Full text of "The practical poultry keeper : a complete and standard guide to the management of poultry, whether for domestic use, the markets, or exhibition"

See other formats

LIBRARY

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

A6R1C.
LIBRARY

Class

THE

PRACTICAL

POULTRY KEEPER

3 Complete anD ^>taniarti <§ufoe

TO THE

MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY,

\VHETHER FOR

IMJ.MESTIC USE, THE MARKETS, OR EXHIBITION

BY L. WRIGHT.

UNIVERSITY FOURTH EDITION

NEW YORK:
ORANGE JUDD AND COMPANY,

245, BROADWAY.

UBBMT

By special arrangement, the sale of this book in the United
States is placed in the hands of Messrs. ORANGE JUDD AND Co.,
of New York.

CASSELL, PETTEE, & GALriN,

London and New York.

CONTENTS.

SECTION I.

PAOB

THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF DOMESTIC POULTRY, WITH A

VIEW TO PROFIT: —
Chapter I. — Houses and Runs ; and the Appliances necessary

to keeping Poultry with Success 3

Chapter II.— On the System of Operations, and the Selection

of Stock 14

Chapter III. — The Feeding and General Management of

adult Fowls 20

Chapter IV. — Incubation 34

Chapter V.— The Bearing and Fattening of Chickens ... 44
Chapter VL— Diseases of Poultry 55

SECTION II.

THE BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY: —

Chapter VII. — Yards and Accommodation adapted for Breed-
ing Prize Poultry 63

Chapter VIII.— On the Scientific Principles of Breeding,

and the Effects of Crossing ... ... ... ... ... 70

Chapter IX.— On the Practical Selection and Care of Breed-
ing Stock, and the Bearing of Chickens for Exhibition... 80

Chapter X. — On " Condition," and the Preparation of Fowls
for Exhibition; and various other Matters connected
with Shows 90

SECTION HI.

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS: THEIR CHARACTERISTIC POINTS,
WITH A COMPARISON OF THEIR MERITS AND PRINCIPAL
DEFECTS •—

Chapter XL— Cochin-Chinas or Shanghaes 101

Chapter XII.— Brahma Pootras 105

iV CONTENTS.

PAGE

Chapter XIII.— Malays 116

Chapter XIV.— Game 118

Chapter XV.— Dorkings 126

Chapter XVI.— Spanish 131

Chapter XVIL— Hamburghs 138

Chapter XVIII.— Polands 145

Chapter XIX.— French Breeds 151

Chapter XX.— Bantams ... „ 162

Chapter XXL— The " Various " Class 167

SECTION IV.

TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATERFOWL:—

Chapter XXIL— Turkeys. Guinea-fowl. Pea-fowl 173

Chapter XXIII.— Pheasants 185

Chapter XXIV.— Water-fowl 190

SECTION V.

THE HATCHING AND REARING OF CHICKENS ARTIFICIALLY: —

Chapter XXV. — The Incubator and its Management ... 203
Chapter XXVI.— Eearing Chickens Artificially 213

SECTION VI.

THE BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT or POULTRY UPON A LARGE

SCALE : —
Chapter XXVII. — Separate Establishments for Eearing

Poultry. Poultry on the Farm. Conclusion 221

LIST OF ILLUSTBATIONS.

PACK

GROUND PLAN AND ELEVATION OF POULTRY HOUSE 11

FEEDING-DISH 26

COVER FOR FEEDING-DISH 26

POULTRY-FOUNTAIN ... . 29

PROTECTION FOR THE HEN WHILST SITTING 38

MODE OF TESTING EGGS ... 41

COOP FOR HEN WITH CHICKENS 46

COOP FOR TRANSPORTING HEN AND BROOD 48

WIRE-COVERED RUN FOB YOUNG CHICKENS 49

FATTENING PENS 52

PLAN OP MR. H. LANE'S POULTRY-YARD 65

„ Ms. R. W. BOYLE'S „ 68

CREVECXEUR FOWLS 152

LA FLECHE COCKEREL 155

„ PULLET 156

HOUDAN COCK 157

„ HEN 158

BREDA FOWLS 159

SILKY „ 169

BARN-DOOR „ 171

BRINDLEY'S INCUBATOR 205

SECTION OF MR. F. H. SCHRODER'S INCUBATOR 207

COLONEL STUART "WORTLEY'S INCUBATOR 212

MR. F. H. SCHRODER'S "MOTHER" 215

THE POULTRY-HOUSE AT BELATR 225

VI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

VIEW OF HEN-HOUSE 22(j

PLAN OF „ 227

THE OPEN RUNS FOR CHICKENS AND FOWLS 229

ARRANGEMENT OF GROUND FLOOR OF POULTRY-HOUSE 230

THE HATCHING-ROOM 231

FEEDING-COOPS 232

THE PORTABLE HATCHING BASKET ... ... 233

THE KITCHEN ... 233

THE STORE-ROOM 234

THE AUDEOD CORN-BIN 235

SEPARATE PLATES.

SILVER-PENCILLED HAMBURGHS ... ... ... ... Frontispiece

WHITE COCHINS ... ... Facing p. 101

FEATHERS „ 107

DARK BRAHMAS „ 108

DUCK-WING GAME -.., „ 121

GREY DORKINGS „ 127

WHITE-FACED BLACK SPANISH ... „ 131

SlLVTCR-SP ANGLED POLAXDS „ 147

BLACK AND SEBRIGHT BANTAMS „ 163

VARIEGATED CAMBRIDGE TURKEYS ... ,,, ... „ 180

ROUEN AND AYLESBIJRY DUCKS „ 191

TOULOUSE GEESE ... „ 197

PREFACE.

WITH at least half a dozen books upon the subject of Poultry
ill ready at the choice of the reader, some apology may be
deemed necessary for the publication of yet another.

Such our apology is very brief, and rests in the simple fact
that a practical treatise — authoritative and comprehensive, yet>
simple and popular — has yet to be supplied. We are not to
the present time aware of any work we could put into the-
hands of a person totally ignorant of poultry keeping, with the
reasonable certainty that its instructions, if followed, would
command success. Descriptions of breeds there are in plenty,
some of them of great value ; but very little has been written
respecting the practical details of even ordinary poultry
management ; and with regard to two very important parts of
the subject — the breeding and rearing of poultry for exhi-
bition, and artificial incubation — absolutely nothing has yet
been published in a connected form.

To occupy this field is one object of the following pages ;
which are the fruit of a thorough practical experience and
knowledge of fowls, and will, we believe, be found a plain and
sufficient guide to the merest tyro in any circumstances that
are likely to occur to him ; whilst even experienced breeders,
we hope, may also find hints which may be useful to them.

Yet, whilst thus paying special attention to practical
management, the different breeds have not been overlooked ; and

viii PREFACE.

of eveiy leading variety, at least, sufficient description has been
given to answer every purpose of the fancier. Where we have
permission to give them, the eminent names appended to the
different chapters will be ample guarantee for the correctness
of this portion of our work; but it is in every case to be under-
stood that we do not rely alone upon our own careful study of
the best specimens, but have the highest authority in each
breed for every statement made respecting it. It is the more
necessary to state this, because we have been compelled in
a few cases to dissent from the well-known "Standard of
Excellence " — usually most reliable, and hitherto the generally
recognised authority on this part of the subject.

It only remains to thank those who have aided us, and
placed their valuable experience and knowledge at the service
of the public. Some of these are old friends : others are, or at
least were, personal strangers. 'But in either case we feel plea-
sure in recording that, in nearly every instance, any assistance
requested has been accorded as frankly as it was asked, and
has frequently led to after intercourse of a most pleasant kind ;
and that to the cheerful and kindly aid of the most eminent
breeders in the kingdom these pages owe much of whatever
value they may have.

Kingsdown, Bristol,

January 31, 1867.

SECTION I.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF DOMESTIC POULTRY,

WITH A VIEW TO PROFIT.

TO THE READER.

THE pages of this Section are not intended simply to be
read and commended ; but the directions given are such
as are proper for the circumstances therein referred to,
and are the price to be paid for health and eggs.

For instance : when it is said that the roosting-house
should be cleansed daily, it is meant that it should be done.
When it is said that fowls in confinement should have
daily fresh vegetable food, it is intended to convey that
such food must be regularly given. And so on.

Let the reader deal fairly by us and by his poultry.
So will the latter deal fairly by him.

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

OF J

-•' >iX
GENEKAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

CHAPTER I.

HOUSES AND RUNS; AND THE APPLIANCES NECESSARY TO KEEP-
ING POULTRY WITH SUCCESS.

FOWLS should not be kept unless proper and regular attention can
be given to them ; and we would strongly urge that this needful
attention should be personal. Our own experience has taught
us that domestics are rarely to be relied upon in many matters
essential both to economy and the well-being of the stock;
and, if any objection be made on the score of dignity, we could
not only point to high-born ladies who do not think it beneath
them to attend to their own fowls, but can aver that even the
most menial offices can be performed in any properly-constructed
fowl-house without so much as soiling the fingers. If there be
children in the family old enough to undertake such matters,
they will be both pleased and benefited by attending to what will
soon become their pets ; if not, the owner must either attend to
them himself, or take such oversight as shall be effectual in
securing not only proper care of his birds, but of his own meal
and grain. If he be unable or unwilling to do at least as much
as this, he had far better not engage in such an undertaking
at all.

The first essential requisite to success in poultry-keeping is a
thoroughly good house for the birds to roost and lay in. This

B 2

4: GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

does not necessarily imply a large one or a costly : we once
znew a young man who kept fowls most profitably, with only
a house of his own construction not more than three feet
square, and a run of the same width, under twelve feet
long. It means simply that the fowl-house must combine two
absolute essentials — be both perfectly weatherproof, and well
ventilated.

With regard to the first point, it is not only necessary to
keep out the rain but also the wind — a matter very seldom
attended to as it ought to be, but which has great influence 011
the health and laying of the inmates. The cheapest material is
wood, of which an inch thick will answer very well in any
ordinary English climate; but if so built, the boards must
either be tongued together, or all the cracks between them care-
fully caulked by driving in string with a blunt chisel. Care
should also be taken that the door fits well, admitting no air
except under the bottom; and, in short, every precaution
taken to prevent draught. The hole by which the fowls enter,
even when its loose trap-door is closed, should admit enough air
to supply the inmates, and the object is to have but this one
source of supply, and to keep the fowls out of all direct
draught from it. For the roof, tiles alone are not sufficient,
and if employed at all, there should be either boarding or ceil-
ing under them ; otherwise all the heat will escape through
the numerous interstices, and in winter it will be impossible to
keep the house warm. Planks alone make a good roofing. They
may either be laid horizontally, one plank overlapping the other,
and the whole well tarred two or three times first of all, and
every autumn afterwards ; or perpendicularly, fitting close edge
to edge, and tarred, then covered with large sheets of brown paper,
which should receive two coats of tar more. This last makes a
very smooth, weatherproof, and durable roofing, which throws
off the water well. But, on the whole, we prefer board covered
with patent felt, which should be 'tarred once a year.

IMPORTANCE OF VENTILATION. 5

In the north of England, a house built of wood, unless arti-
ficially warmed, requires some sort of lining. Matting is often
used, and answers perfectly for warmth, but unfortunately
makes a capital harbour for vermin. If employed at all, it
should only be slightly affixed to the walls, and at frequent in-
tervals be removed and well beaten. Felt is the best material, the
strong smell of tar repelling most insects from taking up their
residence therein.

If a tight brick shed offers, it will, of course, be secured for
the poultry habitation. But let all dilapidations be well
repaired.

Ventilation is scarcely ever provided for as it should be,
and the want of it is a fruitful source of failure and disease.
An ill-ventilated fowl-house must cause sickly inmates; and
such will never repay the proprietor. This great desideratum
must, however, as already observed, be secured without exposing
the fowls to any direct draught; and for the ordinary detached
fowl-houses, the best plan is to have an opening at the highest
point of the roof, surmounted by a " lantern " of boards, put
together in the well-known fashion of Venetian blinds.

A south or south-east aspect is desirable, where it can be
had ; and to have the house at the back either of a fire-place or
a stable is a great advantage in winter ; but we have proved by
long experience that both can be successfully dispensed with
if only the two essentials are combined, of good ventilation with
perfect shelter.

"We do not approve of too large a house. For half-a-dozen
fowls, a veiy good size is five feet square, and sloping from six
ty> eight feet high. The nests may then be placed on the ground
at the back, where any eggs can be readily seen; and one perch
will roost all the birds. This perch, unless the breed kept is
small, had better not be more than eighteen inches from the
ground, and should be about four inches in diameter. A rough
pole with the bark on answers V-est: the claws cling to it

6 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

nicely, and bark is not so hard as planed wood. By far the
greater number of perches are much too high and small ; the
one fault causing heavy fowls to lame themselves in flying
down, and the other producing deformed breastbones in the
chickens — an occurrence disgraceful to any poultry-yard. The
air at the top of any room or house is, moreover, much more
impure than that nearer the floor.

Many prefer a movable perch fixed on trestles. In large
houses they are useful, but in a smaller they are needless. If
the perch be placed at the height indicated, and a little in
advance of the front edge of the nests, placed at the back, no
hen-ladder will be required ; and the floor being left quite
clear, will be cleaned with the greatest ease, while the fowls
will feel no draught from the door.

Besides the house for roosting and laying, a shed is neces-
sary, to which the birds may resort in rainy weather. Should
the house, indeed, be very large and have a good window,
this is not absolutely needed ; otherwise it must be provided,
and is better separate in any case. If this shed be fenced in
with wire, so that the fowls may be strictly confined during wet
weather, so much the better ; for next to bad air, wet is by far
the most fruitful source, not only of barrenness, but of illness
and death in the poultry-yard. If the space available be very
limited — say five or six feet by twelve or sixteen — the whole
should be roofed over; when the house will occupy one end of
the space, and the rest will form a covered " run." But in this
case the shed should be so arranged that sun-light may reach
the birds during some part of the day. They not only enjoy it,
but without it, although adult fowls may be kept for a time in
tolerable health, they droop sooner or later, and it is almost im-
possible to rear healthy chickens.

Should the range be wider, a shed from six to twenty feet
long and four to eight wide may be reared against the wall.
Next the fowl-house will still, for obvious reasons, be the most

CLEANLINESS. 7

convenient arrangement, and it is also best fenced in, as before
recommended. The whole roof should be in one to look neat,
and should project about a foot beyond the enclosed space, to
throw the water well off. To save the roof drippings from
splashing in, a gutter-shoot will of course be provided, and the
wire should be boarded up a foot from the ground. All this
being carried out properly, the covered "run" ought at all
times to be perfectly dry.

The best flooring for the fowl-house is concrete made with
strong, fresh-slaked hydraulic lime and pounded "clinkers," put
down hot, well trodden once a day for a week, and finally
smoothed. The process is troublesome, but the result is a floor
which is not only very clean in itself, but easily kept so.
Trodden earth will also answer very well. The floor of the
shed may be the same, but, on the whole, it is preferable there
to leave the natural loose earth, which the fowls delight to
scratch in.

Cleanliness must be attended to. In the house it is easily
secured by laying a board under the perch, which can be
scraped clean every morning in a moment, and the air the
fowls breathe thus kept perfectly pure. Or the droppings may
be taken up daily with a small hoe and a housemaid's common
dustpan, after which a handful of ashes or sand lightly sprinkled
will make the house all it should be.

There is another most excellent plan for preserving clean-
liness in the roosting-house, for which we are indebted to
Tlie Canada Farmer, and which is shown in Fig. 1. A broad
shelf (a) is fixed at the back of the house, and the perch
placed four or five inches above it, a foot from the wall.
The nests are conveniently placed on the ground under-
neath, and need no top, whilst they are perfectly protected
from defilement and are also well shaded, to the great delighi
of the hen. The shelf is scraped clean every morning with the
greatest ease and comfort, on account of its convenient height,

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

and slightly sanded afterwards j whilst the floor of the house is
never polluted at all by the roosting birds. The broad shelf
has yet another recommendation in the perfect protection it
affords from upward draughts of air.

a Broad shelf, eighteen inches high.

b Perch, four inches above.

9 Nests, open at top and in front.

The covered " run " should be raked over two or three
times a week, and dug over whenever it looks sodden or gives
any offensive smell. Even this is not sufficient. Three or four
times a year, two or three inches deep — in fact, the whole pol-
luted soil — must be removed, and replaced by fresh earth,
gravel, or ashes, as the case may be.

Under the shed must be constantly kept a heap of dry
dust or sifted ashes, for the fowls to roll in and cleanse them-
selves in their own peculiar manner, which should be renewed
as often as it becomes damp or foul from use.

If chickens be a part of the intended plan, a separate com-

POULTRY IN CONFINEMENT. 9

partment should be provided for the sitting hens ; but this will
be further treated of in a subsequent chapter.

Many "will wish to know what space is necessary. The
" run " for the fowls should certainly be as large as can be
afforded ; an extensive range is not only better for their health,
but saves both trouble and food, as they will to a great extent
forage for themselves. Very few, however, can command this ;
and poultry may be kept almost anywhere by bearing in mind
the one important point, that the smaller the space in which
they are confined, the greater and more constant attention
must be bestowed upon the cleanliness of their domain. They
decline rapidly in health and produce if kept on foul ground.
If daily attention be given to this matter, a covered shed ten
or twelve feet long by six feet wide, may be made to suffice for
half a dozen fowls without any open run at all. By employing a
layer of dry earth as a deodoriser, which is turned over eveiy day
and renewed once a week, the National Poultry Company have
hitherto kept such a family in each pen of their large establish-
ment at Bromley. These pens do not exceed the size men-
tioned, yet the adult fowls at least are in the highest health and
condition; and the company have, with birds thus confined,
taken many prizes at first-class shows.

Poultry-keeping is, therefore, within the reach of all. The
great thing is purity, which must be secured, either by space,
or in default of that, by care. Hardy fowls will sometimes
thrive in spite of draughts, exposure, and scanty food ; but
the strongest birds speedily succumb to bad management in
this particular, which is perhaps the most frequent cause of
failure. It should also be remarked that poultry thus confined
will require a different diet to those kept more at liberty ; but
this will be more fully explained in a succeeding chapter.

If the run be on the limited scale described, diy earth is
decidedly the best deodoriser. It is, however, seldom at the
command of those who have little space to spare, and sifted

10 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

ashes an inch deep, spread over the floor of the whole shed, will
answer very well. The ashes should be raked every other
morning, and renewed at least every fortnight, or oftener if
possible. Of course, the number of fowls must be limited .
they should not exceed five or six, and unless a second shed of
the same size can be allowed, the rearing of chickens should not
be attempted.

To those who can give up a portion of their garden, the
following plan of a poultry-yard can be confidently recom-
mended. It represents, with very slight modification, our own
present accommodation ; and having tested it by experience, we
are prepared to say that it is not only more convenient, more
simple, and more cheaply erected than any plan on a similar
scale we have seen, but, with the addition of a lawn on which
the chickens may be cooped, is adapted to rearing in the highest
perfection any single variety of either ordinary or "fancy"
fowls. The space required in all is only twenty-five by
thirty-five feet. If more can be afforded, give it, by all means;
but we have found this, with very moderate care, amply
sufficient, and we believe it will meet the requirements of a
larger class of readers than any other we are acquainted
with.

The plan here given, it will be seen, comprises two distinct
houses, sheds, and runs, with a separate compartment for
sitting hens. The nests are placed on the ground at the back
of the houses, and the perches, as before recommended, a foot in
advance of them, and eighteen inches high. The holes by which
the fowls enter open into the sheds, which are netted in, so
that in wet weather they can be altogether confined. In dry
weather the shed is opened to give them liberty. The fencing
should be boarded up a foot high, not only to prevent rain
splashing in, but to keep in when necessary young chickens,
which would otherwise run out between the meshes.

A walk in front of the sheds should be gravelled, and the

ELEVATION

A A Roosting and laying houses.
B B Fenced-in covered runs.
C C Shed and run for sitting hens.
DD Grass runs.

a a Nests.

b b Perches.

c c Holss for fowls to anter.

12 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

remainder of the open runs laid down in grass, which, if well
rooted first, will bear the fowls upon it for several hours each
day, but should be renewed in the spring by sowing when
needed. The runs should be enclosed with wire netting, two
inches mesh, which may be conveniently stretched on poles
1J inch square, driven two feet into the ground, and placed
five feet apart. The height of the fence depends on the breed
chosen. Cochins or Brahmas are easily retained within bounds
by netting a yard high ; for moderate-sized fowls six feet will
do; whilst to confine Game, Hamburghs, or Bantams, a fence
of eight or nine feet will be found necessary. The netting
should be simply stretched from post to post, without a rail at
the top, as the inmates are then far less likely to attempt flying
over.

We do not like to see fowls with their wings cut. If their
erratic propensities are troublesome, open one wing, and pluck
out all the first or flight feathers, usually ten in number. This
will effectually prevent the birds from flying, and as the primary
quills are always tucked under the others when not in use,
there is no external sign of the operation.

The holes by which the fowls enter the houses should be
furnished with trap doors, that they may be kept out at pleasure
whilst either part is being cleaned. Each house must also
have a small window. Having a shed at the side, ventilating
lanterns will not be necessary, as the end will be attained by
boring a few holes in the wall between the house and shedj
towards the highest part of the roof.

The compartment for the sitting hen may be walled in at the
front or not ; for ourselves, we prefer it open. Her run may
also be covered over or not, at pleasure. To have it in the
middle, as here shown, we consider most convenient ; but in our
own case this compartment is at the side, instead of between
the two houses, which we built close together. This was
rendered advisable on account of our shed having unavoidably a

PLAN OF THE YARD. 15

due easterly exposure ; and by so arranging the premises that
each inhabited house should have one adjoining, we ensured
to both one comparatively warm side, and thus, in a measure,
counteracted the evil. We give this little bit of personal
experience in order that the reader may see the way in which
varying considerations are to be weighed before a plan is
finally determined on.

Such a yard possesses many advantages. Two separate runs
are almost necessary if the rearing of chickens forms part of
the plan of proceeding. It is also in some respects convenient
to keep two different breeds, as one may supply the deficiencies
of the other; and many persons consider it advisable to
separate the cocks and hens, except during the breeding season,
believing that stronger chickens are obtained thereby. The
need of the separate compartment for the sitting hens is further
insisted on hereafter, but it has also other uses; being, when not
so employed, often very convenient for the temporary reception
of a pen of strange birds, for which there may be no other
accommodation.

Each run will accommodate from six to ten fowls, according
to their size and habits.

For those who purpose to engage in wholesale or prize
poultry-breeding, more extensive designs will be given here-
after; but enough has now been said to enable the intending
poultry-keeper to select from the different plans here indicated
the one best adapted to his particular situation, or, mayhap, to
contrive a better one of his own. We have pointed out the
essentials; and these being provided for, operations can be
commenced, and it becomes necessary to determine upon the
plan of proceeding. This, however, will be more fully treated
of in the next chapter.

14 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OP FOWLS.

CHAPTER II.

ON THE SYSTEM OP OPERATIONS, AND THE SELECTION OF STOCK

WHEN poultry are kept as a branch of domestic economics, it
will be obvious that the system to be pursued should vary
according to the extent of accommodation which can be
afforded, and to the object sought. Both these considerations
should be well weighed before operations are commenced; and the
plan then determined upon as best adapted to the circumstances
should, as long as those circumstances remain the same, be
consistently carried out and adhered to.

It very frequently happens that a regular supply of eggs is
the sole object in view, and that neither the time, trouble, nor
space required to rear chickens with success can well be spared.
If, for instance, a covered shed fenced in with wire, as described
in the last chapter, with a small house at the end for roosting
and laying in, be the sole accommodation for the fowls, to
attempt rearing them would be folly ; * and yet they may be
kept so as to yield a good return upon their cost and main-
tenance. The proper plan in such a case will be to purchase
in the spring a number of hens proportioned to the size of the
run, and none exceeding a year or eighteen months old. A
cock is useless ; as hens lay, if there be any difference, rather
better without one, and where eggs only are wanted, his food is
thrown away. All these birds, if in good health and condition,
will either be already laying, or will commence almost imme-
diately ; and if well housed, as in the last chapter, and
properly fed, will ensure a constant supply of eggs until the
autumnal moulting season. "Whenever a hen shows any desire
to sit, the propensity must of course be checked — not by the

* It is not meant to be denied that chickens can be reared in such cir-
cumstances, and that in good health and to a fair size. We have ourselves
•done so ; but it does not pay, and we do not intend to do it again.

YOUNG BIRDS TO BE SELECTED. 15

barbarous expedient of half drowning the poor bird in cold
water — a process generally as ineffectual as it is cruel, but,
having allowed it to sit on the nest for four or five days, by
shutting it up in a dark place, with plenty of water, but rather
scanty food. The best plan is to invert a small cask, of which
the head has been removed, upon three bricks. A hole being
bored near the top for ventilation, this will make a capital pen
for a " broody " hen, the food and water being placed just under
the rim. A few days of such confinement will take away all
desire to sit from almost any hens but Cochins, which should
not be kept, on that account, under the circumstances we are
considering ; and in about a fortnight the fowl, if not older than
we have recommended, will begin to lay again.

To buy only young and healthy birds is very important.
An experienced hand can tell an old fowl at a glance, but it is
rather difficult to impart this knowledge to a beginner, for no
one sign is infallible, at least to an uninitiated interpreter.
In general, however, it may be said that the legs of a young
hen look delicate and smooth, her comb and wattles soft and
fresh, and her general outline, even in good condition (unless
fattened for the table), rather light and graceful ; whilst an old
one will have rather hard, horny-looking shanks, her comb and
wattles look somewhat harder, drier, and more "scurfy," and her
figure is well filled out. But any of these indications may be
deceptive, and the only advice we can give the reader is, to use
his own powers of observation, and try and catch the "old
look" He will soon do so, and need no further description.

Directly these hens stop laying in the autumn, and before
they have lost condition by moulting, they should, unless
Hamburghs or Brahmas, be either killed or sold off, and re-
placed by pullets hatched in March or April, which will have
moulted early. These again, still supposing proper food and
good housing, will all be producing eggs by November at
furthest, and continue, more or less, till the February or March

16 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

following. They may then either be disposed of, and replaced
as before, which we should ourselves prefer, as they are just in
prime condition for the table ; or, as they will not stop laying
very long, the best of them may be retained till the autumn,
when they must be got rid of.* For if fowls be kept for eggs
it is essential to success that every autumn the stock be replaced
with pullets hatched early in the spring. By no other means
can eggs at this season be relied upon, and the poultry-keeper
must remember that it is the ivinter which determines whether
he shall gain or lose by his stock • in summer, if only kept
moderately clean, hens will pay for themselves treated almost
anyhow. The only exception to this rule is in the case of
Cochins, Brahmas, or Hambiirghs, which will lay through the
winter up to their second, or even third year.

The stock to be selected, if a pure strain be chosen, are
Hamburgh or Spanish ; either, in favourable circumstances,
will give a plentiful supply of eggs, and give no trouble on
the score of sitting propensities. The Spanish lays five or six
very large eggs a week in spring and summer, but is not a
hardy or free-laying breed for winter, and must have a warm
aspect and perfect shelter from wind, if the supply is to be kept
up. Hamburghs are tolerably hardy, and are capital winter
layers j they also produce more eggs in a year than any other
breed, laying almost every day except when moulting, and
never wanting to sit ; but the eggs are rather small. More
than four or five Hamburghs should not be put in a shed, and
they must be kept scrupulously clean; with these conditions
they will thrive, but few breeds suffer so much from filth or
overcrowding. Brahmas may also be strongly recommended.
As layers, they are in the very first class ; are very tame, and
bear confinement well ; and the tendency to sit does not

* That is, if the greatest amount of profit be the object sought. Tho
question of " pets," and the pleasure to be derived from them, we are not
considering.

PUKE CREEDS BEST. 17

occur often enough to be troublesome, as in the case of
Cochins.

When there is a good wide range of any kind, nothing will
be so profitable as a few Game hens, the black-breasted red
variety being best The hens are as prolific as any breed
whatever, and eat very little in proportion ; but they cannot
be kept in close confinement on account of their fighting pro-
pensities.

For ourselves, we prefer pure breeds, or first crosses ; for
after all is said on the superiority of mongrel fowls, where is
the " barn-door " bird that will lay as many eggs as a Brahma
or a Hamburgh ? Still, the cost of a good stock will stand in
the way with many, and has to be taken into consideration ;
and to those who cannot afford " fancy " poultry, it may there-
fore be said once for all, that on the whole, equal success may
be attained with ordinary or " barn-door " fowls. Care must
be taken in the selection. They should be young, fair-sized,
sprightly-looking birds, with plump, full breasts, rather short
legs, and nice tight-looking plumage, after such a type as
shown on page 171 j they ought also to be chosen from a
country yard, where their parents have been well fed. If
such be obtained, they will repay the purchaser, and are hand-
somer and better every way than inferior birds of the " fancy "
class. Of course, this remark does not apply to mere faults
of colour. Fowls are often to be met with at a moderate price,
which from some irregularity of feather are quite disqualified
as show birds, but which possess in perfection all the other merits
of the breed to which they belong. Let such be secured and
prized by all means; but let it be also remembered and be-
lieved, that nothing pays so wretchedly as to begin " poultry-
fancying" with inferior stock, and that really fine fowls which
never had a grandfather are any day preferable to " degenerate
descendants from a line of kings."

It has been already remarked that the Cochin breeds are

18 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

excellent layers in winter, but that their invincible propensity
to sit, which occurs every two months, or even less, is a fatal
objection to their being kept by those who do not desire the
care of young broods. If, however, the system adopted depend
upon home-reared chickens to replenish the stock, one or two
Cochin hens may be kept with great advantage, especially if the
other fowls are Spanish or Hamburgh. The frequency of their
desire to incubate now becomes a recommendation, as the owner
can depend upon " a broody hen" at almost any season which
may suit his views ; and if always parted with at the age of
two years, they will not fail to maintain their deserved
character as good winter layers. The number of such hens
must depend upon circumstances. If it be only intended to
replace from time to time the laying stock, or to hatch the eggs
of non-sitting varieties, one or two Cochins will furnish more
broods than will be required ; and when their services are no
longer needed in this way, the desire to sit must be hindered
as already described. In this case the eggs should be set in
March or April, that the young pullets may begin to lay early.
In proportion to the number of broods desired may the number
of Cochins be increased ; and if a constant supply of chickens
for the table be — as it often is — the main end in view, they
may form a very considerable portion of the stock, and every
hen may be set in turn. Their own eggs, of course, should not
be given them if the chickens be for market, unless running
with a Dorking, Houdan, or Crefvecceur cock, either of which
crosses produces a gigantic table-fowl of very fair edible
qualities. For home use, however, Cochins are not to be
despised when killed anywhere under nine months old ; they
carry an immense quantity of solid meat ; and if this be more
in the leg than could be desired, it must be also remembered
that the said leg, though certainly not equal to breast or wing,
is more tender than that of most other breeds.

On the whole, however, if a good stock can be afforded,

CHOICE OP BREEDS. 19

and one or two broods of chickens yearly can be managed, we
should, for domestic use, recommend Dark Brahmas. The
light variety is also good, but the dark is the larger fowl, and
looks best under confinement. If there be a double run, as
described in Chapter I., the finest birds may be kept pure, and
their eggs and progeny, when possible, sold at " fancy H prices ;
whilst the hens which show faults of colour may be kept in
the other run with a large coloured Dorking or CrSvecomr
cock. From this cross table-fowls may be obtained which
" look like young turkeys," and being hardy are easily reared.
The flesh may not be quite equal to that of the game fowl — in
delicious flavour " the prince of all breeds " — but it equals the
Dorking, with greater size, and freedom from that very delicate
constitution which often renders the latter an unprofitable fowl.
Dorkings, notwithstanding, are not to be despised, and will
do well if they have a fair-sized run, well gravelled, and free
from wet, with a good dry shed to shelter in. If the supply of
table poultry be a main point, no breed, except perhaps
Houdans, will compare with this, the favourite fowl of the
London market. When of good stock, they may be got up to an
amazing size, and the quality of the meat is excellent. They
are also most exemplary mothers, and in moderate weather
produce a very fair quantity of eggs ; but are not very good
winter layers, even when hatched early. In this respect they
are excelled by the recently-introduced Houdans, which lay very
freely, and are also most hardy fowls, whilst in size and quality
of flesh they equal the Dorking, whose blood, though perhaps
generations back, we believe them to share, as evidenced by the
general form and the peculiar fifth toe. "We consider Houdans
pre-eminently the breed for the farmer. They will ultimately
be bred larger than even Dorkings, which they equal now; and
their extreme hardiness, quick growth, and excellent laying,
give us a fowl with nearly all the excellences and but little of
the faults of the fine old English breed.

c 2

20 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

On the whole, therefore, of the pure breeds, we should
pronounce Houdans to be the farmer's, and Brahmas the
family fowl, crossing the table-chickens from the latter with
Dorking or not, according as there were one or two runs to
keep them in. If a few eggs daily be the object, our own
choice would be four or five spangled Hamburghs, provided
there be a moderate run, or even a good-sized shed, and they
be kept scrupulously clean and well sheltered from driving
wind or rain. If the space be very limited, and economy be im-
portant, we would select four or five red-faced Spanish, or, as
they are now called, Minorcas ; they lay at least as well as
their celebrated white-faced cousins, while they are far hardier
in winter, and stand confinement very well ; their price, also,
being often very little more than that of common hens. In de-
fault of either of these, however, and if all be beyond the means
of the speculator, we would undertake to show a satisfactory
balance-sheet with any good, lively ordinary fowls.

