

Judging 413

Condition.

Show standards place a premium on high condition
regardless of the fact that injury to the breeding func-
tions frequently results. To meet this standard without
doing permanent injury to the individuals should be the
purpose and endeavor of the exhibitor. The fat covering
should not only be thick, but also uniform in depth all
over the top from the shoulders back to the tail and
down along the sides. There should be no tendency
to bareness in the region of the rump and loin, or to rolls
along the fore ribs or back. The covering should be firm
and elastic to the touch on top, and there should be no
excessive softness or flabbiness in the jowl, along the
lower lines and hams. High condition is to the credit of
the individual, provided the fat covering is smooth and
firm and the weight is carried with ease and style. The
judge, however, is justified in sharply discriminating
against excessive fatness as shown by lack of smoothness,
or extreme softness or flabbiness of covering, and general
inability to move about with ease and freedom. When
in breeding flesh, the sow or boar should give evidence
of easy keeping qualities as shown by the general appear-
ance of health, good condition on moderate feed, and
elasticity of covering along the back and loin.

Quality.

The indications of quality are the same in breeding
hogs as in the fat barrow. The sow or boar in thin or
fat condition should have a smooth fine coat of hair.
Swirls are especially undesirable. There should be an
entire absence of any tendency towards deep creases,
wrinkles, coarse or unhealthy skin. Excessive develop-
ment of shields on the mature boar is objectionable.

414 Pork Production

There should be no evidence of coarseness or grossness
of the features about the head ; the face should be clean
(free from coarse hair and wrinkled skin), the ears thin,
and the jowls neat. The bone should be clean and hard
looking. A little more general refinement is expected
in the sow than in the boar.

Quality is desired in breeding stock because of the rela-
tion it bears to early maturity and killing qualities of the
finished market pig. Early maturity means the ability
to fatten and be ready for market at a comparatively
early age. The degree of early maturity wanted in hog
stock is that which is just sufficient to guarantee a fairly
finished condition when the pigs are from six to eight
months of age. The ideal is not only to have pigs which
possess large capacity for growth, but which at the same
time possess sufficient ability to fatten to satisfy market
requirements when sold.

Quality must not be insisted on, however, to the point
where size and growthiness are sacrificed. The tendency
to do this has ruined many herds. It seems to be much
easier to secure and maintain a high degree of quality
than it is size. Although it is difficult to develop and
maintain ample size in itself, to do this and at the same
time retain sufficient quality is more difficult still, but
possible. At any rate this is the ideal which all breeders
are striving to produce.

Sex characteristics and disposition.

Strong masculinity should be as pronounced in the
boar as femininity is in the sow. Masculinity is shown
not only by normally developed sex organs, but also by
the tendency to be less refined about the head than is
characteristic of the sow, stronger in the neck, heavier

Judging 415

in front, a little closer in coupling, and more compact
in form. A prominent development of rudimentaries in
the boar is believed by many to indicate deep milking
tendencies in his gilts. Femininity of the sow should be
displayed by a strong development of the mammary
system. The teats should be prominent, symmetrically
placed, uniformly developed, and as many as twelve or
fourteen. Refinement about the head and good length
and depth of sides are characteristics also of the most
feminine sows. Strong development of the characters
associated with sex are believed to indicate fertile reliable
breeding traits in the sow and boar.

It is a matter of considerable importance that the boar
and sow have good dispositions. They should be mild
and quiet rather than nervous, irritable, mean, or cross.
But they should be active and vigorous rather than
sluggish, awkward, or unduly lazy. A good disposition
is closely associated with the best feeding qualities as
well as being an important factor in the number of pigs
which a sow succeeds in raising.

Breed type characteristics.

The features or peculiarities which serve to distinguish
one breed of hogs from another of the same type collec-
tively represent its breed type characteristics. Variations
in the characters of color, set of ear, or dish of face are
the ones on which breed differences are primarily based.
In addition to these, slight variations in general conforma-
tion, size, refinement, and early maturity are met with
in varying degree. These features were not considered
in the score-card described previously.

In judging pure-bred hogs of the breeding classes, how-
ever, a faithful adherence to breed type standards, as well

416 Pork Production

as to the ideals common to all breeds, is the duty of
every judge. The standard adopted by the judge
should be the one sought by the best present-day breeders
rather than that described in unrevised score-cards or
standards which have long been out of date. But a
thorough knowledge of breed type standards cannot be
acquired alone by reading descriptions, however clear
and accurate they may be. Although these are helpful,
they must be supplemented by the knowledge gained
through intimate contact with the affairs of the breed and
the constant observation of the type preferred by most
breeders as reflected in their selections made in the herd,
sale, and show ring. Due to the fact that few, if any,
breeds have a fixed and constant type, and because also at
no time are all breeders exactly agreed on the emphasis
which should be placed on certain points, there is always
ample opportunity for the individual preference of the
judge to be expressed in the type which he selects. The
power which the judge has in molding and uniting the
varying ideals of the breeders is the heaviest and most
important responsibility conferred on him by the office.
To select the type which will make good as practical
pork producers without sacrificing in any important
degree the breed type characteristics, which represent
the trade mark of a breed, should be the steady purpose
of the judge and breeder. (See Chapter XIX.)

JUDGING GILTS AND YOUNG BOARS

In judging young boars and gilts, it is important that
they be considered as prospective breeders rather than
according to the standards of type required of mature
individuals or finished fat barrows. The type of gilt

Judging 417

should be preferred which gives promise by her size and
form to develop into a large, smooth, roomy sow at
maturity. To obtain this type the mistake should not
be made of selecting the short, thick, fine-boned kind.
The short, chubby gilt which possesses the form and
finish of a mature sow rarely develops into the type the
breeder desires. To obtain the kind which will grow
out well, preference should be given to those which appear
a trifle leggy and which are large for their age. It is of
great importance also that they be strong in the back,
of good length, possess prominent well-placed teats, and
be squarely placed on straight legs of ample bone. With
these all the depth, spring of rib, and quality possible
should be secured.

JUDGING FEEDERS

The most important point in the selection of feeder pigs
is to have them healthy, vigorous, and free from any
contagious disease. Pigs which have passed through
stock-yards, although vaccinated against cholera, are a
greater risk than pigs which have never been shipped.
Pigs which cough much, have rough coats or mattery
eyes, or are gaunt and listless in appearance should also
be looked on with suspicion (see Chapter XX) . A knowl-
edge of the conditions of sanitation and methods of
feeding employed on the farm where the pigs were pro-
duced is necessary in order to judge accurately their
probable health and feeding qualities.

A second important point is to get the pigs as uniform
as possible in age, weight, condition, previous feeding,
color, and type. Similarity of color usually means
similarity of breeding and hence uniformity in the result-
ing features of type and early maturity. A load of pigs

418 Pork Production

uniform in age, condition, and method of previous feeding
will feed more uniformly, reach market weight and finish
more nearly at the same time, and will sell more satis-
factorily when placed on the market.

The ability of a pig to make rapid gains is largely
influenced by his form or type. Also, his appearance when
finished for market may be predicted by that when thin.
He should possess the same essentials of good conformation
demanded of the pig intended for the breeding herd, with
emphasis on those features which denote vigor and feeding
capacity. He should be broad at the poll, wide between
the eyes, with a face of medium length. A narrow head
and long sharp nose are not associated with either good
feeding or good killing qualities. He should be strong
backed, wide in his spring of rib, and show plenty of
capacity of middle. A full heart girth and low flanks are
indications of constitution and gaining ability which
should not be overlooked. It is of special importance
also that he be good in his legs and feet; that is, they
should be medium in length, squarely set, straight and
strong.

Condition, or degree of fatness, is an important point
in judging feeders. The most satisfactory feeders, as a
rule, are those which are well grown for their weight, or
in other words, are in a thrifty growing condition rather
than fat. Pigs which have been grain-fed in dry lots do
not gain as well as those which have been largely grown on
forage. Forage-fed pigs are usually thinner, have more
"stretch," are glossier of coat and more healthy than
pen-fed pigs.

In weight feeder pigs usually range from 65 to 150
pounds, and in age from three to eight months. There
seems to be no best weight or age, although the heavier

Judging

and older the pigs, the shorter will be the time required
to get them to market condition. Although the lighter
pigs require a longer feed and do not make such rapid
gains, they make more gain from a given unit of feed
consumed. For following cattle the heavier pigs are
more suitable.

As much quality should be secured as possible provided
general vigor and constitution are not sacrificed. Quality
in feeder pigs will insure a finished condition when market
weights are reached and will do much to help sell them
when ready to ship.

CHAPTER XVIII

BREEDS OF HOGS

THERE are now in America eight clearly defined breeds
of hogs which may be regarded as fairly well established
in numbers, or which give promise of soon becoming so.
These are the Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, Hampshire,
Berkshire, Chester-White, and Spotted Poland-Chinas of
the lard type, and the Large Yorkshire and Tamworth
of the bacon type. The Hampshire should perhaps be
classed as intermediate between the lard and the bacon
types, although the type as generally shown seems to
exhibit more of the former characteristics than of the
latter. As bred in Canada, the Berkshire has a decided
leaning toward the bacon type. In addition to these
more common breeds, the following are less widely dis-
tributed : Cheshire, Victoria, Essex, Suffolk, Small York-
shire, and Mule-Foot.

As generally understood, a breed may be defined as a
group of animals the individuals of which possess certain
well-defined characteristics in common and which transmit
these characteristics to their offspring with a reasonable
degree of certainty. The great variety of stock contribut-
ing the foundation blood of the different breeds furnished
the possibilities in hereditary combinations which made
possible the later development of the improved types by
selection. The best evidence now indicates that the

420

Breeds of Hogs 421

part which more liberal feeding and improved environ-
ment played in breed formation and improvement was to
provide the conditions whereby the inherent possibilities
of the individuals could be tested. More intensive feed-
ing, in other words, was not the direct cause of the evo-
lution of the modern early-maturing breeds; it was the
selection by the breeder of those individuals which were
capable of prospering under these conditions.

Although most of the breeds of hogs are not so old as
the larger number of breeds of cattle and horses, as age is
usually reckoned, they are older than most other improved
animals when measured by number of generations rather
than by number of years. This is because little more
than a year separates two successive generations of hogs,
while there are from three to four in cattle and usually
five in horses. This, with the large number of young
produced by each generation, explains why the develop-
ment of the various breeds of hogs has been so rapid and
the degree of improvement effected so extraordinary;
for there is probably no species or breed of farm animal
which has been more successfully bred to meet given
economic needs than has the American hog.

In the following pages very brief consideration is given
to the origin, history, and present dominant characteristics
of the more common breeds. The purpose is not to
attempt an answer to the question as to what is the
best breed of hogs, but rather to note the important
characteristics for which each is distinguished.

THE POLAND-CHINA (PLATE IX)

The birthplace of the Poland-China breed is in south-
western Ohio in the counties of Butler, Warren, and

422 Pork Production

Hamilton. The breed originated from a composite stock
of great variety. The Warren County pig, which was the
widely known hog of this district from 1816 to 1835, was
the product of crossing the medium-sized Big China on the
larger, coarser Russian and Byfield stock. All these hogs
were mostly white. From 1835 to 1839, Berkshire blood
was introduced in considerable quantities. The color and
much of the early maturity and quality which later
distinguished the breed undoubtedly came from this
source. In 1839 a few white hogs were imported from
Ireland, called the Irish Grazier. It is claimed that no
outside blood has been introduced since 1845.

The development of the breed from that time until
recently has been in the direction of great refinement,
remarkable early maturity, and quality. A more brilliant
demonstration of the fine art of the breeder is probably
not to be found in the whole history of live-stock improve-
ment than that furnished by the perfection of form and
show-ring quality attained by this breed according to
the standards then set. Since about 1914 the breeder's
ideal has radically changed in response to the feeder's
demand for more ruggedness and size and the breeder's
demand for more reliable breeding habits. Where
extreme quality was formerly sought, extreme size is
now demanded. The change of type which has been
brought about in the short space of five years is a remark-
able demonstration of the possibilities of the breed and
of the resourcefulness of the breeders in meeting the new
demand. At the present time, the breed is rapidly
advancing towards greater uniformity of type and the
ideal which demands great size, but which also requires
sufficient symmetry of form and early maturity to meet
the practical demands of the feeder and market,

Breeds of Hogs 423

THE DUROC-JERSEY (PLATE x)

Much uncertainty exists regarding the exact elements
making up the foundations of the Duroc- Jersey breed, but
it is believed to have originated from a fusion of the so-
called Jersey Red breed of New Jersey and New York,
and the Durocs of New York. The former were large
and inclined to be coarse, while the latter were rather fine
of bone and carcass. These two strains of red hogs
probably descended from importations of Red Guinea
hogs from Africa, made as early as 1804, the Spanish red
hogs from Spain, and the Red Portuguese breed from
Portugal. It is believed that sandy-colored Berkshires,
which were more or less common at that time, also con-
tributed some influence on the foundation stock.

Uniformity of color and type and the other character-
istics for which this breed has become noted have been
developed chiefly since 1885. From 1900 to the present
time the breed has attained an unusually strong position
of merited popularity, especially throughout the corn-belt
and the South. The two characteristics which have had
most to do in winning this position are : first, the pro-
lificacy of the sows ; and second, the good feeding quali-
ties of the pigs. Like the Poland-China, the Duroc-
Jersey is now being bred for greater scale. With all
breeders working towards the common goal of size with
quality, prolificacy, and vigorous feeding qualities, the
breed will undoubtedly be able to maintain the high
position which it has gained.

THE HAMPSHIRE (PLATE x)

Little authentic information exists relative to the origin
of this breed. It is recorded, however, that from 1820 to

424 Pork Production

1825 importations were made from England to Massa-
chusetts of hogs which there gained popularity and were
known as the Thin Rind. In 1835 Thin Rind hogs,
probably from eastern sources, were introduced into
Kentucky, where the breed probably had its early develop-
ment. The official beginning of the breed was in Boone
County, Kentucky, in 1893, under the name Thin Rind.
In 1904 the name was changed by the association to
Hampshire.

The history of the development of this breed has largely
been written in the last fifteen years. During that period
the breed has experienced an unprecedented growth in
numbers and popularity. This has been due not only
to the merit of the breed itself, but to the energetic
methods of the association in promoting the breed's
interests.

The Hampshire is a medium-sized breed, full of quality ;
the sows are good mothers and the pigs excellent rustlers
and great killers. As judged at the different shows, a
diversity of types exists. Although most of those pro-
duced in the corn-belt are more of the lard than of the
bacon type, some breeders select for the latter and many
for the type which is a happy blend of both. A severe
handicap with which the breed has to contend is the self-
imposed restriction that only those which wear the white
belt are eligible to favor.

THE BERKSHIRE (PLATE x)

The Berkshire is the oldest of our breeds of lard hogs
and the only one of English origin. In 1789 it was written
by Culley 1 that Berkshires were more numerous than any

1 Plumb's "Types and Breeds of Farm Animals."

Breeds of Hogs 425

other pigs in England. They were described at that time
as being reddish-brown with black spots, with large
drooping ears, short legs, fine bone, and inclined to fatten
at an early age. Another writer at about the same time
said they were large-boned, with turned-up snouts, and
some of the specimens very large. On this stock Chinese,
Siamese, and Neapolitan blood was used with the effect
of reducing size, increasing refinement and the early
disposition to fatten. In 1830 they were said to be of
a sandy or whitish-brown color spotted regularly with
dark brown or black, erect of ears, the head, snout, body
and legs short, and producers of superior bacon. Most
of this development took place in Berkshire and neighbor-
ing counties in central southern England.

