The practical poultry keeper: a complete and standard guide to the management of poultry, whether for domestic use, the markets, or exhibition

AGRIC.
4IBRARY

THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

I 1 1 1
PRACTICAL

POULTRY KEEPER

3, Complete anb ^tanbarb (Suibe

TO THE

MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY

WHETHER FOR
DOMESTIC USE, THE MARKETS, OR EXHIBITION

Bv L. WRIGHT

SIXTIETH THOUSAND, AV-: T/.S /•/ >, \VITH COLOURED PLATES

NEW YORK

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

751, 15ROADWAV
1894

By special arrangement, the sale of this book in the United
States is placed in the hands of the ORANGE JUDD
COMPANY, of New York.

SF//7

AGRIC.

LIBRARY

PREFACE

TO THE TWENTIETH EDITION.

TN offering the First Edition of this Work to the public, the
then unknown author of it stated as its object, the provision
of such practical details, simply and practically set forth, as
might be "put into the hands of a person totally ignorant
of poultry-keeping, with the reasonable certainty that its
instructions, if followed, would command success." He did not
think, and does not now think, that such a Work then existed;
and accordingly ventured to hope that such an attempt might
be well received.

The exhaustion of nineteen editions, in about twelve years,
is sufficient proof that, upon the whole, THE PRACTICAL
POULTRY KEEPER has answered its intended purpose. No
book on the same subject has probably ever had such a wide
circulation : the people for whom it was written have both
understood and welcomed it, in a way no one feels more than
the writer of these lines.

But the lapse of so long a period has at length brought
about the necessity for extensive revision. Minor corrections,
it is true, have been made from time to time, in points of
detail. But the last ten years have seen great changes in
the poultry world, which such corrections can no longer

M363097

IV PREFACE.

represent. New breeds have been introduced, and the
standards of many older breeds have become seriously different
from what they were; a vast amount of additional experience
on many points has been accumulated ; and therefore the
Twentieth has seemed to both the Author and the Publishers a
good opportunity for the preparation and issue of what
almost amounts to a New Edition.

No change has been made for the mere sake of change ;
and the first few pages, and many other pages, will be found
elsewhere pretty much in the old familiar form. But whole
chapters have been added, and other whole chapters practically
re-written, on farm and table poultry, artificial incubation, and
the descriptions of the various breeds of fowls. In all these,
and in other points, the text has been brought up to the
knowledge and progress of the present day, the old stereotype
plates being entirely cancelled. Coloured plates representing
the principal breeds, from the pencil of Mr. J. W. Ludlow,
have also been substituted for the earlier illustrations.

THE PRACTICAL POULTRY KEEPER thus presents itself in
its Twentieth Edition in what is practicably a new dress. The
Author trusts it will be found " practical " as ever, while as
Bound and trustworthy as many years of additional experience
can make it; and so commits it again to a public, not a
few of whom have become almost personal friends.

August, 1885.

CONTENTS.

SECTION I.

PAGE

THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OP POULTRY, WITH A VIEW TO PROFIT : —
Chapter I. — Houses, Runs, and Appliances necessary to keeping

Poultry with. Success ... ... 1

Chapter II. — The System of Operations, and Selection of Stock 12
Chapter in. — The Feeding and General Management of Adult

Fowls 18

Chapter IV. — Incubation 32

Chapter V. — The Rearing and Fattening of Chickens 41

Chapter VI. — Poultry on the Farm 60

Chapter VH. — Artificial Hatching 70

Chapter VIII. — Rearing Chickens Artificially 86

Chapter IX.— Diseases of Poultry 93

SECTION H.
THE BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OP PRIZE POULTRY: —

Chapter X. — Yards and Accommodation adapted for Breeding

Prize Poultry 101

Chapter XI.— The Scientific Principles of Breeding ... ... 108

Chapter XII. — The Practical Selection and Care of Breeding

Stock, and the Rearing of Chickens for Exhibition 118

Chapter XIII. — The Preparation of Fowls for Exhibition, and

Various Matters connected -with Shows 130

VI CONTENTS.

SECTION III.
THE DIFFERENT BIIEEDS OF POULTRY : — •

Chapter XIV. — Cochins, Langshans 141

Chapter XV. — Brahmas 147

Chapter XVL— Malays 153

Chapter XVII.— Game 155

Chapter XVIII.— Dorkings 161

Chapter XIX.— Spanish, Minorcas, &c, .. 166

Chapter XX.— Hamhurghs 174

Chapter XXI.— Polish, Sultans ... 180

Chapter XXII.— French Breeds 185

Chapter XXIII. — American Breeds ... ...196

Chapter XXIV.— The Various Class 200

Chapter XXV.— Bantams 206

SECTION IV.
TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER-FOWL: —

Chapter XXVI. — Turkeys. Guinea-fowl. Pea-fowl 213

Chapter XXV1L— Pheasants 225

Chapter XXVIII.— Water-fowl 230

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

COLOURED PLATES.

HAMRURGHS Frontispiece

COCHINS, BBAHMAS, AND MALAYS Facing page 143

GAMK AND DORKINGS ... ,, 161

SPANISH AND POLISH ... ... ... ... „ 169

FRENCH BREEDS „ 185

AMERICAN BREEDS ... .... „ 197

BANTAMS ,- 209

GEESE AND DUCKS 237

ENGRAVINGS.

PACK

FOWL-HOUSB WITH SHELF ... ... 6

PLAN AND ELEVATION OF POULTRY-HOUSE ... 9

FOOD VESSELS 24, 25

WATER VESSELS 25, 27

NEST-EOX 36

STKRILK AND FERTILE EGOS ... ... ... 39

COOP DNDKR SHED ... ... ... 43

A SHELTER COOP ... ... ... ... 44, 45

COOP WJ.TH COVERED RUN ... ... ... ... ... ... 47

POULTRY-HOUSE FOR THE FARM 67

BOYLE'S REGULATOR ... ... ... ... ... 71

BOTLE'S INCUBATOR ... ... ... ... ... 73

TOMLINSON'S INCUBATOR ... ... 78, 79, 80

CHRISTY'S THERMOSTATIC INCUBATOR 81

HEARSON'S INCUBATOR ... ... 84

MRS. CHESHIRE'S ARTIFICIAL MOTHER 88

II iDUO-MoTHER ... ... 89

Vlll ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

MR. LANE'S POULTRY-YARD 102

SIR HENRY THOMPSON'S POULTRY YARD 106

FEATHERS OE FANCY FOWLS 1?9

FRENCH LA FLECHE COCKEREL ... • 188

FRENCH LA FLECHE PULLET 189

BREDAS 191

WYANDOTTES 199

YOKOHAMAS 203

CAMBRIDGE TURKEYS ... ... ••• 216

THE

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY,

WITH A VIEW TO TROFIT.
CHAPTER L

HOUSES, RUNS, AND APPLIANCES NECESSARY TO KEEPING
POULTRY WITH SUCCESS.

FOWLS should not be kept unless proper and regular attention
can be given to them ; and we would strongly urge that this
needful attention should be personal. Our own experience
has taught us that domestics are rarely to be relied upon in
many matters essential both to economy and the well-being of
the stock ; and, if any objection be made on the score of
dignity, we could not only point to high-born ladies who do
not think it beneath them to attend to their own fowls, but
can aver that even the most menial offices may be performed in
any properly-constructed fowl-house without so much as
soiling the fingers. If there be children in the family old
enough to undertake such matters, they will be both pleased
and benefited by attending to what will soon become their
pets ; if not, the owner must either attend to them himself, or
take such oversight as shall be effectual in securing not only
proper care of his birds, but of his own meal and grain. If he
be unable or unwilling to do at least as much as this, he had
far better not engage in poultry-keeping at all. For the pages

B

2 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

of this section are not intended simply to be read and ap-
proved, but the directions given are such as are proper for the
circumstances therein referred to, and are the price to be paid
for health and eggs. For instance : when it is said that the
roosting-house should be cleansed daily, it is meant that it
should be done. When it is said that fowls in confinement
should have daily fresh vegetable food, it is intended to convey
that such food must be regularly given; and so on. Let the
reader deal fairly by us and by his poultry; so will the latter
deal fairly by him.

The first essential requisite to success is a thoroughly good
house for the birds to roost and lay in. This does not neces-
sarily imply a large one or a costly : we once knew a young
man who kept fowls most profitably, with only a house of his
own construction not more than three feet square, and a run
of the same width, under twelve feet long. It means simply
that the fowl-house must combine two absolute essentials — be
both perfectly weatherproof and well ventilated.

With regard to the first point, it is not only necessary to
keep out the rain but also the wind — a matter very seldom
attended to as it ought to be, but which has great influence on
the health and laying of the inmates. The cheapest material
is wood, of which an inch thick will answer very well in any
ordinary English climate ; but, if so built, the boards must
either be tongued together, or all the cracks between them
carefully caulked by driving in string with a blunt chisel.
Care should also be taken that the door fits well, admitting no

O

air except under the bottom ; and, in short, every precaution be
taken to prevent draught. The hole by which the fowls enter,
even when its loose trap-door is closed, should admit enough
air to supply the inmates ; and the object is to have but this
one, source of supply, and to keep the fowls out of all direct
draught from it.

For the roof, tiles alone are not sufficient, and, if they

POULTRY HOUSES. 3

are used, there should be either boarding or ceiling under
them ; otherwise all the heat will escape through the numerous
interstices, and in winter it will be impossible to keep
the house warm ; the same almost exactly may be said of
galvanised iron. Planks alone make a good roofing. They
may either be laid horizontally, one plank overlapping the
other, and the whole well tarred two or three times first of
all, and every autumn afterwards ; or perpendicularly, fitting
close edge to edge, and tarred, then covered with large sheets
of brown paper, which should receive two coats of tar more.
This last makes a very smooth, weatherproof, and durable
roofing, which throws off the water well. Another good roof
is board covered with patent felt, which should be tarred once
a year. And still another very good roofing, effective yet
light, is the well-known " Willesden paper."

In the north of England a house built of wood is all the
better for some sort of lining. Matting is often used, and
answers perfectly for warmth, but unfortunately makes a
capital harbour for vermin. If it is employed, it should
only be slightly affixed to the walls, and at frequent intervals
be removed and well beaten. Patent felt is the best material,
the strong smell of tar repelling most insects from taking up their
residence therein. Or the house may be built with a double
wooden skin, inside and outside of the framework, with an air-
space of two inches between. This is cheap, and easy to make,
and gives a very warm house in a cold country.

If a tight brick shed offers, it will, of course, be secured for
the poultry habitation. But let all dilapidations be well
repaired.

Ventilation is scarcely ever provided for as it should be,
and the want of it is a fruitful source of failure and disease.
An ill-ventilated fowl-house must cause sickly inmates; and
such will never repay the proprietor. This great desideratum
must, however, as already observed, be secured without

B2

4 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

exposing the fowls to any direct draught. The best plan is to
have an opening at the highest point of the roof, surmounted
by an opening of slats put together in the well-known fashion
of Venetian blinds.

A south or south-east aspect is desirable, where it can be
had • and to have the house at the back either of a fireplace or
a stable is a great' advantage in winter ; but we have proved
by long experience that both can be successfully dispensed
with if only the two essentials are combined, of good ventila-
tion with perfect shelter.

We do not approve of too large a house. For half-a-dozen
fowls, a very good size is five feet square, and sloping from
six to eight feet high. The nests may then be placed on the
ground at the back, where any eggs can be readily seen ; and
one perch will roost all the birds. This perch, unless the
breed kept is small, had better not be more than eighteen
inches from the ground, and should be about three inches in
diameter. A rough pole with the bark on answers best : the
claws cling to it nicely, and bark is not so hard as planed wood.
By far the greater number of perches are much too high and
small ) the one fault causing heavy fowls to lame themselves
in flying down, and the other producing deformed breast-bones
in the chickens. The air at the top of any room or house is,
moreover, much more impure than that nearer the floor.

Some prefer a movable perch fixed on trestles. In large
houses they are useful, but in a smaller they are needless. If
the perch be placed at the height indicated, and a little in
advance of the front edge of the nests, placed at the back, no
hen-ladder will be required; and the floor being left quite
clear, will be cleaned with the greatest ease, while the fowls
will feel no draught from the door.

Besides the house for roosting and laying, a shed is neces-
sary, to which the birds may resort in rainy weather. Should
the house, indeed, be very large, and have a good window,

SHEDDING FOR SHELTER.

this is not absolutely needed ; otherwise it must be provided,
and is better separate in any case. If this shed be fenced in
with wire, so that the fowls may be strictly confined during
wet weather, so much the better ; for, next to bad air, wet is
by far the most fruitful source, not only of barrenness, but of
illness and death, in the poultry-yard. If the space available
be very limited — say five or six feet by twelve or sixteen — the
whole should be roofed over ; when the house will occupy one
end of the space, and the rest will form a covered " run." But
in this case the shed should be so arranged that sun-light may
reach the birds during some part of the day. They not only
enjoy it, but without it, although adult fowls may be kept for
a time in tolerable health, they droop sooner or later, and it is
almost impossible to rear healthy chickens.

Should the range be wider, a shed from six to twenty feet
long and four to eight wide may be reared against the
wall. Next the fowl-house will still, for obvious reasons, be
the most convenient arrangement, and it is also best wired in,
as before recommended. The whole roof should be in one, to
look neat, and should project about a foot beyond the enclosed
space, to throw the water well off. To save the roof drippings
from splashing in, a gutter-shoot will of course be provided,
and the front should be boarded up for a foot from the ground.
The floor of this shed ought to be raised a few inches above the
usual ground level outside : if by a stratum of clinkers or
brickbats, all the better. All this being carried out properly,
the covered " run " ought at all times to be perfectly dry.

The best flooring for the fowl-house is concrete, made of
strong, fresh-slaked hydraulic lime and pounded "clinkers,"
put down hot, well trodden once a day for a week, and finally
smoothed. The process is troublesome, but the result is a
floor which is not only very clean in itself, but easily kept so.
Trodden earth will also answer very welL The floor of the
shed may be the same, but on the whole, it is preferable there

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

to leave the natural loose earth, which the fowls delight to
scratch in.

Cleanliness must be attended to. In the house it is easily
secured by laying a board underneath the perch, which can be
scraped clean every morning in a moment, and the air the
fowls breathe thus kept perfectly pure. Or the droppings may

Fig. 1.

o Broad shelf, eighteen inches high.

b Perch, four inches above.

c Nests, open at top and in front.

be taken up daily with a small hoe and a housemaid's common
dustpan, after which a handful of ashes or sand lightly
sprinkled will make the house all it should be.

There is another most excellent plan for preserving clean-
liness in the roosting-house, shown in Fig. 1. A broad shelf
(a) is fixed at the back of the house, and the perch placed four
or five inches above it, a foot from the wall. The nests are
conveniently placed on the ground underneath, and need no
top, whilst they are perfectly protected from defilement and
are also well shaded, to the great delight of the hen. The

THE SPACE NECESSARY. i

shelf is scraped clean every morning with the greatest ease and
comfort, on account of its convenient height, and slightly sanded
afterwards ; whilst the floor of the house is never polluted at
all by the roosting birds. The broad shelf has yet another
recommendation in the perfect protection it affords from
upward draughts of air.

The covered "run" should be raked over two or three
times a week, and dug over whenever it looks sodden or gives
any offensive smell. Even this is not sufficient. Three or
four times a year, two or three inches deep — in fact, the whole
polluted soil — must be removed, and replaced by fresh earth,
gravel, or ashes, as the case may be.

Under the shed must be constantly kept a heap of dry
dust or sifted ashes, for the fowls to roll in and cleanse them-
selves iii their own peculiar manner, which should be renewed
as often as it becomes damp or foul from use.

If chickens be a part of the intended plan, a separate com-
partment should be provided for the sitting hens; but this
will be farther treated of in a subsequent chapter.

Many will wish to know what space is necessary. The
"run" for the fowls should certainly be as large as can be
afforded ; an extensive range is not only better for their health,
but saves both trouble and food, as they will to some extent
forage for themselves. Very few, however, can command
this ; and poultry may be kept almost anywhere by bearing in
mind the one important point, that the smaller the space in
which they are confined, the greater and more constant atten-
tion must be bestowed upon the cleanliness of tKeir domain.
They decline rapidly in health and produce if kept on foul
ground. If daily attention be given to this matter, a covered
shed ten or twelve feet long by six feet wide may be made to
suffice for half-a-dozen fowls without any open run at all. By
employing a layer of dry earth as a deodoriser, which was turned
over every day and renewed once a week, the National Poultry

8 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

Company kept for several years su-ch a family in each pen of
their large establishment at Bromley. Thesa pens did not
exceed the size mentioned, yet tho adult fowls at least were in
the highest health and condition ; and the company managed,
with birds thus confined, to take many prizes at first-class
shows.

Poultry-keeping is, therefore, within the reach of all. The
great thing is purity, which must be secured, either by space,
or, in default of that, by care. Hardy fowls will sometimes
thrive in spite of draughts, exposure, and scanty food ; but
the strongest birds speedily succumb to bad management in
this particular, which is perhaps the most frequent cause of
failure.

It should also be remarked that poultry thus confined will
require a different diet to those kept more at liberty; but
this will be more fully explained in a succeeding chapter.

If the run be on the limited scale described, dry earth is
decidedly the best deodoriser. It is, however, seldom at the
command of those who have little space to spare, and sifted
ashes an inch deep, spread over the floor of the whole shed,
will answer very well. The ashes should be raked eveiy other
morning, and renewed at least every fortnight, or oftener if
possible. Of course, the number of fowls must be limited :
they should not exceed five or six, and, unless a second shed of
the same size can be allowed, the rearing of chickens should
not be attempted.

To those who can give up a portion of their garden, the
following plan of a poultry-yard can be confidently recom-
mended. It represents what was our own yard for years, and
from experience we can pronounce it not only convenient,
simple, and cheap, but, with the addition of a lawn on which
the chickens may be cooped, sufficient for rearing in very
fair perfection almost any variety of either ordinary or
'• fancy " fowls. The space required in all is only twenty-five

ELEVATION

SCALE

Fig. 2.

A A Roosting and laying houses. a a Nests.

B B Fenced-in covered runs. b b Perches.

C C Shed and run for sitting hens. c c Holes for fowls to enter.
D D Grass runs.

10 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

by thirty-five feet, besides the lawn or grass-run. If more
can be afforded, give it, by all means ; but we found this,
with very moderate care, amply sufficient, and believe it will
meet the requirements of a large class of readers.

The plan, it will be seen, comprises two distinct houses,
sheds, and runs, with a separate compartment for sitting hens.
The nests are placed on the ground at the back of the houses,
and the perches, as before recommended, a foot in advance of
them, and eighteen inches high. The holes by which the fowls
enter open into the sheds, which are wired in, so that in wet
weather they can be altogether confined. In dry weather the
shed is opened to give them liberty. The fencing should be
boarded up a foot high, not only to prevent rain splashing in,
but to keep in, when necessary, young chickens, which would
otherwise run out between the meshes.

The holes by which the fowls enter their houses should be
furnished with trap-doors, that they may be kept out at pleasure
whilst either part is being cleaned. Each house must also
have a small window. Having a shed at the side, ventilating
lanterns will not be necessary, as the end will be attained by
boring a few holes in the wall between the house and shed,
towards the highest part of the roof.

The yards in front of the sheds should be gravel or trodden
earth j but if they can be as much as thirty feet long they are
better laid down in grass, which, if well rooted first, will bear
small fowls upon it for several hours each day, but should be
renewed in the spring by sowing when needed. The runs
should be enclosed with wire netting, two inches mesh, which
may be conveniently stretched on poles 1J inches square,
driven two feet into the ground, and placed five feet apart.
Between the runs, however, the divisions should be boarded up
a couple of feet high, to prevent fighting or restlessness. The
height of the fence depends on the breed chosen. Cochins or
Brahmas are easily retained within bounds by netting a yard

PLAN OF A SMALL YARD. 11

Irish ; for moderate-sized fowls six feet will do ; whilst to
confine Game, Hatnburghs, or Bantams, a fence eight or nine
feet will be found necessary. The netting should be simply
stretched from post to post, without a rail at the top, as the
inmates are then far less likely to attempt flying over.

We do not like to see fowls with their outer wings cut.
If their erratic propensities are troublesome, open one wing,
and cut only the first or flight feathers, usually ten in number.
This will effectually prevent the birds from flying, and as the
primary quills are always tucked under the others when not in
use, there is no external sign of the operation.

The compartment for the sitting hen may be boarded in at
the front or not ; for ourselves, we prefer it open. Her run
may also be covered over or not, at pleasure, but it is better
covered.

Such a yard possesses many advantages, especially when
used with the addition of a lawn for breeding fancy poultry.
Two separate runs are almost necessary if the rearing of
chickens forms part of the plan of proceeding ; and many
persons consider it advisable to separate the cocks and hens,
except during the breeding season, believing that stronger
chickens are obtained thereby. The need of the separate
compartment for the sitting hens is further insisted on here-
after, but it has also other uses, being, when not so employed,
convenient for the temporary reception of a pen of strange
birds, for which there may be no other accommodation.

Each run will accommodate from six to ten fowls, according
to their size and habits.

For those who purpose to engage more largely in prize
poultry-breeding, more extensive designs will be given here-
after ; but enough has now been said to enable the intending
poultry-keeper to select from the different plans here indicated
the one best adapted to his particular situation, or, mayhap, to
contrive a better one of his own. "We have pointed out the

12 . GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

essentials; and these being provided for, operations can be
commenced, and it becomes necessary to determine upon the
plan of proceeding. This, then, will be treated in the next
chapter.

CHAPTER II.

THE SYSTEM OF OPERATIONS, AND SELECTION OF STOCK.

WHEN poultry are kept as a branch of domestic economics, it
will be obvious that the system to be pursued should vary
according to the extent of accommodation which can be
afforded, and to the object sought. Both these considerations
should be well weighed before operations are commenced ; and
the plan then determined upon as best adapted to the circum-
stances should, as long as those circumstances remain the same,
be consistently carried out and adhered to.

It very frequently happens that a regular supply of eggs is
the sole object in view: and that neither the time, trouble, nor
space required to rear chickens with success can well be spared.
If, for instance, a covered shed fenced in with wire, as described
in the last chapter, with a small house at the end for roosting
and laying in, be the sole accommodation for the fowls, to
attempt rearing them would be folly ; * and yet they may be
kept so as to yield a good return upon their cost and main-
tenance. The proper plan in such a case will be to purchase
in the spring a number of hens proportioned to the size of the
run, and none exceeding a year old. A. cock is useless, as hens
lay very nearly as well without one ; and where eggs only are
wanted, this is balanced by his food, and his room is saved.
All these birds, if in good health and condition, will either be
already laying, or will commence almost immediately; and if

* It is not meant to be denied that chickens can be reared in such cir-
cumstances, and that in good health and to a fair size. We have ourselves
done so. But it does not pay, and we do not intend to do it

SYSTEM FOR VERY SMALL SPACE. 13

well housed, as in the last chapter, and properly fed, will
ensure a constant supply of eggs until the autumnal moulting
season. Whenever a hen shows any desire to sit, the propen-
sity must of course be checked, not by the barbarous expedient
of half drowning the poor bird in cold water — a process
generally as ineffectual as it is cruel — but by placing her under
a coop on the hard ground, with water, but rather scanty food,
keeping her in summer, however, sheltered from the sun. A
few days of such confinement will take away all desire to sit
from almost any hens but Cochins, which should not be kept
under the circumstances we are considering ; and in about a
fortnight the fowl, if not older than we have recommended,
will begin to lay again. It is still better to keep only non-
sitting breeds.

To buy only young and healthy birds is very important.
An experienced hand can tell an old fowl at a glance, but it is
rather difficult to impart this knowledge to a beginner, for no
one sign is infallible, at least to an uninitiated interpreter.
In general, however, it may be said that the legs of the young
hen look delicate and smooth, her comb and wattles soft and
fresh, and her general outline, even in good condition (unless
fattened for the table), rather light and graceful ; whilst an
old one will have rather hard, horny looking shanks, her comb
and wattles look somewhat harder, drier, and more " scurfy,"
and her figure is well filled out. But any of these indications
may be deceptive, and the only advice we can give the reader
is to use his own powers of observation, and try and catch the
" old look." He will soon do so, and need no further description.

Directly these hens stop laying in the autumn, and before
they have lost condition by moulting, they should, unless they
have proved very satisfactory, be either killed or sold off, and
replaced by pullets hatched in March or April, which will
have moulted early. These, again, still supposing proper food
and good housing, will begin producing eggs by November at

14 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

furthest, and continue, more or less, till the February or
March following. They may then either be disposed of and
replaced as before, which we should ourselves prefer, as they are
just in prime condition for the table; or, as they will not stop
laying very long, the bost of them may be retained till the
autumn, when all but very excellent layers must be got rid of ;
such are generally worth keeping for another year. For if fowls
be kept for eggs, it is essential to success that every autumn
the stock be thus replenished with pullets hatched early in the
spring.* By no other means can eggs at this season be relied
upon, and the poultry-keeper must remember that it is the
winter which determines whether he shall gain or lose by his
stock ; in summer, if only kept moderately clean, hens will
pay for themselves treated almost anyhow.

The stock to be selected, if a pure strain be chosen, are,
for confinement, Houdans, Leghorns, or one of the Spanish
varieties j either, in favourable circumstances, will give a plenti-
ful supply of eggs, and give no trouble on the score of sitting
propensities. The Spanish breeds ]ay five or six very large
eggs a week in spring and summer, but are not very hardy or
free-laying breeds for winter, and must have a warm aspect
and perfect shelter from wind, if the supply is to be kept up.
Leghorns lay about the same, or perhaps better, but their
eggs are small ; on the other hand, they are hardy. Houdans
are hardy, and many lay capitally ; others do not.

With eggs still the object, but more space, Hamburghs
may be kept. They are fairly hardy on a good range, and
produce then more eggs in a year, on an average, than any
breed, but small ; in fact they lay nearly all the year, except
when moulting. In confinement they do not, as a rule, answer so
well, black or silver-spangled standing it best, and sometimes

* That is, if the greatest amount of profit be the object sought. The
question of " pets," and the pleasure to be derived from them, we are not
considering.

SELECTION OF FOWLS. 15

doing well. More than four or five Hamburghs should not be
put in a shed, and they must be bept scrupulously clean ;
with these conditions they may thrive, but few breeds suffer so
much from filth or over-crowding.

When chickens are to be reared, Brahmas may be strongly
recommended. As layers, when not spoilt they stand high ; are
very tame, and bear confinement well ; and the tendency to
sit does not occur often enough to be troublesome, as in the
case of Cochins. Plymouth Kocks are also good. But the
best of this class of fowls is the Langshan, which has white
skin and meat, is a capital layer, and very hardy.

When there is a good wide range of any kind, a few Game
hens may be found profitable, the black-breasted red variety
being best. Some of the hens are as prolific as any breed, and
eat very little in proportion ; but they cannot be kept in close
confinement on account of their fighting propensities.

For ourselves, we prefer pure breeds, or first crosses ; for
after all is said on the superiority of mongrel fowls, how
many " barn-door " fowls will lay as many eggs as a Minorca
or a Hamburgh ] Still, the cost of a good stock will stand in
the way with many, and has to be taken into consideration ;
and to those who cannot afford " fancy " poultry, it may there-
fore .be said, once for all, that on the whole, equal success may
be attained with good ordinary or " barn-door" fowls. Care must
be taken in the selection. They should be young, fair-sized,
sprightly-looking birds, with plump, full breasts, rather short
legs, and nice tight-looking plumage. They ought also to be
chosen from a country yard, where their parents have been
well fed. If such be obtained, they will repay the purchaser,
and are handsomer and better every way than inferior birds of
the " fancy " class. Of course this remark does not apply to
mere faults of colour. Fowls are often to be met with at a
moderate price, which from some irregularity of feather are
quite disqualified as show birds, but which possess in perfection

16 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRf.

all the other merits of the breed to which they belong. Let
such be secured and prized by all means ; but let it be also
remembered and believed that nothing pays so wretchedly as
to begin " poultry -fancying " with inferior stock, and that
really fine fowls which never had a grandfather are any day
preferable to " degenerate decendants from a line of kings."

It has been already remarked that the Cochin breeds are
excellent layers in winter, but that their invincible propensity
to sit, which occurs every two months, or even less, is a fatal
objection to their being kept by those who do not desire the
care of young broods. If, however, the system adopted depend
npoii home-reared chickens to replenish the stock, one or two
Cochin hens may be kept with advantage in cases where the
other fowls are of non-sitting varieties. The frequency of
their desire to incubate now becomes a recommendation, as the
owner can depend upon " a broody hen " at almost any season
which may suit his views ; and if always parted with at the
age of two years, they will not fail to maintain their deserved
character as good winter layers. Their own eggs, of course,
should not be given them if the chickens be for market, unless
running with a Dorking, Houdan, or Crevecoeur cock, either of
which crosses produce a gigantic table-fowl of very fair edible
qualities. For home use, however, Cochins are not to be
despised when killed anywhere under nine months old ; they
carry an immense quantity of solid meat ; and if this be more
on the leg than could be desired, it must be also remembered
that the said leg, though certainly not equal to breast or wing,
is more tender than that of most other breeds.

On the whole, if a good stock can be afforded, and a good
number of chickens yearly are to be reared, we should, for
domestic use, recommend Langshans, Plymouth Rocks, or Light
Brahmas. If there be a double run, as described in Chapter
I., the finest birds may be kept pure, and their eggs and
progeny, when possible, sold at "fancy" prices ; whilst the hens

SREEDS FOR PROFIT. 17

which show faults of colour may be kept in the other run
with a large coloured Dorking or Houdan cock. From this
cross table-fowls may be obtained which "look like young
turkeys," and being hardy are easily reared. The flesh may
not be equal to that of the Game fowl- -in delicious flavour
" the prince of all breeds " — but it nearly equals the Dorking,
with greater size and freedom from that delicate constitution
which often renders the latter an unprofitable fowl.

Dorkings, notwithstanding, are not to be despised, and will
do well if they have a fair-sized run, well gravelled and free
from wet, with a good dry shed to shelter in. If the supply of
table poultry be a main point, no breed, except perhaps
Houdans, will compare with this, the favourite fowl of the
London market. When of good stock, they may be got up to
an amazing size, and the quality of the meat is excellent. They
are also most exemplary mothers, and in moderate weather
produce a very fair quantity of eggs ; but are not very good
winter layers, even when hatched early. In this respect they
are excelled by the French Houdans, which lay very
freely, and are also most hardy fowls, whilst in size and
quality of flesh they rival the Dorking, whose blood, though
perhaps generations back, we believe them to share, as
evidenced by the general form and the peculiar fifth toe.
Houdans are pre-eminently a breed for the farmer ; their
extreme hardiness, quick growth, and excellent laying, making
a fowl with nearly all the merits and but few of the faults of
the fine old English breed.

On the whole, therefore, of the pure breeds, where chickens
for table are wanted, we should pronounce Houdans to be the
farmer's, and Brahmas, Plymouth Rocks, or Langshans the
family fowl, crossing the table chickens from the latter with
Dorking or not, according as there were one or two runs to keep
them in. If a few eggs daily be the object, our own choice would
be foui or five black or silver-spangled Hamburghs, provided

18 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

there be a good run, and they be kept scrupulously clean and
well sheltered from driving wind or rain. If the space be very
limited we would select four or five red-faced Spanish, or, as
they are now called, Minorcas, or the allied Andalusians;
they lay at least as well as their celebrated white-faced
cousins, while they are far hardier in winter, and stand con-
finement well. In default of either of these, however, and
if all be beyond the means of the speculator, we would under-
take to show a satisfactory balance-sheet with any good, lively,
ordinary fowls.

Let us, however, repeat again — for nothing is so important
— whatever be the breed selected, there must be every autumn
a proportion, at least, regularly replaced by young birds
hatched in the spring of the same year. This is the great
secret of success, as far as system is concerned ; and if it be
neglected, during winter an empty egg-basket will eat up all
the summer's profits, and testify dismally to the improvidence
of the owner.

CHAPTER III.

THE FEEDING AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ADULT FOWLS.

A JUDICIOUS system of feeding is very essential to the well-
being of poultry, and has, of course, more direct influence upon
the profit or loss than any of the circumstances — though
equally important — which we have hitherto enumerated. We
shall, therefore, endeavour to give the subject full and practical
consideration.

The object is to give the quantity and quality of food which
will produce the greatest amount of flesh and eggs ; and if it
be attained, the domestic fowl is unquestionably the most
profitable of all live stock. But the problem is rather a nice
one, for there is no "mistake on the right side " here. A. fat
hen is not only subject to many diseases, but ceases to lay, or

MISTAKES IN FEEDING. 19

nearly so, and becomes a mere drag on the concern ; while a
pampered male bird is lazy and useless at best, and very
probably, when the proprietor most requires his services, may
be attacked by apoplexy and drop down dead.

That fow>o cannot be remunerative if starved need scarcely
be proved. Ex, nihilo ni/iil JU ; and the almost daily pro-
duction of an article so rich in nitrogen as an egg — the very
essence of animal nourishment — must demand an ample and
regular supply of adequate food. We say no more upon this
point, knowing that the common mistake of nearly all amateur
poultry-keepers is upon the other side — that of over-feeding.

The usual plan, where fowls are regularly fed at all, appears
to be to give them at each meal as much barley or oats as they
will eat • and this being done, the owner prides himself upon
his liberality, and insists that his at least are properly fed.
Yet both in quantity and quality is he mistaken. Grain will
do for the regular meals of fowls which live on a farm, or have
any other extensive range where they can provide other food
for themselves, have abundant exercise, and their digestive
organs are kept in vigorous action. But poultry kept in con-
finement on such a diet rarely thrive. Their plumage, after
a while, begins to fall off, their bowels become affected, and
they lose greatly in condition ; and though in summer their eggs
may possibly repay the food expended, it will be almost im-
possible to obtain any in winter, when they are most valuable.

Even those who profess to correct such errors are not
always safe guides. We remember a work which stood high
both in character and price, and was in many respects really
valuable, in which, just after a caution against over- feeding,
the editor gives five pounds of barley-meal, ten pounds of
potatoes, seven pounds of oats, three pounds of rice boiled, and
three pounds of scalded bran, as a week's allowance for five
hens and a cock — "of the larger kinds," it is true. Now, at
the lowest ordinary prices the cost of such a scale would

c2

20 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

amount to at least <£4 4s. in the course of twelve months ;
and taking eggs at the high average of a penny each all the
year through, every one of the five hens must lay at least 200
eggs to repay the mere cost of their subsistence. When we
say that 150 eggs per annum is as much as can be obtained
from nine hens out of ten, it will be seen at once that poultry
could not be made profitable did they consume so enormously ;
and, in point of fact, we had the curiosity to try this dietary
upon six fowls " of the larger kinds," and found it rather more
than double what was amply sufficient.

The fact is, all fixed scales are delusive. Not only would
Cochins or Crevecreurs cat twice as much as many other sorts,
but different fowls of the same breed often have very different
measures of capacity, and even the same hen will eat nearly
twice as much when in active laying as when her egg-organs
are unproductive.

The one simple rule with adult fowls is, to give them as
much as they will eat eagerly, and 110 more ; directly they
begin to feed with apparent indifference, pick over it, or cease
to run when the food is thrown at a little distance, the supply
should be stopped. In a state of nature they have to seek far
and wide for the scanty morsels which form their subsistence ;
and the Creator never intended that they, any more than
human beings, should eat till they can literally eat no more.
It follows that food should never be left 011 the ground. If
such a slovenly practice be permitted, much of what is eaten
will be wasted, and a great deal will never be eaten at all ;
for fowls are dainty in their way, and unless at starvation
point always refuse sour or sodden food.

The number of meals per day best consistent with real
economy will vary from two to three, according to the size of
the run. If it be of moderate extent, so that they can in any
degree forage for themselves, two are quite sufficient at least
in summer, and should be given early in the morning and the

PROPER SYSTEM OF FEEDIXO. 21

last thing before the birds go to roost. In any cas-3 these will
be the principal meals ; but when the birds are kept in con-
finement they will require, in addition, a scanty feed at midday.

The first feeding should consist of soft food of some kind.
The birds have passed a whole night since they wore last fed ;
and it is important, especially in cold weather, that a fresh
supply should as soon as possible be got into the system, and
not merely into the crop. Now, if grain be given, it has to be
ground in the gizzard before it is digested ; and on a cold
winter's morning the delay is anything but beneficial. But,
for the very same reason, at the evening meal grain forms the
best food which can be supplied ; it is digested slowly, and during
the long cold nights affords support and warmth to the fowls.

A great deal depends upon this system of feeding, which,
we are aware, is opposed to the practice of many, who give
grain for the breakfast, and meal, if at all, at night. We
believe such a system to be usually adopted from indolence ;
it is easier to throw down dry grain in a winter's morning than
to properly prepare a feed of meal, which is accordingly given
at night instead. Fowls so treated, however, are much more
subject to roup and other diseases caused by inclement
weather than those fed upon the system we recommend — a
system not only in accordance with theory and our own
experience, but with that of the most successful breeders. Let
the sceptical reader make one simple experiment. Give the
fowls a feed of meal, say at five o'clock in the evening; at
twelve visit the roosts and feel the crops of the birds. All
will be empty ; the gizzard has nothing to act upon, and the
food speedily disappears, leaving with an empty stomach, to
cope with the long cold hours before dawn, the most hungry
and incessant feeder of all God's creatures ; but if the last feed
has been grain, the crop will still be found partially full, and
the birds will awake in the morning hearty, strengthened, and
refreshed.

22 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

With respect to the morning meal of pultaceous food, when
only a few fowls are kept, to supply eggs for a moderate
family, this may be provided almost for nothing by boiling
daily the potato peelings till soft, and mashing them up with
enough sharp?, slightly scalded, to make a tolerably stiff and
dry paste. There will be sufficient of this if the fowls kept do
not exceed one for each member of the household ; and as the
peelings cost nothing, and the sharps very little, one-half the
food is provided at a merely nominal expense, while no better
could be given. A little salt should always be added, and in
winter a slight seasoning of pepper will tend to keep the hens
in good health and laying. This food may be mixed boiling
hot over night, and covered with a cloth, or be put in the oven ;
in either case it will remain warm till morning — the condition
in which it should always be given in cold weather.

If a tolerable stock of poultry be kept, such a source of
supply will be obviously inadequate ; and in purchasing the
food there is much variety to choose from. Small or " pig "
potatoes may be occasionally bought at a low price and similarly
treated, though experience proves that much of regular potato
diet is not suitable, leading after a while to few eggs and
derangement of the digestive system ; or barley-meal may be
mixed with hot water ; or an equal mixture of barley-meal
and " sharps," or of Indian meal and sharps : either of these
make a capital food. Bran in place of the sharps sometimes
seems to do very well, but has an awkward habit of every
now and then causing inflammation of the bowels. In some
places a cart-load of swede or other turnips, or mangel-wurtzel,
may be purchased ; and when boiled and mashed with meal
or "sharps," we believe forms the very best soft food a fowl
can have, especially for Dorkings ; but they cannot everywhere
be obtained at a cheap rate, and the buyer must study the local
market.

A change of food at times is necessary, and in making

VARIOUS KIXDS OF FOOD.

23

it the poultry-keeper should be guided by the season. When
the weather is warm, and the production of eggs abundant,
the food should abound in nitrogenous or flesh-forming material,
and not contain too much starch or oil, both of which, being
carbonaceous, have warmth-giving and fattening properties ;
but when the cold weather approaches, and the eggs even of
good winter layers are fewer than in summer, less of nitro-
genous and more of carbonaceous food will be needed. The
following table has been often copied since its first publication
by Mr. Tegetmeier, but its practical usefulness is so obvious that
we make no apology for giving it here, with some modification to

There is mereiy

Flesh- forming
Food.

Warmt

fi-giving

Bone-making
Food.

Husk

Water

100 Ibs. of

Gluten, &c.

FatorOil.

Starch, &c.

Mineral
Substance.

Fibre.

Oats

15

6

47

2

20

10

Oatmeal

18

6

63

2

2

9

Middlings or )
fine Sharps )
WLeat
Barley

18

12
12

6

3

1

53

70
56

5

2
4

4

1
14

14

12
13

Indian Corn ...
Rice

11

7

8
A trace.

65
80

1
A trace.

5

10

13

Beans & Peas..
Milk

24
4}

2
3

48
5

2
1

10

It

80 1>

make the proportion of warmth-giving to flesh-forming in-
gredients more plain, and with the analyses corrected up to
date.

To show the practical use of this table, it may be observed
that whilst "sharps" or "middlings," from its flesh-forming
material, is one of the best summer ingredients, in winter it
may be advantageous for some fowls to change it for a portion
of Indian meal. It is, however, necessary to avoid giving
much maize to large fowls, either as meal or corn, or the effect
will be a useless and prejudicial fattening from the large
quantity of oil it contains j it is best mixed with sharps or

24 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

bean-meal, and is then, for the lighter breeds, an economical
and useful food. Potatoes, also, from the large proportion of
starch contained in them, are not good in quantity as a regular
diet for poultry ; but mixed with bran or sharps will be found
useful occasionally, as above noted.

The smaller and lighter breeds may have more of fattening
foods than the larger ones ; but Asiatics particularly are so
liable to internal fat, that it is safest never to give them maize
at all in any form, and very little of potatoes.

In mixing soft food there is one general rule always to be
observed : it must be mixed rather dryt so that it will break if
thrown upon the ground. There should never be enough
water to cause the food to glisten in the light, or to make a
sticky porridgy mass, which clings round the beaks of the
fowls, and gives them infinite annoyance, besides often causing
diarrhoea.

If the weather be dry, and the birds are fed in a hard
gravelled yard, the food is just as well, or better, thrown on
the ground. If they are fed in the shed,
however, it is best to use a dish of metal
or earthenware, which should have straight
Fig 3> sides, as in Fig. 3. Such a trough or dish

must, however, be protected, or the fowls may walk upon it, and
waste a large portion. This is best prevented by having a loose
curved cover made of tin and wire, as shown in Fig. 4. which,
when placed on the ground over the dish, will effectually prevent
the fowls having anything to do with the food except to eat it,
which they are quite at liberty to do through the perpendicular
wires two and a half inches apart. On the whole, however,
the best vessel for poultry-food is that shown in Fig. 5. The
spreading bottom prevents the vessel from being overturned,
and the straight sides and the top make it impossible to scratch
food out. Such a vessel needs no cover, and also makes a
good and simple water-pan.

FOOD VESSELS. 25

Whore the fowls have a field to run in they will require no
further feeding till their evening meal of grain. Taking it
altogether, no grain is more useful or economical than barley,
and in summer this may be occasionally changed with oats;
in winter, for the reasons already given, Indian corn may be
given to some breeds every second or third day with advan-
tage. Buckwheat is, chemically, almost identical in compo-
sition with barley, but it certainly has a stimulating effect on
the production of eggs, and it is a
pity it cannot be more frequently
ol »t; t i ned at a cheap rate. We would
never omit purchasing a sack of
this grain when possible, and have
a strong opinion that the enormous
production of eggs and fowls in Fig. 4.

France is to some extent connected with the almost universal
use of buckwheat by French poultry-keepers.* Wheat was
formerly too dear to be employed, unless damaged ; and if the
damage be great it had better not be meddled with ; but
of late years it has been one of the cheapest of all grains, and
_ when sound or little injured is a most

1 11 valuable food, both for chickens and fowls.

] V "Sweepings" sometimefl contain poisonous

(J ^ substances; are generally dearer, weight for

Fig. 5. weight, than sound grain ; and should

never be seen in a poultry-yard.

The midday meal of penned-up fowls should be a very
scanty one — a mere sprinkle of grain ; and even this is worse
than useless unless the other meals are sparingly given, as
directed.

The regular and substantial diet is now provided for, but

* It is a curious fact that buckwheat used to be largely grovrn in what
are now the chief poultry-breeding counties of Surrey and Sussex.

26 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

will not alone keep the fowls in good health and laying. They
are omnivorous in their natural state, and require some portion
of animal food. On a wide range they will provide this for
themselves, and in such an establishment as figures at page
9, the scraps of the dinner-table will be quite sufficient ; but
if the number kept be large, with only limited accommodation,
it will be necessary to buy every week a few pennyworth of
bullocks' liver, which may be boiled, chopped fine, and mixed
in their food, the broth being used instead of water in mixing ;
these little tit-bits will be eagerly picked out and enjoyed. A
very little is all that is necessary, and need not be given more
than three times a week. When fowls are much over-fed with
this kind of food the quills of the feathers become more or less
charged with blood, which the birds in time perceive, and
almost invariably pluck at each other's plumage till they leave
the skin quite bare. It is also necessary to give a caution
against the use of greaves. When fowls are habitually fed
upon this article their feathers speedily become disarranged
and fall off, and when killed the flavour, to any ordinary
palate, is disagreeable.

There is yet another most important article of diet, without
which it is absolutely impossible to keep fowls in health. We
refer to an ample and daily supply of green or fresh vegetable
food. It is not perhaps too much to say, that the omission of
this is the proximate cause of nearly half the deaths where
fowls are kept in confinement ; whilst with it, our other
directions having been observed, they may be kept in health
for a long time in a pen only a few feet square. It was to
provide this that, wherever they are large enough, we recom-
mended the open yards, when possible, to be laid down in
grass — the very best green food for poultry ; and a run of even
an hour daily on such a grass plot, supposing the shed to be
dry and clean, will keep them in vigorous health. But if a
shed only be available, fresh vegetables must be thrown in

WATER-FOUNTAINS

27

daily. Anything will do. A good plan is to mince up
cabbage-leaves or other refuse vegetables, and mix pretty freely
with the soft food; or the whole leaves maybe thrown down
for the fowls to devour ; or a few turnips may be minced up
daily, and scattered like grain, or simply cut in two and thrown
into the run ; or, if it can be got, a large sod of fresh-cut turf
thrown to the fowls will be better than all. But something
they must have every day, or nearly so, otherwise their bowels
sooner or later become disordered, their feathers look dirty,
their combs lose that beautiful bright red colour which will
always accompany really good health and condition, and
testifies pleasantly to abundance of eggs.

The water- vessel must be filled fresh
every day at least, and so arranged that
the birds cannot scratch dirt into it or
make it foul The ordinary poultry-
fountain is too well known to need
description, but a better form, made in
two parts, is shown in Fig. 6. The advan-
tages of such a construction are that the
interior can be examined, and the vessel
well sluiced out to remove the green
slime which always collects by degrees,
and is very prejudicial to health. Some
experienced breeders prefer shallow
pans ; but if these be adopted they must
be filled frequently. When the water has
to be placed in a shed filled with loose earth, to which the fowls
are confined, a piece of board or other protection should be so
placed as to protect it from dirt being scratched into it.

Grown-up fowls must never be left without water. During a
frost, therefore, the fountain should be emptied every night, or
there will be trouble next morning. Care must always be taken,
also, that snow is not allowed to fall into the drinking vessel

Fig. 6.

28 3ENEHAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

The reason has puzzled wiser heads than ours, but it is &fact
that any real quantity of snow-water seems to reduce botli
fowls and birds to mere skeletons.