Let us, however, repeat again — for nothing is so im-
portant— whatever be the breed selected, there must be every
autumn a proportion, at least, regularly replaced by young
birds hatched in the spring of the same year. This is the great
secret of success, as far as system is concerned ; and if it be
neglected, during winter an empty egg-basket will eat up all the
summer's profits, and testify dismally to the improvidence of
the owner.

CHAPTER III.

THE FEEDING AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ADULT FOWLS.

A JUDICIOUS system of feeding is very essential to the well-
being of poultry, and has, of course, more direct influence upon-
the profit or loss than any of the circumstances — though
equally important — which we have hitherto enumerated. We-

POULTRY USUALLY OVERFED. 21

shall, therefore, endeavour to give the subject a full, practical
•consideration.

The object is to give the quantity "and quality of food which
will produce the greatest amount of flesh and eggs ; and if it
be attained, the domestic fowl is unquestionably the most profit-
able of all live stock. But the problem is rather a nice one,
for there is no "mistake on the right side" here. A. fat hen
is not only subject to many diseases, but ceases to lay, or nearly
so, and becomes a mere drag on the concern ; while a pampered
male bird is lazy and useless at best, and very probably, when
the proprietor most requires his services, may be attacked by
apoplexy and drop down dead.

That fowls cannot be remunerative if starved need scarcely
be proved. Ex ntfiilo ni/iilJU ; and the almost daily production
of an article so rich in nitrogen as an egg — the very essence of
animal nourishment — muist demand an ample and regular supply
of adequate food. \Ve say no more upon this point, knowing
that the common mistake of nearly all amateur poultry-keepers
is upon the other side — that of over- feeding.

The usual plan, where fowls are regularly fed at all, appears
to be to give the birds at each meal as much barley or oats as
they will eat ; and this being done, the owner prides himself
upon his liberality, and insists that his at least are properly fed.
Yet both in quantity and quality is he mistaken. Grain will
do for the regular meals of fowls which live on a farm, or have
any other extensive range where they can provide other food
for themselves, have abundant exercise, and their digestive
organs are kept in vigorous action. But poultry kept in con-
finement on such a diet will not thrive. Their plumage, after
a while, begins to fall off, their bowels become affected, and they
lose greatly in condition ; and though in summer their eggs may
possibly repay the food expended, it will be almost impossible
to obtain any in winter, when they are most valuable.

Even those who profess to correct such errors are not always

22 GENEBAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

safe guides. We have before us a work that stands high both
in character and price, and is in many respects really valuable,
in which, just after a caution against overfeeding, the editor
gives five pounds of barley meal, ten pounds of potatoes, seven
pounds of oats, three pounds of rice boiled, and three pounds of
scalded bran, as a week's allowance for five hens and a cock —
" of the larger kinds " it is true. Now, at the lowest ordinary
prices the cost of such a scale would amount to, at least, £4 4s.
in the course of twelve months ; and taking eggs at the high
average of a penny each all the year through, every one of the
five hens must lay, at least, 200 eggs to repay the mere cost of
their subsistence. When we say that 150 eggs per annum is
as much as can be obtained from nine hens out of ten, it will
be seen at once that poultry could not be made profitable did
they consume so enormously; and, in point of fact, we had the
curiosity to try this dietary upon six fowls " of the larger
kinds," and found it rather more than double what was
amply sufficient.

The fact is, all fixed scales are delusive. Not only would
Cochins or Crevecoeurs eat twice as much as many other sorts ;
but different fowls of the same breed often have very different
measures of capacity, and even the same hen will eat nearly
twice as much while in active laying as when her egg-organs
are unproductive.

The one simple rule with adult fowls is, to give them as
much as they will eat eagerly, and no more; directly they
begin to feed with apparent indifference, or cease to run when
the food is thrown at a little distance, the supply should be
stopped. In a state of nature, they have to seek far and wide
for the scanty morsels which form their subsistence ; and the
Creator never intended that they, any more than human
beings, should eat till they can literally eat no more. It
follows, from this rule, that food should never be left on the
ground. If such a slovenly practice be permitted, much of what

IMPORTANCE OF CORRECT FEEDING. 23

is eaten will be wasted, and a great deal will never be eaten at
all ; for fowls are dainty in their way, and unless at starvation
point always refuse sour or sodden food.

The number of meals per day best consistent with real
economy will vary from two to three, according to the size of
the run. If it be of moderate extent, so that they can, in any
degree, forage for themselves, two are quite sufficient, at least
in summer, and should be given early in the morning, and the
last thing before the birds go to roost. In any case, these will
be the principal meals ; but when the fowls are kept in con-
finement, they will require, in addition, a scanty feed at
mid-day.

The first feeding should consist of soft food of some kind.
The birds have passed a whole night since they were last fed ;
and it is important, especially in cold weather, that a fresh
supply should as soon as possible be got into the system, and
not merely into the crop. But if grain be given, it has to be
ground in the poor bird's gizzard before it can be digested ; and
on a cold winter's morning the delay is anything but beneficial.
But for the very same reason, at the evening meal grain forms
the best food which can be supplied ; it is digested slowly, and
during the long cold nights affords support and warmth to the
fowls.

A great deal depends upon this system of feeding, which
we are aware is opposed to the practice of many, who give
grain for the breakfast, and meal, if at all, at night. We believe
such a system to be usually adopted from indolence ; it is
easier to throw down dry grain in a winter's morning than to
properly prepare a feed of meal, which is accordingly given at
night instead. Fowls so treated, however, are much more
subject to roup and other diseases caused by inclement weather
than those fed upon the system we recommend — a system not
only in accordance with theory and our own experience, but
with that of the most successful breeders. Let the sceptical

24 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

reader make one simple experiment. Give the fowls a feed of
meal, say at five o'clock in the evening ; at twelve visit the
roosts, and feel the crops of the poor birds. All will be empty ;
the gizzard has nothing to act upon, and the food speedily
disappears, leaving with an empty stomach, to cope with the
long cold hours before dawn, the most hungry and incessant
feeder of all God's creatures ; but if the last feed has been
grain, the crop will still be found partially full, and the birds
will awake in the morning hearty, strengthened, and refreshed.

With respect to the morning meal of pultaceous food,
when only a few fowls are kept, to supply eggs for a moderate
family, this may be provided almost for nothing by boiling
daily the potato peelings till soft, and mashing them up with
enough bran, slightly scalded, to make a tolerably stiff and dry
paste. There will be more than sufficient of this if the fowls
kept do not exceed one for each member of the household ; and
as the peelings cost nothing, and the bran very little, one half
the food is provided at a merely nominal expense, while no
better could be given. A little salt should always be added,
and in winter a slight seasoning of pepper will tend to keep
the hens in good health and laying. This food may be mixed
boiling hot over night, and covered with a cloth, or be put in
the oven ; in either case it will remain warm till morning —
the condition in which it should always be given in cold
weather.

If a tolerable stock of poultry be kept, such a source of
supply will be obviously inadequate ; and in purchasing the
food there is much variety to choose from. Small or " pig "
potatoes may be bought at a low price and similarly treated ;
or barley-meal may be mixed with hot water ; or an equal
mixture of meal and " sharps," or of Indian meal and bran ;
either of these make a capital food. Or, if offered on reasonable
terms, a cart-load of swede or other turnips, or mangel- wurtzel,
may be purchased ; and when boiled and mashed with meal or

ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS FOODS.

" sharps," we believe forms the very best soft food a fowl can
have, especially for Dorkings ; but they cannot everywhere be
obtained at a cheap rate, and the buyer must study the local
market.

A change of food, at times, will be beneficial, and in
making it the poultry-keeper should be guided by the season.
When the weather is warm, and the production of eggs
abundant, the food should abound in nitrogenous or flesh-
forming material, and not contain too much starch or oil, both
of which, being carbonaceous, have warmth-giving and fattening
properties; but when the cold weather approaches, and the
eggs even of good winter layers are fewer than in summer, less
of nitrogenous and more of carbonaceous food will be needed.
The following table has been often copied since its first publica-
tion in the " Poultry Diary ; " but its practical usefulness is so
obvious that we make no apology for giving it here, with some
modification to make the proportion of warmth-giving to flesh-
forming ingredients more plain.

Flesh-forming] "Warmth-giving
Food. Food.

Bone-making
Food.

Husk

Water

100 Ibs. of

Gluten, &c.

Fat or Oil. Starch.&c.

Mineral
Substance.

Fibre.

Oats

Oatmeal

Middlings or (
fine Sharps )

Wheat

Barley

Indian Corn...

Rice

A trace.

A. trace

Beans & Peas

•>

3Iilk

—

86*

To show the practical use of this table, it may be observed
that whilst "sharps" or "middlings," from its flesh-forming
material, is one of the best summer ingredients, in winter it
may be advantageous to change it for a portion of Indian meal.

26 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

It is, however, necessary to avoid giving too great a proportion
of maize, either as meal or corn, or the effect will be a useless and
prejudicial fattening from the large quantity of oil it contains ;
it is best mixed with barley or bean-meal, and is then a most
economical and useful food. Potatoes, also, from the large
proportion of starch contained in them, are not good unmixed
as a regular diet for poultry; but mixed with bran or meal
will be found most conducive to condition and laying.

In mixing soft food, there is one general .rule always to be
observed : it must be mixed rather dry, so that it will break if
thrown upon the ground. There should never be enough
water to cause the food to glisten in the light, or to make a sticky
porridgy mass, which clings round the beaks of the fowls and
gives them infinite annoyance, besides often causing diarrhoea.

If the weather be dry, and the birds are fed in a hard
gravelled yard, the food is just as well, or better, thrown on the
ground. If they are fed in the shed,
however, it is best to use an oblong
dish of zinc, or, preferably, earthenware,
such as represented in Fig. 3. The
trough or dish must, however, be protected, or the fowls will
walk upon it, scratch earth into it, and waste a large portion ;

and this is best prevented by hav-
ing a loose curved cover made of
tin and wire, as shown in Fig. 4,
which, when placed on the ground
over the dish, will effectually pre-
vent the fowls having anything to
do with the food except to eat it,
Flg' 4' which they are quite at liberty to

do through the perpendicular wires, two and a-half inches
apart. Many experienced poultry-keepers prefer to drive the
wires into the ground, leaving them six inches high; the
trough is tlion put behind them, and a board laid over, leaning

ANIMAL FOOD NECESSABY. 27

on the top of the wires. The effect of such a plan is pre-
cisely similar as regards the protection of the food, and its
only disadvantage is, that the wires being always in the ground
rather hinder the sweeping of the shed. For this reason we
contrived the above cover, and consider it the best, as it is
certainly the most convenient plan.

If the fowls have a field to run in they will require no
further feeding till their evening meal of grain. Taking it
altogether, no grain is more useful or economical than barley,
and in summer this may be occasionally changed with oats ; in
winter, for the reasons already given, Indian corn may be
given every second or third day with advantage. Buckwheat
is, chemically, almost identical in composition with barley, but
it certainly has a stimulating effect on the production of eggs,
and it is a pity it cannot be more frequently obtained at a
cheap rate. We never omit purchasing a sack of this grain
when we can, and have a strong opinion that the enormous
production of eggs and fowls in France is to some extent con-
nected with the almost universal use of buckwheat by French
poultry- keepers. Wheat is generally too dear to be employed,
unless damaged, and if the damage be great it had better not
be meddled with; but if only slightly injured, or if a good
sample be offered of light " tail " wheat, as it is called, it is a
most valuable food, both for chickens and fowls. " Sweepings "
sometimes contain poisonous substances ; are invariably dearer,
weight for weight, than sound grain ; and should never be seen
in a poultry-yard.

The mid-day meal of penned-up fowls should be only a
scanty one, and may consist either of soft food or grain, as most
convenient — meal preferably in cold weather.

The regular and substantial diet is now provided for, but
will not alone keep the fowls in good health and laying. They
are omnivorous in their natural state, and require some portion
of animal food. On a wide range they will provide this for

28 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS

themselves, and in such an establishment as figured at page 11,
the scraps of the dinner-table will be quite sufficient ; but if the
number kept be large, with only limited accommodation, it will
be necessary to buy every week a few pennyworth of bullocks'
liver, which may be boiled, chopped fine, and mixed in their
food, the broth being used instead of water in mixing ; these
little tit-bits will be eagerly picked out and enjoyed. A very
little is all that is necessary, and need not be given more than
three times a week. If fowls be much over-fed with this kind
•of food the quills of the feathers become more or less charged
with blood, which the birds in time perceive, and almost in-
variably peck at each other's plumage till they leave the skin
quite bare. It is also necessary to give a caution against the
use of greaves, so much recommended, for obvious reasons, by
the vendors. When fowls are habitually fed upon this article
their feathers speedily become disarranged and fall off, and
when killed the flavour, to any ordinary palate, is disgusting.

There is yet another most important article of diet, without
which it is absolutely impossible to keep fowls in health. We
a'efer to an ample and daily supply of green or fresh vegetable
:ibod. It is not perhaps too much to say, that the omission of
this is the proximate cause of nearly half the deaths where
fowls are kept in confinement ; whilst with it, our other direc-
tions having been observed, they may be kept in health for a
long time in a pen only a few feet square. It was to provide this
that we recommended the open yards, in page 11, to be laid
down in grass — the very best green food for poultry ; and a
run of even an hour daily on such a grass plot, supposing the
shed to be dry and clean, will keep them in vigorous health,
and not be more than the grass will bear. But if a shed only
be available, fresh vegetables must be thrown in daily. Any-
thing will do. A good plan is to mince up cabbage-leaves or
other refuse vegetables, and mix pretty freely with the soft
food j or the whole leaves may be thrown down for the fowls

FRESH WATER. *

to devour; or a few turnips may be minced up daily, and
scattered like grain, or simply cut in two and thrown into the
run ; or if it can be got, a large sod of fresh-cut turf thrown
to the fowls will be better than all. But something they must
have every day, or nearly so, otherwise their bowels sooner or
later become disordered, their feathers look dirty, and their
combs lose that beautiful bright red colour which will always
accompany really good health and condition, and testifies
pleasantly to abundance of eggs.

The water vessel must be filled fresh every day at least, and
so arranged that the birds cannot scratch dirt into it, or make
it foul. The ordinary poultry-fountain is too well known to
need description, but a rather better form than is usually made
is shown in Fig. 5. The advantages of
such a construction are two : the top
being open, and fitted with a cork, the
state of the interior can be examined,
and the vessel well sluiced through to
remove the green slime which always
collects by degrees, and is very preju-
dicial to health ; and the trough being
slightly raised from the ground, instead
of upon it, the water is less easily fouled.
But either form, if placed with the

trough towards the wall, at a few inches distance from it, will-
keep the water clean very well. Some experienced breeders
prefer shallow pans ; but if these be adopted they must be
either put behind rails, with a board over, or protected by
a cover, in the same way as the feeding troughs already
described.

Fowls must never be left without water. During a frost,
therefore, the fountain should be emptied every night, or there
will be trouble next morning. Care must always be taken also
that snow is not allowed to fall into the drinking vessel. The

" Douglas* mixture," respecting which, we can speak with un-
qualified approval, as a most valuable addition to the drink in
cold weather of both fowls and chickens. It consists of half a
pound of sulphate of iron and one ounce of sulphuric acid dis-
solved in two gallons of water ; and is to be added in the
proportion of a tea-spoonful to each pint of water in the
fountain.

Whilst the fowls are moulting, the above mixture, or a
little sulphate of iron, should always be used ; it will assist
them greatly through this, the most critical period of the
whole year. A little hemp-seed should also be given every
day at this season, at least to all fowls of value ; and with
these aids, and a little pepper on their food, with perhaps a
little extra meat, or even a little ale during the few weeks the
process lasts, there will rarely be any lost. With hardy kinds
and good shelter such precautions are scarcely necessary, but
they cost little, and have their effect also on the early re-
commencement of laying.

In addition to their regular food it will be needful that the
fowls have a supply of lime, in some shape or other, to form
the shells of their eggs. Old mortar pounded is excellent ; so
are oyster-shells well burnt in the fire and pulverised j of the
latter they are very fond, and it is an excellent plan to keep

* So called because published in the Field newspaper by Mr. John
Douglas, then superintending the Wolseley Aviaries.

VALUE OP POULTRY MANURE. 31

a "tree-saucer" full of it in their yard. If this matter has
been neglected, and soft shell-less eggs have resulted, the
quickest way of getting matters right again is to add a little
lime to the drinking water.

We shall conclude this chapter with a few further remarks
respecting general management.

With regard to the nests, they may be of any form, but are
best upon the ground. A long box may be employed, divided
by partitions into separate compartments ; or separate laying-
boxes may be used, which is preferable, as more easily cleaned.
Many like baskets, made flat on one side, and hung to a nail in
the wall; these should be of wire, and then cannot harbour
vermin — the great plague of fowls. The straw should be broken
.and beaten till it is quite soft, and changed as often as there is
any foul or musty smell. If the nests are offensive the hens
will often drop their eggs, quite perfect, upon the ground
rather than resort to them.

Cleanliness in the house and run has already been insisted
upon, and is only again alluded to on account of the value of
the manure. This, collected daily, should be put in any con-
venient receptacle where it can be kept dry, and either used in
the garden, if there is one, or sold. It pays best to use it
where possible ; it should always be mixed with earth, being
very strong, and is especially valuable for all plants of the
cabbage kind ; it is also excellent for growing strawberries, or
indeed almost anything if sufficiently diluted. If there be no
possibility of so using it, it is worth at least seven shillings
per cwt. to sell, and is greatly valued by all nurserymen and
gardeners who know its value ; but there is sometimes difficulty
in finding those who do, and getting a fair price. The lowest
price we ever knew offered, however, was three shillings per
cwt. At seven shillings (which we believe to be about a fair
value, compared with that of guano, on account of the moisture
contained) we consider the value of the manure equal to fully

32 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

one-fifth — perhaps one-fourth would be nearer the mark — of
the total profit from the fowls. It is, therefore, an item too
important to be neglected.

Where a considerable number of fowls are killed annually
the feathers also become of value, and should be preserved.
They are very easily dressed at home. Strip the plumage from,
the quills of the larger feathers, and mix with the small
ones, putting the whole loosely in paper bags, which should be
hung up in the kitchen, or some other warm place, for a few
days to dry. Then let the bags be baked three or four times,
for half an hour each time, in a cool oven, drying for two days
between each baking, and the process will be completed. Less
trouble than this will do, and is often made to suffice ; but the
feathers are inferior in crispness to those so treated, and may
occasionally become offensive.

Eggs should be collected regularly, if possible twice everj
day j and if any chickens are to be reared from the home stock,
the owner or attendant should learn to recognise the egg of
each particular hen. There is no difficulty in this, even with a
considerable number — nearly every egg, to the accustomed eye,
has a well-marked individual character ; and if there be any
hens of value, it may save much disappointment in the character
of the brood to know the parentage of those selected for
hatching.

Before concluding, it may be expected that something
definite should be said respecting the actual profit of what may
be called domestic poultry-keeping. It is extremely difficult
to make any such statement, so much depends upon the price
of food, upon the management, selection of stock, and value of
eggs. But in general we have found the average cost of fowls,
when properly fed, to be about Id. per week each for ordinary
sorts, and not exceeding IJd. per week for the larger breeds ;
when the cost is more we should suspect waste. A good
ordinary hen ought to lay 120 eggs in a vear. and if good laying

IMIOUTANCE OF SYSTEM. 33

breeds are selected, such as we have, named in Chapter II.,
there ought to be an average of fully 150, not reckoning the
cock, whilst Game or Hamburghs will exceed 200 per annum.
Of course, good management is supposed, and a regular renewal
of young stock, as already insisted upon. For domestic purposes
eggs ought to be valued at the price of new-laid, and from these
data each can make his own calculation. The value of tho
manure, when it can be sold or used, we consider is about 9d.
to Is. per annum for each fowl.

Finally, let the whole undertaking — large or small — be con-
ducted as a real matter of business. If more than three or
four hens are kept, buy the food wholesale, and in the best
market ; let the grain be purchased a sack at a time — potatoes
by the cart-load or hundred- weight, and so on. Let a fair and
strict account be kept of the whole concern. The scraps of the
house may be thrown in, and the cost of the original stock, and
of their habitations, may be kept separate, and reckoned as
capital invested ; but let everything afterwards for which cash
is paid be rigorously set down, and on the other side, with
equal strictness, let every egg or chicken eaten or sold be also
valued and recorded. This is of great importance. The young
beginner may, perhaps, manage his laying-stock well, but suc-
ceed badly with his chickens (though not, we hope, if he be a
reader of this book), or vice versa ; and it is no small matter in
poultry-keeping, as in any other mercantile concern, to be able
to see from recorded facts ivhere has been the profit or where
the loss. The discovery will lead to reflection ; and the waste,
neglect, or other defective management being amended, the
hitherto faulty department will also contribute its quota to the
general weal.

34 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

CHAPTER IV.

INCUBATION.

MUCH disappointment in the hatching and rearing of young
broods would be prevented were more care taken that the eggs
selected for setting were of good quality — not only likely to be
fertile, but the produce of strong and hardy birds. This re-
mark applies to common barn-door poultry quite as much as to
the pure breeds. A friend recently complained to us, that out
of a dozen eggs only four or five had hatched ; and on inquiry,
we found that the sitting had been procured from an inn-yard,
where, to our own knowledge, only one cock was running with
about twenty hens, from which of course no better result could
be expected. When the eggs have to be procured from else-
where, therefore, whatever be the class of fowls required, it
should first of all be ascertained that there is at least one cock
to every six or eight hens, and that he be a strong and lively
bird ; and next, that the fowls be not only of the kind desired,
but that they are well fed and taken care of. From scraggy,
half-starved birds it is impossible to rear a large brood, as the
greater number even of those hatched will die in infancy. It
only remains to ensure that the eggs be fresh, and a successful
batching may be anticipated.

With regard to this latter point, eggs have been known to
hatch when two months old, or even more; but we would
never ourselves set, from choice, any egg which had been laid
more than a fortnight ; and after a month, or less, it is useless
trouble. Fresh eggs, if all be well, hatch out in good time, and
the chicks are strong and lively ; the stale ones always hatch
last, being perhaps as much as two days later than new-laid, and
the chickens are often too weak to break the shell. We have
also invariably noticed, when compelled to take a portion of
stale eggs to make up a sitting, that even when such eggs have

SELECTION OF EGGS. 35

hatched, the subsequent deaths have principally occurred in
this portion of the brood ; but that if none of the eggs were
more than four or five days old, they not only hatched nearly
every one, and within an hour or two of each other, but the
losses in any ordinary season were very few.

When the eggs are from the home stock, their quality
should, of course, be above suspicion. It is scarcely necessary
to say, that in order to ensure this, every egg before storing
should have legibly written upon it in pencil the date on which
it was laid. Eggs intended for setting are best kept in bran,
the small end downward, and should never be exposed to
concussion. Another very good plan is to have a large board
pierced with a number of round holes in regular rows to receive
the eggs.

Hundreds of years ago it was thought that the sex of
eggs could be distinguished by the shape — the cocks being pro-
duced from those of elongated shape, and hens from the short
or round. Others have pretended to discern the future sex
from the position of the air-bubble at the large end. We need
scarcely say, that these and every other nostrum have, hundreds
of times, been proved to be erroneous. There is not a breeder
of prize poultry in England who would not gladly give twenty
pounds for the coveted knowledge, and thenceforth breed no
more cockerels than he really wanted ; but the secret has never
been discovered yet, and it is even impossible to tell before the
egg has been sat upon a short time whether it has been
fecundated.

We have, in a previous chapter, already mentioned that the
sitting hens ought to have a separate shed and run provided for
them, in order that the other hens may not occupy their nests
during absence, or they themselves go back to the wrong ones,
as they will often do if allowed to sit in the fowl-house. Even
in a very small domestic establishment we strongly recommend
that the small additional space requisite be devoted to this

D 2

36 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

purpose, for all our experience has proved that, whatever suc-
cess may be obtained otherwise by constant care and watchful-
ness, it is never so great as when the sitter can be shut into a
separate run, and be entirely unmolested. An extensive run is
neither necessary nor desirable, as it only entices the birds to
wander, whereas, in a limited space, they will go back to their
nests as soon as their wants are satisfied. A shed five feet
square, with a run the same width for ten feet out in front, is
quite sufficient for three hens.

If the hen must be set on the ordinary nest in the fowl-
house, unless she can be watched every day to see that all goes
right, it is best to take her off at a regular time every morning,
and after seeing to her wants and due return, to shut her in so
that she cannot be annoyed. She should be lifted by taking
hold under the wings, gently raising them first to see that no
eggs are enclosed. Very fair success may be attained by this
method of management, which is obviously almost imperative
in very large establishments, where numerous hens must be
sitting at one time ; but where such large numbers do net
allow of a special poultry attendant it is rather troublesome,
and on an average there will be a chicken or two less than if
the hens can be put quite apart, where they need neither be
watched nor interfered with. Since we adopted this plan we
have, from good eggs, always hatched at least nine out of
twelve, and generally more; and have had no trouble nor
anxiety till the broods were actually hatched, which is any-
thing but the case on the other system.

"With respect to the arrangement of the hatching run, it
should, if possible, be in sight of the other fowls, as it will keep
the sitter from becoming strange to her companions, and pre-
vent an otherwise inevitable fight on her restoration, to the
possible damage of the brood. We prefer ourselves, as stated
in the first chapter, a shed five feet wide and five deep, open in
front to a small gravel or grass run. Under the shed must be, v

CHOICE OF THE HEN. 37

besides the nests, a good-sized shallow box of sand, dry earth
or fine coal ashes, for the hen to cleanse herself in, which she
specially needs at this time; and food and water must be
always ready for her. With these precautions the hen may
and should in nearly every case, with the exceptions presently
mentioned, be left entirely to herself. There are, however,
some birds which, if not removed, would starve upon theii
nests sooner than leave them; and therefore if the hen has
not been off for two or three days (we would test her for that
time first), we should certainly remove the poor thing for her
own preservation. To feed upon the nest is a cruel practice,
which has crippled many a fowl for life, and cannot be too
strongly condemned.

Of all mothers we prefer Cochins or Brahmas. Their
abundant "fluff" and feathering is of inestimable advantage
to the young chicks, and their tame and gentle disposition
makes them submit to any amount of handling or manage-
ment with great docility. Cochins certainly appear clumsy
with their feet, but we have never found more chickens
actually trodden upon by them than with any other breed.
3Iany complain that they leave their chickens too soon, but
we have not found it so ourselves. If they are kept cooped
instead of being set at liberty they will brood their chickens
for at least two months, even till they have laid a second batch
of eggs and desire to sit again ; and by that time any brood is
able to do without a mother's care. With regard to Brahmas
as mothers, they have a peculiarity we never observed in any
other fowl, and have never seen noticed in any work on poultry
— they actually appear to look behind tJieni when moving, lest
they should tread upon their little ones. Dorkings, also, are
exemplary mothers, and go with their chickens a long time,
which recommends them strongly for very early broods. And
lastly, a Game hen has qualities which often make her most
valuable. She is not only exemplary in her care, and a super-

38 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

excellent forager for her young brood, but will defend them to
the last gasp, and render a good account of the most deter-
mined cat that ever existed; indeed, we would almost defy any
single creature whatever, quadruped 'or otherwise, to steal a
chick in daylight from a well-bred Game hen. But whatever
be the hen chosen, she should be well feathered, moderately
short-legged, and tolerably tame. Very high authority* has
affirmed that only mature hens should be allowed to sit, and
that pullets are not to be trusted ; but our own experience and
that of very many large breeders does not confirm this. We
have constantly set pullets, and never had any more reason to
complain of them than of older birds.

The nests may be arranged under the shed any way so that
no one can see into them, with the one proviso that they be
actually upon the ground. Chicks thus obtained always show
more constitution than those hatched on a wooden bottom at a
higher level. This holds good even at all times of the year.
We are aware that eminent authorities who recommend ground-
nests in summer, prefer a warm, wooden box in winter for
the sake of the hen ; but she will rarely
suffer. The heat of her body whilst sit-
ting is so great that a cool situation seems
grateful to her — at least, a hen set on the
ground rarely forsakes her nest, which is
otherwise no uncommon case. We knew
of a hen which, during the month of
January, made her nest upon the top of
a rock in one of the highest and most
exposed situations in the Peak of Derbyshire, and brought a
large brood of strong chickens into the yard. It is only neces-
sary the birds should be protected from wind and rain, in order
to avoid rheumatism ; and this is most effectually done by
employing for the nest a tight wooden box, like Fig. 6, open at

* Mrs. Fergusson Blair.

IMPORTANCE OF MOISTURE. 39

the bottom, and also in front, with the exception of a strip
three inches high to contain the straw. Let one of these
boxes be placed in the back corner of the shed, touching the
side, the front being turned to the back wall, and about nine
inches from it; and the hen will be in the strictest privacy,
will be both perfectly sheltered and kept cool, and will never
mistake her own nest for the one which may be placed
in the other corner. If a third must be made room for, let
her nest be placed the same distance from the wall midway
between the others, and like them, with the front of the nest
to the back of the shed. There will then be still nearly a foot
between each two nests for the birds to pass.

A damp situation is best for the sitting shed, and will
ensure good hatching in hot weather, when perhaps all the
neighbours are complaining that their chicks are dead in the
shells. Attempting to keep the nest and eggs dry has ruined
many a brood. It is not so in nature ; every morning the hen
leaves her nest, and has to seek her precarious meal through
the long, wet grass, which drenches her as if she had been
ducked in a pond. "With this saturated breast she returns, and
the eggs are duly moistened. But if the nest be dry, the hen
be kept dry, and the weather happen to be hot and dry also, the
moisture within the egg itself becomes dried to the consistency
of glue, and the poor little chick, being unable to move round
within the shell, cannot fracture it, and perishes. Such a mis-
hap will not happen if the ground under the nest be damp and
cooL All that is necessary in such a case is to scrape a slight
hollow in the bare earth, place the nest-box, already described,
over it, and put in a moderate quantity of straw cut into two-
inch lengths ; or, still better, some fresh- cut damp grass may be
put in first, and the straw over. Shape the straw also into a
very sligJit hollow, and the nest is made • but care must be
taken to well fill up the corners of the box, or the eggs may be
rolled into them and get addled. Some prefer to put in first a

40 GENEKAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

fresh turf ; but if the nest be on the bare ground, as we recom-
mend, this is useless. In any case, the straw should be cut into
short lengths for a hatching nest, and the neglect of this pre-
caution is the most frequent cause of breakage ; the hen, during
lier twenty-four hours' stay, gets her claws entangled in the
long straws, and on leaving for her daily meal is very likely to
drag one or two with her, fracturing one or more eggs, or even
jerking them quite out of the nest.

Should such a mishap occur (and the nest should be
examined every two or three days, when the hen is absent,
to ascertain), the eggs musT be removed, and clean straw
substituted, and every sound egg at all soiled by the broken
one be washed with a sponge and warm water, gently but
quickly drying after with a cloth. The hen, if very dirty,
should also have her breast cleansed, and the whole replaced
immediately, that the eggs may not be chilled. A moderate
hatch may still be expected, though the number of chicks is
always more or less reduced by an accident of this kind. If,,
however, the cleansing be neglected for more than a couple of
days after a breakage, or less at the latter period of incubation,
probably not a single chick will be obtained ; whether from the
pores of the shell being stopped by the viscid matter, or from
the noxious smell of the putrefying egg, it is not very material
to inquire.

Every egg should also be marked quite round with ink or
pencil, so that if any be subsequently laid in the nest they
may be at once detected and removed. Hens will sometimes
lay several eggs after beginning to sit.

In ordinary winters the hen should be set as in summer,
giving her, however, rather more straw. Only in severe frost
should she be brought into the house ; and in that case, or in,
summer if the ground be very dry, it will be necessary during
the last half of the hatching period to sprinkle the eggs slightly
•with water every day while she is off. This is done best by

TESTING THE EGGS.

dipping a small brush in tepid water ; and is always necessary
to success, in dry weather at least, when a hen is set in a box
at a distance from the ground, as is the case in large sitting
houses. But, where it can be had, we much prefer the natural
moisture of a damp soil : it never fails, and avoids going near
the hen.

"When the number of eggs set yearly is considerable, it is
worth while to withdraw the unfertile ones at an early period.
About the eighth day let the hen be removed by candle-
light, and each egg
be held between the
eye and the light,
in the manner repre-
sented by Fig. 7. If
the egg be fertile, it
will appear opaque,
or dark all over, ex-
cept, perhaps, a small
portion towards the
top ; but if it be un-
impregnated, it will
be still translucent,
the light passing
through it almost as
if new laid. After
some experience the
eggs can be distin-
guished at an earlier period, and a practised hand can tell the
unfertile eggs even at the fourth day. Should the number
withdrawn be considerable, four batches set the same day may
be given to three hens, or even two, and the remainder given
fresh eggs ; and if not, the fertile eggs will get more heat, and
the brood come out all the stronger. The sterile eggs are also
worth saving, as they are quite good enough for cooking

42 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

purposes, and quite as fresh even for boiling as nine-tenths
of the Irish eggs constantly used for that purpose. We do not,
however, recommend this plan when the sitters are few and
the eggs from the home stock, as in that case their quality
should be known, and sterility very rare.

It is a common mistake to set too many eggs. In summer,
a large hen may have thirteen, or a Cochin fifteen of her own ;
but in early spring eleven are quite enough. We have not only
to consider how many chickens the hen can hatch, but how
many she can cover when they are partly grown. If a hen be
set in January, she should not have more than seven or eight
eggs, or the poor little things, as soon as they begin to get large,
will have no shelter, and soon die off. It is far better to hatch
only six and rear five, or may be all, to health and vigour, than
to hatch ten and only probably rear three puny little creatures,
good for nothing but to make broth. In April and May
broods, such a limitation is not needed ; but even then eleven
or twelve chickens are quite as many as a large, well-feathered
hen can properly nourish, and the eggs should only be one or
two in excess of that number.