The first importation to America occurred in 1823.
From then on to 1841 several fairly large shipments
were made. By 1845 there were well-established herds
in New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania.

The dominant characteristic of the Berkshire is its
excellent killing qualities. The carcass is unusually firm
and contains a very high proportion of lean meat of the
finest texture. This is the principal reason why it is
popular in Canada where it is bred along bacon type
standards, and for the preference which many American
packers have expressed for the breed. They are very
prepotent, unexcelled in rustling qualities, and quickly
adapt themselves to new conditions. As bred in recent
years, they are medium as to size. The rather tardy
recognition by the association of the need for more size
to meet the new demand, has lost for the breed some of
its former popularity in the corn-belt. However, with
the emphasis which is now being placed in selection on
size and feeding capacity, and the general disposition

426 Pork Production

among the breeders to give less attention to the "finer
points" of breed-type, the breed's admirers feel confident
that the high position which it has attained will be success-
fully maintained.

THE CHESTER-WHITE (PLATE X)

The Chester- White breed as it now exists has been
developed from a foundation stock made up of three
principal strains. The first was the white hogs bred in
Chester and Delaware counties, Pennsylvania. These
descended from some white pigs imported from England
in 1820, and later from the same source some white hogs
with black and sandy patches of hair, said to have been
Chinese stock. The second strain was developed in Ohio
and was known as Todd's Improved Chester-Whites.
These were produced by selection and crossing from stock
originally imported to Connecticut from England and
called the Norfolk Thin Rind pigs, the Byfield breed in
Massachusetts, the Large Grass breed in Ohio, and a
Normandy boar of French ancestry. The third strain
was also developed in Ohio and went under the name,
Ohio Improved Chester-Whites, the "O. I. C.'s." These
were developed from white pigs purchased in the eastern
states in 1865.

The Chester-White is, therefore, one of the oldest
breeds of hogs which has had an American origin. Due
to the large size and mellow feeding qualities for which
the white hogs were early noted, it played a leading role
with the farmer in his invasion of the rich corn lands of
the Middle West. The breed has always been a popular
farmer's hog. The sows are noted for their ability to
produce good-sized litters, the pigs are good gainers and

Breeds of Hogs 427

mature early, while the finished fat barrows have made an
enviable record in the show-ring and on the block. Like
most lard breeds, the Chester-White has suffered from
over-refinements. Since about 1917, however, the breed-
ers have been conservatively breeding for more scale.

THE SPOTTED POLAND-CHINA (PLATE Xl)

This breed had its official beginning with the organiza-
tion of the National Spotted Poland-China Record Asso-
ciation at Indianapolis, January 1st, 1914. The real
beginning of the breed, however, dates much farther back.
As is well known, a larger part of the stock making up the
foundations of the Poland-China breed was white in color
and many of the herds which were maintained from 1845
to 1880 were largely spotted. These old spotted Polands
had a reputation for size, ruggedness, bone, and pro-
lificacy. The modern Spotted Poland-China descended
from those herds located chiefly in central Indiana, which
preserved the old spotted type for their standard. In
1914 B. E. Arbuckle and Son, Brownsburg, Indiana,
imported a pair of spotted hogs from England which are
recognized as foundation animals. It is believed that the
blood of these hogs is found in about 5 per cent of the
animals of to-day.

According to Secretary Fred L. Obenchain, Bainbridge,
Indiana, to be eligible to record, an animal must descend
from individuals already recorded in the National Spotted
Poland-China Record Association, the American Spotted
PolarTd-China Record Association, the National Spotted
Poland Association, or the American, National, or Stand-
ard Poland-China Associations. In addition to meeting
the breeding or pedigree requirements for registry, they

428 Pork Production

must conform to the official standard for the individuals,
in color (not less than 20 or more than 80 per cent black) ,
size, form, and quality.

The aim of the present day breeders is to maintain and
improve on the virtues of the old Spotted Poland-China.
During the last few years, the breed has grown rapidly
in numbers and popularity and the herds have become
more uniform in type. With the utility type the standard
and cooperation and unity of purpose among the breeders
the rule, the future for the breed appears bright.

THE LARGE YORKSHIRE (PLATE Xl)

This English bacon breed had its origin in Yorkshire
and neighboring counties of England nearly a century ago.
The early foundation stock consisted of large white hogs
with black or bluish spots on the skin, with heavy bone,
very large drooping ears, long legs, and narrow backs and
loins. This stock is said to have been improved by the
use of some Berkshire blood as early as 1842, and later,
of white Leicester hogs. These latter were large, but fine
of head and bone, and with erect ears. To improve their
fattening qualities, boars of the Small Yorkshire breed
were also used.

Yorkshires were imported into the United States at a
comparatively early date, but have never become widely
distributed since they are better adapted to bacon than
to lard production. In Canada where the bacon type of
hog predominates, the Yorkshire has become the standard
breed. Most of the herds in this country are foutid in
Minnesota and other small-grain growing sections.

In addition to its bacon type, the predominating char-
acteristics of this breed are its large size and the unusual

Breeds of Hogs 429

prolificacy of the sows. The pigs are fine rustlers and com-
pare favorably with any breed in their ability to make
rapid gains. Judged by lard-type standards, the pigs do
not fatten early, but when the Yorkshire is crossed with
any of the lard breeds the pigs admirably suit the require-
ments of the corn-belt feeder and packer. To profit by
the pig-producing ability of the breed, boars of the lard
breeds should be crossed on Yorkshire sows. A careful
study of present show-ring standards disclosed the in-
teresting fact that most of the lard breeds seem to be
tending somewhat in the direction of Yorkshire type,
which is not to be considered as altogether to their dis-
credit.

THE TAMWORTH (PLATE Xl)

Although the Tamworth is regarded as one of the oldest
English varieties, little is known regarding its early history
and development. The stock from which the breed orig-
inated is described as having been of a dark-red color,
very lean and active, slow to mature, with very long legs
and snouts, and shallow bodies. This type of hog was
common in central England at an early date, especially
in Staffordshire where the breed is supposed to have had
its early development. The breed seems to have been
slow in winning general popularity in England, and it
was not until about 1880 that its present characteristics
became fixed by selection. The Royal Agricultural Society
did not give the breed a separate show classification until
1885.

The first pigs of this breed to be imported into America
were brought into Ohio in 1882, but they were not destined
to win any general popularity in this country. At about
the same time Canadian importations were made and

430 Pork Production

here the breed found more congenial environment and has
since enjoyed a reasonable degree of popularity.

The Tamworth as now bred is of the extreme bacon
type, long, smooth, and deep-sided. The sows are re-
markably prolific, the pigs are excellent rustlers and good
gainers and are of the type which produce meat suitable
for the manufacture of fine bacon.

CHAPTER XIX
BREEDING

THE fundamental purpose of the breeder is to improve
his stock. There are two ways of doing this : first, through
better methods of care and feeding ; and second, through
the use of breeding animals which possess improved
"blood" or breeding. In this chapter the breeding side
only will be considered ; first, briefly the facts of reproduc-
tion and heredity as now understood, and second, the
application and bearing which these facts have on the
methods and practices of the breeder.

THE LAW OF HEREDITY

The process of reproduction.

Every pig has his origin in the union of two germ-cells,
one produced by the sire and one by the dam. When these
two germ-cells, male and female, unite, a new individual
is born. This process is called fertilization, the successful
completion of which marks the real birth of the individual.

The female germ-cell is called the egg or ovum (plural,
ova), and the male germ-cell the sperm or spermatozoon
(plural, spermatozoa). About every three weeks during
the breeding seasons the sow, if vigorous and in breeding
condition, produces and ripens a number of eggs, usually
from five to twelve. These are produced or secreted by
special organs, called ovaries, situated in the region of the

431

432 Pork Production

loin just in front of and below the kidneys. When the
eggs are ripened, they drop into the upper end of the Fallo-
pian tubes and, through gravity, finally reach the womb
or uterus. The outward manifestations of these func-
tional activities are called "heat." The male germ-cells
or sperms are secreted by the testes, the essential part of
the testicles, corresponding in function to the ovaries of
the sow. For every egg produced by the sow, the boar
produces many thousands of sperms. The number of
sperms contained in a cubic millimeter of semen from a
normal boar runs from 6000 to 600,000,* depending on
his natural vigor and the distribution of the services.
The average number produced in an isolated service is
about 450,000 to a cubic millimeter. At this rate a tea-
spoonful of semen would contain 3,600,000 sperms.

The female germ-cells or eggs are relatively large com-
pared with the male germ-cells or sperms. Although too
small to be visible with the naked eye, the eggs are several
thousand times larger than the sperms. The sperms are
extremely minute, measuring TV of a millimeter in length,
which would require that 482 be laid end to end to measure
one inch. The large size of the egg compared with the
sperm does not mean that the sow contributes a larger
hereditary influence to the pigs than does the boar, but
only that the food supply (egg-yolk) necessary to sustain
the life of the fertilized egg until conception is complete,
is carried in the egg.

The shape of the egg is spherical like a ball, while the
sperm is elongated, consisting of a head, middle, and tail
piece, very much resembling a tadpole in appearance.
While the egg is passive, the live sperm is active and ca-
pable of locomotion. This is accomplished by the rapid
1 L. L. Lewis, Okla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 96.

Breeding 433

vibrations of its tail-like appendage. Fertilization, or
the successful union of the egg and sperm, is thus condi-
tioned on the vigor and activity of the sperm. There being
in a normal breeding service many thousand sperms for
each egg produced by the sow, the sperms which are most
active and get to the eggs first are the ones which fertilize
them. Only one sperm ever unites with an egg under
normal conditions.

As soon as the eggs are fertilized, they attach themselves
to the lining membrane of the uterus and begin to absorb
nourishment through its walls. Each individual egg
grows in size and divides into two ; each in turn absorbs
nourishment, grows in size, and divides into two, so that
where at first there was only the single fertilized egg-cell,
there are now four cells. This change, called cell divi-
sion, represents the beginning of embryonic development.
The process of cell division continues throughout the
gestation period and, under normal conditions, in about
113 days so-called birth takes place.

"Like begets like.''

Within each cell resides the hereditary material which is
being passed on from parent to offspring. The extraordi-
nary fact is that although these germ-cells are so minute
as to be invisible, yet they contain every particle of heredi-
tary matter, every influence, which the parent contributes
to the unborn pig. The pig inherits nothing which he does
not receive in these two cells, one supplied by the sire and
one by the dam.

When the male and female germ-cells unite to form the
fertilized egg, there is consequently a union of the heredi-
tary qualities contributed by the boar and sow. Since
each germ-cell carries a full set of characters, it follows that

434 Pork Production

the fertilized egg, and consequently the new-born pig, is
double or dual in nature. In some of his characters the
pig may resemble the sire and in others the dam ; in some
features he may bear an unmistakable resemblance to an
ancestor farther back in his pedigree. Speaking in general
terms, it may be said that the hereditary make-up of the
pig, his color, set of ear, feeding qualities, vigor, and in
fact every character, is the result of the combined heredi-
tary influence of his entire ancestry.

This resemblance between the individual pig and his
ancestors is the result of the operation of the law of hered-
ity that "like tends to beget like." By this law every
living thing reproduces after its own kind and is respon-
sible for the faith which the breeder has in the saying
"blood will tell."

Variations.

Although prepotent breeding animals transmit their
likenesses to their offspring with remarkable faithfulness,
it is also true that many and wide variations occur among
individuals of even identical breeding or ancestry. This is
well illustrated by the variations common among the indi-
vidual pigs of the same litter, raised together and fed from
the same trough. (See Plate XII.) Although heredity
impresses or insures a strong family resemblance, it does
not operate in a manner to exclude differences or variations.

Variations among individuals of the same or identical
ancestry are of two kinds; first, hereditary variations;
and second, variations due to differences in the conditions
under which the individuals were developed.

Hereditary variations among pigs of the same litter are
due to differences in the hereditary contents of the germ-
cells from which the individuals developed. They are

Breeding * 435

sometimes called, therefore, germinal variations. The
several eggs produced by the sow when she comes in heat
are not alike, especially if she is of mixed breeding. As
a rule, the more uniform the type of the animals in the
sow's pedigree, the more uniform will be her eggs with
respect to this character; the more dissimilar the types
in the pedigree, the greater will be the germinal variations
among the eggs produced. In the same way, the sperms
produced by the boar vary with respect to any and all
characters to the same degree that the individuals in his
ancestry vary in these same characters. When ten sperms
unite with ten eggs in the process of fertilization following
breeding, the chances for variations among the pigs which
develop from these eggs are still further magnified. If
variations are reasonable among pigs of the same an-
cestry, it is obvious that pigs of dissimilar parentage, for
the same reasons would normally present even greater
variations.

Variations of this kind are of fundamental importance
to the breeder because without them improvement would
be impossible. It was through the selection of the desir-
able hereditary variations and their correct combination
in mating that all breed improvement has been brought
about. Observations of the breeder have shown that some
variations are desirable and some undesirable, the larger
number being undesirable. There is always the tendency
in pure-bred herds, therefore, for the offspring to be in-
ferior to their parents. In other words, pigs produced
by prize-winning parents are not so good, on the average,
as the parents themselves ; a few may be better, but most
are inferior. A clear appreciation of this fact on the part
of young breeders especially will insure less frequent oc-
currence of disappointing results.

436 * Pork Production

So-called reversions l are hereditary variations and may
be defined as the reappearance of a character in an indi-
vidual which was not present or shown in its immediate
ancestry, but which was present in two or more of the
individuals farther back. It is the "cropping up" of a
character which has been "lost" for several generations.
The appearance of spotted pigs among Poland-Chinas
bred according to the medium or old-type standard is a
good instance of reverting back to the old type, or the oc-
casional appearance of spots of red hair among Berkshires.
The common tendency of so-called big-type parents to
throw pigs of the small fine-boned type is another instance
of the same tendency.

In Plate XII is shown a white sow with a litter of pigs
containing one black one, a reversion.2 The sire of these
pigs was white like the dam, but both were cross-bred, the
product of mating a Berkshire and Yorkshire. In this
case the black color skipped but one generation. In
Fig. 18 the principle of all variations of this kind is
illustrated.

This diagram supposes a Yorkshire and Berkshire to be
mated. All the pigs from this first cross will be white like
the Yorkshire parent, as proved by actual tests. These
cross-bred white pigs are then mated to a pure Yorkshire
boar and again all the pigs are white. If these white pigs,
which in breeding 'are said to be three-fourths Yorkshire
and one-fourth Berkshire, are mated to a boar of the same
breeding, as illustrated in the diagram, the chances are
that some of the pigs will be black. In this case there is
a "cropping out" of a character which was not present in

1 Sometimes called atavism. So-called " sports " are usually
reversions.

2 W. W. Smith: American Breeders' Magazine, p. 116.

Breeding 437

the immediate parents or grandparents, but which was
present in two of the eight grandparents.