It is well in winter to add to the water a few drops of a
solution of sulphate of iron (green vitrol), just enough to give
a slight mineral taste. This will in a great measure guard
against roup, and act as a bracing tonic generally. The rusty
appearance the water will assume is quite immaterial, but
may be avoided by adding a few drops of sulphuric acid. The
best plan, perhaps, is to keep a large bottle of the celebrated
" Douglas * mixture," respecting which we can speak with un-
qualified approval, as a most valuable addition to the drink in
cold weather of both fowls and chickens. It consists of half a
pound of sulphate of iron and one ounce of sulphuric acid
dissolved in two gallons of water ; and is to be added in the
proportion of two table-spoonfuls to each pint of water in the
fountain. Whilst the fowls are moulting, the above mixture,
or a little sulphate of iron, should always be used; it will assist
them greatly through this, the most critical period of the
whole year. With this aid, and a little pepper on their food,
with perhaps a little extra meat, there will rarely be any lost.
With hardy kinds and good shelter such precautions are
scarcely necessary ; but they cost little, and have their effect
also on the early re-commencement of laying.

In addition to their regular food it will be needful that the
fowls have a supply of lime, in some shape or other, to
form the shells of their eggs. Old mortar pounded is excellent ;
so are oyster-shells well burnt in the fire and pulverised ; of
the latter they are very fond, and it is an excellent plan to
keep a " tree-saucer " full of it in their yard. If this matter
has been neglected, and soft shell-less eggs have resulted, the

* So called because published in the Field newspaper by Mr. John
Douglas, then superintending the Wolseley Aviaries.

NEED OF CLEANLINESS. 29

quickest way of getting matters right again is to add a little
lime to the drinking water, or pound up some oyster-shells raw.

One thing more, which must on no account be forgotten.
This is, some proportion of sharp grit or gravel, or other hard
substances. Such small stones constitute hen's teeth, and
without them the gizzard cannot perform its office of grinding
up the food. We have seen fowls ailing from apparently this
simple neglect alone.

We may conclude this chapter with a few further remarks
respecting general management.

With regard to the nests, they may be of any form, but are
best upon the ground. A long box may be employed, divided
by partitions into separate compartments ; or separate laying-
boxes may be used, which is preferable, as more easily cleaned.
Some like baskets, made flat on one side, and hung to a nail in
the wall ; these should be of wire, and then cannot harbour
vermin — the great plague of fowls. The straw should be
broken and beaten till it is quite soft, and changed as often as
there is any foul or musty smell If the nests are offensive,
the hens will often drop their eggs, quite perfect, upon the
ground rather than resort to them.

Cleanliness in the house and run has already been insisted
upon, and is only again alluded to on account of the value of
the manure. This, collected daily, should be put in any con-
venient receptacle where it can be kept dry, and either used
in the garden, if there is one, or sold. It pays best to use
it where possible. It should always be mixed with dry earth,
soot, or fine dry ashes, before using, being very strong, and is
especially valuable for all plants of the cabbage kind ; it is
also excellent for growing strawberries, or indeed almost any-
thing if sufficiently diluted. If there be no possibility of so
using it, it is worth at least four shillings per cwt to sell,
ami is greatly valued by such nurserymen and gardeners as
know its value ; but there is sometimes difficulty in finding

30 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

those who do, and getting a fair price. There has been much
dispute about this, and we have known the stored or half-dry
manure sold as high as eight shillings per cwt., and as low as
one shilling and sixpence ; but all such uncertainty should be
set at rest by the analysis of the late Dr. Voelcker, which will
be found at p. 61. At four shillings per cwt. we consider the
night-manure equal to more than one-fourth of the profit from
the fowls.

Where a considerable number of fowls are killed annually,
the feathers also become of value, and may be preserved.
They are very easily dressed at home. Strip the plumage from
the quills of the larger feathers, and mix with the small ones,
putting the whole loosely in paper bags, which should be hung
up in the kitchen, or some other warm place, for a few days to
dry. Then let the bags be baked three or four times, for half
an hour each time, in a cool oven, drying for two days between
each baking, and the process will be completed. Less trouble
than this will do, and is often made to suffice ; but the feathers
are inferior in crispness to those so treated, and may occa-
sionally become offensive.

Eggs should be collected regularly, if possible twice every
day ; and if any chickens are to be reared from the home
stock, the owner or attendant should learn to recognise the
egg of each particular hen. There is no difficulty in this, even
with a considerable number — nearly every egg, to the accus-
tomed eye, has a well-marked individual character ; and if
there be any hens of value, it may save much disappointment
in the character of the brood to know the parentage of those
selected for hatching.

Before concluding, it may be expected that something
definite should be said respecting the actual profit of what may
be called domestic poultry-keeping. It is extremely difficult to
make any such statement, so much depends upon the price of
food, upon the management, selection of stock, and value of

GOOD MANAGEMENT. 31

eggs. But in general we have found the average cost of fowls,
when properly fed, to be about Id. per week each for smaller
sorts, and not exceeding 1 Jd. per week for the larger breeds ;
when the cost is more we should suspect waste. A good
ordinary hen ought to lay 120 eggs in a year, and if good
laying breeds are selected, such as we have named in Chapter
II., there ought to he an average of fully 150, not reckoning
the cock. Of course, good management is supposed, and a
regular renewal of young stock, as already insisted upon. For
domestic purposes eggs ought to be valued at the price of new-
laid, and from these data each can make his own calculation.

Finally, let the whole undertaking — large or small — be
conducted as a real matter of business. If more than three or
four hens are kept, buy the food wholesale and in the best
market ; let the grain be purchased a sack at a time — potatoes
by the cart-load or hundred-weight, and so on. Let a fair and
strict account be kept of the whole concern. The scraps of the
house may be thrown in, and the cost of the original stock,
and of their habitation, may be kept separate, and reckoned as
capital invested ; but let everything afterwards for which cash
is paid be rigorously set down, and on the other side, with
equal strictness, let every egg or chicken eaten or sold be also
valued and recorded. This is of great importance. The
young beginner may perhaps manage his laying-stock well, but
succeed badly with his chickens (though not, we hope, if he be
a reader of this book), or vice versa ; and it is no small matter
in poultry-keeping, as in any other mercantile concern, to be
able to see from recorded facts where has been the profit or
where the loss. The discovery will lead to reflection ; and
the waste, neglect, or other defective management being
amended, the hitherto faulty department may also contribute
its quota to the general weal-

32 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

CHAPTER IV.

INCUBATION.

MUCH disappointment in the hatching and rearing of young
broods would be prevented were more care taken that the eggs
selected for setting were of good quality — not only likely to be
fertile, but the produce of strong and hardy birds. This
remark applies to common barn-door poultry quite as much as
to the pure breeds. A friend once complained to us that
out of a dozen eggs only four or five had hatched ; and on inquiry
we found that the sitting had been procured from an inn-yard,
where, to our own knowledge, only one cock was running with
about twenty hens, from which, of course, no better result
could be expected. When the eggs have to be procured from
elsewhere, therefore, whatever be the class of fowls required, it
should first of all be ascertained that there is at least one cock
to every six or eight hens, and that he is a strong and lively
bird ; and next, that the fowls be not only of the kind desired,
but that they are well fed and taken care of. From scraggy,
half-starved birds it is impossible to rear a large brood, as the
greater number even of those hatched will die in infancy. It
only remains to ensure that the eggs be fresh, and a successful
hatching may be anticipated.

"With regard to this latter point, eggs have been known to
hatch when two months old, or even more j but we would
never ourselves set, from choice, any egg which had been laid
more than a fortnight ; and after a Tnonth, or less, it is useless
trouble. Fresh eggs, if all be well, hatch out in good time,
and the chicks are strong and lively j the stale ones always
hatch last, being perhaps as much as two days later than new
laid, and the chickens are often too weak to break the shell.
We have also invariably noticed, when compelled to take a
portion of stale eggs to make up a sitting, that even when such
eggs have hatched, the subsequent deaths have principally

FERTILITY AND SEX OF EGGS. 33

occurred in this portion of the brood ; but that if none of the
eggs were more than four or five days old, they not only
hatched nearly every one, and within an hour or two of each
other, but the losses in an ordinary season were veiy few.

There is, however, one partial exception to this statement,
which is only generally true in reference to breeding at
the natural seasons. Nature does not, however, intend fowls
to breed in winter; and during that season and very early
spring, the male birds especially are far less vigorous. This
is partly shown in sterile eggs, which need no comment.
But growth in the egg and final hatching out are as much
tests of comparative strength as anything in the future lives
of the chickens; and hence many eggs which begin to de-
velop have not strength to finish, or if they do, may not
have muscular strength for what is really the great exertion
of final hatching.

When the eggs are from the home stock, their quality
should, of course, be above suspicion. It is scarcely necessary
to say, that in order to ensure this, every egg before storing
should have legibly written upon it in pencil the date on which
it was laid. Eggs intended for setting are best kept in bran,
the large end downward, and shoidd never be exposed to
concussion. Another very good plan is to have a large board
pierced with a number of round holes in regular rows to
receive the eggs.

Hundreds of years ago it was thought that the sex of eggs
could be distinguished by the shape — the cocks being produced
from those of elongated shape, and hens from the short or
round. Others have pretended to discern the future sex
from the position of the air-bubble at the large end. These
and every other nostrum have, hundreds of times, been proved
to be erroneous. There is not a breeder of prize poultry in
England who would not gladly give twenty pounds for the
coveted knowledge, and thenceforth breed no more cockerels

D

34 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OP POULTRY.

than he really wanted ; but the secret has never been dis-
covered yet, and it is even impossible to tell before the egg
has been sat upon for a short time, whether it has been
fecundated.

We have, in a previous chapter, already mentioned that the
sitting hens ought to have a separate shed and run provided
for them, in order that the other hens may not occupy their
nests during absence, or they themselves go back to the wrong
ones, as they will often do if allowed to sit in the fowl-house.
An extensive run is neither necessary nor desirable, as it only
entices the birds to wander, whereas in a limited space they
will go back to their nests as soon as their wants are satisfied.
A shed five feet square, with a run the same width for ten
feet out in front, is quite sufficient for a hen.

If the hen must be set on the ordinary nest in the fowl-
house, or when several have to be set in the same house, it is
best to take each one off at a regular time every morning, and
after seeing to her wants and due return, to shut her in so
that she cannot be annoyed. She should be lifted by taking
hold under the wings, gently raising them first to see that no eggs
are enclosed. This is the usual plan, and the only practicable
one in very large establishments. But it takes time to see all
the hens safely back and shut in again, and when we possessed
a rather large yard for some years, we preferred to allot half
a dozen separate pens for as many separate hens ; these were
taken off as usual, but were left to find their own way back
again.

A single hatching run should, if possible, be in sight of
the other fowls, as it will keep the sitter from becoming
strange to her companions, and prevent an otherwise inevitable
fight on her restoration, to the possible damage of the broocl.
We used ourselves, as stated in the first chapter, a shed five
feet wide and five deep, open in front to a small gravel or
grass run. Under the shed must be, besides the nest, a good-

SITTING HENS. 35

sized shallow box of sand, dry earth, or fine coal ashes, for the
lien to cleanse herself in, which she specially needs at this
time ; and food and water must be always ready for her. With
these precautions the hen may, without very much risk.
be left entirely to herself! There are, however, some birds
which, if not removed, would starve upon their nests soonei
than leave them ; and therefore, if the hen has not been off foi
two or three days, we would under any circumstances find
time to daily remove the poor thing for her own preserva-
tion. To feed upon the nest is a cruel practice, which has
crippled many a fowl for life, and cannot be too strongly con-
demned.

Of all mothers, we prefer small Dorkings, Cochins, or
13rahmas. Their abundant " fluff" and feathering is of ines-
timable advantage to the young chicks, and their tame and
gentle disposition makes them submit to any amount of
handling or management with great docility. Cochins cer-
tainly appear clumsy with their feet, but we have seldom found
more chickens actually trodden upon by them than with any
other breed. Many complain that they leave their chickens
too soon, but we have not found it so ourselves, except with
very early broods. With regard to Brahmas as mothers, they
have a peculiarity we never observed in any other fowl, and
have never seen noticed in any work on poultry — they actually
appear to look behind -tJuem when moving, lest they should
tread upon their little ones. Dorkings are exemplary mothers,
and go with their chickens a long time, which recommends
them strongly for very early broods. And lastly, a Game hen
has qualities which often make her most valuable. She is not
only exemplary in her care, and a super-excellent forager for her
young brood, but will defend them to the last gasp, and render
a good account of the most determined cat that ever existed.
But whatever be the hen chosen, she should be well
feathered, and tolerably tame. Some people have said that only

D2

36

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

mature hens should be allowed to sit, and that pullets are
not to be trusted; but our own experience and that of very
many large breeders does not confirm this. We have con-
stantly set pullets, and never had any more reason to complain
of them than of older birds.

The nests may be arranged under the shed any way so
that no one can see into them, with the one proviso that they be
actually upon ike ground. Chicks thus obtained always show
more constitution than those hatched on a wooden bottom at a
higher level. This holds good even at all times of the year.
We are aware that eminent authorities who recommend ground-
nests in summer prefer a warm, wooden box in winter, for the
^^~\^ sake of the hen ; but she will rarely suffer.
l^ ^^\ The heat of her body while sitting is so great

a^^^^^^^ that a cool situation seems grateful to her —
at least, a hen set on the ground rarely
forsakes her nest, which is otherwise no un-
common case. We knew of a hen which,
during the month of January, made her
nest upon the top of a rock in one of the
highest and most exposed situations in the
Peak of Derbyshire, and brought a large brood of strong
chickens into the yard. It is only necessary the birds should
be protected from wind and rain, in order to avoid rheumatism ;
and this is most effectually done by employing for the nest
a tight wooden box, like Fig. 7, open at the bottom, and also
in front, with the exception of a strip three inches high to
contain the straw. Let one of these be so placed in the
back corner of the shed, touching the side, the front being
turned to the back wall, and about nine inches from it ; and
the hen will be ill the strictest privacy, will be both perfectly
sheltered and k ;pt cool, and will never mistake her own nest
for the one which may be placed in the other corner.

A damp situation is best for the sitting shed, and will

Fig. 7.

MAKING THE NEST. 37

ensure good hatching in hot weather, when perhaps all the
neighbours are complaining that their chicks are dead in the
shells. Attempting to keep the nest and eggs dry has ruined
many a brood. It is not so in nature ; every morning the
hen leaves her nest, and has to seek her precarious meal
through the long wet grass, which drenches her as if she had
been ducked in a pond. With this saturated breast she
returns, and the eggs are duly moistened. But if the nest be
dry, the hen be kept dry, and the weather happen to be hot
and dry also, the moisture within the egg itself becomes dried
to the consistency of glue, and the poor little chick, being
unable to move round within the shell, cannot fracture it, and
perishes. Such a mishap will not happen if the ground under
the nest be damp and cool. All that is necessary in such a
case is to scrape a slight hollow in the bare earth, place the
nest-box, already described, over it, and put in a moderate
quantity of straw, well broken ; or, still better, some fresh-cut
damp grass may be put in first, and the straw over. Shape the
straw also into a very slight hollow, and the nest is made ;
but care must be taken to well fill up the corners of the box,
or the eggs may be rolled into them and get addled. Some
prefer to put in first a fresh turf, and this is a very good plan.
Always make up a hatching-nest with perfectly fresh and clean
materials.

Should an egg be broken in the nest (and the nest should
be examined every two or three days, when the hen is absent,
to ascertain), the eggs must be removed, and clean straw sub-
stituted, and every sound egg at all soiled by the broken one
be washed with a sponge and warm water, gently but quickly
drying after with a cloth. The hen, if very dirty, should also
have her breast cleansed, and the whole be replaced immediately,
that the eggs may not be chilled. A moderate hatch may
still be expected, though the number of chicks is alway* more
or less reduced by an accident of this kind. If, however, the

38 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

cleansing be neglectf-d fo? more than a couple of days after a
breakage, or less at the latter period of incubation, probably
not a single chick will be obtained ; whether from the pores of
the shell being stopped by the viscid matter, or from the noxious
smell of the putrefying egg, it is not very material to inquire.

Every egg should also be marked quite round with ink or
pencil, so that if any be subsequently laid in the nest they
may be at once detected and removed. Hens will sometimes
lay several eggs after beginning to sit.

In ordinary winters the hen should be set as in summer,
giving her, however, rather more straw. Only in severe frost
should she be brought into the house ; and in that case, or
whenever the weather be very dry, it will be necessary during
the last half of the hatching period to sprinkle the eggs freely
with tepid water once a day, removing the hen for the purpose,
and replacing her at once. Of course this is always necessary
to success, in dry weather at least, when the hen is set in a
box at a distance from the ground, as is the case in large
sitting-houses. But, where it can be had, we much prefer the
natural moisture of a damp soil, which may often be supple-
mented by pouring warm water on the ground freely, round
the nest, several times a week. The application of water
must therefore depend upon the weather and common sense.
In damp springs none is needed ; in dry times, more or less
according to circumstances.

\Vhenthenumberof eggs set yearly is considerable, it is
worth while to withdraw the unfertile ones at an early period.
About the eighth day let the hen be removed by candle-lights
and each egg be held between the eye and the light. If the
egg be fertile, it will appear opaque, or dark all over, except,
perhaps, a small portion towards the top ; but if it be unim-
pregnated, it will be still translucent, the light passing through
it almost as if new laid (Fig. 8). After some experience,
and by using one of the various " egg-testers " sold for the

TESTING THE EGGS. 39

purpose, which more completely stop the light, the eggs can be
distinguished at an earlier period, and a practised hand can
tell the unfertile eggs even at the fourth day. Should the
number withdrawn be considerable, four batches set the same
day may be given to three hens, or even two, and the remainder
given fresh eggs ; and if not, the fertile eggs will get more
heat, and the brood come out all the stronger. The sterile
eggs are also worth saving, as they are quite good enough for
cooking purposes, and quite as fresh even for boiling as nine-
tenths of the Irish eggs constantly used for that purpose.

Fig. S.— Sterile and Fertile Eggs.

It is a common mistake to set too many eggs. In summer,
a large hen may have thirteen, or a Cochin fifteen of her own
but in early spring eleven are quite enough. We have not
only to consider how many chickens the hen can hatch, but
how many she can cover when they are partly grown. If a
hen be set in January, sho should not have more than seven or
eight eggs, or the poor little things, as soon as they begin to
get largo, will have no shelter, and soon die off. It is far
better to hatch only six and rear five, or may be all, to health
and vigour, than to hatch ten and only probably rear three
puny little croatnros, good for nothing but to make broth.
For April and May broods, such a limitation is not needed;

40 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OP POULTRY.

but even then eleven or twelve chickens are quite as many as a
large, well-feathered hen can properly nourish, and the eggs
should only be one or two in excess of that number.

A good hen will not remain more than half an hour away
from her nest, unless sbe has been deprived of a dust-bath, and
so become infested with lice, which sometimes cause hens thus
neglected to forsake their eggs altogether. When a hen at the
proper time shows no disposition to return, she should be
quietly driven and coaxed towards her nest ; if she be caught,
and replaced by hand, she is often so frightened and excited
as to break the eggs. A longer absence is not, however,
necessarily fatal to the brood ; and it is no use, and only makes
matters worse, to be over-fidgety. People who know the
most always fuss the least. We would rather a hen went back
in twenty minutes; but if she stayed half an hour we should let
her, and trust that all would probably be right. We have
had hens repeatedly absent more than an hour, which still
hatched seven or eight chicks; and on one occasion a hen
sitting in the fowl-house returned to the wrong nest, and was
absent from her own more than five hours. We of course
considered all chances cf hatching at an end ; but as the hen
had been sitting a fortnight, concluded to let her finish her
time, and she hatched five chickens. We have heard of a few
hatching even after nine hours' absence, and therefore would
never, on account of such an occurrence, abandon valuable eggs
without a trial.

The chickens break the shell at the end of the twenty-first
day, on an average ; but if the eggs are new-laid it will often
lessen the time by as much as five or six hours, while stale
eggs are always more or less behind. Small breeds generally
hatch a day or two earlier.

If the eggs were fresh, and proper care has been taken to
preserve moisture during incubation, no assistance is ever
needed at the actual hatching.

HATCHING. 41

When there are chicks alive which cannot break the shell,
they may sometimes be saved by careful extrication, keeping
the egg in warm water at 100° the while, all but the point of
the beak. These cases usually arise from want of moisture,
and it is some preventive to " test " the egg twenty -four hours
before hatching by immersion in a pail of water at 106°.
The " live " ones float and bob about after a few minutes in a
curious manner ; but they must be watched patiently, for some-
times they wait a while ; the dead ones should be rejected. The
soaking seems to do the eggs good; but it is not advisable
for absolute novices to fuss too much with these expedients,
which are not really needed in the vast majority of cases.

With good eggs, a good hen, and good management, all
will go right, and there will be in due time a goodly number
of strong and healthy chickens, to the mutual delight of the
hen and of her owner. And with the treatment of the young
brood we will begin another chapter.

CHAPTER V.

THE REARING AND FATTENING OF CHICKENS.

FOR nearly twenty-four hours after hatching chickens require
no food at all ; and though we do not think it best to leave
them quite so long as this without it, we should let them
remain for at least twelve hours undisturbed. We say
undisturbed, because it is a very common practice to take
those first hatched away from the hen, and put them in a
basket by the fire till the whole brood is out. When the eggs
have varied much in age this course must be adopted ; for some
chickens will be perhaps a whole day or more behind the others,
and the hen, if she felt the little things moving beneath her,
would not stay long enough to hatch the rest. But we have
explained in the last chapter that this should not be, and that

42 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

if the eggs are all fresh, the chicks will appear within a few
hours of each other. In that case they are much better left
with their mother; the heat of her body appears to strengthen
and nourish them in a far better manner than any othei
warmth, and they are happy and contented, instead of moving
restlessly about, as they always do whilst away from her.

Our own plan is to set the eggs in the evening, when the
chicks will break the shell in the evening also, or perhaps the
afternoon. Then at night let the state of the brood be once
only examined, all egg-shells removed from the nest, and the
hen, if she be tame enough to receive it, given food and water.
Let her afterwards be so shut in that she cannot leave her
nest, and all may be left safely till the morning, By that time
the chicks will be strong and lively, quite ready for their first
meal ; and unless some of the eggs are known to be very stale,
any not hatched then are little likely to hatch at all. If this
be so, the chicks may be removed and put in flannel by the
fire, and another day patiently waited, to see if any more will
appear. We should not do so, however, if a fair number had
hatched well ; for they never thrive so well away from the
hen, and it is scarcely worth while to injure the healthy
portion of the brood for the sake of one or two which very
probably may not live after all.

The first meal should be given on the nest, and the best
material for it is an equal mixture of hard-boiled yolk of egg
and stale bread-crumbs,, the latter slightly moistened with
milk. Let the hen be allowed to partake of this also — she
needs it ; and then give her besides as much barley as she will
eat, and oner her water, which she will drink greedily. To
satisfy the hen at first saves much restlessness and trouble
with her afterwards.

There is a stupid practice adopted by many, of removing
the little horny scale which appears on every chicken's beak,
with the idea of enabling thorn to peck better, and then putting

PUTTING OUT THE CHICKENS.

43

food or pepper-corns clown their throats, and dipping their bills in
wat.-r to make them drink. It is a mistake to say that if this
does no good it can do no harm : the little beaks are very soft
and tender, and are often injured by such barbarous treatment.
f/iem alone. If they do not eat or drink — and chickens
seldom drink the first day — it only shows they do not wish to ;
for to fill an empty stomach is the first and universal instinct
of all living things.

The brood having been fed, the next step will depend upon

Fi?. 9.— Coop under Shed.

circumstances. If, as we recommend, the chickens were
hatched the night before, or be well upon their legs, and the
weather be fine, they may be at once moved out, and the hen
cooped where her little ones can get the sun. If it be winter,
or settled wet weather, the hen must, if possible, be kept on

44

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

her nest this day also, and when removed be cooped in a dry
shed or outhouse.

The best arrangement, where there is convenience for it, is
that shown in Fig. 9. A shed six feet square is reared against
the wall, with a southern exposure, and the coop placed under
it. The coop here shown is made on a plan described by M.
Jacque, and consists of two compartments, separated by a
partition of bars ; one compartment being closed in front, the

Fig. 10.— Shelter-coop.

other fronted with bars like the partition. Each set of bars
lias a sliding one to serve as a door. It is best to have no
bottom, but to put it on loose dry earth or ashes, an inch or
two deep, renewed daily. Each half of the coop is about two
feet six inches square, and may or may not be lighted from the
top by a small pane of glass. The advantage of such a coop
and shed is, that except in very severe weather, no further
shelter is required even at night. During the day the hen is
kept in the outer compartment, the chickens having liberty,
and the food and water being placed outside ; whilst at night

A GOOD SHELTER COOP. 45

she is put in the inner portion of the coop, and a piece of
canvas or sacking hung over the bars of the outer half. If the
top be netted over, a little food and the water vessel may be
placed in the outer compartment at night, and the chicks will
be able to run out and feed early in the morning, being pre-
vented by the canvas from going out into the cold air. It will
be only needful to remove the coop every two days for a fe\v
minutes, to take away the tainted earth and replace it with
fresh.

But a simpler coop will do well under a shed; and when a
shed is not at command, the very best coop for chickens we

are acquainted with is one we
0 made and described years ago, the
chief feature of which is a raised
inside floor. The coop is shown in
Fig. 10, and the floor in Fig. 11.
The best size is two feet square,
for which twelve-feet planks, nine
inches wide, will cut all the lengths

Fig. ll.-Floor of Coop. without wafite . besides this will

be needed some inch-square stuff to serve as framing at each
corner, and along top and bottom of the front. To these
pieces the boards are nailed, and we have made three coops
complete in an afternoon. Each side takes two boards two
feet long, and a half board cut diagonally ; the back two
boards. The top requires three boards, one-fifth of twelve feet,
with slats cut from the same length over the joins ; and the
fifth piece is used in front as shown. The front may be either
wires inserted into the top and bottom rails, as shown, or be
made of laths nailed on.

The roof, when nailed on, projects an inch and a half all
round the coop ; but besides this there is a loose shelter-board
hinu'rrl to the front of the roof so as to be capable of detach-
ment. This is easily done by driving two small staples into

46 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

the under side of the roof, into which lock small hooks driven
into the edge of the board. In a coop thus sheltered chickens
may be left out in any weather, as we have proved for years.
Much depends upon a dry floor, however, and this can only be
secured by an inside raised floor. Fig. 1 1 shows the construction.
The boards a a are nailed on the pieces of quartering, bb, c c,
so as not to reach the edyes, as shown. They are cut such a
size also, that the coop fits down on the quartering outside the
floor, loosely, all round, the quartering being also sloped off so
as not to retain wet under even the edges of the coop. Such
a floor will be quite dry in any weather. Or the floor may
stand up inside the coop, on the ground. But it is better as
drawn, because the long ends of the quartering in front, shown
in both figures, are convenient for laying another board upon,
on which the food and water can be placed. Or this feeding-
board may be hinged to the bottom of the coop, and fastened up
at night against the front, to keep all in until attended to in
the morning.

The ordinary basket coop is only fit to be used under a
shed, or in perfectly fine weather, when it is convenient to
place on a lawn. Some straw, weighted by a stone or other
covering, should however be placed on the top, to give shelter
from the mid-day sun.

Chickens should always, if possible, be cooped near grass.
No single circumstance is so conducive to health, size, and
vigour, supposing them to be decently well cared for. as even a
small grass run such as that provided in Fig. 2. Absolute
cleanliness is also essential, even more than for grown fowls ;
and the reason why difficulty is often experienced in rearing
large numbers is, that the ground becomes so tainted with
their excrements. The coop should, therefore, either be
moved to a fresh place every day, or the dry earth under be
carefully renewed. The detached wooden bottom just
described should be covered every morning and evening half

PROTECTED RUNS.

47

an inch deep with perfectly dry earth, or fine sifted ashes.
The ashes are renewed every evening in five minutes, and
form a nice warm bed for the chicks, clean and sweet, and
much better than straw.

Cats sometimes make sad inroads on the broods. If this
nuisance be great, it is well to confine the coveted prey while
young within a wire-covered run. And the best way of
forming such a run is to stretch some inch-mesh wire-netting,
two feet wide, upon a light wooden frame, so as to form wire

Fig. 12.

hurdles two feet wide and about six feet long. These are
easily lashed together with string to form a run, and may be
covered by similar hurdles (Fig. 12). In such a run all
animal depredations may be defied, until the chicks are a fort-
night old ; it also saves a world of trouble and anxiety, and
prevents the brood wandering and getting over tired. But
after that age the chicks suffer, unless the run can be made
much more extensive than here shown.

With regard to feeding, if the question be asked what is
the best food for chickens, irrespective of price, the answer
must decidedly be oatmeal. After the first meal of bread-
crumbs and egg no food is equal to it, if coarsely ground,
mixed with a little bread-crumb and finely-cut fresh grass, and
only moistened so much as to remain crumbly. The price of oat-

48 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF- POULTRY.

meal is, however, so high as to forbid its use in general, except
for valuable broods ; but we should still advise it for the first
week, in order to lay a good foundation. It may be moistened
either with water or milk, but in the latter case only sufficient
must be mixed for each feeding, as it will turn sour within an
hour in the sun, and in that condition is very injurious to the
chickens. Spratt's well-known food is also most excellent for
rearing chickens upon.

For the first three or four days the yolk of an egg boiled
hard may be chopped up small, and daily given to each dozen
chicks ; and when this is discontinued; a little cooked meat,
minced fine, should be given once a day till about three to four
weeks old. The cost of this will be inappreciable, as a piece the
size of a good walnut is sufficient for a whole brood ; and the
chickens will have more constitution and fledge better than if
no animal food is supplied.

Food must be given very often. For the first month every two
hours is not too much, though less will do ; from one to two
months old, every three hours; and after that three or four times
a day will be sufficient. To feed very often, giving just enough
fresh food to be entirely eaten each time, and with occasional
changes, to keep the appetite and digestion vigorous and keen, is
the one great secret of getting fine birds. If the meals are fewer,
and food be left, it gets sour, the chicks do not like it, and will
not take so much as they ought to have.

After the first week the oatmeal can be changed for
cheaper food. We can well recommend any of the following,
and it is best to change from one to another, say about every
fortnight. An equal mixture of " sharps " and barley-meal,
or " sharps " and buckwheat-meal, or fine bran and Indian
meal ; or of bran, oatmeal, and Indian meal. The last our own
chickens liked much, and as the cheap bran balances the
oatmeal, it is not a dear food, and the chicks will grow upon
it rapidly. Bice is poor food, except for Bantams, which it Is

FOOD FOR CHICKENS. 49

desired to keep small ; but boiled rather dry, a little dripping
or suet stirred in, and the greasy pellets rolled in " sharps,"
makes an occasional change which is greedily relished. Boiled
rice is also good, as used by the French, for fattening birds for
the market, as it tends to white flesh.

The above will form the staple food, but after a day or two
some grain should be. given in addition. Groats chopped up
with a knife are excellent ; so is crushed wheat or bruised oats
or dari. Chickens seem to prefer grits to anything, but it is
not equal to meal as a permanent diet. A little of either one
or the other should, however, be given once or twice a day,
and in particular should form the last meal at night, for the
reasons given on page 21.

Bread sopped in water is the worst possible food for
chickens, causing weakness and general diarrhoea. With milk
it is better, but not equal to meal.

Green food is even more necessary to chickens than to
adult fowls. Whilst very young it is best to cut grass into
very small morsels for them with a pair of scissors, and mix
liberally in the food ; afterwards they will crop it for them-
selves if allowed. Should there be no grass plot available,
cabbage or lettuce-leaves must be regularly given — minced
small at first, but thrown down whole as soon as the beaks of
the chickens are strong enough to enable them to help them-
selves.

In winter or very early spring the chickens must, in
addition to the above feeding, have more stimulating diet.
Some under-done meat should be continued regularly, and it is
often advisable to give also, once a day at least, some stale
bread soaked in ale. They should also be fed about eight or
nine o'clock, by candle-light, and early in the morning. In
no other way can Dorkings or Spanish be successfully reared
at this inclement season, though the hardier breeds will often
get along very well with the ordinary feeding. Ale and meat,

50 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OP POULTRY.

with liberal feeding otherwise, will rear chickens at the coldest
seasons ; and the extra cost is more than met by the extra
prices then obtained in the market. But shelter they must
have ; and those who have not at command a large outhouse
or shed to shelter them while tender, should not attempt to
raise winter or early spring chickens — if they do, the result will
only be disappointment and loss. It may however be as well to
state that there is no place so bad as a greenhouse, which will
not answer the purpose at all. The experiment has often been
tried, and early chickens so " protected " simply die off like flies.
Some loose dry material under foot in the shed, and free run
out, are what they require.

This much will suffice for the solid food of the chickens ;
but there is a further very important question as to what
should be allowed them in the way of drink. The usual plan
till lately has been to let them have water by them ad libitum,
the fresher and cooler the better ; and we have shared this
general practice with others. There have, however, always
been exceptions to this rule amongst country rearers, especially
some who have inherited traditions of Game-fowl rearing ;
and during the last few years there have been on several
occasions lengthy discussions in the poultry papers as to
whether it is not better, for about the first four weeks, to with-
hold water altogether, where the chickens are fed chiefly on soft
food, excepb so far as fluid may be contained in the latter.

A careful and exhaustive analysis of all that we have been
able to meet with on both sides of this question, has led us to
the conclusion that the preponderance of experience is most
decidedly upon the side of withholding water. It is to be
remarked that by far the greater part of what has been
said on this side, consists of actual evidence as to extremely
good results from this mode of treatment, and in many
cases of very great improvement in results after its adop-
tion. On the other side, a very large proportion of what

WATER OR NO WATEK? 51

has been said against it consisted of mere declamation against the
supposed "cruelty" of it. It need not be pointed out that this
kind of argument amounts to very little, or to nothing at all.
It is quite obvious, to begin with, that there can be no real
"cruelty" in any course of treatment which rears more
chickens, if the fact be so. And when appeal is made to
" Nature," and we begin to think about it, it would seem that
Nature herself is, if anything, rather on the side of the dry
method. The young of all small birds, at least, are reared
without water. The fowl itself is believed to be an Indian
bird of the jungles ; and in such localities it is certain that even
the old birds can only drink at long intervals, and that days
must elapse, often, before young and tender broods can thus
indulge. How much less can water be really required where
a large portion of the food itself is mixed with fluid, which is
the case in our artificial rearing 1

At all events, there is a large body of evidence,
collected quite recently, to the effect that a large amount of
the diarrhoea and other bowel complaints of young chickens is
due to unlimited supplies of fluid in addition to soft food ; and
that many have left this off" with the most marked advantage.
Some have deprived the chickens of drink entirely for the first
month; others have allowed one fair drink in the morning
after breakfast (preventing any excess), and then taken it away,
giving the hen drink separately. The chickens in most seasons
get some drink from the dew upon the grass, and in these small
quantities it is probably less injurious to them. They can be
seen drinking in this manner ; and the fact suggests that some
little should depend upon the season. Where they are hatched
very late, and the weather is hot and dry, a rigid regimen
should not be insisted upon, especially if fed chiefly upon grain,
though even then we are convinced that " water by measure "
will be the best plan. But in spring, where soft food is given
largely, we are fully convinced that any drink in addition,

52 CENTRAL MANAGEMENT OP POULTRY.

beyond one after breakfast, and possibly a few sips, and no more,
at night, will be found far the best regimen.

The only actual evidence we have seen of any evil from
this course, has been when the writers have adopted it with
chickens a few days or more old. This is natural : such
changes should not be made with young things of any kind.
Those once accustomed to drink ad libitum can only suffer by
deprivation; and if any change is made, it should be very
gradually, and not carried to the extreme. The very worst effects
of all are produced by allowing young birds to drink to reple-
tion after prolonged thirst. But it has heen noticed that chickens
reared on the dry system are much less prone to this in after life.

At the age of four months the chickens, if of the larger
breeds, should be grown enough for the table ; and if they
have been well fed, and come of good stock, they will be. For
home use we say let them be eaten as they are — they will be
quite fat enough ; and fattening is a rather delicate process,
success in which it takes some experience to acquire. For
market, however, a fatted fowl is more valuable ; and the birds
should be penned up for a further fortnight or three weeks,
which ought to add one to two pounds to their weight. For
a limited number of chickens it will be sufficient to provide a
small number of simply-constructed pens. Each compartment
should measure about nine by eighteen inches, by about
eighteen inches high ; and the bottom should not consist of
board, but be formed of bars two inches wide placed two
inches apart, the top corners being rounded off. The partitions,
top and back, are board, as the birds should not see each other.
These pens ought to be placed about two inches from the
ground, in a darkish, but not cold or draughty place, and a
shallow tray be introduced underneath, filled with fresh dry
earth every day, to catch the droppings. This is the best and
least troublesome method of keeping the birds clean and in
good health. As fast as each occupant of a pen is withdrawn

FATTENING CHICKENS. 53

for execution its pen should be whitewashed all over inside,
and allowed to get perfectly dry before another is introduced.
This will usually prevent much trouble from insect vermin ;
but if a bird appears restless from that cause, some powdered
sulphur, rubbed well into the roots of the feathers, will give
immediate relief.

In front of each compartment should be a ledge three
inches wide, on which to place the food and water-tins. The
latter must be replenished once, the former three times a day ;
and after each meal the pens must be darkened for half the
time until the next, by hanging a cloth over the front. This
cloth is best tacked along at the top, when it can be con-
veniently hung over or folded back as required. The two
hours' darkness ensures quiet and thorough digestion ; but it
is not desirable, as some do, to keep the birds thus the whole
time till the next meal If the chickens are fasted for a few
hours when first penned, they will start with, and keep up, a
good appetite.

The best food for fattening is buckwheat meal, when it can
be obtained ; and it is to the use of this grain the French owe,
in a great measure, the splendid fowls they send to market. If
it cannot be procured, the best ordinary substitute is an equal
mixture of Indian and barley-meal ; at the prices since 1882,
however, wheat has been one of the cheapest and best of foods,
and as whole meal is one of the best for putting on flesh.
Each bird should have as much as it will eat straight off,
but no food left to become sour. The meal may be mixed
with skim-milk if available. A little minced green food
should be given daily, to keep the bowels in proper order.

In three weeks the process ought to be completed. It
must be borne in mind th&tfat only is added by thus penning
a chicken ; the lean or flesh must be made before, and unless
the chicken has attained the proper standard in this respect, it
is useless even to attempt to fatten it. Hence the importance

54 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

of high feeding from the very shell. The secret of rearing
chickens profitably is, to get them ready for the table at the
earliest possible period, and not to let them live a single day
after. Every such day is a dead loss, for they cannot be kept
fat ; once up to the mark, if not killed they get feverish and
begin to waste away again. To make poultry profitable, even on
a small scale, everything must go upon system ; and that system
is, to kill the chickens the very day they are ready for it.

What may be called even feeding from the shell is of the
greatest importance, as the want of it is the cause of a
most common defect. If an ordinary English fowl badly
fed is examined, there will be found to be hardly any meat on
the back ; indeed, many people have an idea there never is any
meat there ! Now the effect of even several weeks' good
feeding upon a thin chicken is to deposit either flesh or fat
in places, but not to produce that even clothing with meat all
over, which is the perfection of chicken-rearing. Moreover,
fat so deposited is gross and disagreeable, whereas, even
feeding rather deposits it infiltrated amongst the muscle,
giving tenderness and juiciness to the whole, as is seen on a
larger scale in well-marbled beef. So well understood is this
in France, that it is usual, as Mr. T. Christy has again and
again pointed out, to expose the poultry there with the backs
uppermost, the exact contrary of English practice, though the
representations of this gentleman have lately caused some
imitation of French practice at the better West-End shops.
If the back is well and evenly covered with flesh, the breast
must carry as much meat as the build of the fowl admits of ;
but the converse is by no means the case. Whether or not
better knowledge shall lead to a general reform in the matter
of shop display, this method of judging cannot be too widely
known by purchasers ; and the raiser should never be satisfied
till he can produce chickens with the back nicely covered to a
smooth surface. This is to be done by an ample supply of

QUALITY OP TABLE-FOWL8. 55

good food constantly changed, including wheat and boiled rice
(the latter tends to make white flesh) ; and the French prefer
to " finish off" with buckwheat and milk.

If extra weight and fat is wanted, the birds may be
crammed during the last ten days of the fattening period, but
not before. The meal is to be rolled up the thickness of a
finger, and then cut into pellets an inch and a half long. Each
morsel must be dipped in water before it is put into the bird's
throat, when there will be no difficulty in swallowing. The
quantity given can only be learnt by experience.

For home use, however, nothing can equal a chicken never
fattened at all, but just taken out of the yard. If well fed
there will be plenty of good meat, and the fat of a fowl is to
most persons no particular delicacy. In any case, however,
let the chicken be fasted twelve hours before it is killed.

In raising poultry for the market, whatever crosses may be
employed, great judgment in selecting the birds is required to
produce a really good table fowl. Though not quite every-
thing, a good and well-developed breast is the chief object to
aim at; and it may be well to point out in what a good breast
consists; for this does not always seem well understood,
embracing as it does at least three distinct qualities.

1. A good breast must be deep, especially in front. On this
depends the breadth of the slices cut from it. Internally, this
quality depends upon depth of the keel of the breast-bone;
externally, it is marked by the fowl appearing, when looked at
sideways, as deep through the body at the shoulders as behind.
This is true, although the contour may be widely different.
For instance, in the ideal contour of a Dorking, the equal
depth at shoulders is seen at once, in the general resemblance
of the body to a parallelogram. No such square form can be
seen in a Game fowl, whose breast shows a beautiful curve.
But it will be seen that a well-shaped Game fowl's body is
much like a fir-cone in figure, the thick end representing the

56 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

shoulders: hence the greatest depth is still through the
shoulders and breast. The same is true of the pheasant, and
of every good table fowl ; and an application of this simple rule
will show the serious deficiency of many Langshans upheld as
the " true type " by some injudicious writers.

2. The breast must be broad. On this depends the number
of slices it will yield. Internally, this depends upon the width
of the flat parts of the breast-bone. Externally, it is seen on
looking at the front of the fowl. The true type of the Brahma,
when it is not bred to Cochin models, most often fails here.
The breast is deep, and often long ; but it is apt to be narrow.
Hence the need of carefully choosing birds selected as a cross.

3. The breast must be long. On this depends the length
of the slices cut from it. Here the Cochins are very apt to
fail ; very few Langshans we have seen had this fault ; it has
been lately more and more common in Cochin-bred Brahmas.
Some turkeys are particularly bad or short in breast, a fact
showing that careful selection has the matter in perfect control.

Stock of the varieties chosen always can be found, except
perhaps amongst Cochins, sufficiently free from the faults here
pointed out ; and by thus using judgment, a good table model
can be secured. The ideal model is seen in the breast of a
well-reared pheasant ; and next to that, perhaps, in that of a
fine Dorking or old-fashioned Game fowl.

There are various modes of killing — all of them very
effectual in practised hands. One is to give the birds a very
sharp blow with a small but heavy stick behind the neck,
about the second joint from the head, which will, if properly
done, sever the spine and cause death very speedily. Another
is to clasp the bird's head in the hand, and give the body a
sharp swing round by it — a process which also kills by parting
the vertebrae. M. Soyer recommends that the joints be pulled
apart, which can be effected by seizing the head in the right
hand placing the thumb just at the back of the skull, and

DRESSING FOR MARKET. 57

giving a smart jerk of the hand, the other, of course, holding
the neck of the fowl And lastly, there is the knife, which
we consider, after all, the most merciful plan, as it causes no
more pain than that occasioned by the momentary operation
itself. We do not advocate cutting the throat ; but having
first hung up the bird by the legs, thrust a long, narrow, and
sharp-pointed knife, like a long penknife, which is made for
the purpose, through the back part of the roof of the mouth up
into the brain. Death will be almost instantaneous, which is?
too seldom the case when dislocation is employed. The fowls,
it is true, often kick and struggle a good deal for some time ;
but as they will do this equally after actual decapitation, this
must be due to muscular contraction rather than any form of
actual life.

The fowl having been properly bred, properly fed, and
killed, the next question is that of dressing for market,; and
here again English custom stands much in need of improve-
ment, and is against the true interest both of producer and
consumer, since it tends to make poor fowls look as nearly as
possible like good ones. It is usual to smash down the keel
of the breast-bone with a round roller or handle of the knife,
making the breast look broad and plump, which is then
exposed upwards to tempt the purchaser. It will be obvious,
however, that this process cannot make meat ; and the
splinters effectually prevent the carver from getting a nice
even slice, even from a good fowl. So inveterate is this
custom among poulterers, that even a good raiser may find it
impolitic to run counter to it all at once — it is never wise to
be too rash in any reform. But every purchaser of a fowl
should, for his or her own sake, insist on an unbroken breast ;
and if even the clubs and gentry of London were to refuse any
poultry that has been mutilated, reform will gradually spread.
It is here esj)ecially that the recent additions to poultry shows
of classes for dead fowls may do great good ; for at all such

58 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

classes broken-down breasts are "disqualified," and thus the
eyes of the public are educated to judge of the specimens in an
unmutilated state. From this point of view, good classes of
dead poultry are even more valuable than those of live birds.

Breaking the breast-bone is, moreover, quite unnecessary,
for art can do as much which is quite legitimate, in regard to
this very point. Mr. Christy, who has devoted great attention
to the subject, and several times gone to the expense of bringing
over French fowls, and even French operators, has pointed out
how these latter obtain the same object.

The fowl being plucked, the hairs carefully singed off with
lighted paper, and the gut washed (not drawn), the dresser
places his knee against the back, and forcibly compresses the
body held by the ribs and breast. Sufficient padding must be
used to prevent bruising of the back, if the ordinary clothing
is insufficient. This forces the back and upper ribs towards
the breast, the ribs bending or giving way in the middle ; and
it will be readily understood that the process, carrying with it
the contents of the body, forces up the meat at the sides of the
breast. The breast is thus also made to look natter than it
was ; but it is done by really bringing more meat there, where
the carver wants to get as many slices as he can, and is there-
fore a gain to all parties. The body would spring back again if
allowed, but it is not allowed. The hocks are at once tied
together with a piece of string over the breast, the pinions
drawn through them, and the bird then placed on a shaping-
board, modelled to receive it. In reality this is like a long
trough, in which many fowls are closely packed side by side.
Wet cloths are then laid on the back, and the fowl is pressed
again. More cloths are then applied, cold water is poured
over all, and the fowl is kept so twenty-four hours or more,
till it is set quite stiff in the shape desired. Another plan
adopted is to place the bird on its back upon cloths, and press
the breast firmly down with the flat of the right hand, which

TRUSSING FOWLS. 59

causes the ribs to give way, and squeezes up the meat in
virtually the same manner. In some localities the pressed birds
are sewn up tightly in wet cloths after being pressed together
as described, the design and effect in both cases being the same-
Dead poultry are almost always exhibited "trussed, but
not drawn," and should be prepared with absolute simplicity,
but with the utmost neatness. Such tricks as gilding the
comb and legs (which we have actually seen done) only entail
defeat Success rather depends, if the judge knows his
business, upon a breast and back really covered with meat,
evenly laid on ; a nice, delicate, well-finished skin ; and not too
great a size of bone compared with the size of the fowl. The
" trussing " cannot be too simple ; as much as will keep the
hocks back, and the wings in shape, is all that should be at-
tempted ; and this is easily accomplished if the bird has been
moulded into shape, and allowed to " set " cold in the French
manner. Actual trussing for the spit is not the business of the
raiser, since it involves piercing the skin and flesh, and such
wounds promote decomposition. This process should, therefore,
be deferred till the fowl is on the eve of consumption ; more-
over, the precise method differs in different localities, and
according to whether the bird is to be roasted or boiled.