A good hen will not remain more than half an hour away
from her nest, unless she has been deprived of a dust-bath, and
so become infested with lice, which sometimes causes hens thus
neglected to forsake their eggs altogether. When a hen at the
proper time shows no disposition to return, she should be
quietly driven towards her nest ; if she be caught, and replaced
by hand, she is often so frightened and excited as to break the
•eggs. A longer absence is not, however, necessarily fatal to
the brood. We have had hens repeatedly absent more than an
hour, which still hatched seven or eight chicks ; and on one
occasion a hen sitting in the fowl-house returned to the wrong
nest, and was absent from her own more than five hours. We
of course considered all chances of hatching at an end ; but as
the hen had been sitting a fortnight, concluded to let her finish.

ASSISTING THE CHICKENS. 43

her time, and she hatched five chickens. We have heard of a
few hatching even after nine hours' absence, and therefore would
never, on account of such an occurrence, abandon valuable eggs
without a trial.

The chickens break the shell at the end of the twenty-first
day, on an average ; but if the eggs are new-laid, it will often
lessen the time by as much as five or six hours, while stale eggs
are always more or less behind.

We never ourselves now attempt to assist a chick from the
shell If the eggs were fresh, and proper care has been taken
to preserve moisture during incubation, no assistance is ever
needed. To fuss about the nest frets the hen exceedingly j and
we have always found that even where the poor little creature
survived at the time, it never lived to maturity. Should the
reader attempt such assistance, in cases where an egg has been
long " chipped," and no further progress made, let the shell be
cracked gently all round, without tearing the inside membrane ;
if tJtat be perforated, the viscid fluid inside dries, and glues the
chick to the shell. Should this happen, or should both shell
and membrane be perforated at first, introduce the point of a
pair of scissors, and cut up the egg towards the large end,
where there will be an empty space, remembering that if blood
flow all hope is at an end. Then put the chick back under the
ken; she will probably squeeze it to death, it is true, it is so
very weak ; but it will never live if put by the fire, at least, we
always found it so. Indeed, as we have said, we consider it
quite useless to make the attempt at all.

But with good eggs, a good hen, and good management, all
will go right, and there will be in due time a goodly number
of strong and healthy chickens, to the mutual delight of the
hen and of her owner. And with the treatment of the young

brood we will begin another chapter.

• ^n

f OF THE ^

[ UNIVERSITY

41 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

CHAPTER V.

THE HEARING AND FATTENING OF CHICKENS.

FOR nearly twenty- four hours after hatching, chickens require no-
food at all ; and though we do not think it best to leave them quite
so long as this without it, we should let them remain for at least
twelve hours undisturbed. We say undisturbed, because it is a
very common practice to take those first hatched away from the-
hen, and put them in a basket by the fire till the whole brood
is out. When the eggs have varied much in age, this course
'must be adopted ; for some chickens will be perhaps a whole
day or more behind the others, and the hen, if she felt the little
things moving beneath her, would not stay long enough to
hatch the rest. But we have explained in the last chapter that
this should not be, and that if the eggs are all fresh, the
chicks will all appear within a few hours of each other. In
that case they are much better left with their mother : the lieut
of her body appears to strengthen and nourish them in a
far better manner than any other warmth, and they are happy
and contented, instead of moving restlessly about as they always
do whilst away from her.

Our own plan is to set the eggs in the evening, when the
chicks will break the shell in the evening also, or perhaps the
afternoon. Then at night let the state of the brood be once
only examined, all egg-shells removed from the nest, and the
hen, if she be tame enough to receive it, given food and
water. Let her afterwards be so shut in that she cannot leave
her nest, and all may be left safely till the moiiring. By that
time the chicks will be strong and lively, quite ready for their
first meal ; and unless some of the eggs are known to be very
stale, any not hatched then are little likely to hatch at all.
If this be so, the chicks may be removed and put in flannel by

FIRST MEAL OF THE CHICKENS. 45

the fire, and another day patiently waited, to see if any more
will appear. We should not do so, however, if a fair number
h.-id hatched well; for they never thrive so well away from the hen,
and it is scarcely worth while to injure the healthy portion of
the brood for the sake of one or two which very probably may
not live after all.

The first meal should be given on tJie nest, and the best
material for it is an equal mixture of hard-boiled yolk of egg
and stale bread-crumbs, the latter slightly moistened with milk.
Let the hen be allowed to partake of this also — she needs it ;
and then give her besides as much barley as she will eat, and
offer her water, which she will drink greedily. To satisfy
the hen at first saves much restlessness and trouble with her
afterwards.

There is a stupid practice adopted by many, of removing
the little horny scale which appears on every chicken's beak,
with the idea of enabling them to peck better, and then to put
food or pepper-corns down their throats, and dip their bills in
water to make them drink. It is a mistake to say that if this
does no good it can do no harm : the little beaks are very soft
and tender, and are often injured by such barbarous treatment.
Leave them alone. If they do not eat or drink — and chickens
seldom drink the first day — it only shows they do not wish to ;
for to fill an empty stomach is the first and universal instinct of
all living things.

The brood having been fed, the next step will depend upon
circumstances. If, as we recommend, the chickens were
hatched the night before, or be well upon their legs, and the
weather be fine, they may be at once moved out, and the hen
cooped where her little ones can get the sun. If it be winter,
or settled wet weather, the hen must, if possible, be kept on
her nest this day also, and when removed be cooped in a dry
shed or outhouse.

The best arrangement, where there is convenience for it, is

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

that shown in .Fig. 8. A shed, six feet square, is reared
against the wall, with a southern exposure, and the coop placed
under it. This coop should be made on a plan very common
in some parts of France, and consists of two compartments,
separated by a partition of bars ; one compartment being closed

Mg. 8.

in front, the other fronted with bars like the partition. Each
set of bars should have a sliding one to serve as a door, and the
whole coop should be tight and sound. It is best to have no
bottom, but to put it on loose dry earth or ashes, an inch or
two deep. Each half of the coop is about two feet six inches
square, and may or may not be lighted from the top by a small
pane of glass.

The advantage of such a coop and shed is, that except in
very severe weather, no further shelter is required even at

THE REAKIXG COOP. 47

night. During the day the hen is kept in the outer compart-
ment, the chickens having liberty, and the food and water
being placed outside ; whilst at night she is put in the inner
portion of the coop, and a piece of canvas or sacking hung over
the bars of the outer half. If the top be glazed, a little food
and the water vessel may be placed in the outer compartment
at night, and the chicks will be able to run out and feed early
in the morning, being prevented by the canvas from going out
into the cold air. It will be only needful to remove the coop
every two days for a few minutes, to take away the tainted
earth and replace it with fresh. There should, if possible, be a
grass-plot in front of the shed, the floor of which should be
covered with dry loose dust or earth.

Under such a shed chickens will thrive well ; but if such
cannot be obtained, sufficient shelter during ordinary breeding
seasons may be obtained by the use of a well-made board coop,
with a gabled roof covered with felt. This coop should be
open in front only, and be two feet six inches or three feet
square. At night let a thick canvas wrappering be hung over
the front.

The ordinary basket coop is only fit to be used in perfectly
fine weather, when it is convenient to place on a lawn. Some
straw, weighted by a stone, or other covering, should, however,
be placed on the top, to give shelter from the mid-day sun.

It is often necessary in considerable establishments to carry
the hen and her brood for a considerable distance. For thi»
purpose the box shown in Fig. 9 will be found very convenient.
It may be made in either one or two divisions, and the chickens
will be thus managed with no trouble, as they cannot escape
when put in at the top, whilst they are readily let out again
by the door.

Chickens should always, if possible, be cooped near grass.
No single circumstance is so conducive to health, size, and
vigour, supposing them to be decently well cared for, as even a

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

small grass run such as that provided in Fig. 2. Absolute clean-
liness is also essential, even more than for grown fowls ; and
the reason why difficulty is often experienced in rearing large
numbers is, that the ground becomes so tainted with their
excrements. The coop should, therefore, be either moved to a
fresh place every day, or the dry earth under be carefully

removed. A very good plan, and one we have found in a
limited space to answer remarkably well, is to have a wooden
gable-roofed coop made with a wooden bottom, and to cover this
an inch deep with perfectly dry earth, or fine sifted ashes. The
ashes are renewed every evening in five minutes, and form a
nice warm bed for the chicks, clean and sweet, and much better
than straw.

Cats sometimes make sad inroads on the broods. If this
nuisance be great, it is well to confine the coveted prey while
young within a wire-covered ran. And the best way of form-
ing such a run, is to stretch some inch-mesh wire-netting, two
feet wide, upon a light wooden frame, so as to form two wire
hurdles, two feet wide and about six feet long, with one three
feet long. These are easily lashed together with string to form
a run six feet by three (Fig. 10), and may be covered by a
similar hurdle of two- inch mesh three feet wide. In such a

FEEDING.

mn all animal depreciations may be defied ; and in any case we
should recommend its use until the chicks are a fortnight old ;
it saves a world of trouble and anxiety, and prevents the brood
wandering and getting over-tired. By having an assortment
of such hurdles, portable runs can be constructed in a few
minutes of any extent required, and will be found of great

Fig. 10.

advantage until the broods are strong. The hen may also be
given her liberty within the prescribed bounds.

With regard to feeding, if the question be asked what is the
best food for chickens, irrespective of price, the answer must
decidedly be oatmeal After the first meal of bread-crumbs and
egg no food is equal to it, if coarsely ground, and only moistened
so much as to remain crumbly. The price of oatmeal is, how-
ever, so high as to forbid its use in general, except for valuable
broods ; but we should still advise it for the first week, in order
to lay a good foundation. It may be moistened either with
water or milk, but in the latter case only sufficient must be
mixed for each feeding, as it will turn sour within an hour in
the sun, and in that condition is very injurious to the chickens.

For the first three or four days the yolk of an egg boiled
hard should also be chopped up small, and daily given to each
dozen chicks ; and when this is discontinued, a little cooked
meat, minced fine, should be given once a day till about three

50 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

weeks old. The cost of this will be inappreciable, as a piece
the size of a good walnut is sufficient for a whole brood, and
the chickens will have more constitution and fledge better than
if no animal food is supplied.

Food must be given very often. For the first week every
hour is not too much, though less will do; the next three
weeks, every two hours ; from one to two months old, every
three hours ; and after that, three times a day will be sufficient.
To feed very often, giving just enough fresh food to be entirely
eaten each time, is the one great secret of getting fine birds.
If the meals are fewer, and food be left, it gets sour, the chicks
do not like it, and will not take so much as they ought to
have.

After the first week the oatmeal can be changed for cheaper
food. "We can well recommend any of the following, and it is
best to change from one to another, say about every fortnight.
An equal mixture of "sharps" and barley-meal, or "sharps"
and buckwheat- meal, or of bran and Indian meal ; or of bran,
oatmeal, and Indian meal. The last our own chickens like
best of all, and as the cheap bran balances the oatmeal, it is not
a dear food, and the chicks will grow upon it rapidly. Potatoes
mashed with bran are also most excellent food.

The above will form the staple food, but after a day or two
some grain should be given in addition. Groats chopped up
with a knife are excellent ; so is crushed wheat or bruised oats.
Chickens seem to prefer grits to anything, but it is not equal
to meal as a permanent diet. A little of either one or the
other should, however, be given once or twice a day, and in
particular should form the last meal at night, for the reasons
given in page 23.

Bread sopped in water is the worst possible food for chickens,
causing weakness and general diarrhoea. "With railk it is
better, but not equal to meal.

Green food is even more necessary to chickens than to

DIET IN COLD WEATHER. 51

adult fowls. Whilst very young it is best to cut some grass
into veiy small morsels for them with a pair of scissors ; after-
wards they will crop it for themselves if allowed. Should there
be no grass plot available, cabbage or lettuce-leaves must be
regularly given — minced small at first) but thrown down whole
as soon as the beaks of the chickens are strong enough to enable
them to help themselves.

In winter or very early spring the chickens must, in addi-
tion to the above feeding, have more stimulating diet. Some
under-done meat or egg should be continued regularly, and it
is generally necessary to give also, once a day at least, some
stale bread soaked in ale. They should also be fed about eight
or nine o'clock, by candle-light, and early in the morning. In
no other way can Dorkings or Spanish be successfully reared
at this inclement season, though the hardier breeds will often
get along very well with the ordinary feeding. Ale and meat,
with liberal feeding otherwise, will rear chickens at the coldest
seasons; and the extra cost is more than met by the extra
prices then obtained in the market. But shelter they must
have ; and those who have not at command a large outhouse or
shed to keep them in while tender, should not attempt to raise
winter or early spring chickens — if they do, the result will only
be disappointment and loss. The broods should only be let
out on the open gravel or grass in bright, or at least clear, dry
weather.

At the age of four months the chickens, if of the larger
breeds, should be grown enough for the table ; and if they have
been well fed, and come of good stock, they will bo. For our-
selves we say, let them be eaten as they are — they will be quite
fat enough ; and fattening is a very delicate process, success in
which it takes some experience to acquire. For market, how-
ever, a fatted fowl is more valuable ; and the birds should be
penned up for a farther fortnight or three weeks, which ought
to add at least two pounds to their weight. For a limited

E 2

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

number of chickens it will be sufficient to provide a small
number of simply constructed pens, such as are represented
in Fig. 11. Each compartment should measure about nine
by eighteen inches, by about eighteen inches high ; and the
bottom should not consist of board, but be formed of bars two
inches wide placed two inches apart, the top corners being
rounded off. The partitions, top and back, are board, as the

Fattening Pens. Fig. 11.

birds should not see each other. These pens ought to be
placed about two inches from the ground in a darkish, but
not cold or draughty place, and a shallow tray be intro-
duced underneath, filled with fresh dry earth every day,
to catch the droppings. This is the best and least trouble-
some method of keeping the birds clean and in good health.
As fast as each occupant of a pen is withdrawn for execu-
tion its pen should be whitewashed all over inside, and
allowed to get perfectly dry before another is introduced.
This will usually prevent much trouble from insect vermin :
but if a bird appears restless from that cause, some powdered
sulphur, rubbed well into the roots of the feathers, will give
immediate relief.

In front of each compartment should be a ledge three inches

FATTENING. 53

wide, on which to place the food and water-tins. The latter
must be replenished once, the former three times a day ; and
after each meal the pens must be darkened for half the time
until the next, by hanging a cloth over the front. This cloth
is best tacked along at the top, when it can be conveniently
hung over or folded back as required. The two hours' dark-
ness ensures quiet and thorough digestion ; but it is not
desirable, as most do, to keep the birds thus the whole time
till the next meal, as the chickens will have a much better
appetite on the plan we recommend.

The best food for fattening is buckwheat-meal, when it can be
obtained ; and it is to the use of this grain the French owe, in
a great measure, the splendid fowls they send to market. If
it cannot be procured, the best substitute is an equal mixture
of Indian and barley-meal. Each bird should have as much as
it will eat at one time, but no food left to become sour : a
little barley may, however, be scattered on the ledge. The
meal may be mixed with skim-milk if available. A little
minced green food should be given daily, to keep the bowels in
proper order.

In three weeks the process ought to be completed. It
must be borne in mind that fat only is added by thus penning
a chicken ; the lean or flesh must be made before, and unless
the chicken has attained the proper standard in this respect, it
is useless even to attempt to fatten it. Hence the importance
of high feeding from the very shell. The secret of rearing
chickens profitably is, to get them ready for the table at the
earliest possible period, and not to let them live a single day
after. Every such day is a dead loss, for they cannot be kept
fat ; once up to the mark, if not killed they get feverish and
begin to waste away again. To make poultry profitable, even
on a small scale, everything must go upon system ; and that
system is, to kill the chickens the very day they are ready for it.

If extra weight and fat is wanted, the birds may be

54 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

crammed during the last ten days of the fattening period, but
not before. The meal is to be rolled up the thickness of a
finger, and then cut into pellets an inch and a half long. Each
morsel must be dipped in water before it is put into the bird's
throat, when there will be no difficulty in swallowing. The
quantity given can only be learnt by experience.

For home use, however, nothing can equal a chicken never
fattened at all, but just taken out of the yard. If well fed
there will be plenty of good meat, and the fat of a fowl is to
most persons no particular delicacy. In any case, however, let
the chicken be fasted twelve hours before it is killed.

There are various modes of killing — all of them very
effectual in practised hands. One is to give the bird a very
sharp blow with a small but heavy stick behind the neck,
about the second joint from the head, which will, if properly
done, sever the spine and cause death very speedily. Another
is to clasp the bird's head in the hand and swing the body
round by it — a process which also kills by parting the ver-
tebrce. M. Soyer recommends that the joints be pulled apart,
which can easily be effected by seizing the head in the right
hand, placing the thumb just at the back of the skull, and
giving a smarb jerk of the hand, the other, of course, holding
the neck of the fowl. And lastly, there is the knife, which we
consider, after all, the most merciful plan, as it causes no more
pain than that occasioned by the momentary operation itself.
We do not advocate cutting the throat ; but having first hung
up the bird by the legs, thrust a long, narrow, and sharp-
pointed knife, like a long penknife, which is made for the
purpose, through the back part of the roof of the mouth up
into the brain. Death will be almost instantaneous, which is
too seldom the case when dislocation is employed.

Fowls are easiest plucked at once, whilst still warm, and
should be afterwards scalded by dipping them for just one
instant in boiling water. This process will make any decent-

fowl look plump and nice, and poor ones, of course, ought not
to be killed at all They should not be "drawn" until the
day they are wanted, as they will keep much longer without.

With respect to old fowls, in the market they are an
abomination; but at home it is sometimes needful to use
them. If so, let them be boiled. Unless very aged, they will
then be tolerable eating ; but if roasted, will be beyond most
persons' power of mastication.

CHAPTER VL

DISEASES OF POULTRY.

IF fowls are kept clean, and well sheltered from wind and
wet ; are not overfed, and have a due proportion of both soft
and green food, with a never-failing supply of clean water, they
will remain free from disease, unless infected by strangers.
And when a fowl becomes ill, the best cure in nearly every
case is to kill it before it is too bad to be eaten. Only in the
case of valuable birds, which people are naturally unwilling to
sacrifice, do we recommend much attempt at a cure, and even
then only where the disease is so defined and evident that the
treatment is sure. To prescribe for a fowl in the dark is one
of the most hopeless speculations that can well be.

As this work is intended to be strictly practical, it is only
for such well-defined complaints we shall prescribe; and in
doing so, it is only justice to acknowledge the great services
rendered in this matter to the whole poultry world by Mr.
W. B. Tegetmeier. That gentleman has long made the diseases
of fowls his peculiar study, and has been above all others success-
ful in the treatment of them ; and the greater part of this
chapter is founded more or less directly upon his authority.

Besides actual diseases, there are certain natural ailments,

56 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

as they may be called, to which all fowls may be subject, and
which demand treatment.

Bad Fledging. — Chickens often droop and suffer much
whilst their feathers are growing, especially in cold web
weather; and the breeds which feather most rapidly suffer
most. This is probably one reason why Cochins and Brahmas,
which fledge late and slowly, are so hardy. As soon as a brood
appears drooping whilst the feathers grow, if it has not been
done before, begin at once giving them a little meat every day,
and some bread sopped in ale. A little burnt oyster-shell,
pounded very fine, and added to their food, is also beneficial.
Keep them out of the wet, above all things, and they will
generally come round. This crisis seldom lasts more than a
week or ten days ; the chicks either die off, or recover their
health and vigour.

Leg Weakness. — Highly-fed chickens which grow fast, bred
from prize stock, are most subject to this ; which simply arises
from outgrowing their strength, and must be met accordingly
by animal food and tonics. Give meat or worms every day,
and unless it be cold weather, dip the legs for a few minutes
daily in cold water. The prescription will be, three or four
grains of ammonio-citrate of iron for each chicken, given every
day, dissolved in the water with which the meal is mixed.

The above affection must not be confounded with cramp
from cold and wet, which also makes the birds unable to
walk, or even stand, but for which cold bathing would be most
injurious. In this case, the only treatment is warmth, feeding
meanwhile on meal mixed with ale, and always given warm.
Under this regimen the bird will soon recover, unless the attack
has been long unperceived and neglected.

JBad Moulting. — Old fowls sometimes suffer much at this
season, especially if the precautions recommended in Chapter
III. have been overlooked. These precautions contain the
only effectual treatment. Give stimulating food, warm, every

DISEASES. 57

morning, and well peppered, with meat and ale every day, and
keep under cover in wet weather. Add also iron, in the form
of " Douglas Mixture," to the drinking water ; and let some
hemp-seed be given with the grain every evening. The birds,
if not sunk too low, will then usually pull through. Fowls
should not, however, be kept until old, except in the case
of pets or valuable stock birds.

For actual diseases, it is well in all large establishments to
have a weather-tight and well-ventilated house kept as a
hospital, in which healthy fowls should never be placed. Roup,
in particular, is so contagious, that even a recovered bird
should be kept by itself for a few days before being restored
to ifs companions.

Gapes is a fatal disease of chickens, and which we believe
infectious ; it is, at all events, epidemic. Unless perhaps thus
communicated by others, it never occurs except there has been
foul water, exposure to wet, and want of nourishing food. The
disease consists — at least, so far as actual symptoms extend — in
a number of small worms which infest the windpipe, and
cause the poor chicken to gasp for breath. If taken early, it
will be sufficient to give every day a morsel of camphor the
size of a grain of wheat, and to put camphor in the drinking
water; or a little turpentine may be given daily in meal;
taking care, of course, that the deficiencies in diet and shelter
be amended. In fully-developed cases, the worms must be
removed by introducing a loop of horsehair into the trachea,
and turning it round during withdrawal ; the operation to be
repeated several times, till all the worms appear to be extracted.
A feather, stripped almost up to the top, may be used instead
of the horsehair. The frequent occurrence of gapes is a
disgrace to any poultry-yard.

Apoplexy occurs from over-feeding, and can seldom be
treated in time to be of service. If the fowl, however,
although insensible, do not appear actually dead, the wing may

58 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

be lifted, and a large vein which will be seen underneath freely
opened, after which hold the bird's head under a cold water
tap for a few minutes. It is just possible it may recover; if
so, feed sparingly on soft food only for a few days. In over-
fed hens, this disease usually occurs during the exertion of
laying ; if, therefore, a laying hen be found dead upon the
nest, let the owner at once examine the remainder, and should
they appear in too high condition, reduce their allowance of
food accordingly.

Loss of Feathers is almost always caused either by want of
green food, or having no dust-bath. Let these wants therefore
be properly supplied, removing the fowls, if possible, to a grass
run. For local application, Mr. Tegetmeier recommends mer-
curial ointment, but we ourselves prefer an unguent composed
of sulphur and creosote. Nothing, however, will bring back
the feathers before the next moult.

Eoup is always caused by wet, or very cold winds. It
begins with a common cold, and terminates in an offensive dis-
charge from the nostrils and eyes, often hanging in froth about
those organs. It is most highly contagious, the disease being,
as we believe, communicated by the sickly fowl's beak con-
taminating the drinking water ; therefore, let all fowls affected
by it be at once put by themselves, and have a separate water-
vessel. Keep them warm, and feed with meal only, mixed
with hot ale instead of water ; add " Douglas Mixture " to the
water, and give daily, in a bolus of the meal, half a grain of
cayenne pepper, with half a grain of powdered allspice, or one of
Baily's roup pills. Give also half a cabbage-leaf every day, and
wash the head and eyes morning and evening with very diluted
vinegar, or a five-grain solution of sulphate of zinc. Mr. Teget-
meier's treatment is, to feed on oatmeal mixed with ale, and
green food unlimited ; washing the head with tepid water, and
giving daily one grain sulphate of copper. We prefer the
above. Roup runs its course rapidly, and in a week the bird

DISEASES. 50

will either be almost well, or so nearly dead that it had better
be killed at once. It is tlie disease of poultry, and to be dreaded
accordingly ; fortunately, the symptoms are specific, and the
treatment equally so.

Pip is no disease, and demands no treatment, being only
analagous to "a foul tongue" in human beings. Cure the
roup, or bad digestion, or whatever else be the real evil, and
the thickening of the tongue will disappear too.

DiarrJwEa may be caused either by cold, wet weather, with
inadequate shelter ; neglect in cleansing the house and run ; or
from the reaction after constipation caused by too little green
food. Feed on warm barley meal ; give some green food, but
not very much ; and at first administer, four times a day, three
drops of camphorated spirit on a pill of meal. This will
usually effect a cure. If the evacuations become coloured
with blood, the diarrhoea has passed into dysentery, and re-
covery is almost hopeless. Mr. Tegetmeier's prescription is
one grain each of opium and ipecacuanha, with five grains
chalk ; but the camphorated spirit is a better remedy.

Soft Eggs are generally caused by over-feeding the hens, and
the remedy is then self-evident. It may, however, occur from
want of lime^ which must of course be supplied, the best form
being calcined and pounded oyster-shells. Occasionally it is
occasioned by fright, from being driven about, but in that case
will right itself in a day or two. If perfect eggs are habitually
dropped on the ground, the proprietor should see whether the
nests do not need purifying. This leads us to

Insect Vermin, which can only be troublesome from gross
neglect, either of the fowls or of their habitations. In the one
case, the remedy is a dust-bath, mixed with powdered coke or
sulphur ; in the other, an energetic lime- washing of the houses
and sheds will get rid of the annoyance.

It will be seen that by far the greater proportion of poultry
diseases arise either from cold and wet, or neglect in preserving

60 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

cleanliness — often both combined. It should be noted also,
that the first general symptom of nearly all such diseases is
diarrhoea, which we have observed usually manifests itself even
in roup, before any discharge from the nostrils is perceptible.
At this stage much evil may be warded off. Whenever a fowl
hangs its wings, arid looks drooping, let it be seen at once
whether it appears purged, and if so, give immediately, in a
table-spoonful of warm water, a tea-spoonful of strong brandy
saturated with camphor. Repeat this next morning, and in
most cases the disease, whatever it is, will be checked ; care
being of course taken to give the invalid warmth and good
shelter, with ale in its food. If the evacuation continues,
administer the stronger prescription given for diarrhoea.

We could easily fill a long chapter with further prescrip-
tions, but we believe that the above are all that can be usefully
given. Special diseases, such as white comb in Cochins, and
black-rot in Spanish, will be mentioned under the head of the
breeds to which they more particularly belong.

SECTION II

THE BEEED1XG AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE
POULTRY.

SECTION II.

ON a subject involving so many conditions for success, and
dependent so much upon circumstances, as the breeding of
poultry for exhibition, it will be easily understood that the
opinion of even the best authorities on some points is by
no means uniform.

Many breeders, for instance, consider it almost a sin to
try the effect of a cross; whilst others aver, with good
reason, that crossing has done much towards the formation
of some of our best breeds.

All, however, are agreed with respect to the essentials
of practical rearing, and the following pages embody the
experience and knowledge of the most eminent breeders in
the kingdom. What can be taught by perusal we believe
will be found here contained ; and we trust this Section
will be found of some real use in imparting information
on matters concerning which nothing in any connected
form has hitherto been written.

f UNI

UN1VER'

THE

BEEEDIXG AND EXHIBITION OF PEIZE POULTEY.

CHAPTER VII.

YARDS AND ACCOMMODATION ADAPTED FOR BREEDING PRIZE
POULTRY.

WHETHER the breeding of poultry with a view to exhibition
can be made profitable, or otherwise, is a much vexed question
amongst amateurs. For ourselves, we believe that the answer
must depend partly upon the means of the fancier ; still more
upon the experience and knowledge he brings to bear upon the
subject; and not a little upon the breed to which his fancy
inclines him. "We are acquainted with breeders who never
could make the produce of their yards quite meet the current
expenses; and we also know at least half-a-dozen, of high
standing at all the principal shows, whose yards yield them a
clear profit varying from £20 to £200 per annum. It is, there-
fore, most certainly possible to make even the "fancy" for
poultry remunerative; and with the kind assistance of some
of its most enthusiastic devotees we shall in this and the fol-
lowing chapters endeavour to give such information on the sub-
ject as can be thus communicated, and such directions as
the long experience of many has proved likely to lead to success.
But first of all it is necessary to consider the question of
accommodation.

The plan of a poultry-yard given at page 11, with the

64 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

addition of a lawn or separate grass-run, on which young-
chickens may be cooped separately, is very well adapted for
rearing most breeds upon a moderate scale. The two runs may
be used to separate the sexes during autumn if preferred, or
to keep the chickens apart from the old fowls ; whilst the run
for the sitting hens will, after this design has been fulfilled, be
very convenient for the reception of one or two single cocks, or
any other casual purpose. To ensure success, the most exquisite
cleanliness must be observed, and at the beginning of every
year the grass in the runs should be carefully renewed, if
necessary, by liberal sowing, of course keeping the fowls off
it till thoroughly rooted again. At this season the confinement
thus involved will not be injurious, provided green food be
supplied in the sheds, in lieu of the grass to which the birds
have been accustomed. With such precautions, at least forty
or fifty chickens may be reared annually, and from such a num-
ber there should be little difficulty, if the parents were selected
with judgment, in matching two or three pens fit for exhibition.

But more extensive accommodation will be necessary if
very high and extensive repute in any particular breed be
desired, with the capability — which alone makes such reputation
remunerative — of being able to supply an extensive demand
for eggs and stock. In that case provision has to be made for
keeping not only separate strains, in order that the proprietor
may be able to cross and breed from the produce of his own
yards, but there will be a much larger number of cockerels than
can be needed, and as they are much too valuable for the table,
they also have to be accommodated apart from the other fowls,
until disposed of. We shall, by the kind permission of the
eminent breeders whose establishments are represented, give
two plans, each excellently adapted to secure these objects,
though of very different arrangement ; and which may easily
be modified to meet any possible case.

The first (Fig. 12) represents the poultry-yard of Mr. H.

Fig. 12.

CKOSS SECTION.

•i !'

| ••

1 ^

GRASS.

' A

GRASS.

' ;!

PLAN.

35,

SCALE OF FEET.

66 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION. OP PEIZE POULTilY.

Lane, the well-known fancier of Bristol, and will be found
peculiarly adapted for the rearing of either Spanish or any other
delicate breed ; protection from inclement weather, as well as
convenience of access and superintendence, having been specially
studied.

In this design A is a covered passage which runs along the
back of all, and by a door which opens into each allows of
ready access to every house in any weather. One end of
this passage may open into some part of the dwelling-house
if desired. The passage should have a skylight at top, and
must also be freely ventilated at the roof ; to secure this
object by having it open at either end would cause draught,
and destroy the peculiar excellence of the arrangement. The
houses, B, for roosting and laying in are 7J feet by 4 feet, and
the side facing the passage is only built or boarded up about
2 feet, the remainder being simply netted ; hence the birds
have a free supply of the purest air at night, whilst quite
protected from the external atmosphere ; and can be all
inspected at roost without the least disturbance — a conveni-
ence of no small value. The nests should be reached from the
passage by a trap-door, and there is then no necessity ever to
enter the roosting-house at all except to clean it.

A small trap-door as usual, which should be always closed
at night, communicates between the house and the covered
runs or yards, C, which are 7J feet by 9 feet. They are
boarded or built up for 2 feet 6 inches, the remainder netted,
except the partition between them and the houses, which is,
of course, quite close. Both houses and runs must be covered
with some deodoriser, and Mr. Lane prefers the powdery refuse
from lime works, which costs about Id. per bushel, and which
he puts down about 2 inches deep. It always keeps perfectly
dry, and is a great preventive of vermin ; whilst if the drop-
pings are taken up every morning, it will require renewal
very rarely. In front of all is a grass run, which should

VARIOUS PLANS FOR BREEDING YARDS. C7

extend as far as possible, and on which the fowls are let out
in turn in fine weather.

An additional story, E, may or may not be constructed over
the roosting-house, and in case of emergency, by sprinkling the
eggs, may be made to accommodate sitting hens ; but is not to
be preferred for that purpose, for reasons given in Chapter IV.
Every poultry-keeper, however, knows the great utility of such
pens on various occasions which continually arise, and they
will be found excellent accommodation for sick or injured
fowls.

In Mr. Lane's establishment hot- water pipes (a a) are laid
along the back of the passage floor, by which the tempera-
ture is at all seasons kept nearly uniform. This may or
may not be adopted; and it will also be obvious that the
whole arrangement is capable of enlargement to any desired
extent.

Our second plan is of totally different design, and repre-
sents the yard of R. W. Boyle, Esq., of Bray, Co. Wicklow,
Ireland.

In this design A A are roosts and enclosed runs adapted for
breeding pens; the roosts in the larger pair measuring 11 J
feet by 6J feet, with a run extending 12 feet in front ; in the
smaller, the houses and runs are only 8 feet wide. B B are
houses and runs adapted to receive either a single cock or pair
of hens, and C C are still smaller for the same purpose, the
roosts in the latter measuring 3 feet by 4 feet, and the open
runs 4 feet by 6 feet 9 inches. Either of the latter, besides
their specific purpose, are excellently adapted for the accom-
modation of a couple of sitting hens. D and E are large roosts
or houses, which may be used to receive hens with their
chickens, or for water-fowl. A grass plot, F, occupies the
central portion of the yard, with a pond for the water-fowl.
The parts lettered G are hard gravel. The entrance to the
whole at H opens upon a large grass run, to which the fowls

F 2

68 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

GRASS.

SCALE OF FEET.

30
Fig. 13.

A A Roosts and Yards for Breeding Fowls.
BB Roosts and Yards for single Cocks or

two Hens.
CC Ditto, ditto.