The appearance of this black pig, as in the case of all
reversions, was not an exception to the law of heredity
that " like begets like" ; it was rather a proof or guarantee
of it. Although the cross-bred pigs produced by the first
Yorkshire-Berkshire mating were all white, so far as their
breeding or hereditary qualities were concerned they

OYork.

York. J fO Yorkshire

Berkshire

fO York.
York. fO Yorkshire

X Berk.

Berkshire

FIG. 18. — Illustrating the principle of reversions.

were as much black as white. The black did not show
in the bodies of these cross-bred pigs because the white
dominated over it. The black, in other words, was present
in a hidden or latent condition, illustrated in the diagram
by a dash below the circle. It was also present in some
of the pigs in the next generation, so that in the succeeding
generation when two of these white pigs, each with black
latent, were bred together some of the pigs were black.
What is true of color is true also of the hundreds of other

438 Pork Production

characters making up the individual. A character may
lie latent, or be covered up as it were, for five, ten, or any
number of generations and then make its appearance.
When two animals are mated each of which have the same
character latent, some of the offspring will show the char-
acter developed. Reversion, in other words, is merely
the expression of a character which was always present in
some of the ancestors, but which was latent or not devel-
oped.

Incidentally these facts make plain the fundamental
and important principle that the individual appearance
of an animal only partially or imperfectly represents his
breeding possibilities. In other words, the individuality
of an animal is not altogether a safe criterion of his breed-
ing ability. It also explains why two individuals with
exactly the same pedigree may differ materially in breeding
qualities.

The older a breed, or the more carefully it has been bred
within certain lines, the fewer will be the number of latent
characters present. Reversions or the appearance of the
unexpected become less frequent, therefore, in old well-
established herds than in those in which out-crossing or
cross-breeding has been resorted to. The selection of
breeding stock within rather definite and narrow limits
tends ultimately to reduce reversions, while out-crossing
has the opposite effect of bringing about the conditions
which result in variations and so-called reversions.

The second kind of variations are those which result
from differences in the conditions under which the indi-
viduals have been developed. They are sometimes called
acquired characters. Variations of size and vigor which
result from differences of feeding and care are most com-
mon. Two pigs may have an inheritance equally good,

Breeding 439

but if one is raised in a dry lot on corn and water, while
the other has the advantage of balanced rations, succulent
feeds, and plenty of exercise, there will be a marked differ-
ence between them at maturity. Likewise, pigs from well-
developed parents of the best of breeding, if not properly
developed, will show a wide variation from their sire and
dam. These are not due to any difference in inheritance,
but rather to the fact that in one case the hereditary pos-
sibilities had the chance to develop, while in the other they
did not have the opportunity. In order to produce good
hogs, therefore, the breeder must not only produce pigs
which possess the proper inheritance, but he must also give
them the conditions which will promote and make possible
the full development of these hereditary possibilities. In
the practical sense, the breeder who is not a good feeder
cannot succeed.

Variations due to differences in feeding and management,
however, are not transmitted to succeeding generations.
The effect of good development on the individual does not
improve or change in any way the hereditary content of
his germ-cells, but is temporary and limited to the individ-
ual alone. The importance of good feeding in the develop-
ment of a young boar is not that he may be able to get
pigs which have more size and better feeding qualities,
but chiefly to test his own hereditary possibility in this
particular. Incidentally he will be a more vigorous
breeder and possess an individuality which is an asset
to the appearance of the herd. A boar which has the
natural ability to respond to good feeding is more certain
to get pigs of this kind than one which did not inherit this
capacity. Good development of breeding stock is im-
portant, therefore, because it is an aid to more accurate
selection.

440 Pork Production

Prepotency.

As understood by the breeder, prepotency is the ability
of an animal to impress on his offspring his own charac-
teristics to the exclusion of those of the other parent. It
is the ability of an individual to " breed on." Because the
sire is more depended on than is the dam in live-stock im-
provement, prepotency is sought in the sire rather than in
the dam. A prepotent sire is the cornerstone of all herd
improvement. Prepotency is desirable in the sire used
for the production of grade stock and of supreme impor-
tance in the head of a pure-bred herd.

Observations show that prepotent animals are usually
the product of rather close breeding, or, in other words,
the result of selecting animals within certain clearly de-
fined limits of type and breeding. As shown by experi-
mental studies, the result of such selection is that the
germ-cells produced by the boar or sow will be more alike
in their hereditary qualities and, further, that there will
be fewer differences between the hereditary qualities of
the sperms on the one hand and the eggs on the other.
Pigs resulting from the union of such germ-cells will be
prepotent when mated with individuals the result of di-
verse germ-cells the product of mixed breeding. Line and
in-breeding have the practical effect, therefore, of intensify-
ing the hereditary qualities and hence of securing prepo-
tency in animals so bred. Scrub animals which are the
result of scrub ancestry are prepotent in the qualities of
the scrub, just as superior specimens are prepotent in their
desirable characters.

Relative influence of the sire and dam.

As a general rule, it may be said that the sire and dam
are equal in the influence which each exerts on the charac-

Breeding 441

teristics of the offspring. That is, so far as sex is concerned,
they are equal from the standpoint of heredity. As has
been seen, the sire contributes a germ-cell to the fertilized
egg, and the dam furnishes a germ-cell. Furthermore,
each one of these germ-cells contains a complete set of
characters for the new individual. Some of the characters
of the sire may dominate those of the dam, and with other
characters the reverse may be the case. With many char-
acters, the result is an apparent blend, or intermediate
between the sire on the one hand and the dam on the other.
The question of whether the black of the boar will domi-
nate the white of the sow is not a matter of sex, but of
the character. If one parent is better bred than the other,
it will for this reason be more prepotent, independent of
any influence of sex. The old theory that the outside and
external characteristics are determined by the sire and the
inside or functional activities by the dam has long since
been exploded.

SYSTEMS OF BREEDING

Up-grading.

The quickest, cheapest, and surest method of live-stock
improvement is up-grading. It is the only method
adapted to those farms which do not already have pure-
bred, or pedigreed herds. By up-grading is meant the
mating of the common grade sows of the farm with a pure-
bred boar, continuously generation after generation. In
effect it means the elimination of the scrub or grade boar.
Successful up-grading implies that the pure-bred boar
selected be a good individual and that only the best gilts
of each pig crop be retained for breeding purposes.

As illustrated in Fig. 19, the rate of improvement in up-
grading is rapid and its results certain. The first cross

442

Pork Production

with a pure-bred sire produces pigs which are one-half
pure. When the gilts of this litter are mated with a pure-
bred sire, the result is a litter three-fourths pure in breed-
ing. The third top cross produces pigs seven-eighths
pure-bred, or very high grades and the next cross fifteen-
sixteenths pure. For feeding and market purposes, the
high-grade pig is practically the equal of the pure-bred.

FIG.

19. — Showing rate of improvement in up-grading and degree of
improvement effected in each generation.

For breeding purposes, however, the high grade, although
good in individuality, is unreliable and disappointing.

As illustrated by the diagram, improvement in the up-
grading process is at first rapid and then more slow with
each succeeding generation. The degree of improvement
effected by the first cross with the pure-bred sire is twice
as great as that in the second generation ; and in the third
generation the degree of improvement is only one-half
that in the second. Improvement in succeeding genera-
tions becomes more and more imperceptible as the high-

Breeding 443

grade females approach in merit and breeding the pure-
bred sires employed. This illustration makes plain the
important principle that the more nearly a herd approaches
in excellence the ideal, the more difficult does further im-
provement become. It is easy to improve a mediocre
herd, but extremely difficult to better or even maintain
a highly improved one.

Up-grading is economical because the sire mates with
the entire female herd and his influence consequently ex-
tends to the entire pig crop. The influence of the sow,
on the other hand, is limited to a few. Due to the fact that
the increased cost of the pure-bred boar over the scrub
or grade boar is thus distributed among a very large num-
ber of pigs, the cost of the improvement resulting is ex-
tremely low.

Cross-breeding.

By cross-breeding is generally understood the mating
of two pure-bred individuals which belong to different
breeds, as the use of a Poland-China boar on Yorkshire
sows, or a Berkshire boar on Duroc-Jersey sows. The
mating of a pure-bred boar of one breed to grade sows of
another breed is also referred to as cross-breeding. Funda-
mentally, cross-breeding means the mating of individuals
of dissimilar type or breeding. In this sense it is correct
to speak of crossing one family or strain with another
family or strain of the same breed.

Experiments and observations show that cross-breed-
ing usually has the effect of slightly increasing vigor and
feeding qualities. Since these qualities are fundamental
in the profitable production of market animals, the reason
for the practice of this system of mating is apparent.
Another possible advantage in the production of market

444 Pork Production

hogs is the opportunity afforded of selecting the sows from
a breed or of a type known to be unusually prolific and
heavy milkers and the use on these of a boar possessing
the type which will insure by the cross sufficient early
maturity and market qualities in the pigs produced.

But even from the standpoint of the farmer who is
producing only grade or market hogs, cross-breeding
presents certain difficulties and disadvantages. It neces-
sitates the maintenance of two distinct herds, a small one
for the production of the brood sows and a larger herd
made up of the cross-bred feeder pigs. A second and more
important objection to cross-breeding as usually conducted
is the tendency to retain for breeding purposes some of the
cross-bred pigs. The temptation to do this is strong, with
the usual result that in a very short time the herd presents
all varieties of color and type.

The reason why cross-breeding cannot be generally
recommended is not so much from any evil in the practice
itself when systematically pursued, but rather because
when once begun it too frequently degenerates into mixed
and indiscriminate mating with its attendant evils. It
should also be understood that even at its best, cross-breed-
ing is not a method of live-stock improvement. Its sole
purpose is to produce a more profitable type of market
animal through the use of the improved blood of two dis-
tinct breeds or types.

Although the crossing of two distinct and carefully
bred strains of the same breed has a reinvigorating effect
on the pigs so produced, it finally results in a splitting up
of type and the production of reversions in later genera-
tions. This result explains why the breeder of pedigreed
hogs is always loath to introduce into his carefully bred
herd blood from some unrelated strain. The surest way

Breeding

445

of destroying a type which has required many years of
patient effort to build up is to make a radical out-cross.
When outside blood is necessary in order to avoid the
possible evils of in-breeding, experience shows that it
should be introduced in a rather dilute form, that is, by
selecting a sire from some closely related strain.

In-breeding.

In principle, in-breeding is the opposite of cross-breed-
ing. It means the mating of individuals more or less
closely related. If the individuals are as closely related

OHIO CHIEF

D. B's Dutchess

76842

HIGH CHIEF
13423

8727

ARLIE M.
28520

f JOHN'S OHIO
CHIEF
17483

OHIO CHIEF

8727

WATSON'S
DUTCHESS

MAYWOOD S. 4th
3240

as full brother or sister, half brother and sister, first
cousins, sire and daughter, or dam and son, it is called
close in-breeding or incestuous breeding. Practically
all in-breeding takes the form of line-breeding. Line-
bred pedigrees show the repeated introduction of the blood

446

Pork Production

of some one animal. The result is that it emphasizes
and intensifies the influence of a single individual, or of
the group of individuals just back of him in the pedigree.

A good example of line-breeding frequently seen is
represented in the pedigree of D. B's Dutchess 76842,
as shown in the previous diagram. In this case a son
of Ohio Chief was mated with a granddaughter of Ohio
Chief.

In the accompanying diagram is the pedigree of Baron
Duke IV 33446, which shows a little closer line-breeding
than the first pedigree. In this instance a sow was mated
to her own grand-sire. The relationship is even more
close than this, for Handsome Duke was a half brother
to Longfellow, and Dora Lee was a full sister.

BARON LEE IV
33446

LONGFELLOW
16835

LADY LEE VII
25107

MODEL DUKE

LONGFELLOW
16835

EMMA LEE

HANDSOME
DUKE

DORA LEE

The question of whether in-breeding is safe and desirable
must be judged by the results. Experience has shown

Breeding 447

that a sire which is in-bred has his breeding qualities
intensified, that he is more prepotent in impressing him-
self on his offspring, that his get are more uniform, and the
character of his breeding can be more surely predicted.
There is no question regarding the supreme value of
these things in a sire. The practical question is whether
this method of mating can be followed without grave
danger of reducing fertility and undermining vigor and
constitution. If it cannot, uniform prepotent breeding
qualities obtained by in-breeding are bought, certainly,
at too great a cost.

The methods followed by the constructive breeders of
the past will throw light on this problem. Bake well, who
was our first great breeder and teacher, mated " the best
to the best," it is said, regardless of relationship. He
succeeded in effecting such wonderful improvement in
the meat and early maturing qualities of his Longhorn
cattle and Leicester sheep that his method was hailed
as the new discovery in breeding. Cruickshank was a
great constructive breeder. From the time Champion
of England was produced, his method was that of concen-
trating, intensifying, and fixing in his herd the blood of
this great bull. Collings brothers, the Booths, and
Bates did not hesitate to in-breed when the animals
were strong and suited to one another. Likewise, the
founders of the Aberdeen-Angus and Hereford breeds
used in-breeding to a very marked degree. The fact is
that practically every early breeder who achieved eminence
practiced in-breeding to a greater or less degree. The
beginning foundations of practically all our improved
breeds of live-stock are consequently narrow rather than
broad. Gentry of Berkshire fame is a recent breeder
whose success no doubt is in part the result of the careful

448 Pork Production

mating of individuals descending from the great Long-
fellow 16835.

It would be a mistake, however, not to set down the
observation that practically every one of these breeders
recognized and experienced the possible evils which lay
hidden in the system. Practically every one who success-
fully used in-breeding to fix type and establish uniformity
came to the point in his experience where he clearly saw
the necessity of introducing fresh blood, or, in other
words, of making an out-cross. This was apparent in a
tendency towards sterility and a lack of vigor and con-
stitution. Further, the observations of everyday experi-
ence furnished some pertinent facts in this connection.
A gilt produces a litter of pigs by her own sire and
the usual result is a large proportion of runts, with
possibly one or two of them half male and half female
(hermaphrodites). Some of the pigs, on the other hand,
may have escaped apparent injury and are unusually
thrifty and vigorous. Such extremely close breeding
almost invariably has the effect of greatly reducing the
vigor of pigs.

If the experiences of the early constructive breeders
are put together, the general observations of present-day
breeders, and the results of scientifically planned breeding
experiments with small animals like rats, mice, guinea
pigs, and insects, the result will support the following
conclusions :

1. In-breeding has the effect of simplifying and puri-
fying the hereditary or breeding qualities of an individual,
whether good or bad. This it does by bringing into
expression characters which were once latent or hidden,
thus enabling the breeder to eliminate from the herd
those animals which show undesirable reversions. It is

Breeding 449

an important vehicle, therefore, in obtaining concen-
tration of blood and fixity of type. The extensive prac-
tice of in-breeding in the early formation of our present
breeds was justified by this fact.

2. When in-breeding is practiced promiscuously, it
almost inevitably results in reduced vigor and impaired
fertility. The closer the relationship, the quicker and
more certain will these results follow. Even when used
mildly and with the greatest skill and caution, the prob-
abilities are that some weakness will ultimately result if
long continued.