Fowls are easiest plucked at once, whilst still warm, and
after carefully singeing the hairs off with a piece of lighted
paper, should be scalded by dipping them for just one
instant in boiling water. This process will make any decent
fowl look plump and nice, and poor ones, of course, ought not
to be killed for market purposes.

With respect to old fowls, in the market they are an
abomination ; but at home it is sometimes needful to use them.
If so, let them be boiled. Unless very aged, they will then be
tolerable eating. Another plan which has been tried with
success is to wrap them in vine or other large leaves, and bury
them for twelve or more hours in good earth before cooking.

60 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

CHAPTER VI.

POULTRY ON THE FARM.

THE contents of the previous pages will have made it abun-
dantly clear, that in first return of gross profit over and above
their food, poultry are far superior to any other, class of live
stock. If there were no drawbacks to this, large poultry-farms
could not fail to be highly profitable ; but there is one tre-
mendous drawback, which prospectuses of such undertakings
always omit to state. It is, that the profit has to be collected
in a vast number of very small sums, from a great number of
small animals, which yet cannot be dealt with in one large
flock like sheep. Hence the liability to many small losses and
wastes ; while the realisation of the products demands such
detailed oversight, and so many separate acts, that the cost of
accommodation and labour and marketing is relatively very large.
These facts account not only for the general want of
success in poultry-farming as such, but for the general neglect
of poultry in England as part of the stock on the farm. Left
pretty much to themselves, the returns have not been duly
collected, nor even a profitable stock secured. In France,
where most of the land is cut up into extremely small occupa-
tions, the labour of looking after the small number of fowls it
will carry with the other stock is never felt or counted. On
the larger English farms, it must be provided for and paid for,
if it is given at all ; this is grudged, or any due return dis-
believed in, and so it is not given, but just a few fowls kept to
supply the family with eggs, and no more thought about them.
They are of quite uncertain age, some of them very old, and
many very bad layers. What kind of stock would pay under
such circumstances'? But it has been proved over and over
again, that poultry upon a farm will pay uncommonly well if
judiciously managed, ard their numbers calculated according
to what the farm ih.

VALUE OP MANURE.

61

First of all, let it be remembered that while poultry require
an acre for every hundred head if for their own exclusive use,
a dozen head per acre can be run upon land without in any
way interfering with other stock. The manure dropped by
this number fully returns all the grass eaten, while it is
absorbed quickly enough to keep the land fresh, so that other
grazing is not interfered with, as it would be by a greater
number.

Secondly, supposing other matters merely balance, the
manure of the fowls dropped at night in the houses represents
a profit of one shilling per head per annum for large cross-
breeds, and sixpence to ninepence for smaller birds. We found
that Brahmas dropped considerably over 56 Ibs. per annum
under their perches. After keeping a few weeks in casks, this
was reduced to about half ; and samples of both — fresh and
moist from the night before, and thus kept — were analysed and
valued by the late Dr. Yoelcker. The actual samples were
from Dorkings, and were sent by Mr. 0. E. Cresswell. The
following was the analysis : —

Fresh
Manure.

Partially
dried
Manure.

Moisture

61 63

41 OG

* Organic Matter and Ammonia Salts

20.19

38.19

Tribasic Phosphate of Lime (Bone Phosphate)

2.97

5.13

Magnesia, Alkaline Salts, &c.

2.63

313

Insoluble Siliceous Matter (Sand)

1258

12 49

100.00
1.71

100.00
3.7^

Equal to Ammonia

2.09

4.59

Dr. Voelcker accordingly valued the moist manure at £2 per
ton, and the stored sample at .£4 4s. per ton. Most of the
sand was probably scraped up from the floor of the house. As
regards its application, Dr. Voelcker recommended that for
most farm crops, a mixture should be kept of two parts burnt

62 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

gypsum and one part mineral superphosphate ; and that one
part of this should be mixed with three parts of fresh chicken
manure. Kept under cover and turned over once or twice, and
finally passed through a sieve, this treatment would absorb the
surplus moisture, and reduce the whole to a fairly dry and
friable condition, in which it should be used at the rate of 8 to
10 cwt. per acre. It may also be mixed with soot, or dry
earth and burnt ashes, but should not be mixed with lime.

Hence it will be seen, that a dozen of fowls per acre, with a
very little gypsum and phosphate, will give a farmer the
greater part of the manure he requires. And Dr. Voelcker
specially reports upon the manure as "a much more concen-
trated fertiliser than the best descriptions of ordinary farmyard
manure, which seldom yields more than J per cent, of ammonia,"
whilst stored chicken manure by the analysis yields 4J per
cent., and even the moist, fresh-dropped sample over 2 per cent.
Let it be once understood what heavy money payments may be
thus saved on artificial manures,* and the labour of proper
superintendence will no longer be grudged to the poultry.

Thirdly, attention must be given to improvement of the
stock in laying properties. It will be seen in Chapter XI. that
any property may be developed greatly in a few generations by
careful breeding; and it will also be seen why the utmost

* A practical farmer wrote to the Live Stock Journal as follows on this
point : — " There is still the most important item to mention — so far as
farmers are concerned — the manure. I have this year fully tested its
value hoth for corn and root crops. I dressed a ten-acre field of oats in
four two-and-a-half-acre lots, alternately with artificial top-dressing at £9
per ton, and poultry manure, in equal quantities, and if there was any
difference it was in favour of the poultry manure. The result was ahout
the same with swedes and turnips: 8 cwt. of poultry manure proving
much better than 6 cwt. of artificial manure, costing per ton £7 10s.
This year my artificial manure bill amounts to less than one-third of what
it was in 1876, and my thirty acres of swedes and turnips are better than
I have had them for years."

SELECTING THE STOCK. 63

fecundity must not, and cannot, be expected from the stock
bred by fanciers. These breed for the points of the show-pen,
which have their own use in preserving the distinctive races ;
but in seeking these chiefly, laying properties are apt to take a
second place. Still the fecundity is there, and capable of
development like any other property. Probably a hen which
lays less than a hundred eggs per annum hardly pays ; but it
has been proved, over and over again, that an average of one
hundred and fifty per annum can be obtained by those who
will breed for it, and the process is as simple as possible.

The first thing, on most farms, will be a rigorous weeding
out of all the old stock. Mr. Fowler has left it on record that
in one case where this was done, and a " general slaughter "
made, the change to young fowls alone made a difference of
£20 per annum, without any special selection of birds. But
selection is desirable. Laying breeds may be selected,* or, if
there is a prejudice against "pure breeds," there is a very
simple plan which every farmer will understand in a moment,
and which has been repeatedly tried with good results. Watch
the neighbouring market, and find out who brings in a good lot
of eggs in winter. Buy his eggs, and set them ; and a fairly
good laying stock will be ensured to start with. Next,
cockerels of the laying breeds can be purchased to cross on
these. Then the best layers only of these birds should be
bred from for the laying stock, and a few cockerels also kept
from these best layers to cross with the pullets so bred. It is
as simple as A B C ; but in this way the average can be
infallibly raised ; exactly in the same way as cows can readily

» The most successful direct cross we ever heard of in actual fact
was the produce of two Light Brahma hens with a Black Hamburgh cock.
From six of these chickens and one of the Light Brahmas were produced,
from Jan. 1st to Dec. 31st, 1879, a few more than 1,500 eggs ! This is
considerably over 200 each, and is the highest number from half-a-dozen
fowls we evor heard of. The Brahmas were themselves good layers.

64 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

be bred to give 60 per cent, more milk than most farmers are
content with.

Where eggs are the chief thing — and we believe they pay
best — a different stamp of fowl must be kept from what
would be a good stock for chickens. On the latter head
nothing need be added to what has been before said ; broadly
speaking, fowls will be selected which tend to lay on flesh when
well fed. Fine laying breeds, on the other hand, always tend
to a spare habit of body, and are weedy by comparison, even
in the same breed : the best laying Houdans or Brahmas are
more weedy -looking than the best table fowls. Good layers
also generally tend to large combs. But the one rule is,
breed from the best only, and the stock will improve.
A cross of a good laying pure breed, for three years, on a
fine dunghill breed, selected by the " winter egg test " just
mentioned, will have become seven-eighths pure, while the
dunghill foundation will ensure hardiness ; and by thus using
crosses of Minorcas, Andalusians, Leghorns, or Black Ham-
burghs, a splendid laying strain may be built up in a few years.

Fourthly, the selective breeding here spoken of, and which
lies at th»e very foundation of all profit, involves separation of
the fowls into distinct flocks, and a somewhat close personal
oversight. This, therefore, is also a crucial point. The fowls
must be made a business if they are to be made to pay.

After examining the state of affairs on various farms, we
are convinced that on many it will be far the best to keep
enough fowls to occupy a man's whole time in looking after
them, with just a little general superintendence from the
owner, his wife, or daughter. This will need about 1,000
head ; and we have already seen that this means about £40 to
£50 per annum from the night- manure alone. Female labour
is not adapted for this, since there will be heavy weights to
carry, and long tramps over heavy ground, while the work must
be done in al] weathers. The fowls want special attendance,

StlrERttfTENDENCfc. 65

and can afford to pay for it, provided only the man be made to
feel that his employer takes real interest in the results. He
TII ust understand that the master both means and expects to
make money out of his charges, and then he will probably do
as near his best as he is constitutionally capable of ; for the
right sort of man must be found for this business. We have
a vivid recollection of some agricultural labourers we have met
with, whose doings — or want of doing — would have given Job
himself much exercise of spirit. Scolding is no use with them ;
they haven't it in them to do any good where they have to
think now and then. To give them a fair chance, the poultry
ought to have one of the smartest men on the farm, and if he
is " smart " in the Lancashire sense they will pay his wages.
It will sometimes happen that this sort of work, with its
variety and sense of responsibility, will just suit a man or
intelligent big lad who does not shine in the steadier, dull
routine, but rather shirks work in that on account of its
monotony. Variety will sometimes make a man like that, and
get value out of him when nothing else will.

In the chicken-yard, if many chickens are reared, the help
of a labourer's wife will be useful, and may be required ; here
the labour is both lighter and nearer home.

To arrange for a labourer engaged in other things, "just to
give an eye to the fowls," never answers. We have seen it tried
often, and it never has done so. On such a system, the fewer
fowls are kept the less the owner will lose by them ; and there
is no more to be said about it. Rather than attempt such a
half-system as this, it will be far better to go on in more the
old style, with a comparatively limited number, in the farm-
yard. Even here, by killing all the old fowls at once, and
thereafter killing them before they get old, with judicious
selection, and more systematic looking after the eggs — all which
may be carried out by a wife or daughter without difficulty
— some profit may be got out of the fowls, instead of the certain

66 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OP POULTRY.

loss which they are on many farms. But we are here more
especially considering the cases in which it is determined to
make them a part of the regular business of the establishment.

The needful separation will generally be easily managed on a
farm. Fowls have a strong sense of locality, and in the main
will keep to their own field ; and as a rule the simplest plan
will be to put the hedges and fences in fair repair, and then let
each field have its own small flock. The house can go any-
where convenient— probably in a corner, where the fencing is
good. Some practical men prefer movable houses on wheels, the
locality of which is moved occasionally; and one or two of these
should always be used on arable farms, as they can be moved
out to the stubbles after harvest. One farmer we knev/ made a
hard concrete floor for each house, and kept it in one place ; this
is least trouble as regards the manure. On many farms there
are buildings here and there, opening out to different parts of
the farm, which can be utilised. The great thing is, in the
cheapest but some effectual way to break up the system of
letting all mix indiscriminately in the farmyard.

The fowls will, be it remembered, absolutely benefit the
land. In some cases it may be well to keep them off shallow-
sown seeds for a fortnight ; but as a rule, if the seed is properly
drilled, and the fowls duly fed, they will not touch it, but con-
fine their ravages to insects and larvae. They may crop a little
green food ; but even this may be almost prevented by letting
a strip of grass grow aro\md their house, and in any case the
damage will be infinitesimal, unless the farm, or that part of
it, is what we should call "over-stocked" with them. A dozen
per acre are enough kept in this way ; and the largest field
must have no more than fifty in one flock, unless in any case a
flock of fifty is kept solely upon, say, half an acre or less, for
breeding. Generally a few yards of netting used judiciously
here and there, to eke out other fencing, will keep the flocks
separate.

HOl'SES FOR THE FARM.

67

The houses may be of any cheap and handy form ; but that
shown in Fig. 13 was given us by a practical man as the
cheapest he had tried of several The main feature is the
triangular section. It is constructed either of match-board, or
rough slabs with the joints covered by caulking-pieces ; and is
put together with the very least labour possible, by simply
nailing the boards to timbers lying on the ground and to a ridge-

Fig. 13. -Cheap Poultry-houses for the Farm.

pole at the top. The width is seven feet, and the height about
eight feet. At a height of twenty inches from the ground a
shelf, R, is fixed at each side, hinged to the walls ; and over these
are the perches, c c. The nests, D D, are made under the shelf
•with bricks, or anyhow, and are got at by raising the shelf. In
this plan we get strength ; a good slope to throw the rain off;
floor-space where wanted ; height in the middle for the atten-
dant ; and the shelf gives freedom from draught. The ridge
should be covered by a strip of felt, or an inverted metal
gutter ; the last is easily arranged so as to give space all along
the ridge for ventilation. A house twelve feet long roosts fifty
birds, and the cost was given us as j£ 3 to £3 10s.

F2

68 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

Separate shed accommodation, or dusting-places, are scarcely
ever wanted in the fields, as the fowls get both under hedge-
rows, or in other natural places.

The fowls kept for laying only will only need feeding twice
a day, and should therefore, for obvious reasons, be kept in the
most distant locations; while the more substantial accommo-
dation nearer home will be devoted to the breeding-pens and
the rearing of chickens. The labour will be lessened by the
fact that the laying birds, having free range, may be fed, and
indeed are best fed, with grain only. Water may be provided
at any convenient point in each lot, as the fowls will soon learn
the place. Often a small stream can be so managed, or a
drain so cut and utilised, as to save all trouble.

Where poultry are kept upon a farm in this way, the
attendant's day will be something like the following, taking, for
example, the spring of the year : —

Up early, he will first clean out the coops or artificial
mothers and feed the young chickens ; also feed the breeding-
pens, if confined near home, since in that case they require
rather more careful regime. Then he will start on his first
round, with sufficient grain in a couple of buckets slung on a
yoke for carriage. At each house he will scatter his corn
widely for each flock, and give a brief glance over ; and in
some cases he may scrape up the night's manure at the same
visit, leaving each house clean and trim as he goes. In other
cases, however, such delay would bring the other flocks crowd-
ing round him ; and it will generally be better to feed all first,
taking the houses on the return journey ; at the same time
collecting all eggs already laid, noticing what hens are on the
nest, or if any appear sickly. There will have to be a covered
barrel at each house to store the manure.

By the time all this is gone over, if necessary dividing the
houses, so as to clean each half every two days only, the
chickens will want another feed, after which there will be the

FARM MANAGEMENT. C'J

cleaning of the houses and belongings of the breeding- pens.
Indeed, any fair number of chickens will furnish ample occupa-
tion all day for any spare time. A mid-dav collection of eggs is
desirable where practicable, but will not always be so.
Towards evening another round must be taken to feed the
laying stock, at the same time gathering the rest of the day's
eggs ; the chickens having their last feed afterwards, the very
last thing, and being then made snug for the night.

All through some watch must be kept, in order to have a
good idea towards the end of the season as to which are the
best layers, with a view to draft these, so far as wanted, into
next year's breeding-pens. It will be seen that the only
possible way of getting all this done is to do it systematically.

Kept in this manner, poultry have never failed to " pay "
upon a farm. The only rent chargeable to them, as they
actually benefit the land, is interest upon houses, fence, and
utensils; where corn is grown they get the tailings at the
lowest possible cost ; and the manure finds its full value. Eggs
will in the main pay best ; but a proportionate number of birds
will of course be sent to market from the surplus cockerels, and
the slaughter in the yearly renewal of the stock. The
conditions laid down are not hard ones, nor difficult to under-
stand. But more than the dozen fowls per acre should not be
attempted, and cannot be, without leaving the ground of
" poultry on the farm,:j for the far more doubtful speculation of
"poultry-farming," the result of which may be a very different
matter.

The case of vermin and thieves we have not felt called upon
to consider. In some places one or the other literally make
the profitable keeping of poultry upon a farm impossible. We
have known it to be so, and for such cases are unable tc
suggest any remedy.

70 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

CHAPTER VII.

ARTIFICIAL HATCHING.

THE artificial hatching of chickens, as is well known, has been
practised as quite an ordinary thing in Egypt for thousands of
years, and with the most complete success; yet, strange to say,
is only a very modern experiment in Europe.

To give a history of all, or even of the principal attempts
that have been made to hatch chickens by heat artificially
applied, would far exceed our limits, and would be of no
practical use. It will be enough to say that Reaumur was the
first who really took the matter up in earnest. His method
was to place the eggs in wooden casks, or other vessels, and
then to surround the whole with fresh dung in a state of
fermentation, which was renewed as often as necessary. For
obvious reasons this system is never likely to be popular ; but
it is mentioned by Mr. Geyelin as still employed with success
in France, and it has also been followed in America.

Since Reaumur's time, more or less elaborate machines have
been constructed by Cantelo, Minasi, Valise, Carbonnier, and
others in France ; and by Brindley, Schroder, and others in
England. We refer here merely to the old school. All were
costly machines, and all were more or less successful in hatch-
ing with skilled management, but none were generally
successful. We believe M. Valise to have been the first to
employ a self-acting valve to regulate the temperature j and
Mr. Schroder was, we believe, the first to provide free ventila-
tion from the centre of the egg-drawer, and, above all, a cold-
water tank under the eggs to provide a moist atmosphere, a
point further experience has shown to be of capital importance,
though actual tanks of water are no longer employed.

After Mr. Schroder's machine many others were brought
forward, and in the United States Mr. Graves and Mr. Halsted

BOYLE'S INCUBATOR.

71

constructed elaborate incubators. The principal object with all
inventors was to ensure an equable temperature, but few of the
ingenious contrivances employed really secured this, and
adequate attention was not, as is now known, paid to the
proper amount of dampness, or to purity of the atmosphere.
All the machines at times hatched remarkably well, but not
one could be depended on to hatch well; and the first incubator

H

A

Fig. 14.— Boyle's Regulator.

which really did uniform good work in intelligent hands
was that invented by Mr. Henry Boyle. This greater uni-
formity was due to the delicacy of its (patent) heat regulator,
shown in Fig. 14.

A c is a* glass syphon-gauge, connected at B with the heating
water, heated air, or other medium it is desired to regulate.
The water, A, extends to nearly the bottom of the longer leg of
the syphon, pressing near the bottom upon the mercury, c.
This is connected by a short piece of vulcanised india-rubber
tube, D, with the nearly horizontal small glass tube, E, which

72 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

expands at the further end into the larger cup or bowl, p.
The mercury extends from the point where the expanding
water acts upon it to the bowl or cup, F ; and it will be readily
understood that as the water expands, and presses on the
mercury in the large syphon-gauge, it forces a portion along
the much smaller tube, E, and causes the fluid to rise in the
cup, F. The tube, B, being some ten or twelve inches in length,
the leverage and consequent power exerted by the weight of the
mercury in this cup are very considerable, and fully adequate
to any operation required for regulating, whatever may be the
heating power. The cup F is connected by a wire with the
lever, H K, moving on a fulcrum, i, and is carefully balanced
by a weight, L. To avoid the too sudden movement which
would otherwise occur with the least fluctuation of heat (for
this regulator is so sensitive as to move with less than the
tenth of a degree), it is also balanced by a spring, G.

The superiority of this regulator over previous mercury
regulators is, that they depend upon the expansion of mercury
under heat, whereas this one works by the expansion of water,
which is many times as great ; while by that expansion acting
upon mercury, the greater weight of the latter fluid as a motive
power is also secured. It is this, combined with the long
leverage of the tube E, which makes the regulator so delicate.
It may be connected with the source of heat by a wire, chain,
or thread, M, in any desired manner.

The incubator itself is arranged as follows : — The eggs are
laid in oval holes in a plate, N (Fig. 15). A cold-water tank under-
neath supplies some moisture ; and more is given by wetting
portions of cotton- wool, which are placed in small holders, o, up
the centre of the egg-plate. Air is admitted pretty freely under
the egg-plate, which thus keeps the under-surface cooler than
the top, escaping by openings above. The rows of eggs thus
placed are ranged immediately under arches in the heating-tank
p, connected by a pipe, Q, .with the boiler. The eggs, as soon

THE HYDRO INCUBATOR.

73

as chipped, are hatched out in the receptacle or hatching-box,
R, on top of the heating-cistern, which is supplied with damp
sawdust and cotton-wool to keep up the necessary moisture.

With people who understood it, this incubator hatched
remarkably well ; but it was complicated and costly, and,
moreover, the egg-plate sliding under the arches in the heating
tank was often found to break eggs at an alarming rate. The
bottom of the eggs being kept cool, the top temperature found
most successful was about 106°.

Fig. 15.— Egg-tray in Boyle's Incubator.

In 1877 the practice of artificial hatching was revolutionised
by what was termed a " Hydro-Incubator," exhibited by Mr.
T. Christy, at a Dairy Show held at the Agricultural Hall,
London. This machine was modelled upon one used for some
little time previously with success in France, made by Messrs.
Roullier and Arnoult, and it consisted in the main of a large
hot-water tank over the egg-drawer, of peculiar construction,
from which a few gallons of water were drawn off twice in
every twenty-four hours, to be replaced by boiling water ; thus
keeping up the temperature. The attendant was not, however,
able to explain the construction of the tank, or the reason for
the mode of working ; and the consequence was that not one
single individual acquainted with the subject — we were

74 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY

certainJy no exception — thought such a machine of the least
use for practical purposes. That when so many had devoted
money, pains, and complicated apparatus to keep up a regular
supply of heat, a machine should succeed which depended
altogether upon a re-supply of boiling water every twelve
hours, appeared to all simply ridiculous. The following year,
however, a competition of incubators took place at a poultry-
show at Hem el Hempstead, at which this incubator far out-
stripped all competitors ; and the success then obtained, so far
from being accidental or temporary, was much surpassed on
later occasions. " Hydro-Incubators " were sold literally by
hundreds, and solved the long-sought problem by making
artificial hatching a practical reality.

It was some time before it was understood how it was that
this success had attended so apparently rude a machine. The
whole secret lay in two points mainly, wherein the new
machine differed from it predecessors. In the first place, the
hot-water tank was very large compared with all other apparatus
previously made, holding for a 100-egg machine about twenty or
twenty-four gallons. The enormous " specific heat " of water
makes a large body of it like this very much more " steady "
in temperature than tanks of less content. But much more
than this, the construction of the tank was found to be peculiar;
and this was in fact the great excellence of the invention of
Messrs. Roullier and Arnoult. If we take a Florence flask
of water containing a few particles of bran, and apply a lamp
to the bottom, we shall see how the heated water rises and
circulates, and the whole becomes very hot in a very short
time. But if we apply a hot plate to the surface of the water
in an open glass vessel, there is scarcely any movement, and
it is a long time ere the heat reaches the lower portion of the
fluid. This time may be increased still further by horizontal
septa or partitions, which compel the hot water to take a
roundabout course. Now, the tank in the hydro-incubator

THE F.SSF.NT1AL POINTS. 75

was not only large, but furnished with such partitions ; and
the boiling water was always supplied at ttie top. The
consequence of these arrangements is, that the heat percolates
very slowly downwards, and while the water drawn off (from
three to six gallons) is generally about 146°, and replaced by
water at 212°, the temperature of the bottom layer, which acts
ujK)n the eggs, only varies in a small degree, and that in a
regular manner within certain limits, which appears actually
beneficial to the eggs. The heat was also given to the eggs
from above, but this had been done in many previous machines.

The all-important character of these points was at first by
no means apparent even to the manufacturers. For some
time attention was confined to minor improvements in the
original " hot-water " form of machine. The first of these was
the freer supply of ventilation. Gradually also was arrived at
the proper area of damp earth underneath the eggs to provide
the proper amount of moisture ; these machines using, in place
of cold tanks, earth baked to kill all life, and moistened
with water on each occasion when the eggs were attended to.
Still later it was found, that during the first eight or ten days
the eggs did well in a close atmosphere with little ventilation,
whilst later on they absolutely needed fresh air ; that, as the
embryos grew, the eggs themselves did far more in imparting
heat to the machine ; and that to be putting in cold eggs
amongst others far advanced was most injurious to the total
results. Hence it was found preferable to provide two
drawers, one smaller than the other, in which these different
conditions could be preserved.

Incubators worked by hot water are now made by several
manufacturers, nearly all being modelled more or less closely
on the French machines of Messrs. Roullier and Arnoult By
packing the tank and drawers all round with a good thickness
of sawdust or other material to retain the heat, somewhat
smaller tanks than at first have been made practicable, but

76 GENERAL MANAGEMENT I>F POULTRY.

still very large compared with those formerly employed, while
the horizontal partitions are more or less essential. These
incubators are made as small as for three dozen eggs, one of
which size can be obtained for about thirty shillings ; but the
experience of many persons has proved that the size for
ninety or a hundred eggs is the most generally useful one, and
on the whole gives most satisfactory results. Such a machine
now contains about fifteen to twenty gallons of water, and
the following is the mode of operation with it : — The machine
should have a place free from strong, cold draughts, if possible.
When fixed it must be filled up entirely with boiling water,
which is left in for twelve hours, and must then be entirely
drawn off by tipping the machine forward and opening a tap
at the bottom of the tank (this tap in ordinary work is not
used at all). The machine is then filled up with boiling water
the second time. This process is absolutely essential to
thoroughly ** charge " the whole machine and its packings with
the necessary heat. Twelve hours after the second filling the
thermometer should be put in, and as soon as it falls to
106° (which will not be till rather later) the eggs may be
placed in the drawer on flannel. In very frosty weather the
flannel may be doubled with advantage. Also at the same
time wet the earth-trays, and draw off from two (in warm) to
three (in cold weather) gallons of water by the working tap,
replaced by boiling water. The supply of heat must now be
attended to every twelve hours, and about the same hour. At
each visit the water drawn off will probably be from 136° to
140°, and must always be tested by the thermometer, as this
figure is the guide for the quantity of boiling water to put in.
But the heat of the drawers, which is also examined, is another
guide. As a rule, if the room be about 60°, from two and a
half to three gallons may be required, which may rise to six
gallons in cold weather in a cold room. The heat added in
this way is very slowly and equably percolating downwards all

MANAGEMENT OF INCUBATORS. 77

the time, so that the drawer varies very little when the
quantities are chosen with judgment, while any little excess
or defect on a single occasion has comparatively mild effects.
If the machine is filled with eggs at once, the ventilators should
be kept nearly closed for the first nine days, half opened on the
tenth day, rather more the next day, and thenceforth the
drawer freely ventilated. If two incubators or a divided
drawer are used, the eggs are kept in the close situation at
first, and then moved to the ventilated one. Particular
attention must be paid to the supply of moisture beneath, and
to the removal of any bad egg, and each time the machine is
visited the eggs must be withdrawn, turned, and exposed to
the cool air for from fifteen to twenty minutes. The eggs
should be turned in opposite directions on succeeding days.

As hatching proceeds, it will be found that less and less
hot water is required, owing to the " vital " heat developing
in the eggs themselves. This must be carefully attended
to. On the other hand, fresh cold eggs would lower the
temperature; and therefore fresh eggs added after a star.t
should be first warmed for a minute or two in water heated to
about 105°. In a very dry room a loose pan of damp earth
under the incubator is an advantage, or shallow tins may be
placed in the egg-drawer itself to supply more moisture. The
heat should be kept from 103° to 106° as nearly as possible.
The temperature of the drawer should be noted at a glance
when the drawer is opened, as it will rapidly fall when exposed
to the air. Eggs should always be tested for fertility at an
early date, as bad eggs in a drawer are a great drawback to the
whole batch ; and any fetid smell should at once lead to a
rigorous examination, and the sprinkling on the earth-trays of
a few drops of Condy's fluid. Every two or three days, when
turning the eggs, the outside ones should be moved to the
middle, or the front ones to the back, and vice versd. When
hatching time arrives, the chicks should be removed about

78

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

every twelve hours, and not oftener ; and if many are to be
taken out, the "vital heat" thus abstracted must be com-
pensated by more hot water than would otherwise be used.
All these points are simple enough, and easily remembered
when their reason is once clearly seen ; but in their observance
lies the main secret of success with hot-water incubators.

Simple as this system was, however, the provision of
gallons of boiling water every twelve hours was found such a

Fig. 16. — Toralinson's Incubator.

tax on most householders, that there was a demand on all
hands for supplementary apparatus. The first and most
natural step was to supply special boilers heated by paraffin
oil, or Fletcher's well-known gas-furnaces ; and these are still
considerably used. The further step was, however, soon taken
of carrying circulating pipes from a small boiler into the tank
of the machine, and this is now the favourite and usual method
of working hydro-incubators. Instead of withdrawing from
three to six gallons of water, to be replaced by boiling every
twelve hours, at the same periods the lamp under the boiler is
lit for a short time, so as to convey more heat into the tank,

TOMLINSON'S INCUBATOR.

79

the water in which is never renewed, beyond filling up now
and then the trifling loss from evaporation. Finally, however,
manufacturers and the public have returned to the old system
of employing the constant heat of a lamp. The first really
successful machine on this principle was the " Patent
Automatic Incubator," brought out in 1880 by Mr. Henry
Tornlinson, the well-known Cochin breeder of Birmingham,

IT-SI

Fig. 17.— Tomlinson's Incubator.

and like all efficient machines, employs an automatic regulator,
the latter being in its proper place — the egg-draAver. But an
all-important lesson had now been learnt, Mr. Tomlinson
having experimented with a water machine of the " Reliance "
make, and he therefore still employed a large body of water,
which " holds the heat so well and steadily, that if the lamp
should accidentally be put out for twelve or fourteen hours,
the working of the machine would not be dangerously affected."
Such was, in fact, the grand secret, which can only be
ignored by a machine that possesses a perfect regulator. With
large tanks, any passable regulators work well and easily,
and the rest is a question of common sense and practical

80 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

management. The Tomlinson incubator is shown in section in
Figs. 16 and 17. A is the case, enclosing packing shaded
black, and projecting at one side over the lamp D ; c the water
tank, also projecting over the lamp, and traversed by two
or more hot-air flues ; E is a door for cleaning the flues without
interfering with the machine ; F is the front of egg-drawer,
with the thermometer-scale showing outside \ G is the egg-
drawer, fitted with perforated zinc tray covered with flannel,
underneath which are evaporating-pans for holding wet sand ;
H H are openings in the bottoms of the machine, doubly
covered with perforated zinc, for admitting air to the drawer ;

\ /

Fig. 18. — Tomlinson's Regulator.

the air thence passes through small holes in the wooden
bottom of the drawer, and thence over the moist sand, passing
out through holes in the sides of the drawer into chambers h k,
communicating with a vertical flue at the back, surmounted by
the controlling regulator-valve L. The regulator itself is also
lettered L in Fig. 16; but the valve is so set as to allow
a certain minimum amount of ventilation at all times.

The regulation of this machine depends upon the expansion
of air, and is shown in Fig. 18. The glass tube shown in the
figure is sealed at both ends, and has on the under side a cup-
shaped opening, which is closed by a diaphragm or membrane
of india-rubber tied tightly round its lip ; but before this
is done the temperature is brought to about 90° Fahr., and a
little water put w. the tube, which inns down to the cup and

THERMOSTATIC INCUBATOR.

81

keepa the joint air-tight. When the air expands, the diaphragm
swells out and presses down the button at the end of the lever
shown, and so lifts the valve connected with the egg-drawer,
and. allows hot air to escape. On the other hand, if the

Fig 19.— Christy's Thermostatic Incubator.

heat falls, the india-rubber bulges in, and the button rises and
drags down the valve, which is never quite closed, but always
allows a little air to escape. This regulator is liable to be
affected by a high barometer, which checks the expansion;
but with a sufficiently large tank it acts efficiently.

82 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

Messrs. Christy and Co. have since 1883 brought out their
patent " therinostatic " incubator, which also works by the
constant heat of a small lamp under a circulating boiler
outside the machine. It is shown in section in Fig. 1 9. The
hot water tank, with the horizontal partition, is shown at u,
and is fed by pipes R and R', from the small conical boiler
H over the lamp s. The tank-bottom is sloped so as
to give a slight dome-shape to the top of the air or egg-
chamber, and from this ascends the air-shaft B capped by the
regulator-valve A. All the air enters from the bottom by the
apertures L L, as in Mr. Tomlinson's machine, in doing which
it has to pass through canvas, T, which dips all round into
evaporating pans or troughs of water, and is kept constantly
moist. Thence it passes through perforated zinc to the eggs-
In this way the air is kept in free circulation, stagnation in
the centre of the door being quite prevented, and it is un-
necessary to change the places of the eggs, or do more than
turn and cool them.

The regulator Q is a thermostatic bar, similar in principle
to the balance of a " compensated " watch. If two strips of
different metal are riveted together, one of which expands
with heat more than the other, the one which expands
most must curl the other more or less, that it may find
room for its expansion at the circumference of a larger or
outer circle. With heat, therefore, the free end of the bar Q
curls downwards somewhat, and thus pulls down the end, D,
of a lever which raises the valve, A, and lets out warm air.
c is an adjusting screw to set the valve, and F merely
a wire-cage to protect the regulator from injury. N is the
thermometer, o the lamp reservoir, and p a sliding shelf, which
pushes up the lamp towards the boiler and chimney.

In these machines the lamps should be trimmed every
twelve hours, always turning the eggs first, before this is done,
to keep them from the smell as much as possible. The open

HKARSON'S INCUBATOR. 83

pipe P (which is advisable to prevent explosion in all lamp
incubators, and is also necessary for the insertion of a ther-
mometer into the tank) should be filled up with warm water
every other day, and about the same number of times the
evaporating pans will need refilling, for which luke-warm
water should be used. Otherwise the general management
will be much the same as before described.

While, however, the great desideratum of uniform tem-
perature may be secured with many forms of regulators by
using a large water tank, it will be obvious that the same
result might also be secured by a more perfect regulator. This
has been attained by Mr. Hearson in his regulator, which
depends for efficiency upon the fixed boiling point of a fluid.
Just as water boils at 212°, so sulphuric ether boils and
expands into vapour at 94°. Other liquids boil at higher tem_
peratures, and as a mixture generally boils at a heat inter-
mediate between that of its two components, it is easy to
prepare a slightly modified ether which shall boil (at ordinary
barometrical pressures) at 98° or 99°, the lowest admissible
incubator temperature. Mr. Hearson's regulator consists of a
few drops of such volatile fluid enclosed between two flat brass
plates, soldered together all round their edges into a closed
flattish capsule. Then, directly the heat of 98° is exceeded,
the two plates "bulge" under the ether vapour which is
formed ; and hence we have a very powerful force, which acts
instantly on a given temperature being attained. The incu-
bator is shown in section in Fig. 20. A A is the tank of water,
much smaller than in preceding machines, traversed by the
flue, L w, from the lamp, T. The flue really returns through the
tank, so that the outlet, w, is on the same side as T ; but this
cannot be shown with clearness. B is the concave egg-tray of
perforated zinc, supported in a drawer floored with open strips
of wood, K. The concavity brings the outer eggs rather nearer
the heat, and obviates the necessity for moving about the eggs
o2

84

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

except in turning them. Air enters, as in the preceding
machines, through the hole, D, in the bottom of the incubator,
having to pass through canvas soaking in the water-troughs, c c,
whence it passes, impregnated with moisture, to the drawer,
escaping by the ventilating holes E E. The whole is surrounded
as usual by packing. N is a thermometer.

Fig. 20. — Hearson's Incubator.

The regulation is easily understood. The lamp, T, has a
vertical flue, v, above it, as well as the heating-flue, L • and if
this be opened, of course nearly all the heat escapes by prefer-
ence vertically, instead of passing through the tank. The flue
v is closed by a flap-valve, F, at the end of a lever, G. Near
the pivot end of the lever at P is attached a stiff lifting-wire,
which passes through a tube, o, in the centre of the tank ; and
the bottom of this wire rests on the capsule, which is simply
laid on a small rigid table at s. As the capsule bulges,

RESTING TRAVELLED EGGS. 85

therefore, it lifts p and F. If the machine were started thus,
the heat would therefore rise to 98°, and at this point the
valve P would open. But the sliding weight H allows more
pressure to be put upon the capsule, which has the effect of
raising the boiling-point (the boiling-point of water rises about
l£° for every inch pressure of the barometer). In this way,
therefore, the boiling-point may be set anywhere from 98 Q to
107°, and will afterwards, whatever the variations in outside
temperature, keep the heat regular within about two degrees.
The only exception would be in any unusually high situation,
which, owing to the less barometrical pressure, would require
an ether prepared accordingly; and in several instances this
has been found to be the case, but a special capsule has at once
removed the difficulty. From numerous sources we learn that
the incubator thus designed and regulated has hatched with
almost unvarying regularity and success.

Such are the most successful incubators lately constructed,
and only a few general remarks need be added. In artificial
hatching, it is of great importance that the eggs Refresh. The
earlier incubators rarely hatched any eggs laid more than three
days before putting in the machine. The modern ones here
described have often reported successful hatches of eggs laid a
fortnight before, and which have also travelled by rail ; and no
greater proof can be given of the Advance attained. But every
pains should be taken to give the machine a fair chance in this
respect; and one modern discovery should receive special
attention, though of importance to all poultry-keepers. The
risks of " tra veiled " eggs, and their uncertainty of result, are
well known. But it has been recently established by careful
experiments, often repeated, that if after a journey one-half the
eggs be " set " at once under a hen, while the rest are kept still
and free from jar for twenty-four hours, on an average tlwse kepi
hatch much the best. It appears that even the undeveloped
gevm, by virtue of the principle of life implanted in it, has

86 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

some strange power of resting , or recovering througn rest
injuries of this kind.

Eggs of water-fowl are on the average easier to hatch than
those of fowls, but require a very free supply of moisture.

The practical details of management have been sufficiently
treated in describing the hydro-incubators.

Of late there has been, owing to high breeding, a marked
decline in the average fertility of eggs from "fancy" stock.
Hence the eggs of cross-bred fowls hatch much more readily
than others, as a rule, and an incubator may often be used with
great success on a farm where poultry are bred for market,
when less successful with the fancier. Recent reports have,
however, gone to show that the most approved makes of incu-
bators have fully equalled hens in average performance, in
winter and early spring considerably surpassing them, when in
intelligent hands.

Artificial hatching is in fact no longer a matter of theory,
or of interest to a few amateurs, but is now carried on by
hundreds with constant and unvarying success. At the same
time, there are still many persons who never seem able to
succeed in it ; and this can only be set down to some personal
inability to grasp the principles and details of the process.

CHAPTER VIII.

REARING CHICKENS ARTIFICIALLY.

THE artificial rearing of chickens must be regarded as a
question entirely distinct from the artificial hatching of them,
and may often become advisable, or even necessary, when they
have been hatched under a hen. The mother may die just
when her care becomes most necessary ; or she may be a
valuable hen, whose eggs are much wanted, and whom it is not
advisable to subject to the wear and tear of a young brood.
And lastly, some persons consider that it is absolutely better

SIMPLE ARTIFICIAL MOTH K US. 87

to bring up chickens by hand, even when they have been
naturally hatched ; believing that under the shelter provided*
and not being forced to accompany the hen in her rambles, a
greater portion are reared, that they grow faster, and make
ultimately finer fowls.

All this is quite independent of the immense numbers of
chickens now hatched annually in incubators, for which
artificial rearing is almost indispensable.

For chickens hatched towards the end of April, or later,
the very simplest form of artificial mother may be made to
answer, since in such weather their own animal heat alone is
sufficient. Many an odd brood has been reared through May
by rigging up a mother out of a piece of sheep-skin mat, tacked
round the edges only to a board about nine inches wide and
fifteen inches long, so as to fall a little slack by its own weight
when turned with the wool downwards. If this board is
nailed on two end pieces cut so that it may slope from about
four inches high 'in front to about two inches behind, the back
bring filled in with another strip of wood two inches high, it
will do very well, if set upon dry earth or ashes, renewed
perfectly clean every night and morning. Occasionally,
however, a chick will entangle and hang itself in the wool ;
and a better way of making the covering is to sew a number of
flannel strips about two and a half inches long and three-
quarters of an inch wide by one end to a piece of canvas.
They cannot get entangled with these, and, moreover, the
flannel strips are more easily cleaned, which is done by turning
the inside up and well shaking clean dry earth into it every
day, afterwards shaking it free.

But only late chickens can be reared in this simple way. For
earlier ones some heat is required, and the first great stimulus
to artificial rearing in this country was given by an apparatus
brought out, about 1873, by Mrs. Frank Cheshire, a section of
which is shown in Fig. 21.

88 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

This mother was heated by a zinc tank, shown at A. B,
about one inch deep, and hermetically closed, with the excep-
tion of 0113 aperture for filling and for safety. It was fixed
on the top of the mother in rather a sloping position, like a
roof, and along the lower edge ran a flue, shown at E, the flue
being surrounded by water, and heated by a small lamp.
The lamp consisted of a simple tube coming horizontally from
a vessel of benzine, up which was passed a wick, which was
lighted at the end. Under the slightly sloping tank was
made to slide from the front a framework of wood, roofed

Fig. 21.— Mrs. Cheshire's Artificial Mother.

with strong canvas, on which are sewn numerous flannel strips,
K, about three-quarters of an inch wide, as already described.
The whole rested on a board covered with dry earth, which
was removed every morning, and the flannel part of the
apparatus reversed and deodorised, by dry earth being shaken
into it and out again, at similar periods.

With this apparatus was used a small temporary mother,
consisting of the canvas top and flannel strips only, placed
in one end of a tray or small box floored with dry earth or
ashes, and covered by an india-rubber bag filled with warm
water, and wrapped in flannel. In this the newly-hatched
chickens were placed the first day, to familiarise them with
the habit of running in and out from under the flannel ; and
on first placing them in the larger mother, a small park of
wirework was fixed in front to keep them from wandering too
far until they had got to know their way about. Beyond
that, very little trouble was necessary.

DIFFICULTIES IN REARING.

89

We reared all our chickens with this apparatus the whole
of one season, with no failure or difficulty ; and several
breeders of our acquaintance were fully as successful. But
during a second season, when pressure of work made it
necessary to turn over all management to a servant, there

Fig. 22.— Hydio-^Iother.

was considerable mortality, and very few chickens really did
well. This experience also we found to be extensively shared
by others. We gradually traced most of these comparative
failures chiefly to two causes, the first being sheer neglect to
attend to the necessary daily deodorisation of the apparatus,
and the second too high a temperature. When care was taken
as regards these points the earlier success was repeated.

It is, however, very difficult to prevent the Cheshire form
of apparatus from becoming too hot for health, and the close
sides confine the air to an extent only controllable by constant
watchfulness. Of late, therefore, it has been practically
superseded, either by apparatus worked on the " Hydro "
plan, already described in its application to incubators, or by

90 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

somewhat similar forms with a deep tank heated by a small
lamp. We give a figure of Mr. Christy's " Hydro " form of
rearer, to be periodically filled with hot water ; and on the
whole this is the most convenient plan for many people.*
The greater volume of water, kept stagnant, enables a more
moderate heat to be kept up with facility.

Even with these forms of apparatus, however, much mor-
tality was at first found, which was discussed for some time
with little amendment. By the kind assistance of many frierds,
however, we were able to make something like an exhaustive
investigation into the matter, and the results were remarkable.
In searching for the best returns, we gradually found we almost
always came at the same time upon the lowest temperatures
employed. "We found that a heat under the mother which
seemed only nicely warm to the hand, and was in fact only
that of a hen, was simply murder to the chickens ; and with
this discovery most difficulties were cleared away, and artificial
rearing became a general success. One cause of the great
difference in result between the heat of a hen's breast and
the same heat in an artificial mother, it appeared, consisted
in the closed sides of most mothers as at first constructed.
The heated and foul air escapes on all sides from under a hen,
whereas in all the early machines it was confined by closed
ends of board. It will, accordingly, be seen that the apparatus
figured above, as in most others now constructed, is open upon
tlvree sides for the passage of chickens and the admission of air.

We also found that cramp and weakness in the feet — the
usual precursors of loss under this method of rearing — were
general where there had been too much confinement and
coddling, often combined with too little earth on the floor.
The chickens which had free run in any weather did better

* The inconvenience of providing hot water for renewal is not felt to
neaily the same extent as with an incubator, the temperature required
being much lower, and much less quantity being therefore required.

SECRETS OF SUCCESS. 91

than those kept under cover, and very often liberty would restore
even many of those which had developed the unlucky symptoms.

After these explanations, the secret of successful rearing
under machines may readily be summed up in a few sen-
tences. In the first place, the heat must be carefully kept
down to a point miwh less tJian any one would believe, who has
not either learnt by expeiience, or is not content to accept it
on our authority. When the mother is packed with chickens,
the heat rapidly accumulates. A temperature of 75° Falir.
under tile bottom of the tank will be found quite sufficient in any
weather but the severest frost, and in warm weather the mild
temperature of 70° is sufficient, the water still acting bene-
ficially by keeping that degree up during the night. At least
half an inch of clean earth must be placed on the floor every
night ; and every day dry earth must be well shaken into the
flannel strips, and left exposed to the air for an hour or two. It
is, in fact, much the best plan, and good economy, to use one
mother for the night and another for the day. A touch of paraffin
here and there will be very useful in keeping away vermin.

For the first day under the nursery or hand mother, for
which a hot- water bag is very convenient, a little more heat
may be allowed; but it should not exceed 80°, and the
chickens should after that be transferred to the larger ap-
paratus. If that has glass covers to a small yard, as shown
in Fig. 22, these must be removed in all dry weather, and
always kept freely raised for ventilation. After the first day
or two, the chickens must not be confined, but allowed to run
out freely — in fact, an open front to the park then answers
better than a small door. It will also be found that a series
of small mothers answer much better than very large ones, as a
number of chickens foul the air underneath to an injurious
extent. The expense of these need not l>e great, since, after
a very few weeks, no artificial heat whatever is required, and
the mere covering apparatus will be sufficient.

92 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

The feeding will not differ from that already given. Hard-
boiled eggs chopped up, and very coarse oatmeal moistened
with milk or water, is best to commence with, as the chickens
will begin to peck much more readily at such tiny morsels
than at anything in the shape of sop. Groats chopped up small
are also very useful in teaching them to feed. This is, in fact,
the only difficulty, and is best got over by tapping on the floor
with the end of the finger, at the same time clucking like a
hen. But very few chickens give any trouble in this way,
and the art of feeding is one which, once learnt, is fortunately
never forgotten. Let not animal or green food be neglected,
or the chickens will never be superior specimens ; and let
grain be added by degrees, but still letting the chief diet, till
at least three months old, consist of soft food. This, however,
has been fully treated of already, and we will only add a
caution that the young birds be never neglected. Remember
that chicks with a hen, if at liberty, can almost always pro-
cure some food — enough to maintain life at least — if their
regular meal be forgotten, whilst those reared in this manner
are entirely dependent upon their owner's care, and one for-
gotten meal, even if not fatal at the time, frequently lays the
foundation of mortal disease, by leaving the poor little things
with no strength to endure any inclemency of the weather.