DE Houses without Runs.
F Grass Plot. GG Gravel WalliS.
H Entrance to large Grass Run.
W Watercock.

are admitted in turn. At W is a water- cock for the general
supply of the yard.

All the roosts and runs in Mr. Boyle's yard are well covered

ADVANTAGES Of A GRASS RUN. 69

with loose sund, which is raked clean every morning ; and the
large grass run outside is furnished with a long shed for shelter,
and a small house with nests for such hens as prefer to lay there.
Prize poultry may be also reared most successfully, and
with very little trouble or expense in accommodation, in a
park or on a farm. All habitual frequenters of shows must
have observed the remarkable constitution exhibited in Lady
Holmesdale's poultry ; and we paid, by invitation, a visit to
Linton Park, specially to learn the management which pro-
duced such excellent results, and to enjoy a chat with Mr. J.
Martin, the well-known superintendent of the Linton poultry-
yard. We found the system most simple, and to all who have
equal space at command, the least expensive that can possibly
be. Stone houses with gravelled yards there certainly are, but
these were unoccupied by a single one of the Dorkings for
which the Viscountess has obtained so wide a reputation, and Mr.
Martin keeps practically the whole of the stock at perfect liberty
in the park. Portable wooden houses are employed, mounted
on small wheels, and without a bottom, which are placed in
sufficiently distant localities to avoid any danger of the birds
mixing, and moved a little every two or three days. Open
windows are also provided, so that the fowls always breathe
the pure air of heaven, and certainly with much more freedom
than most breeders would allow to such delicate varieties as
Spanish and Dorking ; yet Mr. Martin finds both breeds
become hardy under such treatment, and that many of the
Spanish birds prefer to roost on the trees, even through the
winter. The hens are set in single detached coops, roofed on
top, and closed at back and sides, which are placed in any
secluded spots amongst the trees. Under this management the
chickens are reared with the greatest ease, the gloss on the
plumage is exquisite, and its closeness approaches that of the
game fowl ; whilst the birds, never too fat for the highest
health, are surprisingly heavy in the scales.

70 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

A similar plan may be pursued on a farm ; a number of
-wooden portable houses being provided, and placed in separate
fields^ in which families may be kept. Such a system will be
an actual benefit to the soil, and the only drawback is the
facility it affords to the felonious abstraction of valuable eggs
and stock. Still, even with this objection, we must pronounce
such a natural method of rearing far the best where it can be
adopted, which is, however, in very few instances ; for farmers
are only seldom poultry-fanciers, and usually look upon even
ordinary fowls as an unprofitable drain upon their purses,
though it is certainly their own fault if it is so.

The intending prize-winner must, of course, adapt the plan
of his yard to his own circumstances and situation. We have
now given ample materials to furnish a design of any possible
character. The one necessity in this class of poultry-keeping
is some facility for what may be called separation or selection,
combined, of course, with a healthy run for the chickens whilst
young, and the essentials mentioned in the first chapter. If
these can be secured, any design, with care and attention, and
good breeding stock, will ensure a fair measure of success.

CHAPTER VIII.

ON THE SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING, AND THE EFFECTS
OF CROSSING.

To obtain any marked success in Poultry Exhibition it is very
necessary that the scientific theory of breeding for any specific
object should be thoroughly understood — at least, if anything
like general eminence be expected; and still more so if the
fancier desires by his own exertions to render any special
service by the addition of new varieties, or the improvement of
the old. Distinction in any one single breed is not so difficult

IMPORTANCE OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE. 71

to obtain ; but he is a poor poultry-breeder who is content to
let his favourite variety remain exactly as he found it, without
at least some attempt to improve it either in beauty or in
economic value ; and any such attempt, to be successful, must
be directed by an intelligent mind, which sees definitely before
it the result to be attained.

In knowledge and enterprise of this description we cannot
but confess that English fanciers are behind their Continental
brethren ; and the fact is the more to be regretted since the
poultry "fancy" is far more universal in this country, and
much more time and money spent in its pursuit Were breed-
ing more scientifically studied, no one can say what results
British enthusiasm and perseverance might not eventually pro-
duce ; whilst as it is, from ignorance of the subject, we believe
one breed at least (white-faced Spanish) to have been nearly
mined. The elements of success are moreover so very few and
simple, and a thorough knowledge of them so quickly acquired
and so easily applied, that we shall devote a few pages to this
part of the subject before entering upon the more practical
portion of this section.

The greatest misapprehension appears to exist amongst all
but the most educated poultry-fanciers respecting the origin of
different breeds. People seem to imagine that they have come
down to us, or at least a number of them, in unbroken descent
from far-back ages ; and this belief has given rise to innume-
rable discussions concerning the purity or otherwise of different
varieties, which might have been spared had the disputants
comprehended the real nature of the case. We cannot do
better here than give some able remarks which appeared some
time since in The Field ; and which deserve to be well studied,
for they contain the first principles of the whole science of
breeding : —

" Such questions as the following are constantly asked, —
* Are the Brahmas a pure breed ? are black Hamburghs a pure

72 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

breed ? ' (fee., &c. Those queries obviously owe their origin to
a confusion of the distinction that exists between different
animals, and between different varieties of the same animal.
Let us illustrate our meaning by an example.

" A hare is a pure-bred animal, because it is totally distinct
from all other animals, or, as naturalists say, it constitutes a
distinct species. It does not breed with other animals, for the
so-called leporines are only large rabbits ; and if it did, the off-
spring would be a hybrid or mule, and almost certainly sterile
or incapable of breeding. In the same manner the common
wild rabbit is a pure breed. This animal possesses the capa-
bility of being domesticated, and under the new circumstances
in which it is placed, it varies in size, form, and colour from
the original stock. By careful selection of these variations,
and by breeding from those individuals which show most
strongly the points or qualities desired, certain varieties, or as
they are termed t breeds' of rabbits, are produced and per-
petuated. Thus we have the lop-eared breed, the Angora breed-,
the Chinchilla breed, &c. &c., characterised by alterations in the
length of the ears, in the colour of the fur, in the size of the
animals, and so on. It is obvious that, by care, more new
varieties may be produced and perpetuated. Thus, by mating
silver greys of different depths of colour, white animals with
black extremities are often produced, and these have been
perpetuated by mating them together. The breed so produced is
known as the Himalayan variety, and, as it reproduces its like,
is as pure and distinct a breed as any other that can be named.

" But, in the strictest scientific sense of the word, no par-
ticular variety of rabbit can be said to be a pure breed, as, like
all the others, it is descended from the wild original. In the
same manner we may deny applicability of the term pure breed
to the varieties of any domesticated animal, even if, as in the?
case of the dog or sheep, we do not know the original from
which they descended.

ORIGIN OF BREEDS. 73

"All that can be asserted of the so-called purest-bred,
variety is that it has been reared for a number of years 01-
generations without a cross with any other variety. But it
should be remembered that eveiy variety has been reared by
careful artificial selection, either from the original stock or
from other varieties.

"In the strict sense of the word, then, there is no such
thing as an absolutely pure breed — the term is only compara-
tively true. We may term the Spanish fowl of pure breed,
because it has existed a long period, and obviously could not
be improved by crossing with any other known variety; in
fact, its origin as a variety is not known. But many of our
domesticated birds have a much more recent origin. Where
were game bantams fifty years ago ? The variety did not
exist. They have been made by two modes : breeding game
to reduce the size, and then crossing the small game fowl so
obtained with bantams. Yet game bantams, as at present
shown, have quite as good a title to a pure breed as any other
variety. In fact, eveiy variety may be called a pure breed
that reproduces its own likeness true to form and colour.

" The statement that Brahmas, Black Hamburghs, Dorkings,
<fcc., are pure breeds is meaningless, if it is intended to imply
anything more than that they will reproduce their like, which a
mongrel cross between two distinct varieties cannot be depended
on doing. There is no doubt but that many of our varieties have
been improved by crossing with others. The cross of the bull-
dog thrown in and bred out again has given stamina to the
greyhound; and although generally denied, there is no doubt
but that the Cochin has in many cases been employed to give
size to tiie Dorking. In the same manner new permanent
varieties of pigeons are often produced, generally coming to us
from Germany, in which country the fanciers are much more
experimental than in England, where they adhere to the old
breeds with a true John Bull tenacity."

74 BHEEDIXG AXD EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

Applying the above scientific and lucid remarks to the sub-
ject under discussion, it is now universally admitted by all who
have studied the matter that every variety of the domestic fowl
has originated in a wild bird still existing — the common Jungle
Fowl of India, known to naturalists as the Gallus Bankiva of
Temminck, or Gallus ferrugineus of Gmelin. To describe this
bird minutely is unnecessary ; it will be enough to say that,
except in the tail of the cock being more depressed, it resembles
very closely the variety known as Black-breasted Red Game.
The assertion that all our modern breeds should be derived
from this fowl may seem at first sight a large demand on our
credulity ; but such a fact is not mere wonderful than that a
cart-horse should have descended from the same original stock
as the Arabian, or that an Italian greyhound and a 2>Tewfound-
land should have common progenitors, about which no natu-
ralist has the slightest doubt. The process is simple, and
easily understood. Even in the wild state the original breed
will show some amount of variation in colour, form, and size ;
whilst in domestication the tendency to change, as every one
knows, is very much increased. By breeding from birds which
show any marked feature, stock is obtained of which a portion
will possess that feature in an increased degree ; and by again
selecting the best specimens, the special points sought may be
developed to almost any degree required.

A good example of such a process of development may be
seen in the "white face" so conspicuous in the Spanish breed.
White ears will be observed occasionally in all fowls ; even in
such breeds as Cochins or Brahrnas, where white ear-lobes are
considered almost fatal blemishes, they continually occur, and
by selecting only white-eared specimens to breed from, they
might be speedily fixed in any variety as one of the charac-
teristics. A large pendent white ear-lobe once firmly established,
traces of the white face will now and then be found, and by
a similar method is capable of development and fixture ; whilst

EFFECTS OF SELECTION. 75

any colour of plumage or of leg may be obtained nncl established
in the same way. The original amount of character required
is very slight ; a single hen-tailed cock will be enough to give
that characteristic to a whole breed ; and the two laced pullets
mentioned under the head of Brahmas in the next Section
would be quite enough, in skilful hands, to lay the foundation
of a new and beautiful variety.

Any peculiarity of constitution, such as constant laying,
or frequent incubation, may be developed and perpetuated
in a similar manner, all that is necessary being care and
time.

That such has been the method employed in the formation
of the more distinct races of our poultry, is proved by the fact
that a continuance of the same careful selection is needful to
perpetuate them in perfection. If the very best examples of a
breed are selected as the starting point, and the produce is bred
from indiscriminately for many generations, the distinctive
points, whatever they are, rapidly decline, and there is also a
more or less gradual but sure return to the primitive wild type,
in size and even colour of the plumage. The purest black or
white originally, rapidly becomes first marked with, and ulti-
mately changed into the original red or brown, whilst the other
features simultaneously disappear.

If, however, the process of artificial selection be carried too
far, and with reference only to one prominent point, any breed
is almost sure to suffer in the other qualities which have been
neglected, and this has been the case with the very breed
already mentioned — the white-faced Spanish. We know from
old fanciers that this breed was formerly considered hardy, and
even in winter rarely failed to afford a constant supply of its
unequalled large white eggs. But of late years attention has
been so exclusively directed to the "white face," that whilst
this feature has been developed and perfected to a degree never
before known, the breed has become one of the most delicate

76 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

of all, and the laying qualities of at least many strains have
greatly fallen off.

It would be difficult to avoid such evil results if it were not
for a valuable compensating principle, which admits of crossing.
That principle is, that any desired point possessed in perfection
by a foreign breed, may be introduced by crossing into a strain
it is desired to improve, and every other characteristic of the
cross be, by selection, afterwards bred out again. Or one or
more of these additional characteristics may be also retained,
and thus a new variety be established, as many have been
within the last few years.

A thorough understanding of both the foregoing principles
is so important, that we shall endeavour to illustrate each by
examples.

Without foundation by long-continued selection no strain
can be depended on. For instance — the Grey Dorking is a
breed which assumes within certain limits almost any variety
of colour, and occasionally, amongst others, that now known as-
"silver-grey." By breeding from these birds, and selecting
from the progeny only the silver-greys, that colour has been
established, like any other might be, as a permanent variety,
which breeds true to feather with very little variation. Now
a pen of birds precisely similar in colour and appearance may,
as at first, be produced from ordinary coloured Dorkings, and
shown as silver-greys; and the most severe test may fail to dis-
cover any apparent difference between them and the purest-
bred pen in the same show. But breeding would show the
distinction instantly : whilst one pen would breed true to itself,
and produce silver-grey chickens, the accidental pen would
chiefly produce ordinary Dorkings, with very few silver-greys
amongst them ; and though in time, by continuing to select
these, a pure strain would ultimately be established, for imme-
diate purposes the pen, as silvers, would be worthless. We
know this to have been the case, to the great disappointment

RESULTS OF CROSSING. 77

of purchasers. Conversely, even well-established silver-grey
Dorkings, if bred from indiscriminately, will, by degrees, lose
their distinctive colour, and go back to the ordinary grey stock
Irom which they first sprang.

The coloured Dorking also exhibits very plainly the opera-
tion of crossing. It is evidently the produce of a cross between
the original white Dorking and the large coloured Surrey fowl,
as is proved by the fact that whilst the white Dorking — long
established — invariably bred the fifth toe as its distinguishing
characteristic, the coloured variety was for many years most
uncertain in that respect. Still the fifth toe was introduced,
along with the shape and aptitude to fatten ; and by careful
selection the colour and size of the Surrey fowl have been
retained, whilst the tendency to only one toe behind, introduced
by the cross, has been effectually eradicated, and the grey Dor-
king now breeds in this particular as true as the white.

The same fowl has been undeniably crossed with the
Cochin in order to gain size, which has been retained to the
great benefit of the breed, whilst all disposition to feather on
the legs has been entirely bred out again. Game, again, has
been repeatedly introduced into Dorking strains in order to
gain constitution.

In the same way, when a race of Game fowls has been
reduced in size, strength, and ferocity, by long interbreeding
through fear of injuring the strain, a cross of the large, strong,
and ferocious Malay at once restores the defective points, whilst
all evidences of it are removed in three or four generations.

Perhaps, however, the most " artfully contrived " bird, and
the best example of both principles combined, is to be found in
the well-known laced Bantams of Sir John Sebright. This
breed was founded by crossing the old Nankin Bantam with
Polish fowls whose markings had a well-defined laced character.
Lacing was thus imported into the Bantam breed, and by
careful selection was developed and rendered perfect, whilst by

78 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

the same process the Polish crest was effectually banished.
This much being already accomplished, as we are informed by
his son,* a hen-tailed Bantam cock accidentally met with
struck Sir John's fancy, and added that peculiarity to the
strain, which has now been for many years firmly established y
and breeds as true as any, though so extremely artificial in its-
original " construction."

The last example we shall mention is the breed known as
Black Hamburghs, which has been " made" within the last few
years. That it has been obtained by crossing the Hamburg
with the Spanish is proved sometimes too plainly by the evident
traces of" white face" still lingering even in prize specimens; but
the evidence of the cross will soon by selection be entirely bred
out, and the breed has already made good its claim to a distinct
class at most shows. The advantages gained by the cross are
great. The size of the bird has been increased, and we have
the enormous egg-producing powers of the Hamburgh race
with a larger egg, thus doing away with the weak point of that
beautiful breed.

But, it may be said, if these principles are correct, it would
follow that the power of the breeder is almost unlimited.
And practically it is so : there are within certain limits hardly
any bounds to what may be effected by the scientific experi-
mentalist. That so little has been done is mainly because the
principles themselves have been so little understood, and most
fanciers have been content to go on with the established varieties
as they are, without any attempt to modify or improve them.
There is another reason in the utter want of attention in this
country to anything but colour of plumage and other " fancy"
characteristics; and we cannot but think that our Poultry
Shows have to some extent, by the character of the judging,
hindered the improvement of many breeds. It will be readily

* It is only right to say that for these facts respecting the Sebright
Bantams -vre are indebted to " The Poultry Book."

UTILITY TO BE STUDIED. 70

admitted in theory that a breed of fowls becomes more and more
valuable as its capacity of producing eggs is increased, and the
quantity and quality of its flesh are improved, with a small
amount of bone and offal in proportion. But, if we except the
Dorking, which certainly is judged to some extent as a table
fowl, all this is totally lost sight of both by breeders and
judges, and attention is fixed exclusively upon colour, comb,
face, and other equally fancy " points."

We cannot but deeply regret this. We have shown how
readily beauty and utility might be both secured ; and we do
earnestly hope that even these pages may have some effect in
stirring up our poultry-fanciers to the improvement in real
value, without by any means neglecting the beauty, of their
favourite breeds. The French have taught us a lesson of
some value in this respect. Within a comparatively recent
period they have produced, by crossing and selection, four new
varieties, which, although inferior in some points to others of
older standing, are all eminently valuable as table-fowls ; and
which in one particular are superior to any English variety,
not even excepting the Dorking — we mean the very small
proportion of bone and offal. This is really useful and scientific
breeding, brought to bear upon one definite object, and we do
trust the result will prove suggestive with regard to others
equally valuable.

We should be afraid to say how much might be done if
English breeders would bring their perseverance and experi-
ence to bear in a similar direction. We have not, however,
the slightest doubt that a breed of any desired colour might in
a few years be produced, combining the Dorking quality of
flesh with the prolificacy and hardihood of the Brahma, of
which the cocks should weigh 201bs., and the hens 151bs. each.
Mimy will question this : we simply say, that no one has yet
attempted it, and that no one will doubt its possibility who
knows the weights which hare been occasionally attained in

80 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

some of our largest breeds, and who has examined carefully
into the effects already produced by judicious selection and
crossing. But to obtain such a result, it must be systematically
sought, and this will never be till the seeking is systematically
encouraged by committees and judges.

In what way this could best be done, it is scarcely our
province to decide; we shall be only too satisfied if our
remarks be in any degree the means of directing attention to
the importance of the subject. We believe, however, that a
special prize of some value, announced annually, for award to
the best pen, either of any known or new breed, for economic
purposes, would shortly produce fowls, well established as a
variety, that would astonish many old poultry-fanciers. Agri-
cultural Societies in particular might be expected in their
exhibitions to show some interest in the improvement of
poultry regarded as useful stock, and to them especially we
commend the matter.

CHAPTER IX.

ON THE PRACTICAL SELECTION AND CARE OF BREEDING STOCK, AND
THE REARING OF CHICKENS FOR EXHIBITION.

WE have in the last chapter treated of the more theoretical
principles which the breeder may employ in the accomplishment
of any desired end; we have now to consider those practical
points which the poultry-keeper must keep in mind if he desires
to attain success in competition.

It is quite certain that there is nothing so unprofitable as to
commence "poultry-fancying" with inferior fowls ; and as there
are always numbers of unscrupulous individuals who endeavour
to impose upon the unwary, special caution is needed in the
purchase of the original stock. If the reader be inexperienced,
tie should, if it be possible, secure the assistance of some friend

BEST AGE TO BREED FROM. 81

upon whose judgment lie can thoroughly rely ; failing this, he
should endeavour, not only by studying the descriptions, but by
frequenting good shows, and seeing and comparing the live
birds themselves, to become acquainted with at least the main
points of the breed to which his preference inclines. To buy of
unknown advertisers is always a great risk, and it will generally
be found more economical in the long run to apply, in the first
place, to known and eminent exhibitors, whose character stands
too high to admit the suspicion of any wilful deception. Such
breeders, it is true, will generally demand high prices for really
good stock ; but then the stock will be good, which is by far
the most important point. Birds may also be purchased at
shows ; but in this case, if it is intended to breed from a single
pen, it should be ascertained whether or not the cock is related
to his hens, and if so, he should be exchanged for one of another
family. In any case, the greatest care should be taken that the
birds chosen are of pure race ; it should be remembered that
mere appearance is not always sufficient, as we have shown in
the last chapter ; and it is therefore most desirable to know
the pedigree also.

At the very outset the question occurs, What is the best
age to breed from ? and we have no hesitation in replying that,
according to the testimony of nearly all the best authorities, it
is better the ages of the cock and hens should vary. It seems
also generally admitted that the strongest and best chickens are
produced from a cockerel nearly a year old mated with hens
twelve months older ; but, unfortunately, the chickens of such
parents invariably have a large proportion of cocks, and most
breeders therefore prefer a two-year-old cock with well-grown
pullets not less than nine months in age. It must not, however,
be supposed that either rule is imperative, or that good chickens
are not to be expected from birds all hatched about the same
time. In this case, however, it is advisable that all the
fowls should be fully twelve months old; if younger, the

82 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

chickens are usually backward in fledging. Fowls are good for
breeding up to the age of four years, but are of little value
afterwards.

To avoid any near relationship is most important; but
many woi'ks have laid far too much stress upon the necessity of
continually introducing what they call "fresh blood." It is
certainly most destructive to breed from members of the same
family, and to go on promiscuously interbreeding in one yard
is still worse ; but if there be a number of separate runs, in
which separate races can be reared, operations may be carried
on for many successive years without a cross from any other
yard. It is the more necessary to explain this, because when
any strain has been brought to high excellence, the introduction
of a bird from another is a very serious thing, and we have
personally known, in more than one instance, to ruin the pro-
duce of a whole year.

The plan to be adopted is to note down most carefully the
parentage of every brood, and to keep the chickens from one
family together until they are required. The breeding-yards
for next year are then to be made up from the best specimens,
taking care not only that the cocks and hens are not related
inter se, but that two runs at least are thus made up without
any fraternal relationship between them. Unrelated chickens
will thus be secured for next year also ; and so the system can
be carried on. It is also a good plan, where it can be adopted,
to put a promising young cockerel out to " walk " at a farm,
or in some brother fancier's yard, and bring him back in
a year or two, when the relationship between him and the
pullets of the year will be too remote to be of very much
consequence.

If a bird is occasionally introduced from another strain —
and it certainly is advisable now and then, especially in the
case of Dorkings — we can only say that the extremest care
be taken to ensure he is of good pedigree, as well as a

SELECTION OF THE i-ARENTS. 83

perfect specimen in outward appearance of the breed to which
he belongs.

Long experience has ascertained that the male bird has
most influence upon the colour of the progeny, and also upon
the comb, and what may be called the " fancy points," of any
breed generally ; whilst the form, size, and useful qualities are
principally derived from the hen. Now it cannot be denied
that it is desirable to secure absolutely perfect birds in all
respects of both sexes if possible ; but alas ! every amateur
knows too well the great scarcity of such, and the above fact
therefore becomes of great importance in selecting a breeding-
pen. For instance, a cock may have been hatched late in the
year, and therefore be decidedly under the proper standard in
point of size, and inferior for a show pen ; but if his colour,
plumage, comb, and other points — whatever they may be — are
perfect, and he be active and lively, he may make a first-class
bird for breeding when mated with goorl hens. A hen, again,
if of large size and good shape, is not to be hastily condemned
for a faulty feather or two, or even for a defective comb, if not
too glaringly apparent — though the last fault is a serious one in
either sex. But a very bad coloured or faulty-combed cock,
however excellent in point of size, or a very small or ill-shaped
hen, however exquisite in regard to colour, will invariably
produce chickens of a very indifferent order.

It is also to be observed, with regard to the crosssing of a
breed, that the cockerels in the progeny will more or less re-
semble the father, whilst the pullets follow the mother. A
knowledge of this fact will save much time in "breeding
back" to the original strain, and much disappointment in the
effect of the cross. For instance, if it be desired to increase
size, a cross with a hen of foreign breed should be employed,
and the same if it be sought to introduce a more prominent
breast, or any other peculiarity of shape ; but if it is the
plumage which is to be modified, it is the male bird who

G 2

84 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

should be thrown in. In breeding the cross out again, or in
retaining any new characteristic, so as to form a fresh variety,
the same rule must be kept in mind.

We believe that much disappointment and uncertainty in
the results of crossing has been owing to a neglect or ignorance
of this simple principle, and breeding from either sex in-
differently. If this be done, the result will often be worthless,
and in every case the time consumed will be much greater than
is necessary ; but if scientifically conducted, we believe crossing
would improve many of our older breeds in size, hardihood, and
utility, without in any measure detracting from those qualities
for which they are valued.

The care and preservation in good condition of valuable
fowls is an important point. With regard to mere health,
nothing can be added to what has already been treated of in
the preceding section. But it frequently happens that, on
account of the high price, only a single pen of three first-class
birds can be afforded ; and if such a family be penned up by
itself, the frequent attentions of the cock will soon render the
hens unfit for exhibition, whilst the birds may also mope, for
want of more companionship. To avoid this, a couple more of
ordinary hens should be added, taking care that the eggs be of
a different colour, or otherwise easily distinguished from those
of the breeding-pen itself. The plumage of the hens or pullets
will then be preserved, without injuring the character of the
progeny. We should, however, prefer mating the cock with
four good hens of his own breed, — a plan more really econo-
mical, as the cost of the cock, in proportion to the number of
eggs for sitting, is thereby reduced.

The number of hens, if good size and vigour are desired,
should not exceed four. Many breeders allow six ; but the
finest fowls of the larger kinds are bred from the proportion
we have stated.

It is desirable also, as much as possible, to save the hens frorn

FAILURES IX PRIZE EGGS. 85

the wear and tear of chickens, which often injure the plumage
greatly. It will not answer to prevent them sitting altogether •
we have already remarked that such a procedure often causes
them to suffer in moulting, which should not be risked.
Neither do we altogether approve of the plan followed by
many, of allowing them to hatch, and then giving the chickens
to other hens. This may be done, if necessary, but a better
system, where there is convenience for it, is to set a valuable
hen upon duck eggs. The ducklings will not only resort to
the hen to be brooded much less frequently than chickens, but
will be far earlier independent of her care, and leave her
in much better condition than if she had hatched her own
eggs.

With regard to hatching, it is desirable with the hardier
breeds to get the eggs under the hen as soon after January as
a sitter can be obtained, in order that the brood may have all
the year to grow in, and be ready for the earlier shows-
At this season, however, the limitation as to number, men-
tioned in Chapter IV., must be strictly enforced, and no hen
given more than seven or eight eggs, six chickens being as
many as are desirable, in order that they may be well covered
by the hen when partly grown, which is their most critical
period as exhibition fowls. Spanish, Dorkings, or other deli-
cate breeds, should not be hatched till April or May, unless
unusually good shelter is at command.

As eggs are often purchased for hatching, it is necessary to
allude to the frequent disappointments experienced in this
respect, and which are far too frequently attributed, in no
measured terms, to fraud on the part of the seller. Now we
certainly cannot deny that such fraud is only too common. We
know of one case where the fact was put beyond a doubt by
examination, proving that the eggs purchased from a well-
known exhibitor were actually boiled ; but we honestly believe
that the great majority of breeders would scorn such pro-

86 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

ceedings. It should be remembered, in the first place, that
highly-bred birds are seldom so prolific as more ordinary stock,
and are generally rather too fat for full health and vigour.
Too many eggs — the full dozen — are likewise very often set, at
seasons when the hen cannot give them heat enough ; so that
all get chilled in turn, and disappointment ensues. Bad
packing also causes its share of failures ; and, lastly, eggs are
sometimes kept a week or fortnight after receipt before
setting, which is always, but especially after a railway journey,
most injurious. We can only recommend — 1. That a hen be
ready for the eg<xs before they are ordered. 2. That they be

i7 OiD «/ V

procured from a breeder of known honour and probity. 3. That
especial directions be given that they are well packed. 4. That
they be put under the hen immediately upon their arrival. And
5. That in cold weather the eggs be divided, so as not to exceed
the number stated under each hen.

Eggs are best packed in small baskets, with the top tied
down. If in boxes, the covers should be tied down or screwed,
not nailed on any account, or every egg will be endangered.
The best packing is to wrap every egg carefully in a separate
wisp of soft hay ; then to wrap each so enclosed in paper, to
keep the hay from slipping off ; and, finally, to imbed the eggs,
thus guarded, in. hay cut into 2-inch lengths ; chaff or bran is too
solid. Eggs so packed will go hundreds of miles without injury.

The chickens being hatched, let the utmost care be taken
of them in every way. The object in this branch of poultry-
breeding is not, as in the last section, to get a profitable amount
of meat with the least possible expenditure in food ; but, the
birds being presumably good in quality, to get them by any
means to the greatest possible size. For although size is never
the first point considered, except perhaps in the case of
Dorkings, it not unfrequently gives the casting vote between
two contending pens, and is itself a most desirable point in
nearly every fowl. Game and Bantams may be excepted.

CARE AND FEEDING OF CHICKENS. 87

The best stock food is undoubtedly oatmeal, and for valua-
ble chickens it should be used liberally. With respect to this
part of the treatment, however, we will give at length the
remarks of one of the most successful breeders of Brahinas (the
largest variety of fowl known), whose birds have in point of
size been usually beyond all competition, and who has most
kindly described for this work the system which has had such
satisfactory results. The same feeding is applicable in every
case where size is a point of merit.

" If the chickens are early hatched, I coop the hen in a
warm sheltered place, free from all intrusion, and should the
weather be very severe keep them within doors ; the floor,
however, must be gravel. Till about a fortnight old I feed
them on sops made with boiled milk, and sweetened with
coarse sugar, mixing it for the first two or three days equally
with yolk of egg boiled hard and chopped fine. The egg is,
however, too "binding" to be continued longer. The first
thing in the morning they have warmed milk to drink ; there
is nothing equal to this for bringing them on in cold weather.
If the chicks are weakly, yolk of egg beaten up and given to
drink is the most strengthening thing I know. In water they
are of course unlimited, and they also have plenty of fresh
i^rass cut small. I also throw them two or three times a day
a handful of coarse raw oatmeal.

" I feed like this, on milk sops, raw oatmeal, <fec., with milk
<jvery morning, for about a fortnight, after which they have
! /oiled oatmeal porridge made so stiff that it will crumble when
cooL They grow amazingly fast on this food, and are very fond
of it I also give them boiled rice occasionally, and frequently
throw them groats, giving them also a little fresh cooked meat
iit dinner-time, cut up fine. Of course they are fed every
i light, after dark, u.-iually about ten o'clock. There is at first a
1 , ttle difficulty in getting them out to feed at night ; but they
f.»<m learn the time, and will run out eagerly for their 'stir-

88 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

about,' which, if made thick enough, they prefer to any other
food. The mode of preparation is to boil a saucepan full of
water, and throw in as much oatmeal as will take it all up.
Then continue stirring till it is a stiff crumbly mass, after
which turn it out upon a large plate and keep stirring it about
with the spoon till cool enough to be eaten.

" At ten weeks old, all the waste birds should be picked out
to make more room for the others, and the cockerels separated
from the pullets. The main food will still consist of the por-
ridge, with small tail wheat, good heavy oats, and plenty of
green food. Good potatoes boiled and mashed are also excel-
lent food for a change.

" A little camphor put in their drinking water will help
very much to keep them in health."

We have little to add to the above remarks. We do not
ourselves approve of giving bread sops so long, and feel sure
after trial, that chickens get on better by substituting oatmeal
after the first day or two, or indeed from the day they break
the shell. In cold weather also, a little sulphate of iron, or
" Douglas mixture " should always be added to the water, and
a little bread soaked in ale will be found beneficial. The warm
milk is excellent, and is much better than the plan recom-
mended by many of giving custard j the latter is too pamper-
ing, and after it chickens will sometimes refuse plain whole-
some food. For weakly chickens, however, it is most strength-
ing to mix up a raw egg with their oatmeal. Above all, unless
they have a good run on grass, the supply of green food must
be unlimited.

For prize chickens, it is a good plan to mix with their meal
a portion of the various condiments known as " cattle food" or
"cattle spices." The appetite is thereby increased, and in
confinement the birds grow faster and keep in better condition.

Feed often — every hour, if possible, from daybreak, and let
the food be always fresh — nothing but grain or dry meal

MEANS OF GETTING SIZE. 89

being ever allowed to remain. With such treatment and good
shelter, if the stock be good and the number has been judi-
ciously limited, the hen will not fail to bring a fair proportion
through the most inclement season, and they will be sure to
reach a good standard in point of size, having the best time of
the year before them when they really begin to grow.

It is necessary to give one more caution. Do not let prize
chickens roost too soon — never before they are at least three
months old — and then see that the perches are large enough,
and not round on the top, but like the flat side of an oval. If
they leave the hen before the proper age for roosting, let them
Have every night a good bed of nice clean dry ashes. We
never allow our own chickens, even while with the hen, to bed
upon straw : ashes are much cleaner, and if supplied an inch
deep are warmer also. To this plan we attribute a very small
proportion of losses, even in very severe weather.

If a good field or other grass run be at command, the
chickens will of course have it, and it will go a long way in
supplying all other defective arrangements. But to our own
knowledge some of the finest and largest fowls we have ever
seen have been reared in a gravelled yard, not more than
eighteen feet square. In such circumstances, besides the most
scrupulous cleanliness and good feeding in other respects, there
must be green food ad libitum — really fine chickens cannot
be reared without it, their plumage in particular being of a
very inferior appearance, and quite devoid of that beautiful
"bloom" which is now indispensable to success in the show-pen.

But with proper care, and attention to the above plain direc-
tions, there should be no lack in due season of good fine birds.
As they grow, and get through their first moult, they will be
anxiously scanned, and let the best have especial care, taking
out for the table all which are manifestly not up to the mark,
that the rest may have more attention. We have already said
that the sexes should be separated. This is highly essential in

00 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

the larger varieties to good size, as too early a call ou nature
Regenerates the breed ; and had it been acted upon earlier by
exhibitors of poultry, we believe the standard of weight in most
fowls would have been now considerably higher than it is.
There will thus be secured also greater vigour and fertility
during the breeding season. The cockerel should not be put
with the pullets intended for exhibition with him, till a fort-
night before the show, but it is desirable that the pullets should
have a little longer to get used to each other if they have been
previously separated.