3. The conditions are not existent to-day which justify
in-breeding as they were during the formative period of
the breeds' development. Then there was dissimilarity
of type and ancestry, while now there is uniformity of
type and a breed or blood relationship more or less close
among all the individuals of a breed. The first breeders
often could not find as good stock outside their own herds
as they had in them, and hence used sires of their own
breeding. No^w, the opportunity for selection is much
broader and the necessity for using a closely related
sire is practically eliminated. Furthermore, present-day
stock is probably less immune from the possible evils of
in-breeding than the foundation stocks, because a certain
amount of in-breeding has already been practiced in
every breed.

PRINCIPLES IN THE SELECTION OF BREEDING STOCK

There are three ways of judging an animal's ability
as a breeder : first, by his individuality ; second, by his
pedigree or breeding ; and third, by his actual performance
record as a breeder.
2 a

450 Pork Production

Individuality.

Individuality is more generally depended on in estimating
the future breeding value of a boar or sow. If the animal
is too young to have mature offspring and his pedigree or
breeding is unknown, it is the sole dependence in selection.
By individuality is meant everything about the animal
which can be seen or judged, such as size, conformation,
feet and legs, breed type features, and the like. (See
Chapter XVII.) Show-ring judging is based entirely on
individuality.

That the merit of an animal in individuality is an indi-
cation of his probable value as a breeder is proved by the
experience and observations of every breeder. This is
another way of saying that like tends to produce like.
It is the maxim on which all breed development has been
built. Of two animals raised under the same conditions,
one good in individuality and one inferior, the better
one almost invariably proves the better producer. Some-
times, however, the reverse is true. The individuality of
an animal is the product of his inheritance plus his oppor-
tunities for development. He may be well bred but
poorly fed, in which case he would probably prove a
better breeder than another which was ordinary in breed-
ing but which had every advantage for full develop-
ment. However, this is the exception and not the
rule.

The ultimate injury to a breed through the pursuit by
breeders of certain non-essentials and fads of color or
family name, is due to the fact that under these conditions
individuality is often ignored. No matter how attrac-
tive the pedigree in real merit, if the individuality is
below standard he should be rejected. A good pedigree
is of the highest value only when there is good individual-

Breeding

451

ity to back it up. The real test of breeding is its ability
to produce good individuals.

Pedigree.

A pedigree is a record or statement of an animal's
ancestry. In addition to the name and herd-book number
of each animal, usually it includes also a statement of the
date of birth with name and address of the breeder. It
may extend back to the beginning of the breed's recorded
history, although usually it includes only the first three
or four generations immediately back of the individual.

The most practical way of writing a pedigree is accord-
ing to the bracket form illustrated in the following
diagram :

GIANT BUSTER 90455
BredbyW.C. Disher,

New Eston, Ohio
Owned by Williams

& Spruling, Bryant,

Ind., and Taylor-

ville, 111.

DISHER'S GIANT

89271

Bred by J. W.

Pfander & Sons,

Clarinda, la.

BIG LIL

195342 (N.)
186174 (S.)

BIG BEN 61935 (S.)
Bred by Chas. Her-
ring, Columbus,
Neb.

MAMMOTH GIANTESS
EQUAL 152839 (S.)

Bred by J. W. Pfan-
der & Sons, Cla-
rinda, la.

BIG WONDER 72131
Bred by Wm. S. Pow-
ell, Moline, Kans.

LADY LUNKER

182572
Wm. Lentz, Ankeny,

la.

SMOOTH PRICE
55487 (S.)

MOLLIE JONES
5th (133595)

LONG KING'S
EQUAL
53730 (S.)

MAMMOTH
GIANTESS 3d
120027

WONDER 41551
(S.)

LADY MONARCH
158410

BIG CROW
162503 (A.)

BLACK NIGHT
394520 (A.)

452 Pork Production

This method of writing a pedigree has the merit of
clearly showing all the blood lines and the correct rela-
tion of these lines and individuals. It is always the
custom to place the name of the sire at the top of the
bracket and the name of the dam at the bottom. In
reading the pedigree the following method is usually
followed : Giant Buster was by Disher's Giant and out
of Big Lil by Big Wonder. The second dam was Lady
Lunker by Big Crow. Disher's Giant was by Big Ben
and out of Mammoth Giantess' Equal by Long King's
Equal, and so on.

To judge accurately the value of the breeding shown in
a pedigree, it is essential that one have a knowledge of the
individual animals in the pedigree. The ability to read
a pedigree intelligently comes, therefore, only after
years of close study of breed history, involving an
intimate acquaintance with the leading breeders and
a thorough knowledge of the records of the show and
sale rings.

From a breed or herd improvement standpoint, a pedi-
gree is good or bad according as the individuals in it are
good or bad. If the immediate parents are good individ-
uals and the grandparents are uniformly good, there is
sufficient reason for calling it a good pedigree. If to this
good individuals in the third and fourth generations are
added, there is a still stronger guarantee of merit. Uni-
formity of type among the individuals of a pedigree is
also of great importance, since it stands for similarity
of blood and is a guarantee of prepotency in the animal
whose pedigree is being studied. To these two points, a
third should be added, the records of the individuals as
breeders and producers. If the individuals in a pedigree
have the ability to produce favorable offspring as well

Breeding 453

as being good themselves, a guarantee of future perform^
ance is practically certain.

In judging a boar or sow's value as a prospective breeder,
the pedigree stands for the individual's heredity or in-
heritance. If a full and complete knowledge of the
pedigree is possible, and this is rare, the importance to be
attached to it should be about equal to that given to the
individuality of the animal. In buying or selecting ani-
mals for the herd, therefore, one should insist on the
combination of good individuality with good pedigrees
behind them. If the individual under consideration is
of the best type and he has in addition a good pedigree,
there is reason to believe that he will be a satisfactory
producer.

Performance.

The value of an animal as a breeder is indicated by
his individuality and pedigree ; but the only real and final
test is actual breeding performance. For this reason,
tested sires are more reliable than those of immature age.
A fuller appreciation of this fact will prevent further
sacrifice of proven boars just approaching the period of
their greatest usefulness. It will also operate against
unreasonable discrimination by the buyer in favor of the
pig and consequently result in a freer use of the knife.
Brood sows which have demonstrated their ability as
breeders should not be sacrificed in favor of younger sows,
regardless of the more attractive appearance of the gilt.
The good producer should maintain her position in the
herd so long as there are no better ones, according to the
same standard, to take her place. Herd selection of
brood sows should be based on performance first and looks
last. (See Chapter IV, page 89.)

454 Pork Production

FUNDAMENTAL IDEALS IN BREED OR HERD IMPROVE-
MENT

The measure of a breed's standing is its popularity
with the practical man who is producing pork for market.
The test of a breed's efficiency, in other words, is the per-
formance it gives in the hands of the farmer. This means
that no breed can survive the competition whose type
is not the utility type or whose standards of selection are
based more on some fad of color, type or pedigree than
on real individual merit. The pedigree breeder's ideal
should be based on the farmer's ideal. The question
of the ideal farmer's hog is considered in the following
paragraphs.

1 . In the first place, the ideal breed or herd of hogs must
have brood sows capable of regularly producing large
even litters; i.e., the sows must be prolific. Prolific
breeding quality is probably the most valuable trait for
any breed. To a very large extent it is true that a breed is
popular or unpopular according as the sows are prolific
or not. The question then is, how can regular prolific
breeding traits be developed or maintained in a herd.

The first rule is to keep in the breeding herd only those
sows which have demonstrated by actual performance
their ability to produce and raise good litters. The
policy of rigorous culling on the basis of breeding per-
formance should be one of the rules of practice in every
pure-bred and grade herd. To follow this rule without
regard to pedigree, show-ring attainments, or money
cost, requires on the part of the breeder nerve and a high
sense of his responsibility.

The second rule which will guarantee improvement in
the size of the litters is to be careful to select the gilts

Breeding 455

which are to be retained for breeding from the large litters
only. If this practice is followed year after year, the
breeding average will be maintained or improved. The
sows which produce the large litters, which milk down
and become thin during the nursing period, are the kind
which transmit prolific breeding qualities to their pigs.

The third point to which attention should be given
is always to prefer the boar which is from a large litter
and prolific strain. The sire is supposed to influence
equally with the dam the ability of the gilt to produce
large litters. Since the size of the litter is limited by the
number of eggs produced by the dam, the boar to which
the sow is mated is believed to have no influence on the
size of the resulting litter, provided he is vigorous (see
Chapter V). Although this is true, the pig-producing
ability of the sow pigs in this litter will be as much in-
fluenced by the sire as by the dam.

2. In addition to regular prolific breeding qualities,
the ideal farmer's hog must have capacity for making
rapid growth. The efficiency of any breed as pork-pro-
ducers is largely determined by the ability of the pigs
to make rapid gains in the feed yard. Also, rapid gains
usually mean economical ones.

The constitution and feeding capacity of a herd can be
improved by giving more attention to the matter of size
and feeding quality in the stock selected for breeding
purposes. Too much attention was devoted in the past
to quality and refinement and not enough to vigor and
growthiness. This was particularly true ten years ago.
The result was a hog possessing extraordinary ability
to fatten at an early age, but at a sacrifice of size and
gaining capacity. Quality is desirable and necessary,
but when quality is not combined with substance it does

456 Pork Production

not greatly add to the utility value of the pigs. The
present popularity of the so-called big types is the natural
result of this demand on the part of the feeder.

The second point of importance in maintaining feeding
qualities and growthiness in hogs is to select only those
gilts which are large for their age and which give promise
by their type or conformation of developing sufficient size
at maturity. This means that the short, low-set, fine-
boned kind must be shunned. The gilts which appear
leggy? which are long-sided, strong-backed, and set on
straight legs of ample bone usually develop well and im-
prove with age.

3. The third important quality which the ideal breed
or herd of hogs must possess is the ability to top the market
when sold. The ultimate end of the hog is the pork
barrel, and the price received for the finished shotes is an
important factor determining the profits of the business.
This factor is probably more important in the production
of bacon than of lard hogs.

The market prefers and will pay the highest price for
hogs which will yield a large proportion of dressed to live
weight and carcasses which possess the weight and quality
which will please the consumer. The type of finished
fat barrow which will give these results is one which is
fairly fat, which is wide and thick of back and loin, deep
in the hams and sides, which is smooth and uniform in
his width, neat about the head and jowl, and trim in his
underline. To produce pigs which will be ideal killers,
they must have sufficient quality and the aptitude to
fatten when six to ten months of age. To produce this
kind, the sows and boars must be selected which by their
easy feeding qualities and general smoothness seem to
possess the ability to transmit quality to their offspring.

Breeding 457

In other words, they must themselves possess quality,
smoothness, and easy feeding qualities.

In seeking quality and early maturity, however, care
must be exercised. The effort to secure quality has in
many instances been overdone, with the result that fertile
breeding qualities, substance, and constitution were lost.
What is desired is all the quality possible without sacri-
ficing the more fundamental essentials which have to do
with reproduction and growth. The sows should be
prolific, produce pigs capable of rapid growth, and in
addition, these pigs should be smooth and fat at the age
when they can be most profitably marketed. If an ideal
breed of hogs is ever evolved, it will be the result of the
proper combination of these three essentials.

CHAPTER XX
THE PREVENTION OF HOG DISEASES

By R. A. Craig

BECAUSE of the heavy death rate, pork production
was until a few years ago considered a hazardous business.
Previous to 1916 the annual death rate among hogs in
the corn-belt states was from 6 to 25 per cent. The
financial loss for the United States in certain years has
amounted to about $100,000,000.

Although the death rate resulting from cholera and
other infectious swine diseases has been greatly lowered in
the past few years, these diseases are still quite prevalent.
The death rate in hogs continues higher than in other kinds
of farm animals. Control or eradication of infectious
swine diseases cannot occur until health officers and stock-
men have a better appreciation and knowledge of disease-
control measures.

RELATION OF SANITATION TO DISEASE

Sanitation may be defined as the application of necessary
health-conserving and disease-prevention methods. It
has a very close relation to herd management. The
practice of feeding medicated stock-foods or vaccinating
hogs for the purpose of preventing a "filth disease'' cannot
take the place of sanitation. The best results can be
secured only through practicing sanitation in caring
for animals together with the use of a reliable remedy

458

The Prevention of Hog Diseases 459

or vaccine in case the herd is diseased, or has been exposed
to a communicable disease.

The relation of sanitation to disease may be discussed
under the following heads : confining hogs in crowded
quarters; location, construction, and arrangement of
buildings and yards; method of feeding; and source of
water supply.

It is not uncommon for hogs to be closely confined and
in quarters that are overcrowded. Such quarters are
usually the filthiest places on the farm, as it is very diffi-
cult to keep crowded pens and houses clean. Disease-
producing germs such as the Bacillus tuberculosis and
filterable virus of hog cholera cannot originate in filth,
but when introduced into filthy quarters the infection
soon spreads among the animals. Close confinement
and crowding greatly lower resistance toward disease,
especially in young animals, and filthy feeding floors and
watering places favor the entrance of disease-producing
germs into the body. Some of these germs may live for
months in the manure and litter that is allowed to accumu-
late about the pens and houses. Infestation by lung and
intestinal worms and lice is greatest when hogs are closely
confined.

Straw stacks, old straw sheds, and houses with dirt
floors are very unsatisfactory shelters for hogs. Young
animals cannot thrive or remain healthy if allowed to
pile up and burrow into straw stacks, or lie on a wet bed
of straw and in dusty quarters. Such "makeshift"
quarters greatly increase the cost of producing pork.
During the fall, winter, and spring, hogs should have a
clean dry bed of straw. Portable houses and sun shades
should have a wood or concrete floor. Earth floors are
usually dusty, and dust is one of the greatest enemies

460 Pork Production

to the health of hogs. It is very seldom that a floor of
dirt is kept free of filth. Much of the bronchitis, pneu-
monia, rheumatism, and pig scours can be prevented by
avoiding these insanitary conditions.

If the site selected for the buildings and yards does not
have sufficient surface drainage, grading and tiling the
yards may correct this condition. It is advisable to
arrange the lots so that any one of them can be plowed,
and sowed to rape, rye, or other forage crops. This i?
the most effective method of cleaning hog lots that have
been used continuously. Manure, corn-cobs, and other
litter should not be allowed to accumulate in the hog-
houses and yards. The yards should be cleaned by
raking or scraping the litter into piles. The litter may be
burned or scattered over a field and later plowed under.
Small yards may be covered with lime after they have
been thoroughly cleaned.

The two most important sanitary features to consider
when building a hog-house are the windows and floors.
Sunlight and well-ventilated quarters are necessary to
the health of animals. Unless the floor is made of a
material that does not readily take up the filth, it cannot
be kept clean. The windows should be so placed as to
permit sunlight to reach all parts of the floor, and venti-
late the building without causing drafts to strike the hogs
while they are lying on their beds.