Finally, it ought to be mentioned that it never answers to
rear chickens partially upon this system. If they are allowed
to get used to the hen's call, they fret and pine for days, and
some of them never recover. Or if there are hens with their
broods in the same run, they will run to them and get pecked,
and fret in the same way. But if either hatched in an in-
cubator, or taken from the nest before the hen has called them
to food, they thrive at least as well as with the natural parent,
and grow up tame and familiar to a degree almost beyond
belief, knowing, as they do, no other friend but the hand which
feeds them.

DISEASES. 93

CHAPTER IX.

DISEASES OF POULTRY.

IF healthy fowls are kept clean, and well sheltered from wind and
wet ; are not overfed, and have a due proportion of both soft
and green food, with a never-failing supply of clean water and
gravel, they will remain free from disease, unless infected by
strangers. When a fowl becomes ill, the best cure in nearly
every case is to kill it before it is too bad to be eaten. Only
in the case of valuable birds, which people are naturally
unwilling to sacrifice, do we recommend much attempt at a
cure, and even then only when the disease is so defined and
evident that the treatment is sure. As this work is intended
to be strictly practical, it is only for such well-defined com-
plaints we shall prescribe.

Besides actual diseases, there are certain natural ailments,
as they may be called, to which all fowls may be subject, and
which demand treatment.

Apoplexy occurs from over-feeding, and can seldom be
treated in time to be of service. If the fowl, however,
although insensible, do not appear actually dead, the wing may
be lifted, and a large vein which will be seen underneath freely
opened, after which hold the bird's head under a cold water
tap for a few minutes. It is just possible that it may recover ;
if so, feed sparingly on soft food only for a few days. In over-
fed hens this disease usually occurs during the exertion of
laying ; if, therefore, a laying hen be found dead upon the
nest, let the owner at once examine the remainder, and should
they appear in too high condition, reduce their allowance of
food accordingly.

Bad Fledging. — Chickens often droop and suffer much
whilst their feathers are growing, especially in cold, wet
weather; and the breeds which feather most rapidly suffer

94 GENERAL MANAGEMKNT OF POULTRY".

most. This is probably one reason why Cochins and Brahmas,
which fledge late and slowly, are so hardy. As soon as a
brood appears drooping whilst the feathers grow, if it has not
been done before, begin at once giving them a little meat every
day, and some bread sopped in ale. A few drops of Parrish's
chemical food added to the water with which their food is
mixed is very beneficial. Keep them out of the wet, above
all things, and they will generally come round. This crisis
seldom lasts more than a week or ten days ; the chicks either
die off or recover their health and vigour.

Lad Moulting. — Old fowls sometimes suffer much at this
season, especially if the precautions recommended in Chapter
III. have been overlooked. These precautions contain the
only effectual treatment. Give stimulating food, warm, every
morning, and well peppered, with meat and ale every day, and
keep under cover in wet weather. Add also iron, in the form
of " Douglas Mixture/' to the drinking water, The birds, if
not sunk too low, will then usually pull through. Fowls
should not, however, be kept until old, except in the case of
pets or valuable stock birds.

Canker. — It is uncertain whether or not this malignant
disease, marked by ulcers about the head, is a modification of
the specific roup virus or not. Very often it is combined with
roup, the birds being attacked with ulcers about the eyes,
nostrils, comb, or face, or in the inside of the mouth or throat,
besides the usual roup symptoms. On the other hand, in some
cases the latter are not present, while the diseased formation
may nearly fill up the throat and strangle the bird. This com
plaint broke out with such virulence in 1876 as to be called
" the new disease," and has never since been absent from
England. So deadly is it, that many advise wholesale slaughter
and disinfection ; but many cases have, beyond doubt, yielded
to treatment.

The fowls attacked should at once be placed apart in a

CANKER OR DIPHTHERIA. 95

hospital, free from draught, and a slight aperient given of from
one-third to half a tea-spoonful of Epsom salts. Meantime
obtain at once from the nearest chemist a bottle of ordinary
chlorate of potass and perchloride of iron mixture — every
chemist makes it up, and any will do — and also a bottle of the
following dressing : —

Carbolic Acid - . - • 1 drachm.

Sulphurous Acid - 3 „

Tinct. Perchloride of Iron - \ oz.

Glycerine - - i oz.

With a camel-hair or sable pencil touch all the parts which
show sores, morning and evening, with this latter dressing;
and six hours after the salts, begin to give one-quarter ordinary
adult doses* of the chlorate and iron mixture, feeding mean-
time on the best soft food, unpeppered, but mixed with warm
brandy-and-water : an occasional egg-and-brandy between two
fowls is also of much service. Great care must be taken in
anointing the throat ; and occasionally a bird may be so
irritated by a drop " going the wrong way " as to choke and
die. These cases cannot be helped, some such dressing being
absolutely necessaiy ; but for bantams and chickens the lotion
may be diluted with one-third water. If the mouth and throat
appear healing, while there are sores outside which make no
progress, these may be treated with lunar caustic as an alter-
native. When the worst symptoms are alleviated, after
treatment must be guided by circumstances, according as there
may be diarrhoea or the reverse ; or roup may remain and have
to be prescribed for. It is also probable that any improve-
ments in diphtheric practice, as prescribed by any competent
medical authority, might be attended with success in this
disease.

A treatment occasionally successful has been the

* These and other quantities refer to fowls of good size and vigour.
Smaller fowls and bantams may have from two-thirds down to one-third of
the quantity.

96 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTKV.

immediate application to every spot attacked of lunar caustic ;
but on the whole cures have been rare with this. More
success has been reported from the application of an American
coal-tar preparation called Cresolene,* ten drops to a pint,
applied as a lotion, especially to the inside of the mouth and
throat; but as this is difficult to procure, experience is not
sufficient to pronounce positively. Another preparation intro-
duced by Mr. Christy of Fenchurch Street, the tincture of
Papaine, so far as it has been tried, appears to exert a most
marvellous effect upon the diseased secretion. Any outbreak
in a yard may too probably give ample opportunity for the
trial of each and all of these remedies.

Consumption is denoted by cough combined with gradual
wasting and ill-health, though sometimes the appetite is good.
Liver Disease presents somewhat similar symptoms, but there
is seldom any cough, and the failure of the appetite is the first
and most marked symptom, with moping and Hstlessness.
Both are practically incurable ; but when cases occur the
owner should consider whether his stock is tainted, or if his
yard does not present such unsanitary conditions — particularly
damp ground — as need prompt treatment.

Crojy-bound. — Fowls sometimes so distend their crops that
nothing can pass out to the gizzard, and death ensues unless
relieved. Careless feeding after hunger is the usual cause.
In most cases persistent and gentle kneading about of the
crop with the fingers, and occasionally pouring a tea-spoonful
of water down the throat, and after leaving the bird a couple
of hours, repeating the process, will be effectual. If not, there
is 110 remedy but to make a perpendicular cut rather more than
an inch long in the upper part of the crop, remove all the
contents with a tea-spoon, wash it out thoroughly, and then
join each skin separately with three or four horsehair single
stitches or ties, making the outer set come between the inner

* Not to be confounded with an English preparation termed Kresyline-

D1ARRHCEA. GAPES. 97

ones, not over them. Feed in small quantities on sopped
bread for a few days, giving no water for twenty-four hours.
There is no danger about the operation, and apparently not
much pain.

Diarrhoea may in mild cases be checked l»y a diet of rather
dry barley-meal, or a few meals of well-boiled rice sprinkled
with chalk ; it is well, however, to give also six drops of campho-
rated spirit thrice daily on a pill of soft food, giving no green
food beyond finely-cut grass. If this fails, give a bolus made
of five grains chalk, five grains rhubarb, three grains cayenne
pepper, and half a grain of opium, one in the morning, and
another in the evening ; or three to twelve drops (according to
size) of chlorodyne every four hours will almost always stop it.

Diphtheria, or Diphtheric Roup. — See Canker.

Gapes is a fatal disease of chickens, due to the presence in
the windpipe of a number of small worms, which finally kill
by either wasting or actual suffocation. A solitary case may
sometimes be cured by camphor in the water and a small
pellet twice a day, removing the actual worms by introducing
a feather stripped nearly to the top, or a loop of horsehair, into
the trachea, and turning it round during withdrawal, which
usually brings one or more worms with it j or fumigation over
the fumes of carbolic acid poured on a hot brick, till the chicken
is nearly dead, will also kill the worms. A general attack, how-
ever, demands other treatment, and fortunately it has been
discovered that in some mysterious way the disease is con-
nected with a large insect often found on the heads of newly-
hatched chickens. These are destroyed by anointing the heads
of the chickens while only a day or two old with the following
ointment : — Mercurial ointment 1 oz., lard 1 oz., powdered
sulphur \ oz., crude petroleum \ oz. The ointment is to be
warmed to semi-fluidity, and in that state gently rubbed in.
If the chicks even of a yard previously infested are thus
treated, it has been proved over and over again that there will

98 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

be no gapes amongst them. Infusing garlic in the water, and
adding it (chopped up) to the food, are also beneficial; and
M. Megnin's cure for pheasants consists in dosing each bird
with 7£ grains of yellow gentian and 7 J grains of assafo3tida.

Leg Weakness. — Highly-fed chickens which grow fast, bred
from prize stock, are most subject to this, which simply arises
from outgrowing their strength, and must be met accordingly
by mineral tonics. Parrish's chemical food, which combines
phosphates and iron, will be the best medicine.

The above affection must not be confounded with cramp
from cold and wet, which also makes the birds unable to walk,
or even stand. In this case the treatment is warmth, feeding
meanwhile on meal mixed with ale, and always given warm ;
rubbing the limbs daily with a liniment composed of two parts
linseed oil to one of turpentine. Sometimes bathing the feet
and flexing them in hottish water is of service, and in chickens
quarter-grain doses of opium have sometimes done much good.
Under this regimen the bird will soon recover, unless the
attack has been long unperceived and neglected.

Nervous Debility is not uncommon in fowls much exhibited.
Many are barbarously over-shown ; but far short of this there
may be much suffering, which is manifested without any actual
disease, much as in human beings. Perfect quiet at home,
with a daily raw egg, and half a tea-spoonful twice daily after
meals of Parrish's food and pancreatic emulsion, have marvellous
effect if the fowls are not too far gone.

Pip is no disease, and demands no treatment, being only
analogous to a "foul tongue" in human beings. Cure the
roup, or bad digestion, or whatever else be the real evil, and
the thickening of the tongue will disappear too.

Roup is caused by wet or very cold winds, if it ever does
arise spontaneously ; many think it purely contagious. It is
certainly quite distinct from mere catarrh, though the
symptoms resemble these to a certain extent. The leading

ROUP. 99

features are a high state of fever, with an o/ensive smelling
discharge from nostrils or eyes, or both, or sometimes hanging
about in froth, but more often tending, after a few days, to
become thick Any fowl attacked should be at once
secluded, and everything it has used be disinfected with car-
bolic acid for the sake of the rest. The fowl must be kept in
a moderately warm and dry place, and given at first half a
tea-spoonful of Epsom salts, washing the head and organs
affected with Labarraque's solution of chlorinated soda, diluted
with twice its bulk of water, twice or thrice a day all through
the attack. The food should be slightly seasoned with cayenne.
A few hours after the oil, give a copaiba capsule, and continue
these every 'twelve hours till the discharge yields, giving a
second dose of salts on the third day. After recovery the
fowl should be quarantined for a few days, and be given a last
wash with the chlorinated soda before being returned to its com-
panions. If copaiba capsules cannot be readily procured,
nearly all the advertised "roup pills" are more or less
beneficial, or the following is a good prescription : — Cayenne
pepper, 20 grains ; copper sulphate, 10 grains ; copaiba, 1
fluid drachm. To be made into twenty pills, one to be given
morning and evening.

Scaly Legs. — This unsightly incrustation of the shanks is
chiefly confined to feather-legged breeds, and is due to a small
insect It can be cured by scrubbing every morning with
strong carbolic soap, and anointing at night with sulphur
ointment, or Foster's ointment sold for the purpose.

Soft Eggs are generally caused by over-feeding the hens, and
the remedy is then self-evident. It may, however, occur from
arant of lime, which must of course be supplied, the best form
being calcined and pounded oyster-shells. Sometimes it is
occasioned by fright, from being driven about, but in that case
will right itself in a day or two, with quiet and rest. If perfect
eggs are habitually dropped on the ground, the proprietor
• 1

100 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.

should see whether the nests do not need purifying. This leads
us to

Insect Vermin, which can only be troublesome from gross
neglect, either of the fowls, or of their habitations. In the one
case, the remedy is a dust-bath, mixed with powered coke or a
little sulphur ; in the other, an energetic lime-washing of the
houses and sheds, with the free use of carbolic acid spray or
disinfecting carbolic powder, will get rid of the annoyance.

It will be seen that by far the greater proportion of poultry
diseases arise either from cold and wet, or neglect in preserving
cleanliness — often both combined. It should be noted also,
that the first general symptom of nearly all such diseases is
diarrhoea, which we have observed usually manifests itself even
in roup, before any discharge from the nostrils is perceptible.
At this stage much evil may be warded off. Whenever a fowl
hangs its wings, and looks drooping, let it be seen at once
whether it appears purged, and if so, give immediately, in a
table-spoonful of warm water, a tea-spoonful of strong brandy
saturated with camphor. Repeat this next morning, and in
many cases the disease, whatever it is, will be checked ; care
being of course taken to give the invalid warmth and good
shelter.

For actual diseases, it is well in all large establishments to
have a weather-tight and well-ventilated house kept as a
hospital, in which healthy fowls should never be placed. Roup,
in particular, is so contagious, that even a recovered bird
should be kept by itself fcr a few days before being restored to
its companions.

We could easily fill a long chapter with further prescrip-
tions, but we believe that the above are all that can be usefully
given in a work of this kind.

THE BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF
PRIZE POULTRY.

CHAPTER X.

YARDS AND ACCOMMODATION ADAPTED FOR BREEDING PRIZE
POULTRY.

WHETHER the breeding of poultry with a view to exhibition
can be made profitable or otherwise, is a much vexed question
amongst amateurs. For ourselves, we believe that the answer
must depend partly upon the means of the fancier ; still more
upon the experience and knowledge he brings to bear upon the
subject ; and not a little upon the breed to which his fancy
inclines him. We are acquainted with breeders who never
could make the produce of their yards quite meet the current
expenses; and we also know at least half-a-dozen, of high
standing at all the principal shows, whose yards yield them a
clear profit varying from .£20 to c£200 per annum. It is, there-
fore, most certainly possible to make even the "fancy" for
poultry remunerative. But first of all it is necessary to con-
sider the question of accommodation.

The plan of a poultry-yard given at page 9, with the
addition of a lawn or separate grass-run, on which young
chickens may be cooped separately, is very well adapted for
rearing some breeds upon a small scale. The two runs may
be used to separate the sexes during autumn if preferred, or
to keep the chickens apart from the old fowls _, whilst the run for
the sitting hens will, after its proper design has been fulfilled, be
very convenient for the reception of one or two single cocks, or
any other casual purpose. To ensure success, the most exquisite
cleanliness must be observed, and at the beginning of every
year the grass in the runs should be carefully renewed, if
necessary, by liberal sowing, of course keeping the fowls off
it till thoroughly rooted again. At this season the confinement

CROSS SECTION.

l]

1

ji

B

C

ji

B

C

GRASS

1 1

H

pi

i A

B

C

i !

B

C

1

i
i

j

B

C

GRASS.

10

I-LAN.

20

SCALE OF FEET
Fig. 23.— Mr. line's Yard,

MR. LANE'S YARD. 103

thus involved will not be injurious, provided green food l>e
supplied in the sheds, in lieu of the grass to which the birds
have been accustomed. With such precautions, forty or fifty
chickens may be reared annually, and from such a number
there should be little difficulty, if the parents were selected
with judgment, in finding several pens fit for exhibition.

But more extensive accommodation will be necessary if
high and extensive repute in any particular breed be desired,
with the capability — which alone makes such reputation re-
munerative— of being able to supply a demand for eggs and
stock. In that case provision has to be made for keeping not
only separate strains, in order that the proprietor may be able
to cross and breed from the produce of his own yards, but there
will be a much larger number of cockerels than can be needed,
and as they are much too valuable for the table, they also
have to be accommodated apart from the other fowls, until dis-
posed of. We give two plans, each excellently adapted to
secure these objects, though of very different arrangement ; and
which may easily be modified to meet any possible case.

The firrt (Fig. 23) represents the poultry-yard of the late
Mr. H. Lane, of Bristol, so well known during his life as a
breeder and exhibitor of Spanish. It will be found peculiarly
adapted for the rearing of either Spanish or any other delicate
breed ; protection from inclement weather, as well as con-
venience of access and superintendence, having been specially
studied.

In this design A is a covered passage which runs along the
back of all, and by a door which opens into each, allows of
ready access to any house in any weather. One end of
this passage may open into some part of the dwelling-house
if desired. The passage should have a skylight at top, and
must also be freely ventilated at the roofs to secure this
object by having it open at either end would cause draught,
and destroy the peculiar excellence of the arrangement The

104 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

houses, B. for roosting and laying in are 7J feet by 4 feet, and
the side facing the passage is only built or boarded up about
2 feet, the remainder being simply netted; hence the birds
have a free supply of the purest air at night, whilst quite
protected from the external atmosphere ; and can be all
inspected at roost without the least disturbance — a convenience
of no small value. The nests should be reached from the
passage by a trap-door, and there is then no necessity ever to
enter the roosting-house at all except to clean it.

A small trap-door as usual, which should be always closed
at night, communicates between the house and the covered
run or yards, 0, which are 7J feet by 9 feet. They are
boarded or built up for 2 feet 6 inches, the remainder netted,
except the partition between them and the houses, which is, of
course, quite close. Both houses and runs must be covered with
some deodoriser, and Mr. Lane preferred the powdery refuse
from lime works, which costs about Id. per bushel, and which
he put down about 2 inches deep. It always kept perfectly
dry, and is a great preventive of vermin ; whilst if the drop-
pings are taken up every morning, it will require renewal
very rarely. In front of all is a grass-run, which should
extend as far as possible, and on which the fowls are let out
in turn in fine weather.

An additional storey, E, may or may not be constructed
over the roosting-house, and in case of emergency, by sprinkling
the eggs, may be made to accommodate sitting hens, but is not
to be preferred for that purpose, for reasons given in Chapter
IV. Every poultry-keeper, however, knows the great utility
of such pens on various occasions which continually arise, and
they will be found excellent accommodation for sick or injured
fowls, or for training birds previous to exhibition.

In Mr. Lane's establishment hot- water pipes (a a) were laid
along the back of the passage floor, by which the temperature
is at all seasons kept nearly uniform. This may or may not

SIR HENRY THOMPSON'S YARD. 105

be adopted ; and it will also be obvious that the whole arrange-
ment is capable of enlargement to any desired extent.

Fig. 24 represents the far more extensive establishment of
Sir Henry Thompson, the most recently-erected poultry-yard
upon anything like a similar scale to be found in the United
Kingdom * This yard occupied about two and a half acres of
ground, situated at the south of the garden and greenhouse,
on sand and gra\el soil. Entering from the north, between
the man's cottage and the stables, we come first to the chicken
nursery and yard, with a row of exhibition pens for selection
and training of show specimens. Proceeding past this, on one
side are a number of separate small houses and runs for
single cockerels, while on the left, under large elms, are several
shaded grass-runs, in which detached houses are placed as
required. Past the cockerel houses are pretty large grass-
runs or paddocks, which communicate in almost any way
required with the divisions of the main house to the north of
them. This main poultry-house adjoins the attendant's
cottage, and communicates with it by a long corridor running
along the back of all It is divided into houses 12 J feet wide,
with runs in front 60 feet long. The one next the house, and
which gets a little warmth from the incubator room, has the
shod glass-fronted, and is used as an early chicken-nursery,
and the next one is divided into three for single cocks. Each
two runs have the command in turn of one of the large paddocks
of grass nearly a quarter of an acre each ; and there are other
runs with detached houses outside the place, used as required.

The whole of this yard (erected from the owner's own
designs and drawings) is exceedingly well arranged and adapted
to ita purpose. It will not fail to be noted that the corridor,
at tho back of the breeding-yard, resembles so far Mr. Lane's

* Sir Henry Thompson retired from the fancy just as these pages
were preparing for press.

Cockerel pens.4|x3feet.

Exhibition pens aft

from floor
Nursery with glazed

°

Fig-. 24.— Sir H. Thompson's Yard.

THE FREE RANGE PLAN. i07

plan, and the obvious advantages of this arrangement have
recommended it in many yards of widely different size. In
the house and yards planned by us for our own use at Crouch
End, London, we built the houses in a double range, 75 feet
long, with one common corridor up the middle to serve for
both, and found this an exceedingly convenient arrangement.
In all cases where the corridor plan is adopted, it is best to
only fence up the passage half way, netting the rest, so that
from the corridor all can be seen at roost.

Prize poultry may also be reared most successfully, and
with very little trouble or expense in accommodation, in a
park or on a farm. All old frequenters of shows must have
observed the remarkable constitution formerly exhibited by
Lady Holmesdale's poultry ; and we paid, by invitation, a
visit to Linton Park, specially to learn the management which
produced such excellent results, and to enjoy a chat with
Mr. J. Martin, the well-known superintendent, during its
existence, of the Linton poultry-yard. We found the system
most simple, and to all who have equal space at command, the
least expensive that can possibly be. Stone houses with
gravelled yards there certainly were, but these were unoccupied
by a single one of the Dorkings for which the Viscountess
had obtained so wide a reputation, and Mr. Martin kept
practically the whole of the stock at perfect liberty in the
park. Portable wooden houses were employed, mounted on
small wheels, and without a bottom, which were placed in
sufficiently distant localities to avoid any danger of the birds
mixing, and moved a little every two or three days. Open
windows were provided, so that the fowls always breathed the
pure air of heaven with much more freedom than most
breeders would allow to such delicate varieties as Spanish and
Dorking; yet Mr. Martin found both breeds become hardy
under such treatment, and that many of the Spanish fowls
preferred to roost on the trees, even through the winter. The

108 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

hens were set in single detached coops, roofed on top, and
closed at back and sides, placed in any secluded spots amongst
the trees. Under this management the chickens were reared
with the greatest ease, the gloss on the plumage was exquisite,
its closeness approaching that of the Game fowl, whilst the
birds, never too fat for the highest health, were always sur-
prisingly heavy in the scales.

A similar plan may be pursued on a farm ; a number of
wooden portable houses being provided, and placed in separate
fields, in which families may be kept. Such a system will be
an actual benefit to the soil, as already pointed out in a
previous chapter; and the only drawback is the facility it
affords to the felonious abstraction of valuable esres and

OO

stock. Still, even with this objection, we must pronounce
such a natural method of rearing far the best where it can be
adopted, which is, however, in few instances ; for farmers are
only seldom poultry-fanciers, and usually look upon even
ordinary fowls as an unprofitable drain upon their purses.

The intending prize-winner must, of course, adapt the
plan of his yard to his own circumstances and situation. We
have given ample materials to furnish a design of any possible
character. The one necessity in this class of poultry-keeping
is some facility for what may be called separation or selection,
combined, of course, with a healthy run for the chickens whilst
young, and the essentials mentioned in the first chapter. If
these can be secured, any plan, with care and attention, and
good breeding stock, will ensure a fair measure of success.

CHAPTER XI.

ON THE SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING.

To obtain any marked success in poultry exhibition, it is very
necessary that the scientific theoiy of breeding for any specific
object should be thoroughly understood — at least, if anything
like eminence be expected ; and still more so if the fancier

WHAT A PURE BREKI) IS. 109

desires by his own exertions to render any special service by
the addition of new varieties or the improvement of the old.
Fair success in a single breed is not difficult to obtain ; but he
is a poor poultry-breeder who is content to let his favourite
variety remain exactly as he found it, without at least some
attempt to improve it either in beauty or in economic value ;
and any such attempt, to be successful, must be directed by an
intelligent mind, which sees definitely before it the result to
be attained.

The elements of success are so few and simple, and a
thorough knowledge of them so quickly acquired and so easily
applied, that we shall devote a few pages to this part of the sub-
ject before entering upon the morepractical portion of this section.

The greatest misapprehension appears to exist amongst all
but the most educated poultry-fanciers respecting the origin of
different breeds. People seem to imagine that they have
come down to us, or at least a number of them, in unbroken
descent from far-back ages ; and this belief has given rise to
innumerable discussions concerning the purity or otherwise of
different varieties, which might have been spared had the
disputants comprehended the real nature of the case. We
cannot do better here than give some able remarks which
appeared some time since in the Field, and which deserve to
be well studied, for they contain the first principles of the
whole science of breeding : —

" Such questions as the following are constantly asked: —
' Are the Brahmas a pure breed ? are Black Hamburghs a pure
breed]' <kc. <tc. These queries obviously owe their origin to
a confusion of the distinction that exists between different
animals and between different varieties of the same animal
Let us illustrate our meaning by an example.

"A hare is a pure-bred animal, because it is totally distinct
from all other animals, or, as naturalists say, it constitutes a
distinct species. It does not breed with other animals, for the

110 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PU1ZE POULTRY.

so-called leporines are only large rabbits ; and if it did, the
offspring would be a hybrid or mule, and almost certainly
eterile, or incapable of breeding. In the same manner the
common wild rabbit is a pure breed. This animal possesses
the capability of being domesticated, and under the new cir-
cumstances in which it is placed, it varies in size, form, and
colour from the original stock. By careful selection of these
variations, and by breeding from those individuals which show
most strongly the points or qualities desired, certain varieties,
or, as they are termed, ' breeds ' of rabbits, are produced and
perpetuated. Thus we have the lop-eared breed, the Angora
breed, the Chinchilla breed, &c. &c., characterised by altera-
tions in the length of the ears, in the colour of the fur, in the
size of the animals, and so on. It is obvious that by care
more new varieties may be produced and perpetuated. Thus,
by mating silver greys of different depths of colour, white
animals with black extremities are often produced, and these
have been perpetuated by mating them together. The breed
BO produced is known as the Himalayan variety, and, as it
reproduces its like, is as pure and distinct a breed as any other
that can be named.

" But, in the strictest scientific sense of the word, no par-
ticular variety of rabbit can be said to be a pure breed, as,
like all the others, it is descended from the wild original. In
the same manner we may deny applicability of the term pure
breed to the varieties of any domesticated animal, even if, as
in the case of the dog or sheep, we do not know the original
from which they descended.

" All that can be asserted of the so-called purest-bred
variety is that it has been reared for a number of years or
generations without a cross with any other variety. But it
should be remembered that every variety has been reared by
careful artificial selection, either from the original stock or
from other varieties.

NEW BREEDi 111

"In the strict sense of the word, then, there is no such
thing as an absolutely pure breed — the term is only compara-
tively true. We may term the Spanish fowl of pure breed,
because it has existed a long period, and obviously could not
be improved by crossing with any other known variety ; in
fact, its origin as a variety is not known. But many of our
domesticated birds have a much more recent origin. Where
were Game Bantams fifty years ago 1 The variety did not
exist. They have been made by two modes : breeding Game
to reduce the size, and then crossing the small Game fowl so
obtained with Bantams. Yet Game Bantams, as at present
shown, have quite as good a title to a pure breed as any
other variety. In fact, every variety may be called a pure
breed that reproduces its own likeness true to form and
colour.

" The statement that Brahmas, Black Hamburghs, Dorkings,
&c., are pure breeds is meaningless, if it is intended to imply
anything more than that they will reproduce their like, which a
mongrel cross between two distinct varieties cannot be depended
on doing. There is no doubt but that many of our varieties have
been improved by crossing with others. The cross of the bull-
dog thrown in and bred out again has given stamina to the
greyhound ; and although generally denied, there is no doubt
but that the Cochin has fcin many cases been employed to give
size to the Dorking. In the same manner new permanent
varieties of pigeons are often produced, generally coming to us
from Germany, in which country the fanciers are much more
experimental than in England, where they adhere to the old
breeds with a true John Bull tenacity."

Applying the above scientific and lucid remarks to the sub-
ject under discussion, it is now considered by most who have
studied the matter that every variety of the domestic fowl has
originated in a wild bird still existing — the common Jungle
Fowl of India, known to naturalists as the Gallup Bankiva of

112 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OP PRIZE POULTRY.

Temminck, or Gallus ferrugineus of Graelin.* To describe this
bird minutely is unnecessary ; it will be enough to say that,
except in the tail of the cock being more depressed, it resembles
very closely the variety known as Black-breasted Red Game.
The assertion that all our modern breeds should be derived
from one fowl may seem at first sight a large demand on our
credulity ; but such a fact is not more wonderful than that a
cart horse should have descended from the same original stock
as the Arabian, or that an Italian greyhound and a Newfound-
land should have common progenitors, about which no natu
ralist has the slightest doubt.

The process is simple, and easily understood, Even in the
wild state the original breed will show some amount of variation
in colour, form, and size j whilst in domestication the tendency
to change, as every one knows, is very much increased. By
breeding from birds which show any marked feature, stock
is obtained of which a portion will possess that feature in an
increased degree ; and by again selecting the best specimens,
the special points sought may be developed to almost any degree
required.

A good example of such a process of development may be
seen in the " white face " so conspicuous in the Spanish breed.
White ears will be observed occasionally in all fowls ; even in
such breeds as Cochins or Brahmas, where white ear-lobes are
considered almost fatal blemishes, they continually occur, and
by selecting only white-eared specimens to breed from, such
ears might be speedily fixed in any variety as one of the charac-
teristics. A large pendent white ear-lobe once firmly estab-
lished, traces of the white face will now and then be found, and

* Personally the author does not share that opinion. In his judgment
there are characters in various races not derived from the Gf. Bankiva,
and still found in other wild races. He, therefore, believes the ancestor
must be sought further back, and that the G. Bankiva is only one of its
offshoots. But the belief in one original sour-oe remains unaffected.

EFFECTS OF RIGID SELECTION. 113

by a similar method is capable of development and fixture ;
whilst any colour of plumage or of leg may be obtained and
established in the same way. The original amount of character
required is very slight ; a single hen-tailed cock will be enough
to give that characteristic to a whole breed ; and the amount
of white face which often troubles the breeder in Leghorns and
Black Hamburghs would be quite enough to lay the foundation
of new white-faced varieties.

Any peculiarity of constitution, such as constant laying,
or frequent incubation, may be developed and perpetuated
in a similar manner, all that is necessary being care and
time.

That such has been the method employed in the formation
of the more distinct races of our poultry, is proved by the fact
that a continuance of the same careful selection is needful to
perpetuate them in perfection. If the very best examples of a
breed are selected as the starting point, and the produce is bred
from indiscriminately for many generations, the distinctive
points, whatever they are, rapidly decline, and there is also a
more or less gradual but sure return to the primitive wild type,
in size and even colour of the plumage. The purest black or
white originally rapidly becomes first marked with, and ulti-
mately changed into, the original red or brown, whilst the other
features simultaneously disappear.

If, however, the process of artificial selection be carried too
far, and with reference only to one prominent point, any breed
is almost sure to suffer in the other qualities which have been
neglected. This has been the case with the very breed already
mentioned — the white-faced Spanish. We know from old
fanciers that this breed was formerly considered hardy, and
even in the winter rarely failed to afford a constant supply of
its unequalled large white eggs. But of late years attention
has been so exclusively directed to the " white face," that
whilst this feature has been developed and perfected to a degree

114 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

never before known, the breed has become one of the most
delicate of all, and the laying qualities of at least some strainb
have greatly fallen off.

It would be difficult to avoid such evil results if it were not
for a valuable compensating principle, which admits of crossing.
That principle is, that any desired point possessed in perfection
by a foreign breed may be introduced by crossing into a strain
it is desired to improve, and every other characteristic of the
cross be, by selection, afterwards bred out again. Or one or
more of these additional characteristics may be also retained,
and thus a neiv variety be established, as many have been
within the last few years.

A thorough understanding of both the foregoing principles
is so important that we shall endeavour to illustrate each by
examples.

Without foundation by long-continued selection no strain
can be depended upon to breed similar specimens to the parents.
For instance — the coloured Dorking is a breed which assumes
within certain limits almost any variety of colour, and occa-
sionally, amongst others, that now known as " silver-grey."
By breeding from these birds, and selecting from the progeny
only the silver-greys, that colour has been established, like any
other might be, as a permanent variety, which breeds true to
feather with very little variation. Now a pen of birds precisely
similar in colour and appearance might, possibly, be produced
from ordinary coloured Dorkings, and shown as silver-greys ;
and the most severe teslf might fail to discover any apparent
difference between them and the purest-bred pen in the same
show. But breeding would show the distinction instantly :
whilst one pen would breed true to itself, and produce silver-
grey chickens, the accidental pen would chiefly produce ordi-
nary Dorkings, with very few silver-greys amongst them ; and
though in time, by continuing to select these, a pure strain
would ultimately be established, for immediate purposes the

MAKIXP. OK A NEW VARIETY. 115

pen, as silvers, would be worthless. We cite this as a case
which to our knowledge did actually occur many years ago, to
the great disappointment of the purchaser. Conversely, even
well-established silver-grey Dorkings, if bred from indiscrimin-
ately, would, by degrees, lose their distinctive colour, and go
back to the ordinary stock from which they first sprang.

The coloured Dorking also exhibits very plainly the opera
tion of crossing. It was originally the produce of a cross be-
tween the original white Dorking and the large coloured Surrey
fowl, as is proved by the fact that whilst the white Dorking —
long established — invariably bred the fifth toe as its distinguish-
ing characteristic, the coloured variety was for many years
most uncertain in that respect, as noted in all the older poultry
books. Still, the fifth toe was introduced, along with the shape
and aptitude to fatten ; and by careful selection the colour and
size of the Surrey fowl have been retained, whilst the tendency
to only one toe behind, introduced by the cross, has been effec-
tually eradicated, and the coloured Dorking now breeds in this
particular as true as the white.

In the same way, when a race of Game fowls had been
reduced in size, strength, and ferocity, by lon^l inter-breeding
through fear of injuring the strain, a cross of the large, strong,
and ferocious Malay at once restored the defective points, whilst
all evidences of it were removed in three or four generations.

Perhaps, however, the most " artfully-contrived " bird, and
the best example of both principles combined, is to be found
in the well-known laced Bantams of Sir John Sebright This
breed was founded by crossing the old Nankin Bantam with
Polish fowls whose markings had a well-defined laced cha-
racter. Lacing was thus imported into the Bantam breed, and
by careful selection was developed and rendered perfect, whilst
by the same process the Polish crest was effectually banished.
This much being already accomplished, a hen-tailed Bantam
cock accidentally met with struck Sir John's fancy, and added

i 2

116 Bit REDING AND EXHIBITION OF PlllZK POULTRY

that peculiarity to the strain, which has now been for many
years firmly established, and breeds as true as any, though so
extremely artificial in its original " construction."

Still further with regard to this curious breed. By de-
grees, owing to the breeding together of the Gold and Silver
varieties, the Silvers gradually acquired a yellowish creamy tint,
and pure white could not be found anywhere for many years.
But about the year 1875 there appeared from Scottish sources,
all of a sudden, Silvers of the most startling purity ; and
although the details have never been published, it has been as-
certained that the breed, complex and artificial as it is, had
been almost entirely remade.

But, it may be said, if these principles are correct, it would
follow that the power of the breeder is almost unlimited.
And practically it is so : there are within certain limits hardly
any bounds to what may be effected by the scientific experi-
mentalist, if we only give him time. That so little has been
done is mainly because the principles themselves have been so
little understood, and most fanciers have been content to go on
with the established varieties as they are, without any attempt
to modify or improve them. There is another reason in the
utter want of attention in this country to anything but colour
of plumage and other " fancy " characteristics ; and we cannot
but think that our poultry shows have to some extent, by the
character of the judging, hindered the improvement of many
breeds. It will be readily admitted in theory that a breed of
fowls becomes more and more valuable as its capacity of pro-
ducing eggs is increased, and the quantity and quality of its
flesh are improved, with a small amount of bone and offal in
proportion. But, if we except the Dorking, which certainly is
judged to some extent as a table fowl, all this seems totally
lost sight of both by breeders and judges, and attention is fixed
exclusively upon colour, comb, face, and other equally fancy
" points."

OF PURELY "FANCY" SKLKLTIOJI. 117

We cannot but deeply regret this. We have shown how
readily beauty and utility might be both secured ; and we do
earnestly hope that even these pages may have some effect in
stirring up our poultry-fanciers to the improvement in real
value, without by any means neglecting the beauty, of their
favourite breeds. The French have taught us a lesson of
some value in this respect. Within a comparatively recent
period they have produced, by crossing and selection, four new
varieties, which, although inferior in some points to others of
older standing, are all eminently valuable as table fowls ; and
which in one particular are superior to any English variety,
not even excepting the Dorking — we mean the very small
proportion of bone and offaL This is really useful and scientific
breeding, brought to bear upon one definite object. Its accom-
plishment is probably connected with the character of the
judging at French poultry shows, which takes table quality
largely into consideration, whereas in England the awards are
almost entirely governed by colour and markings. It must be
granted that a great deal of French judging is erratic, and
indeed due to gross personal favouritism : and it may be freely
admitted that more deference to fixed standards, as in England,
is highly desirable. Nevertheless, this has not hindered
French breeders from producing Creves, La Fleche, and other
breeds of perfectly fixed and definite character ; and tins shows
that both utility and what we know in England as exhibition
quality, can both be secured, if points are not pushed to ex-
tremes. For instance, taking the Creve, which is a crested
fowl ; the English tendency is to demand a crest as large as
possible, and give that point far the greatest weight in judging.
The French, on the other hand, while they look for a good
and typical crest, are satisfied with that, and lay more
stress upon a fine and well- shaped body. Of two fowls in
competition, therefore, in France the finest fowl would
win; in England the finest crest on a perhaps much less

118 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF "PRIZB POULTRY.

fine fowl It does not need pointing out which is the sensible
plan.

The many shows of dead poultry also tend to keep up table
quality in France. Of late, classes for trussed fowls have begun
to appear at English shows ; and if they increase and good prizes
are offered, it may be hoped this will have some effect. Agri-
cultural societies, in particular, might be expected in their
exhibitions to promote the improvement of poultry regarded
as useful stock; and we would commend this view of the
matter to them especially.

CHAPTER XII.

THE PRACTICAL SELECTION AND CARE OF BREEDING STOCK, AND
THE REARING OF CHICKENS FOR EXHIBITION.

WE have in the last chapter treated of the more theoretical
principles which the breeder may employ in the accomplishment
of any desired end ; we have now to consider those practical
points which the poultry-keeper must keep in mind if he desires
to attain success in competition.

It is quite certain that there is nothing so unprofitable as to
commence " poultry-fancying " with inferior fowls ; and as there
are always numbers of unscrupulous individuals who endeavour
to impose upon the unwary, special caution is needed in the
purchase of the original stock. If the reader be inexperienced,
he should, if it be possible, secure the assistance of some friend
upon whose judgment he can thoroughly rely ; failing this, he
should endeavour, not only by studying the descriptions, but by
frequenting good shows, and seeing and comparing the live
birds themselves, to become acquainted with at least the main
points of the breed to which his preference inclines. To buy of
unknown advertisers is always a great risk, and it will generally
be found more economical in the long run to apply, in the first
place, to known and eminent exhibitors, whose character stands

rUBCHASINC FOWLS, 119

too high to admit the suspicion of any wilful deception. Such
breeders, it is true, will generally demand high prices for really
good stock ; but then the stock will be good, which is by far
the most important point. Birds may also be purchased at
shows ; and good specimens may often be picked up at a very
moderate price, especially out of the large "selling-classes"* at
the Crystal Palace or Birmingham. A beginner should, how-
ever, if posible, get some experienced friend to help in such
selections, and even then he cannot always escape loss; for
some very old birds will look uncommonly fresh and young, or
a hen may be sold for some vice. We knew of an uncommonly
cheap purchase of a fine Dorking hen, apparently worth many
times her price ; and it was only found after purchase that she
was an inveterate egg-eater, and unfit for that reason to be in
any breeding-yard.

The old system of exhibiting a cock and two hens together
has for years been discarded ; and it is therefore unnecessary
to purchase both sexes of the same family. But to have them
from one yard is rather an advantage than otherwise, as freshly-
crossed birds often breed very erratically. Indeed, as Mr.
Darwin has shown, fresh crossing has a direct tendency to cause
reversion to the type of far-back ancestors.

At the very outset the question occurs, What is the bes/
age to breed from ? and we have no hesitation in replying that,
according to the testimony of nearly all the best authorities, it
is better the ages of the cock and hens should vary. It seems
also generally admitted that the strongest and best chickens
are produced from a cockerel nearly a year old mated with hens
twelve months older ; but, unfortunately, the chickens of such
parents invariably have a large proportion of cocks, and most
breeders therefore prefer a two-year-old cock with well-grown

* Selling-classes are classes in which prizes are given for fowls
entered for sale at prices not exceeding fixed moderate sums, generally
80s. or 40s. per pair.

120 DREEDIXG AS'D EXHIBITION OF PRIZB POULTRY.

pullets not less than nine months in age. Such a cock is, how-
ever, very often, not fertile extremely early in the season :
hence breeders depend upon cockerels for early chickens. It
must not be supposed that either rule is imperative, or that
good chickens are not to be expected from birds all hatched
about the same time. In this case, however, it is advisable
that all the fowls should be fully twelve months old; if
younger, the chickens are usually backward in fledging. Fowls
are often available for breeding up to the age of four years, but
are seldom of much value afterwards.

To avoid any fraternal relationship is most important ; but
the older works have laid far too much stress upon the necessity
of continually introducing what they call "fresh blood." It is
certainly most destructive to breed continuously from members
of the same family, and to go on promiscuously interbreeding
in one yard is still worse ; but if there be a number of separate
runs, in which separate families can be reared, operations may
be carried on for many successive years without a cross from
any other yard. It is the more necessary to explain this,
because when any strain has been brought to high excellence,
the inti oduction of a bird from another is a very serious thing,
and we have personally known, in more than one instance, to
ruin the produce of a whole year.

The plan to be adopted is to note down most carefully the
parentage of every brood, and to keep the chickens from one
family identified until they are required. The breeding-yards
for next year are then to be made up from the best specimens,
taking care not only that the cocks and hens are not closely
related inter se, but that two yards, if possible, are thus made
up without any direct fraternal relationship between them. Un-
related chickens will thus be secured for next year also ; and
so the system can be carried on. It is also a good plan, where
it can be adopted, to put a promising young cockerel out to
" walk " at a farm, or in some brother fancier's yard, and

INFLUENCE OP THE SEXES. 121

bring him back in a year or two, when the relationship between
him and the pullets of the year will be too remote to be of very
much consequence.

If a bird is occasionally introduced from another strain —
and it certainly is advisable now and then, especially in the
case of Dorkings — we can only say that the most extreme care
must be taken to ensure he is of good pedigree, as well as a
good specimen in outward appearance of the breed to which
he belongs.

Long experience has ascertained that the male bird has
most influence upon the colour of the progeny, and also upon
the comb, and what may be called the " fancy points," of any
breed generally ; whilst the form, size, and useful qualities are
principally derived from the hen. Now it cannot be denied
that it is desirable to secure absolutely perfect birds in all
respects of both sexes if possible ; but alas ! every amateur
knows too well the great scarcity of such, and the above fact
therefore becomes of great importance in selecting a breeding-
pen. For instance, a cock may have been hatched late in the
year, and therefore be decidedly under the proper standard in
point of size, and inferior for a show pen ; but if his colour,
plumage, comb, and other points — whatever they may be — are
perfect, and he be active and lively, he may make a first-class
bird for breeding, when mated with good hens. A hen, again,
if of large size and good shape, is not to be hastily condemned
for a faulty feather or two, or even for a defective comb, if not
too glaringly apparent — though the last fault is a serious one in
either sex. But a very bad-coloured or faulty-combed cock,
however excellent in point of size, or a very small or ill-shaped
hen, however exquisite in regard to colour, will invariably
produce chickens of a very indifferent order.

It if. also to be observed, with regard to the crossing of a
breed, that the cockerels in the progeny will more or less re
scmble the father, whilst the pullets follow the mother. A

122 RREFDIXa AND EXHIBITION OP PRlZK POULTRY,

knowledge of this fact will save much time in "breeding
back " to the original strain, and much disappointment in the
effect of the cross. For instance, if it be desired to increase
size, a cross with a hen of foreign breed should be employed,
and the same if it be sought to introduce a more prominent
breast, or any other peculiarity 'of shape ; but if it is the
plumage which is to be modified, it is the male bird who
should be thrown in. In breeding the cross out again, or in
retaining any new characteristic, so as to form a fresh variety,
the same rule must be kept in mind.

We believe that much disappointment and uncertainty in
the results of crossing has been owing to a neglect or ignorance
of this simple principle, and breeding from either sex in-
differently. If this be done, the result will often be disappoint-
ing, and in every case the time consumed will be greater than
is necessary ; but if scientifically conducted, we believe crossing
would improve many of our older breeds in size, hardihood, and
utility, without in any measure detracting from those qualities
for which they are valued.

The care and preservation in good condition of valuable
fowls is an important point. With regard to mere health,
nothing can be added to what has already been treated of in
the preceding section. But it frequently happens that, on
account of the high price, only a single pen of three first-class
birds can be afforded j and if such a family be penned up by
itself, the frequent attentions of the cock will soon render the
hens unfit for exhibition, or even cause temporary paralysis or
sterility. To avoid this, a couple more of ordinary hens
should be added, taking care that the eggs be of a different
colour, or otherwise easily distinguished from those of the
breeding-pen itself. The plumage and health of the hens
or pullets will then be preserved, without injuring the character
of the progeny. The same precaution must be observed in
spring if hens are absent from the run on account of broodine,ss ;

rtlESERVATION OF CONDITION. 123

and some cocks require far more than others. We should,
however, prefer mating the cock with four good hens of his own
breed, a plan more really economical, as the cost of the cock,
in proportion to the number of eggs for sitting, is thereby
reduced.

The number of hens, if good size and vigour are desired,
should not exceed four in the large breeds. Many breeders
allow six ; but the finest fowls of the larger kinds are bred
from the proportion we have stated. Houdans and some
others require more.

It is desirable, also, as much as possible, to save the hens from
the wear and tear of chickens, which often injure the plumage
greatly. It will not answer to prevent them sitting altogether ;
we have already remarked that such a procedure often causes
them to suffer in moulting, which should not be risked.
Neither do we altogether approve of the plan followed by
many, of allowing them to hatch, and then giving the chickens
to other hens. This may be done, if necessary, but a better
system, where there is convenience for it, is to set a valuable
hen upon duck eggs. The ducklings will not only resort to
the hen to be brooded much less frequently than chickens, but
will be far earlier independent of her care, and leave her in
much better condition than if she had hatched her own eggs.