With the special treatment in view of exhibition, however,
we will begin another Chapter.

CHAPTER X.

ON "CONDITION," AND THE PREPARATION OF FOWLS FOR EXHI-
BITION; AND VARIOUS OTHER MATTERS CONNECTED WITH
SHOWS.

CHICKENS are rarely fit for exhibition until at least six months
old, or even more. If the cockerels and pullets have been
separated, as recommended in the last Chapter, there will
rarely have been any eggs laid before this time ; and stimula-
ting food should now be partially discontinued to retard their
production as long as possible, bearing in mind that the com-
mencement of laying almost, if not quite, stops the growth,
which it is desirable to prolong as far as possible for exhibition
birds. In this respect the fancier and the ordinary poultry-
keeper proceed upon contrary principles, the one endeavouring
to get his pullets into laying order as soon as he can, the other
using every expedient to procure a precisely opposite result.

If the chickens have been from the very shell properly and
.systematically fed, they will, by the time they are fit for show-

GOOD CONDITION. 91

ing, be in quite as good condition as they ought to be. By
giving them two or three times a-day as much soft food as they
will eat, they may easily be got up to any degree of obesity ;
and such a system of feeding is necessary to success at some
shows, where the judges seem ignorant of the proper condition
of a really healthy fowl ; but we must most emphatically raise
our voice against the practice. Let it be remembered that
birds so fattened are, comparatively at least, for ever ruined for
breeding purposes ; that few chickens will ever be hatched from
them, and those few delicate and sickly ; and the reflection may
perhaps cause the breeder to hesitate before he sacrifices, it may
be the best stock in his yard, to any exhibition shrine. We
cannot too severely condemn the conduct of those judges, who
by their decisions help to maintain such prejudicial practices,
and thereby render practically barren many of the finest birds
ever bred. We have known a splendid pen of Dorkings, far
superior in real size, as measured by the framework of the fowl,
passed by contemptuously because inferior in mere dead weight
to a pen which it would have been hopeless to breed from.
There are, however, honourable exceptions : the most eminent
judge in England always refuses to award a prize to a pen
which he considers over-fattened ; and thereby does all he can
to check a system which prevents many celebrated breeders from
sending at all to shows where such practices are known to
prevail.

What we consider — and our opinion is corroborated by
the best judges — to be really "good condition," is such an
amount of flesh as can be earned consistently with perfect
health and fecundity, combined with clean, well-ordered plumage.
It is in the last particular that a good grass-run is so advan-
tageous ; fowls always lock clean and nice when so kept, and
rarely require much further preparation beyond washing the
feet and legs.

With a good number of such birds to choose from, there

92 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

should be little difficulty in " matching a pen," even for Bir-
mingham or Manchester. Matching is a matter of no small
moment, as bad selection is fatal. Each bird is of course sup-
posed to be of a fair good size, and tolerably perfect in form,
colour, and feather. The two hens must then be carefully
examined and compared with each other. Let it first be seen
that the colour of their legs, eyes, and plumage generally cor-
responds, and that their combs and general proportions are
alike also. Then let every part be examined in detail, see-
ing that the neck-hackle, back, and tail are the same in colour
and marking ; then the breast and wings. If all be satisfac-
tory, and the birds be up to the mark, they should have a good
chance of winning.

And let them not be judged too severely. Let the owner
remember that few birds are absolutely perfect; and that
whilst he, well knowing every fault, may see most plainly the
blemishes in his own pen, impartial judges often have to weigh
other blemishes against these, and he may thus win after all.
Glaring faults cannot of course be passed over ; but fair general
excellence will often win the day against a pen far superior in
some respects, if accompanied by some decided blemish.

The pens should be matched and the birds put together at
least ten days before the show prepared for, in order that the
fowls may get thoroughly used to each other. Neglect of this
precaution may cause much fighting and destruction of plumage
in the exhibition pen, or on the road thither, and not unfre-
quently loses a prize.

For the following observations on preparation for and send-
ing to exhibition, we are indebted to Mr. F. Wragg, the
well-known superintendent of the poultry-yard of R. W.
Boyle, Esq. When it is remembered that this gentleman's
fowls have always to undergo a sea voyage from Ireland, in
addition to the ordinary railway journey, previous to exhi-
bition, the beautiful u bloom " and condition in which they

TREATMENT BEFORE EXHIBITION. 93

invariably appear, will cause his remarks to be appreciated by
all amateurs.

" The system I pursue previous to sending to shows is as
follows : — About a week beforehand I select the pen I intend
to send, seeing, of course, that they match well, and carefully
wash their heads and legs. I then have a nice dry room pretty
thickly covered with clean straw, in which I put them, scatter-
ing a few handfuls of wheat amongst it. They scratch the
straw about searching for the grains, and thus clean themselves
beautifully without further trouble. The birds being kept up
by themselves get so used to each other they never quarrel,
either on the journey or in the pen. They have to drink clean
water with a little sulphate of iron dissolved, which causes a
bright red colour in the ears and comb, and makes them look
well and sprightly.

" They are fed on oatmeal and Indian meal well boiled to-
gether, with a small quantity of salt just to season it ; when
properly done it is like a thick jelly. Twice, however, during
the week, not more, they have rice, which is prepared by adding
1 Ib. to a pint of water, and boiling till the water is absorbed,
then adding as much milk as it will take up without getting
thin, with a handful of coarse brown sugar ; keep stirring the
whole till done, and then put in a bowl to cooL Of this they
are very fond, and it keeps them from purging. I also give
them plenty of fresh green food.

" In their hamper I put, of course, plenty of clean soft
straw. I also tie on one side of it, near the top, a fresh-pulled
cabbage, and on the other side a good piece of the bottom side
of a loa£ of which they will eat away all the soft part. Before
starting I give each bird half a table-spoonful of port wine,
which makes them sleep a good part of the journey. Of course,
if I go with my birds, as I generally do, I see that they, as
well as myself have " refreshment " on the road.

" With regard to what you have remarked about showing

94 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PHIZE POULTRY.

birds fat, I never do so. As you truly observe, many birds are
ruined by it. Good, healthy condition, with a nice gloss on
the feathers, is what I aim at in exhibiting, and the treatment
I have described is what I have found best calculated to
attain it."

Little can be added to these directions from so high an
authority. For white fowls, however, or which have much
white in their plumage, the cleansing process above described
will often be found insufficient. In such cases the birds must
be carefully washed with soap and water the night before
sending off. Take a fine sponge, and, having well soaped it,
smooth down every feather repeatedly, so as to clean without
ruffling it ; then repeat the process with water only till the
soap is removed, and, lastly, with a soft towel. Let the birds
be then left for the night in a box well littered with clean
straw, open to, but not too near, the fire. Soda should never
be used, as it stains the feathers yellow ; and even the soap
must be mild, without much free alkali. If they have had
an extensive run on grass, however, the whitest fowls
scarcely ever need washing, except as regards their feet and
legs, giving also attention to the comb and wattles, if neces-
sary. It is the poor dwellers in towns who have to take such
precautions, and have so much to contend against. Yet, in
spite of all this, we often see town breeders beating the very
best country yards; and the fact proves that care and good
system are of even more importance than any mere natural
advantages.

Many exhibitors recommend the giving of linseed for a
week before exhibition. Its use is to impart lustre to the
plumage, which it does by increasing the secretion of oil. The
fowls generally refuse the seed whole, and the best method of
administration is to add a small portion of the meal daily to
the ordinary soft food. A. preferable plan, however, and one
which agrees better with the health of the fowls, is to let the

BEST FORM OF HAMPER. 9&

evening repast of grain for the last fortnight consist of buck-
wheat and hempseed in equal portions, which will be equally
effective, and is greedily devoured by the birds, adding also to
the beauty of the combs and wattles. We recently exhibited,
at a first- class show, a pen of dark Brahma chickens, which
took the first prize. The redness of the combs and the ex-
quisite gloss on the plumage — every feather shining like velvet
— were much admired ; and we have repeatedly been asked the
means by which such condition was attained. The only secret
was the use of hempseed and buckwheat, with "Douglas-
mixture" (see page 30) in the drinking water, combined, of
course, with good feeding generally.

Much difference of opinion exists as to the best form of ham
per, but general experience approves most of an oval shape, of a
size to give just ample room to the three fowls side by side.
Square corners are apt to catch the tails, and cause damage. For
Spanish or other large-combed breeds it is best to have no
cover, simply stitching a strong piece of canvas over the top ;
but for most fowls a wicker top is best, as affording more pro-
tection. It is of some consequence to committees that these
covers should be flat, in order that the baskets may be com-
pactly stowed away in the exhibition-hall.

In cold weather let the hamper be well lined with canvas,
or straw stitched to the wicker-work. And if occupied by geese,
let special care be taken that their bills cannot reach either the
string fastenings or the direction-labels. They have a peculiar
fancy for breakfasting upon those articles ; and even fowls will
occasionally contract the same vicious habit.

All has now been done that can be done, and the rest must
be left to the decision of the judges. It is but rarely that
fault can be found with their verdict : their duties are most
arduous, and the manner in which, as a rule, they discharge
them is deserving of the highest praise ; but one or two
are known to have certain invincible prejudices, which

96 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

prevent them from judging some classes in accordance
with the general rules as understood by the majority.
This is to be regretted, as it hinders the good under-
standing which always ought to exist between judges and ex-
hibitors. The object of both ought to be identical — the
promotion of the highest standard obtainable in the different
breeds, but it is necessary to this that the breeder should know
definitely and authoritatively ivhat he is to seek after. The
" Standard of Excellence " did good service here, and was much
wanted, but it is silent on many points, and, with reference to
some others, is avowedly ignored by many judges. We think
there is much need for a revised and larger work on the same
basis ; and, in the meantime, it is our opinion that exhibitors
have decidedly a right to know beforehand who are to judge
their birds. To call upon them to send their best stock to a
show where, it may be, the judges' known prejudices on certain
points give them no chance of a prize, is evidently unfair, and
the plan we recommend of publishing the names beforehand
would do more than anything else to correct such individual
idiosyncrasies, and produce a more uniform standard of merit.

But we are leaving the fowls, and must return to them,
though we have little more to add. Whether they require any
special treatment on their return will chiefly depend upon the
system of feeding which has been pursued during the period of
exhibition. If, as is too often the case, the pernicious plan of
feeding on whole barley ad libitum has been retained, tile birds
will all be more or less feverish and disturbed, and will need a
corrective. But such feeding cannot be too strongly con-
demned. It saves trouble certainly, but if a committee are not
willing to take so much pains as will keep the birds in perfect
health, they have no right to gather them together. We have
the highest possible authority for saying that the best feeding
is either barleymeal or oatmeal in the morning, mixed rather
dry, and given before the public are admitted, with wheat in the

TREATMENT AFTER EXHIBITION. 97

evening; and, in each case, only as much as the fowls will eat at
once, without leaving any in the pens. Only these two meals
should be given, as the birds have no exercise, and do not
require more, besides which, the natural excitement of the show
is best counteracted by a rather spare diet. Water should be
given three times a day for a short time only — say five or ten
minutes — not left for the birds to drink at will. Barley ought
not to be used at all, as it is next to impossible it can be
properly digested.

Fowls fed as here recommended will be returned in as good
condition as they were sent, and require no attention at all
beyond seeing that they do not get too much water and green
food at first. But if they return from a " barley- fed " show, or
the system on which they have been fed is unknown, or, in any
case, if they appear either feverish or " overdone," give each a
rather scanty meal of stale bread-crumb soaked in warm ale, let
them have two or three sips only of rather tepid water, and then
administer a tea-spoonful of castor-oil to each bird. This will
probably be at night. Next day feed them on meal only in
moderation, see that they cannot drink to excess, and give
them half a cabbage-leaf each, or a large sod of grass, but no
other green food ; afterwards let them return to their usual
diet. It is in all cases safest not to let them have any grain,
and to put them on an allowance of water for the day after
their return.

If our recommendations be attended to, there will be little
injury from exhibition, and the same birds may be shown again
and again without suffering. We know of fowls which have
\ won as many as fifty prizes ; and indeed first-class exhibition
birds are almost always shown pretty frequently. They want
care and attentive examination after each competition to see
that they are not losing health ; if it appears so, whatever other
engagements may have been made, let them have rest till com-
pletely recovered ; otherwise, property worth scores of pounds

98 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY.

may be sacrificed for "just one more cup," to the owner's lasting
regret.

We know not that we can usefully add any more upon this
part of the subject. Something must be learnt by experience,
for which no written directions can be substituted ; nevertheless,
we are not without hope that these few pages may prove of
service in guiding the reader through the, perhaps, hitherto
untried ordeal of the exhibition hall.

SECTION III.

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS :

THEIR CHARACTERISTIC POINTS, WITH A COMPARISON
OF THEIR MERITS AND PRINCIPAL DEFECTS.

SECTION III.

THE characteristics of the different breeds, as given in
the following pages, are generally in accordance with the
well-known " Standard of Excellence " published under
the authority of the Poultry Club. In only a few cases
has it been found necessary to dissent from the definitions
as there expressed, in order to harmonise with the de-
cisions of the best judges at the principal shows. In all
of these cases such divergence of opinion is expressly
mentioned ; and it is always to be understood, that
besides a most careful personal examination and com-
parison of the best specimens and most recent decisions,
we have the highest authority in each instance for every
such difference of judgment,

There are also many points essential to the correct
judging of exhibition birds which are not noticed in the
" Standard " at all, and a few which have even been
overlooked by all previous writers. Such omissions we
have endeavoured to supply, and trust this Section may
be found an authority not only intelligible, definite, and
easy to consult, but in all points accurate and reliable.

To secure both these objects is the purpose of the
following plate, drawn from feathers of perfect and prize
birds, and which will be hereafter frequently referred to.

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

s\^/

DIFFEKENT BEEEDS OP FOWLS.

CHAPTER XL

COCHIN-CHINAS OR SHANGHAES.

THE Cochin breed, as now known, appears to have been im-
ported into this country about the year 1847 ; those so-called
exhibited by Her Majesty in 1843 having been not only desti-
tute of feathers on the shanks, but entirely different in form and
general character. No other breed of poultry has ever attracted
equal attention, or maintained such high prices for such a
length of time; and the celebrated "poultry mania," which
was mainly caused by its introduction, will always be re-
membered as one of the most remarkable phenomena of modern
times. To account in some measure for this, it should be
remembered that no similar fowls had ever been known in
Europe; and when therefore Cochins were first exhibited, it
was natural that their gigantic size, gentle disposition, pro-
lificacy, and the ease with which they could be kept in con-
finement, should rapidly make them favourites with the public.
But the extent to which the passion for them would grow no
one certainly could have foreseen. A hundred guineas has
repeatedly been paid for a single cock, and was not at all an
uncommon price for a pen of really fine birds. Men became
mad for Cochins, and spent small fortunes in procuring them ;
and all England, from north to south, seemed given over to a
universal "hen fever," as it was humorously termed. Their

102 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

advocates would have it that the birds had no faults. They
were to furnish eggs for breakfast, fowls for the table, aiMl
better morals than even Dr. Watts' hymns for the children,
who were from them " to learn kind and gentle manners," and
thenceforward to live in peace.

Such a state of things, of course, could not last, and the
breed is now perhaps as unjustly depreciated by many as it was
then exalted ; for Cochins have great and real merits, and on
many accounts deserve the attention of the poultry-keeper.
The mania, absurd as it was, did however good service by
awakening a general interest in the whole subject of poultry,
which has never since died out.

As now brought to perfection, the breed presents the
following characteristics : —

The cock ought not to weigh less than 10 or 11 Ibs., and a
very fine one will reach 13 ; the hens from 8 to 9 or 10 Ibs.
The larger the better, if form and general make be good.

The breast in both sexes should be as broad and full as
possible ; the general want of breast being the greatest defect
in this breed. The neck can hardly be too short in either sex,
so that it does not look clumsy ; and the back must be short
from head to tail, and very broad. The legs to be short and
set widely apart, and the general make to be as full, wide, and
deep as possible.

The shanks are profusely feathered down to the toes, and
the thighs should be plentifully furnished with the fine downy
feathers denominated " fluff." The quality of this " fluff," and
of the feathering generally, is often a pretty good indication of
the breed : if fine and downy, the birds are probably well bred;
but if rank and coarse, they will not be worth attention as
fancy birds. There is a tendency in the cocks to scanty fur-
nishing on the thighs ; but the breeder should choose a bird
with as much " fluff" as he can get ; not, however, allowing
vulture hocks, which often accompany the heaviest feathered

COCHINS. 103

birds, but which are now disqualified at all first-class shows.
The colour of the shanks is yellow, a tinge of red being
rather a recommendation than otherwise ; but green or white
legs are to be avoided.

The head should be neat and rather small-; the comb of
moderate size, straight, erect, and evenly serrated : a notched
or twisted comb is a great blemish. The ear-lobes must be
pure red, no white being allowed. The eye ought in colour to
approach that of the plumage, and should appear bright and
sprightly.

The tail of the hen is very small, and nearly covered by the
feathers of the saddle, which are very plentiful, and form a
softly rising cushion on the posterior part of the back ; the
tail of the cock is larger than in the hen, but still small, and must
not be very erect, or contain much quill ; the wings in both
sexes very small, neatly and closely folded in, and the general
carriage noble and majestic.

The principal colours now bred are white, buff, and part-
ridge. The white and buff are most popular.

The white must be perfectly pure in every feather; and
green legs, which are apt to occur in this colour, will disqualify
any pen, however meritorious otherwise.

In buff the colour may be any shade, but all the birds in a
pen must correspond; black is admissible in the tail of both sexes,
but the less there is the better. Black pencilling in the hackle
is very objectionable, and a bird so marked will have no chance
at a good show ; but a little marking, if well defined so as to
form a slight necklace, with no trace of indistinctness or clouding,
is not to be regarded as a fatal fault. The colour of the cock
should correspond with the hens on the breast and the lower
parts of the body ; but his hackles, wing coverts, back, and
saddle hackles, are usually a rich gold colour. It should be
observed that buff birds generally breed chickens lighter than
themselves, and that most birds get rather lighter each moulting

104 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

season; the breeding stock should therefore be chosen one or
two shades darker than the colour desired.

In partridge hens the neck hackles are bright gold striped
with black, the rest of the body light brown pencilled with a
very dark shade of the same colour ; the cock's hackles and
saddle bright red striped with black, back dark red, wings the
same, crossed with a sharply denned bar of metallic green
black ; breast and under part of the body black, not mottled.

Black used also to be shown, but has nearly disappeared,
from the almost impossibility of keeping the colour free from
stain. The other colours are grouse and cinnamon. The
latter is well described by its name ; grouse is merely very
dark partridge. Cuckoo Cochins are never correct in form,
and we believe are produced by crossing with the Gueldres.

The merits of Cochins have already been hinted at. The
chickens, though they feather slowly, are hardier than any
other breed except Brahmas, and will thrive where others
would perish ; they grow fast, and may be killed when twelve
weeks old. The fowls will do well in very confined space, are
very tame and easily domesticated, and seldom quarrel. They
cannot fly, and a fence two feet high will effectually keep them
within bounds. As sitters and mothers the hens are unsur-
passed; though they are, unless cooped, apt to leave their
chickens and lay again too soon for very early broods. Lastly,
they are prolific layers, especially in winter, when eggs are most
scarce.

Their defects are equally marked. The flesh is inferior to
that of other breeds, though tolerably good when eaten young ;
there is, however, always a great absence of breast, which
excludes the fowl from the market, and confines it to the
family table. The leg, which contains most meat, is, however,
providentially not so tough as in other breeds. The want of
breast is best overcome by crossing with the Dorking, the
result being a very heavy and well-proportioned table fowl,

BRAHMAS. 105

which lavs well, and is easily reared. The hen, excellent layer
though she is, has also an irresistible inclination to sit after
every dozen or score of eggs ; and this is apt to be very trouble-
some, except where a regular and constant succession of
chickens is desired, when it becomes a convenience, as broods
can be hatched with the greatest regularity. Finally, this
breed is peculiarly subject to a prejudicial fattening, which, if
not guarded against by the avoidance of too much or too
fattening food, will check laying, and even cause death.

Cochins are subject to an affection called white comb, con-
sisting of an eruption on the comb and wattles much re-
sembling powdered chalk, and which, if not dealt with in time,
extends all over the body, causing the feathers to fall off. The
causes are want of cleanliness and of green food, chiefly the latter.
This must, of course, be supplied, with an occasional dose of
six grains of jalap to purge the bird ; and the comb anointed
with an ointment composed of four parts cocoa-nut oil, two of
powdered turmeric, and one of sulphur.

On the whole, we consider this breed most useful to supply
the family demand for either chickens or eggs, or to provide
sitters for numerous broods ; but it is little valued as a market
fowl unless crossed with the Dorking or Crevecceur ; neither
will it be found profitable where eggs are the sole consideration,
and the hens cannot be allowed to indulge their sitting
propensities.

CHAPTER XII.

BRAHMA POOTRAS.

IT is not our province to enter at length into the long disputed
and still unsettled question as to whether Brahmas originated
in a cross with the Cochin, or are entitled to rank as a distinct
variety. There is much to be said on both sides. In favour of
the Cochin cross may be named the gigantic size, the feathered

106 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

legs and general appearance, the colour of the eggs, and forma-
tion of the skull ; whilst those who believe it distinct have
strong arguments in the altogether unique and peculiar comb,
the colour, the prominent breastbone, the very different dis-
position and habits, and the opinion of, we believe, every
eminent breeder. But one thing is certain : ever since this
magnificent breed was introduced, it has steadily become more
and more popular, and is now one of the most favourite
varieties. To prosper thus, in the total absence of any poultry
" mania," a breed must have real and substantial merits. Such
Brahmas unquestionably have ; and we shall endeavour, there-
fore, to give that full description of them which both their high
rank as economic poultry, and their rapidly growing popularity,
alike demand.

Their most marked peculiarity is in the comb, which is
totally different from that of any other variety. It resembles
three combs pressed into one. In a first-class cock, the effect is
such as would be produced were a little comb, about a quarter
of an inch in height, laid close to each side of his own proper
comb, twice as high, the centre one being thus higher than the
others. Each division of the comb ought to be straight and
even, irregular or twisted combs being serious faults in a show-
pen. In the hens the comb is very small, but the triple
character should be equally evident, and the formation is quite
plain even when the chicks first break the shell.

When first introduced, single-combed Brahmas were often
shown, but are now scarcely ever seen, and rarely take prizes
if there are any decently good pea-combed birds at the same
show.

There are two varieties of Brahmas exhibited, known as
"Light," and "Dark" or " Pencilled " Brahmas; and on no
account should they ever be crossed, the result being, according
to Mr. Teebay, who was formerly the most successful and ex-
tensive breeder of Brahmas in England, always unsatisfactory.

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

68 7

FEATHERS.

No. 1 is a Striped Feather.
„ 2 a Laced Feather.
„ 3, 4 are Spangled Feathers, No. 3 being from a Golden " Yorkshire Pheasant,"

and No. 4 from a Lancashire " Mooney" Hen.
„ 5, 6, 7, 8 are Penciled Feathers, No. 5 being plucked from a Hamburgh, and

6, 7, 8 from a Dark or Pencilled Brahma.

BRAHMAS. 107

The cross may be known, if the birds profess to be " dark," by
the lighter, gayer appearance of the cock's breast, perhaps
accompanied with large white splashes, and sandy coloured or
brownish patches* about the pullets. Should the fowls be
offered as "light" Brahmas, the pullets will have buff,
yellowish, or sandy backs and wings, and the cocks most likely
yellowish hackles.

The following description of light Brahmas has been care-
fully drawn up under the supervision of John Pares, Esq., of
Postford, near Guildford, well known as the most eminent
exhibitor of this variety for many years past : —

"Light Brahmas are chiefly white in the colour of the
plumage, but if the feathers be parted, the bottom colour will
often be found of a bluish grey, showing an important dis-
tinction between them and white Cochins, in which the feathers
are always white down to the skin. The neck hackles should
be distinctly striped with black down the centre of each feather.
(See " Feathers," No. 1). That of the cock is, however, often
lighter than in the case of the hen. The back should be quite
white in both sexes.

" The wings should appear white when folded, but the flight
feathers are black.

" The tail should be black in both sexes. In the cock it is
well developed, and the coverts show splendid green reflections
in the light It should stand tolerably upright, and open well
out laterally, like a fan.

" The legs ought to be yellow, and well covered with white
feathers, which may or may not be very slightly mottled with
black : vulture hocks are a great defect

" The ear-lobes must be pure red, and every bird should, of
course, have a perfect pea-comb, though good birds with a
single comb have occasionally been shown with success."

* This must not be confounded with the brownish tinge which nearly
all " dark " Brahma hens acquire with age.

108 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

The " dark" or " pencilled" Brahmas are similar to the
above in comb, form, symmetry, <fec., but as different in colour
as can well be. By the kindness of R. W. Boyle, Esq., of
Bray, Ireland, who has for some years been known as the most
eminent breeder of dark Brahmas in the United Kingdom,
we are enabled to give the best description of this magnificent
variety which has ever been published, most carefully drawn
up by him for publication in these pages.

" The head of a perfect Brahma cock should be surmounted
by a good 'pea-comb,' which resembles three small combs running
parallel the length of the head, the centre one slightly the
highest, but all evenly serrated and straight, and the whole low
and set firm on the head. Beak strong, well curved, and the
colour of horn. Wattles full : ear-lobes perfectly red, well
rounded, and falling below the wattles.

" His neck should be rather short,* but well curved, with
very full hackle, which is silvery white striped with black, and
ought to flow well over the back and sides of the breast. At
the head, the feathers should be white. Back very short, wide,
and flat, rather rising into a nice, soft, small tail, carried rather
upright. The back almost white. The saddle-feathers white,
striped with black, as in the neck, and the longer they are
the better. The soft rise from the saddle to the tail, and
the side feathers of the tail, to be pure lustrous green black,
except a few next the saddle, which may be slightly ticked
with white : the tail feathers themselves pure black.

"The breast should either be black, or black with each
feather slightly and evenly tipped with white, but on no
account splashes of white : it should be well carried forward,
full, and broad. Wings small, and well tucked up under the
saddle-feathers and thigh fluff. A good sharply-defined black
bar across the wing is very important.

" The fluff on the thighs and hinder parts ought to be black
* Tho " Standard " says long. A great error. — Note by Author.

BRAHMAS. 109

or very dark grey. The lower part of the thighs should have
plenty of nice soft feathers, almost black, rounding off about
the joint and hiding it, but on no account running into ' vul-
ture hocks,' which I consider a great eyesore.

" The cock should carry himself upright and sprightly, and
great width and depth are important points : a good bird
should slww great size, and * look big.'

" The hen's head should be small, with a perfect pea-comb,
as in the cock, but smaller; and the beak also resembling his in
the decided curve and colour. Wattles quite small and neatly
rounded, the red ears hanging below them. Neck short, and
gradually enlarging from head to shoulders. Feathers about
the head greyish, verging to white, and the hackle more striped
with black than in the cock.

" General make of the back, tail, thighs, wings, and breast,
the same as in the cock, but of course in proportion.

" The colour of the hen, except the neck and tail, is the same
all over, each feather, even up to the throat on breast, having a
dingy white ground, very much and closely pencilled with dark
steel grey. The pencilling on the throat and breast is very im-
portant, and is one of the first points looked at in a prize hen.

" The hen's legs are short and thick, not quite so yellow as
the cock's, and profusely feathered on the outside with feathers
the same colour as the body. Her carriage is scarcely so up-
right as that of the male bird.

"With regard to the economic merits of Brahmas, the
pullets lay when six months old, and usually lay from thirty to
forty eggs before they seek to hatch; but I have repeatedly
known pullets begin to lay in autumn, and never stop — let it
be hail, rain, snow, or storm — for a single day till next spring.
I have kept several breeds, such as Dorkings, Spanish, and
Hamburghs; but never now give to my tenants any but
Brahmas, as they say they can rear them so much more easily,
and greatly prefer them.

110 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

"As to their size, I cannot agree with those who think
1 breeding for colour' detracts necessarily from this point. I
have had a cock weighing fifteen pounds, and hens twelve
pounds, but these are very unusual weights. I have, however,
two cockerels of this year (1866), only six and a half months
old, one of which weighs ten and three quarter pounds, and
the other eleven and a quarter pounds. The latter I weighed
off a grass run. He is the largest for his age I ever bred, and
I am confident he will next year weigh fifteen to sixteen
pounds, or even more. I consider twelve to thirteen pounds
for a cock and nine to ten pounds for a hen very good weights.
Cockerels for exhibition, when six months old, ought to weigh
from eight to eight and-a-half pounds, and pullets from six to
seven pounds.

" In breeding, it is necessary to be very sure the stock for
generations back has not been crossed. I would then select
the most perfect cock I could procure at any price, not less
than twelve pounds weight, and mate him with either three
pullets, or three hens a year old : if hens, to weigh at least nine
pounds j if pullets, eight pounds. Each bird to be entirely free
from vulture-hocks or brown-red feathers. From such parent-
age there will be little disappointment."

Mr. Fo Wragg, the manager of Mr. Boyle's yard, adds the
following valuable practical remarks on the breeding of Dark
Brahmas : —

"I would on no account breed from birds with faulty
combs, or the slightest twist in the tail, as such defects are
most surely transmitted to a large proportion of their progeny.
I would also reject a cock with ' splashes' of white on his
breast, or a hen with very dingy brown in the feathers.

"I select, if possible, a cock with perfectly black breast,
thighs, and fluff, and other qualities well defined, two years
old, and twelve pounds in weight. I would put him with
three pullets, their first season, square-built, short-legged birds,

BRAHMAS. Ill

with broad-striped hackles, small and perfectly straight combs,
and perfect in feathering. By this I mean that each feather
should be most distinctly pencilled ; and I am most particular
that on the breast especially every single feather right up to
the throat should show four or five distinct half circles of black
on the same ground colour as the rest of the body. Let the
pullets be nine pounds weight. Breed from such birds, and
nearly half the chickens will be fit for exhibition.

" I wish to repeat, that for breeding I select a cock with all
the underparts perfectly black For exhibition, either the
same colour or a little white mottling will do. A mottled
cock looks best. I especially dislike to see the ' fluff ' on the
cock's thighs with white in it. Many of the chickens from such
a parent would be very bad in colour, showing light ' streaky*
feathers on the breast."

Joseph Hinton, Esq., of Hinton, near Bath, one of the
earliest breeders of Dark Brahmas, adds a few remarks which
also deserve attention.

" I have always striven," he says, " to keep Brahmas from
being considered birds of colour only. The chief point in judging
should be form, then size, then comb and colour. Body to be
as broad and deep as possible : legs stout and wide apart, and
cannot be too short, or too well feathered. The leg feathering
ought to be abundant from the very hock. To see a nearly
bare shank, even with a well-feathered foot, is very unsightly.
I prefer a slight tendency to vulture-hock — that is, an
abundance of soft curling feathers, projecting over the hock
*nd hiding the joint : a naked hock to me is an abomination.
Knock-knees also, which frequently occur in cockerels, are
veiy objectionable.

" As to colour, I prefer myself the clear grey, but it is
unfortunately liable to lightness on the breast. For this reason
many breeders prefer a reddish-brown breast, but I myself
should object to the reddish tinge.

112 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

"It is also objectionable when the flight or primary quills
in the cock's wing are not well tucked under the outside part
of the wing, though I think they have laid too much stress on
this point in the 'Standard of Excellence.'* The fault is rarely
seen in the master cock of the yard, and I believe it therefore
to occur from the efforts of the junior birds to save them-
selves from punishment by the ' king of the walk.1 In such
struggles the wing is rapidly extended, and then often not
fairly returned. In time this becomes a habit, and greatly
inars the beauty of the bird."

The latter fault alluded to is unfortunately too frequent.
It can, however, be cured by carefully returning every feather
to its proper place, and then tying twine round the end of
the wing, to prevent the bird from opening it till the feathers
.are re-set into their position. About a month will ensure this ;
and in the meantime the bird must of course sleep on straw,
as it cannot fly.

Mr. Hinton's remarks on colour lead us to almost the
only disputed point in this breed. Mr. Lacy, and other
eminent breeders, avowedly prefer a decided brown ground
colour for the hens, for reasons which we will give in his own
words : —

" I have been a breeder of Dark Pencilled Brahmas," he
says, " for fifteen years, ten of which I kept them in America,
where they are the favourite fowls amongst farmers and
planters. I began by purchasing the best I could find, which
were beautifully symmetrical in shape, and very large, the cock
weighing thirteen pounds, and the hens nine pounds each.
The colour of the hens was as follows : neck-hackle white,
streaked with black ; saddle and wings a beautifully pencilled

* We rather agree with the " Standard " in this matter. The first
prize cock at Birmingham last year (1866) had the defect alluded to, and
the award of the judges was condemned by every breeder at the show on
that very ground, though the bird was very fair otherwise.

BRAHMAS. 113

brown, the ground colour being the dark, with lighter mark-
ings of a quarter-moon shape on each feather ; breast a lighf-
salmon-coloured ground, with dark pencillings of the same
quarter-moon shape, forming the most beautiful contrast of
the two colours imaginable. The fluff had also the brown
tinge.