Hogs should not be given feed on the ground, especially
if the yard is muddy. If hand-feeding is practiced, a
concrete feeding-floor amply large to accommodate the
herd should be provided. The feeding-floor should be
cleaned daily, and frequently sprinkled with a disinfec-
tant . If garbage is fed, the floor should be cleaned, washed,
and disinfected daily. When hogs are given wide range,

The Prevention of Hog Diseases 461

there is no objection from a sanitary point of view to
feeding on the ground, providing a different place is
selected from day to day. Feeding from a self-feeder
is more sanitary than hand-feeding on the floor or ground.
It is not advisable to allow hogs to wallow in or drink
from small streams. In the corn-belt such streams usually
receive sewage from other hog lots, and are a common
source of disease. Ponds and wallows are usually little
better than cesspools. They receive the drainage from
the surface of the lot and should be filled in with dirt in
order to prevent hogs using them for wallowing or drink-
ing places. Water from a good well given to the hogs
in clean troughs or drinking fountains is the only satis-
factory water supply.

Disinfection of hog-houses and yards.

The first step in disinfecting hog-houses and yards is to
give the surface that is to be disinfected a thorough clean-
ing. All litter such as manure, straw, and corn-cobs
should first be removed from the lot, and dust and dirt
brushed and scraped from the walls and floors of the hog-
houses. The surface of an earth floor should be removed
to a depth of several inches. Portable houses or piles
of rails and lumber should be moved in order to permit
cleaning under them. Straw should be hauled to a field
that is to be plowed later, or piled where other live-stock
cannot come in contact with it. Plowing the lots and
sowing a forage crop is the most economical method of
cleaning them. They may be covered with quicklime,
or rested for a few months in order to permit the sun and
other natural disinfectants to destroy the disease-pro-
ducing germs. The houses should be sprayed with a water
solution of a reliable cresol or coal tar disinfectant. Unless

462

Pork Production

the pump used throws the spray with sufficient force to
drive the disinfectant into cracks and uneven places in
the walls and floors, the disease-producing germs are not
killed and the house is not rid of the infection. The
same is true if any of the surface is missed. For this
reason, it is best to add sufficient hydrated lime to the
disinfecting solution to make a thin whitewash. This
enables the person who is applying the solution to detect
any part of the surface that has not been covered.

The most reliable and safest disinfectant for hog-
houses and feeding floors is a 3 per cent water solution of
liquor cresolis compound. Coal-tar disinfectants may be
used in 3 to 5 per cent water solutions. The following
gives the quantity of disinfectant to a gallon of water
used in making the different per cent solutions :

TABLE CLXXVIII. — DISINFECTANTS FOB HOG-HOUSES

QUANTIITY OF DISINFECTANT

QUANTITY OF
WATER

PER CENT
SOLUTION

1 gallon

2 5 ou.nc6s . .

1 gallon

3 8 ounces

1 gallon

6.3 ounces

1 gallon

RELATION OF QUARANTINE LAWS TO DISEASE

Better quarantine laws and proper enforcement of
them are necessary before such diseases as hog cholera and
tuberculosis can be controlled and stamped out. Stock-
men realize this and instead of considering intra- and
interstate quarantine laws a detriment, as was the case a

The Prevention of Hog Diseases 463

few years ago, they now appreciate the value of the pro-
tection that these laws have given the swine industry.

In order to prevent the spread of communicable dis-
eases, an early diagnosis is necessary. If stock-men had
a better knowledge of this class of disease, they would
be able to practice control measures at a time when the
most good could be accomplished. In case a disease is
believed to be infectious, a veterinarian should be called
for the purpose of diagnosis, and if it proves infectious
he should notify the proper health officer.

Most infectious diseases can be controlled by quaran-
tining the exposed and sick animals on the premises where
the outbreak occurs. However, in the control of tubercu-
losis it is necessary to slaughter tubercular hogs. Stock-
men should voluntarily comply with quarantine regula-
tions recommended by the Federal and state health
officers. A man who sells cholera hogs to his neighbor in
order to escape personal loss is pursuing a very short-
sighted policy. In selling diseased animals he violates
the laws of his state, perpetuates hog cholera in his com-
munity, and makes it necessary to keep his hogs immu-
nized against cholera.

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Stomatitis or sore mouth.

The two forms of inflammation of the mouth are the
simple and the ulcerative. The simple form of the
disease is met with in young and mature hogs, and the
ulcerative in young pigs.

Simple inflamation of the mouth is usually caused by
irritation from hot or decomposed feeds and feeds contain-
ing irritating substances. Treating hogs with irritating

464 Pork Production

drenches is sometimes a cause. Very serious outbreaks
of stomatitis sometimes occur in hogs that are allowed to
feed about straw stacks, due to the awns or beards of
barley or other grains penetrating and lodging in the
mucous membrane of the mouth. Sick animals may
develop sore mouth because of their debilitated condition
and the salivary secretions not keeping the mucous
membrane clean.

Difficult mastication or inability to eat, champing the
teeth and dipping the snout into water are common
symptoms. After the first or dry stage of the inflamma-
tion has passed, frothy saliva may accumulate about the
lips or hang in strings from the mouth. The lips and
cheeks may appear swollen, and the lining membrane of
the mouth coated or red. A mild localized case of
stomatitis may not be noticed by the attendant.

Unless the lining membrane of the mouth is severely
injured by irritating food, the disease responds quickly
to dieting and treatment with antiseptic washes. Pre-
ventive treatment consists in avoiding irritating feeds
and insanitary drinking places. Plenty of clean water
should be provided so that the hog can clean its
mouth. Usually this is all the treatment necessary. If
awns become lodged in the mucous membrane, they
should be removed. The mouth may be washed daily
with an antiseptic solution, such as a teaspoonful of
powdered alum dissolved in one quart of water, or J
per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compound.
Mouth washes should be applied to the inside of the
cheeks, lips, and other parts of the mouth with a syringe.

Ulcerative inflammation of the mouth is a disease of
pigs caused by the Bacillus necrophorus. It is spread by
pigs nursing mothers whose udders have become soiled

The Prevention of Hog Diseases 465

with filth that contains the disease-producing germs.
Pigs that have ulcerative sore mouth, if allowed to nurse
mothers having healthy litters, leave the virus of the
disease on the teats and the infection spreads to the
healthy pigs. Eruption of the teeth is, no doubt, a com-
mon predisposing factor.

The first symptom, which usually escapes notice, is a
localized inflammation of the lining membrane of the
lips, cheeks, and gums. Early in the disease the inflamed
part is slightly swollen and red ; later it is white in color.
This white patch soon sloughs, leaving a deep irregular
ulcer. At first the pig shows some difficulty in nursing,
but as soon as the ulcers form it refuses to nurse, appears
dull and weak, and loses flesh rapidly. Portions of the lips,
snout, and gums may slough off. Scabs may be present
on the face and neck. The death rate is very high.

The treatment is largely preventive. This consists in
using the necessary precautions against bringing the
disease on to the premises, and keeping the quarters free
from mud, dust, and filth. If the disease is detected before
it has affected more than one or two litters, the unexposed
litters with their mothers and the sows that have not
farrowed should be moved to new quarters, and the
infected pigs either killed or placed in quarantine. It is
advisable to clean the sows' udders daily, by washing with
a disinfectant. A different solution and cloth should be
used on each sow in order to avoid distributing the
disease-producing germs. The pigs should be examined
daily, and treated promptly if symptoms of the disease
are noted. Such disinfectants as 2 per cent water solu-
tion of liquor cresolis compound, or 2 per cent water
solution of permanganate of potassium may be used.
Dipping the pigs, head foremost, into the latter disinfect-
2n

466 Pork Production

ant may be practiced in large herds. Ulcers should be
scraped or curetted and cauterized with lunar caustic.
It is best to kill pigs showing extensive ulceration of
the gums and lips.

Gastro-enteritis or inflammation of the stomach and
intestines.

Inflammation of the stomach and intestines may occur
independently, but usually both organs are involved. The
causes are very similar. The disease is common in feeding
hogs that have "gone off feed" for a few days, and when
they again begin to eat overload their stomachs. Feeds
that are spoiled or contain such acrid poisons as washing-
powders are common causes in swill-fed hogs. It may
occur as a complication of other diseases. Gastritis is
always present in salt poisoning.

The symptoms are loss of appetite, restlessness, and
sometimes colicky pains. In poisoning caused by salt,
brine, or washing-powders, marked weakness and depres-
sion occur. The hog usually wanders off by itself, acts
dull, grunts, lies down in a quiet place, or stands with
the back arched and abdomen held tense. Vomiting is a
common symptom. Constipation and diarrhoea occur.
The body temperature may be above normal early in
the disease ; later, normal or subnormal.

The treatment is largely preventive. This consists in
preventing hogs that are off feed from overloading when
they again begin to eat, and practicing proper precautions
when feeding slop or garbage. Poisoning from eating too
much salt is common in hogs. Hogs should be salted at
regular intervals or have access to it at all times. Stock-
foods that consist mostly of common salt, Glauber's or
Epsom salts should not be mixed with the feed. Hogs

The Prevention of Hog Diseases 467

that are not accustomed to them should be fed sparingly
at first and not allowed to eat all they want. With-
holding all feed at first and later feeding a light ration
is the most effective curative treatment. From 1 to 4
ounces of linseed-oil, depending on the size of the hog,
should be administered early in the disease.

Diarrhoea or scours in pigs.

It is not uncommon for young pigs to have congestion
and inflammation of the stomach and intestine. This
disease is characterized by a diarrhoea.

The causes of diarrhoea may be grouped under the
following heads : diseased condition of the mother ; wrong
methods of caring for the mother and her litter; and
specific infection.

At the time of farrowing, the sow is sometimes very
sick, and the act of farrowing may be prolonged. Unless
the necessary precautions are observed by the attendant,
the pigs may develop a severe diarrhoea because of the
abnormal composition of the mother's milk. The sow
should not be given feed until she is in condition to digest
it. It is advisable to physic her in order to rid the in-
testine of the toxic substances that may be absorbed and
later eliminated in the milk.

Changes in the ration, excitement, and disease alter
the composition of the mother's milk, and such milk may
prove irritating to the digestive organs of the pig. Dark
filthy quarters, and cold damp beds lower the pig's
vitality. Such conditions may act as predisposing factors
or as direct causes of the disease. In years when the
spring season is cold and wet, the latter causes are re-
sponsible for the heavy death rate occurring in pigs that
are not well housed and cared for.

468 Pork Production

Diarrhoea caused by irritating germs is a highly infec-
tious disease. These germs gain entrance to the body of
the pig by way of the digestive tract and navel cord.
Infectious diarrhoea is very fatal.

Preventive measures are the most satisfactory so far
known for diarrhoea in pigs. This prevention consists
in avoiding conditions that may directly or indirectly
cause the disease; in allowing the sow plenty of ex-
ercise ; and in feeding her the right kind of ration before
farrowing, in order that she may give birth to strong
healthy pigs.

Pigs from a few days to a few weeks old may be treated
indirectly by dieting and giving the mother a physic. It
is advisable to feed the mother a very light ration, espe-
cially if she is a heavy milker. From 2 to 4 ounces of
linseed-oil should be given in a drench or with the feed.
Older pigs may receive treatment direct. The dose of
linseed-oil depends on the age and size of the pigs and
will vary from one teaspoonful to one tablespoonful.
The following mixture may be given : bicarbonate of
soda 4 drams, bismuth subnitrate 2 drams, and salol
1 dram. This mixture may be given in gelatin cap-
sules, from four to fifteen grain doses twice daily being
administered.

DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS

Diseases of the air passages and lungs are common in
hogs. This group of diseases may be classified as specific
when due to an infection such as the Bacillus suisepti-
cus and filterable virus, and non-specific when due to
such causes as chilling, irritation from inhaling dust, and
un ventilated quarters,

The Prevention of Hog Diseases 469

The most prominent symptom in sore throat and
bronchitis is coughing. Paroxysms of coughing may occur
when the hog gets up from its bed and moves about.
Young hogs may not thrive, but the appetite usually
remains good. If the hog has pneumonia or pleurisy, it
is usually seen lying in its bed. The animal gives evi-
dence of loss of appetite, displays abnormal rapid breath-
ing, and shows elevation of body temperature during the
first stage of the disease.

It is unnecessary to use drugs for the treatment of
non-specific respiratory diseases. All that is necessary
is special attention to the quarters and diet. A well-
balanced ration should be fed to hogs in order to keep
them thriving. They should not be allowed to lie in
dusty places, straw stacks, manure heaps, or damp
quarters. Shady places where hogs are sure to lie during
the hot weather usually become very dusty. It is best
to wet down the dust in such places and afterwards
sprinkle them over with crude oil. Danger from un-
ventilated damp sleeping quarters and drafts can be
avoided by proper construction of hog-houses; careful
attention should be given here.

Good nursing is the most important treatment for hogs
having pneumonia. A clean comfortable bed and well-
ventilated quarters should be provided. From \ to 2
ounces of linseed-oil may be given and the dose repeated
after an interval of two or three days.

The only satisfactory treatment for specific pneumonia
or pleuro-pneumonia is prevention. This is based on
sanitation, as a successful vaccine is not available. Hog
cholera caused by the filterable virus with its complica-
tion pneumonia can be successfully treated with anti-
hog-cholera serum,

470 Pork Production

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Partial or complete paralysis of the posterior portion of
the body.

This is a common disease of young hogs. It may be
due to the following causes : injuries such as strains and
blows to the region of the back; pressure on the spinal
cord resulting from enlargements of the disks between
the vertebrae ; constipation ; extreme heat from the sun's
rays; and close hot quarters. Young fat animals may
suffer from malnutrition of the bones because of a faulty
ration and complete fractures of bones occur. A condi-
tion resembling paralysis of the hind parts results when
the thigh bones are fractured. Rheumatic inflammation
of the back muscles is followed by partial loss of control
over the movement of the hind parts. As the shoulder
muscles are usually affected as well, the hog may walk
on its knees. This symptom enables the attendant to
differentiate between the two diseases.

The prognosis is unfavorable. Unless the hog shows
evidence of recovery in the first two or three weeks, it
is not advisable to continue treatment.

The following preventive measures should be practiced.
A predisposition toward rickets and fractures of the bones
may be avoided by feeding a well-balanced ration and
allowing young hogs exercise in a pasture or lot. Hogs
should not be allowed to sleep or feed in quarters where
they pile up and crowd one another.

The treatment consists in giving the hog a comfortable
well-bedded pen. It should not be forced to move about.
A light diet and clean drinking water should be fed. Any
tendency toward becoming constipated may be overcome

PLATE XII. — Above, Litter of pigs containing a reversion in
color, the product of mating Berkshire- Yorkshire parents ; middle,
Poland-China sow with litter of pigs by a Yorkshire boar ; below,
Berkshire sow with litter of pigs by a Duroc- Jersey boar.

The Prevention of Hog Diseases 471

by giving the hog a physic in small doses with its feed
daily or at two- or three-day intervals.

Spasm of the diaphragm or thumps.

This disease is characterized by a jerky contraction of
the flank muscles. It may be differentiated from palpita-
tion, a functional disorder of the heart, by determining
the relation of the heart beats to the abrupt contractions
of the flank muscles. It is very common in young pigs,
and rarely occurs in mature hogs.

The spasmodic contractions of the diaphragm are caused
by irritation of the diaphragmatic nerves. This condition
is due to gastric irritation resulting from insufficient
exercise and a liberal ration.