With regard to hatching, it is desirable with the hardier
breeds to get the eggs under the hen as soon after January as
a sitter can be obtained, in order that the brood may have all
the year to grow in, and be ready for the earlier shows. At
this season, however, the limitation as to number, mentioned
in Chapter IV., must be strictly enforced, and no hen given
more than seven or eight eggs, six chickens being as many as
are desirable, in order that they may be well covered by the
hen when partly grown, which is their most critical period as
exhibition fowls. Spanish, Dorkings, or other delicate breeds,
should not be hatched till April or May, unless unusually good

12 1 BREEDING AN'D r.XHI BITIOX OF PlilZK POULTRY.

shelter is at command. Incubators and artificial mothers are
great helps at this season, enabling the fancier to use any eggs
he may be fortunate enough to get.

For early eggs the breeding birds ought to be put together
early in December, and it is ruinous to exhibit them after-
wards. Mating should be decided upon carefully, and then
not altered if possible; for many cocks turn very sulky if
separated from mates they have really become attached to,
Brood cocks at this early season often require attention.
Gallant birds very often do not eat nearly their share while
with the hens, and such would become very poor. They should
be constantly felt whilst on the perch, and if at all poor should
have extra food by themselves. Attention to this point has a
great deal to do with the fertility of early eggs.

As eggs are often purchased for hatching, it is necessary to
allude to the frequent disappointments experienced in this
respect, and which are far too frequently attributed, in no
measured terms, to fraud on the part of the seller. Now we
certainly cannot deny that such fraud is occasionally practised.
We knew of one case where the fact was put beyond a doubt
by examination, proving that the eggs purchased from a well-
known exhibitor were actually boiled ; but we are quite sure
that the great majority of breeders would scorn such proceed-
ings. It should be remembered, in the first place, that highly-
bred birds are seldom so prolific as more ordinary stock, and
are generally rather too fat for full health and vigour. Too
many eggs — the full dozen — are likewise very often set at
seasons when the hen cannot give them heat enough ; so that
all get chilled in turn, and disappointment ensues. Bad
packing also causes its share of failures ; and, lastly, eggs are
sometimes kept a week or fortnight after receipt before
setting, which is always, but especially after a railway journey,
most injurious. We can only recommend — 1. That a hen be
ready for the eggs before they are ordered. 2. That they be

EGGS FllOM I'lllZK BIRDS. 125

procured from a breeder of known honour and probity.
3. That especial directions be given that they are well
packed. 4. That they be " rested " about twenty-four hours
after arrival, but then placed with no more delay under the
hen. And 5. That in cold weather the eggs be divided, so as
not to exceed the number stated under each hen.

Eggs are best packed in small baskets, with the top tied
down. If in boxes, the cover should be tied down or screwed,
not nailed on any account, or every egg will be endangered.
The best packing is to wrap every egg rather loosely in a
piece of paper, and then very carefully in a separate wisp of
soft hay ; and, finally, to imbed the eggs thus guarded, and not
too tightly, in a basket with more soft hay, with the large
end down. Chaff or bran is too solid. Eggs so packed will go
hundreds of miles without injury.

The chickens being hatched, let the utmost care be taken
of them in every way. The object in this branch of poultry-
breeding is not, as in the last, section, to get a profitable
amount of meat with the least possible expenditure in food ;
but, the birds being presumably good in quality, to get them
by any means to the greatest possible size. For although size
is never the first point considered, except perhaps in the case
of Dorkings, it not unfrequently gives the casting-vote between
two contending pens, and is itself a most desirable point in
nearly every fowl. Game and Bantams may be excepted.

The best stock food is undoubtedly oatmeal and old wheat,
and for valuable chickens it should be used liberally. With
respect to this part of the treatment, however, we will give at
length the remarks of one of the most successful breeders of
Brahmas (the largest variety of fowl known), whose birds have in
point of size been usually all that could be desired, and who has
most kindly described for this work the system which has had
such satisfactory results. The same feeding is applicable in
every case where size is a point of merit

126 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

"If the chickens are early hatched, I coop the hen in a
warm sheltered place, free from all intrusion, and should the
weather be very severe, keep them within doors; the floor,
however, must be gravel. Till about a fortnight old I feed
them on sops made with boiled milk, and sweetened with
coarse sugar, mixing it for the first two or three days equally
with yolk of egg boiled hard and chopped fine. The egg is,
however, too "binding" to be continued longer. The first
thing in the morning they have warmed milk to drink ; there
is nothing equal to this for bringing them on in cold weather.
If the chicks are weakly, yolk of egg beaten up and given to
drink is the most strengthening thing I know. In water they
are of course unlimited, and they also have plenty of fresh
grass cut small. I also throw them, two or three times a day,
a handful of coarse raw oatmeal.

"I feed like this, on soft food, raw oatmeal, &c., with
milk every morning, for about a fortnight, after which they
have boiled oatmeal porridge made so stiff that it will crumble
when cool. They grow amazingly fast on this food, and are
very fond of it. I also give them boiled rice occasionally, and
frequently throw them groats, giving them also a little fresh
cooked meat at dinner-time, cut up fine. Of course they are
fed every night after dark, usually about ten o'clock. There
is at first a little difficulty in getting them out to feed at night ;
but they soon learn the time, and will run out eagerly for their
'stirabout,' which, if made thick enough, they prefer to
any other food. The mode of preparation is to boil a
saucepan full of water, and throw in it as much oatmeal as will
take it all up. Then continue stirring till it is a stiff crumbly
mass, after whi h turn it out upon a large plate, and keep
stirring it about with the spoon till cool enough to be eaten.

"At ten weeks old all the waste birds should be picked
out to make more room for the others, and the cockerels sepa-
rated from the pullets. The main food will still consist of the

FEEDING PRIZE CHICKENS. 127

porridge, with small tail wheat, good heavy oats, and plenty of
green food. Good potatoes boiled and mashed are also excel-
lent food for a change.

" A little camphor put in their drinking water will help
very much to keep them in health."

We have little to add to the above remarks. We do not
ourselves approve of giving bread sops so long, and feel sure,
after trial, that chickens get on better by substituting oatmeal
after the first day or two, or indeed from the day they break
the shell In cold weather also a little sulphate of iron, or
" Douglas mixture," should always be added to the water, and
a little bread soaked in ale will be found beneficial. The
warm milk is excellent, and is much better than the plan
recommended by many of giving custard; the latter is too
pampering, and after it chickens will sometimes refuse plain
wholesome food. For weakly chickens, however, it is most
strengthening to mix up a raw egg with their oatmeal Above
all, unless they have a good run on grass, the supply of green
food must be unlimited. Spratt's well-known Poultry Meal is
an admirable addition to the dietary, and " Spratt " and good
oatmeal mixed, scalded with boiling water, is perhaps the best
staple food of all, where the lowest cost is not a consideration.

Feed often — every two hours, if possible, from daybreak,
and let the food be always fresh, nothing being ever allowed to
remain. When a month old, gradually reduce the number of
meals till it comes down at three months to four times a day.
If this is neglected, appetite will fall off. Also, leave off milk
with the warm weather.

With such treatment and good shelter, if the stock
be good and the number has been judiciously limited, the hen
will not fail to bring a fair proportion through the most in-
clement season, and they will be sure to reach a good standard
in point of size, having the best time of the year before them
when they really begin to grow.

123 BUKK.DING AND EXHIBITION OF PK1ZF, POULTRY

It is necessary to give one more caution. Do not let prize
chickens roost too soon — never before they are at least threo
months old ; and then see that the perches are large enough,
and not round on the top, but like the flat side of an oval.
If they leave the hen before the proper age for roosting, let
them have every night a good bed of nice clean dry ashes. We
never allowed our own chickens while with the hen to bed
upon straw; ashes are much cleaner, and if supplied an inch
deep are warmer also. To this plan we attribute a very small
proportion of losses, even in very severe weather. When
larger, straw makes a very good bedding ; but it must be
shaken up with a fork every night, and renewed and the floor
cleaned every three days.

If a good field or other grass-run be at command, the
chickens will of course have it, and it will go a long way in
supplying all other defective arrangements. But to our own
knowledge some of the finest and largest fowls we have ever
seen have been reared in a gravelled yard, not more than
eighteen feet square. In such circumstances, besides the most
scrupulous cleanliness and good feeding in other respects, there
must be green food ad libitum — really fine chickens cannot be
reared without it, their plumage in particular being of a very
inferior appearance, and quite devoid of that beautiful " bloom "
which is now indispensable to success in the show-pen.

But with proper care, and attention to the above plain
directions, there should be no lack in due season of good fine
birds. As they grow, and get through their first moult, they
will be anxiously scanned ; and let the best have especial care,
taking out for the table all which are manifestly not up to the
mark, that the rest may have more attention.

This is a point in which all beginners fail, without excep-
tion. They weed out and kill just a few of the worst. But
the rest do not look so very bad, and there is hope that they
may improve; and so they are kept on, crowding the yard so

WEEDING THE YARD. 129

that there is neither fresh ground nor fresh air for what good
birds there may be. Now, the beginner may make up his mind
that only his very best fowls will have the slightest chance ;
and that to keep all these birds alive destroys what chance he
has, besides " spoiling his eye." If he knows enough to really
select the best quarter of those he has reared past chickenhood,
lie may be absolutely certain he has retained more than all
really worth keeping ; and these few will grow into finer birds
for such severe weeding, to which the experienced breeder with
limited space always subjects his yard.

Where grass-run is unlimited this does not much matter,
and chickens may be kept without much detriment till full-
grown, for table use. But the owner of a limited yard, who
wants to make and maintain a reputation, cannot afford this.
The matter is very simply illustrated. Let us suppose he can
manage to rear — that is, rear really well for the show-pen —
two dozen full-grown chickens, and no more, besides what
adult stock he must hold over for next season's operations-
The novice will probably hatch about forty, and after losing
half-a-dozen, weed out barely a dozen of the worst. He
cannot expect much from the rest for the first year or two.
But the experienced breeder, even with better-matched stock,
would act differently. He would hatch at least sixty, and very
likely eighty birds, killing a fair proportion as soon as their
very first feathers, at a fortnight old, told him they would be no
good ; and then at a still early period he would kill half the
remainder. Keeping only the pick, he can hatch more. Later
on, when his breeding has become more certain, he can be less
severe ; but experienced breeders always weed out much earlier
and more severely than novices can find it in their hearts to do.

We have already said that the sexes should be separated. This
is highly essential in the larger varieties to good size, as too early a
call on nature degenerates the breed. There will thus be secured
also greater vigour and fertility during the breeding season,

J

130 BKKI.LUNG AND EXHIBITION OF PllIZK POULTRY.

CHAPTER XIII.

THE PREPARATION OF FOWLS FOR EXHIBITION, AND VARIOUS
MATTERS CONNECTED WITH SHOWS.

CHICKENS are rarely fit for exhibition until at least six months
old, or even more. If the cockerels and pullets have been
separated, as recommended in the last chapter, there will
rarely have been any eggs laid before this time ; and stimulat-
ing food should now be partially discontinued to retard their
production as long as possible, bearing in mind that the com-
mencement of laying almost, if not quite, stops the growth,
which it is desirable to prolong as far as possible for exhibition
birds. In this respect the fancier and the ordinary poultry-
keeper proceed upon contrary principles, the one endeavouring
to get his pullets into laying order as soon as he can, the other
using every expedient to procure a precisely opposite result.

If the chickens have been from the very shell properly and
systematically fed, they will, by the time they are fit for show-
ing, be in quite as good condition as they ought to be. By
giving them two or three times a day as much soft food as they
will eat, they may easily be got up to any degree of obesity ;
and such a system of feeding is necessary to success under
some few judges, who seem ignorant of the proper condition
of a really healthy fowl ; but we must most emphatically raise
our voice against the practice. We have known a splendid pen
of Dorkings, far superior in real size, as measured by the frame-
work of the fowl, passed by contemptuously because inferior in
mere dead weight to a pen which it would have been hopeless
to breed from. This is much less common now than formerly ;
and the most eminent judges now generally refuse to award
prizes to pens which they consider over-fattened, and thereby
«lo all they can to check the system ; but at Birmingham it is
still rampant in the duck and turkey classes, which are ofU;n
gorged just before judging takes place.

6ELKCTINO FOWLS FOR EXHIBITION. 131

\Vhat we consider — and our opinion is corroborated by
the best judges — to be really "good condition," is such an
amount of flesh as can be carried consistently with perfect
health and fecundity, combined with clean, well-ordered plumage.
It is in the last particular that a good grass-run is so advan
tageous ; fowls always look clean and nice when so kept, and
rarely require much further preparation beyond washing the
feet and legs.

With a good number of such birds to choose from, there
should be little difficulty in finding pens, even for Bir-
mingham or the Palace. Formerly two hens and pullets
used to be shown together, and even with the cock as a third.
In those days there was much trouble in " matching " a pen,
since the two hens had to be very nearly alike, and out of
a dozen individual good ones there might only be one pair that
would " go well " together. Single hens, and generally single
birds, are now the rule, and only individual excellence is there-
fore required. This makes more careful scrutiny possible, and
raises the standard of individual excellence. But let not the
birds be judged too severely. Let the owner remember that
few are absolutely perfect ; and that whilst he, well knowing
every fault, may see most plainly the blemishes in his own
pen, impartial judges often have to weigh other blemishes
against these, and he may thus win after all. Glaring faults
cannot of course be passed over; but fair general excellence
will often win the day against a pen far superior in some
respects, if accompanied by some decided blemish.

The pens should be selected and the birds put together
where pairs are shown, at least ten days before the show pre-
pared for, in order that the fowls may get thoroughly used to
each other. Neglect of this precaution may cause much
fighting and destruction of plumage in the exhibition pen, or
on the road thither, and not unfrequently loses a prize. They
also be confined for a few days in pens — if possible,
9%

132 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

a little larger than show-pens — to become used to the confinement
and get tame. A wild and frightened fowl never shows well.

For the following observations on preparation for exhibition
we are indebted to Mr. F. Wragg, the well-known superinten-
dent of the poultry-yard of Lady Gwydyr, who formerly
exhibited for Mr. R. W. Boyle. When it is remembered that
the fowls of the latter had always to undergo a sea- voyage
from Ireland, in addition to the ordinary railway journey,
previous to exhibition, the beautiful " bloom " and condition in
which they invariably appeared will cause his remarks to be
appreciated by amateurs : —

" The system I pursue previous to sending to shows is as
follows : — About a week beforehand I select the pen I intend
to send, seeing, of course, that they match well, and carefully
wash their heads and legs. I then have a nice dry room pretty
thickly covered with clean straw, in which I put them, scatter-
ing a few handfuls of wheat amongst it. They scratch the
straw about searching for the grains, and thus clean themselves
beautifully without further trouble. The birds being kept up
by themselves get so used to each other they never quarrel,
either on the journey or in the pen. They have to drink clean
water with a little sulphate of iron dissolved, which causes a
bright red colour in the ears and comb, and makes them look
well and sprightly.

"They arc fed on oatmeal and Indian meal well boiled to-
gether, with a small quantity of salt just to season it ; when
properly done it is like a thick jelly. Twice, however, during
the week, not more, they have rice, which is prepared by adding
1 Ib. to a pint of water, and boiling till the water is absorbed,
then adding as much milk as it will take up without getting
thin, with a handful of coarse brown sugar ; keep stirring the
whole till done, and then put in a bowl to cooL Of this they
are very fond, and it keeps them from purging. I also give
them plenty of f rcsh green food.

WASHING FOWLS. 133

"In their hamper I put, of course, plenty of clean soft
straw. I also tie on one side of it, near the top, a fresh-pulled
cabbage, and on the other side a good piece of the bottom side
of a loaf, of which they will eat away all the soft part. Before
starting I give each bird half a table-spoonful of port wine,
which makes them sleep a good part of the journey. Of course,
if I go with my birds, as I generally do, I see that they, as
well as myself, have ' refreshment on the road.'

" With regard to what you have remarked about showing
birds fat, I never do so. As you truly observe, many birds are
ruined by it. Good, healthy condition, with a nice gloss on
the feathers, is what I aim at in exhibiting, and the treatment
1 have described is what I have found best calculated to
attain it."

Little can be added to these directions from so high an
authority. For light-coloured fowls, however, or which have
much white in their plumage, the cleansing process above
described will often be found insufficient. In such cases the
birds must be carefully washed with soap and water before
sending off, and good or bad washing may make all the
difference between winning and losing.

A large tub or pan must be provided, and half filled with
warm water. The very first step is to clean thoroughly the
feet and legs, which always are of a colour to need this in
light-coloured fowls ; and if they are dirty, the water in which
they are washed should be thrown away and clean substituted ;
a hardish brush will generally be useful in scrubbing the shanks.
The head is washed next, using a soft nail-brush on the comb
if needful ; after that the first step is to thoroughly soak the
plumage by the use of a sponge. Then it is to be thoroughly
washed with a sponge and good yellow soap, the great point
being to ensure that it really is quite clean, and rubbing
freely almost every way, except up or nearly up the feather,
which must be avoided. Being sure the fowl is quite clean.

134 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

the next great point is to be sure, by change of waters, that
every particle of soap is washed out of the plumage. If any is
left in, the feathers will clog or look ragged ; but if all is got
out, the bird being partially dried with a towel first, is after-
wards left in a lined basket in front of a good fire to dry
gradually. Some dry almost in the hand, turning the fowl round
and round occasionally on straw. It is a good plan to give the
last rinse with cold water, to prevent catching cold, and also
to prevent any debilitating effect from the hot water used in
washing. It must always be done if the bird appears faint, as
it sometimes will. Many people think that the addition of
an ounce of borax and a spoonful of honey to the last tub of
water makes the plumage " web " better in drying, and look
more lustrous. We were never able to satisfy ourselves that
it made much, if any, difference.

Some people never seem able to wash fowls well ; but
it may be said in brief, that thorough washing and thorough
rinsing are the only secrets. For white fowls it is well
to use a very little " blue " in the last water, to heighten the
apparent purity of the white. If overdone this will defeat
itself, and look ridiculous ; a very little suffices. The object is
to make the white look bright and free from yellow ; not to
make it look blue. Really yellow plumage cannot, however, be
whitened in this way. Of course the sun has much influence
on this point, and living shade has much to do with exhibiting
white fowls. But breeding has even more, and there are
strains which appear far yellower, even when shaded, than others
allowed full liberty in the sun,

If they have had an extensive run on country grass, how-
ever, the whitest fowls scarcely ever need washing, except as
regards their feet and legs, giving also attention to the comb
and wattles, if necessary. It is the poor dwellers in towns
who have to take such precautions, and have so much to
contend against. Yet, in spite of all this, we often see town

PREPARATION FOR EXHIBITION. 135

breeders beating the very best country yards ; and the fact
proves that care and good system are of even more importance
than any mere natural advantages.

Many exhibitors recommend the giving of linseed for a
week before exhibition. Its use is to impart lustre to the
plumage, which it does by increasing the secretion of oil. The
fowls generally refuse the dry seed, and the best method of
administration is to stew some into a sort of jolly, and add it
to the ordinary soft food. A preferable plan, however, and one
which agrees better with the health of the fowls, is to let the
evening repast of grain for the last fortnight consist of buck-
wheat and hempseed in equal portions, which will be equally
effective, and is greedily devoured by the birds, adding also to
the colour of the combs and wattles.

In regard to that beautiful bright red of the comb and wattles
so desirable, this cannot be given to a fowl which is not
naturally in high health. But when a bird is healthy, the
scrubbing helps to bring it out; and if finally a very little
fresh butter is rubbed in, and then wiped as thoroughly off as
possible with a damp cloth, about the best is made of it. A
greasy-looking comb is disgusting, and soon becomes dull in
colour. We have seen the head sponged with strong vinegar, and
this does brighten the comb for a while ; but many birds become
dark afterwards, and the other is the most certain treatment.

Much difference of opinion exists as to the best form of ham-
per, but general experience approves most of a round shape, of a
size to give just ample room to the fowls which have to be shown.
Square corners are apt to catch the tails and cause damage. For
Spanish or other large-combed breeds it is best to have no
cover, simply stitching a strong piece of canvas over the top ;
but for most fowls a wicker top is best, as affording more pro-
tection. It is of some consequence to committees that these
covers should be flat, in order that the baskets may be com-
pactly stowed away in the exhibition-halL

136 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

Many shows now allow two or more pens to be sent in one
hamper, which saves considerably in carriage. In such cases,
the usual shape is an oblong with rounded ends, and a partition
in the middle. When fowls are thus sent, the greatest care
should be taken that the labels are so attached that there may
be no chance of mistake about the proper pens. At almost
every show there are errors of this sort, to the inevitable loss
of the exhibitor, who cannot expect busy officials to remedy
the results of his own carelessness.

In cold weather let the hamper be well lined with canvas,
or straw stitched to the wicker-work. And if occupied by geese,
let special care be taken that their bills cannot reach either the
etring fastenings or the direction-labels. They have a peculiar
fancy for breakfasting upon those articles ; and even fowls will
occasionally contract the same vicious habit.

All has now been done that can be done, and the rest
must be left to the decision of the judges. As a rule,
these are at least impartial; but some are known to have
certain invincible prejudices, which prevent them from
judging certain classes in accordance with the general rules
as understood by the majority. This is to be regretted, as it
hinders the good understanding which always ought to exist
between judges and exhibitors. The object of both ought to
be identical — the promotion of the highest standard obtainable
in the different breeds; but it is necessary to this that the
breeder should know definitely and authoritatively what he is
to seek after. There are certain canons of excellence which
are now generally recognised by breeders, and by most judges ;*
and no individual judge has any right to depart from these
without, at least, sufficient public notice, or until public
discussion in the periodical press devoted to such matters has

* Very complete scales of points, founded on actual analysis of modern
judging, have been published by the author in " The Illustrated Book of
Poultry."

TREATMENT ON RETURN. 137

ratified the change. In the meantime, it is our opinion that
exhibitors have decidedly a right to know beforehand who are
to judge their birds; and this is now conceded at all the best
shows. To call upon them to send their best stock to a show,
where, it may be, the judge's known prejudices on certain
points give them no chance of a prize, is evidently unfair.

But we are leaving the fowls, and must return to them,
though we have little more to add. Whether they require any
special treatment on their return will chiefly depend upon the
system of feeding which has been pursued during the period of
exhibition. If, as is the case still at some small shows, the
pernicious plan of feeding on whole barley ad libitum has been
retained, the birds may be more or less feverish and disturbed,
and will need a corrective. But such feeding cannot be too
strongly condemned. It saves trouble, certainly ; but if a
committee are not willing to take so much pains as will keep
the birds in perfect health, they have no right to gather them
together. The proper feeding is either barley-meal or oatmeal or
Spratt's Food in the morning, mixed rather dry, and given
before the public are admitted, with grain only in the evening ;
and, in each case, only as much as the fowls will eat at once,
without leaving any in the pens. Only these two meals should
be given, as the birds have no exercise, and do not require
more ; besides which, the natural excitement of the show is best
counteracted by a rather spare diet. Water should be given
in tins, and only in limited quantity — not left ad libitum — till
the birds have had time to slake their first thirst after the
journey. Barley ought only to be used sparingly, as it is too
hard to be properly digested in a show-pen.

Fowls fed as here recommended will be returned in as good
condition as they were sent, and require no attention at all
beyond seeing that they do not get too much water and green
food at first. But if they return from a " barley-fed " show, or
the system on which they have been fed is unknown, or, in any

138 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OK I'UIZE POULTl.Y.

case, if they appear either feverish or " overdone," give each a
rather scanty meal of stale bread-crumbs soaked in warm ale ; let
them have two or three sips only of rather tepid water ; and then
administer a third of a tea-spoonful of Epsom salts to each bird.
This will probably be at night. Next day feed them on meal
only in moderation, see that they cannot drink to excess, and
give them half a cabbage-leaf each, or a large sod of grass, but
no other green food ; afterwards let them return to their usual
diet. It is in all cases safest not to let them have much grain,
and to put them on an allowance of water, for the day after
their return,

If these recommendations be attended to, there will be little
injury from exhibition, and the same birds may be shown again
and again to a fair extent without suffering. We knew of
fowls which had won as many as fifty prizes; and, indeed,
first-class exhibition birds are almost always shown pretty fre-
quently. They want care and attentive examination after
each competition to see that they are not losing health ; if it
appears so, whatever other engagements may have been made,
let them have rest till completely recovered ; otherwise, property
worth scores of pounds may be sacrificed for "just one more
cup," to the owner's lasting regret.

FEATHEKS OF FANCY FOWLS.

No. 1 is a Striped Feather.
„ 2 a I. aced Feather.
,, 3, 4 are Spnngled Feathers.
„ 5 a Pencilled Hamburgh Feather.

No. 6 a pencilled Brjhmn. Feathe- (from

breast).

„ 7 ditto from cushion.
„ 8 ditto from wine.

THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

CHAPTER XIV.

COCHINS. LANGSflANS.

THE Cochin breed, as now known, appears to have been im-
ported into this country about the year 1847, those so-called
exhibited by Her Majesty in 1843 having been not only desti-
tute of feathers on the shanks, but entirely different in form and
general character. No other breed of poultry has ever attracted
equal attention, or maintained such high prices for such a
length of time ; and the celebrated " poultry mania," which
was mainly caused by its introduction, will always be re-
membered as one of the most remarkable phenomena of modern
times. To account in some measure for this, it should be
remembered that no similar fowls had ever been known in
Europe ; and when, therefore, Cochins were first exhibited, it
was natural that their gigantic size, gentle disposition, pro-
lificacy, and the ease with which they could be kept in con-
finement, should rapidly make them favourites with the public.
But the extent to which the passion for them would grow no
one certainly could have foreseen. A hundred guineas was
repeatedly paid for a single cock, and was not at all an uncom-
mon price for a pen of really fine birds ; and although these
prices have been equalled quite recently by other breeds, it
must be remembered that in those early days there wras not
nearly the same number of poultry shows to win prizes at,
which now adds to the actual money value. Men became
almost mad for Cochins, and spent small fortunes in procuring
them ; and all England, from north to south, seemed given over
to a universal "hen fever," as it was humorously termed. Their
advocates would have it that the birds had no faults. They
were to furnish eggs for breakfast, fowls for the table, and

142 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

better morals than even Dr. Watts' hymns for the children,
who were from them " to learn kind and gentle manners," and
thenceforward to live in peace.

Such a state of things, of course, could not last, and the
breed is now perhaps as unjustly depreciated by many as it was
then exalted ; for Cochins still have real merits, and on many
accounts deserve the attention of the poultry-keeper. They
might have stood much higher, as many of the early birds had
very good breasts ; but unfortunately early fanciers adopted
the contrary model, and so spoilt the breed as a table-fowl.

As now bred for the show-pen, the breed presents the
following characteristics : — The cock ought not to weigh less
than 10 or 11 Ibs., and a very fine one will reach 13 Ibs. ; the
hens from 8 to 9 or 10 Ibs. The larger the better, if form and
general make be good. The neck is rather short, the hackle
flowing widely at the bottom over a very short and broad
back, which should rise at once into a broad saddle in the cock,
and an ample " cushion " in the hen, whose tail is nearly
buried in it ; there should appear almost no actual back at all.
The body is correspondingly short, but very deep down to the
setting on of the thighs ; the legs being as short as possible, and
set widely apart. The breast should be as broad and full as
possible consistent with these requirements, but must neces-
sarily appear high and little developed, and this want of breast
is the greatest defect in the Cochin formation from a table
point of view. The shanks are to be heavily feathered down
the outside to the ends of the outer and middle toes, the thighs
well furnished with soft downy fluff, standing out in a sort of
globular mass, and the hocks well covered by soft curling
feathers. The fashion in hocks has varied much. When this
book was first written, any sign of vulture-hocks (stiff feathers
projecting from the hock) was rigidly disqualified at all shows.
This led to fraudulent plucking; and to avoid this some
approach to vulture-hock was gradually allowed; later on a

POINTS OF COCHINS. 143

i-age for heavy feather at any price came in, and for several
years it is to be regretted that vulture-hocks have predominated.
We say it is to be regretted ; since long and wide experience
has convinced us that with vulture-hock is usually combined
a tendency to coarse skin and want of breast. The tail should
be as small and low as possible, with very little quill in it com-
pared with other breeds.

The head of a Cochin should be neat and small ; the comb
single, very moderate in size, evenly serrated, and fine in
texture. Ear-lobes red. Red or dark eyes are best ; yellow
eyes generally go with buffs, and are a little more apt than red
to become blind. In blacks the eyes are dark.

The general character of the Cochin is " lumpy," the small
wings being deeply tucked in between the cushion or saddle
above, and fluff below.

Whites must be pure in every feather, a sandy or red tinge
being a great fault. The shanks yellow ; a greenish tint was
once common, but rarely occurs now, and would be a great fault.

Buffs are of various shades, from very pale, to quite a dark
cinnamon colour. The hen should be as nearly alike as
possible all over, except that the hackle is a more golden tint
always. The cock's breast and under parts match the hen ; his
hackle and saddle are richer, with a clearer gold or red-orange
character. His wing should be even and rich all over, not
grizzled with lighter feathers ; there may be a little black in the
tail, but the less the better ; and the inner nights are often
more or less black, which is better than white. White in the
tails is a great blemish. Buffs tend to breed rather lighter ;
and the cock should, therefore, always be chosen of perfectly
sound colour on the wings, and if possible a few shades deeper
than the hens which really match him. On the other hand, a
very much darker cock, or one with very dark wing, usually
breeds spotty or rusty chickens. The legs yellow, or with a
reddish tin^e.

144 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

Partridge Cochins differ greatly in the sexes. The cocks
have black breasts and under parts, while the hackles and
saddle-feathers are rich orange-red, striped with black ; wings
red and bay, with a bright green-black bar across the middle ;
tail black. The hens have also orange striped hackle, the
rest of the plumage being dark -brown (ranging to black)
" pencillings," on a light-brown ground. (See Pencilled Feathers,
Nos. 6, 7, 8.) Legs, a dusky yellow. Very dark partridges were
once called grouse, but the name has disappeared.

Cuckoo Cochins are a peculiar bluish-grey mottle all over ;
each feather crossed by bands of light and dark blue-grey. They
are seldom of good shape.

Black Cochins nearly disappeared for many years, for want
of stock, and the attempt to breed black fowls with yellow legs,
which was unnatural.

LANGSHANS. — In and after 1871, however, fresh importations
of black Cochin-like birds were made, under their native name of
Langshans, direct from North China. These birds had black legs,
with a crimson tinge, and were many of them much longer on the
leg, and with fuller tails than the modern Cochin model, though
greatly resembling some of the early importations. A portion
were gladly used by black Cochin breeders, and worked a great
improvement in the worn-out black stock, changing also the
fashion in them to the natural colour of black legs. But
many of the birds (not all) had the deep breast which
the modern fancy Cochin so lacked ; and Langshan
breeders strenuously resisted this amalgamation. Any identity
of race was even denied, with much more warmth than
truth or knowledge ; but the strong feeling on this point un-
doubtedly did good, in causing the maintenance, from the best
specimens, of a full-breasted type of bird. An exact type is
not fixed, and perhaps never may be ; but in general the
Langshan may be described as having a moderate length of leg,
scantily feathered, a well-furnished tail carried rather high,

LA.NGS11A.NS. 145

Jittle (luff, a full and prominent breast, and a rather agile than
lumpy outline. The aim should be to preserve a close and hard
and glossy, rather than soft and downy plumage, which latter is
always accompanied by a coarser skin. Thus, in the Langshan
lias been added to our list of breeds a fresh and hardy branch
of the same great race, which may be bred to a better model
in every table point, as well as being white in skin, as black
fowls naturally are. So long as the chief points of utility are
studied, it is to be hoped others may not be too rigidly defined.
It is much to be regretted that some Langshan advocates, and
professed Langshan judges, have on their side given preference
to a gawky, weedy style of bird, which can only hinder
every desirable object, and in its way is as misguided as the
breastless ideal of the early Cochin breeders. We hope,
however, that better judgment will in the end prevail ; other-
wise the result must be, as it was with the early Cochins, to
spoil for table purposes what might have been a good fowl.

The merits of Cochins have already been hinted at The
chickens, though they feather slowly, are hardier than most
other breeds, and will thrive where others would perish ; they
grow fast, and may be killed when twelve weeks old. The
fowls will do well in very confined spaces, are very tame and
easily domesticated, and seldom quarrel They cannot fly, and
a fence two feet high will effectually keep them within bounds.
As sitters and mothers the hens are unsurpassed ; though they
are. unless cooped, apt to leave their chickens and lay again
too soon for very early broods. Lastly, they are prolific layers,
especially in winter, when eggs are most scarce.

Their defects are equally marked. The flesh is inferior to
that of other breeds, though tolerably good when eaten young ;
there is, however, always a great absence of breast, which
excludes the fowl from the market, and confines it to the
family table. The leg, which contains most meat, is, however,
providentially not so tough as in other breeds. The want of

146 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTKY.

breast is best overcome by crossing with the Dorking, the
result being a very heavy and fairly proportioned table fowl
which lays well, and is easily reared, but is still rather coares.
The hen, excellent layer though she is, has also an irresis-
tible inclination to sit after every dozen or score of eggs;
and this is apt to be very troublesome, except where a regular
and constant succession of chickens is desired, when it becomes
a convenience, as broods can be hatched with the greatest
regularity. Finally, this breed is peculiarly subject to a pre-
judicial fattening, which, if not guarded against by the avoidance
of too much or too fattening food, will check laying, and even
cause death.

Cochins are subject to an affection called white comb, con-
sisting of an eruption on the comb and wattles much re-
sembling powdered chalk, and which, if not dealt with in time;
extends all over the body, causing the feathers to fall off. The
causes are want of cleanliness, and of green food, chiefly the
latter. This must, of course, be supplied, with an occasional dose
of six grains of jalap to purge the bird ; and the comb anointed
with an ointment composed of four parts of cocoanut oil, two
of powdered turmeric, and one of sulphur.

On the whole, this breed is little valued as a market fowl
unless crossed with the Dorking or Crevecoeur; neither will it be
found profitable where eggs are the sole consideration, and the
hens cannot be allowed to indulge in their sitting propensities.

The Langshan is free from many of the above defects. Its
meat is very fair, and there is a good breast if the model is
good ; it is fully as hardy, and on the average a better layer,
while it does not sit so often. The foolish prejudice of English
cooks in regard to black legs is against it, as it is against some
of the best French fowls, but there are signs of this dying away.

The Langshan, having longer wings and a lighter make,
requires a higher fence than will confine modern Cochins with
perfect safety.

BRAHMAS. 147

CHAPTER XV.

BRAHMAS.

£T is unnecessary to say much about the origin of Brahmas.
Exhaustive investigation has shown beyond doubt that the
fowl, as imported into America, had an Indian and not Chinese
origin, as alleged by Mr. Burnham for reasons of his own.
Burnham states that he got even his own birds from Dr. Kerr;
and Dr. Kerr himself stated that these came from Calcutta,
though it suited Burnham to change this into Shanghai On the
other hand, there are too many marks of the same great race as
the preceding about them for there to be any mistake on that
score. That they are closely allied to Cochins is as certain as that
there are many well-established differences both in make and
disposition. Whether the Cochin, however, was modified by
the Malay and other Indian breeds (which are strongly marked
by the pea-comb) into the Brahma, or whether the more active
Brahma was further quieted down and domesticated by the
Chinese into the Cochin, cannot now be determined. The one
thing certain is, that the fowl immediately sprang originally from
the comparatively coarse and unformed "Chittagong" fowl still
found about the Brahmapootra river, and which some think wag
a kind of amalgamation of Cochin, Malay, and Dorking. How-
ever this may be, some very fine specimens appear to have
reached America in at least two importations, one to Dr. Kerr
and another to a Mr. Cornish ; and either from Mr. Cornish's
alone, or from both, the Brahma has undoubtedly been bred,
somewhat modified by selection, as with all our other races of
fowls.

Ever since this magnificent breed was introduced, it has
steadily become more and more popular, and is now one of
the most favourite varieties. To prosper thus in the total
absence of any poultry " mania," a breed must have real and
substantial merits. Such Brahmas unquestionably have,

148 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

Their most marked peculiarity is in the comb, which is
totally different from that of any other variety, except one or
two which also hail from India or the Indian archipelago. It
resembles three combs pressed into one. In a first-class cock,
the effect is such as would be produced were a little comb,
about a quarter of an inch in height, laid close to each side of
his own proper comb, twice as high, the centre one being thus
higher than the others. Each division of the comb ought to
be straight and even, irregular or twisted combs being serious
faults in a show-pen. In the hens, the comb is very small,
but the triple character should be equally evident, and the
formation is quite plain even when the chicks first break the
shell. The comb should not rise high behind.

When first introduced, single - combed Brahmas were
occasionally shown, but are now scarcely ever seen, and never
take prizes.

The neck of a Brahma cock should be if possible fuller in
hackle than a Cochin's, and flow well over very wide and
flat shoulders. The saddle rises more, till it merges into a
nearly upright tail spread more or less out laterally like a fan,
and with more feather than a Cochin's. The breast is deep
and full, coming down low — another point of difference. There
is less fluff, and the whole plumage is close rather than loose,
while the make and general habits are sprightly and active.
Generally speaking, the Brahma is square rather than lumpy ;
otherwise there is a great deal of general resemblance, and the
same remarks as to leg-feather and vulture-hocks apply. The
size is about the same, but the highest weights recorded have
been in Brahmas, several cocks having been weighed which
scaled from 17 J to 18 J Ibs.

There are two varieties of Brahmas exhibited, known as
Dark and Light. The original birds were midway between
them, but the breeds are now quite distinct, and are never
crossed.

BKEEDING LIGHT BRAHMA8. 149

Light Brahmas are mainly white all over the body : but
the cock's hackle should be sharply striped with black, and the
saddle-feathers less so. The tail and inner flights are black.
The leg-feather also has usually more or less black or grey in
it. All over the plumage, though white on the surface, it will
appear grey under, when the feathers are parted, giving an idea
as if the grey or black was in the plumage and the white
surface on it In the hen, the hackle and spot where it falls
between the shoulders are marked with black like the cock,
but her cushion is white. Tail and inner flights and leg-
feather as in the cock.

The great difficulty in breeding Light Brahmas is to get
sufficient of the black marking, without getting black marks or
splashes in undesirable places. There is a constant tendency
to produce spotted backs in particular, the black, which seems
to saturate the feather, having a tendency to break out on the
surface. As a rule, pullets are best bred from hens with
rather too dark hackles, and a cock sharply but slightly
under-marked ; cockerels from the reverse. Some birds have
been shown evidently crossed with white Cochins; but the
result is loose feather and fluff", and mossy hackles. It is to be
regretted that some judges have given prizes to this model.

In Dark Brahma cocks the head is silvery white, running
into a silvery- white hackle sharply striped with black. The
breast, under parts, and fluff are dense black for exhibit on.
At one time the breast might be mottled with small white
spots, and this marking is most valuable for pullet-breeding ;
but fashion is now against it, as it also is against any white
margin to the feathers of the fluff, which is also valuable for
"breeding pullets. The back is white, with a little black mark-
ing between the shoulders; saddle-feathers silvery white,
striped with black ; tail coverts more and more filled up with
dense green black as they approach the tail, which is glossy
green-black. The shoulders of the wings are silvery white, with

150 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

more or less of black run through it ; secondaries white on outer
web, and partially black on inner web ; the coverts form a glossy
green-black bar across the wing. Clearness of the white, and
sharpness and density of black, are the chief points ; and straw-
colour, or any stain of brown or red, are great blemishes. At
one time some brown was valued for breeding dark pullets,
but careful breeding has now got rid of it or its necessity.

The pullets or hens also have silvery hackles, thickly
striped in the middle with black. The rest of the plumage is
a ground of lightish iron-grey, marked or pencilled over with
what may range from darker grey to glossy black. (See
plate of Feathers, Nos. 6, 7, 8). It is particularly necessary
in a show-bird that the breast should be pencilled over as
closely and almost as darkly as the back, and this is now
general, though when this work was first written it was the
rare exception. The leg-feather should be pencilled like the
body, and also the fluff, if possible.

It is curious to observe that there have been considerable
changes of fashion in the colour and marking of Dark Brahmas.
In the cock, the change has already been alluded to. In the
hens, there were formerly two schools of breeders only, one
following Mr. Boyle, which sought a pure steel-grey colour;
the other led by Mr. Lacy, which bred for a brown ground,
though far more pale than in Partridge Cochins. Gradually
the latter school lost ground, and it was recognised that the
colour should be pure grey. Still later there came in a rage
for very broad and dense Hack bands on a slightly brownish
ground, the effect being very rich, though most of the birds
shown thus were poor in size and shape, and never ought to
have been encouraged for that reason alone. It seems now
generally admitted that the proper colour for all Brahmas
is pure white, black, or grey, and the hens are now sought of
a nice medium colour, the pencilling as dark as it is possible to
get it, and moderately fine, on a dirty grey ground.

BREEDING DARK BRAHMAS. 151

For breeding rocks, perfectly black- breasted ones are
essential The whole under parts must be dense in colour,
and the hackles pure in colour, straw-colour being both a
great fault and strongly hereditary. The pullets or hens
must have sharply-striped rather than very dark hackles, and
the darker they are in reason the better. For pullet-breeding,
the hens or pullets must have good dark hackles, every breast-
feather (and the rest too) be thoroughly well pencilled, " filled
up " over the feather, and free from any streakiness. But the
cock must be particularly selected as known to be bred from
such a hen as this. Such cocks very often have a small white
spot on the end of each breast^feather, and a slight white
edging to the fluff; such are generally valuable, and often
breed the best-marked birds, but they must have good broad
black stripes in their neck and saddle-hackles. If well
descended as above, however, good black-breasted exhibition
cocks may also be found to breed good pullets ;* but the hackles
are essential

The ear-lobes are red, and should fall below the wattles in
both breeds. And it is a great matter, so far as appearance
goes, that the head and beak be short and not long, and with a

* A striking example of this may be mentioned in a cockerel, bred by
ourselves, which won the Crystal Palace and Birmingham cups in 1874,
and was perfectly black-breasted. Claimed at the latter show by Messrs.
Xewnham and Manby, this bird was the progenitor of a large number of
pullets, perhaps the finest as a lot ever bred by one individual, and whose
blood is to be found, we believe, in all the winning strains of pullets down
even to the present day. The same was the case with Mrs. Hurt's noble
strain, from which half the blood of the above bird was derived. On the
other hand, the excellence of the same mixture of blood as regards
exhibition cockerels may be judged not only from the specimen referred
to, but from the fact that another cockerel of nearly the same breeding,
purchased from the produce of a sitting of eggs sold by us, was the chief
progenitor of Mr. Lingwood's celebrated strain of cockereLj, for years pre-
eminent at the leading shows.

132 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTP.Y.

gentle though lively expression. The legs are yellow in the Light
breed and in Dark cocks, slightly dusky yellow in the Dark hens.

The economic merits of Brahmas are very high. When
not spoilt by breeding for exhibition, the pullets and hens are
capital layers, several instances being recorded in the earlier
days, and we ourselves having had two instances, of hens
which have laid over 200 eggs in a year. This, however, is
very unusual. They do not sit so often as Cochins when pure
bred, usually laying from twenty-five to forty eggs first. Both
fowls and chickens are hardy, and grow very fast, being early
ready for table. The pure race is also white or pinky, not yellow
in skin, and white in flesh; in fact, the race when unspoilt com-
pares almost exactly in the same way as the Langshan with
the modern Cochin, including the point of a deep breast.
Brahmas bear confinement quite as well as Cochins, being,
however, far more sprightly, and less liable on that account to
prejudicial internal fattening.

Unfortunately, the extreme care in breeding for marking
during late years has very much impaired the laying qualities of
many exhibition strains, and also their constitution. It is still
more to be regretted, that an ignorant imitation of the Cochin
model has impaired to some extent the table qualities, the loose
lumpy plumage bringing coarse skin and coarse flesh, and the
want of breast losing one of the characteristic points of the fowl.
There are breeders and judges who adhere to the old model,
and it cannot be too much insisted upon. At the best, how-
ever, the flesh, though superior to that of the Cochin, is much
inferior after six months to that of the Dorking, and the pure
breed is not, therefore, a good market fowl. A cross with
Houdan, Creve, or Dorking produces, however, magnificent
birds, hardy as hardy can be, of most rapid growth, and carry-
ing immense quantities of meat. Such crosses should always
have the attention of the market raiser who does not succeed
with pure Dorkings.

MALAYS. 153

CHAPTER XVI.

MALAYS.

THE Malay was the first introduced of the gigantic Asiatic
breeds, and in stature exceeds that of any yet known. The
cock weighs, or should weigh, from nine to eleven pounds, and
when fully grown should stand two feet six inches higli. But
the general size of this breed has of late greatly deteriorated.

In form and make Malays are as different from Cochins
as can well be. They are exceedingly long in the neck and
legs, and the carriage is so upright that the back forms a
steep incline. The wings are carried high, and project very
much at the shoulders. Towards the tail, on the contrary,
the body becomes narrow — the conformation being thus
exactly opposite to that of the Shanghai. The tail is small,
and that of the cock droops. The back is convex in profile,
unlike that of most other breeds, so that the back of the neck,
the bask, and the tail, form a series of three nearly similar
convex curves, inclined at an angle. These curves and the pro-
jecting shoulders are the most characteristic points ; and when
these are good, prizes usually go to the fowls which are longest
in shank and thigh, in which some are enormous.

The plumage is very close, firm, and glossy, more so than
that of any other breed, and giving to the bird a peculiar
lustre when viewed in the light. The feathers are also
unusually narrow. Off the point of the prominent breast-
bone the plumage generally disappears from friction. The
colours vary very much. Pure white is very beautiful, but
the most usual is that well known under the title of black-
breasted red game. The legs are yellow, but quite nako.l,
and remarkably large in the pattern of the scales.

The head and boak are long, the latter being rather hooked.
Comb a sort of lump, covered with small prominononH likr

DIFFERENT BREEDS OP POULTRY.

warts. There is a manifest tendency to produce pea-combs when
small in size, pointing clearly to a possible influence on the
Brahma, and to relationship with India Game fowls. The
wattles and deaf-ears are small, the eyes yellow or white, with
very prominent eyebrows overhanging the eye, making the
top of the head very broad, and giving a sour or cruel ex-
pression, which is added to by the naked and snaky appearance
of the head and throat. This is not belied by the real
character of the breed, which is most ferocious, even more so
than Game fowls, though inferior to the latter in real
courage.

Malays are subject to an evil habit of eating each other's
feathers, a propensity which often occurs in close confinement,
and can only be cured by turning them on to a grass-run of
tolerable extent, and giving plenty of lettuce, with an occa-
sional purgative.

The chickens are delicate, but the adult birds are hardy
enough. They appear especially adapted to courts and alleys,
and may not unfrequently be seen in such localities in
London.

The principal merit of Malays is as table fowls. Skinny
as they appear, the breast, wings, and merrythought together
carry more meat than those of most other breeds ; and, when
under a year old, of very good quality and flavour. They also
make good crosses with several breeds. Mated with the
Dorking they produce splendid fowls for the table, which also
lay well ; and with the Spanish, though both parents are long-
legged, the result is usually a moderately-legged bird of peculiar
beauty in the plumage, good for the table, and, if a hen, a good
sitter and mother. They have also been extensively crossed
with the English Game fowl, in order to increase the strength,
size, ferocity, and hardness of feather.

The great drawback of Malays is their abominably quarrel-
some disposition, which becomes worse the more they are con-

OLD AND MODERN GAME. 155

fined The hens are also inferior as layers to most other
breeds ; and on these accounts the pure strain is not adapted to
general use, though useful in giving weight and good " wings "
to other varieties of fowl.