" This colour I have striven to produce and sustain in my
strain of birds, breeding as they do much more true to colour
than the grey variety. This last, I believe, has been introduced
by some cross, as I have obtained grey pullets from other yards
whose produce has been mixed, whilst they themselves have
moulted to the brown shade and sometimes even to the red.
Besides this, the great difficulty of producing light-breasted
pullets cannot be got rid of in grey birds ; because, having, as
I believe, been crossed with a lighter colour, they will ' throw out'
a majority of inferior birds. I do not, however, like a reddish-
brown colour ; nor will any breeder be troubled with it, provided
he uses proper discretion in the selection of his breeding stock."

Others maintain that the brown colour referred to is a
blemish, and we must ourselves side with this view. But,
whether we are right or wrong in this, it is certain that the
variation in opinion is most unfortunate ; for the difference of
colour does not at all appear in the cocks, and hence there
is always great danger, in purchasing a male bird, of injuring
the pencilling which may be preferred. Each school, however,
has a right to its own fancy, and we can only advise the
utmost care in every introduction of fresh blood that may be
made, that the tinge of the strain purchased corresponds with
that already in the yard. It is to neglect of this precaution so
many bad coloured, mottled, and "streaky" birds owe their

* The above remarks refer to Brahmas as they are now exhibited and
judged. But we must remark that the birds formerly shown so success-
fully for several yoars together by Mr. R. Teebay, at Birmingham, and

114 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

" Yulture hocks " have also occasioned considerable dis-
cussion. The " Standard of Excellence " states that they are
to be considered objectionable, but not a disqualification.
Many breeders defend them, as being always more or less
associated with heavy shank-feathering; but all first-class
judges at present seem agreed to absolutely disqualify any
pen in which vulture-hocked birds appear, though soft curling
feathers tucked in nicely round, and hiding the joint, are
decidedly to be preferred.

The precision of the pencilling is very important, on the
breast especially, but has hitherto been overlooked in every
published description of Brahmas. Every feather should be
distinctly pencilled across several times with black, as are the
pencilled Hamburgh s, but more minutely, on a dull white
ground. On the breast the marking should be equally distinct
and abundant, but it there follows the outline of the feather,
and becomes a series of four or five " lacings," one within the
other. By the kindness of an eminent exhibitor and breeder
of this variety we are enabled to give engravings of actual
feathers taken from very perfect prize birds, which will illus-
trate this. (See plate of "Feathers," p. 101.) No. 6 is a feather
from the centre of a pullet's breast j No. 7 is from the flat of
the wing ; No. 8 from the coverts of the tail. Birds thus
pencilled are of exquisite beauty, but second-rate specimens

many other shows, were much darker than now, the dark pencilling being
ao dense and black as to have quite a metallic green shade, which we have
«ot now seen in hens for some time. The pullets are probably bred
lighter through selecting cocks as free as possible from any red or bronze
in the wing coverts, some amount of which appears essential to breeding
dark birds. We simply note this change to a lighter shade as one too
important to pass over; whether it be of itself any deterioration is, of
course, a fair subject for difference of opinion. But many experienced
breeders will also note changes in shape, and other characteristics —
the result of various crosses, and which certainly are not improve-
ments.

BRAHMAS. 115

ofton show a cloudy, indistinct mass of minute and confused
markings!, which are far inferior in a] p ;arance.

At a show held at Oswestiy last year (186G) a pen of
Brahmas was shown in the "Light" Class, of which the two
pullets were beautifully laced on the breast, with all the
precision of a Silver Sebright Bantam. The effect was very
pretty indeed, and we hope the variety may be perpetuated.

Little more need be added. With regard to the merits
of Brahmas, they must certainly rank very high. In size the
dark variety surpasses every other breed yet known, the
heaviest cock ever recorded, so far as we are aware, having
attained the enormous weight of eighteen pounds, and thirteen
and fourteen being not uncommon at good shows j though only
good strains reach this weight, and miserable specimens are
often seen which are inferior in size to Cochins. They also
lay nearly every day, even in the depth of winter, and if
jiure bred, scarcely ever sit till they have laid at least thirty
or forty eggs. "When they sit more frequently, the hen will
usually be very brown, and is, we believe, crossed with the
Shanghae. As winter layers, no breed equals them. We are
writing at the end of November, and have a hen which has
laid forty-five eggs in forty-eight days, whilst others are little
inferior. Brahmas are likewise very hardy, and grow uncommonly
fast, being therefore very early ready for table, in which par-
ticular they are profitable fowls, having plenty of breast-meat.
They bear confinement as well as Cochins, being, however, far
more sprightly ; and scarcely ever, like them, get out of con-
dition from over-feeding.

The flesh, however, though better than that of Cochins, is
much inferior, after six months, to that of the Dorking ; and
this is their only real fault • but a cross with a Crevdcceur or
Dorking cock produces the most splendid table fowls possible,
carrying almost incredible quantities of meat of excellent
•quality. Such a cross is well worth the attention of the farmer.

i 2

116 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

On the whole, there is no more profitable fowl "all round"
than the Brahina ; and a few hens at least should form part of
the stock of every moderate yard.

CHAPTER XIIL

MALAYS.

THE Malay was the first introduced of the gigantic Asiatic
breeds, and in stature exceeds that of any yet known. The
cock weighs or should weigh from nine to eleven pounds^
and when fully grown should stand at least two feet six inches
high. But the general size of this breed has of late greatly
deteriorated.

In form and make Malays are as different from Cochins
as can well be. They are exceedingly long in the neck and
legs, and the carriage is so upright that the back forms a
steep inclina The wings are carried high, and project very
much at the shoulders. Towards the tail, on the contrary,
the body becomes narrow — the conformation being thus exactly
opposite to that of the Shanghae. The tail is small, and that
of the cock droops.

The plumage is very close, firm, and glossy, more so than
that of any other breed, and giving to the bird a peculiar
lustre when viewed in the light. The colours vary very
much. We consider pure white the most beautiful of all ;
but the most usual is that well known under the title of
brown-breasted red game. The legs are yellow, but quite
naked.

The head and beak are long, the latter being rather hooked.
Comb low and flat, covered with small prominences like wart&

MALAYS. 117

Wattles and deaf-ears very small. Eye usually yellow.* The
whole face and great part of the throat are red aud naked, and
the whole expression " snaky " and cruel This is not belied
by the real character of the breed, which is most ferocious, even
more so than Game fowls, though inferior to the latter ia real
courage.

Malays are subject to an evil habit of eating each other's
feathers, a propensity which often occurs in close confinement,
and can only be cured by turning them on to a grass run of
tolerable extent, and giving plenty of lettuce with an occasional
purgative.

The chickens are delicate, but the adult birds are hardy
enough. They appear especially adapted to courts and alleys,
and may not unfrequently be seen in such localities in
London.

The principal merit of Malays is as table fowls. Skinny
as they appear, the breast, wings, and merrythought together
carry more meat than perhaps any other breed; and, when
under a year old, of very good quality and flavour. They also
make good crosses with several breeds. Mated with the
Dorking they produce splendid fowls for the table, which also
lay well ; and with the Spanish, though both parents are long-
legged, the result is most usually a short-legged bird of peculiar
beauty in^the plumage, good for the table, and, if a hen, a
remarkably good sitter and mother. They have also been
extensively crossed with the English Game fowl, in order to
increase the strength, size, ferocity, and hardness of feather.

* The " Standard" says the eye should be fiery red, but this is most
decidedly wrong. We should, of course, hesitate to state positively that
a "red eye0 has never been seen; but we do say we never saw one, and
doubt if any one else ever did, at all events lately. An eminent breeder
ef this variety informed us that the native fanciers in India preferred a
pearly or white eye ; but that there also he knew on good authority the rod
eye was unknown, except in very rare instances. How the " Standard '*
came to give "red" eyes as a point, is a mystery.

118 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

The great drawback of Malays is their abominably quarrel-
some disposition, which becomes worse the more they are con-
fined. The hens are also inferior as layers to most other
breeds ; and on these accounts the pure strain is not adapted to
general use, though useful in giving weight and good " wings "
to other varieties of fowl.

CHAPTER XIY.

GAME.

No variety of fowl has been so enthusiastically cultivated by
amateurs as the Game, and in none perhaps is there so much
room for legitimate difference of opinion. The varieties are
legion, and to describe every one would be hopeless, except in a
work specially devoted to the purpose ; we shall therefore only
give descriptions of the leading breeds, as written for this work
by Trevor Dickens, Esq.,* of London, one of the most eminent
authorities in England on all points connected with the Game
fowl.

"The Game cock, as the undisputed king of all poultry,
requires more careful judging in regard to shape, -than any
other bird. The Brown-reds have long been most perfect in
outline j but the following description will apply to a perfect
bird of any breed.

" The beak should be strong, curved, long, and sharp ; the
comb single, small, and thin, low in front, erect, and evenly
serrated ; it is usually red, but sometimes darkish red. Head
long and sharp, with the face and throat lean and thin. Ear-
lobes small and red, never whitish. Neck long, strong, and

* Well known for his annotations on the breeds of Game in the Poultry
Chronicle, under the signature of " Newmarket."

GAME.

well arched ; the hackle short, hard, close, firm, and broad in
the feather. Back short, and very hard both in flesh and
feather ; broad at shoulders, narrow at tail, and rounded at the
sides. Breast broad and very hard, but not by any means too
lean or too full — the last would be useless weight ; a good hard
breast is most essential, as it is the most vulnerable part of the
bird. The rump should be narrow, neat, and short, the saddle
feathers close, hard, and short. Wings very strong, and of a just
medium length, well rounded to the body, and carried neither
high nor low, but so as to protect the thighs. Very long-
winged birds are usually too long in the body, and short-winged
birds too broad in the stem. Tail neither long nor short, but
medium length, and carried erect to show good spirit, but not
1 squirrel-fashion ' over the back ; it should be well * fanned,*
or spreading, and the sickle feathers of a good round full curve,
and standing clearly above the points of the quill tail-feathers.*
Very long- tailed birds are soft and long-bodied, and short-
tailed birds are too short-winged, and often have broad rumps.
Thighs short f and very muscular, hard, and firm ; placed well
wide apart, and well up to the shoulders, in order to give a fine
fore-hand and make the bird stand firm on his legs; which latter
should be sufficiently long, but not too much so, and placed wide
apart as the thighs. Spurs low down, long, sharp, and rather
thin ; a little curved upwards, and not turning in too much. Feet
flat, broad, spreading, and thin ; the claws and nails straight,
long, and strong ; the back claw especially long and flat to the
ground, to give a firm footing. The whole plumage should be
very clo.se, short, and hard, with glossy reflections, and the

* Many breeders, especially in Yorkshire and London, prefer close or
folded tails. But, as a rule, the well raised and spread tail shows more
spirit, if not clumsy, which is of course bad.

t The "Standard of Excellence" says "racier short." This is
decide- :ly -lot emphatic enough to denote the proper proportions in a good
cook. Sute by A uthor.

120 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS

quills or stems strong and elastic. Body in Land short and
very hard, and the general carriage upright, quick, fierce, and
sharp. The back is best rather curved, provided it be flat
crosswise, and not hump-backed or lop-sided. Weight for
exhibition, 4J to /) J Ibs. ; for the pit, not over 4 J Ibs.

"The hen should correspond in form, but of course in
proportion, hardness of flesh and feather, with shortness of body,
being main points. Good hens generally become spurred, and
such breed the hardest and best cocks. The proper weight of
a hen is from 3 to 3J Ibs.

"A short or clumsy head, short or soft neck, long body,
narrow shoulders, long thighs, legs set close together, loose or
soft plumage, and especially what is known as a ' duck foot,'
are serious defects. It should be remembered that a Game fowl
is always judged mainly in reference to its fighting qualities,
and anything which interferes with them is a fault in the bird.

" With respect to the varieties of Game, the sorts which
take nearly all the prizes and cups are the Brown-red, Black-
breasted Red, Silver Duck-wing Greys, and Piles, all which
are cup-birds.

" The Brown-red is essentially dark in blood, the eyes being
a very dark brown, with the comb and face inclining to a dark
gipsy purple, and the beak dark also. Breast of the cock a
i%ed-brown, shoulders sometimes passing into a rich crange-red
colour. Wing-butts of a dusky or dark smoky brown, and
general colour a dark red. Legs dark iron-brown or blackish
bronze, with dark talons. Hackle with dark stripes, and thighs
like the breast. The tail a dark greenish black, and the wing
is often crossed with a glossy green bar. The general colour of
the hen is very dark brown, grained or pencilled with lighter
brown; her neck-hackle a dark golden copper-red, thickly
striped with dark stripes ', and her comb and face darker than
in the cock bird. Good hens are usually spurred, and their
tail feathers show a slight curve.

' M -?V.'| '/-I i >-\ '• '

GAME . 121

" The Brown-red breeds are most esteemed in the Midland
Counties, and at the principal shows take most cups. They
are also the favourite breed with sportsmen, and are best in
shape of all ; but like all the dark-combed varieties, are not
such good layers as those with bright red combs.

" Black-breasted Reds are essentially red-blooded birds, tho
plumage being generally a bright red, rather deeper on the body
than in the hackle, lied eyes are absolutely essential to good
birds, all others being inferior and infallibly denoting a cross.
The cock's wings are bright red in the upper part, and rich red
chestnut in the lower, with a steel blue bar across ; breast bluish
black, with glossy reflections ; thighs the same ; tail greenish
black, the feathers without much down at the roots. The comb
and wattles of all Black-reds must be bright red, and the legs
are usually willow colour in cup birds, though any leg will do
if the birds are bright in colour, and have red eyes. The
general colour of the hen is a rich red partridge-brown, with a
red fawn-coloured breast, and reddish golden hackle with dark
stripes ; the cock's hackle also is striped underneath, but clear
above. Spurred hens are the best, but are not so frequent as
in the preceding variety.

" Silver Duck-wing Greys are purer in blood than the
Yellow or Birchen Duck-wings, and are white-skinned when
of pure breed. General colour of the cock, a silver grey ;
hackle striped with black underneath, but clear above; back
a clear silver grey ; breast either bluish black or clear mealy
silver colour; wing crossed with a steel-blue bar, and the
lower part of a creamy white ; tail greenish glossy black. Hen
a silvery bluish grey, thickly frosted with silver ; breast a pale
fawn-colour ; neck-hackle silvery white, striped with black.
The comb and face in both sexes are bright red. The legs may
be either white, blue, or willow ; but of course the whole pen
must match, and white leg to silver feathering is certainly the
most correct match. Willow is, however, most common in

122 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

the legs, but least pure in blood ; the white or blue-legged birds
being the true-bred Silver Duck- wings. Eyes should be red in
Willow and Blue-legged strains, and yellow in Yellow and
White-legged strains in all the Duck- wing Game fowls.

" The Yellow Duck-wings are similar to the above except in
the straw-colour or birchen tinge, and the copper- coloured
saddle. They have yellow skins, and willow or yellow legs.
In this variety the cock's breast is always black, the hen's a
pale fawn colour, whilst the silver hen often has a clear mealy
or silver breast instead of fawn.

" Red eyes and willow legs are the only correct colours for
prize Duck- wings. Bright red eyes and white legs for prize
Piles.

" The colour called Piles consists, in the cock, of a bright
red piled on a white ground, the hackle being red and white
striped ; the back is chiefly red, and the breast mostly white,
but often with red markings ; the tail should be white, but a
few red feathers are not amiss ; black in the tail, as seen in the
Worcestershire Piles, is, however, very objectionable. The hens
are red-streaked or veined on a white ground, the breast redder
than the cock, and the tail white, with a few red feathers
occasionally. The reddest Piles are the best birds, and prize
pens should be selected with bright red eyes and white legs.

" Whites should have bright red eyes, and white legs are
essential.

" Black Game fowls should have black eyes and bluish black
legs — have won a few cups.

"Dark Greys ought always to have black eyes and legs.
The hens are very dark.

" The original wild varieties of Game fowls are three : — (1.)
The Black-breasted Red, with fawn-breasted partridge hens ;
(2.) Brown- breasted Reds, with dark legs, and dark brown (not
black) hens; and (3.) Rsd-breasted Ginger Reds with yellow legs,
and the hens a light partridge colour. These three colours

GAME. 123

were probably reclaimed at a very early period, and are still
found in India as wild birds. From them all tlie other colours
were originally bred; the varieties hatching dark chickens from
the brown or dark reds, and all others from the other two
sorts. These varieties can be merely named, and are most
conveniently classed thus, according to the colour of their
chickens when hatched : —

LIGHT CHICKENS.

1. Whites.

2. Piles.

3. Blue Duns.

4. Eed Duns.

STBIPED CHICKENS.

5. Black-breasted Beds.

6. Bed-breasted Ginger Beds.

7. Duck-wings.

8. Yellow Birchens.

DARK CHICKENS*

10. Brown Beds.

11. Dark Greys.

12. Dark Birchens,

13. Black.

9. Mealy Greys.

" There are also four other varieties not generally known,
called Red Furnaces, Cuckoos, Spangles, and Polecats, making
at least seventeen well-defined sorts of Game fowls ; but besides
these, there are at least twenty-seven named sub- varieties, or
forty-four in alL To describe these in detail would be useless,
uud I shall only, therefore, add the following general remarks : —

" The best criterion of blood in all Game fowls is the colour
of tJie eyes, a point which has been, strange to say, totally over-
looked in every work on poultry hitherto published. Black
eyes show dark blood, and the hens of such strains lay white
eggs. Red eyes denote red blood, and lay pinkish eggs. Yelloio
or daw eyes lay yellowish eggs. These last are inferior in
spirit to the others. Brown and bay eyes result from crossing
different breeds.

" The only sorts of much use for fighting are those with
black or red eyes, and the three varieties now usually employed
are the Brown-breasted Reds, Dark Greys (which are strongest
and hardiest of all), and Black-breasted Reds, with white legs
and dark red eyes. The sorts which fight the quickest are,
however, the Red Cheshire Piles, with bright red eyes and
white legs, the Red-breasted Ginger Reds, with bright red eyes

124 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

and yellow legs, and Whites, with white legs and bright red
eyes ; but they have not quite so much strength and power of
endurance. The Black-breasted Reds with willow legs are
generally too slow and soft for the pit, as are the Blacks also.

" The best layers are the Black-breasted Reds with willow
legs, the hens being partridge colour ; and Red Cheshire Piles
with white legs. The worst layers are the greys, Dark Greys
and Dark Birchens being worst of all. With the exception of
these, Game fowls lay remarkably well, and in favourable
circumstances will, I believe, surpass any breed. My willow-
legged Black-breasted Red hens have averaged from 211 to
284 eggs per annum. To reach this, however, they will
require a good run, but if well attended to, are always good
layers. It is worth remarking that yellow and blue-legged
birds generally lay best in all poultry.

" Game cock chickens should be shown undulbed ; but at
their first Christmas they become 'stags,' and should then
have their comb and wattles taken neatly and closely off with
a very sharp pair of scissors.

" Different varieties ought not to be crossed, but kept dis-
tinct. In breeding, either for stock or exhibition, nothing is so
•necessary as to have a good proportion of cocks. There should
foe one to every six hens at least ; and as in a large yard it is
impossible, from their pugnacity, to keep more than one full-
grown brood cock, there should be a good supply of fine young
birds or 'stags' kept under him, and breeding with the hens,
when all the eggs will be fecundated, and the chicks vigorous
and healthy. This is the only way of breeding good stock from
a large yard ; and it is of course preferable, when practicable, to
keep each cock to his own limited family of hens. Pullets ought
never to be bred from at all, and should be kept away from the
cocks, using their eggs for household purposes. Good old birds
will always breed strong chickens, and in this breed it scarcely
matters how old they are so long as they remain strong and

GAME. 125

healthy. The breeding pens should be selected with great
care, not from the largest, but from the best-shaped and strongest
birds. The more cock chicks in a brood the better, as it is
always an evidence of strength and vigour in the strain ; and
the pullets, though fewer, are finer and handsomer birds
invariably.

"Game eggs should not be hatched before the 21st of
March, nor after the end of May. This breed is of warmer
blood and stronger constitution than any other, and the chicks
consequently hatch earlier, often breaking the shell at the end
of the nineteenth day. As soon as they begin to fight, the
cocks should be separated, and, if possible, put out to * walk '
at a farm ; the pullets will rarely injure themselves, and their
quarrels are only amusing."

To the foregoing remarks of Mr. Dickens — the best descrip-
tion of the breed ever yet published — we shall only add a few
sentences on the general qualities of Game fowls. Their merits
are many and various. In elegance of shape, in hardihood, in
bold and fearless spirit, what can equal them 1 But besides
these recommendations, they rank, as already stated, in the
very first class as layers, provided only they have a good run ;
whilst for delicacy of flavour their flesh is confessedly beyond
any comparison. They should never be fatted, being too im-
patient to bear the process ; but if eaten just as taken off their
runs are equal to the pheasant. They also eat little, and are
therefore profitable fowls, whilst as mothers the hen is not to
be equalled. She should not be given too many eggs, on
account of her small size ; but she will hatch her full comple-
ment, and when hatched will take good care of them, defending
them against any foe to the last gasp. If there be cats in the
neighbourhood commend us to a good Game hen.

There are, however, a few drawbacks. The size of both
birds and eggs is small, which of itself makes them of little
value as a market fowl, and in confinement the Game hen will

12 G DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

by no means lay so well as Brahmas, Spanish, or Hamburgh <?.
Their pugnacious disposition also disqualifies them for small
runs, though not to the extent generally supposed.

On the whole, we should pronounce this breed the very one
for a country gentleman, who can give his fowls ample range ;
and it will in such circumstances afford a constant and abundant
supply of the most delicious eggs and meat to be obtained.
Their good laying qualities may also recommend them to the
farmer in some localities. But they cannot be considered a
profitable breed for domestic purposes in general, or to those
whose object in poultry-keeping is to supply the market with
table birds.

CHAPTER XV.

DORKINGS.

THIS is a pre-eminently English breed of fowls, and is, as it
always will be, a general favourite, especially with lady fanciers.
The general predilection of the fair sex for Dorkings may be
easily accounted for, not only by the great beauty of all the
varieties, but even more perhaps by their unrivalled qualities as
table-birds — a point in which ladies may be easily supposed to
feel a peculiar interest.

The varieties of Dorkings usually recognised are the Grey
or Coloured, Silver Grey, and White. We believe the White to
be the original breed, from which the coloured varieties were
produced by crossing with the old Sussex or some other large
coloured fowl That such was the case is almost proved by the
fact that only a few years ago nothing was more uncertain than
the appearance of £he fifth toe in coloured chickens, even of the
best strains. Such uncertainty in any important point is
always an indication of mixed blood j and that it was so in this
case is shown by the result of long and careful breeding, which

DORKINGS. 127

has now rendered the fifth toe permanent, and finally established
the variety.

In no breed is size, form, and weight so much regarded in
judging the merits of a pen. The body should be deep and full,
the breast being protuberant and plump, especially in the cock,
whose breast, as viewed sideways, ought to form a right angle
with the lower part of his body. Both back and breast must
be broad, the latter showing no approach to holiowness, and the
entire general make lull and plump, but neat and compact,,
Hence a good bird should weigh more than it appears to do.
It is difficult to give a standard, but we consider that a cock
which weighed less than 10 Ibs., or a hen under 8J Ibs., would
stand a poor chance at a first-class show ; and cocks have been
shown weighing over 14 Ibs. This refers to the coloured variety.
"White Dorkings have degenerated, and are somewhat less.

The legs must be white, with perhaps a slight rosy tinge ;
and it is imperative that each foot exhibits behind the well-
known double toe, perfectly developed, but not running into
monstrosities of any kind, as it is rather prone to do. An
excessively large toe, or a triple toe, or the fifth toe being some
distance above the ordinary one, or the cock's spurs turning
outward instead of inward, would be glaring faults in a show
pen.

The comb may, in coloured birds, be either single or double,
but all in one pen must match. The single comb of a cock
.should be large and perfectly erect. White Dorkings should
have double or rose combs, broad in front at the beak, and
ending in a raised point behind, with no hollow in the centre.

In the Grey variety the colour is not material, so long as
the two hens in the pen match. The cock's breast may be
cither black or mottled with white ; the hackle, back, and
saddle are usually white, more or less striped with black ; and
the wing we like best to see nearly white, with a well-defined
black bar across.

128 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

In the Silver Grey Dorking, however, colour is imperative.
This variety, there is not the slightest doubt, was at first a
chance off-shoot from the preceding, but has been perpetuated
by careful breeding. Coloured birds will always occasionally
throw silver-grey chickens, and such are sometimes exhibited
as "bred" Silver Greys; but it is needless to add that disappoint-
ment is sure to ensue, unless the strain has been kept pure for
many generations. The Silver Grey colour is as follows : —
Cock's breast a pure and perfect black ; tail and larger coverts
also black, with metallic reflections; head, hackle, back, and
saddle feathers, pure silvery white; and the wing bow also
white, showing up well a sharply-marked and brilliant bar of
black across the middle. A single white feather in the tail
would be fatal. Hen's breast salmon-red, shading into grey at
the thighs ; head and neck silvery white striped with black,
back " silver grey," the white of the quill showing as a white
streak down the centre of each feather ; wings also grey, with
no shade of red ; tail dark grey, passing into black in the inside.
The general appearance of both birds should be extremely clean
and aristocratic.

The white birds should be what their name implies — a clear,
pure, and perfect white. There is generally in the cock more
or less tendency to straw or cream colour on the back and
wings, and we would by no means disqualify a really first-class
bird in all other points on account of it ; but it is decidedly a
fault.

White Dorkings are usually much smaller than the coloured,
which we believe to have hindered the popularity of this truly
exquisite variety. It has often occurred to us that this defect
might be easily remedied by crossing with the large Grey
Dorking, and then breeding back ; and on a recent visit to
Linton Park we saw the experiment fairly commenced, with
every prospect of success. A good white cock had been mated
with some light- coloured hens, and out of the progeny there

DORKINGS. 129

Appeared six or seven pure white chickens, of very great merit.
Two cockerels attracted our special attention ; they were not
six months old when we saw them, but they were fully up to
the Grey Dorking standard of size, and we have not the slightest
doubt, when full grown, would weigh at least 12 Ibs. each,
whilst in colour they were quite equal to their parent. We
commend this method of increasing the size to all White
Dorking fanciers. We have also known a cross tried with the
White Cochin, but never saw a bird so produced that was fit to
look at.

We cannot let the subject of size pass without alluding to
the great obligations Dorking breeders are under to Mr. John
Douglas. By careful selection of stock, and close attention,
with probably the help of a cross, he succeeded in raising the
standard of this breed at least 2 Ibs. higher than had ever been
known before; and the fowls he bred have never yet been
surpassed.

It should be remembered that Dorkings degenerate more
than any variety from interbreeding ; and, if fresh blood be not
introduced, rapidly decrease in size. They also suffer much
from frequent exhibition, not bearing confinement welL We
are, however, inclined to think that in some degree this
arises from the vicious practice of over-feeding the birds, to
increase their weight, before showing; and we cannot help
expressing our decided opinion that judges should always dis-
qualify such an over-fed pen, however meritorious otherwise.
No less is due to the public, who not unfrequently purchase
prize pens to breed from ; for a pen in such a condition ol
•unhealthy fatness is not only useless at the time, but can rarely
be got into really healthy condition again. We have seen a
really magnificent pen of Dorkings, whose lives we would not
have given three weeks' purchase for ; and which, even if they
did survive, were irretrievably ruined for breeding, and ought
.therefore to have been condemned by the judges.

130 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLSL

Dorkings are peculiarly subject to " bumble foot " — a chronic
gathering, or abscess, probably first produced by the heavy birds
descending on the ground from too high perches, but now it
appears more or less hereditary in the breed ; at least we have
seen it repeatedly in fowls never allowed to roost high enough
to cause it in this way, and which had the unrestricted run of
a spacious park. We believe there is no remedy but to let the
abscess grow to maturity, and then remove it surgically. The
operation will be successful about once out of three times.

The great merit of Dorkings has already been hinted at, and
consists in their unrivalled excellence as table-fowls. In this
respect we never expect to see them surpassed. The meat is-
not only abundant and of good quality, surpassing any other
English breed except game, but is produced in greatest quantity
in the choicest parts — breast, merrythought, and wings. Add
to this, that no breed is so easily got into good condition for
the table, and enough has been said to justify the popularity
of this beautiful English fowl. It should also be noted that
the hen is a most exemplary sitter and mother ; and, remaining
longer with the chickens than most other varieties, is peculiarly
suitable for hatching early broods.

The Dorking is not, however, a good layer, except when
very young; and in winter is even decidedly bad in this respect.
The chickens are also of very delicate constitution when bred in
confinement, and a few weeks of cold wet weather will sometimes
carry off nearly a whole brood ; they ought not, therefore, to be
hatched before May. But it is only right to say that when-
allowed unlimited range the breed appears hardy, and as easy
to rear as any other, if not hatched too soon. At Linton Park,
the chickens are all left with the hens at night, under coops
entirely open in the front ; and grow up in perfect health, whilst
the old birds frequently roost in the trees. It is in confinement
or on wet soils that they suffer, and the only way of keeping
them successfully in such circumstances is to pay the strictest

SPANISH. 131

attention to cleanliness and drainage, and to give them soma
fresh turf eveiy day, in addition to other vegetable food. With
these precautions, prize Dorkings have been reared in gravelled
yards not containing more than 300 square feet.

In fine, the breed is most valuable for the market, or as a
general fowl, on a wide and well-drained range. But we
cannot recommend it to supply the table with eggs, or as a
profitable fowl to be kept in a limited space.

Our illustration is drawn from a magnificent pair of Grey
Dorkings kindly lent for the purpose by Lady Holmesdale.

CHAPTER XVL

SPANISH.

UNLIKE almost all other varieties, there really appears some
reason for believing that this breed of fowls did originate, or at
all events come to us, from Spain. It has, however, been long
known and valued by amateurs in this country, and perhaps
no other is so generally popular. This is no doubt partly
owing to their truly aristocratic and haughty appearance, but
no less also to their unrivalled large white eggs, which exceed
in weight those of any other breed, except the lately introduced
La Fleche, and are always sought after for the breakfast-
table.

Of all the varieties of this breed now known, the white-
faced Black Spanish is by far the most important, and the only
one for which a special class is reserved at most poultry exhibi-
tions ; all others having to be shown in the class " for any other
variety." Of this truly beautiful breed the following descrip-
tion has been given us, and subsequently most carefully revised
by Mr. H. Lane of Bristol, well known for his magnificent

j 2

132 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

strain, and who has probably taken more first prizes with his
birds than any other breeder within a similar period : —

" The general carriage of Spanish fowls is of great import-
ance. The cock especially should carry himself very stately
and upright, the breast well projecting, and the tail standing
well up, but not carried forward as in some birds. The sickle-
feathers should be perfect and fully developed, and the whole
plumage a dense jet black, with glossy reflections in the light.
The hen should be equally dense in colour, but is much less
glossy. Any white or speckled feathers, which now and then
occur, are fatal faults.

" The legs should be blue or dark lead-colour ; any approach
to white is decidedly bad.* The legs in both sexes are long,
but the fowl should be nevertheless plump and heavy. I con-
sider a good cock for exhibition ought not to weigh under
seven pounds : the hen a pound less ; and I have had several
excellent cocks which weighed eight pounds each. All Spanish
fowls in really good condition are heavier than they appear
to be.

"The comb must be very large in both sexes, and of a
bright vermilion colour. That of the hen should fall com-
pletely over on one side, but the cock's comb must be perfectly
upright, the slightest approach to falling over being fatal to
him at a good show. The indentations also must be regular
and even, and the whole comb, though very large, quite free
from any appearance of coarseness. Any sign of a twist in
front is a great fault.

"The most important point, however, is the white face.
This should extend as high as possible over the eye, and be as
wide and deep as possible. At the top, it should be nearly
arched in shape, approaching the bottom of the comb as nearly

* It is singular that the old fanciers imperatively required these
identical bluish white legs in prize birds ; and legs of too dark a tint were
often put in poultices to make them light enough !

SPANISH. 133

as possible, and reaching sideways to the ear-lobes and wattles,
meeting also under the throat. In texture the face ought to
be as fine and smooth as possible. The ears are large and pen-
dulous, and should be as white as the face. Any fowl with
red specks in the face has not the slightest chance.

" With regard to Spanish fowls as layers, the pullets will
generally lay when six months old, and I seldom get less than
five or six eggs a week from each. My house is warmed,*
which has, of course, some influence on a breed so delicate ; but
with this artificial aid, I find my pullets lay throughout the
winter, as above.

" The great thing with the chickens is to keep them out of
the damp. They scarcely ever get roup ; but if not kept dry
die away rapidly, no one knows how. They ought not, there-
fore, as a rule, to be hatched very early in the year, and one
cock ought not to be allowed more than three hens, as the eggs
are less fertile than those of most other breeds."

The following additional remarks on this fowl are compiled
from information furnished us by various amateurs.

Spanish are judged most of all by the quantity and quality
of the "face." If this be rough and "warty" so as to hinder
the sight of the bird, or have any decided red mark, especially
above the eye, or be much disfigured in the same region by
feathers, the bird has little chance. Such feathers are often
pulled out, but if thus " trimmed" a pen ought always to be
disqualified, though it is almost universally done by exhibitors.

Like all other black fowls, coloured or even white
feathers will occasionally happen. Such birds are hopeless to
exhibit, and decidedly bad to breed from.

That the comb of the cock should be absolutely erect is

most important, and many breeders, to secure this, place light

wire frames, or " cages," over them, as soon as sufficiently

developed to hold the wire in place : the combs are thus grown

* For plan and description of Mr. Lane's establishment, see Chap. VII.