Prevention, which consists in avoiding conditions that
may cause the disease, is more important than the curative
treatment. As soon as symptoms of " thumps " are shown,
the ration should be cut and the animal forced to take
exercise. Young pigs may be exercised in a well-bedded
pen, or placed in a pen adjoining the mother's for a few
hours daily. The mother should be given from 2 to 6
ounces of linseed-oil, depending on her age and weight.
Young hogs may receive from f to 2 ounces of linseed-oil.

CASTRATION

Castration of the male hog is usually performed by the
owner or attendant. It is not the common practice to
call a veterinarian and the operation may be performed
in a very careless indifferent manner. Unless the operator
is experienced or willing to practice correct methods, it
is more profitable to turn it over to an experienced careful
person.

Pigs may be castrated when a few weeks or a few months

472 Pork Production

of age. It is not best to operate at weaning time, as
both castration and weaning together may temporarily
check the hog's growth. The season of the year makes
very little difference, providing the necessary care is
given the hogs before and after the operation.

Preparation for castration consists in withholding feed
for ten or twelve hours and confining the hogs in a clean
well-bedded pen or lot. If this is practiced, they are in
a better condition for the operation and cleaner to handle
than when filled with feed and covered with mud and
filth.

The instruments necessary are a heavy scalpel and
probe-pointed bistoury. Some operators use scissors for
cutting of the cord and its covering. It is advisable to
sever the testicular cords of a hog more than six months
old with an emasculator in order to avoid hemorrhage.
Scrotal hernia in hogs is common, and it is best for the
operator to provide himself with a straight surgeon's
needle and heavy linen or silk thread for ligating the cord
and covering. A pan or pail of a water solution of liquor
cresolis compound or an equally good disinfectant with
pieces of oakum or absorbent cotton for washing and
cleaning the scrotum are necessary.

If a number of hogs are to be castrated, they should be
confined in a small pen, as this enables the attendant to
handle them without unduly exciting or exercising them.
They should be placed on a table or the floor of an adjoin-
ing pen and held firmly by the attendant. It may be
necessary to tie the legs of a mature hog with a quarter-
inch rope in order to confine him for the operation. The
skin over the scrotum is first cleaned by washing with a
disinfecting solution. An incision parallel with and a
little to one side of the middle line or raphe is made

The Prevention of Hog Diseases 473

through the scrotal wall and covering of the testicle. The
testicle and cord are then pulled well out, the cord broken
off with a quick jerk and twist, scraped off with a knife,
or cut off with the emasculator in order to avoid
hemorrhage. The opposite testicle is then removed, and
the incisions lengthened by cutting the scrotal w^all to
the bottom of the sack, using a probe-pointed bistoury.

If the cord is severed high up so that the cut end does
not hang into the scrotal sack, and complete drainage
for the wound secretions and pus provided, there is little
danger of fibrous tumors forming as a complication. If
such tumors form they should be removed.

Scrotal hernia is frequently met with. It may be
overcome by practicing the covered operation. The hog
is prepared for this by withholding feed for twenty-four
hours. The animal is held or hung up by the hind legs.
The hernia is reduced by manipulating the mass of
intestines, so that they drop back into the abdominal
cavity. The scrotal sack is cleaned the same as for
castration, and an incision made through the scrotal
wall, but not through the thin covering of the testicle.
The testicle with the cord and covering is drawn well
out, a needle carrying a strong silk or linen thread passed
through the cord at as low a point as possible, the cord
and covering ligated, and cut off about one-half inch
above the ligature. The incision in the scrotal sack is
then made large enough to insure drainage.

PARASITES OF HOGS

Parasites that infest hogs may be classified as external
and internal. External parasites are the hog-louse,
Hcematopinus suis, which infests the surface of the skin,

474 Pork Production

and a small mite that burrows under the epidermis.
The former is the most common louse, and the latter
is the least common of the sarcoptic mites occurring
in domestic animals. The mite is of little economic
importance.

The favorite points of attack of the hog-louse are the
under surface of the body, neck and inside of the thighs.
The irritation to the skin is severe. Young hogs that are
badly infested may be so restless and lose so much blood
that they become unthrifty.

It is very difficult completely to rid a drove of hogs of
lice. The most satisfactory method is to practice dipping
at frequent intervals. The most effective agent for de-
stroying hog-lice is crude oil. The layer of oil on top of
the water in the dipping tank should not be less than one
inch thick. Crude oil may be applied to the bodies of
the hogs with a sprinkling pot or swab. If this method
is practiced, it is advisable to crowd the hogs into a small
pen. This may be done in cold weather when it is impos-
sible to dip them.

The most common internal parasites of hogs are the
round worms. They infest the lungs, intestines, and
abdominal cavity. The Ascaris suis which inhabits the
small intestine and liver is the most common intestinal
worm. It varies from 4 to 10 inches in length. Other
intestinal worms are the whip worm, Trichocephalus
crenatus and the pin worm, CEsophagostoma dentatum.
The former is about 2 inches long and inhabits the first
division of the large intestine, and the latter is about
.5 inch long and inhabits the posterior portion of the large
intestine. The thorn-headed worm, Echinorhynchus gigas,
is a common intestinal parasite in some sections of the
country. It is usually found with its proboscis or thorn

The Prevention of Hog Diseases 475

imbedded in the wall of the small intestine. It is from
3 to 10 inches long.

The treatment of intestinal worms is both preventive
and medicinal. Hogs become badly infested with these
parasites by taking the eggs and embryos into the digestive
tract along with the feed and water. If confined in yards
and pastures that have become filthy through continuous
use, serious infestation of the intestines occurs. The
preventive treatment consists in not keeping hogs in the
same place throughout the year. Yards and pastures
should be so arranged that the hogs can be changed about,
and each lot rested for a few months during the year.
The feeding and drinking places should be kept clean.
The thorn-headed worm has an intermediate host, the
larvae of the May beetle, and pastures may remain
infested with the immature form of this parasite for a
long period.

A combination of santonin and calomel is the most
satisfactory medicinal remedy for intestinal worms. The
dose for young hogs weighing from forty to eighty pounds
is 2 grains of santonin and 2 grains of calomel given in a
capsule. Hogs should be prepared for the treatment
by withholding all feed for at least twelve hours. By
dividing the drove into lots of ten to fifteen hogs, santonin
and calomel may be given in the feed. Santonin 3 to 5
grains and calomel 5 to 8 grains is the amount given for
each 100 pounds body weight. If the hogs are small and
it requires two or three to weigh 100 pounds, they should
receive the large dose; if they weigh about 100 pounds,
they should be given the small dose. The drugs should
be mixed and divided into the same number of powders
as there are lots of hogs. Ground feed is placed in the
trough and dampened with water and the powder sprinkled

476 Pork Production

evenly over it. The hogs are then allowed to eat the
feed.

The lung worm, Strongylus paradoxus, is a common
parasite of young hogs. It is a small hair-like worm
varying in length from .6 to 1.6 inches, and usually
is found in the small bronchial tubes mixed with
mucus.

The first symptom occurring in verminous bronchitis is
coughing on leaving the bed, or after exercising. In
badly infested hogs, paroxysms of coughing occur and
considerable mucus may be forced out. The appetite
of the pig remains good, and hogs that are well cared for
do not become unthrifty.

The preventive treatment is the same as recommended
for intestinal worms. Hogs that receive special care such
as all the feed that they can eat and well-ventilated
sleeping quarters and a clean dry bed, do not become
stunted or unthrifty when infested with lung worms.
There is no effective line of medicinal treatment for this
disease.

The kidney worm, Sclerostoma pinguicola, is commonly
found in the fat which surrounds the kidney. It is from
1 to 1.5 inches long and appears dark or mottled when
seen against the white fatty tissue. This parasite may
irritate the parts that it infests, but does not seem to
produce visible symptoms of disease. Although paralysis
of the hind parts is attributed to the kidney worm by
many stock-men, there is no evidence that would indicate
this.

Because of the location of this parasite, no medicinal
application will destroy it. The preventive treatment is
the same as recommended for controlling the spread of
other round worms.

The Prevention of Hog Diseases 477

INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Hog cholera is the commonest infectious disease occur-
ring in farm animals. Tuberculosis is less prevalent
among hogs than cattle. In dairy sections of the country,
where hogs are exposed to this disease by feeding after
tubercular cattle or drinking milk from tubercular herds,
a very large percentage become infected.

Some of the more common infectious diseases, such as
infectious pneumonia, necroenteritis, and hemorrhagic
septicemia, are not very well understood. The latter
group of diseases may cause serious loss in feeding hogs
if the herd is not well cared for and the yards and houses
are insanitary. The rather common practice of disposing
of the apparently well hogs in a herd affected with infec-
tious pneumonia or necroenteritis by marketing them,
has resulted in stock cars and public stock-yards becoming
permanently infected with the germs of these diseases.
This condition is responsible for the prevalence of these
so-called "mixed infections" in sections of the country
where hogs are shipped from public stock-yards to the
country for feeding purposes.

Hog cholera. (Fig. 20.)

The specific cause of hog cholera is an ultra-microscopic
organism that is present in the body excretions and tissues
of cholera hogs. This virus cannot be cultivated in the
laboratory or seen with the microscope, and the name
ultra-microscopic virus is used in speaking of it. The
presence of this virus in filtrates of cholera blood, that
are free from any visible organism, can be proved by
inoculating susceptible hogs. Typical hog cholera is
produced, and hogs that are exposed to the sick animals

478

Pork Production

promptly develop this disease. Bacteria may invade the
tissues of the sick hog. These are usually termed second-
ary-invading bacteria, and they seem to have an impor-
tant part in producing hemorrhages in the tissues and
intestinal ulcers. Bacillius suipestifer and B. suisepticus
are the most common bacteria found in the tissues of
cholera hogs.

Hog cholera is spread by the susceptible animal coming
in direct or indirect contact with the cholera hog. The

FIG. 20. — A hog having acute cholera.

methods of indirect contact are as follows : dogs and
birds feeding on the carcasses of cholera hogs and carry-
ing parts of carcasses into neighboring yards ; feeding gar-
bage containing scraps of pork ; small streams receiving
filth or sewage from neighboring hog-yards; transport-
ing hogs in uncleaned stock-cars, and from public stock-
yards to the country ; improper methods of vaccination ;
and carrying filth on wheels of wagons and shoes of per-
sons from infected to non-infected yards.

The Prevention of Hog Diseases 479

The early symptoms occurring in hog cholera are
elevation of body temperature, depression, weakness,
and staggering. Depression and weakness are especially
noticeable when the hog is forced to get up from its bed.
Vomiting, diarrhoea, or rapid labored breathing may occur.

The early symptoms in hog cholera closely resemble
those occurring in other infectious diseases. Other
means of diagnosis must be employed. The history of
the outbreak and character of the lesions found on post
mortem examination are more important than the symp-
toms. A fatally sick hog should be killed for post mortem
examination, as the lesions of disease are not changed
by decomposition of the tissues as is the case if the hog
has been dead for a short time.

It is very necessary to make an early diagnosis of any
disease. If recognized early, curative treatment can be
employed at a time when it will do the most good, and
in the case of hog cholera, its spread to neighboring herds
can be prevented. Stock-men are beginning to recognize
the importance of handling hog cholera the same as other
infectious diseases, and employing experienced veterina-
rians to diagnose it and recommend measures of control.

The most important measures for the control of hog
cholera are the quarantining of farms where outbreaks
of the disease occur; the reporting of all cholera herds
to the proper health officers; the slaughter of fatally
sick hogs and those having the chronic form of the disease ;
the vaccination of the other hogs in the herd ; the crema-
tion of the carcasses of all cholera hogs ; and the cleaning
and disinfecting of the yards.

Stock-cars should be disinfected immediately after
unloading, and public stock-yards quarantined. Car
shipments of feeding and stock hogs should be unloaded

480 Pork Production

in yards set off for this purpose. These yards should be
cleaned and disinfected after each shipment. All shipped-
in hogs should be vaccinated by the double method, and
quarantined for at least three weeks.

If the houses and yards can be cleaned and disinfected
and their location does not endanger other herds, the sick
animals should not be moved to new quarters. If the
houses are old and poorly constructed and the yards
covered with such litter as corn-cobs, manure piles, and
old straw stacks, it is advisable to provide more comfort-
able and sanitary quarters. When the weather is warm,
a low shed large enough to accommodate all of the hogs
and an open field are best. This furnishes protection
from the sun and a clean range. Clean, roomy, dry, and
well- ventilated sleeping quarters, free from drafts, and well-
drained yards are best when the weather is cool and wet.

A very light ration should be given. It is not advis-
able to feed kitchen slops, skim-milk, or buttermilk.
Intestinal antiseptics should be used. Sulfocarbolate
tablets, or copper sulfate may be given with the drinking
water or slop. If copper sulfate is used as an intestinal
antiseptic, 4 ounces may be dissolved in 1 gallon of drink-
ing water, and 1 quart of this stock solution should be
added to each 10 gallons of water or slop. The troughs
should be disinfected and turned bottom up after water-
ing or feeding the animals. This method of feeding
should be practiced as soon as symptoms of cholera de-
velop, and continued for at least one week after recovery.

The first step in disinfecting hog-houses and yards is
thoroughly to clean the walls, floors, and yards. Dust
and dirt should be brushed or scraped from the walls
and floors. If the floor is earth, the surface should be
removed to a depth of several inches and covered with

The Prevention of Hog Diseases 481

quicklime. The yards should be cleaned; piles of old
lumber and rails hauled away ; portable hog-houses moved
about, so as to permit cleaning under them ; straw stacks,
straw sheds, and manure piles hauled to a field and plowed
under if possible; and muddy places drained, filled, or
fenced off. If there are any places into which hogs
crawl or sleep under buildings, they should be cleaned if
possible, or closed up. The yard or yards should be
covered with quicklime, and a disinfecting solution
applied to the walls and floors of the hog-houses. The
most reliable disinfectant is 3 per cent water solution of
liquor cresolis compound with sufficient hydrated lime
added to make a very thin whitewash. This should be
applied to the cleaned surface with a spray pump. The
feeding floors, troughs, and self-feeders should receive
frequent disinfecting.

The double method of vaccinating hogs for permanent
immunity is practiced in sections of the country where
the disease is common. This method of vaccination
consists in injecting a certain quantity of anti-hog-cholera
serum and hog cholera blood at different points beneath
the skin or subcutaneously. Serum only or the single
method of vaccination or treatment may be used for pro-
ducing a temporary immunity, or treating cholera hogs.

Tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis is one of the oldest animal diseases on
record. It is only within the last few years that stock-
men have realized the extent to which tuberculosis has
spread among swine. The direct or specific cause is
Koch's Bacillus tuberculosis. This bacillus has greater
vitality than the hog cholera virus, and it is able to resist
high temperatures, changes in temperature, drying, and
2i

482 Pork Production

putrefaction to a greater degree than most non-spore-
producing germs.

Animals that have generalized tuberculosis may dis-
seminate the germs of the disease in the secretions from
the air passages and udder and in the feces. If the
diseased tissue opens directly into any part of the air
passages, the discharges may be coughed up or swallowed
and eliminated in the feces. Open intestinal tuberculosis
infects the feces. Milk becomes infected with the tubercle
bacillus through contamination with filth, and the dis-
charge from broken-down tubercular tissue in the udder.