CHAPTER XVIL

GAME.

Tins is the celebrated race of fowls, bred frora time immemorial
for the purposes of the cock-pit, and in which courage was so
developed by the severe selection of combat, that a breed was
finally obtained which did not know how to yield. Happily
cock-fighting in Europe is now a thing of the past, except
amongst a very few who carry on their cruel sport upon the
sly ; but it is very interesting to notice that this cessation of
the old purpose for which it was bred has worked gradually
a very great change in the shape and formation of the Game
fowl

The modern exhibition race is very different in many
respects from the old fighting race. The old fowl was
moderately short on the leg, not very long in the neck, not
particularly short in feather, and with a rather large fanned
and spreading tail, carried tolerably high. All these points
have been changed.

As now bred for exhibition, the head and beak of the cock
should be rather long, but strong at the base of the bill ; eyes
rather prominent, and the red skin smooth and fine, giving a
snaky look to the head. The ears must be red. Neck rather
long, with hackles as short as possible, very little spreading on
the shoulders, if at all. Back to be flat and wide between
shoulders, narrowing regularly to the tail ; and breast corre-
spondingly broad and full, and stern narrow, the whole body
rather resembling in shape a short fir-cone with the point for

15G DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

the stern, which must be carried well above the hocks, not let
down between them. Saddle hackles close and short; tail
narrow and rather short in the sickle feathers, which should be
rather together, or a whip-tail as it is called, each one just
about clearing its neighbour, but not spread more, very
moderately raised. Wings strong and not too long, carried
" free," with points covering the thighs. Legs and thighs are
now desired long, the shins neither very flat (flat-shinned) nor
very convex, but medium convexity. Shanks cleanly scaled,
and set on firmly. Spurs low, feet flat, with toes well spread
out down on the ground, the hind toe particularly coming well
out flat ; for it to spring high, and drop to the ground behind, is
being " duck-footed." The whole body when felt or " handled "
to feel as hard as a board nearly. The hen is of the same make
in proportion. The lowering brow and prominent shoulders of
the Malay must be particularly avoided.

The four principal colours now seen at exhibitions are known
as Black-breasted Reds, Brown-breasted Reds, Duck wings, and
Piles.

In the Black-red cocks the colour is as follows : — The
hackles of the head and neck are bright orange-red, the saddle-
hackles being about the same colour ; the back, wing-bow, and
shoulder coverts rich crimson or claret, shading off into orange
on the saddle. The breast, thighs, and under parts dense black,
the wing-bar and tail black with steel-blue reflections. The
secondaries of the wings clear bay, with a black spot on the
ends. The most difficult point is to get the bright colour
without any brown or rust among the black of the under parts.
Darker and duller reds are much more free from this fault, but
not so much valued in the show-pen. The hen has a golden
hackle striped with black ; the breast salmon-red or reddish-
fawn, shading off to ashy-grey on the thighs ; back, wings,
and upper feathers of tail brown, covered over with small
partridge marking, free from coarse pencilling. The difficulty

COLOURS OF GAMK. 157

here is to keep free from red or foxy colour, or patches,
especially on the wings. The legs in both sexes are willow or
olive ; eyes, bright red.

There is a sub-breed much used in breeding Black-red game,
called Wh eaten game. The colour is confined to the hens, and
consists mainly in a lighter breast — very pale fawn or cream-
colour, and the rest of the body a reddish fawn, resembling the
skin of red wheat. This colour is bred by the lighter-coloured
cocks, and hence is used to breed brighter colours when the
cockerels are getting too dark. But with long careful breeding
among the Black-reds themselves these variations have become
less, and the Wheaten is gradually dying out.

In Brown-reds, the modern cocks are now sought with
lemon-coloured hackles striped with black ; back and shoulder
coverts also lemon with a black centre ; breast, each feather
laced with gold or lemon on a black ground, and the shaft of
the feather also showing gold. Another colour is similar, but
the marking is darkish orange rather than lemon. Formerly
the lacing on the breast was dispensed with. In hens, the
hackle should be black edged with bright lemon, and the rest
a bright greenish -black, laced with lemon on the breast only.
Hens without lacing — all black except the hackles — formerly
were fashionable, and are sometimes shown still ; but the
lacing is preferred. The legs should be extremely dark willow,
almost black ; the eyes very dark brown, almost black \ the
faces a very dark purple or gipsy colour, red faces being almost
disqualification in practice. There is a sort of strong dark
blood, in fact, running through the whole bird.

Duck wings are very handsome birds. The cock's face is
bright red, head white, hackle verging more to a straw colour
lower down ; saddle hackles straw or yellowish ; back, wing-
bow, and shoulder-coverts rich gold or light orange ; bright
steel-blue bar across the wing ; breast and under parts black
The hen's head is silvery grey; hackle silver grey striped with

158 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

black ; breast salmon, shading off to grey on thighs ; rest of
plumage generally, a silvery grey, evenly pencilled over
with darker grey, total effect being a beautiful silvery or
frosted kind of grey. The legs of both sexes are willow ; eyes
bright red.

This breed — at present at least — is occasionally bred with
the Black-red, putting one of the brightest- coloured Black-red
cocks to Duck wing hens. Occasionally also a Duckwing cock
is put to a Wheaten hen. The Black-red cross used to bo
employed very frequently, and the result was more crimson
or claret-colour in the backs of the cocks than is tolerated
now. At present the best breeders consider once in half-a-
dozen years quite enough for a Black-red cross, which is chiefly
used for hardness of feather ; and the probability is that ulti-
mately it will be entirely abandoned, and the birds bred true.

There has, in fact, always been a true breed, called " Silver "
Duckwings, which were never crossed. In this pretty variety
the cock's hackles and light parts are clear white, free from
straw, and the breast a purer or brighter black ; the hen re-
sembles the usual Duckwing, except for rather a purer or more
silvery colour. There is no doubt the ordinary Duckwings
arose from crossing this breed with the Black-reds ; and as the
Duckwings are bred more and more without Black-red aid,
the tendency will be, as it has been, to return to the pristine
purity of colour, or rather freedom from colour, and predomi-
nance of pure black, white, and grey shades.

Pile game may briefly be described as in general Black-reds,
with white substituted for black, but the red colours as before.
It is well known that black and white are convertible colours,
so that many black Cochins were originally bred from whites,
and white Minorcas have been bred from blacks. Hence the
Pile cock has the same colour on his wing, but a white bar ;
and hackles that would be slightly marked with black are
marked with white instead, though this is disliked just as

INDIAN GAME. 1

black is in the Black-red hackle. Generally a very little
black or coloured ticking runs through the white, and is not
objected to. Yellow legs are the colour for Piles ; and light
willow are also shown, but not liked so well. Once white legs
were fashionable, but are now most unpopular of all, which is
rather a pity, as the white-legged strains (also known in Black-
reds) were the finest in flesh of all the Game varieties.

Piles have to be occasionally crossed from the Black-red to
keep up the colour ; but all the Black-red chickens from such
a cross should be destroyed, as they are of little value, and
corrupt the Black-red blood, which it is so important to nearly
all other varieties should be kept pure.

There are many other varieties seen occasionally, but not
often, and chiefly kept alive by clandestine cock-fighters. A
breed called Henny Game is peculiar for the cock being
feathered like the hen in tail and hackles. It is large, and
rather solidly built Whites, blacks, blacks with brassy (or
yellow-marked) wings, and Silver Birchens (the cock like the
Silver Duckwing, the hen a dark dirty grey) are still occa-
sionally shown, but very rarely.

INDIAN GAME have very recently become rather popular.
They are often called Aseels, and are perhaps the most stub-
born fighters of any poultry now known, so that it is very
difficult to keep even two hens together. In many general
points these birds somewhat resemble the Malay, but have
regular pea-combs. They are also much shorter on the leg,
have more rounded and less sharp shoulders, and are altogether
more symmetrical, the whole formation evidently packing the
greatest possible amount of hard muscle, which stands out in
masses or knots, into the smallest space. The apparent weight
of these birds for their size is enormous. The plumage is
particularly dense and glossy.

Game cocks are generally "dubbed," or have the comb
and wattles cut off close to the head with shears, at about six

160 DIFFERENT BREEDS UK POULTRY.

months old — the right age is when these appendages have
ceased to grow. Of late an agitation has commenced against
the practice, and the Society for Preventing Cruelty to
Animals has obtained convictions against it as cruelty. It is
not improbable that, as the fowls are bred for generations
purely for the show-pen, without any reference to fighting,
the necessity for dubbing may gradually die out. But at
present, all who actually breed the fowls consider it necessary ;
and it is indeed almost impossible to keep them without it,
unless every cockerel can be kept separate, which is difficult,
owing to their great flying capabilities. If they do meet, as a
Game cock is so built that he strikes with his spur wherever
he holds with his beak, the result to an undubbed bird is
either death or terrible suffering, as has been proved over and
over again, even from a very few seconds' encounter ; whereas
dubbed ones can generally be separated before much injury u\
done. In these circumstances, hot abuse of the practice by
those who know nothing about the matter shows more zeal
than discretion. The time may however come, from the
reason stated, when dubbing may no longer be necessary.

The Game fowl is not devoid of solid economic merits.
While some varieties are poor layers, others — and especially
Black-reds — often lay remarkably well, though the eggs are
rather small. As sitters and mothers, no fowls equal them.
They will not stand much interference, except from persons
quite familiar ; but neither do they need it, and they will de-
fend their broods against any foe. And for fineness of flesh and
delicacy of flavour they are unrivalled, while there is far more
meat on them than would be thought, owing to the large and
broad breast. They will not fatten, being too active in tem-
perament ; but if well fed, and eaten just as they are, they
resemble a pheasant more than anything else, while they do
not require very much food. For these reasons they are often
crossed with Dorkings (both ways), and some of the finest quality

DORKINGS 161

of table-fowls ever seen have resulted from this cross, though
" all round " it is hardly as remunerative as others. The
modern long-legged Game fowl is far less valuable as a table-
fowl or table cross than the older-fashioned, more squat form
of bird ; and so far the change in style is to be regretted.

On the other hand, both fowls and eggs are rather small,
and it need hardly be said that so pugnacious a breed is not
adapted for confinement. It will suit some farmers and many
country gentlemen, but, on the whole, is not a breed for
domestic purposes, or except as a cross for those whose object
is to supply the market with table-birds.

CHAPTER XVIII.

DORKINGS.

THIS is a pre-eminently English breed of fowls, and is, as it
always will be, a general favourite, especially with lady
fanciers. The general predilection of the fair sex for Dorkings
may be easily accounted for, not only by the great beauty of
all the varieties, but even more, perhaps, by their unrivalled
qualities as table-birds — a point in which ladies may be easily
supposed to feel a peculiar interest.

The varieties of Dorkings usually recognised are the Grey
or Coloured, Silver-grey, and White. We believe the White
to be the original breed, from which the Coloured varieties
were produced by crossing with the old Sussex or some other
large-coloured fowl. That such was the case is almost proved
by the fact, that some years ago nothing was more un-
certain than the appearance of the fifth toe in Coloured
chickens, even of the best strains. Such uncertainty in any
important point is always an indication of mixed blood ; and
that it was so in this case is shown by the result of long and
careful breeding, which has now rendered the fifth toe per-
manent, and finally established the variety.

162 DIFFERENT BREEDS OP POULTRY.

In no breed is size, form, and weight so much regarded in
judging the merits of a pen. The body should be deep and
full, the breast being protuberant and plump, especially in the
cock, whose breast, as viewed sideways, ought to form a right
angle with the lower part of his body. Both back and breast
must be broad, the latter showing no approach to hollowness,
and the entire general make full and plump, but neat and
compact. Hence a good bird should weigh more than it
appears to do. A cock which weighed less than 10 Ibs., or a
hen under 8£ Ibs., would stand a poor chance at a first-class
show ; and cocks have been shown weighing over 14 Ibs.
This refers to the Coloured variety. White Dorkings have
degenerated, and are somewhat less.

The legs should be white, with perhaps a slight rosy tinge ;
and it is imperative that each foot exhibits behind the well-
known double toe perfectly developed, but not runliing into
monstrosities of any kind, as it is rather prone to do. An
excessively large toe or a triple toe, or the fifth toe being some
distance above the ordinary one, or the cock's spurs turning
outward instead of inward, would be glaring faults in a show-
bird.

The comb may, in Coloured birds, be either single or double,
but all in one pen must match. The single comb of a cock
should be large and perfectly erect. White Dorkings should
have double or rose combs, broad in. front at the beak, and
ending in a raised point behind, with no hollow in the centre.

In the grey or Coloured variety the colour is not absolutely
uniform, and formerly many colours were shown, the cock's
breast being sometimes black and sometimes speckled, with
more or less colour on his back and sides, and lighter or darker
hackles. On the other hand, hens were shown of a kind
of red speckle all over, and also a grey speckle, as well as
darker. From such the birds were termed " grey " Dorkings,
and they were not so large as those shown now. In or about

COLOURED DORKINOS. 163

the year 1858, Mr. John Douglas, then in charge of the Duke
of Newcastle's aviaries at Clumber, crossed the English breed
with a cock from India. This bird was not a Cochin or
Malay, as often alleged, but of distinctly Dorking type in
everything but the fifth toe, and was probably the result of
some Dorking cross in India on some Asiatic bird unknown.
He was very large, and the progeny was on an average at least
two pounds heavier than the old English stock, and much more
uniform in plumage, the hens being very dark, verging in
parts upon a brownish -black, with robin breasts, and the cocks
more black-breasted. Few had not the fifth toe, and all soon
came true in that respect ; and this cross has now influenced all
the exhibition stock, greatly increasing the size and hardiness of
the fowls, without losing any important point, except, perhaps, in
one exception : that is, that with the habitual dark colour has
crept in a dark or sooty foot, and even leg. There is no evidence
that this is due to the cross, for the cross with even Cochins
does not tend to dark legs, though it often does to yellow ones ;
and the first results, when the cross was strongest, were not dark-
legged ; it is simply that very dark colour tends to produce dark
legs in all fowls, and this is by no means inconsistent with
white skin and meat But dark legs do look out of place,
to say the least, in a Dorking ; and of late there has been a
disposition in some quarters to lay more stress on the colour of
the legs and feet, even at the expense of some size, and to
return to more variety in plumage. That the Coloured Dorking
ought to be judged as a table-fowl chiefly is undoubted, and
acknowledged by all ; but some judges lay more stress upon
the colour of the legs, as against the greater size and dark
plumage preferred by others.

In the Silver-grey Dorking, however, colour is imperative.

This variety, there is not the slightest doubt, was at first a

chance offshoot from the preceding, but has been perpetuated

by careful breeding. The Silver-grey colour is as follows : —

L 2

164 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

cock's breast a pure and perfect black ; tail and larger coverts
also black, with metallic reflections] head, hackle, back, and
saddle-feathers, pure silvery white ; and the wing also white,
showing up well a sharply-marked and brilliant bar of black
across the middle. A single white feather in the tail would be
fatal. Hen's breast salmon-red, shading into grey at the
thighs ; head and neck silvery white striped with black ; back
" silver grey," or fine dark grey pencilling upon light grey
ground, the white of the quill showing as a slight streak down
the centre of each feather ; wings also grey, with no shade of
red ; tail dark grey, passing into black in the inside. The
general appearance of both birds should be extremely clean and
aristocratic.

The White birds should be what their name implies — a clear,
pure, and perfect white. There is generally in the cock more
or less tendency to straw or cream colour on the back and
wings, and we would by no means disqualify a really first-class
bird in all other points on account of it ; but it is decidedly a
fault. White Dorkings are usually much smaller than the
Coloured, which we believe to have hindered the popularity of
this truly exquisite variety. This defect might be easily
remedied by crossing with the large Coloured Dorking, and then
breeding back ; and on a visit to Linton Park we once saw the
experiment fairly commenced, with every prospect of success.
A good White cock had been mated with some light-coloured
hens, and out of the progeny there appeared six or seven pure
white chickens, of very great merit. Two cockerels attracted
our special attention ; they were not six months old when we
saw them, but they were fully up to the Coloured Dorking
standard of size, and we have not the slightest doubt, when
full grown, would weigh at least 12 Ibs. each, whilst in colour
they were quite equal to their parent. We commend this
method of increasing the size to all White Dorking fanciers,
as far superior to the cross with Game fowls, which has been

QUALITIES OF DORKINGS. 165

resorted to with the result of producing narrow, long-legged
birds, with a tendency to narrow and even single combs.
We have also known a cross with White Cochins tried ; but the
produce of such almost always loses the true Dorking character,
and especially is apt to acquire a thick skin. It deserves
remark, however, that when shown in a class with other
colours, White Dorkings always appear smaller than they
really are, and have repeatedly proved heavier than Silver-
greys, which the judge has preferred solely on account of their
apparent extra size.

Cuckoo-coloured Dorkings are sometimes shown, and have
even had classes now and then, but are almost always small,
and weedy in shape.

Dorkings degenerate from in-breeding more than most
fowls, and therefore require more change in blood. If over-fed,
they also suffer more than many from exhibition ; but this
fault and its effects are far less common now than formerly.

These fowls are peculiarly subject to what is called
" bumble-foot," a tumour or abscess in the ball of the foot. It
appears to be mysteriously connected with the fifth toe,
according to a law discovered by Mr. Darwin, that " excess of
structure is often accompanied by weakness of function." It
can often be removed surgically, and the wound dressed with
lunar caustic, without coming again : other cases are more
obstinate and seem to resist all treatment We think on the
whole it is less general than formerly.

The great merit of Dorkings has already been hinted at, and
consists in their unrivalled excellence as table-fowls. In this
respect we never expect to see them surpassed. The meat is
not only abundant and of good quality, surpassing any other
English breed except Game, but is prc/dticed in greatest quantity
in the choicest parts — breast, merrythought, and wings. Add
to this, that no breed is so easily got into good condition for
the table, and enough has been said to justify the popularity

166 DIFFERENT BREEDS OP POULTRY.

of this beautiful English fowl. It should also be noted that
the hen is a most exemplary sitter and mother ; and, remaining
longer with the chickens than most other varieties, is peculiarly
suitable for hatching early broods.

The Dorking is not, however, a good layer, except when
very young ; and in winter is even decidedly bad in this respect.
The chickens are also of delicate constitution when bred in con-
finement, and a few weeks of cold wet weather will sometimes
carry o-ff nearly a whole brood. But it is only right to say
that when allowed unlimited range the breed appears hardy,
and as easy to rear as any other, if not hatched too soon.
At Linton Park, the chickens were all left with the hens at
night, under coops entirely open in the front ; and grew up
in perfect health, whilst the old birds frequently roosted in the
trees. It is in confinement or on wet soils that they suffer ;
and the only way of keeping them successfully in such circum-
stances is to pay the strictest attention to cleanliness and
drainage, and to give them some fresh turf every day, in addi-
tion to other vegetable food. With these precautions, prize
Dorkings have been reared in gravelled yards not containing
more than 300 square feet.

In fine, the breed is most valuable for the market, or as a
general fowl, on a wide and well-drained range. But we
cannot recommend it to supply the table with eggs, or as a
profitable fowl to be kept in a limited space.

CHAPTER XIX.

SPANISH, MINORCAS, ETC.

UNLIKE almost all other varieties, there really appears some
reason for believing that this breed of fowls did originate, or at
all events come to us, from Spain. It has, however, been long
known and valued by amateurs in this country, and perhaps

SPANISH FOWLS. 167

no other is so generally popular. This is no doubt partly
owing to their truly aristocratic and haughty appearance, but
no less also their unrivalled large white eggs, which exceed
in weight those of any other treed, except the lately introduced
La Fleche, and are always sought after for the breakfast-table.

Of all the varieties of this breed now known, the white-
faced Black Spanish is the only one for which a special class is
reserved at all poultry exhibitions ; all others having often to
be shown in the class " for any other variety." Of this truly
Beautiful breed the following description has been given us,
and subsequently carefully revised by the late Mr. H. Lane of
Bristol, well known for his magnificent strain, and who during
his career probably took more first prizes with his birds than
any other breeder within a similar period : —

" The general carriage of Spanish fowls is of great import-
ance. The cock especially should carry himself very stately
and upright, the breast well projecting, and a tail standing
well up, but not carried forward as in some birds. The sickle-
feathers should be perfect and fully developed, and the whole
plumage a dense jet black, with glossy reflections in the light.
The hen should be equally dense in colour, but is much less
glossy. Any white or speckled feathers, which now and then
occur, are fatal faults.

" The legs should be blue or dark lead-colour ; any approach
to white is decidedly bad.* The legs in both sexes are long,
but the fowl should be nevertheless plump and heavy. I con-
sider a good cock for exhibition ought not to weigh under
seven pounds : the hen a pound less ; and I have had several
excellent cocks which weighed eight pounds each. All Spanish
fowls in really good condition are heavier than they appear
to be.

* It is singular that the old fanciers imperatively required these
identical bluish-white le^s in prize birds ; and legs of too dork a tint were
often put in poultices to make them light enough!

168 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

" The comb must be very large in both sexes, and of a
bright vermilion colour. That of the hen should fall com-
pletely over on one side, but the cock's comb must be perfectly
upright, the slightest approach to falling over being fatal to
him at a good show. The indentations also should be regular
and even, and the whole comb, though very large, quite free
from any appearance of coarseness. Any sign of a twist in
front is a great fault.

"The most important point, however, is the white face.
This should extend as high as possible over the eye, and be as
wide and deep as possible. At the top, it should be nearly
arched in shape, approaching the bottom of the comb as nearly
as possible, and reaching sideways to the ear-lobes and wattles,
meeting also under the throat. In texture the face ought to
be as fine and smooth as possible. The ears are large and pen-
dulous, and should be as white as the face. Any fowl with
red specks in the face has not the slightest chance.

" With regard to Spanish fowls as layers, the pullets will
generally lay when six months old, and I seldom get less than
five or six eggs a week from each. My house is warmed,*
which has of course some influence on a breed so delicate ; but
with this artificial aid, I find my pullets lay throughout the
winter, as above.

" The great thing with the chickens is to keep them out of
the damp. They scarcely ever get roup ; but if not kept dry
die away rapidly no one knows how. They ought not, there-
fore, as a rule, to be hatched very early in the year, and one
cock ought not to be allowed more than three hens, as the eggs
are less fertile than those of most other breeds."

The following additional remarks on this fowl are compiled
from information furnished us by various amateurs.

Spanish are judged most of all by the quantity and quality

* For plan and description of Mr. Lane's establishment, see
Chap. X.

BREEDING SPANISH. 169

of the "face." This may be very large, and yet rough and
warty ; this is disliked and is apt to close up the eyes. Most
of the very largest-faced birds are apt to be rather rough, and
the best are usually bred by crossing these with rather smaller,
but smoother faces. The ear-lobes should be open and flat,
with as little folding or duplicature as possible. The texture
desired is like that of fine white kid, as free as possible from
little black feathers or hairs. These are generally pulled out
with tweezers, which improves the appearance much ; and
after much resistance, this practice has become universally
recognised, and is no longer considered fraudulent ; but almost
as this edition goes to press there has set in a fresh reaction
against it, and a few classes for " untrimmed Spanish " have
been tried, so that the question is again to some extent an open
one.

As in all other black fowls, coloured or even white
feathers will occasionally happen. Such birds are hopeless to
exhibit, and decidedly bad to breed from.

That the comb of the cock should be absolutely erect is
most important ; and as, owing to its great size, it is rather apt
to fall over, many breeders, to secure this, place light
wire frames, or " cages," over them, as soon as sufficiently
developed to hold the wire in place ; the combs are thus grown
straight like cucumbers ! But there will rarely be need for
this if the breeding-stock be of good constitution. The hens
selected for breeding should therefore be carefully chosen with
good thick combs, which spring up with some arch before they
fall over the side of the head. Hens with combs that fall
dead over will rarely breed strong-combed cockerels. The
comb of both sexes should, however, get thin at the edge, or it
will appear heavy and clumsy.

Mr. Lane has alluded to the delicacy of the chickens.
During feathering, which is in this breed a very slow process,
they require special care and most generous diet, or few will

170 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

be reared. When full-grown, however, they are a tolerably
hardy fowl altogether, but always suffer much in moulting,
and during very cold or clamp weather.

In no breed is purity of race of so much importance as in
this ; and in introducing a fresh cock it is especially needful
to see that both his appearance and his pedigree are quite
satisfactory. One of the most eminent breeders in England
once informed us that all his chickens of the season had been
ruined by the introduction of a fresh cock, whose face when
purchased appeared perfectly white, but who had imported
more or less stain into every chicken hatched from him. There
can be no doubt, however, that too close interbreeding has
greatly injured the Spanish fowl, and that both size, constitu-
tion, and prolificacy have been somewhat sacrificed to the
white face alone. Such a result is to be regretted ; and as
it is now becoming generally acknowledged and deplored,
we may hope that it is not yet too late to get back some
of the size and hardihood of the Spanish fowl as formerly
known.

It is well to observe that exposure to rough or cold winds
will often bring out red in even good white faces. In such
cases shelter by high walls, and shutting up for the last few
days in a rather dimly-lighted shed, will generally put matters
right ; but this shutting-up business has been greatly overdone
by many exhibitors. The face is also very apt to be attacked
by a sort of scab or eruption, especially when the fowls are in
high condition. The best preventive is to keep the fosvls
slightly thin (Spanish show much better in such condition),
with the bowels gently open, giving if necessary a pinch of
Epsom salts occasionally, and to bathe the faces gently several
times a week with lukewarm milk and water, drying carefully
after, and dusting on some powdered oxide of zinc to prevent
moisture. Of course every sign of powder must be wiped off
before exhibition. For scabs actually formed, sulphurous acid

MINORCA8. 171

is the best application, with an occasional aperient dose of the
salts.

Chickens that rather slowly develop bluish faces usually
turn out the best in the end ; but few breeds are so uncertain
as to the ultimate quality.

Birds of the same general character abound more or less
all round the Mediterranean. The other varieties known to
exhibitors and breeders are mentioned in order as follows : —

MINORCAS. — This breed resembles in comb, ears, shape, and
colour of plumage, the white-faced breed, but considerably sur-
passes it in size ; and, on an average, we consider the comb
more largely developed ; the legs are also shorter. A good
cock ought to weigh from eight to nine pounds. It is the best
layer of all the Spanish breeds, except, perhaps, the Anda-
lusian, and the chickens are tolerably hardy. It is a great
favourite in the West of England, and deserves to be
more widely cultivated, as it far surpasses the preceding
in everything except the white face. This is red, as in
other fowls, round the eye, but with a large and pendulous
white deaf-ear. Prizes are now often offered for special classes
of Minorcas, which are much better known than they used to
be.

We think it would be well worth while to try the effect of
throwing a cross of this breed into its more aristocratic rela-
tive. The hen should be selected for the cross, of course — not
only to avoid the risk of contaminating a whole strain by the
experiment, but because it is chiefly size and constitution
that are wanted, while the red face must be as speedily as
possible " bred out " again. Let a fine Minorca hen, there-
fore, be put with a good white-faced cock, and her eggs care-
fully kept apart. When hatched, let one or two of the pullets
only which show most size and constitution be again reserved,
and mated with another good cock of a different family, and so
on. We have never seen the experiment tried, but believe

172 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

a few years of this system would breed good white- faced birds,
far superior in size and stamina to any of the existing strains.

There are also white Minorcas, which resemble the preceding
in all except that the plumage is white, and very often the legs
are white also. They are probably sports from the black, and
have similar qualities.

ANDALUSIANS. — These must be considered truly useful and
handsome fowls, being, according to general testimony, the
hardiest of all the Spanish breeds. The plumage is slaty-blue,
in many specimens slightly laced with a darker shade, but the
neck hackles and tail feathers are almost glossy black, and
harmonise very richly with the rest. Ears white and face red,
as in the Minorca. Unlike other Spanish chickens, these are
very hardy, and feather rapidly and well, which gives them a
great advantage. This breed appears each year to increase the
number of its admirers, and has for some years attained also
a class of its own at many of the great shows. It is probably
due to a cross of white and black, which in all poultry occasion-
ally produces this slaty colour. Red, white, or black feathers
are the most tiresome faults. It is an excellent layer.

ANCONAS. — Mottled all over, or what is called " cuckoo "
colour, and look rather pretty. In all other points they
resemble Minorcas, being, however, of a smaller size.

LEGHORNS. — These undoubtedly belong to the same great
Mediterranean race, but will be treated of in the chapter upon
American breeds.

Spanish fowls of any kind are very little subject to roup,
at least in any marked or specific form, but suffer exceedingly
from cold or weu Severe frost especially often attacks the
comb and wattles, and if the bird in this state be not attended
to, it will be disfigured for life. The proper treatment is to
rub the affected parts with snow or cold water, exactly as in
the human subject, but not on any account to take the frost-
bitten bird into a warm room until recovered. The fowls are

QUALITIES OP SPANISH. 173

also very long over their moult, and need special care and
nourishing food at this season.

They are also liable to a peculiar disease called " black rot."
The symptoms are a blackening of the comb, swelling of the
legs and feet, and general wasting of the system. It can only
be cured in the earlier stages by frequent doses of salts, to
keep up purging, at the same time giving freely strong ale or
other stimulants, with warm and nourishing food.

Another singular disease occasionally occurring in this fowl
has never, we believe, had any name given to it; but the
symptom is the occurrence, in rapid succession, of bladders
under the skin, which contain, however, nothing but air. We
believe the cause to be debility : at least, nourishing and stimu-
lating food, and pricking each vesicle as it rises, will generally
effect a cure.

The merit of Spanish fowls is their production of large
white eggs, which are laid in great abundance in moderate
weather. They are also of fair quality as table-birds, though
the meat is a little " short "and dry in flavour. But they
cannot be called good winter layers, unless with the aid of
artificial heat; and their delicacy of constitution is a great
drawback to their otherwise many merits. We believe,
however, that fanciers have this point much in their own
hands. In spite of such a fault, wherever large eggs are valued
or desired, the Spanish will always be regarded as a most
useful and profitable fowl — the Minorca or Andalusian being the
best regarded from this point.

Hampers for sending any variety of the Spanish race
ought to be unusually well lined. Mr. Lane always lined his
with flannel. If this precaution be neglected, a severe
night on the journey may shrivel the birds and their chances
up to nothing.

174 DIFFERENT BREEDS OP POULTRY.

CHAPTER XX.

IIAMBURGIIS.

UNDER the name of Hamburghs are now collected several
varieties of fowls, presenting the general characteristics of
rather small size, brilliant rose combs, ending in a spike behind,
projecting upwards, blue legs, and beautiful plumage. None
of the Hamburghs ever show any disposition to sit, except
very rarely in a state of great freedom ; but lay nearly every
day all through the year, except during the moulting season,
whence they used to be called " Dutch every-day layers."

It is not our province to enter into the question of the
origin of the different breeds of Hamburghs. There can be no
doubt that the usual classification into simply spangled and
pencilled is not sufficient to mark the distinct varieties that
exist ; but our duty is to take the classes as we find them, and
describe them as they are now recognised at the leading shows ;
paying special attention to the plumage, as exactness of
marking is of more importance in this than in almost any
other breed. In so doing we are glad to acknowledge the
assistance of Mr. Henry Beldon, who has bred these beautiful
varieties more extensively, and takes more prizes with them,
than any one else in the kingdom.

SILVER-PENCILLED. — The size of this exquisite breed is
small, but the shape of both cock and hen peculiarly graceful
and sprightly. Carriage of the cock very conceited, the tail
being borne high, and carried in a graceful arch. The comb
in this, as in all the other varieties, to be rather square in
front, and well peaked behind, full of spikes, and free from
hollow in the centre. Ear-lobe pure white, free from red
edging. Legs small and blue.

The head, hackle, back, saddle, breast, and thighs of the
cock should be white as driven snow. Tail black, glossed with
green, the sickle and side feathers having a narrow white edging

PENCILLED HAMBURG I IS. 179

the whole length, the more even and sharply defined the
better. Wings principally white, but the lower wing-coverts
are often a little marked with black, showing a narrow indis-
tinct bar across the wing. The secondary quills have also a
glossy black spot on the end of each feather, which gives the
wing a black edging. The bar on the wings is not now sought
as formerly, and a white wing is preferred, the bird being now
in fact principally white, with a fine black and edged tail.
Such birds are useless to breed pullets from, however, which
needs more colour ; and in fact cocks are often bred now from
nearly white hens valueless for anything else.

The most frequent fault in the hen is a spotted hackle
instead of a pure white. The rest of the body should have
each feather distinctly marked, or " pencilled " across with bars
of black, free from cloudiness, or, as it is called, "mossing."
(See " Feathers," No. 5.) The tail feathers should be pencilled
the same as the body ; but to get the quill feathers of the
wings so is rare, and a hen thus marked is unusually valuable.
General form very neat, and appearance remarkably sprightly.

Pullets are bred from cocks too dark for exhibition, and
sometimes from hen-tailed cocks, which are not uncommon.
Only pullets usually bear showing, the marking usually getting
grizzled with age ; a hen which does preserve it well is un-
usually valuable for breeding.

GOLDEN-PENCILLED. — The form of this breed is the same as
the preceding variety, and the black markings are generally
similar, only grounded upon a rich golden bay colour instead
of a pure white. The cock's tail should be black, the sickles
and side feathers edged with bronze ; but tails bronzed all
over are often seen. The colour of the cock is always much
darker than that of the hen, generally approaching a rich
chestnut.

In all pencilled Hamburghs the value chiefly depends on
the exactness and definition of the markings, which ought to

176 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

be a dense black, and the ground colour between quite clear.
The silver is slightly the largest breed.

GOLDEN-SPANGLED. — Whilst the markings on pencilled
Hamburghs consist of parallel bars across the feathers, the
varieties we are now to consider vary fundamentally in having
only one black mark at the end of each feather, forming the
"spangle." This black marking varies in shape, and though
only one variety is recognised in each colour at poultry
exhibitions, it is quite certain that both in gold and silver
there were two distinct breeds, distinguished by the shape of
the spangle.

The best known of the two varieties, and the most often
seen, was the breed long known in Lancashire under the name of
" Mooneys," from the spangles being round, or moon-shaped.
The ground colour of the pure Golden " Mooney " Ham-
burghs was a rich golden bay, each of the feathers having
a large circle, or moon, of rich black, having a glossy green
reflection. (See "Feathers," No. 4.) The hackle should be
streaked with greenish black in the middle of the feathers,
and edged with gold. Tail quite black, even in the hens. All
the spangles should be large and regular in shape.

The cock of this breed was rather small, and was coarse in
head with reddish deaf-ears, the latter point being common to
the hens also. Many of the cocks were also hen-feathered, and
such were once shown ; but finally the judges discarded them,
and then something else had to be done.

The second variety was known chiefly in Yorkshire as
" Pheasant fowls," and differed greatly in the plumage. Instead
of the spangles being round, as in the " Mooneys," they were
crescent shaped (See "Feathers," No. 3), approaching the
character of lacing ; the marking was also seldom so sharp and
definite, being often a little, "mossed." In the cock the
crescent spangles on the breast ran so much up the sides of the
feathers as really to become almost a lacing. But the ears

8PANGLED HAMBURGIJS. 177

were white, and the cocks had much smarter and neater
combs.

At first Yorkshire cocks were shown for their smart heads,
with Mooney hens. Then the cocks were bred between
Yorkshire cocks and Mooney hens ; and this lasted for many
years. Two sets of birds were still required, pure Mooneys for
the hens, and the cross for cocks ; and this complicated system,
common also to the next variety, disgusted hundreds of
amateurs, who did not understand it, and vainly mated the
birds as seen and purchased at shows. In fact, the breeds were
confined to a mere handful of experts. Gradually, however,
the mixed blood began to be used on the pullets to improve
their red deaf-ears, and thus the strains slowly amalgamated,
combining the good points of each ; until pullets are found
with all the Mooney marking and good heads, while the smart
cockerels have all the marking needed for pullet-breeding. At
last, therefore, breeding has become comparatively simple,
it being sufficient to select hens or pullets large and good
enough in marking, and with good heads, and then to mate
them with a cock as deeply spangled as possible. If the bird',
"hit" well, the arrangement should be continued as long
as they will breed ; if not, another cock should be tried ; and
this is how Spangled Hamburghs are now usually bred, though
a few still profess to breed Mooney pullets pure. Even in
these, however, the white ears betray the foreign blood. The
present Gold-spangled cock has a jet green-black tail, and is
spangled as regularly as possible, especially in regard to
two bars of spots across the wing. Some birds, almost too
dark for exhibition, if good in head, breed excellent pullets.

SILVER-SPANGLED. — In this class two similar varieties
existed. The Lancashire silver " Mooney," with large round
spangles, resembled the golden, substituting a silvery white
ground colour. The outside tail feathers in the hen, however,
dilFered from the golden Mooney, being silvery white, with only

178 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

black moons at the tips. The moons on wing covert feathers
in both sexes should form two black bars across the wings ; the
m®re regular these bars the more valuable the bird.

The Silver Pheasant-fowl of Yorkshire had smaller spangles,
and not so round, without, however, running into the crescent
form of the Golden Pheasant-fowl. The tail was white in both
cock and hen, ending in black spangles. The cock's breast
had also far less spangling than the Mooney breed.

The history of this variety resembles that of the preceding.
At first hen-feathered Mooney cocks were shown ; then York-
shire Pheasant cocks ; then followed the gradual amalgamation ;
and at present most breeders follow the simple method of
putting the most perfect hens or pullets to promising dark
and well-spangled cocks, as already described.

Many Spangled Hamburgh chickens are pencilled in their
chicken feathers, the true spangling only appearing with the
adult plumage. This goes to show the original unity — though,
doubtless, very far back — of the spangled and pencilled races.

BLACK HAMBURGHS. — There is much doubt about the real
origin of this fowl. Many think it was first produced by
crossing Silver-spangled with Spanish ; and the frequent signs
of white round the eye, the smooth lobe, and the larger egg,
are strong arguments for this ; also many birds used to be seen
with a sort of spangle of extra iridescence on the ends of the
feathers. The greater size and darker legs are also quoted.
But old fanciers affirm that the breed was known generations
ago, and that att green, free from spangle, was the correct colour.
Our own opinion is for the Spanish cross ; but it has been long
bred out in all but the whitish face, which still appears occa-
sionally.

The combs of Black Hamburghs are larger even in propor-
tion than in the other varieties, and the deaf-ears much larger
and more kid-like in texture. The plumage is not so much
black, as a magnificent green gloss. The best-coloured birds are

QUALITIES OP HAMBURGHS. 179

apt to show purple reflections, especially in the cock's hackles.
These must be avoided for cockerel-breeding; on the other
hand, these very birds often breed the most lustrous pullets,
the purple being apparently a sort of excess in lustre.

REDCAPS. — There is occasionally met with in Lancashire
and Yorkshire, under this name, a coarse, large sort/ of gold-
spangled bird, very irregular and poor in marking, and with
immense combs, often hanging over on one side. They may
have been originally some kind of Hamburgh mongrel ; and
while of no exhibition value, are the best layers of the whole
race.

Hamburghs are in many circumstances a profitable breed
Except the Gold-spangled, which are all poor layers, they are
good layers when a good strain is secured. Each hen will
lay from 180 to 220 eggs in a year, which certainly exceeds
the production of any other fowl ; and if these are generally
small, the consumption of food is comparatively even more so.
Though naturally loving a wide range, there is no real difficulty
in keeping them in confinement if cleanliness be attended to.
Perhaps the Silver-spangled and Black are best adapted for
such circumstances. With a good egg-market near, the
Redcap is one of the most profitable fowls a farmer can have.
Except for very close confinement, or in damp situations (when
they are peculiarly subject to roup, especially the two pencilled
varieties), more profitable fowls cannot be had, while their
varieties of barring, pencilling, and spangling are the very per-
fection of beauty in plumage.

The great difficulty in keeping them arises from their
erratic propensities. Small and light, they fly like birds, and
even a ten-feet fence will not retain them in a small run.
They may, it is true, be kept in a shed ; but, if so, the number
must be very limited Where six Brahmas would be kept,
four Hamburghs are quite enough, and they must be kept dry
and scrupulously clean. The pencilled birds are, as already
M 2

180 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

remarked, most certainly delicate, being very liable to roup if
exposed to cold or wet ; they should not, therefore, be hatched
before May. The spangled are hardy, and lay larger eggs than
the pencilled ; but the latter lay rather the most in number.
For profit, however, we should recommend the Black Hamburgh,
on account of the large size of the eggs ; and this variety, as
seen in some strains, is certainly the most extraordinary egg-
producer of all breeds known.

Hamburghs are too small to figure much on the table.
They carry, however, from the smallness of the bones, rather
more meat than might be expected, and what there is of it is of
good quality and flavour.

CHAPTER XXI.

POLISH. SULTANS.

UNDER the title of Polands, or Polish fowls, should be collected
all varieties which are distinguished by a well-developed crest,
or tuft of feathers on the top of the head. This crest invariably
proceeds from a remarkable swelling or projection at the top of
the skull, which contains a large portion of the brain ; and it is
worthy of remark, that as the comparative size of this protube-
rance invariably corresponds with that of the crest springing
from it, the best crested chickens can be selected even when
first hatched. It is also remarkable that the feathers in the
crest of the cock resemble those of his neck hackles, being long
and pointed, whilst those of the hen are shorter and round ; and
this difference forms the first means of distinguishing the sexes.
The comb of all Polish fowls is likewise peculiar, being of
what is called the two-horned character. This formation is
most plainly seen in the Crevecceurs, where the two horns are
very conspicuous. In the breeds more specifically known as
Polish the comb should be almost invisible, but what there in
of it will always show a bifurcated formation.

BLACK POLISH. 181

Under the title of Polish fowls might perhaps be included
the Crevecceurs, Houdans, and Gueldres,jif not La Fleche ; but we
shall for convenience of reference describe these crested fowls
in a separate chapter on the French breeds, and confine our-
selves here to the other tufted varieties, including the recently
introduced Sultans.

WHITE-CRESTED BLACK. — This is the most generally known
of all the varieties. The carriage of the cock, as in all Polands,
is graceful and bold, with the neck thrown rather back, towards
the tail ; body short, round, and plump ; legs rather short, and
in colour either black or leaden blue. There should be almost
no comb, but full wattles of a bright red ; ear-lobes a pure white,
Plumage black all over the body, with bright reflections on the
hackle, saddle, and tail. Crest large, regular, and full, even in
the centre, and each feather in a perfect bird we suppose of a
pure white; but there are always a few black feathers in
front, and no bird is therefore to be disqualified on that
account, though the fewer the better. Weight from five to
six pounds.

Hen very compact and plump in form. Plumage a deep
rich black. Crest almost globular in shape, and in colour like
the cock's. We never yet saw a bird in whose crest there were
not a few black feathers in front, and we doubt if such were
ever bred. Where they do not appear, the crests have always
been " trimmed," and in no class does this practice so fre-
quently call for the condemnation of the poultry judge. Weight
of the hen four to five pounds. This variety is peculiarly
delicate and subject to roup.

BLACK-CRESTED WHITE. — There is indisputable evidence
that there once existed a breed of Black-crested White Polands;
but, unfortunately, it is equally plain that the strain has been
totally lost. The last seen appears to have been found by Mr.
Brent, in 1854, at St. Omcr, and if the breed still exists at all,
we believe it will be found either in France or Ireland. Ita

182 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

disappearance is the more to be regretted, as it seems to have
been not only the most ornamental, but the largest and most
valuable of all the Polish varieties. The hen described by Mr.
Brent dwarfed even some Malay hens in the same yard.

We believe the colour of this variety may be recovered by
breeding from such birds of the kind next mentioned as show
any tendency to black in the crest, and carefully selecting the
darkest-crested chickens. Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier did commence
such an experiment, and succeeded perfectly in producing white
chickens with black crests, though they always became more or
less marked with white in subsequent moults. The attempt
was therefore discontinued, though a few years' longer perse-
verance would undoubtedly have established the strain true to
colour, in accordance with the principles laid down in Chapter
XL But the great comparative size, which all accounts agree
belonged to the old breed, we are afraid is for ever lost.

WHITE-CRESTED WHITE. — This breed, and those which
follow, differ from the white-crested Black Polands not only in
greater hardihood, but in having a well-developed beard under
the chin, in lieu of wattles. They are large fine birds, and the
crest is finer and more perfect than in most other colours. They
are also among the best in point of laying. The plumage needs
no description, being pure white throughout. This breed,
though not extinct, is now very scarce and seldom seen.

SILVER-SPANGLED. — In this variety the ground colour of the
plumage is a silvery white. Formerly birds were shown with
moon-shaped black spangles, and this was once considered
correct ; but the last birds we ever saw at any show of this
marking were in 1875, and for years past laced feathers have
been the correct thing, except that the cock's back shows some
approach to spangling occasionally. The sharper and blacker
the lacing is the better. The cock's sickles still show a broad
tip or sort of spangle at the end, as well as the edging, and the
ground is apt to be grey in these feathers, which dark colour,

BPANGLED POLISH. 183

indeed, breeds better pullets. The spangling of his breast is
very important for show purposes, many cocks being nearly
black in the upper part

The crests should be full and regular, not hollow in the
middle, and the feathers here also are laced in hens and more
tipped in the cocks. A few white feathers are apt to appear
with age. The deaf -ears are small and white, wattles none,
being replaced by a dark or spangled beard and whiskers. The
size of this breed is very fair, the cocks weighing 6 to 7J Ibs.,
hens 4 to 5| Ibs.

GOLD-SPANGLED. — This breed resembles the preceding in
black markings, only substituting rich golden ground for the
white.

BUFF or CHAMOIS POLISH are a recent introduction. This
breed resembles the golden-spangled in the colour of the
ground, but the spangles present the anomaly of being white
instead of black. They were first produced, there can be no
doubt, by crossing the golden- spangled with white birds, just
as Piles were produced from Black-red Game. At first these
birds did not breed at all true, showing probably a recent
cross ; but of late some very fine importations have been made
from the Paris shows, which may give this pretty marking a
better chance. These foreign specimens have been larger and
finer than any we have seen bred in England.

Blue, grey, and cuckoo or speckled Polish are also occasion-
ally shown, but are evidently either accidental occurrences, or
the result of cross-breeding, and cannot be recommended even
to the fancier.

All the Polish breeds are rather liable to grow up " hump-
backed," or " lob-sided " in the body. Of course either defect
is a fatal disqualification.

SULTANS. — This breed was introduced by Miss E. Watts from
Turkey. The birds are very ornamental, differing greatly in
appearance from any of the varieties hitherto named. In size

184 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

they are rather small, the cocks weighing only from four to
five pounds. They make most exquisite pets, being very tame,
but at the same time brisk and lively ; and their quaint little
ways never fail to afford much amusement. They are well
adapted to confinement.

The plumage is pure white, crest included, in which they
therefore resemble the white Polish. They differ, however,
very greatly in appearance. Their legs are very short, and
feathered to the toes ; the thighs being also abundantly fur-
nished, and vulture-hocked. They are likewise amply muffed
and whiskered round the throat, and the tail of the cock is
remarkably full and flowing. The crest differs from that of
most other Polish, being more erect, and not hiding the eyes.
The comb consists of two spikes in front of the crest. The
legs are whitish, and when first imported and shown had the fifth
toe of the Dorking, but of late this feature is uncertain, and
seems left an open question. At one time Sultans were even
shown without beards, but in this case judging has returned
again to the earlier standard.

There is a breed known as Ptarmigans, which is evidently
a degenerate descendant from some former importation of
Sultans.