134 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

straight, like cucumbers ! But there will rarely be need for
this, if the breeding-stock be of good constitution. The hens
selected for breeding should therefore be carefully chosen with
good thick combs, which spring up with some arch before they
fall over the side of the head. Hens with combs that fall
dead over will rarely breed strong-combed cockerels. The
eomb of both sexes should, however, get thin at the edge, or it
will appear heavy and clumsy.

Mr. Lane has alluded to the delicacy of the chickens.
During feathering, which is in this breed a very slow process,
they require special care and most generous diet, or few will
be reared. When full grown, however, they are a tolerably
hardy fowl altogether, but always suffer much in moulting,
and during very cold or damp weather.

In no breed is purity of race of so much importance as in this ;
and in introducing a fresh cock it is especially needful to see
that both his appearance and his pedigree are quite satisfactory.
One of the most eminent breeders in England informed us a
few months since that all his chickens of the season had been
ruined by the introduction of a fresh cock, whose face when
purchased appeared perfectly white, but who had imported
more or less red into every chicken hatched from him. There
can be no doubt, however, that too close interbreeding has
greatly injured the Spanish fowl, and that both size, constitu-
tion, and prolificacy have been sacrificed to the white face
alone. Such a result is to be regretted; and as it is now
becoming generally acknowledged and deplored, we may hope
that it is not yet too late to get back some of the size and
hardihood of the Spanish fowl as formerly known.*

* It was a subject of general remark that at the last Birmingham
show (December, 1866) the Spanish fowls were larger and finer on the
•whole than had been seen for a considerable time ; and at the Bristol show
a month after there was confessedly the most splendid collection of this
breed that had ever been seen, as was emphatically remarked by the
judges. We hope the improvement may not be merely temporary.

SPANISH. 135

The other principal varieties of Spanish are — the Minorca, or
Red-faced Black ; the White ; the Blue, or Andalusian; and the
Ancona, Grey, or Mottled breed.

[MINORCA. — This breed resembles in comb, ears, shape, and
colour of plumage, the white-faced breed, but considerably sur-
passes it in size; and, on an average, we consider the comb
more largely developed; the legs are also shorter. A good
cock ought to weigh from eight to nine pounds. It is the best
layer of all the Spanish breeds, and the chickens are tolerably
hardy. It is a great favourite in the West of England, and
deserves to be more widely cultivated, as it far surpasses the
preceding in everything except the white face. Prizes are now
and then offered to Minorcas, and, on one or two occasions, we
have known them allowed to take honours in the general
" Black Spanish " class j but usually they are quite overlooked
by poultry judges.

We think it would be well worth while to try the effect of
throwing a cross of this breed into its more aristocratic rela-
tive. The lien should be selected for the cross, of course — not
only to avoid the risk of contaminating a whole strain by the
experiment, but because it is chiefly size and constitution
that are wanted, while the red face must be as speedily as
possible "bred out" again. Let a fine Minorca hen, therefore,
be put with a good white-faced cock, and her eggs care-
fully kept apart When hatched, let one or two of the
puUeis only which show most size and constitution be again
reserved, and mated with another good cock of a different
family, and so on. We have never seen the experiment tried,
but believe a few years of this system would breed good white-
faced birds, far superior in size and stamina to any of the
existing strains.

WHITE. — This breed should have a red face and white ears,
as in the Minorca, which it also resembles in size, shape, and
general qualities. The plumage, however, is snow-white, with-

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

out a single stain. All black fowls occasionally throw white
chickens, and no doubt the white breed was thus accidentally-
originated.

Straw-colour in the cock, or stains of red in the ears, are
the most common faults in this variety. w

AKDALUSIAN. — This must be considered a truly useful and
handsome fowl, being, according to general testimony, the
hardiest of all the Spanish breeds. The plumage is slaty blue,
in many specimens slightly laced with a darker shade, but the
neck hackles and tail feathers are glossy black, and harmonise
very richly with the rest. Ears white and face red, as in the
Minorca. Unlike other Spanish chickens, these are very hardy,
and feather rapidly and well, which gives them a great advan-
tage. This breed appears each year to increase the number of
its admirers, and may very probably attain in time to a distinct
class of its own.

ANCONAS. — Mottled all over, or what is called "cuckoo"
colour, and look rather pretty. In all other points they
resemble Minorcas, being, however, of a smaller size.

The so-called " Columbian" fowl is evidently a cross between
the Spanish cock and Malay hen, but would be well worth
establishing as a distinct breed. The black plumage is of extra-
ordinary lustre, whilst the bird is of great size and hardihood,
excellent for the table, and the hen a most prolific layer, the
eggs being also probably the very largest known. Even as a
cross, such fowls are well worth keeping ; and there can be no
doubt that a well-established breed combining these qualities
would soon become a favourite.

Spanish fowls of any kind are very little subject to roup,
at least in any marked or specific form ; but suffer exceedingly
from cold or wet. Severe frost especially often attacks the
comb and wattles, and if the bird in this state be not attended
to, it will be disfigured for life. The proper treatment is ta
rub the affected parts with snow or cold water, exactly as in

SPANISH. 137

the human subject, but not on any account to take the frost-
bitten bird into a warm room until recovered. The fowls are-
also very long over their moult, and need special care and!
nourishing food at this season.

The}- are also liable to a peculiar disease called " black rot.'*
The symptoms are a blackening of the comb, swelling of the
legs and feet, and general wasting of the system. It can only
be cured in the earlier stages by frequent doses of castor-oil, to
keep up purging ; at the same time giving freely strong ale or
other stimulants, with warm and nourishing food.

Another singular disease occasionally occurring in this fowl
has never, we believe, had any name given to it ; but the symp-
tom is the occurrence, in rapid succession, of bladders under
the skin, which contain however nothing but air. We believe
the cause to be debility : at least, nourishing and stimulating
food, pricking each vesicle as it rises, will generally effect a
cure.

The merit of Spanish fowls is their production of large
white eggs, which are laid in great abundance in moderate-
weather. They are also of very good quality as table-birds.
But they cannot be called good winter-layers, unless with the
aid of artificial heat ; and their delicacy of constitution is a
great drawback to their otherwise many merits. We believe,
however, that fanciers have this point much in their own
hands; and, even in spite of such a serious fault, wherever
large eggs are valued or desired, the Spanish will always be
regarded as a most useful and profitable fowl — the Minorca-
being the best regarded from this point.

As a "fancy" fowl we believe the "white-faced" variety to-
be the most profitable of any, as good stock are always saleable
at high prices, and out of a dozen good eggs there are almost
invariably a larger proportion of chickens fit for exhibition than
can be reckoned upon in any other breed we are acquainted
with.

138 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

For two or three weeks before exhibition, Spanish fowls
should be allowed as much meal as they like to eat. The day
before sending off, the legs should be carefully washed, and also
the comb, wattles, and face ; drying the latter carefully with a
soft towel. The face will probably get rather red under this
treatment, and if so, the bird must be put for the night in a
warm room, kept perfectly dark, which will make all right
again. The hamper should also be carefully lined, that the
birds may not take cold, and the top should be high enough to
avoid any danger of injury to the combs.

To send fowls of this breed to winter shows in a basket not
lined, is in severe weather almost certain death.

CHAPTER XVII.

HAMBURGHS.

UNDER the name of Hamburghs are now collected several
varieties of fowls, presenting the general characteristics of
rather small size, brilliant rose combs, ending in a spike behind,
projecting upwards, blue legs, and beautifully pencilled or
spangled plumage. None of the Hamburghs ever show any
disposition to sit unless in a state of great freedom, but lay
nearly every day all through the year, except during the
moulting season, whence they used to be called " Dutch every-
day layers."

It is not our province to enter into the question of the
origin of the different breeds of Hamburghs. There can be no
doubt that the usual classification into simply spangled and
pencilled is not sufficient to mark the distinct varieties that
exist ; but our duty is to take the classes as we find them, and
describe them as they are now recognised at the leading shows ;
paying special attention to the plumage, as exactness of

HAMBURGHS. 139

marking is of more importance in this than in almost any
other breed. In so doing we are glad to acknowledge the able
•assistance of Mr. Henry Beldon, of Goitstock, Bingley, York-
shire, who at present breeds these beautiful varieties more
extensively, and takes more prizes, than any one else in the
kingdom.

SILVER-PENCILLED. — The size of this exquisite breed is
small, but the shape of both cock and hen peculiarly graceful
and sprightly. Carriage of the cock very conceited, the tail
being borne high, and carried in a graceful arch. The comb
in this, as in all the other varieties, to be rather square in
front, and well peaked behind, full of spikes, and free from
hollow in the centre. Ear-lobe pure white, free from red
edging. Legs small and blue.

The head, hackle, back, saddle, breast, and thighs of the
cock should be white as driven snow. Tail black, glossed with
green, the sickle and side feathers having a narrow white edging
the whole length, the more even and sharply defined the
better. Wings principally white, but the lower wing-coverts
marked with black, showing a narrow indistinct bar across the
wing. The secondary quills have also a glossy black spot on
the end of each feather, which gives the. wing a black edging.
The most frequent defect in the cock is a reddish-brown patch
on the wing, which is fatal. We believe this fault to occur
nearly always in old birds, and remember seeing a cock which
had taken thirty-seven prizes moult out thus at last, and so end
his career as an exhibition bird. The bar on the wings is
difficult to get, and is not imperative ; any cock with a nicely
edged tail, and quite free from coloured or black markings on
any part of the body, ought to stand a fair chance in exhibition,
if form and comb be good. As a bird to breed from, however,
he would be a failure ; as it is impossible to get well-marked
pullets except from a cock with a good proportion of black
under-colour

140 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

The most frequent fault in the hen is a spotted hackle,
instead of a pure white. The rest of the body should have
each feather distinctly marked, or "pencilled" across with
bars of black, free from cloudiness, or, a.s it is called, "mossing."
(See " Feathers," No. 5.) The tail feathers should be pencilled
the same as the body ; but to get the quill feathers of the
wings so is rare, and a hen thus marked is unusually valuable.
General form very neat, and appearance remarkably sprightly.

GOLDEN-PENCILLED. — The form of this breed is the same as-
the preceding variety, and fthe black markings are generally
similar, only grounded upon a rich golden bay colour instead of
a pure white. The cock's tail should be black, the sickles
and side feathers edged with bronze ; but tails bronzed all over
are often seen. The bar on the wing is not imperative, or
even usual, in this breed. The colour of the cock is always
much darker than that of the hens, generally approaching a
rich chestnut.

In all pencilled Hamburghs the value chiefly depends on the
exactness and definition of the markings, which ought to be a
dense black, and the ground colour between quite clear. The
silver is slightly the largest breed.

GOLDEN-SPANGLED. — Whilst the markings on pencilled
Hamburghs consist of parallel bars across the feathers, the
varieties we are now to consider vary fundamentally in having
only one black mark at the end of each feather, forming the
spangle. This black marking varies in shape, and though only
one variety is recognised ki each colour at poultry exhibitions,
it is quite certain that both in gold and silver there are two
distinct breeds, distinguished by the shape of the spangle. The
best known of the two varieties, and the most often seen, is the
breed long known in Lancashire under the name of " mooneys,"
from the spangles being round, or moon-shaped.

The ground colour of the Golden " Mooney " Hamburghs is
a rich golden bay, each of the feathers having a large circle, or

UAMBURGHS. 141

moon, of rich black, having a glossy green reflection. (See
"Feathers," No. 4.) The hackle should be streaked with
greenish black in the middle of the feathers, and edged with
gold. Tail quite black, even in the hens. All the spangles
should be large and regular in shape.

In the cock the upper part of the breast is usually glossy
black, but lower down, at least, it ought to be rich bay, and
spangled like the hens. The cock of this breed is rather small
in proportion to the hens.

The second variety is that known chiefly in Yorkshire as
u pheasant fowls," and differs greatly in the plumage. Instead
of the spangles being round, as in the " mooneys," they are
crescent-shaped (See "Feathers," No. 3), approaching the
character of lacing ; the marking is also seldom so sharp and
definite, being often a little " mossed." In the cock the
crescent spangles on the breast run so much up the sides of the
feathers as really to become almost a lacing.

The latter variety is the largest, hardiest, and the best
layer ; but is seldom seen at shows pure-bred. The usual plan
appears to be, to show mooney hens along with cocks bred
between mooney and pheasant fowls. The reason of this is
that the mooney cock has scarcely ever a pure ear-lobe, and
generally has a dark breast ; and by crossing the two breeds
together, cocks are produced with spangled breasts and white
ear-lobes, and altogether much larger and showier birds than
the pure mooneys. It will be seen, therefore, that to breed
birds for exhibition, two distinct lots must be penned up ;
viz., pure mooneys for the pullets, and mooneys with Yorkshire
Pheasants for the cockerels ; of course choosing birds for this
purpose with the best developed ear-lobes and most evenly
spangled breasts. The cross thus obtained may be also used
to breed cocks from, but not to breed pullets ; although of late
even hens have been shown with a taint of the Yorkshire
Pheasant in them, as evidenced by their white ear-lobes and

142 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

larger size. These birds show well under cover, but when seen
in full daylight are not to be compared to the true-bred
mooney hen in richness of plumage.

We have been careful to explain this at length, because
ignorance of it has disgusted many with this truly beautiful
breed. Many a " first-prize pen " has been purchased, and the
breed afterwards given up in disgust, on account of the cross
in the cock not being known or understood, and the pen there-
fore bred from as in other breeds. We cannot but consider
such cross-breeding a great pity ; but it is encouraged by the
judges, who look mainly for a white deaf-ear; and all we can
do therefore is to make the plan of breeding plain to the
uninitiated.

SILVER-SPANGLED. — In this class two similar varieties exist.
The Lancashire silver " mooney," with large round spangles,
resembles the golden, substituting a silvery white ground
colour. The outside tail feathers in the hen, however, differ
from the golden mooney, being silver white, with only black
moons at the tips. The moons on wing covert feathers in
both sexes should form two black bars across the wings ; the
more regular these bars the more valuable the bird.

The silver pheasant-fowl of Yorkshire has smaller spangles,
and not so round, without, however, running into the crescent
form of the golden pheasant-fowl. The tail is white in both
cock and hen, ending in black spangles. The cock's breast
has also far less spangling than the mooney breed.

With regard to breeding Silver- spangled Hamburghs for
exhibition, the case is still more complicated than in the golden
variety, as even the silver-mooney contains two distinct sub-
varieties. The purest strain breeds cocks that are hen-feathered,
or marked and feathered exactly like the hen, with the excep-
tion that the top feathers of the tail are rather longer. This
variety formerly took all the prizes, being larger and much
handsomer in marking; but the judges at Birmingham di?-

HAMBURGHS. 143

carded them some years ago, and since then they have nearly
died out, being only kept tip by a few of the most eminent
breeders who know their real merits. There is another and
far more common variety of mooney, which breeds cocks with
dark tails and reddish ear-lobes, and is probably originally a
cross from the higher-bred variety just mentioned with the
Yorkshire Pheasant. Be this as it may, cocks for exhibition
are usually bred by mating this latter variety again with the
Yorkshire Pheasant, the cross producing a cockerel which
meets the requirements of the judges, having a full yet clear
tail, and pure white ear-lobes ; it, however, lacks that depth of
colour for which the true-bred mooney is conspicuous. Good
pullets can also be bred from the Lancashire dark and full-
tailed cock when mated with his own hens, but not equal in
either colour or size to those bred from the hen-feathered
birds ; which latter, however, are of little use for breeding
cockerels.

We cannot avoid remarking on the folly of these ingenious
and yet clumsy proceedings, so opposed to real scientific breed-
ing. The proper plan would have been to adopt as a basis the
most perfect variety — the hen-tailed mooney — and by careful
selection of breeding stock, to banish that feature when found
to be objectionable, which might have been done in a few
years, all other merits of marking being retained. Instead of
this, we find a system which infallibly disgusts every one
ignorant of its mysteries with the whole breed ; and whether
judges or exhibitors are most to blame for it, it would be hard
to decide.

There is also a hen-feathered Golden Hamburgh; and in
both colours these birds are very hardy and long-lived. But it
is to be noted that Silver- spangled Hamburghs, both Lanca-
shire and Yorkshire, are much better layers than the Golden
birds.

It should be noted that many spangled Hamburgh chickens

144 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

are at first pencilled in the feathers, the true spangling only
appearing with the first moult.

BLACK HAMBURG HS. — There is little doubt that this breed
has been produced by crossing with the Spanish ; the white
face often half-apparent, the larger size (cocks often weighing
7 Ibs.), and the darker legs, all betray its origin. It is, how-
ever, perfectly well established as a distinct variety, and good
strains breed quite true to colour and other points.

In the black variety the comb of the cock is considerably
larger than in the others we have noted, the wattles also being
large and round. Plumage black, spangled, when seen in the
light, with dark glossy green. Hens similar in plumage ; but
in general make rather square and heavy, with short legs, very
•different from the other varieties.

On the whole, we can most strongly recommend Hamburghs
us a profitable breed. Each hen will lay from 200 to 250 eggs
in a year, which certainly exceeds the production of any other
fowl ; and if they are generally small, the consumption of food
is comparatively even more so. Though naturally loving a
wide range, there is no real difficulty in keeping them in con-
finement, if cleanliness be attended to. Last year we hatched
a brood of eleven, two of which were killed, and all the re-
mainder we have now. Till three months old they had the
j-un of the garden, since which they have been chiefly confined
in a shed ; but are all in perfect health, and well repay their
food. Indeed, more profitable fowls are none; whilst their
varieties of barring, pencilling, or spangl;ng, with their elegant
shape, form the very perfection of bird beauty, and never fail
to excite admiration.

The great difficulty in keeping them arises from their
erratic propensities. Small and light, they fly like birds, and
•even a ten-feet fence will not retain them in a small run.
They may, it is true, be kept in a shed ; but, if so, the number
must be very limited. Where six Brahmas would be kept,

POLANDS. 1 45

four Hamburghs are quite enough, and they must be kept dry
and scrupulously clean. The pencilled birds are also, most
certainly, delicate, being very liable to roup if exposed to cold
or wet; they should not, therefore, be hatched before May.
The spangled are hardy, and lay larger eggs than the pencilled ;
but the latter lay rather the most in number. For profit,
however, we should recommend the black Hamburgh, on
account of the large size of the eggs ; and this variety is
certainly the most extraordinary egg-producer of all breeds
known.

Hamburghs are too small to figure much on the table.
They carry, however, from the smallness of the bones, rathei
more meat than might be expected, and what there is of it is of
first-rate quality and flavour.

CHAPTER XVIIL

POLANDS.

UNDER the title of Polands, or Polish fowls, should be collected
all varieties which are distinguished by a well-developed crest,
or tuft of feathers on the top of the head. This crest invariably
proceeds from a remarkable swelling or projection at the top of
the skull, which contains a large portion of the brain ; and it is
worthy of remark, that as the comparative size of this protube-
rance invariably corresponds with that of the crest springing
from it, the best crested chickens can be selected even when
first hatched. It is also remarkable that the feathers in the
crest of the cock resemble those of his neck-hackles, being long
and pointed, whilst those of the hen are shorter and round ;
and this difference forms the first means of distinguishing the
sexes.

The comb of all Polish fowls is likewise peculiar, being of

146 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

what is called the two-horned character. This formation is
most plainly seen in the Crevecoeurs, where the two horns are
very conspicuous. In the breeds more specifically known as
Polish, the comb should be almost invisible, but what there is
of it will always show the bifurcated formation.

Under the title of Polish fowls, might perhaps be included
the Crevecoeurs, Houdans, and Gueldres, if not La Fleche; but we
shall, for convenience of reference, describe these crested fowls
in a separate chapter on the French breeds, and confine our-
selves here to the other tufted varieties, including the recently
introduced Sultans.

The following descriptions have been corrected to the latest
date by Mr. Henry Beldon, of Bingley, Yorkshire, well known
as a prize-taker with these breeds.

WHITE-CRESTED BLACK. — This is the most generally known
of all the varieties. The carriage of the cock, as in all Polands,
is graceful and bold, with the neck thrown rather back, towards
the tail ; body short, round, and plump ; legs rather short,
and in colour either black or leaden blue. There should be no
comb, but full wattles of a bright red ; ear-lobes a pure white.
Plumage black all over the body, with bright reflections on the
hackle, saddle, and tail. Crest large, regular, and full, even in
the centre, and each feather in a perfect bird we suppose of a
pure white ; but there are always a few black feathers in front,
and no bird is therefore to be disqualified on that account,
though the fewer the better. Weight from five to six
pounds.

Hen very compact and plump in form. Plumage a deep
rich black. Crest almost globular in shape, and in colour like
the cock's. We never yet saw a bird in whose crest there were
not a few black feathers in front, and we doubt if such were
ever bred. Where they do not appear, we believe the crests
have always been " trimmed," and in no class does this practice
BO frequently call for the condemnation of the poultry judge.

POLANDa 147

"Weight of the hen four to five pounds. This variety is
peculiarly delicate and subject to roup.

BLACK-CRESTED WHITE. — There is indisputable evidence
that there once existed a breed of Black-crested White Polands;
but, unfortunately, it is equally plain that the strain has been
totally lost The last seen appears to have been found by Mr.
Brent, in 1854, at St. Omer, and if the breed still exists at all,
we believe it will be found either in France or Ireland. Its
disappearance is the more to be regretted, as it seems to have
been not only the most ornamental, but the largest and most
valuable of all the Polish varieties. The hen described by Mr.
Brent dwarfed even some Malay hens in the same yard.

We believe the colour of this variety may be recovered by
breeding from such birds of the kind next mentioned as show
any tendency to black in the crest, and carefully selecting the
darkest crested chickens. Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier did commence
such an experiment, and succeeded perfectly in producing white
chickens with black crests, though they always became more or
less marked with white in subsequent moults. The attempt
was therefore discontinued, though a few years' longer perse-
verance would undoubtedly have established the strain true to
colour, in accordance with the principles laid down in Chapter
VIII. But the great comparative size, which all accounts agree
belonged to the old breed, we are afraid is for ever lost.

WHITE-CRESTED WHITE. — This breed, and those which
follow, differ from the white-crested black Pdlands not only in
greater hardihood, but in having a well-developed beard under
the chin, in lieu of wattles. They are large fine birds, and the
crest is finer and more perfect than in most other colours. They
are also among the best in point of laying. The plumage needs
no description, being pure white throughout.

SILTER SPANGLED. — In this variety the ground colour of the
plumage is a silver white, with well-defined moon-shaped black
spangles. (See " Feathers," No. 4). In the cock, the hackle

K 2

H8 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

feathers are white, edged and tipped with black ; in the hen
each hackle feather should have a spangle on the end. Tail
feathers clear white, with a large spangle on the ends. The
spangling on the wing coverts should be large and regular in
both sexes, so as to form two well-defined bars across each
wing. The proper spangling of the breast is very important.
Many cocks are nearly black on the upper part, which is a
great fault.

The crest feathers are black at the base and tip, with white
between. Crest to be full and regular, showing no vacancy in
the centre. A few white feathers usually appear after the
second moult in the very best bred hens, and in old birds are
not a disqualification, though certainly a fault.

Ear-lobes small and white ; wattles none, being replaced by
a black or spangled beard.

The size of this breed is very good, weight of the cock six
to seven and-a-half pounds ; liens four to five and-a-half pounds.
Besides the moon-shaped spangling, birds are shown with
laced feathers, that is, with an edging of black on the outline
of the feathers, but thicker at the end. This marking when
perfect is of exquisite beauty, and appears at present to secure
most of the prizes. The hens have clear white tails, laced and
spangled with black ; but the cocks have generally dark tails,
which takes much from their beauty. A few have, however,
been shown with clear tails like the hens, but appear to find
no favour with the judges, who seem to prefer the darker-
looking birds, inferior in beauty as they nevertheless certainly
are. From such laced birds were derived the celebrated
Sebright Bantams.

GOLDEN- SPANGLED. — This breed is similar to the preceding
in the black markings, substituting a rich golden ground for
the silver white. The tail of the cock, however, is dark bay,
the sickles being tipped with black, and the side feathers edged
evenly with the same colour. Like the preceding variety,

POLANDS. 1 49

golden-sparigled Polands are also very often shown with the
markings in the form of a lacing, and such are just now most
popular.

BUFF or CHAMOIS POLANDS are a recent introduction.
This breed resembles the golden-spangled in the colour of the
ground, but the spangles present the anomaly of being white
instead of black. They were first produced, there can be no
doubt, by crossing the golden-spangled with white birds, and
even yet they do not appear to have been thoroughly estab-
lished or bred exactly true to colour. The appearance is very
pretty, and the variety will no doubt become a favourite.

Blue, grey, and cuckoo or speckled Polands are also
occasionally shown, but are evidently either accidental occur-
rences, or the result of cross-breeding, and cannot be recom-
mended even to the fancier.

All the bearded Polands are rather liable to grow up
" hump-backed," or "lob-sided" in the body. Of course either
defect is a fatal disqualification.

SULTANS. — This breed was introduced by the well-known
Miss E. Watts, of Hampstead, and is a very ornamental bird,
differing greatly in appearance from any of the varieties
hitherto named. In size they are rather small, the cocks
weighing only from four to five pounds. They make most
exquisite pets, being very tame, but at the same time brisk and
lively ; and their quaint little ways never fail to afford much
amusement. They appear well adapted to confinement.

The plumage is pure white, crest included, in which they
therefore resemble the white Polands. They differ, however,
very greatly in appearance. Their legs are very short, and
feathered to the toes ; the thighs being also abundantly fur-
nished, and vulture-hocked. They are likewise amply muffed
and whiskered round the throat, and the tail of the cock is
remarkably full and flowing. The crest differs from that of
most other Polands, being more erect, and not hiding the eyes.

150 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

The comb consists of two small spikes in front of the crest.
The legs are also white instead of blue, and the foot has a
fifth toe, like the Dorking fowL The adult birds appear
hardy.

There is a breed known as Ptarmigans, which is evidently
a degenerate descendant from some former importation of
Sultans.

Some special precautions are necessary in rearing Polish
chickens. The prominence in the skull, which supports the
crest, is never completely covered with bone, and is peculiarly
sensitive to injury. On this account Cochins, or other large
heavy hens, should never be employed as mothers. A game hen
will be the best. The young also fledge early and rapidly, and
usually suffer severely in the process ; they therefore require an
ample allowance of the most stimulating food, such as hemp-
seed, meat, and bread steeped in ale ; and, above all, they must
be kept dry.

Polands have certainly solid merits. They improve in
appearance, at least up to the third year. In a favourable
locality they are most prolific layers, never wanting to sit, and
the flesh is remarkably good. They appear also peculiarly
susceptible of attachment to their feeders. A.nd lastly, they
suffer remarkably little in appearance or condition from
exhibition.

Their greaC fault is a peculiar tendency to cold and roup —
the white-crested black variety being the most delicate of all.
The dense crest becomes during a shower saturated with water,
and the fowls are thus attacked in the most vital part. No
birds are so affected by bad weather. In exposed or damp
situations they will die off like rotting sheep, and it is hope-
less to expect any return. They can only be kept success-
fully in warm, genial situations, on well -drained ground, with
a chalk or sand sub-soil, and with ample shelter to which
they can resort during showers. In such circumstances they

CREVECOEUBS. 151

will do well, and repay the owners by an ample supply of
eggs.

Mr. Hewitt cautions Polish breeders against attempting to
seize their birds suddenly. The crest so obscures their vision
that they are taken by surprise, and frequently so terrified as
to die in the hand. They should, therefore, always be first
spoken to, or otherwise made aware of their owner's approach.

CHAPTER XIX.

FRENCH BREEDS.

SINCE the fancy for poultry breeding spread in some degree to
our Gallic neighbours, several remarkable breeds of fowls have
been introduced into England from France, which it will be
convenient to describe in pne chapter. They all desenre
especially the careful attention of the mercantile poultry
breeder, possessing as they do in a very high degree the im-
portant points of great weight and excellent quality of flesh,
with a remarkably small proportion of bones and offal These
characteristics our neighbours have assiduously cultivated with
most marked success, and we cannot avoid remarking yet
again on the results which might have been produced in this
country had more attention been paid to them here, instead
of laying almost exclusive stress upon colour and other fancy
points.

Most of the French breeds have more or less crest, which
naturally places this chapter next to that on the Polish fowk.
It is remarkable also that they all agree in being non-sitters,
or at least incubate but very rarely.

CREVECCEURS. — This breed has been the longest known in
England, and- is the one most preferred in France for the

152

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOT7LS.

CREVECOSURS. 153

quantity and quality of its flesh. The full-grown cock will not
unfrequently weigh 10 pounds, but 7J to 8 pounds is a good
average.

In form the Creve is very full and compact, and the legs
are exceedingly short, especially in the hens, which appear
almost as if they were creeping about on the ground. In
accordance with this conformation, their motions are very
quiet and deliberate, and they appear the most contented
in confinement of any fowls we know. They do not sit,
or very rarely, and are tolerable layers of very large white

The comb is in the form of two well-developed horns,
surmounted by a large black crest, and giving the bird a
decidedly "diabolical" appearance. Wattles full, and, like the
comb, a very dark red. The throat is also furnished with
ample whiskers and beard.

Plumage mostly black, but in the largest and finest birds
almost always mixed with gold or straw on the hackle and
saddle. Which is to be preferred will depend upon circum-
stances. Judges at exhibitions usually prefer a pure black all
over ; and if the object be to obtain prizes, we should advise
such birds to be selected both for breeding and show purposes ;
at the same time we should fail in our duty were we not
distinctly to record our opinion that such a choice is most
unfortunate, as the golden-plumaged birds are generally by far
the largest and finest specimens. It should be remembered
that the French have mainly brought these breeds to perfection
by seeking first the useful qualities, and if our "feather-breed-
ing " propensities be applied to them, we much fear that uni-
formity will only be attained at the price of the deterioration
of the strain in size and real value.

The merits of the Cre~ve consist in its edible qualities, early
maturity, the facility with which it can be both kept and
reared in confinement, and the fine large size of its eggs. The

154 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

hen is, however, only a moderate layer, and the eggs are often
sterile, while the breed is very delicate in this country, being
subject to roup, gapes, and throat diseases. This delicacy of
constitution appears to improve somewhat as the fowls get
acclimatised, and we should, therefore, recommend good English-
bred rather than imported birds. Altogether, we do not recom-
mend the Creve as a good breed for general domestic purposes ;
but it is certainly a splendid fowl for either table or market,
and as such, especially on a large scale, in favourable localities,
well repay the breeder.

Our engraving was drawn in France from remarkably good
and perfect specimens.

LA FLECHE. — In appearance this breed resembles the
Spanish, from which we believe it to have been at least
partly derived. It exceeds that breed, however, in size, the
cock often weighing from eight to even ten pounds. Both
sexes have a large, long body, standing on long and powerful
legs, and always weighing more than it appears, on account
of the dense and close-fitting plumage. The legs are slate-
colour, turning with age to a leaden grey. The plumage
resembles the Spanish, being a dense black with green reflec-
tions.

The look of the head is peculiar, the comb being not only
two-horned, much like the Crevecoeur, near the top of the
head, but also appearing in the form of two little studs or
points just in front of the nostrils. The head is often sur-
mounted by a rudimentary black crest, but English fanciers are
attempting to breed this out, and it will probably be soon
disqualified at our shows : the point is not at present quite
settled. The wattles are very long and pendulous, of a brilliant
red colour, like the comb. The ear-lobes are dead white, like
the Spanish, and exceedingly developed, meeting under the
neck in good specimens. In fact, no breed could show stronger
traces of its Spanish origin.

LA FLECHE.

155

The appearance of the La Fleche fowl is very bold and
intelligent, and its habits active and lively • at the same time
it appears to thrive well in confinement. The hen is an
excellent layer of very large white eggs, and does not sit. The

flesh is excellent, and the tine white transparent skin makes a
very favourable appearance on the table, which is only marred
by the dark legs. The breed is, however, not very hardy, and
does not lay well in winter, except in favourable circumstances.
Altogether, it is decidedly more suitable than the preceding for

156

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

domestic purposes, but still most valuable as a table fowl. As
an egg producer, it is as nearly as possible similar to the
Spanish, not only in the size and number of the eggs, but the
seasons and circumstances in which they may be expected. In

^^f*f*&*. ^

La Flfcche Pullet.

juiciness and flavour the flesh approaches nearer to that of the
Gams Fowl than any other breed we know.

The cocks suffer much from leg weakness and disease of the
knee-joint, and do not bear the fatigue and excitement of
exhibition so well as most fowls. They require, therefore,
special care, and the moderate use of stimulants.

HOUDANS. — This fowl in many respects resembles the Dork-

HOUDANS.

157

ing, and Dorking blood has evidently assisted in its formation.
We believe that a cross between the latter and a white Poland
would not be very wide of the mark. Houdans have the size
deep compact body, short legs, and fifth toe of the Dorking,

Houdan Cock.

which in form they closely resemble, but with much less offal
and smaller bones. The plumage varies considerably, but is
most usually white, with large black spangles, the size of a
shilling in many specimens. We should certainly like to see
the spangling reduced in size of the markings, but sincerely
hope this will not be sought at the expense of weight, in which

158

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

the Houdan is pre-eminent among the French breeds. We feel
certain that by breeding for this more useful quality the fowl
may be reared to a greater weight than even the coloured
Dorking; we have ourselves seen hens which weighed ten
pounds, but such a size is not common, and very small speci-

Houdan Hen.

mens are more often seen at exhibitions than of the other
French varieties.

The head should be surmounted by a good Polish crest of
black and white feathers. The wattles are pendent and well
developed, and the comb is the most peculiar in formation of all
the French breeds, resembling, as has been said, the two leaves
of a book opened, with a long strawberry in the centre ; in the
hen it should be very small and rudimentary.