The tubercular cow, steer, and sow are responsible
for the prevalence of this disease among hogs. Allowing
hogs to run after cattle is sure to result in infection of a
large percentage of them if there are any open cases of tu-
berculosis in the herd.

A tubercular brood sow is sure to communicate the
disease to her litter. If the surroundings are insanitary,
a common condition of hog-yards and houses, the disease
spreads and develops very rapidly.

Tuberculosis cannot be recognized in the early stage of
the disease by the symptoms alone. Later, when the
disease becomes generalized, characteristic symptoms
may develop. The only reliable method of diagnosis is
the tuberculin test.

There is no curative treatment for swine tuberculosis.
The disease may be stamped out in the herd by prac-
ticing the following methods : The hogs should be tuber-
culin-tested by an experienced person, all reactors killed,
the non-reactors marketed, and the quarters cleaned
and disinfected. The hog-houses and yards should not be
used for at least six months after they have been given a
thorough cleaning and disinfecting.

INDEX

Acreage of corn for "hogging-off,"
236.

Afterbirth, removal of, 73.

Alfalfa, sows and pigs on, Plate V ;
supplements to corn for pigs on,
201 ; vs, clover, 156 ; vs. rape,
160; vs. sweet clover, 161.

Alfalfa hay, methods of feeding,
to pregnant sows, 46, 48, Plate II ;
wintering bred gilts on, 45 ; win-
tering yearling and mature sows
on, 47.

Andrews, 365.

Artichokes for swine, 326.

Artificial, heat for sows at farrow-
ing time, 70 ; wallow for sows in
summer, 121.

Bacon, factors affecting firmness of,
402.

Bacon hog, carcass of model, Plate
VIII ; condition of, 404 ; form
of, 403; score-card for, 403;
size of, 403 ; quality of, 404.

Bacon production, barley for, 283.

Bacon type, market requirements
of, 401.

Barley, alone vs. meat-meal for
fattening pigs, 283 ; composition
of, 280; rations for bacon pro-
duction, 283 ; vs. corn for fatten-
ing pigs, 281, 282.

Beal and Rose, 329.

Bedding, kind and amount for
farrowing sow, 70.

Beets, sugar, for swine, 326.

Berkshire, history and characteris-
tics of, 425; pigs, Plate III;
sow, Plate X : sow with litter,
Plate XII.

Birth, trouble with gilts at, 73.

Bliss and Lee, 289, 290.

Blue-grass, characteristics as a
forage, 174 ; and timothy, best
proportion of tankage to feed
with, 204 ; and timothy vs. clover
and alfalfa, 175 ; results from
pasturing, 176.

Boar, age to use, 20 ; amount to
feed, during breeding season, 16 ;
birth weight of pigs, 108 ; exer-
cise during breeding season, 16 ;
feeding in winter, 64 ; food de-
mands during breeding season,
14 ; influence of, on birth weight
of pigs, 111 ; influence of, on size
of litter, 103 ; number of sows
bred to, 26 ; rations during the
breeding season, 15 ; on the mar-
ket, 375 ; suitable conditions for,
Plate I ; vigor of, 103.

Boars, judging young, 416.

Bone, effect of rations on size and
breaking strength of, 139.

Bran, wheat, composition of, 271.

Braxton and Jones, 115.

Breed, relation of, to size of litter,
104.

Breeding, principles of, 431 ; sys-
tems of, 441.

Breeding crate, advantages of, 25.

Breeding herd, general management
of, 33 ; feeding pigs intended for,
220 ; housing, in winter, 34 ; self-
feeder for pigs intended for, 221.

Breeding hogs, breeder's require-
ments, 406 ; judging, 406 ; score-
card for, 407 ; standard of ex-
cellence for, 406.

Breeding season, feeding and hand-
ling sows during the, 10.

Breeding stock, principles in the
selection of, 449.

483

484

Index

Breeds of hogs, 420.

Breed-type, characteristics in judg-
ing, 415.

Brewer's and dried distiller's grains
for swine, 319.

Burdie, 383.

Burk, 309.

Burnett, 138.

Burns, 313, 319.

Butler, 383.

Buttermilk, and skim-milk, com-
position, 244 ; or skim-milk,
money value of, 242 ; value of,
compared with tankage, 249 ; or
skim-milk as a supplement to
corn, 241 ; vs. skim-milk for
fattening pigs, 245 : vs. tankage,
248.

Canada field peas, oats, clover, and

rape, as forage, 166.
Cane for fattening pigs, 297.
Cane-sorghum, characteristics of,

for forage, 177.
Carcass, of a model bacon hog,

Plate VIII ; weight, condition,

shape, and quality demanded by

market, 394.
Carlyle, 87, 114, 140.
Carmichael, B. E., and Eastwood,

200; and Robison, 346; and

Ridgeway, 204.
Carmichael, W. J., 106, 107, 108,

109, 213, 346.
Carrots for swine, 326.
Cars, bedding, 365 ; number of

double-deck, 365 ; number of

hogs to, 365; ordering, 364.
Castration, 471-473.
Cereal grains, composition of, 280;

for growing and fattening pigs,

280.

Charcoal for nursing sows, 82.
Chester- White, boar, Plate X; his-
tory and characteristics of, 426.
Cholera, a hog having acute, figure

2, 478.

Chufas as a forage, 185.
Clark, 290, 320, 322, 320,

Classes of hogs, 369.

Clinton, 321.

Clover, alsike, for forage, 157;
burr, for forage, 158 ; corn alone
on, 205 ; crimson, for forage, 158 ;
Japan, for forage, 158 ; mammoth,
for forage, 157 ; medium red, 154 ;
pigs in, Plate V ; sweet, for for-
age, 158; vs. alfalfa, 156; vs.
rape, 156.

Cochel, 297.

Combination forage crops, 166.

Condition, of brood sows, 413; of
fat barrows, 399.

Constipation, avoiding, with sows
at farrowing time, 74.

Cooking, feed for pregnant sows,
63 ; for fattening pigs, 342.

Corn, amount and proportion of
old and new, 214 ; as a pig feed,
133 ; by-products of, 300 ; carry-
ing capacity of an acre of stand-
ing, 238 ; composition of, 255,
280 ; deficiencies of, for pigs, 133 ;
ear vs. shelled vs. ground, 336 ;
for pregnant sows, 40 ; ground vs.
shelled, 334, 337 ; hogging-down,
231 ; hogging-down, and soy-
beans, Plate VI. ; hogging-down
vs. yard feeding, 228, 229 ; illus-
trating deficiencies of, Plate IV ;
methods of balancing, for gilts,
50; monthly fluctuations in
price of, 215 ; soaking and grind-
ing, 335; substitutes for, 300;
supplemental forage crops for
pigs hogging-down, 332 ; supple-
ments for, for bred gilts, 511.

Corn alone, vs. corn and forage, 147 ;
vs. corn and linseed-oil meal, 256 ;
vs. corn and meat-meal, 134 ; vs.
corn and protein supplement,
277 ; vs. corn and soybeans or
tankage, 202; vs. corn and a
supplement for pigs on timothy,
203 ; vs. corn and a supplement
for pigs on alfalfa, 201 ; vs. corn
and skim-milk or buttermilk, 241 ;
vs. corn and soybeans, 317; vs.
corn and tankage, 256; vs. com

Index

485

and tankage for pigs on clover,
205 ; vs. corn and tankage for
pigs on rape, 200 ; vs. corn and
wheat shorts or middlings, 273 ;
vs. ground cowpeas, 316.

Corn-belt, number of hogs in, 1.

Corn feed-meal, 303 ; vs. corn-
meal, 305. ,

Corn germ-meal as a substitute
for corn, 306.

Corn gluten-meal and corn gluten-
feed, 307.

Corn-meal and skim-milk to pro-
duce 100 lb. gain, 243.

Cost, and rate of gain in forage and
dry-lot periods, 213 ; distribu-
tion of, 358; general observa-
tions on, 359 ; of feeding mature
bred sow in winter, 66 ; of feed-
ing open gilts in winter, 67 ; of
feeding pigs to market weight,
225 ; of feeding pregnant gilts
in winter, 67 ; of feeding sow
and litter, 95 ; of marketing,
367; of producing pork, 360;
of raising gilt to breeding age,
226 ; of summer feeding mature
bred sow, 125 ; of summer feed-
ing mature open sow, 126 ; of
summer feeding open yearling
sow, 127 ; relation of rate of gain
to, 212.

Cottonseed meal, characteristics
of, 318 ; dangers of feeding, 318.

Cowpea forage, characteristics of,

182 ; results from pasturing, 185 ;
vs. corn, 316 ; vs. dry-lot feeding,

183 ; vs. velvet beans, 187.
Cracklings, pork, composition of,

255.
Cross-breeding, definition of, 443 ;

effect of, on birth weight of pigs,

110; effect of, on size of litter,

101 ; objections to, 444.
Culls, fattening, 122.
Curtiss, 192.
Cuts, location of, on live hog,

Plate IX; pork, Plate VIII;

prices of wholesale and retail,

388.

Dairy, by-products for pigs, 240;
precautions in feeding, 252.

Day, 250, 251, 285, 402, 403.

Demand, effect of, on price, 387,
390.

Diarrhoea or scours in pigs, 467,
468.

Dietrich, 369.

Dinwiddie, 318.

Diseases, the prevention of, hog,
Chapter XX, 458 ; of the diges-
tive system, 463 ; of the nervous
system, 470; of the respiratory
organs, 468.

Disinfectants for hog-houses, 462.

Distillers and brewers dried grains
for swine, 319.

Dressed hogs, prices of, 388.

Dressing percentage, of butcher
hogs, 371 ; of first prize carcasses,
393 ; of light hogs, 373 ; of pack-
ing hogs, 372 ; relation of, to sell-
ing value, 393 ; relation to live
weight, 398.

Dried blood, composition of, 255.

Duggar, 313, 316.

Duroc-Jersey, champion pen of
barrows, Plate XII ; history and
characteristics of, 423; sow,
Plate X.

Dvorachek and Fowler, 312.

Earle and Orr, 323.

Eastwood, 286, 295.

Eggs (ova), 431.

Emmer (spelt) , composition of, 280.

Equipment, interest, depreciation,
insurance on, 352.

Eward, 42, 50, 153, 199, 311, 383;
and Dunn, 213, 302, 308, 346;
and Kennedy, 158, 161 : Kennedy,
and Kildee, 205, 206, 228, 230,
238.

Exercise, for breeding herd in win-
ter, 37 ; for sows at farrowing
time, 72 ; for young pigs, 76.

486

Index

Fall pigs, advantages of, 118.
Farrowing, care at, 72, 121.
Feeders, 375 ; judging, 418.

Feeding, before shipping, 364;
dangers of full, 220; effect of,
on size of litter, 100; full vs.
limited, on forage, 211, 212, 213,
214 ; general systems of, 130,
131 ; hand, 343 ; methods of,
343 ; relation of time of market-
ing to system of, 216 ; two
methods of, Plate VII.

Feeds, preparation of, and methods
of feeding, 333 ; preparation of,
for sows in winter, 62.

Feet and legs of brood sow, 412.

Feterita, composition of, 280 ; for
fattening pigs, 297.

Field management in hogging-down
corn, 236.

Fisher and King, 189.

Food demands of pigs, 132.

Forage, acre cost of growing, 235 ;
advantages of , 141 ; benefits from
growing, 148 ; choosing a, 153 ;
composition of, 194, 196, 197
crops for sows in summer, 122
essentials of an ideal, 153; for
Alabama, 193 ; for Indiana, 189
for Missouri, 190, 191 ; for North
Carolina, 192 ; for North Dakota
191 ; for sub-humid districts
192 ; mixtures for fall pigs, 167
methods of feeding on, 194
proportions of nitrogenous sup-
plements on, 207 ; recommenda-
tions for plantings, 189 ; sum-
mary results from, plantings at
Alabama, 188; supplements to
for hogging-down corn, 232
value of an acre of, 145.

Forage feeding, dry -lot vs., 142, 143

Forage season, rate and cost o:
gains during, 210.

Forbes, 140.

Form, of bacon pig, 403 : of brooc
sow, 411 ; of fat barrow, 393.

Freight rates, 367.

French, 326.
Funk, 383.

jains, rate and cost of, in forage
period, 210; rate and cost of
entire feeding period, 212 ; rela-
tion of rate of, to cost of, 212 ;
relation of rate and cost of, to
intensity of feeding, 211.

Gastro-enteritis, 466-467.

Gaumitz, Wilson, and Bassett, 228.
237.

Gentry, 283, 394, 395.

Germ-cells, 431.

Gestation, length of period of, 18;
table, 30.

Gilt, age to breed, 19 ; cost of feed-
ing from weaning to breeding age,
226 ; feed cost of wintering preg-
nant, 67 ; feed cost of wintering
open, 67 ; feeding pregnant, 39 ;
feeding open, 64 ; with only two
pairs good teats, Plate IV.

Gluten-feed for fattening pigs, 308.

Gluten-meal, 307.

Good, 202; and Smith, 289, 290, 317.

Governments, 375.

Grain, amount of, to feed pigs on
forage, 208, 209 ; limited vs. full
feeding of, on forage, 214.

Grains, composition of cereal, 280 ;
for pregnant sows, 43.

Gray, Duggar and Ridgeway, 193,
136 ; Summers and Shook, 165.

Grinding corn, average results from,

338 ; percentage of feed saved by,

339 ; value of, as affected by age
of pigs, 339.

Grinding and soaking small grains,

341.

Grisdale, 283, 289, 325, 326.
Growth, importance of capacity

for rapid, 455.

Hall, 395; Simpson and Doty,
362, 367, 388.

Hampshire, history and character-
istics of, 423 ; sow, Plate X.

Index

487

Hand-feeding, a practical conven-
ience in, Plate VII; vs. self-
feeding, 346.

Hay, legume, for pregnant sows, 44.

Heat, cause of, 432 ; significance
of, 17 ; time of occurrence, 17.

Henry, 287, 293, 325 ; and Morri-
son, 66, 116, 151, 243, 244, 250,
251, 255, 271, 279, 280, 293, 297,
318, 334, 342.

Herd-records, 91.

Heredity, the law of, 431.

Hernia, scrotal, 473.

Hog, points of, Plate IX.

Hog-cholera, 477-481.

Hogging-down corn, experiences of
farmer with, 230 ; and soybeans,
Plate VI ; supplemental forages
for, 232 ; vs. yard feeding, 229.

Hog-house treatment, 474.

Hog-houses, disinfectants for, 462.

Hogs, breeds of, 420 ; butcher, 370 ;
crippled, on the market, 365 ;
dead, 375 ; judging, 391 ; light,
372 ; market requirements of
finished, 393 ; packing, 371 ;
prime heavy, 370 ; relative prices
of, 5 ; types of, 392 ; variation in
number per capita, 389.

Hominy feed, 300 ; vs. corn-meal,
301, 302.

Hunter, 192.

Ideals, in herd improvement, 454.

In-breeding, definition, 445 ; safety
and value of, 447.

Individuality relation of, to size of
litter, 104 ; value of, in selection,
450.

Infectious diseases, 477-482.

Inflammation of stomach and in-
testines, or gastro-enteritis, 466-
467.

Jones and Proulx, 327.

Jordan, 133.

Judge, training necessary to, 391.