Some special precautions are necessary in rearing Polish
chickens. The prominence in the skull, which supports the
crest, is never completely covered with bone, and is peculiarly
sensitive to injury. On this account Cochins, or other large
heavy hens, should never be employed as mothers. A Game hen
will be the best. The young also fledge early and rapidly, and
usually suffer severely in the process ; they therefore require
an ample allowance of the most stimulating food, such as
worms, meat, and in bad weather bread steeped in ale. Above
all, they must be kept dry.

Polish fowls have certainly solid merits. They improve in
appearance, at least up to the third year. In a favourable

FRENCH BREEDfl. 185

locality they are most prolific layers, never wanting to ait, and
the flesh is remarkably good. They appear also peculiarly
susceptible of attachment to their feeders. And lastly, they
suffer remarkably little in appearance or condition from
exhibition or confinement.

Their great fault is a peculiar tendency to cold and roup —
the white-crested black variety being the most delicate of all
The dense crest becomes during a shower saturated with water,
and the fowls are thus attacked in the most vital part. No
birds are so affected by bad weather. In exposed or damp
situations they will die off like rotting sheep, and it is hope-
less to expect any return. They can only be kept success-
fully in warm, genial situations, on well-drained ground, with
a chalk or sand sub-soil, and with ample shelter to which
they can resort during showers. In such circumstances they
will do well, and repay the owners by an ample supply of
eggs. Closely confined in a dry shed they also do well, if only
kept rigidly clean and free from vermin.

Mr. Hewitt cautions Polish breeders against attempting to
seize their birds suddenly. The crest so obscures their vision
that they are taken by surprise, and frequently so terrified aa
to die in the hand. They should, therefore, always be first
spoken to, or otherwise made aware of their owner's approach.

CHAPTER XXII.

FRENCH BREEDS.

SEVERAL remarkable breeds of fowls have been introduced into
England from France, which it will be convenient to describe
in one chapter. They all deserve the careful attention of the
mercantile poultry breeder, possessing as they do in a very
high degree the important points of great weight and excellent
quality of flesh, with a remarkably small proportion of bones
and offal. These characteristics our neighbours have assidu-

186 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

ously cultivated with most marked success, and we cannot
avoid remarking yet again on the results which might have
been produced in this country had more attention been paid to
them here, instead of laying almost exclusive stress upon colour
and other fancy points.

Most of the French breeds have more or less crest, which
naturally places this chapter next to that on the Polish fowls
It is remarkable also that most of them agree in being non-
sitters, or at least incubate but very rarely.

CR£VECCEURS. — This breed has been the longest known in
England. The full-grown cock will not unfrequently weigh
10 Ibs., but 7J to 8 Ibs. is a good average.

In form the Creve is very full and compact, and the legs
are exceedingly short, especially in the hens, which appear
almost as if they were creeping about on the ground. In
accordance with this conformation, their motions are very
quiet and deliberate, and they appear the most contented
in confinement of any fowls we know. They do not sit, or
very rarely, and are tolerable layers of very large white eggs.

The comb is in the form of two well-developed horns,
surmounted by a large black crest. Wattles full, and, like the
comb, a bright darkish red. The throat is also furnished with
ample whiskers and beard.

The plumage is black, but in some of the largest and finest
French birds it is not unfrequently mixed with gold or straw
on the hackle and saddle. Which is to be preferred will
depend upon circumstances. Judges at exhibitions always
insist upon a pure black all over; and if the object be
to obtain prizes, such birds must of course be selected both for
breeding and show purposes ; at the same time we should fail
in our duty were we not distinctly to record our opinion
that the golden-plumaged French birds are often by far the
largest and finest specimens. It should be remembered that
the French have mainly brought these breeds to perfection

CRAVES. LA FLECHE. 187

by seeking first the useful qualities, and it is be}«nd doubt that
the rigid application to them of our artificial canons has
seriously deteriorated the breed in practical value. A large
globular crest seems the chief point in English judging, whereas
the French were content with much more moderate develop-
ment in this particular, and looked more to the body and
general size and shape of that

The merits of the Creve consist in its edible qualities, early
maturity, the facility with which it can be both kept and
reared in confinement, and the fine large size of its eggs. The
hen is, however, only a moderate layer, and the eggs are often
sterile, while the breed is rather delicate in this country, being
subject to roup, gapes, and throat diseases. This delicacy of
constitution appears to improve somewhat as the fowls are
acclimatised and less in-bred. Altogether, we do not recom-
mend the Creve as a good breed for general domestic purposes ;
but it is certainly a splendid fowl for either table or market,
and as such, especially on a large scale, in favourable localities,
will repay the breeder.

LA FLECHE. — In appearance this breed resembles the
Spanish, from which we believe it to have been at least
partly derived. It exceeds that breed, however in size, the
cock often weighing from eight to even ten pounds. Both
sexes have a large, long body, standing on long and powerful
legs, and always weighing more than it appears, on account
of the dense and close-fitting plumage. The legs are slate-
colour, turning with age to a leaden grey. The plumage
resembles that of the Spanish, being a dense black with green
reflections.

The look of the head is peculiar, the comb being not only
two-horned, much like the CrSvecceur, near the top of the
head, but also appearing in the form of two little studs or
points just in fronts of the nostrils. The head used to be, and
still is in France, surmounted by a rudimentary black crest*

188

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

but English fanciers have sought to breed this out, and the
presence of crest is considered a disqualification at English
shows. On an average the French birds are somewhat taller
than those now bred in England, most of these differences

French La Fleche Cockerel.

being observable on comparing M. Jacque's French portraits
with Mr. Ludlow's coloured plate. The wattles are very long
and pendulous, of a brillant red colour, like the comb. The
ear-lobes are dead white, like the Spanish, and exceedingly
developed, meeting under the neck in good specimens.

The appearance of the La Fleche fowl is very bold and

LA FLfcCHE.

189

intelligent, and its habits active and lively ; at the same time
it appeal's very subject to roup in our climate. The hen is an
excellent layer of very large white eggs, and does not sit. The
flesh is excellent, and the fine white transparent skin makes a
very favourable appearance on the table, which is only marred

__.-. V

trench La Fleche Pullet.

by the dark legs. The breed does not lay well in the winter,
except in favourable circumstances. Altogether, it is decidedly
less suitable than the preceding for domestic purposes, but still
most valuable as a table-fowl As an egg producer, it is as
nearly as possible similar to the Spanish, not only in the size
and number of the eggs, but the seasons and circumstances
in which they may be expected. In juiciness and flavour the

190 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

flesh approaches nearer to that of the Game fowl than any
other breed we know j but is more tender, while having less of
what is called " gamey " flavour. This breed is chiefly used to
produce the magnificent capons and poulardes so celebrated in
the Paris market, and which sell for a guinea or thirty
shillings each in French money.

The cocks suffer much from leg weakness and disease of the
knee-joint, and do not bear the fatigue and excitement of
exhibition so well as most fowls.

HOUDANS. — This fowl in many respects resembles the Dork-
ing, and Dorking blood has evidently assisted in its formation.
Houdans have the size, deep compact body, short legs, and fifth
toe of the Dorking, which in form they closely resemble, but
with much less offal and smaller bones. The plumage varies
considerably, but is always some mixture of black and white,
arranged in a sort of irregular splash or speckle all over. Some
hens become nearly white as they grow older, the breed
getting lighter with age. To avoid this, some breeders have
been in the habit of crossing with the Creve, and the result has
been seen in young birds almost black, and with the plain two-
horned Creve comb instead of the peculiar comb of the Houdan;
but a reaction speedily set in against this, and what seems now
desired is a true Houdan comb, and somewhere about an equal
amount of black and white in the plumage. English judges
lay a great deal of stress upon crest ; and the result has been
a marked deterioration in prolificacy, as in the Creve.

Some Houdans are very large — we have weighed a hen ten
pounds, but this is rare. The wattles are pendent and well
developed, although the breed is well whiskered. The comb is
most peculiar and characteristic, resembling the two leaves of
a book opened, with a sort of strawberry-looking lump in the
centre ; in the hen it is small Creve combs are now usually
disqualified.

HOUDANS. BRXDAS. 193

Many of the first-imported Houdans lacked the fifth toe,
and this feature might easily have been bred out. Un-
fortunately English breeders went the other way, and rather
insisted on it, far more than the French did; with the result
that bumble-foot is now often seen, as in Dorkings. The legs are
in colour a sort of mottle of white, pink, and blue.

As to the merits of Houdans, the unspoilt stock is one of
the most valuable breeds ever introduced into this countiy, and
in general usefulness surpasses all the French varieties. Better
table-fowls are none, the laying powers are great, the chickens
fledge and grow faster than almost any breed, and the eggs are
invariably prolific — indeed, the ardent Houdan cock requires
more hens than any breed we know. There is also no hardier
variety known. Such a strain is emphaticr-lly a farmer's fowl,
wherever the eggs can be hatched by other breeds or an
incubator. In breeding for crest, colour, and toes it is to be
regretted much has been too often lost, and many exhibition
strains are rather poor layers ; so that for economic purposes
it is generally better to procure stock, if possible, direct from
France.

BRED AS OR GUELDRES. — This fowl is of exceedingly well-
proportioned shape, with a wide, full, prominent breast. The
head carries a small topknot, and surmounts a rather short,
thick neck. The comb is very peculiar, being hollowed or de-
pressed in the centre, which gives to the head a most singular
expression. Cheeks and ear-lobes red ; wattles ditto, and in
the cock very long and pendulous.

The thighs are well furnished and slightly hocked, and the
shanks of the legs feathered to the toes, though not very
heavily. The plumage varies ; black, white, and cuckoo or
mottled being most seen. The cuckoo-coloured are known
exclusively by the name of " Gueldres," and the black bear
chiefly the name of Bredas ; but it is much to be desired that
one name should be given to the whole class, with simply a

N

194 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

prefix to denote the colour. We prefer ourselves the black
variety, the plumage of which is beautifully deep and rich in
tone, with a bronze lustre ; but Mr. F. Schroder, who thought
highly of the breed, preferred the cuckoo or Gueldres fowl. This
is quite a matter of fancy, all the colours being alike in
economic qualities.

Tho flesh is excellent and tolerably plentiful, very large
cocks weighing as much as eight or nine pounds. They are
good layers, and the eggs are large ; as in most other French
breeds, the hens do not sit. The chickens are hardy, and the
breed is decidedly useful and well adapted to the English
climate.

LA BRESSE. — This fowl is hardy and large,* but we cannot
consider it as a iistinct or established breed. The birds are
all colours without distinction, presenting exactly the appear-
ance of very large and fine barn-door or cross-bred fowls ; and
we believe that it is, in fact, no breed, but a mixture of fine
specimens of different races. We have, in fact, never seen any
reason to modify this opinion, formed many years ago ; and

* In a very hostile review of the first edition of this work, in the
Field, of the poultry department in which Mr. Tegetmeier advertises
himself as editor, our "gross ignorance of French fowls" was said to be
proved hy thus describing as " large " the La Bresse race. We made
the statement originally after actually weighing a cock over lOlbs. as he
ran in his pen ; but it also happens that Mr. Tegetmeier has since given
in his own revised edition of the " Poultry Book " a table of the average
weights at the exhibition of dead poultry in Paris in 1864. These weights
are given .is follows : —

La Bresse. Houdan. Crevecoeur.
Ibs. oz. Ibs. oz. Ibs. oz.

Unprepared 6 l£ ... 54 ... 4 11

Prepared for Cook 6 5£ ... 43 ... 3 14

Cooked 3 3f ... 2 lof ... 2 12£

The average was taken from five birds each, and shows that of all these
three breeds the La Bresse were the heaviest. A reference by the
editor to his own figures might, therefore, have otherwise directed the
charge so recklessly brought against this work.

OTHER FRENCH BREEDS. 195

there is tolerable evidence that English Dorkings have several
times been crossed on their own stock by the La Bresse
farmers.

It will be seen that the French breeds are eminently table
fowls ; and it is worthy of remark that by breeding for edible
qualities, without paying over-much attention to feather or other
fancy points, our neighbours have succeeded in producing birds
far superior to any English breed — we will not say in quality, so
long as Game and Dorking are left us — but in smallness of bone
and offal. We should hope that the lesson may not be lost
upon our breeders, and that poultry committees may be led to
afford somewhat more encouragement than they have hitherto
done to the cultivation of size and general proportion, with a
view to the table, as distinguished from mere artificial or fancy
qualities.

LE MANS. — There appears nothing very distinctive about
this race ; indeed, French writers themselves describe it as a
sub- variety of the Cr6ve, with rose or cup combs and little or
no crest.

COURTES PATTES. — At the Paris Show of 1878 the reporter
of the Live Stock Journal gave the first English description of
these fowls. They are black, with single combs, and extremely
short legs. They sit well, and were said to have been produced
by the La Fleche breeders in order to hatch their non-sitting
varieties. They were also said never to scratch in a garden.
Some months later specimens were imported by Mr. Christy,
but the last characteristic was found not to hold good, at least
in English gardens. They are hardy, good layers, and good in
flesh, but do not seem to breed very true in colour and some
other points. The extremely short legs give them a quaint
appearance, and are the most characteristic point.

196 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

CHAPTER XXIII.

AMERICAN BREEDS.

WHATEVER its original source, it has already been recorded
how the Brahma itself was introduced into this country from
America ; but this happening so long ago, and during the first
burst of the poultry enthusiasm, that fine stock became as it
were absolved into the general catalogue, and is scarcely thought
of as American now, though no other or really Eastern stock
has, from that day to this, been ever added to the original strain,
whatever that was. During more recent years, however,
several other races have also been introduced, which are more
generally spoken of as American fowls, and which, although
greatly differing, can most conveniently be described in a
chapter by themselves. They are all of the useful class.

DOMINIQUES. — This was the first of the series to reach this
country, but has since been eclipsed by the superior size of the
next to be described. The name represents the plumage ; the
" Cuckoo-colour," as we call it in England, viz., a dark blue
grey banding on alight grey ground, being called "Dominique "
marking in the States. This fowl was at one time very widely
distributed, especially amongst the Southern States and in the
West Indies. It has a rose comb like the Hamburgh, the blue
cuckoo marking all over, and yellow legs, thus resembling, in all
but comb and legs, the Scotch Grey to be hereafter described.

PLYMOUTH ROCKS. — In the poultry mania period, Dr.
Bennett gave this name to a fowl he compounded out of four
breeds crossed together, and which naturally became extinct
soon after. Years afterwards the name was revived and given
to a much finer breed, which has become very popular both in
America and this country, where it now has large classes at
shows. There is no doubt that it was produced by crossing
the American Dominique, just described, with some breed of
Cochins, probably the white. The comb is single and straight,

PLYMOUTH ROCKS. 197

and the head fine like that of the Cochin ; and the legs are
bright yellow and smooth (i.e., unfeathered). At first the
shape much resembled that of the Cochins, breast being very
cleticient ; but selection has remedied this, and the fowls now
are sought to be bred of good table shape, and are often of
very good model. The beak must be yellow. There are two
schools of feather-marking, one preferring broad dark bands of
almost black or blue-grey, the other breeding for much nar-
rower bands of dark and light grey.

Founded notoriously upon a cross, the Plymouth Rock is,
like all breeds so founded in their early years, very hardy,
except that it has a mysterious tendency to weakness, gout, or
some affection in the feet and legs, why it is hard to say. The
colour was at first very uncertain, and the chief difficulty even
yet is to avoid black, white, red, or yellow in the plumage,
which must be the pure " cuckoo " grey. This is best effected
by matching rather dark birds with somewhat lighter ones,
rejecting cocks with coloured hackles or black sickles. The
beak is also apt to breed dark, which some judges disqualify,
to the great detriment of the breed, in our opinion. A good
breast should be laid great stress upon, and the fowl judged
mainly from the table point of view.

The Plymouth Rock is a first-rate market fowl, except that
dealers dislike the yellow leg : in America, on the contrary,
yellow legs are preferred — so do tastes differ ! Some strains
lire thick and even yellow in the skin, and such should be
avoided, as also should be a too leggy strain. From experi-
ments made, it appears that Rocks make the most rapid and
early growth of any chickens, except some strains of Dorking.

A white variety is occasionally seen.

LEGHORNS. — There are two generally known varieties of
this fowl, the first to reach England being some whites sent
to Mr. Tegetmeier ; while a year or two afterwards the first
brown Leghorns were sent over to ourselves

198 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

The white Leghorn is a rather small edition of the white
Minorca, but with bright yellow legs. It has the large single
comb, red face, and white deaf -ears, is a non-sitter, and lays
the same white egg, though much smaller, owing to its own
smaller size. The first birds which arrived had rather coarse
creamy or yellowish deaf-ears, rather than white, and very up-
right or even squirrel-tails ; but English breeders have remedied
both these faults.

The brown Leghorn is similar to the other in shape and
size — perhaps rather more plump in body of the two — and
exactly the same remarks apply to the ears and tails of the
first specimens. The plumage of this variety is exactly the
same as that of the Black-breasted Bed Game.

There is clear evidence that Leghorns did come from Italy
in the first place, and direct importations have since been made
from Italian ports. Black and cuckoo Leghorns have also
appeared, and by crossing with Game, Duck wings and Piles
were also produced. Pure bufts have been the last, and are
becoming exceedingly popular ; none of the others equal the
original breeds.

Good strains of Leghorns, of either colour, are amongst the
most amazing layers of all, many hens having been recorded
to have laid over 200 eggs in a year.

BLACK JAVAS. — This is a large clean-legged black breed of
fowls, long known in the States, but only lately introduced
here. Its most peculiar point is the full, lustrous brown eye ;
in other respects it has much resemblance to a smooth-legged
Langshan, and it is highly probable that the latter owed its
origin to crossing between a fowl like this and the Chinese
Bhanghae. It is a fair layer, good in flesh, and a hardy useful
fowl, much appreciated by those who have given it a trial.

WYANDOTTES. — These fowls have recently become very
popular both in England and in America, and certainly are
handsome. They seem to have been produced by crossing

WYANDOTTKS.

199

Cochins with some laced breed, probably Polish ; and can oniy
be described as large fowls with neat rose coiubs and smooth
yellow legs, nicely laced all over on a white ground, in the
Polish manner, as shown in the illustration. The peak of the
comb points, however, slightly downward, rather than upward
as in Hamburghs. They are hardy, excellent layers, especially

Wyanrlottes.

in winter, quick growers, and of good table quality, having
deep breasts, a point to be carefully cultivated. So far, the lacing
breeds very untrue, the greater part of the chickens looking like
mongrels ; but this will gradually be remedied ; and a laced
fowl of large size supplies a distinct gap in the poultry classes.
Since the introduction of the silver-laced Wyandottes* a
gold-laced variety has been produced, bearing just the same
relation to it as the gold to the silver-laced Sebright. An all-
white variety is also bred, but loses the most distinctive point,
and every pen we have seen has shown pJ.uiu traces of the
White Dorking.

200 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

CHAPTEK XXIV.

THE VARIOUS CLASS.

UNDER this chapter we may collect several breeds which rarely
have a class of their own, but usually compete together in a
mixed class provided for such waifs and strays. Sultans
usually compete in this class, but have already been described
under Polish fowls.

SCOTCH GREYS. — This is the most useful fowl of the division,
and in Scotland often nils large and good classes. It might be
called the Scotch Dorking. It is of the cuckoo or Dominique
colour, has single upright combs, and red faces and ear-lobes.
The legs vary a little, from bluish, to mottled blue and white
like the Houdan, and nearly white ; and there have been
advocates of all. The size is about that of the White Dorking,
and the shape and carriage are more sprightly than that of
English Dorkings, somewhat resembling the free and agile style
of the Game fowl. The flesh is good, and the bird hardy and a
good layer, usually becoming broody once in the season, and
being then a good mother. It stands the Scottish climate
better than most fowls.

The difficulty, as usual, is to keep the colour and marking
good ; black, white, and coloured feathers being apt to appear.

DUMPIES, OR CREEPERS. — This is also a Scotch breed ; and
has long been known under such names as Bakies, Go Laighs,
&c., but is now getting rather uncommon. It has never been
much valued in England. The principal characteristic is the
extreme shortness of the shank, or leg- bone, which should not
exceed two inches from the hock joint to the ground. In
other respects they most resemble Dorkings, lacking, however,
the fifth toe, and being more hardy than that variety. The
hens are fair layers of rather large eggs, and as mothers
cannot be surpassed. The plumage is generally an irregular
speckle, and it is difficult to get them any uniform colour.

BILKiliS. 201

The cock should weigli six or seven and the hen five or six
pounds.

Dumpies certainly deserve to be better known. They have
no particular faults, and, combining as they do very fair laying
with great hardiness and first-class edible qualities, they must
be considered decidedly profitable fowls. They also make
splendid sitters for small and valuable eggs. Their general
resemblance to Courtes Pattes (described 011 page 195) will not
fail to be remarked.

SILKIES. — This fowl has a class at some shows. It possesses
two distinct peculiarities. The webs of the feathers do not
cling together as in other breeds, but hang loose as silky or
woolly fibres, which makes the bird appear much larger than
it really is, the actual weight of the cock being generally about
three pounds, and of the hen about two pounds. The colour is
usually pure white, but black and other colours are occasionally
seen. The second peculiarity is the dark tint of the bones and
skin, from which the name of " negro " fowls is derived. The
skin is of a very dark violet colour, approaching to black, even
the comb and wattles being a dark purple, and the face a livid
blue. The bones are also covered with a nearly black mem-
brane, which makes the fowl anything but pleasant to look at
ui>on the table ; but if the natural repugnance to this can be
overcome, the meat itself is white and very good eating, indeed
superior to that of many other breeds.

The comb should be rose, but is seldom very good in shape.
There is also a crest on the top of the head standing rather up.
The legs are feathered with silky feathers, and have five toes ;
they are black, or rather blue in colour. The leg-feathering
is peculiarly apt to drop off in the show-pen, or after washing ;
and as it is one of the points in judging, this makes winning
with Silkies very much a matter of speculation.

The chief value of the Silky fowl is as a mother to Bantam,
or other small and delicate chickens, such as pheasants or

202 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY.

partridges. For such purposes they are unequalled, the loose
long plumage affording the most perfect shelter possible ; and
another useful point is that a full nest of eggs will usually
tempt the bird to sit within a few days at any time. They
are, of course, peculiarly susceptible to cold or wet, and have
little value than that stated, except from their singular and not
unornamental appearance.

There is an occasional silky sport from the ordinary Cochin
fowl. The plumage resembles that of the preceding variety ;
but in every other point the fowl is a true-bred Cochin. The
loose feathering being no real protection from wet, this breed,
like the other, is delicate in our climate.

FRIZZLED FOWLS present a most remarkable appearance,
every feather in good specimens being curved, or turned back
from the body, so as to show a portion of the under side, like
the curved feathers in the tail of a common drake. The colour
of the plumage is generally white, and the comb double ; but
black and various colours are also seen.

Frizzled fowls are, as might be supposed, often delicate, and
most uncertain layers, though we have met with strains which
were stated to be hardy, and very good in the latter respect.
They are very common in the Mauritius, where they are
reckoned amongst the most useful poultry. As a rule, how-
ever, their peculiar plumage cannot and does not suit a damp
climate.

We may add that, though " frizzled," the plumage should
not be ragged, but every feather sound and neat. The hand-
somest of all are black.

RUMPLESS FOWLS are of various colours, the only essential
characteristic being the absolute want of a tail, or of any
approach to one. It is, indeed, exceedingly difficult to breed
any particular colour, as few persons have interest in the breed
sufficient to persevere long enough for securing uniformity. The
handsomest are white : black also looks well ; but speckled are

JAPANESE LOXG-TAILED FOWLS. 205

most common. The size also varies much, ranging from three
to seven pounds each.

ORPINGTONS. — This name has been given to a breed es-
tablished within the last few years by Mr. W. Cook, of
Orpington, by crossing Minorcas, black Plymouth Rocks, and
Langshans, the Langshan predominating. It most resembles
the latter breed, but with rather short and smooth legs, and is
a fair table fowl and excellent layer, but (naturally) tends to
vary a great deal During the agitation for stilty Langshans,
there was need for some such fowl ; but since opinion has
settled that a Langshan should have only moderate shanks,
the distinctiveness of the Orpington, save for its bare legs
(which could soon be bred in Langshans), is less apparent.

YOKOHAMAS, PHOENIX FOWLS. — There have very lately been
introduced from Japan, through German importers, several
very peculiar breeds, mostly known in England under the
above names. The general character of the bodies and heads,
and the colours, resembles that of Game fowls; Piles and Black-
reds being the usual colours. The peculiar point is the im-
mense length of the cock's hackles and streamers. Those
called " Phosnix " have been longer in feather than others
shown as Yokohamas ; but we believe the whole class to be
one race at the bottom, and it is to be hoped that some one
name may be adopted. In Germany, for want of stock, many
have had to be crossed with common Game fowls ; and even so,
tails three and four feet long have been produced ; but sickles
nearly seven feet long have been dropped by some of the im-
portations, and at Tokio, in Japan, there are said to be feathers
nearly 27 feet in length. The illustration is engraved from
a painting made in Germany.

This breed is of course of purely ornamental value, and much
care is required to keep the plumage in good order. Length
of feather, if in decent order, will naturally be the chief point
in judging.

206 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF POULTRY

It is much to be regretted that English fanciers have done
nothing during modern times to manufacture new breeds by
crossing. We have seen that both the French and Americans
have done so with success ; and there can be little doubt that
many years ago the Coloured Dorking was made even in Eng-
land, by crossing the White Dorking on the speckled farmyard
fowl of Surrey. But nothing has been done since ; and it still
remains to produce a breed which shall combine the size of the
gigantic races, the fine flesh of the French races, the early
maturity of the Houdan and Dorking, and the prolificacy of
the Mediterranean or Hamburgh tribes. It is true some of
these qualities may be incompatible ; but we think they are
to be combined in a greater degree than in any single breed
at present known.

CHAPTER XXV.

BANTAMS.

THERE is not the slightest reason for supposing that any of the
diminutive fowls known as Bantams are descended from an
original wild stock. They are in many cases the exact
counterparts of ordinary domestic breeds, carefully dwarfed
and perfected by the art of man ; and even where this is not
so, the process by which they were produced is occasionally
on record. They are, in fact, more than any other class,
" artificial fowls," and their attractiveness consists rather in
their beauty than in any economic value.

SEBRIGHTS. — Cock not to exceed twenty, and hen sixteen
ounces. For exhibition still less is preferable, but not for
breeding. Carriage of the cock, the most conceited it is pos-
sible to conceive of; head thrown back till it touches the
nearly upright tail ; wings drooping halfway down the legs ;
motions restless and lively, always strutting about as if seeking
for antagonists. The bird is, in fact, "game to the back-

8EBRIGHT OR LACED BANTAMS. 207

bone," and will attack the largest fowl with the utmost im-
pudence.

Plumage close and compact, and every feather laced with
black all round the edge. The shoulder and tail coverts are
the parts most likely to be faulty in this ; but in first-class
birds every single feather must be properly edged right up to
the head. This part usually appears darker from the smaller
size of the feathers ; but the nearer the head is to the
rest of the body in colour the better. The only exceptions
allowable in the lacing are on the primary quills or flight-
feathers of the wings, which should have a clear ground, and
be only tipped with black. The tail feathers ought to be laced,
and in the hen must be so ; but in the cock this is rather rare.
In his case a clear ground colour throughout, nicely tipped
with black, may be allowed to pass instead.

The cock must be perfectly hen-feathered throughout, his
tail not only square and straight, without sickles, but the neck
and saddle-hackles resembling those of the hen. The late
Mr. Hewitt, however, a most eminent authority on this
breed, remarked to us that while this is imperative for ex-
hibition, he always found such cocks nearly or quite sterile,
probably in consequence of the long inter-breeding necessary
to maintain such a point in perfection. He recommends,
therefore, that a cock for breeding should show a slight
approach to sickle-feathering, when the eggs will become
productive.

The comb should be a perfect rose, with a neat spike
behind, pointing rather upwards, and free from any depression,
and rather livid in colour. Face round the eye rather dark.
Eye itself a sparkling dark red. The ear is supposed to be
white, but Mr. Hewitt remarks that he never found it so
without a great falling off in the lacing of the plumage, and a
bluish tinge is as near an approach to it as can be safely
obtained. Bill slate-coloured ; legs blue and clean.

208 DIFFERENT BIIKEDS OF1 POULTRY.

There are two varieties. In the gold-laced the ground
colour is a rich golden yellow. In the silver-laced, a pure
white. In both cases the ground must .be perfectly clear and
unsullied, varied only by the clear black line round each
feather, which constitutes the lacing. (See plate of " Feathers,''
No. 2.)

These remarks apply to the original strain, and those on
colour of comb, face, and ears, still apply to the Golds. For
many years, however, breeders used to cross their Silver with
Golden, and the result was that the silver ground became
yellower and yellower, until the so-called " Silvers " hardly ever
won in competition with good Golds. Just as matters came to
this pass, :an entirely new strain of Silvers of dazzling whiteness
and dense black lacing burst upon the scene from Scotland,
and carried all before them. How they were bred has never
yet been divulged ; but their combs were bright red, the ears
fairly white, and though the hen-tail was good, the carriage of
the cocks is far less strutting than that of the old strain.
The superiority of this new Silver strain has now, unfortunately,
in its turn all but extinguished the Golden Sebright.

BLACK. — This is one of the most popular Bantam classes.
The plumage is a uniform black, with no trace of rust, or any
other colour, and in the cock, with a bright lustre like that of
the Spanish fowl. Tail of the cock full and well arched ; legs
short, dark blue or black in colour, and perfectly clean. Comb
a bright red rose. Ear-lobes white; face red; in brief, the
bird should resemble a miniature Black Hamburgh, Cock
not to exceed twenty, hen eighteen ounces.

Black feather-legged Bantams have now and then been
shown, but never established a footing. Fashion changes,
however ; and novelties being now much sought after, we are
inclined to believe that a good feather-legged black breed would
speedily became a favourite. We have seen them with the
foot-feather as long as their bodies.

VARIOUS BANTAJ18. 209

WHITE. — Except that the legs are white and delicate, all
other points are similar to the Black Bantam, changing the
colour of the plumage from black to a spotless white. It
should, however, be remembered that while the white ear-lobe
is required by most judges, as in the black variety, there are
some who prefer a red, and this latter we must express our own
decided opinion is much the smartest looking, and harmonises
better with the white plumage. The most usual fault is a
yellowish colour in the cock's saddle. A sirgle comb is, of
course, fatal.

A very pretty feather-legged White Bantam is not un-
frequently seen, and, though long neglected, appears to be
coining into fashion again. They are usually rather too large,
and attention will have to be paid to this particular if the
breed is to become popular.

NANKIN. — This is one of the old breeds of Bantams, and at
one time nearly disappeared, but attempts have been recently
made to re-introduce it. The ground colour is a pale orange
yellow, usually with a little pencilling on the hackle. The
best tail, to our fancy, is a pure black, with the coverts slightly
bronzed. The comb is rose ; and the dark legs should be
perfectly clean.

CUCKOO. — These Bantams should be miniature Scotch
Greys. A strain also exists which, like these in other respects,
has a rose comb.

PEKIN OR COCHIN BANTAMS. — This most remarkable of all
Bantam breeds has only been introduced since 1860, the
original progenitors having been stolen from the Summer
Palace at Pekin during the Chinese war. They were first
shown in 1863. They exactly resemble Buff Cochins in colour
and form, possessing the feathered leg, abundant fluff, and all the
other characteristics of the parent breed in full perfection, and
presenting a most singular appearance. Unfortunately we
fear the breed is now almost extinct. The importations

o

210 DIFFERENT CREEDS OF FOULTK\.

were very few, and several even of these died, tlie "breed
being delicate : and the owner of what was the chief stock
for many years seemed to care more for having something
which no one else had, than for saving the breed, which might
have been done by spreading it amongst a few other hands.
A.t best it was rather sterile. Good results were got by breeding
Pekin cocks to some other breeds and breeding back ; and
it is much to be desired that this most characteristic, of all the
Bantam races should be preserved, if it is even yet possible to
do so. We were glad to hear that one new importation was
made in 1884.

JAPANESE. — Several strains of Bantams have been imported
from Japan. All agree in being exceedingly short-legged, and
most have very upright tails. Some are cuckoo colour and
feather-legged; but what is usually known as the Japanese
Bantam has short, clear legs, a white body, and a very upright
or squirrel tail, the sickles, or rather scimitar feathers, being
dense bronze black with a sharp white edging. The combs are
single and upright.

We have seen Andalusian Bantams, and a fair approach to
a Dark Brahma Bantam ; and the field is open for any dwarf
breed at any time.

GAME BANTAMS. — In Game Bantams the plumage is precisely
similar to the corresponding varieties of the Game fowl, from
which they were undoubtedly obtained by long interbreeding,
and continually selecting the smallest specimens, occasionally,
perhaps, crossing with a Bantam to expedite the process. The
carriage and form must also be similar, and the drooping wing,
so common in other Bantams, would infallibly disqualify a pen
of Game.

In courage and u bottom " Game Bantams are not behind
their larger relatives. In constitution they are the hardiest of
all Bantam breeds.

Black -reds, Duck wings, P-rown-reds, and Piles are all

REARING BANTAMS. 211

shown. At one time the Black-reds were far the best, but the
others r»re now fully equal to them ; and in all the colours, the
long legs and stylish carriage are now attained as fully as in
the larger Game, there being no shortening in any respect

Bantam chickens require a little more animal food than
other fowls, and, for a week or two, rather extra care to keep
them dry. After that they are reared as easily as other birds,
and should indeed be rather scantily fed to keep down the size.
Rice is often largely employed in their diet for the same
purpose, and so is late hatching ; but this tends to shorten the
tails and other furnishing of the cocks. Most of the liens are
good mothers, and are often employed to rear small game;
and are not bad layers if the eggs were only larger. We
believe them, however, to produce quite as much for their
food as ordinary breeds. But their chief use is in the garden,
where they eat many slugs and insects, with very little
damage. On this account they may be usefully and profitably
kept where a separate poultry-yard is found impracticable. We
should prefer the Game variety, as being hardiest ; and, being
good foragers, five or six of these may be kept in a garden for
almost nothing, requiring only a house two feet square to roost
and lay in.

Bantam eggs are the very thing to tempt the appetite of an
invalid, and are just nicely cooked by pouring boiling water
over them upon the breakfast table.

o2

TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY,
AND WATER-FOWL.

CHAPTER XXVI.

TURKEYS. GUIXEA-FOWL. PEA-FOWL.

TURKEYS. — The most opposite opinions have been expressed by
different breeders as to whether or not the rearing of turkeys
in England is profitable. The general judgment seems to be
that they can barely be made to repay the cost of their food.
In the Eastern Counties, however, they are largely reared with
very satisfactory results, and we believe that where the
balance-sheet is unsatisfactory, the cause will generally be
found in heavy losses from want of care. The mortality in
turkey chicks is very often tremendous, and quite sufficient to
eat up any possible amount of profit ; but there are persons
who for years have reared almost every chick ; and, under
these circumstances, they will yield a very fair return,

We have taken much pains to gather, from the best
authorities, the essentials of such successful management ; and
wherever our directions shall be found to differ from others,
the reader may rely with confidence that the treatment given
is such as has been thoroughly tested and proved to give the
best results.

The main point to remember is, that for about the first six
weeks ot two months the turkey chicks are excessively delicate
as regards wet or cold. The very slightest shower, even in
warm weather, will often carry off half of a large brood.
When about two months old, however, the red naked protu-
berances about the neck and throat begin to appear, and as
soon as these are fairly developed, or the birds "shoot the red,"
as it is called, the chicks become poults, and are soon hardier
than most other fowls, braving any weather with impunity.

214 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER-FOWL.

It is obvious that turkey breeding is only suitable for a
dryish soil. It is also well worth while, and absolutely necessary
to pecuniary success, to provide very ample shed-shelter for the
young broods during the critical period, ordinary poultry
accommodation being insufficient. Damp ground is so fatal
that every care must be taken to provide a dry and clean
bottom, dug out and raised with dry material if necessary;
otherwise the building may be a mere shed of four bare walls,
well roofed, and well lighted. With shelter of this kind there
need hardly be a chick lost, except from accident.

It has been said that the number of hens to one turkey-cock
may be unlimited ; and one visit to the cock is certainly sufficient
to render fertile all the eggs laid by a turkey-hen. The best
breeders, however, find that as the number of hens allowed to
one bird approaches a dozen, the chicks show falling off in con-
stitution ; and the number ought therefore to be limited to less
than this — quite enough brood stock for even a large establish-
ment. The turkey-cock may be used for breeding at two years
old, and the hen at twelve months, but are not in their prime
till a year older. They will be first-class breeding stock, as a
rule, for at least two years later, and many cocks in particular
will breed splendid chickens for considerably longer ; and it is
here that a very common mistake is made, even by the Norfolk
breeders, who are apt to sell their larger and older birds, and
breed from young stock, in order to save the keep of heavy
birds through the winter and get a better price. Now
repeated experiments have been made on this point, of which
we will only quote one, recorded in America, where turkeys
are reared far more systematically than in England.

In 1871 a raiser bred from an unusually large and strong gob-
bler, bred the preceding season, but weighing 25 Ibs., and very
fine yearling hens. All were from a very large strain, and gave
a fine flock, several pairs weighing 35 Ibs. at seven months old.
The birds were kept over, and next year the cock weighed over

BREEDING TURKEYS. 217

30 Ibs., and the hens 18 Ibs. : there were that season more pairs
weighing 40 Ibs. than there had been 35 Ibs. the year before ; and
they were hardier and reared with less trouble.

Th is rule is universal. The only thing to be said against it
is, that a very heavy gobbler is sometimes too much for the
hens. This, however, can be avoided, and is avoided in
America, by shutting up the gobblers a while before breeding,
and feeding rather sparingly, but on good food, so as to reduce
their weight. The gobbler should be as large in frame as
possible ; but the best chicks, with such a father, come from
hens 14 Ibs. to 17 Ibs. each. Special care should be selected to
weed out birds which have a short keel or breast-bone, which
is a great fault, and will reduce the price immensely, affecting
the carver most seriously.

The turkey-hen generally lays about eighteen eggs — some-
times only ten or a dozen, and when each egg has been taken
away when laid, it may be more. We once heard of ninety
eggs being laid by a turkey-hen, but can scarcely credit such a
statement A very good plan is to give a turkey's first seven
eggs to a common hen — quite as many as she can cover — when
there will be generally just about enough laid subsequently to
be hatched by the turkey herself. The best time to hatch the
chicks out is in the months of May and June, or even July ;
and all eggs set should be marked, as the turkey often lays
several after commencing incubation.

In a state of nature, the turkey-cock is constantly seeking
to destroy both the eggs and chickens, which the female as
sedulously endeavours to conceal from him. There is generally
more or less of the same disposition when domesticated, and,
when it appeara, it must be carefully provided against ; but
the behaviour of very many cocks is quite unexceptionable ;
and as such a quiet disposition saves a great deal of trouble,
it is always worth while to ascertain the character of the cock
of the year in this respect. If he be friendly to the chicks

218 TURKKYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY. AND WATERFOWL.

and sitting hens, he may be left at large, if otherwise, he
must be kept away.

The turkey-hen is very prudish, but gives scarcely any
trouble while sitting. She sits so constantly that it is needful
to remove her daily from her nest to feed, or she would
absolutely starve. Nevertheless, when absent she is apt to be
forgetful, and, therefore, if allowed to range at liberty, care
should be taken that she returns in time — twenty minutes.
A better plan, however, is to let her have her liberty only in
a confined run of grass. Besides her daily feed, a water vessel
and some soft food should be always within her reach. No
one must visit the hatching-house but the regular attendant,
or the hens will get startled, and probably break many eggs,
which easily happens from the great weight of the birds.

Many have alleged that the turkey sits thirty- one days.
This is an error. The chicks break the shell from the twenty-
sixth to the twenty-ninth day, scarcely ever later. The day
but one before the hatching is expected, the hen should be
plentifully fed, the nest cleaned of any dung or feathers during
her absence, and an ample supply of food and water placed
where she can reach it, as she must not again be disturbed till
the chicks are out. In dry weather, if the nest be in a dry
place, the eggs will have been daily sprinkled as described in
Chapter IV. With these precautions, there will rarely fail to
be a good hatch.

The egg-shells may be cleared away after hatching has pro-
ceeded some hours, but the chicks should never be taken away
from tlw hen, and never deforced to eat. The latter practice
is very general, as turkey chicks are very stupid, and do not
seem to know how to peck. But a much better plan is to put
two ordinary hen's eggs under the turkey, five or six days
after she began to sit, which will then hatch about the same
time as her own, and the little chickens will teach the young
turkeys, quite soon enough, what they should da Watec

REARING TURKEYS. 219

or milk may be given, however, by dipping the tip of the
finger or a camel-hair pencil in the fluid, and applying it to
the end of their beaks.

And now for the chicks. These are often fed on oatmeal,
•fee., like the young of other poultry; and it does not answer,
as they have a strong tendency to diarrhoea. To meet this,
experienced rearers feed for the first few days on little but
hard-boiled egg, mixed with some kind of salad, and sometimes
after the first day with milk-curd, which must, however, be
squeezed very dry. The very best green food right through
for young turkeys is dandelion leaves, chopped fine at first ;
and where they are regularly reared, it is well worth while to
see there is a good supply, which is but too easy. When they
have a choice, they always prefer this salad to all others, and
its known tonic and biliary properties explain the reason. At
all events, nothing more helps turkey chicks to thrive. If these
cannot be had, chopped nettles or onions are the next best.
After a week or so, barley-meal and bread-crumbs may be
gradually added, till, at the end of three weeks, the egg is as
gradually left off altogether. By degrees, also, some hard
grain and boiled potato may be given, but avoiding too soft or
new grain carefully. " Little and often " applies even more to
feeding them than to other chickens.

There will be little trouble from the tendency to diarrhoea
under this regimen ; but far more trouble and care are needed
against wet or damp. It must be constantly remembered that
anything like a wetting is practically fatal. For the first two
or three days they should be kept entirely under cover ; after
that the chicks may be let run on the grass, but not till the
dew is quite gone, and always keeping the hen cooped under
shelter, to ensure constant return to a dry bottom. In cold,
windy weather, the coop must be well screened from that, and,
if bitterly cold, the chicks kept in. When about three weeks
c4d, the hen may have some liberty in fine, dry weather, but

220 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER-FOWL.

never till the grass is dry, and always driving in before every
shower, and keeping in whilst the herbage remains wet. This
must be continued till nine or ten weeks old, when they will
begin to " put out the red," as it is called, or to develop the
singular red excrescences on the neck so characteristic of the
turkey breed. This process will last some little time, and
when completed the birds will be pretty fully fledged. They
are now hardy, but must not be too suddenly exposed to rain
or cold winds. Take some reasonable care of them for a while
longer, and very soon they will have become the hardiest birds
known in the poultry-yard, braving with impunity the fiercest
storms, and even preferring, if permitted, to roost on high trees
through the depth of winter. Tn fact, turkeys will rarely
roost in a fowl-house ; and a very high open shed should there-
fore be provided — the higher the better — the perches being
placed as high as possible. They might be left to their natural
inclination with perfect safety so far as their general health is
concerned ; but in very severe weather their feet, if roosting
on exposed trees, are apt to become frost-bitten.

To attain great size, animal food and good feeding generally
must be supplied from the first. By this means astonishing
weights have been attained ; we knew of a cock which weighed
very nearly forty pounds, and a full-grown bird much less than
thirty would stand little chance at a good show. We do not say
that such weights are profitable — we believe the contrary —
but we do contend that good feeding, leading to fair good size,
is the only way to extract profit from poultry of any kind.
It is especially the case with turkeys, because the large ones,
if of good shape, are worth much more per pound by weight
than the smaller ones.

The ordinary English turkey is of two kinds — the Norfolk
(black all over) and the Cambridge. The latter is of all colours
— the best, to our fancy, being a dark copper bronze ; but fawn
colour and pure white are often seen, as are also variegated

GUINEA FOWL. 221

birds, which occasionally present a very magnificent appear-
ance. The white variety is most delicate and difficult to rear
of all, but the dark Cambridge takes most prizes, and usually
attains the greatest size. In early editions of this work we
expressed the hope that English stock might be improved by
crossing with the much larger American bronze turkey, con-
taining chiefly wild blood. This had not then been done ; but
long ere this repeated importations have been made of this
noble strain, and the advantages have been even greater than we
had expected. The average size of the Birmingham prize birds
has not only been greatly increased, but the hardiness has
been even more benefited ; and there are now probably no
prize English strains which are not at least half American
blood. The magnificent plumage of the American breed is
another point in its favour. The heaviest recorded American
weight is 45 Ibs.

The magnificent Honduras, or ocellated turkey, has unfor-
tunately never been successfully domesticated. It breeds
freely in confinement, but appears to require a tropical climate.

GUINEA-FOWL. — This bird, called also the Gallina and
Pintado, mates in pairs, and an equal number of males and
females must therefore be provided to prevent disappointment.
There appear to be ten or twelve wild varieties, but only one
has been domesticated in this country.

To commence breeding Guinea-fowls, it is needful to pro-
cure some eggs and set them under a common hen ; for if old
birds be purchased they will wander off for miles as soon as
they are set at liberty, and never return ; indeed, no fowl gives
so much trouble from its wandering habits. If hatched in the
poultry-yard, however, and regularly fed, they will remain ; but
must always have one meal regularly at night, or they will
scarcely ever roost at home. Nothing, however, will persuade
them to sleep iinlhe fowl-house, and they usually roost in the
lower branches of a tree.

222 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER-FOWL.

The lieu lays pretty freely from May or June to about
August. She is a very shy bird, and if eggs are taken from
her nest with her knowledge will forsake it altogether, and
seek another, which she conceals with the most sedulous care.
A few should therefore always be left, and the nest never be
visited when she is in sight. It is best to give the earliest eggs
to a common hen, as the G-uinea-fowl herself frequently sits
too late to rear a brood. If " broody " in due season, however,
she rarely fails to hatch nearly all. Incubation is from twenty-
six to twenty-nine or thirty days.

The chicks require food almost immediately — within, at
most, ten hours after hatching — and should be fed and cared
for in the same manner as young turkeys, though they may be
allowed rather more liberty. It should be observed, however,
that they require more constant feeding than any other
chickens, a few hours' abstinence being fatal to them ; and
they need also rather more animal food to rear them success-
fully and keep them in good condition, especially in the winter.
The chicks are very strong on their legs, and in fine weather
may be allowed to wander with the hen when very young.

The male birds of this breed are quarrelsome, and very apt
to beat other fowls.

The flesh of the Guinea-fowl is of exquisite flavour, much
like that of the pheasant. The body nearly equals in size an
ordinary Dorking, and is very plump and well-proportioned.
Like all other finely-flavoured birds, they should never be over-
fed or crammed, as is sometimes done. Who would think of
cramming a pheasant to make it more ( ' fit for the table 1 "

PEA-FOWL. — The distinguishing characteristics of this well-
known bird are the crest or aigrette on the top of the head,
and the peculiar structure of the tail covert feathers. The
true tail of the peacock is short and hidden, and what we call
the " tail " is, strictly speaking, an excessive development of
the tail-coverts, or side feathers, which occasionally have been

PE\ FOWL. 223

known to extend more than a yard and a half fiom their
insertions.

The colour of the ordinary peacock is too well known to
need description. White and pied varieties are also bred, but
are, in our judgment, far less ornamental. This species, called
by naturalists Pavo cristattts, has a crest consisting of about
two dozen feathers, only webbed at the very tips.

There is another variety known as the Javan Pea-fowl, or
Pavo muticus. This bird is larger than the common Pea-fowl,
the male sometimes measuring more than seven feet from the
bill to the end of the " tail" The naked space round the eye
is also of a livid blue colour, and the feathers of the neck are
laminated, or resembling scales. The most characteristic
difference, however, is in the crest, which is much higher, and
the feathers of which are webbed, though rather scantily, from
the base, instead of being bare till near the tips. The bird
also differs in only possessing his long and splendid ocellated
train during the breeding season, at other times appearing
with feathers not so long, and destitute of the well-known
"eyes," but of a rich green with gold reflections, beautifully
and regularly " barred," or " pencilled," on a very large scale,
with whity-brown. This splendid bird is not very common.

A third variety has recently been described, called the
" black-winged " Pea-fowl, in which the shoulders and most of
the wing in the male bird are black. The hen is much lighter
than the common breed, being generally of a cream colour,
with a dark back It appears a distinct race ; but it must be
admitted that all three varieties of Pea-fowl freely intermix
with a fertile result, and so closely resemble each other in
nearly all their characteristics, that a common origin is certain.

Pea-fowl are of a very wild disposition, and generally roost
either on trees or on the very top ridge of a roof, to which they
fly with ease. The hen lays in the greatest seclusion, and must
always be allowed to select her own nest, usually deep in a

224 TUEKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER-FOWL.

shrubbery. She lays generally from five to nine eggs, but
sometimes considerably more. The time of incubation is
about twenty-eight to thirty days. One cock should not have
more than three or four hens.

It is no use setting Pea-fowl eggs under common hens,
which forsake their chickens in about two months, long before
the young Pea-chicks can endure the night air. The Pea-hen
goes with her brood at least six months, and the chicks need
this. They are fed and cared for as turkeys, so far as keeping
them from rain is concerned ; but must be let out on the grass
always in dry weather, or they will not thrive. The food is
also similar in general ; but some worms or other insect food
should be provided in addition, in default of which some raw
meat cut fine is the best substitute.

Pea-fowl are tolerably familiar, and if regularly well fed
will get very tame, and tap at the window when neglected.
They are, however, ill-natured, and frequently beat and even
kill other fowls, sometimes even attacking children. From
this cause they are ill adapted to keep in a general poultry-
yard, apart from their natural impatience of restraint. Young
chickens in particular the cocks will often kill, and we believe
even eat afterwards. Their proper place is on the lawn or in
the park, where the splendid hues of the cocks show to great
advantage, and their peculiar shrill ssredin is not too near to
be disagreeable.

They cannot be considered, of course, under the head of
profitable poultry, being always kept for ornament. The flesh
of a year-old bird is, however, excellent, and carves to a great
advantage on the table. Of the adult birds we have nothing
to say, never having known any person who had attempted
to eat one. They do not reach maturity until three years
okl.

rilKASANTS. 225

CHAPTER XXVII.

PHEASANTS.

THESE birds scarcely come under the head of Poultry ; but as
they are often kept on account of their great beauty by
amateurs as well as extensively reared for the gun, some notice
of them will not be out of place.

Confined near a house, in an aviary open to view, pheasants
will seldom lay, and scarcely ever sit. In such circumstances
evergreen or other shrubs should be so arranged as to afford
them some seclusion, which may induce them to breed ; but it
is best to hatch the eggs under a common hen. Some hen
pheasants, however, will lay and sit very well. Such are usually
those which have been hatched and reared in confinement ; and
the fact proves to our mind that with care and perseverance
these birds might in time be as thoroughly domesticated as the
other inmates of our poultry-yards. It is confirmatory of this,
that whilst the wild hen only lays a dozen or fifteen eggs, in
confinement, the eggs being taken daily, a home-reared bird
will often lay forty or fifty, as in the case of the common fowl

Pheasants require, more than any other stock, the most
scrupulous cleanliness, with very abundant green food, and
rather more animal substance than other poultry, otherwise
the general treatment is very similar. The cock, who must be
at least two years old, should be mated with three or four hens
not under twelve months.

One wing should always be cut or stripped, to prevent the
birds flying up and injuring themselves, as they will otherwise
do. This is the more necessary, as an aviary for pheasants
should never be covered, the adult birds doing much better
in an open run well gravelled and kept clean.

When reared as an amusement 011 such a limited scale, the
chicks, which hatch on the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth day,
should be put out and treated generally much like chickens, or
p

226 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER FOWL.

rather turkey-chicks, giving them a board coop made tight and
sound, and only letting them run on grass when quite dry and
warm ; and always giving them perfect shelter from wet and cold
winds : but at the same time plenty of fresh air. They must,
however, have more animal food than other chickens ; and for
the first few days it is best to feed entirely on hard-boiled egg
chopped fine, ants' eggs, and curd pressed through a cloth till
quite dry, with now and then a little stale bread-crumb soaked
In milk. For green food, leeks or onions minced small are best.
A.fter a week their staple food may be oatmeal dough mixed
very dry, and made into little pills, or Spratt's Food, varied
with chopped egg and bruised hemp-seed, and occasionally
crushed wheat, animal food being also given. Ants' eggs, as is
well known, are the very best animal diet for young pheasants,
and almost necessary to any great success in rearing, though-
much may be done without by care and attention.

The chicks must be fed for some time nearly every hour ;
and their water, which should always be drawn from a spring,
must be renewed several times a day. This is the only way of
avoiding the dreaded "gapes," which is tenfold more fatal to
young pheasants than to any other fowls ; but which may be
kept off by keeping the water always clear, and never letting
them out, while young, on wet grass. Adult birds, however,
are very hardy ; and do not, if the soil be tolerably light and
dry, require shelter from any ordinary weather, beyond what a
few shrubs, or even dry brambles, thrown in their pen, will
afford them.

Feeding-boxes, so commonly used, we consider bad. Keep
the ground clean, and scatter the food broadcast. There is no
better than buckwheat and barley for old birds, with green food
regularly, and a little animal food now and then, like other fowls.

For rearing on a large scale, Mr. Baily, who has had great
experience, recommends laying pens twelve feet square, to be
erected on light dry grass land, if possible on the side of a hill

REARING PHEASANTa. 227

facing west or south. These pens should be made of tem-
porary hurdles or fencing, six or seven feet high, constructed of
laths nailed an inch apart, and touching the ground every-
where at bottom, so as to keep out vermin. The advantages of
such a plan are, first, cheapness, and secondly, convenience ; as
the hurdles can be taken down when the breeding season is
over, and packed away in a very small compass. It is also
advisable to erect them every year on fresh ground, which
such a rough construction eminently facilitates.

Every such pen is adapted for a cock and three or four
hens, whose wings must be cut to prevent their flying over.
For a nest a slight hollow should be scooped in the ground
in the centre, and filled with sand, at each end of which,
and six feet apart, a short stake thirty inches high should be
driven, on the tops of which is nailed a horizontal pole.
Against this pole rough twig fagots are inclined from each
side, forming a rough kind of shelter, which the pheasant
prefers to any regular receptacle.

The eggs should be collected every evening ; and if this
be regularly done, every hen in the breeding-pen will usually
lay at least twenty-five ; the laying faculty, as we have already
remarked, being increased by domestication. They are best
set under Game hens, but the hen pheasant may also be
allowed a share, which she will hatch well, but is not quite
so manageable with her chicks as the common hen.

The early treatment will be as already described, but when
a few days — say a week — old, the board coops are placed in
regular rows out on a grass-field, which should be given up
to the purpose. A space round every coop should be mown
close, but the rest left standing to afford the poults shelter
from the heat, which they are unable to bear, suffering from
it almost more than from cold. The chicks should be shut in
at night, but let out strictly at daybreak every morning, as
they are early risers.
P2

228 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER FOWL.

Feeding will be as before mentioned, taking, of course,
equal pains to keep the water rigidly clear. Many large
breeders hang up pieces of meat to putrefy, in order to procure
the peculiar white worms, called " gentles," which are collected
in a tin or zinc pan placed underneath ; but such should be
sparingly used, as the young poults often refuse plain food
after. Ants' eggs are much better.

When the breeding season is over, the old birds, and the
young also when well grown, are most conveniently kept
fifty or sixty together, in pens fifty feet square ; being suffered
to remain there until wanted, or till the breeding pens are
made up for next year.

On this system, with good management, eighty per cent.
of the eggs laid may be brought to the gun, and the natural
produce thus more than doubled.

Of the different varieties, the Common Pheasant is most
delicate, and is rather wild. The plumage is too well known
to need any description, especially as the breed is not so well
adapted for the mere amateur as the beautiful Chinese or
ring-necked breeds, which are daily becoming more common,
and are hardier and easier to rear.

The Golden Pheasant cock is also a magnificent bird.
The head bears a crest of beautiful amber-coloured feathers.
The back of the head and neck is of a beautiful orange red,
passing low down the breast into a deep scarlet, which is the
colour of all the under parts. The neck feathers are arranged
like plate armour, and are often erected by the bird. The
back is a deep gold colour, the tail covert feathers being laced
with crimson ; tail-feathers brown mottled with black. The
hen is of a more sober tint, being of a general brown colour
with dark markings.

This variety is very wild and easily startled, but is,
nevertheless, more easily reared than the Common Pheasant,
and would p-^bably become more domesticated with per-

VARIETIES OP PHEASANT. 229

severance in breeding under a hen. The hen pheasant herself
is so shy that she scarcely ever hatches, unless in an unusually
sheltered place, with shrubs and bushes arranged to re-
semble nature as much as possible.

The Silver Pheasant is most easily tamed of all the
varieties, and is also the hardiest ; whilst, in our opinion, it
equals any in beauty. The cock bird of this breed has a blue
crest, and all the upper part of the body is a silvery white,
most exquisitely pencilled with fine black lines arranged
with the most mathematical precision. Breast and under parts
usually quite black, but sometimes a little mottled. The hen
is brown, but remarkably neat and pretty.

This bird, if home-reared, may have its liberty in the
poultry-yard, feeding with the other fowls ; and has often been
known to lay forty or fifty eggs. There appears, therefore,
every reason to believe that with perseverance it might bo
rendered quite a domestic, and even profitable variety.

HYBRIDS between the Common Pheasant and other birds
are not unfrequent. They have been known to breed with
the Black Cock, Turkey, Guinea-fowl, and common domestic
hen ; the latter cross being not at all uncommon, as every
gamekeeper knows. Such hybrids are, however, invariably
sterile amongst themselves, and Mr. W. B. Tegetrneier has
declared them to be totally unproductive when mated even
with the parent ; but there is undoubted evidence* of at least
two birds having been reared as the produce of such a cross,
mated again with the cock pheasant. The subject is only
interesting from the singular fact, that although a cock
pheasant is a much smaller bird than the domestic fowl, the
cross produced is almost invariably very much larger in size
than the mother, probably in consequence of the strong
" wild blood " introduced ; and hence some may think the
experiment worth repeating. It is certainly true that by long
* See " Proceedings of the Zoological Society," 1836.

230 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATtelt-FOWL.

perseverance great difficulties of this kind have been overcome,
and hybrids, formerly considered barren, have been found at
least partially fertile ; but in this case interbreeding has been
so often tried that we cannot consider the field very promising.
One great obstacle is the extreme and apparently untamable
wildness of the hybrid from which it is wished to breed ; and
the only chance of success would appear to be rearing such
singly, in company with his or her intended mate.

We have only one further remark to make. Pheasants
should never be caught with the hand, as their bones are
fractured with the greatest ease. An implement should be
kept for the purpose, resembling a large butterfly net, but
with the bag of open netting instead of gauze. Jn this way
they may be caught when needed with the utmost facility ;
but they should never be meddled with more than absolutely
necessary.

CHAPTER XXVIIL

WATER-FOWL.

THE above heading should be borne in mind before such stock
is added to the poultry-yard. They are strictly water birds ;
and although ducks may be often seen in courts and alleys,
where the nearest approach to a pond which they have ever
known is some filthy mud-puddle, to keep animals whose
habitat is so well marked in such unnatural circumstances
must revolt every truly humane mind, and cannot in the long
run repay any one who attempts it.

DUCKS. — In the case of these birds alone may some little
exception be made to the above remark, as they will do well
in a garden or any other tolerably wide range where they can
procure plenty of slugs and worms, with a pond or cistern
only a few feet across. Kept in this manner, they will not
only be found profitable, but very serviceable; keeping the

AYLE8BURY DUCKS. 231

place almost free of those slugs which are the gardener's
great plague, aiid doing but little damage, except to straw-
berries, for which they have a peculiar partiality, and which
must be carefully protected from their ravages. Other fruit
is too high to be in much danger.

In such circumstances there can be no doubt whatever that
ducks are profitable poultry ; and where numerous fowls are
kept, a few should also be added, as they will keep themselves,
very nearly, on what the hens refuse ; but where every atom
of the food they consume has to be paid for in cash, our own
opinion is that ducks do not pay to rear, except for town
markets, their appetites are so everlasting and voracious. This
point, however, we must leave to the experience of the reader,
and proceed to consider the two principal varieties — known as
the Aylesbury and Rouen. The following descriptions and
accompanying remarks are from the pen of Mr. John K.
Fowler, of Aylesbury, one of the largest poultry-breeders, and
certainly the most successful exhibitor of ducks, in England : —

" My idea of a perfect Aylesbury drake and duck is, that
in plumage they should be of the purest snow-white all over.
The head should be full, and the bill well set on to the skull,
so that the beak should seem to be almost in a line from the
top of the head to the tip. The bill should be long, and when
viewed in front appear much like a woodcock's : it should be
in prize birds of a delicate flesh colour, without spot or
blemish, and with a slight fleshy excrescence where the
feathers commence. If it occasionally has a very slight creamy
tint, it would not disqualify, but any approach to dark buff or
yellow is fatal to the pen. Eye full, bright, and quite black.

" The legs should be strong, with the claws well webbed,
and in colour of a rich dark yellow or orange. Body rather
long, but broad across the shoulders, and the neck rather long
and slender. The drake should have one, and sometimes has
two, sharp curls in his tail

232 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATEU-FOWL.

" The weight of each bird in a show-pen ought to be about
nine pounds, but this is not very often attained.

" Immense numbers of ducks are bred around Aylesbury.
It is not at all unusual to see around one small cottage 2,000
ducklings, and it has been computed that upwards of £20,000
per annum is returned to the town and neighbourhood in
exchange, whilst the railway not uncommonly carries a ton
weight of the birds up to the London market in a single night.

" The Aylesbury Duck often begins to lay before Christ-
mas. Sitting hens are then procured ; and immediately after
hatching the ducklings are taken away from the hen and put,
fifty or a hundred together, in a close warm place, with one
hen tied by the leg to teach them to peck, and also to huckle
them. They should be given stimulating food ; that is, meal
well mixed with boiled meat and greaves ; they are thus made
fat in six or seven weeks, and, if sent to market in March or
April, realise from 12s. to 18s. per couple.

" With regard to my own breeding-stock, the selection
gives me no trouble. All the large breeders know that I will
give a guinea at any time for a very fine and well-developed
bird, and I thus keep my strain large, and am constantly
infusing new blood.1

" Many persons cannot imagine how the specimens of the
breed reared here acquire such faultless flesh-coloured bills.
The cause is local, as might be supposed. The beautiful prize
tint is obtained by giving the ducks in their troughs of water
a peculiar kind of white gravel found only in the neighbour-
hood of Aylesbury, in appearance resembling pumice-stone.
In this gravel they constantly shovel their bills, and this keeps
them white. Also, birds intended for exhibition are seldom
allowed out in the sun, as it tans the bills sadly.

" In selecting breeding-stock, drakes should be chosen with
very long bills, like a woodcock's, and ducks with broad backs
and large solid bodies."

BOUEN DUCKS. 233

For the gravel mentioned by Mr. Fowler, it is difficult to
find a perfect substitute. Any other kind of clean white
gravel may, however, be tried, and it may be well worth while
for intending prize-takers to transport a quantity to their yards.
It is also very beneficial to the paleness of their bills to let the
ducks out on the wet grass in the very early morning, before
the sun is up. Besides the tanning influence of the sun, it is
well known that ferruginous soil has a peculiar specific effect
on the bill, often turning it yellow in a single week. A bill
thus stained can never be paled again ; and Aylesbury Ducks
should, therefore, never be let out on land containing iron
ore.

" Rouen Ducks," Mr. Fowler states, " are reared much the
same as Aylesbury, but are not nearly so forward, rarely
laying till February or March. They are very handsome, and
will weigh eight or nine pounds each ; and, as a rule, do much
better in most parts of England than the Aylesburys. Their
flesh is excellent, and at Michaelmas is, I think, superior to
the other.

" The best general description of the Rouens in plumage is
to be precisely like the wild mallard, but larger. The drake
should have a commanding appearance, with a rich green and
purple head, and a fine long bill, formed and set on the head
as I have described for the Aylesburys. The bill should look
clean, of a yellow ground, with a very pale wash of green over
it, and the ' bean ' at the end of it jet black. His neck should
have a sharp, clearly-marked white ring round it, not quite
meeting at the back. Breast a deep rich claret-brown to well
below the water-line, then passing into the under body-colour,
which is a beautiful French grey, shading into white near the
tail. The back ought to be a rich greenish-black quite up to
the tail feathers, the curls in which are a rich dark green.
Wings a greyish-brown, with distinct purple and white ribbon-
uiark well developed. The flight-feathers must be grey and

234 TUHKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER-FOWL.

brown — any approach to white in them is a fatal disqualifica-
tion, not to be compensated by any other beauty or merit.
Legs a rich orange. Nothing can exceed the beauty of a drake
possessing the above colours in perfection.

"The bill of the duck should not be so long as in the
drake, and orange-brown as a ground colour, shading off at the
edges to yellow, and on the top a distinct splash or mark of a
dark colour approaching black, two-thirds down from the top ;
it should there be rounded off, and on no account reach the
sides. I may also remark that any approach to slate-colour
in the bills of either sex would be a fatal blemish. The head
of the duck is dark brown, with two distinct light brown lines
running along each side of the face, and shading away to the
upper part of the neck. Breast a pale brown, delicately
pencilled with dark brown ; the back is exquisitely pencilled
with black upon a moderately dark brown ground. The
shoulder of the wing is also beautifully pencilled with black
and grey ; flight-feathers dark grey, any approach to white
being instant disqualification ; and ribbon-mark as in the drake.
Belly, up to the tail, light brown, with every feather delicately
pencilled to the tip. Legs orange, often, however, with a
brown tinge. The duck sometimes shows an approach to a
white ring round the neck, as in the drake ; such, a good judge
would instantly disqualify."

To the foregoing we need add nothing. We will only
remark that when intended for fattening, ducks should have
only a trough of water instead of their usual pond, and should
then be fed on barley meal. Celery will add a delicious
flavour. In ordinary rearing the ducklings should be left with
the hen, or mother-duck, and kept from the water entirely for
a week or ten days ; then only allowed to swim for half an
hour at a time, till the feathers begin to grow, else they will
be liable to die of cramp. They will soon be totally indepen-
dent of their mother, and may then be left entirely to them-

PEKIN DUCKS. 235

selves ; only taking precautions against rats, to which duck-
lings fall victims far oftener than any other poultry.

The Pekin Duck is a recent introduction, and one of the
most valuable. It was imported direct from Pekin into both
England and the United States independently, in the year
1873, but most English importations have been from the
American stock. The characteristics are most marked and
distinct in many points. The plumage is white, with a most
peculiar canary-yellow under-colour all through it; but the
duck differs chiefly from others in a remarkable curved or boat-
shaped contour of the body, both breast and stern being so
curved as irresistibly to suggest the notion of a birch-bark
canoe. The legs and bill are deep yellow or reddish-orange,
the legs set far back, which makes the bird walk rather
upright. Some birds have been shown destitute of the yellow
tinge through the feather, but there have generally been other
signs in such of a cross with the Aylesbury.

This breed is the best layer (on an average) of all the ducks,
and very seldom desires to sit at all, though some instances are
recorded. It is very hardy, and grows fast ; and it gives the
breeder a white duck without that trouble about the bill which
so adds to the difficulty of breeding Aylesbury ducks. The
size is good, though the weight is seldom what might be
supposed. "We once knew a duck weigh 11 Ibs., but, as a rule,
very large specimens do not exceed 15 Ibs. per pair ; the flesh
is, however, delicate and peculiarly free from grossness. On
the whole this must be pronounced one of our most valuable
breeds, and is rapidly making way. Its appearance on the
water is very ornamental

The Cayuga is a large black duck, originating in North
America. The original wild stock is no doubt descended from
the mallard, and was of a brownish black, with an irregular white
collar round the drake's neck. Breeding to get out these faults
of colour at first reduced the size ; but this was recovered, and

236 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER-FOWL.

the breed now is a good size, and black all over, with as much
green lustre as possible — in fact, as nearly as possible a large
edition of the Black East India Duck. The shape, however, is
not nearly so short as that of the East India Duck, but more
resembles that of the Aylesbury.

This duck has been bred to weigh 1 9 Ibs. per pair. It is
hardy and matures early ; is quiet in habit, and a very good
layer. The flesh has a gamey flavour which most people like,
and surpasses most wild ducks in this respect. It is very apt
to moult out white feathers after the first year or two. This
fault should be avoided, and the legs chosen as dark as
possible.

The Muscovy, or Music Duck, appears to be totally a distinct
species; the cross between it and other ducks being, at least
usually, unfertile. The drake is very large, often weighing
ten pounds, and looking far more on account of the loose
feathering : but the female is less than the Aylesbury, not
exceeding about six pounds. The plumage of this variety
varies greatly, from all white to a deep blue-black, but usually
contains both. The face is naked, and the base of the bill is
greatly carunculated. The drake is very quarrelsome, and we
well remember the injuries inflicted by an old villain of this
breed belonging to a relative, upon a fine Dorking cock in the
same yard. When excited, the bird alternately depresses and
raises its head, uttering most harsh and guttural sounds, and
with the red skin round the face, presenting an appearance
which has been justly described as " infernal."

The flesh of the Musk Duck is very good eating ; but it is
far inferior as a layer to either the "Rouen or the Aylesbury,
and cannot be considered a very useful variety.

Call Ducks are principally kept as ornamental fowl. The
voice of the drake is peculiar, resembling a low whistle. They
vary in colour, one variety precisely resembling the Aylesbury
in plumage, but with a yellow bill, and the other the Roueu;

MANAGEMKNT OP DUCKS. 237

but in both cases bearing the same relation to them as Game
Bantams do to the Game fowl. The flesh is good ; but there
is too little to repay breeding them for the table, and their
only proper place is on the lake.

The East Indian, or Euetws Ay res Black Duck, is a most
beautiful bird. The plumage is black, with a rich green lustre,
and any white, grey, or brown feathers are fatal. They should
be bred for exhibition as small as possible, never exceeding
five and four pounds. As they usually pair, equal numbers
should be kept of both sexes. The flesh of this duck is more
delicious than that of any other variety, in our estimation.

Many most beautiful varieties of small foreign ducks are
often shown, the most common being the Mandarin and
Carolina; but it is needless to give detailed descriptions
here.

The G/ommon Duck needs no description. We believe it to
be the Rouen more or less degenerated, or, rather, perhaps,
not bred up to the perfection of that breed. The same may
be said of the French Duclair Ducks.

It should be remembered in keeping ducks that the mild
birds are monogamous, and not more than two or three be given
to one drake, if eggs are wanted for sitting. The duck usually
sits well, and always covers her eggs with loose straw when
leaving them, a supply of which should therefore be left by her.
The usual number laid is fifty or sixty ; but ducks have laid as
many as two hundred and fifty in a year ; and we believe with
care this faculty might be greatly developed, and their value
much increased as producers of eggs. At present they are
mostly kept for table.

Ducks should have a separate house, with a brick or stone
floor, as it requires to be frequently washed down. Clean
straw should be given them at least every alternate night.
Other attention they need none, beyond the precaution of
keeping them in until they have laid every morning. This is

238 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER-FOWL.

necessary, as the Duck is very careless about laying, and if
left at liberty will often drop her eggs in the water whilst
swimming.

GEESE. — *' Of the two principal breeds of geese," Mr.
Fowler writes, " I very much prefer the Grey or Toulouse to
the White or Embden, being larger and handsomer. I have
had a Toulouse gander which weighed thirty- four pounds, a
weight never, I am sure, attained by the White breed. They
are also better shaped, as a rule, and every way the more
profitable variety. The forehead should be flat, and the bill
a clear orange red. The plumage is a rich brown, passing into
white on the under parts and tail coverts.

" The Embden Goose is pure white in every feather, and
the eye should show a peculiar blue colour in the iris in all
well-bred birds."

We should recommend for market to cross the Toulouse
Goose with the White, by which greater weight is gained than
in either variety pure-bred ; but much will depend upon
circumstances. White or cross-bred geese require a pond, but
the Toulouse, with a good grass-run, will do well with only a
trough of water, and will require no extra feeding, except for
fattening or exhibition.

The only foreign varieties requiring mention are the Chinese
and the Canada geese, both of which appear to be really mid-
way between the geese proper and the swans, which they
resemble in length of neck.

The Chinese Goose is of a general brown colour, passing
into light grey or white on the breast, with a dark brown
stripe down the back of the neck. They have much of the
beauty of the swan, which they also resemble. in having a dark
protuberance round the base of the upper mandible. The voice
is very harsh and peculiar. This breed is not a good grazer,
and is best reared in the farmyard.

The Canada Goose also is not a good grazer, and does best

GEESE. 239

near marshy ponds, in which circumstances they will thrive
and be found profitable.

With regard to the general management of geese little need
be said. More than four or five should not be allowed to one
gander, and such a family will require a house about eight feet
square ; but to secure fine stock three geese are better to one
male. Each nest must be about two feet six inches square,
and, as the goose will always lay where she has deposited her
first egg, there must be a nest for each bird. If they each lay
in a separate nest the eggs may be left ; otherwise, they should
be removed daily.

Geese should be set in March or early April, as it is very
difficult to rear the young in hot weather. The time is thirty
to thirty-four days. The goose sits very steadily, but should be
induced to come off daily and take a bath. Besides this, she
should have in reach a good supply of food and water, or
hunger will compel her, one by one, to eat all her eggs. The
gander is sometimes kept away ; but this is not needful, as he
not only has no enmity to the eggs or goslings, but takes very
great interest in the hatching, often sitting by his mate for
hours.

The goslings should be allowed to hatch out entirely by
themselves. When put out, they should have a fresh turf
daily for a few days, and be fed on boiled oatmeal and rice,
with water from a pond, in a very shallow dish, as they
should not be allowed to swim for a fortnight, for which time
the goose is better kept under a very large crate. After two
weeks they will be able to shift for themselves, only requiring
to be protected from very heavy rain till fledged, and to have
one or two feeds of grain daily, in addition to what they pick up.

For fattening they should be penned up half-a-dozea
together in a dark shed and fed on barley-meal, being let out
several hours for a last bath before being killed, in order to
clean their feathers.

240 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER-FOWL

" For exhibition," Mr. Fowler says, " all geese should be
shut up in the dark, and fed liberally upon whole barley or oat?
thrown into water. It is essential to great weight to keep
them very quiet, letting them out in the water, however, for
half an hour every day."

SWANS. — There are six or seven varieties of swans known
to naturalists, but only three are at present, or likely to be,
domesticated in this country — viz., the English White or Mute
Swan ; the Australian or Black Swan, and the Chili or
Peruvian Swan. The plumage of the two first needs no
description ; but that of the Chilian Swan differs from either
in being white on the body, with a black head and neck, making
rather a pleasing contrast of colour. In size the White Swan
is largest of all All three varieties are long-lived, and
individual birds are reported to have reached the age of one
hundred years.

The female swan lays in February, every other day until
seven to nine eggs are laid. More than five cygnets, however,
are seldom hatched. The nest is made somewhere amongst the
flags and weeds at the water's edge, and it is dangerous to
approach either the male or female during incubation, as they
are very irascible, and a blow from their strong pinions will
even break a man's arm.

The cygnets are best fed by throwing meal upon the water.
The old birds, if they have a large water range, will only need
feeding in severe winter, when they should have grain. They
also like grass to be thrown to them, and bread, which they
will frequently eat from the hand.

The young birds must be left to shift much for themselves,
the parents being too jealous and powerful to submit to restraint.
But for this they might perhaps be more widely kept, as young
cygnets an11, excellent for the table, and very easily reared.

INDEX.

Accidents to Eggs, 37

Advantages of Scientific Breeding,

114

Age to Breed from, 119
Ale and Meat for Chickens, 49
American Breeds, 196
American Bronze Turkeys, 221
Analytic of Food, 23
Ai COIAS, 172
Aiulalusian Bantams, 210
Andalusian Fowls, 172
Animal Food Essential, 26
Apoplexy, Treatment for, 93
Artificial Hatching, 70

, Secrets of Success,

91

Artificial Mothers, 87

, Hydro, 89

, Mrs. Cheshire's, 88

Artificially-reared Chickens, Food of,

92

Australian Swan, 240
Aylesbury Ducks, 231, 232

Bad Fledging, 93
Bad Moulting, 94
Bantam Chickens, 211
Bantams, Varieties of, 206—210
Barley as Food, 25, 48
Barndoor Fowls, 15
Black Bantams, 208

Cochins, 144

crested White Polish, 181

— - Ducks, 237

Hamburghs, 178

Leghorns, 198

Spanish, 167

. Delicacy of Chickem

Black Spanish, Points of, 168

, Preserving Faces of, 170

Swans, 240

Black-red Game Fowls, 156
Black-rot in Spanish Fowls, 173
Boiling Old Fowls, 59
Boyle's Regulator, 71
Brahmas, as Family Fowls, 15

, as Layers, 152

, as Mothers, 35, 149, 150

, Dark, Description of, 149

, Effect of Breeding for Mark-
ing in, 152

, Light, Description of, 149

, Origin of, 147

, Peculiarities of, 148

, Points of, 148

-, Varieties of, 148

Bran as Food, 22
Bredas or Gueldres, 191

, Description

193

Breeder, Power of the, 116
Breeding Turkeys, 213-220

, Principles of, 108, 12!)

, Prize Poultry, 101—124

Breeds for Profit, 17

, New, 111

, Pure, 109

Brindley's Incubator, 70
Broken Eggs in a Nest, 37
Bronze Turkeys, 221

, Weight of, 221

Broody Hens, 16
Brown Leghorns, 198

red Game Fowls, 157

Buckwheat and Barley, 25, 48, 53
Buff Cochins, 143

or Chamois Polish, W3

Buenos Ayres Black Ducks, 237
Buying Fowls, 13

109

-, Disease of Face of, 170 Call Ducks. 2

242

INDEX.

Cambridge Turkeys, 215, 220

Canada Geese, 238

Canker, Treatment for, 94,

Cure in Management, 1, 64, 65

Carolina Ducks, 238

Cats and Chickens, 47

Cayuga Ducks, 238

Cheap Houses for the Farm, 67

Cheshire's, Mrs., Artificial Mother,

88
Chickens, Ale and Meat for, 49

, Breaking the Shell, 4:)

, Couped under Shed, 43

, Cramming, 55

, Cramp in, 90

, First Meal of, 42

, Food for, 47, 48

, , in Cold Weather, 49

, Growing, Food of, 50

, Rearing of, 41

, Scale on Beak of, 42

, Shelter for, 50

, Withholding Water from,

50, 51

Chili Swan, The, 240
Chinese Geese, 238
Chinese or Ring-necked Pheasant,

238
Christy's Hydro-Incubator, 73

Thermostatic Incubator, 81

Cleanliness, and how Secured, 6
Cochin (or Pekin) Bantams, 209
Cochins, as Breeding Fowls, 16, 141

, as Mothers, 35

, Defects of, 145

, Diseases to which are Liable,

146

, Merits of, 145

, Points of, 143

, Varieties of, 143, 144

, Weights of, 142

Collection of Eggs, The, 40
Colour of Game Fowls, 156—157
Coloured Dorking, Effects of Crossing

on, 115, 162
Common Duck, 238

Fowls, 15

Pheasant, 228

Condition, How to Preserve Fowls in,

122

Consumption, Treatment of, 96
Construction of Fowl-house, 2— 5
Conveyance of Exhibition Hampers,

136
Coop* under Shed, 13

Coops, Floor of, 45

, Ordinary Basket, 46

, Shelter, 44

C<5urtes Pattes, Description of, 195
Covered Vans, 7, 47
Cramp in Chickens, 90
Creepers or Dumpies, 200
Crevecceurs, Description of, 186

, Merit of, 187

Crop-bound Fowls, Treatment of, 96
Crosses and Pure Breeds, 15

for Laying Strains, G4

Crossing and Selection, 113 — 115
Crossing, Effect on Coloured

Dorkings, 115

, Examples of, 113—115

on Game Fowls, 115

on Laced or Sebright Bantams,

on Surrey Fowls, 115

115
Cuckoo Bantams, 209

Cochins, 144

Dorkings, 165

Leghorns, 198

Cutting Fowls' Wings, 11
Cygnets, Management of, 240

Dark Brahmas, Description of, 149
, for Colouring and

Marking, 150

, Merits of, 152

Dead Poultry Classes in France, 118
Deodorisers, The Best, 8, 46, 47
Definition of Pure Breeds, 109
Diarrhoea, Treatment of,
Difficulties in Rearing, 89
Diphtheria, How to Treat, 95, 97
Diseases of Poultry, 93

, General Symptoms, 100

, How to Prevent, 100

Dishes for Food, 24

Domestic Poultry Keeping. Profit of,

30,31

Dominiques, Description of, 196
Dorkings as a Table-fowl, 166

— as Breeding-fowls, 17
as Mothers, 35

— , Description of, 161, 162

— for Crossing, 14
— , Merits of, 165

, Varieties of, 161—165

— , Weights of, 162
Double Ranges, 107

INDEX.

243

Double Runs, 9, 10

Douglas Mixture, and when to Use

it, 28

Draughts in Fowl-house, 4, 23
Dressing Fowls for Market, 57
" Dubbing " Game Fowls, 159
Ducks, Description of, 230—233

as Layers, 237

, Feeding of, 234

, Houses for, 237—238

, Merits of, 237, 238

, Hearing of, 232—236

, The Gardener's Friend, 231

, Varieties of, 232—238

Duckwings, Description of, 157
Duclair Ducks, 237
Dumpies or Creepers, 200
Dusting-places, 7, 68

E

East Indian Black Ducks, 237

Elt'ects of Selection, Beneficial, 113

Egg-laying FowLs, 14—17

Egg- testers, 38, 39

Egg-tray in Boyle's Incubator, 73

Eggs, Collection of. 30

for Artificial Hatching, 85

for Table, 12

from Prize Birds, 124

, Number of, for Hatching, 39

, Mesting Travelled Eggs, 85

, Turning in Artificial Hatching,

82
Eggs for Setting, Fresh, 32

, Fertility and Sex

of, 33

), 42, 124

How to Keep, 33
How to Pack, 125
How to Select, 38,

Number of, 39
Testing Fertility,

Embden Geese, 238

English and French Judges, Opinions

of, 117

English White Swan, The, 240
Errors in Feeding, 19, 20
Evils of Fancy Selection, 117
Exhibition Chickens, Rearing of, 118
— , Food of, 125
— , Matching a Pen

of, 131

132

Q2

Preparation of,

Exhibition Chickens, Preserving Con-
dition of, 123

, Treatment on

Return of, 137
Exhibition Hampers, 135, 136

, Carriage of, 135

Exhibition, Rearing Chickens for,

Treatment of, 120—128
, When Ready for, 118

Fancy Poultry, 15

, Feathers of, 139

Farm, Benefit of Rearing Fowls on a,
61

Attendant's Duties, 68

, Breeds for a, 63, 64

Dusting-places, G8

Fowls for a, 63—64

Houses for the, 67

Selection of Stock for a, 63, 64

Separation of Fowls on a, 66

Supervision of Fowls on a, 66

Family Fowls, 17

Fat, Extra Weight and, 55

Hens, 18

Fattening Chickens, 52

, Best Food for, 53

, Duration of Process of, 53

Foods, 24

Pens, 52, 53

, Profitable, 54

, Value of Even Feeding in,

54
Feathers, How to Dress, 30

, Value of, 30

Feeding, Careful, 21, 22
, Errors in, 19

Growing Chickens, 47, 48
-, Proper System of, 21

Fertile Eggs,

Fertility and Sex of Eggs, Testing

the, 33, 86

Fledging, Treatment for Bad, 93
Fleche, La, Description of, 187

, Merits of, 188

Floor of Coops, 45
Flooring of Fowl-house, 5
Food, Best, for Evening Meal, 21

Animal, Essential, 26

Buckwheat as, 25

, for Morning Meal, 21, 22

Change of, Beneficial, 22, 23

How to Give, 24

244

INDEX.

Food for Growing Chickens, 47 — 49
for a Large Number, 22

— for Chickens Artificially Reared,
92

for Prize Chickens, 125

for Small Number, 22

, Mixing Soft, 24

in Winter, 49

Tail Wheat as, 25

Various Kinds of, 22, 23

Vegetable, Necessary, 26

Vessels for, 25

— When to Give, 20

Foods, Analysis of Various Poultry,

23

Fowl-house, Construction of, 2 — 5
Avoid Draughts in, 2
Flooring of, 5
Materials for, 2—7
Size of the, 8
Sheds and their Value,
4,5

, Ventilation of, 3

Fowls in Confined Space, 12, 14

, How to Dispose of Old, 13, 14

, How to Tell Young, 13

, Improving Farmer's, 62

, Keeping in Condition, 123

Require Care and Attention, 1

, Washing, 133

Free Range, 107

French and English Judges, Opinions

of, 117
French Breeds, General Description

of, 185—194

, Merits of, 186

, Varieties of, 187—195

French Duclair Ducks, 237

Fresh blood, Introduction of, 120
Frizzled Fowls, 202
Foreign Ducks, 237

G

Game Bantams, 210

Chickens and Eggs, 211

Hens, 15

as Mothers, 35, 1GO

Game Fowls, Breeding of, 155

, Description of, 155—160

, Effects of Crossing on,

160

, Flesh of, 17, 160

— for Table, 160, 161
— , Merits of, 160

Game Fowls, Modern Exhibition, 155

, Original Varieties, 159

, Varieties of, 155—159

Gardener's Friend, The, 231
Gapes, Treatment of, 97

Geese, Description of, 238—240

for Exhibition, 240

, General Management of, 239

, Varieties of, 238—240

Gold Pheasant, The, 228
Gold and Silver Laced Bantams, 208
Golden "Mooney " Hamburghs, 176
Golden-pencilled Hamburgh, 174
Golden Pheasant Fowl, 178
Golden Pheasant, The, 228
Golden-spangled Hamburgh, 176
Golden-spangled Polish, 183
Goslings, 239
Grass Runs, 7

for Chickens, 46, 134

Green Food, 26

Grey or Coloured Dorkings, 162
Grit or Gravel for Fowls, Use of, 29
Ground Nests, 36
Gueldres or Breda Fowls, 191
Guinea Fowl, 221

, Merits of, 222

Hamburghs, Description of, 174

, as Layers, 14, 179

— , Varieties of, 170—179
Hatching, Artificial, 170

Artificial, of Pure Breeds,

123

Assistance at, 41

Hearson's Incubator, 87,
Hempseed, 135
"Hen Fever, "The, 141
Hens Desiring to Sit, 13, 38

Leaving Nest, 40

Henny Game Fowl, The, 159
Holmesdale, Lady, her Dorkings, 107
Houdans as Layers, 14

, Description of, 190

, Weight of, 140

House for Fowls, 2—4

for the Farm, 67

How to Keep Eggs for Setting, 33
How to Pack Eggs for Setting, 12n
Hybrid Pheasants, 229
Hydro- Incubator, The, 73

, Essential Points of,

74,75

INDEX.

245

Incubation, 32
Incubator, Boyle's, 71

, Christy's Hydro-, 73

, Hearson's, 87

, Management of, 77

, Tomlinson's, 78, 79

Indian Corn and Meal, 22, 48, 132

Game Fowl, 159

Influence of the Sexes, 121
Insect Vermin, Cure for, 100

Japanese Bantams, 210

Long-tailed Fowls, 205

Javan Tea-fowl, 223

Judging of Poultry, 136
Jungle Fowls, 111

K
Killing Fowls for Table, 56

La Bresse, Description of, 194

, Merits of, 194

La Fleche described, 187

, Merits of, 189

Laced Bantams, 115, 207
Lamps for Incubators, 82
Lancashire Mooneys, 176
Lane's, Mr., Poultry Yard, 103
Langshans as Breeding Fowls, 15, 16

, Defects of, 146

, Merits of, 146

, Points of, 144

Laying Breeds for Farmers, 63
Le .Mans, Description of, 193
Leg Weakness, Treatment for, 98
Leghorns as Layers, 14, 172

, Merits of, 197, 198

laght Brahmas, Description of, 148,
149

-, as Mothers, 35, 149,

150

149

, Difficult in Breeding,

-, Merits of, 152

, Points of, 148

, Weight of, 148

lame for Fowls, 28

Lining and Covering Houses, 3
Linseed, Use of, 135

Linton Park, Fowls at, 105, 137
Liver Disease, How tn Treat, 96

M

Maize as Food, 23, 48
Making New Varieties, 115
Malays, 153, 154

as Feather-eaters, 154

, Chief Merit, 154

, Description of, 153

, Great Drawback, 154

, Weight of, 153

Management of Incubators, 77
Mandarin Duck, The, 237
Manure, Value of, 29, 61
Marking Eggs, 38
Matching a Pen of Fowls for Exhibi

tion, 131

Meals per Day,' 20
Midday Meal, The, 25
Middlings as Food, 23
Minorcas as Layers, 15, 18, 171

, Description of, 171

Mistakes in Feeding, 19
Moisture for Sitting Hens, 41
" Mooney " Hamburghs, 176
Moulting, Bad, 94
Muscovy, or Musk Duck, The, 237
Mute Swan, The, 240

N

Nankin Bantams, 209

Nervous Debility, How to Treat, 98

Nest, Making the, 37

Nests, Various Kinds of, 29

, Ground, 36

New Breeds of Fowls, 111
, Process of Development,

Norfolk Turkeys, 220

Old Fowls for Home Use, 59
Origin of the Domestic Fowl, 111

112

Ornamental Poultry, 213—224
Orpingtons, 205
Over-feeding, Evils of, 16, 19, 26, 93

Partridge Cochin, The, 144
Pea-fowl, The, 222—224
. Javan, 223-

246

INDEX.

Pekin Bantams, 209
Perches, 4

Peruvian Swan, The, 240
Pheasants, 225—229 •

, Merits of, 227

, Varieties of, 228

Phoenix Fowls, 204
Piles (Game), 158
Pip, 98

Plucking Fowls, 58, 59
Plymouth Kocks as Breeding Fowls,
15

, Merits of, 196, 197

Polish or Polands, Description of,

180

, Diseases to which liable, 185

, Merits of, 184

, Varieties of, 181—184

Portable Wooden Houses, 107
Potatoes as Food, 22, 24
Poultry on the Farm, 60
Poultry-houses, 2, 67
Poultry-yard, .Plan of, 9, 11

, Mr. H. Lane's, 102

, Sir H.iThompson's, 105

, Space necessary, 8

Preparations for Showing, 132 — 135
Preserving Condition in Fowls, 122
Preventing Birds from Flying, 11
Principles of Breeding Exhibition

Fowls, 118—123
Prize Poultry, 100, 137
Process of Development, 112
Profits of Poultry-keeping, 30
Proper System of Feeding, 21
Protected Euns, 47
Ptarmigans, 184

Purchasing Exhibition Birds, 119
Pure Breeds Denned, 109
Putting out the Chickens, 43

Qualities of Dorkings, 165
Quality of Table Fowls, 55

Rearing Chickens, 41

Artificially, SG

Turkeys, 219

Redcaps, Description of, 179

, Merits of, 129

Regulators for Incubators, 71, 80
Resting Travelled Eggs, 85

Rice as Food, 48
Hooting for Fowl-houses, 3
Rouen Ducks, 233
Rose-combed Leghorns, 198
Roup, Treatment for, 99
Rumpless Fowls, 202
Runs for Fowls, 7

, Grass, 7

, Wire-covered, 47

S

Salt in Food, 22
Scaly Legs, 99
Schroder's Incubator, 70
Scotch Greys, Description, 200
Sebright Bantams, 206
Secret of Fattening Chickens Pro-
fitably, 54, 55

Secret of Washing Fowls, 134
Secrets of Artificial Hatching, 91
Selection in Breeding, 14, 15, 113
Selecting Eggs for Setting, 38, 39
Separating Fowls on Farms, 67

the Sexes, 129

Setting, Eggs for, 32

Sex of Eggs, 33

Sexes, Separation of the, 101, 129

Shanghaes or Cochins, 141

Sharps as Food, 22, 48

Sheds for Shelter, 4, 68

Shelter Coops, 44

Silkies, Description of, 201

Silver Pheasant Fowl, 178, 229

Grey Dorkings, 114, 103

Laced Bantams, 208

Pencilled Hamburgh, 174

Spangled Hamburgh, 177

Polish, 182

Singeing, Dead Poultry, 58
Sitting Hens, 34, 35
Snow in Water, 27
Soft Eggs, 99

Soft Food for Fowls, 21, 24
Spanish Fowls, 14, 18

, Black Rot in, 173

, Merits of, 173

, Varieties of, 166—172

Spratt's Food, 48, 127, 137
Sterile Eggs, 39
Storing Eggs, 33
Sultans, Description of, 183

, Weight of, 184

Swan, The, 240
"Sweepings," Dangers of, 25

INDEX.

247

Table-Fowls, Quality of, 55

, Good Model, 56

Tail-wheat as Food, 25
Testing Eggs, 38
Thermostatic Incubator, 81
Thompson's, Sir H., Poultry Yard,

IOC

Tomlinson's Incubator, 78, 79
Toulouse Geese, 238
Travelled Eggs, 85
Trough for Food, 24
Trussing Fowls, 59
Turkeys, 213—221

, Bronze, 221

— , Cambridge, 215, 220

, Feeding, 219

, Merits of, 217

, Norfolk, 220

— , Weight of, 216

Value of Feathers, 30

- — Manure, 29, 61
Various Class, The 200,
Ventilation, Benefits of, 3
Vegetable Food necessary for Fowls.

26,49

Vermin, How to get rid of, 3, 91, 100
Vessels for Food, 2j

W

Washing Fowls, 133
Water-fountains, 27
Water-fowl, Varieties of, 230
Water or no Water for Chickens,

50

Weeding the Yard, 129
Wheat as Food, 25
Wheaten Game Fowl, The, 157
White Bantams, 209

Cochins, 143

Comb, 146

Crested Black Polish, 181

- Crested White Polish, 182

Dorkings, 16-1

Geese"; 238

Leghorns, 198

Swan, The, 240

Willesden Paper, Use of, 3
Wire-covered Kun, 47
Wyandottes, Description of, 198,

Yard, Mr. Lane's, 102

, Sir H. Thompson's, 105

Yards in Front of Sheds, 10

for Prize Fowls, 101

Yokohama, The, 203, 204

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