Judging, breeding hogs of the lard
type, 406 ; finished barrows of
the bacon type, 401 ; finished
fat barrows, 393; feeders, 417;
gilts and young boars, 416 ; im-
portance of, 391 ; score-card in,
395.

Kafir, composition of, 280 ; vs. corn,
296 ; vs. corn-meal, 297 ; for fat-
tening pigs, 297.

Kaoliang, composition of, 280 ;
for fattening pigs, 297 ; vs. corn,
299.

Kennedy, and Robbins, 134, 203,
335 ; and Bouska, 253.

Kidney worm, 476.

Killing records of butcher hogs, 395.

King, 190.

Lazenby, 322.

Lespedeza for forage, 158.

Lewis, L. L., researches of, 18, 432.

Like begets like, 433.

Linseed-oil meal, composition of
old and new process, 265 ; money
value of, compared with shorts,
267 ; money value of, compared
with tankage, 259, 266; vs.
shorts or middlings, 267 ; vs. soy-
bean meal, 269 ; vs. tankage, 258,
266.

Litter, care and feeding of sow
and, 69 ; cost of feeding sow and,
91 ; effect of age of sow on size
of, 96 ; effect of cross-breeding
on size of, 101 ; effect of feeding
and condition of sow on size of,
100 ; influence of boar on size of,
102 ; influence of type, breed,
and individuality on size of, 104 ;
plans for marking, 77 ; relation
of size of, to number of dead pigs,
106 ; relation of size of, to birth
weight of pigs, 111.

Litters, number of, in year, 117.

Livestock, average prices paid for, 5.

Lung worm, 476.

488

Index

MacKenzie and Marshall, 17.

Mangels for swine, 326.

Management, of breeding herd in
winter, 33 ; of pigs during the
summer, 223.

Market, classes of hogs on, 368 ;
importance of ability to top the,
456 ; receipts on Chicago, 377 ;
selling hogs on, 366 ; weight and
type of pig desired by, 128, 129.

Marketing, and markets, 362 ;
costs of, 367 ; time of, affected by
system of feeding, 216, 218.

Markets, 362.

Mating, general systems of, 23 ;
time in day, 25.

Meat and bone products, composi-
tion of, 255.

Meat-meal, see Tankage.

Michael and Kennedy, 331.

Middlings, or shorts, vs. tankage,
260; white or flour, composi-
tion of, 271.

Milk, composition of sow's, 116 ;
production by brood sows, 113,
114.

Milo, composition of, 280 ; for
fattening pigs, 297.

Minerals, for nursing sows, 82 ; for

pregnant sows and gilts, 54.
Molasses, black strap, as a substi-
tute for corn, 320 ; sugar-beet,
for fattening shotes, 321.
Moore Bros., 91.

Motor truck, shipping hogs by, 368
Mumford and Weaver, 157, 191.

Needle teeth, 74.

Nutrition, relation to birth weigh
of pigs, 112.

Oats, as a forage crop in mixtures
168 ; best proportion of meat
meal to feed with, 206 ; clove
and rape with, 168 ; Canada fiel

peas, rape, and, 169 ; composi-
tion of, 280; effect of feeding
different proportions of, with
corn, 295 ; vetch and rape with,
168.

Oat-meal, as a supplement to corn,
311.

'acking-house by-products, com-
position of, 254.

""aralysis of posterior portion of
body, partial or complete, 470—
471.

Parasites of hogs, 473-476.
^asteurization of dairy by-products,

252.
Peanut forage vs. dry-lot feeding,

186.
Peanut-oil feed, unhulled, as a

supplement to milo, 310.
Peanut-oil meal, as a supplement
to milo, 309, 310; vs. linseed-oil
meal vs. tankage, 311.
Peanuts, characteristics of, as a
forage, 185 ; effect on quality of
pork, 315 ; and corn vs. rice bran,
313.

Pedigree, judging the value of, 452 ;
of in-bred animal, 445 ; method
of writing, 451.
Pen-holders, 369.
Performance, value of, in selecting

breeding stock, 453.
Peters, W. H., 49.
Pig, cost of market, 357 ; cost of,
at weaning, 356 ; weight and
type desired by market, 128.
Pig-creep, 83.
Pig eaters, 75.

Pig-nest, framework for, 70.
Pigs, birth weight of, 107 ; cost of
feeding to market weight, 225 ;
cereal grains for fattening, 280 ;
in clover, Plate V ; dressing per-
centage of, 374 ; effect of cross-
breeding on birth weight of, 110;
early or late, 21 ; fattening for
market, 239 ; feeding young, 84 ;
gains from birth to weaning, 86 ;

Index

489

number of, at birth, 98 ; number
raised, 105 ; number dead af-
fected by size of litter, 106;
number of, required to hog-
down an acre of corn, 237 ; per-
centage farrowed raised, 105 ;
relation of age of sow to birth
weight of, 108, 109, 110; rela-
tion of sex to birth weight of,
107, 108 ; in rape, Plate V ; on
self-feeder, Plate VII ; ringing,
223 ; roasting, 375 ; variation
in number of, 99 ; weaning, 85.

Plumb and Anderson, 285, 288;
and Van Norman, 322, 342.

Poland-China, history and charac-
teristics of, 421.

Pregnancy, length of period of, 18.

Prepotency, 440.

Prevention of hog diseases, Chapter
XX, 458.

Price, annual fluctuations in, of
hogs, 389 ; monthly fluctuations
of corn, 215 ; seasonal variations
in, of hogs, 387 ; supply and,
fluctuations, 376.

Prolificacy, importance in herd,
454.

Protein supplements, and corn vs.
corn alone, 276 ; relative value
of, 277 ; proportions required to
balance corn, 279.

Quality, in brood sows, 413 ; in fat

barrows, 400.
Quarantine laws, relation of, to

disease, 462-463.

Rape, characteristics of, 162 ; vs.

alfalfa, 160; vs. clover, 166;

early vs. late, 164 ; pigs in, Plate

V ; supplements for pigs on, 198 ;

winter, 166.
Rations, amount to feed pregnant

sows and gilts in winter, 58, 61 ;

amount to feed nursing sows, 83 ;

comparison of, for pregnant sows
in winter, 48 ; for mature preg-
nant sows in winter, 56 ; for pigs
on forage, 208 ; for nursing sows,
82 ; for sows during breeding
season, 1 1 ; relation of, to rate of
gain and time of marketing, 218.

Receipts, daily distribution of, on
market, 382 ; on Chicago market,
377.

Records, herd, 90; importance of,
during mating season, 28 ; far-
rowing, 71 ; sample, 29.

Red-dog flour, composition of, 271.

Relation, of quarantine laws to
disease, 462-463 ; of sanitation to
disease, 458-462.

Reproduction, the process of, 431.

Reversion, in color, Plate XII ;
illustration of principle of, 437 ;
meaning of, 436.

Rice bran, effect on quality of pork,
315 ; and rice polish vs. corn chop,
313 ; vs. peanuts and corn, 314.

Rice products, 312.

Richards, 191.

Ringing pigs, 223.

Robertson, 322.

Robison, 247.

Rommel, 318, 342.

Roots, value of, for fattening swine,
321, 322.

Roughs, 374.

Rye, composition of, 280 ; charac-
teristics of, as a forage crop, 170 ;
green vs. ripe, 173 ; ground vs.
ground corn, 292 ; hogging-down
ripe, 172, 174; vs. wheat, 293;
supplements to corn for pigs on
winter, 202 ; as a winter forage
crop, 171 ; winter, vs. dry-lot
feeding, 172.

Salt, Epsom, for sows at farrowing
time, 75 ; for pregnant sows, 54 ;
for nursing sows, 82.

Sanborn, 322.

Sanitation, breeding herd in winter,

490

Index

36 ; during the summer, 223 ;
at farrowing time, 76.

Score-card, for bacon hogs, 403 ;
for brood sows, 407 ; for market
hogs of lard type, 396 ; use of,
in judging, 395.

Scours in pigs, or diarrhoea, 85, 467-
468.

Screenings, composition of, 271.

Selection, principles in, 449.

Self-feeder, 334 ; pigs on, Plate VII ;
for pigs before weaning, 84; for
pregnant sows, 63.

Self-feeding vs. hand-feeding, 348.

Selling hogs, 366.

Sex characteristics in brood sows,
414.

Shade and water, 224.

Shaw, 322.

Shipping hogs, 363 ; cars for, 364.

Shorts, composition of, 271 ; money
value of, 273 ; money value of,
compared with skim-milk or
buttermilk, 275 ; as a supple-
ment to corn and tankage, 261.

Shorts, or middlings, vs. linseed-oil
meal, 267 ; vs. tankage, 259, 260 ;
vs. skim-milk or buttermilk, 274.

Silage for pregnant sows, 48.

Simple inflammation of the mouth,
463-464.

Sire and dam, relative influence of,
440.

Skim-milk, or buttermilk, and corn-
meal required for 100 Ib. gain,
243 ; on pasture vs. skim-milk in
dry-lot, 146 ; as a supplement to
corn, 241 ; money value of, 242 ;
money value of, compared with
tankage, 249 ; vs. other protein
supplements, 246 ; vs. tankage,
248 ; proportions of, with corn,
247 ; tubercular, 253.

Skinner, 317, 383; and Cochel,
245 ; and King, 301 ; and Smith,
213 ; and Starr, 302, 305.

Smith, H. R., 253, 287, 288, 291.

Smith, W. W., 436.

Snyder, 45, 46, 48, 105, 346; and
Burnett, 201, 285, 288, 289, 298.

Sore mouth or stomatitis, 463-466.

Sorghum, characteristics of, as a
forage, 177 ; composition of, 280 :
for fattening pigs, 297 ; results
from pasturing, 178 ; vs. sorghum
and corn, 298.

Sows, amount to feed during breed-
ing season, 13 ; birth weight of,
108 ; breed-type, characteristics
of, 415 ; care of, during farrow-
ing season, 69 ; care and feeding
just before farrowing, 71 ; condi-
tion of brood, 413 ; condition of,
in summer, 120 ; cost of summer
feeding of open and bred, 125,
126, 127 ; culling out unproduc-
tive, 89 ; effect of age of, on birth
weight of pigs, 110 ; effect of age
of, on size of litter, 108, 109;
feed consumption of, and litters,
94 ; feed cost of wintering preg-
nant, 65 ; feeding after farrowing,
74 ; feeding during the breeding
season, 8 ; feeding pregnant, 39 ;
feeding and management of
pregnant, during summer, 119;
feeding and management of
open, 123 ; feeding for milk pro-
duction, 81 ; feeding open year-
ling, 124; feet and legs of, 412;
"flushing," 11 ; general points
in judging, 409 ; market value of
old, 8 ; form of brood, 410 ; pig-
eating, 75 ; and pigs on alfalfa,
Plate V ; range for pregnant,
Plate II ; sex characteristics
and disposition of, 414 ; size of
brood, 409 ; quality of, 413.

Soybeans, characteristics of, as a
forage crop, 178 ; limited vs. full
feeding on, 180 ; vs. linseed-oil
meal, 269; vs. rape, 181 ; results
from, forage, 182 ; vs. tankage,
262.

Sperms (spermatozoa), 432.

"Sports," see Reversion.

Spotted Poland-China sow, Plate
XI ; history and characteristics
of, 427.

Stags, 374.

Index

491

Standard middlings, composition
of, 271.

Sterility, effect of excessive fatness
on, 101.

Stock foods, condimental, 327;
constituents of, 327; effect of,
on digestion, 331 ; medicinal
properties of, 329; value of, for
fattening pigs, 328.

Stomatitis or sore mouth, 463-
466.

Succulence, for sow and litter, 82 ;
value of, for pregnant sows, 53.

Supplements, amount of, for pigs
on alfalfa, 200; for bred sows,
52 ; for pigs on rape, 198 ; for
pigs on timothy and blue-grass,
203 ; for pigs on winter rye, 202 ;
proportion of, for pigs on for-
age, 207.

Supply, monthly variations of, 377 ;
and price fluctuations, 376 ; va-
riations in daily, 381 ; variations
in yearly, 382 ; weight as a fac-
tor of, 384.

Sweet, 330.

Swine, number of, in leading coun-
tries, 6 ; world's distribution of,
2.

Tamworth, history and charac-
teristics of, 429 ; sow, Plate XI.

Tankage, composition of, 255 ; and
corn vs. corn alone, 256 ; vs.
linseed-oil meal, 258; money
value of, compared with linseed-
oil meal, 259 ; money value of,
compared with shorts or mid-
dlings, 260 ; money value of,
when fed with corn, 257 ; money
value of, compared with soybeans,
263 ; money value of, compared
with skim-milk or buttermilk,
249 ; best proportion of, for pigs
on rape, 199 ; best proportion of,
for pigs on timothy and blue-
grass, 204 ; best proportion of,
for pigs on oats, Canada field
peas, and rape, 206 ; vs. skim-

milk or buttermilk, 248; vs.
wheat shorts or middlings, 259.

Three gilts, litter mates, Plate III.

Time required to hog-off an acre
of corn, 237.

Timothy vs. dry-lot feeding, 177.

Timothy and blue-grass, supple-
ments for pigs on, 203.

Trucks, shipping hogs by motor,
368.

Tuberculosis, 481-482 ; from skim-
milk, 253.

Tubers for fattening swine, 321.

Type, breed, in judging, 415 ; rela-
tion of, to size of litter, 104 ; lard,
392 ; bacon, 392 ; and weight of
pig desired by market, 128.

Types of hogs, 392.

Ulcerative inflammation of mouth,
464-466.

Up-grading, 441 ; rate of improve-
ment in, 442.

Vaccination, cost of, 352.

Variation, due to environment, 439 ;
germinal or hereditary, 434 ; a
phenomenon of heredity, 434.

Velvet beans, as a forage crop, 185 ;
vs. cowpea forage, 187.

Vetch, as a forage crop, 168.

Warrington, 151.

Water, for breeding herd in winter,
37 ; proportions of in slop, 342 ;
and shade for pigs in summer,
224.

Weaver, 198, 261, 286, 287, 290,
346.

Weight, desirable variations in, of
pregnant sows, 60; ideal, for
market pig, 398 ; as a factor in
supply of hogs, 384 ; average
monthly variations in, 384 ; aver-

492

Index

age annual variations in, 385 ; re-
lation of, to dressing per cent,
398 ; and type of pig desired by
market, 128.

Wheat, alone vs. wheat and a pro-
tein supplement, 290 ; composi-
tion of, 280; vs. corn for fatten-
ing pigs, 285 ; dry whole, vs.
soaked, 288; frosted vs. sound,
290 ; ground vs. ground corn, 286 ;
soaked vs. ground, 289 ; soaked
whole vs. soaked ground, 289 ;
whole vs. shelled corn, 286;
vs. one-half wheat and one-half
corn, 287.

Wheat flour, by-products from the

manufacture of, 270; composi-
tion of, by-products, 271.

Wheeler, 296, 317.

Whey, composition of, 250; and
corn-meal vs. meal alone, 250.

Williams, 383.

Wilson, 245, 299.

Wilson and Co., 370.

Wiltshire side, demand for, 401 ;
Plate VIII.

Wright, 201, 261, 297.

Yorkshire, history and characteris-
tics of, breed, 429 ; sow, Plate XI.

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