Imported Houdans frequently want the fifth toe, evidently

BREDA OR GUELBRES.

159

160 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

derived from the Dorking ; and it might at this early period be
easily bred out. We cannot but express our regret this should
not be done, regarding it, as we do, not only as an eyesore, but
in our opinion more or less connected with the diseased foot of
the Dorking fowl. The aim of fanciers, however, seems to
be to ensure the additional toe by careful selection, and in a few
years it will be established as an indelible feature.

With respect to the merits of Houdans, we have no hesita-
tion in pronouncing them one of the most valuable breeds ever
introduced into this country ; and in this j udgment we are fully
corroborated by Mr. F. H. Schroder, of the National Poultry
Company, who expressed to us his strong opinion that in
general usefulness Houdans surpassed all the French varieties,
to which the company devote their principal attention. We
have in this breed the size, form, and quality of the Dorking,
with earlier maturity. The hen is a most prolific layer of good-
sized eggs, which will almost invariably be found fertile — a point
the Dorking is very deficient in, as all prize breeders know to
their cost. The chickens feather very rapidly and early, but
are nevertheless exceedingly hardy, perhaps more so than any
except Cochins or Brahmas, and are therefore easily reared with
little loss. They are emphatically the fowl for a farmer, and
will yield an ample profit on good feeding, both in eggs and flesh.

Almost their only drawback is their refusal to incubate.
Many, however, will consider this an advantage. The bird will
bear a moderate amount of confinement well, but in this respect
is not quite equal to the Crevecceur.

BREDA OR GUELDRES. — This fowl is of exceedingly well-
proportioned shape, with a wide, full, prominent breast.
The head carries a small top-knot, and surmounts a rather
short, thick neck. The comb is very peculiar, being hollowed
or depressed instead of projecting, which gives to the head a
most singular expression. Cheeks and ear-lobes red ; wattles
ditto, and in the cock very long and pendulous.

LA BRESSE. 161

The thighs are well furnished and vulture-hocked, and the
shanks of the legs feathered to the toes, though not very heavily.
The plumage varies, black, white, and cuckoo or mottled, being
most seen. The cuckoo-coloured are known exclusively by
the name of " Gueldres," and the black bear chiefly the name
of Bredas ; but it is much to be desired that one name should
be given to the whole class, with simply a prefix to denote the
colour. We prefer ourselves the black variety, the plumage of
which is beautifully deep and rich in tone, with a bronze lustre ;
but Mr. F. Schroder, who thinks highly of the breed, prefers
the cuckoo or Gueldres fowl. This is quite matter of fancy, all
the colours being alike in economic qualities.

The flesh is excellent and tolerably plentiful, very large
cocks weighing as much as eight or nine pounds. They are
very good layers, and the eggs are large ; like the other French
breeds, the hens do not sit. The chickens are hardy, and the
breed is decidedly useful and well adapted to the English climate.

Our illustration is drawn from a very good pair of the Black
or Breda variety.

LA BRESSE. — This fowl is hardy and large, but we cannot,
at present at least, consider it as a distinct or established breed.
The birds are all colours without distinction, presenting exactly
the appearance of very large and fine barn-door or cross-bred
fowls ; and we believe that it is, in fact, no breed, but a mix-
ture of fine specimens of different races. A few years' breeding
in England will decide this, and may possibly produce some
uniformity in colour. At present we can only say that the
shape and size should be as nearly as possible that of the Grey
Dorking, while the colour may be anything. Of course, in an
exhibition pen the two hens must match. Mr. Schroder com-
mended the La Bresse fowl to us as pre-eminent for its early
maturity and fattening qualities, and we should consider it a
valuable addition to our farm-yard stock. By the fancier it
will be little prized.

162 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

It will be seen that the French breeds are eminently table
fowls ; and it is worthy of remark that by breeding for edible
qualities, without paying over-much attention to feather or other
fancy points, our neighbours have succeeded in producing birds
far superior to any English breed — we will not say in quality, so
long as Game and Dorking are left us — but in smallness of bone
and offal. We should hope that the lesson may not be lost
upon our breeders, and that poultry committees may be led to
afford somewhat more encouragement than they have hitherto
done to the cultivation of size and general proportion, with a
view to the table, as distinguished from mere artificial or fancy
qualities.

Of all the French breeds we should ourselves give the first
rank to the Houdan, on account of its great hardihood and
plentiful production of eggs. Next in value we would place
Gueldres and La Fleche. The Craves, beautifully heavy birds
as they are, we consider too delicate in our climate ever to
become a general favourite. Others, however, would place them
first ; and as we have endeavoured to state fairly all points
bearing on the subject, we must leave the reader to form his
own judgment and make his own comparison. One thing is
certain, that all these fowls are composite — are artificially
created j and it would be well if a little more enterprising
experiment in this direction were made by English breeders.

CHAPTER XX.

BANTAMS.

THERE is not the slightest reason for supposing that any of the
diminutive fowls known as Bantams are descended from an
original wild stock. They are in many cases the exact
counterparts of ordinary domestic breeds, carefully dwarfed

OF THE

UNIVERSI

BANTAMS. 163

and perfected by the art of man ; and even where this is not
so, the process by which they were produced is occasionally
on record. They are, in fact, more than any other class,
"artificial fowls," and their attractiveness consists rather in
their beauty than in any economic value. "We can only
enumerate and give descriptions of the principal varieties, as
drawn up under the able supervision of the Rev. G. S. Cruwys,
of Tiverton, long celebrated for his success as an exhibitor and
breeder of these beautiful birds.

SEBRIGHTS. — Cock not to exceed twenty, and hen sixteen
ounces. For exhibition still less is preferable, but not for
breeding. Carriage of the cock, the most conceited it is pos-
sible to conceive of; head thrown back till it touches the
nearly upright tail ; wings drooping halfway down the legs ;
motions restless and lively, always strutting about as if seeking
for antagonists. The bird is, in fact, "game to the back-
bone," and will attack the largest fowl with the utmost
impudence.

Plumage close and compact, and every feather laced with
black all round the edge. The shoulder and tail coverts are
the parts most likely to be faulty in this ; but in first-class birds
every single feather must be properly edged right up to the
head. This part usually appears darker from the smaller
size of the feathers; but the nearer the head is to the
rest of the body in colour the better. The only exceptions
allowable in the lacing are on the primary quills or flight-
feathers of the wings, which should have a clear ground, and
be only tipped with black. The tail feathers ought to be laced,
and in the hen must be so ; but in the cock this is rather rare.
In his case a clear ground colour throughout, nicely tipped
with black, may be allowed to pass instead.

The cock must be perfectly lien-feathered throughout, his
tail not only square and straight, without sickles, but the neck
and saddle-hackles resembling those of the hen, Mr. Hewitt^

L 2

164 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

however, a most eminent authority on this breed, remarks
that while this is imperative for exhibition, he has always
found such cocks nearly or quite sterile, probably in con-
sequence of the long interbreeding necessary to maintain the
strain in perfection. He recommends, therefore, that a cock
for breeding should show a moderate approach to sickle-feather-
ing, when the eggs will become productive.

The comb should be a perfect rose, with a neat spike
behind, pointing rather upward, free from any depression, and
rather livid in colour. Face round the eye rather dark. Eye
itself a sparkling dark red. The ear is supposed to be white,
but Mr. Hewitt remarks that he never found it so without n
great falling off in the lacing of the plumage, and a bluish
tinge is as near an approach to it as can be safely obtained.
Bill slate-coloured ; legs blue and clean.

There are two varieties. In the gold-laced the ground
colour is a rich golden yellow. In the silver-laced, a pure
white. In both cases the ground must be perfectly clear and
unsullied, varied only by the clear black line round each
feather, which constitutes the lacing. (See plate of "Feathers,"
No. 2.) Lately the Silver Sebrights have shown a decided
golden tinge, which greatly mars their beauty, and which may
have arisen from an opinion frequently expressed by a well-
known breeder, that the clearest birds were bred from a cross
between the gold and silver-laced. If this be the case, the
sooner such an opinion is exploded the better, as it has already
half ruined the beautiful silver breed.

With respect to the breeding of Sebrights, Mr. Hewitt
makes two further remarks. First, that although at three-
years old the birds become more or less grizzled with white,
and therefore greatly deteriorated for exhibition, the stock then
produced from them is frequently far superior ; and secondly,
strange as the fact may seem, that better marked birds are
usually obtained by mating a heavily-laced cock with a hen

EAXTAMS. 165

scarcely sufficiently marked, than when both parents are
perfect in their plumage.

GAME. — In Game Bantams the plumage is precisely similar
to the corresponding varieties of the Game fowl, from which
they were undoubtedly obtained by long interbreeding, and
continually selecting the smallest specimens, occasionally,
perhaps, crossing with a Bantam to expedite the process. The
carnage and form must also be similar, and the drooping wing,
so common in other Bantams, would infallibly disqualify a pen
of Game.

In courage and "bottom" Game Bantams are not behind
their larger relatives. In constitution they are the hardiest of
all Bantam breeds.

In weight the cock must not exceed one and a half pounds,
or the hen twenty ounces,

BLACK. — This is at present one of the most popular Bantam
classes. The plumage is a uniform black, with no trace of rust,
or any other colour, and, in the cock, with a bright lustre like
that of the Spanish fowl. Tail of the cock full and well
arched ; legs short, dark blue or black in colour, and perfectly
clean. Comb a bright red rose. Ear-lobes white; face red,
in the latter points resembling the Minorca fowL Cock not
to exceed twenty, hen eighteen ounces.

Black feather-legged Bantams have now and then been
shown, but never yet established a footing. Fashion changes,
however ; and novelties being now much sought after, we are
inclined to believe that a good feather-legged black-breed would
speedily become a favourite.

WHITE. — This breed should be as small as possible, never
exceeding two pounds per pair. Except that the legs are
white and delicate, all other points are similar to the Black
Bantam, changing the colour of the plumage from black to a
spotless white. It should, however, be remembered that while
the white ear-lobe is required by most judges, as in the black
variety, there are some who prefer a red, and this latter we

166 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

must express our own decided opinion is much the smartest
looking, and harmonises better with the white plumage. The
most usual fault is a yellowish colour in the cock's saddle. A
single comb is, of course, fatal.

A very pretty feather-legged White Bantam is not un-
frequently seen, and, though long neglected, appears to be
coming into fashion again. They are usually rather too large,
and attention will have to be paid to this particular if the
breed is to become popular.

NANKIN. — This is one of the old breeds of Bantams, and at
one time nearly disappeared, but attempts have been recently
made to re-introduce it. The ground colour is a pale orange
yellow, usually with a little pencilling on the hackle. The
best tail, to our fancy, is a pure black, with the coverts slightly
bronzed. The comb is rose; and the dark legs should be
perfectly clean.

PEKIN OR COCHIN BANTAMS. — This most remarkable of all
Bantam breeds has only been introduced a few years, the
original progenitors having been stolen from the Summer
Palace at Pekin during the Chinese war. They were first
shown in 1863. They exactly resemble Buff Cochins in colour
and form, possessing the feather-leg, abundant fluff, and all the
other characteristics of the parent breed in full perfection, and
presenting a most singular appearance. They are not yet
common, and the interbreeding necessitated by only one origi-
nal stock existing, has caused much sterility and constitutional
weakness. The strongest birds have been bred by crossing
with other feather-legged Bantams to introduce fresh blood,
and then breeding back to the pure strain. Pekin Bantams
are very tame, and make excellent pets.

JAPANESE. — This is the only addition to our poultry-yards
yet imported from Japan, though we should hope yet to receive
from that country some accessions also to our larger kinds. The
Japanese Bantam is very short-legged, and differs from most of
the older varieties in having a very large single comb. The

THE "VARIOUS" CLASS. 167

colour varies. They are often shown mottled or cuckoo-
coloured, but what we like best is a pure white body with
glossy, jet-black tail.

Bantam chickens require a little more animal food than
other fowls, and, for a week or two, rather extra care to keep
them dry. After that they are reared as easily as other fowls,
and should indeed be rather scantily fed to keep down the size.
The hens are good mothers, and are often employed to rear
small game; and are not bad layers, if the eggs were only
larger. We believe them, however, to produce quite as much
for their food as ordinary breeds. But their chief use is in the
garden, where they eat many slugs and insects, with very little
damage. On this account they may be usefully and profitably
kept where a separate poultry-yard is found impracticable. We
should prefer the Game variety, as being hardiest ; and, being
good foragers, five or six of these may be kept in a garden for
almost nothing, requiring only a house two feet square to roost
and lay in.

Bantam eggs are the very thing to tempt the appetite of
an invalid, and are just nicely cooked by pouring boiling water
over them upon the breakfast-table.

CHAPTER XXI.

THE "VARIOUS'* CLASS.

UNDER this heading we propose to describe, shortly, the principal
breeds of poultry which usually appear in the class " for any
other variety " at our shows, but have never established their
claim to a special class of their own. For the most part these
breeds have little economic value, but are too well marked in
their characteristics to be entirely passed by.

DUMPIES, OR CREEPERS. — This is probably the most useful
variety of any mentioned in this chapter, and under various
names, such as Go Laighs and Bakies, has long been known

168 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

and valued in Scotland, though never popular in this country.
The principal characteristic is the extreme shortness of the
shank, or leg bone, which should not exceed two inches from
the hock joint to the ground. In other respects they most
resemble Dorkings, lacking, however, the fifth toe, and being
far more hardy than that variety. The hens are good layers of
rather large eggs, and as mothers cannot be surpassed. The
plumage is generally an irregular speckle, and it is difficult to
get them any uniform colour. The cock should weigh six or
seven and the hen five or six pounds.

Dumpies certainly deserve to be better known. They have
no particular faults, and, combining as they do very fair laying
with great hardiness and first-class edible qualities, they must
be considered decidedly profitable fowls. Their extreme short-
ness of leg also points out their value as a cross to correct the
" stiltiness " of some of our larger breeds, whilst the white-
ness and quality of the flesh would be improved at the same
time.

REDCAPS. — This must also be regarded as a profitable fowl.
It is a kind of Golden-spangled Hamburgh, with the difference
of being almost as large as a Dorking, and having the rose
comb most prodigiously developed, that of the cock being often
three inches across, and too heavy to stand upright. They
cannot therefore be regarded as ornamental, which is probably
the reason they do not meet with much general approval, being
moreover often dark on the breast, and far inferior to the
Hamburghs in beauty of marking. But they are enormous
layers, not to be surpassed by any variety; and, with the
advantage of a large, plump body, we must pronounce them to
be in economic value equal to any we know. They are hardy
and easily reared, but not often met with except in York-
shire, whence they should be procured if a good stock is
desired.

SILKY, OR NEGRO FOWLS. — This breed possesses two distinct
peculiarities. The webs of the feathers have no adhesion, and

SILKY FOWLS.

1G9

the plumage is therefore " silky," or consisting of a number of
single filaments, which makes the bird appear much larger than
-eally is, the actual weight of the cock being generally under

It T

three pounds, and of the hen about two pounds. The colour is
usually pure white, but other colours are occasionally seen. The
second peculiarity is the dark tint of the bones and skin, from
which the name of " negro " fowls is derived. The skin is of a
very dark violet colour, approaching to black, even the comb and
wattles being a dull dark purple. The bones also are covered
•with a nearly black membrane, which makes the fowl anything
but pleasant to look at upon the table ; but if the natural

Silky Fowls.

repugnance to this can be overcome, the meat itself is white,
•and very good eating, indeed superior to that of most other
breeds.

The plumage is often so excessively developed as to give
the birds a most grotesque appearance. Our illustration is not
in the least exaggerated, and is a good representation of many
specimens of the breed.

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

170 DIFFERENT

The comb varies in shape; but a Malay comb is best.
There is generally a small crest on the top of the head. The
legs are mostly well feathered to the ground, and often have
five toes ; but neither point is universal.

The sole value of the Silky Fowl is as a mother to Bantam,
or other small and delicate chickens, such as pheasants or
partridges. For such purposes they are unequalled, the loose
long plumage affording the most perfect shelter possible. They
are, of course, peculiarly susceptible to cold or wet, and have
no other value than that stated, except from their singular and
not unornamental appearance.

The EMU, or SILKY COCHIN is an occasional sport from the
ordinary Cochin fowl. The plumage resembles that of the
preceding variety ; but in every other point the fowl is a true-
bred Cochin. The loose feathering being no real protection
from wet, this breed, like the other, is very delicate in our
climate.

FRIZZLED FOWLS present a most remarkable appearance,
every feather in good specimens being curved, or turned back
from the body, so as to show a portion of the under side, like
the curved feathers in the tail of a common drake. The colour
of the plumage is generally white, with single combs; but
double combs and various colours are also seen.

Frizzled fowls are, as might be supposed, exceedingly deli-
cate, and most uncertain layers. The flesh is also inferior, and
they have therefore no economic value, whilst they cannot even
be termed ornamental. Their only recommendation is their
singularity, in which certainly it would be very hard to surpass
them.

RUMPLESS FOWLS are of various colours, the only essential
characteristic being the absolute want of a tail, or of any
approach to one. It is, indeed, exceedingly difficult to breed
any particular colour, as few persons have interest in the breed
sufficien t to persevere long enough for securing uniformity. The
handsomest are white : black also looks well ; but speckled are

LAIiX DOOIL

171

172 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS.

most common. The size also varies very much, ranging from
tliree to seven pounds each.

In this variety not only are the tail feathers absent, but
the caudal vertebrae are either wanting altogether, or only
rudimentary. The hens are usually very fair layers, sitters,
and mothers, and of average quality for the table ; the eggs,
however, are very apt to prove sterile. On the whole, the
breed has few decided faults, and is hardy ; the only reason, we
suppose, that it is not generally bred, being that birds certainly
look handsomer with a tail than without one.

RUSSIANS. — This breed is mostly kept in Scotland. It is
decidedly a " rough-looking " fowl, being ornamented with
tufts of feathers on each jaw, and an abundant beard under the
chin. The colour is generally white or buff ; but black is also
seen, with mixed colours also ; the most valuable are spangled
like Hamburghs. On the whole, this is a good useful fowl, the
ilesh being satisfactory, whilst the hens are good layers and
rather small eaters. The breed is hardy.

Other fowls are occasionally shown, but do not require
special notice, and we believe are very often mere accidental
offshoots, or crosses, from well-known breeds. Some few, such
as Rangoons and Chittagongs, are evidently chiefly Malay in
their parentage ; but fowls are constantly shown in the class
for "any other distinct varieties" which would defy any
attempt to describe their origin. When the parentage is
evident, the principal value of such specimens is to show the
effect of crossing, in which respect they are often useful. This
part of poultry-breeding is too much neglected. By it in a
great measure has all other agricultural stock been brought
to its present perfection ; and when steady effort shall be
made to combine the qualities of some of our best varieties,
establishing the strain afterwards by careful selection, we
believe we shall have a breed of fowls which in size, prolificacy,
and edible qualities united, will surpass any kind hitherto
known.

SECTION IV.

TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND
WATERFOWL.

SECTION IV.

WE shall make little remark introductory to this Section
beyond observing, that whether the varieties of Poultry
therein described are profitable or not, will depend almost
exclusively upon the situation and outward circumstances
of the breeder. They cannot, like the preceding, be kept
almost anywhere — they must have accommodation and
space suitable to their nature and habits. Under such
conditions alone will they be remunerative, and under
such only, therefore, should they be kept.

Pheasants may be excepted, and indeed scarcely come
under the head of Poultry at all. But we have included
them on account of their increasing popularity as pets;
and the pages we have devoted to their management will
not be unacceptable to many amateurs. The number of
their admirers is growing, and the time may yet come
when increased domestication shall add them to the
regular stock of our poultry-yards

TUEKETS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND
WATERFOWL

CHAPTER XXII.

TURKEYS. GUINEA-FOWL. PEA-FOWL.

TURKEYS. — The most opposite opinions have been expressed by
different breeders as to whether or not the rearing of turkeys
in England can be made profitable ; and the general judgment,
we are bound to say, seems to be that they can barely be made
to repay the cost of their food. There are not wanting, how-
ever, those who from their own experience maintain the
contrary ; and we believe that where the balance-sheet is
unsatisfactory, the cause will generally be found in heavy losses
from want of care. The usual mortality in turkey chicks is
tremendous, and quite sufficient to eat up any possible amount
of profit ; but there are many persons who for years have
reared every chick; and, under these circumstances, they will
yield a very fair return.

Without depending upon any one single breeder, we have
taken much pains to gather, from the best authorities, the
essentials of such successful management ; and wherever our
directions shall be found to differ from others previously pub-
lished, the reader may rely with confidence that the treatment
given is such as has been thoroughly tested and proved to give
the best results.

The first main point to remember is, that for about the

17 C TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATERFOWL.

first six weeks or two months the turkey chicks are excessively
delicate, and that the very slightest shower, even in warm
weather, will often carry off half of a large brood. When
about two months old, however, the red naked protuberances
about the neck and throat begin to appear, and as soon as
these are fairly developed, the chicks become poults, and arc
soon hardier than any other fowl, braving any weather with
impunity.

It is therefore well worth while, and absolutely necessary
to pecuniary success, to provide special shelter for the young
broods during the critical period, ordinary poultry accommo-
dation being insufficient. Even damp ground is so fatal that
a boarded floor is advisable. "When any number are to be
reared — and we certainly cannot recommend for profit the
rearing of turkeys on a small scale — we should advise the
erection of either a very spacious shed, floored with plank, or a
large building of one storey high, to be devoted entirely during
the season to the turkey stock. Of course, by a building we
mean a mere shell of four bare walls, well roofed, and well
lighted. With shelter of this kind there hardly need be a
chick lost, except from accident.

It has been stated by many that the number of hens allowed
to a turkey cock maybe unlimited; and it certainly does appear
indisputable that one visit to the cock is sufficient to render
fertile all the eggs laid by a turkey hen. The best breeders,
however, affirm that as the number of hens allowed to one
bird approaches a score, the chicks show falling off in consti-
tution; and the number ought therefore to be limited to twelve
or fifteen — quite enough brood stock for even a large establish-
ment. The turkey cock may bo used for breeding at two
years old, and the hen at twelve months, but are not in their
prime till a year older. They will be first-class breeding stock,
as a rule, for at least two years later, and many cocks in
particular will breed splendid chickens for considerably longer;

TURKEYS. 177

a good bird should not therefore be discarded till his progeny
show symptoms of degeneracy.

The size of the hens is of special importance, much more
than that of the cock, in whom good shape, strength, and spirit
are of more value, if combined with a fair good size.

The turkey-hen generally lays about eighteen eggs — some-
times only ten or a dozen, and when each egg has been taken
away when laid, it may be more. "We once heard of ninety
eggs being laid by a turkey-hen, but can scarcely credit such a
statement. A very good plan is to give a turkey's first seven
eggs to a common hen — quite as many as she can cover — when
there will be generally just about enough laid subsequently to
be hatched by the turkey herself. The best time to hatch the
chicks out is in the months of May and June, or even July ;
and all eggs set should be marked, as the turkey often lays
several after commencing incubation.

In a state of nature, the turkey-cock is constantly seeking
to destroy both the eggs and chickens, which the female as
sedulously endeavours to conceal from him. There is generally
more or less of the same disposition when domesticated, and,
•when it appears, it must be carefully provided against ; but the
behaviour of very many cocks is quite unexceptionable ; and
as such a quiet disposition saves a great deal of trouble, it is
always worth while to ascertain the character of the cock of the
year in this respect. If he be friendly to the chicks and sitting
hens, he may be left at large ; if otherwise, he must be kept
away.

The turkey-hen is very prudish, but gives scarcely any
trouble while sitting. She sits so constantly that it is needful
to remove her daily from her nest to feed, or she would
absolutely starve. Nevertheless, when absent she is apt to be
forgetful, and therefore, if allowed to range at liberty, care
should be taken that she returns in time — twenty minutes. A
better plan, however, is to let her have her liberty only in a

178 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER- FOWL.

confined run of grass. Besides her daily feed, a water vessel
and some soft food should be always within her reach. No
one must visit the hatching-house but the regular attendant,
or the hens will get startled, and probably break many eggs,
which easily happens, from the great weight of the birds.

Many have alleged that the turkey sits thirty-one days.
This is an error. The chicks break the shell from the twenty-
sixth to the twenty-ninth day, scarcely ever later. The day
but one before the hatching is expected, the hen should be
plentifully fed, the nest cleaned of any dung or feathers during
her absence, and an ample supply of food and water placed
where she can reach it, as she must not again be disturbed till
the chicks are out. In dry weather, if the nest be in a dry
place, the eggs will have been» daily sprinkled as described in
Chapter IY. With these precautions, there will rarely fail to
be a good hatch.

The egg-shells may be cleared away after hatching has pro-
ceeded some hours, but the chicks should never be taken away
from the hen, and never be forced to eat. The latter practice is
very general, as turkey chicks are very stupid, and do not
seem to know how to peck. But a much better plan is to put
two ordinary hen's eggs under the turkey, five or six days after
she began to sit, which will then hatch about the same time as
her own, and the little chickens will teach the young turkeys,
quite soon enough, what they should do. "Water or milk may
be given, however, by dipping the tips of the finger or a camel-
hair pencil in the fluid, and applying it to the end of their
beaks.

The usual feeding is oatmeal and bread-crumbs, mixed with
boiled nettles. Such food is not good, as turkey chickens for a
few weeks have a great tendency to diarrhoea, which the
oatmeal rather increases, and the result is a weakening of the
system, and frequently many deaths. The very best feeding at
first — say for a week — is hard-boiled eggs, chopped small,

TURKEYS.

mixed with nothing but minced dandelion. With regard to the
choice of this herb, Mr. Trotter — who was the first to study
turkey treatment rationally— and after him many others, have
observed that, when at liberty, the young birds invariably choose
the dandelion before all other green food, and it probably serves
to keep the bowels in proper order. When dandelions cannot
be obtained — and it is well worth while to grow them where
turkeys are reared — boiled nettles chopped fine are perhaps the
best substitute.

At the end of a week or ten days some bread-crumbs and
barley-meal may gradually be added to the egg, which may be
by degrees lessened, until quite discontinued at the end of three
weeks. About this time, a portion of boiled potato forms an
excellent addition to the food, and by degrees some small grain
may be added also — in fact, assimilating the diet very much to
that of other poultry. Curds also are excellent as a portion of
the dietary, but must be squeezed very dry before they are
given. They are easiest prepared by adding a pinch of alum
to a quart of milk slightly warmed.

By this feeding, the little chicks will get well through their
first great danger — the tendency to diarrhoea already alluded to ;
and the cost of the egg will be repaid by the extra number
reared.

The second peril to be guarded against is cold and damp : a
wetting is absolutely fatal. The chicks should be kept entirely
under the shed, on a board floor kept scrupulously clean and
nicely sanded, except during settled sunny weather, when they
may be allowed a little liberty on the grass, after the dew is
quite dry. But in cold or windy weather, however fine, they
must be kept in the shed, and well screened from the wind. If
there be a one-storey building, their best place will be the top
floor, the bottom being devoted to the sitting hens and other
adult stock. Their water also must be so supplied that they
cannot wet themselves by any possibility ; and these precau-

ii 2

180 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER- FOWL.

tions must be continued till they are nine or ten weeks old,
when they will begin to " put out the red," as it is called, or to
develop the singular red excrescences on the neck so charac-
teristic of the turkey breed. This process will last some little
time, and when completed the birds will be pretty fully fledged.
They are now hardy, but must not be too suddenly exposed to
rain or cold winds. Take some reasonable care of them for a
while longer, and very soon they will have become the hardiest
birds known in the poultry-yard, braving with impunity the
fiercest storms, and even preferring, if permitted, to roost on
high trees through the depth of winter. In fact, turkeys will
rarely roost in a fowl-house ; and a very high open shed should
therefore be provided — the higher the better — the perches being
placed as high as possible. They might be left to their natural
inclination with perfect safety 'so far as their general health is
concerned ; but in very severe weather their feet, if roosting on
exposed trees, are apt to become frost-bitten.

To attain great size, animal food and good feeding generally
must be supplied from the first. By this means astonishing
weights have been attained ; we knew of a cock which weighed
very nearly forty pounds, and a full-grown bird much less than
thirty would stand little chance at a good show. "We do not
say that such weights are profitable — we believe the contrary —
but we do contend that fair good feeding, leading to fair good
size, is the only way to extract profit from poultry of any kind.

The ordinary domestic Turkey is of two kinds — the Norfolk
(black all over) and the Cambridge. The latter is of all colours
— the best, to our fancy, being a dark copper bronze ; but fawn
colour and pure white are often seen, as are also variegated
birds, which occasionally present a very magnificent appearance.
The white variety is most delicate and difficult to rear of all,
but the dark Cambridge takes most prizes, and usually attains
the greatest size.

We cannot here go into the question of the origin of the

GUINEA-FOWL. 181

domestic Turkey, or give any detailed account of the wild
varieties. We can only avow our belief that a cross with the
well-known American wild bird greatly improves the stamina
of the young chickens, and, wherever possible, should be em-
ployed. The two races closely resemble each other, even if they
are not the same ; and in such cases " wild blood " is of great
service. We must also allude to the surpassing beauty of the
celebrated wild Honduras breed, and express a hope that it may
yet be made a permanent addition to English stock. In this
magnificent bird are seen in the greatest brilliancy all the
colours of the rainbow, whilst in size and edible qualities it is
little if at all inferior to its more sober-looking relatives. That
it can be domesticated there is not the slightest doubt j and
although sufficient have never yet been imported to establish
the breed in Europe, we hope yet to see English yards tenanted
by a bird which combines first-class merit as a table fowl, with
a really Oriental splendour.

GUINEA-FOWL. — This bird, called also the Gallina and
Pintado, mates in pairs, and an equal number of males and
females must therefore be provided to prevent disappointment.
There appear to be ten or twelve wild varieties, but only one
has been domesticated in this country.

To commence breeding Guinea-fowls, it is needful to pro-
cure some eggs and set them under a common hen j for if old
birds be purchased they will wander off for miles as soon as
they are set at liberty, and never return ; indeed, no fowl gives
so much trouble from its wandering habits. If hatched in the
poultry-yard, however, and regularly fed, they will remain ; but
must always have one meal regularly at night, or they will
scarcely ever roost at home. Nothing, however, will persuade
them to sleep in the fowl-house, and they usually roost in the
lower branches of a tree.

The hen lays pretty freely from May or June to about
August. She is a very shy bird, and if eggs are taken from

TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER-FOWL.

her nest with her knowledge, will forsake it altogether, and
seek another, which she conceals with the most sedulous care.
A few should therefore always be left, and the nest never be
visited when she is in sight. It is best to give the earliest eggs
to a common hen, as the Guinea-fowl herself frequently sits too
late to rear a brood. If "broody" in due season, however, she
rarely fails to hatch nearly all. Incubation is from twenty-six
to twenty-nine or thirty days.

The chicks require food almost immediately — within, at
most, six hours after hatching — and should be fed and cared for
in the same manner as young turkeys, though they may be
allowed rather more liberty. It should be observed, however,
that they require more constant feeding than any other
chickens, a few hours' abstinence being fatal to them ; and they
need also rather more animal food to rear them successfully and
keep them in good condition, especially in the winter. The
chicks are very strong on their legs, and in fine weather may
be allowed to wander with the hen when very young.

The male birds of this breed are rather quarrelsome, and
very apt to beat other fowls.

The flesh of the Guinea-fowl is of exquisite flavour, much
like that of the pheasant. The body about equals in size an
ordinary Dorking, and is very plump and well-proportioned.
Like all other finely flavoured birds, they should never be over-
fed or crammed, as is sometimes done. Who would think of
cramming a pheasant to make it more "fit for the table ?"

PEA-FOWL. — The distinguishing characteristics of this well-
known bird, are the crest or aigrette on the top of the head,
and the peculiar structure of the tail covert feathers. The
true tail of the peacock is short and hidden, and what we call
the "tail" is, strictly speaking, an excessive development of the
tail-coverts or side feathers, which occasionally have been
known to extend more than a yard and a half from their
insertions.

PEA- FOWL. 183

The colour of the ordinary peacock is too well known to
need description. White and pied varieties are also bred, but
are, in our judgment, far less ornamental. This species, called
by naturalists Pavo cristatus, has a crest consisting of about
t\vo dozen feathers, only webbed at the very tips.

There is another variety, if possible still more beautiful,
known as the Javan Pea-fowl, or Pavo muticus. This bird is
larger than the common Pea-fowl, the male sometimes measur-
ing more than seven feet from the bill to the end of the "tail."
The naked space round the eye is also of a livid blue colour,
and the feathers of the neck are laminated, or resembling
scales. The most characteristic difference, however, is in the
crest, which is much higher, and the feathers of which are
webbed, though rather scantily, from the base, instead of being
bare till near the tips. The bird also differs in only possessing
liis long and splendid ocellated train during the breeding
season, at other times appearing with feathers not so long, and
destitute of the well-known " eyes," but of a rich green with gold
reflections, beautifully and regularly " barred," or " pencilled "
on a very large scale, with whity-brown. This splendid bird is
not very common.

A third variety has recently been described, called the
" black- winged " Pea-fowl, in which the shoulders and most of
the wing in the male bird are black. The hen is much lighter
than the common breed, being generally of a cream colour, with
a dark back. It appears a distinct race ; but it must be ad-
mitted that all three varieties of Pea-fowl freely intermix with
a fertile result, and so closely resemble each other in nearly
all their characteristics that a common origin is not at all
unlikely.

Pea-fowl are of a very wild disposition, and generally roost
either on trees or on the very top ridge of a roof, to which they
fly with ease. The hen lays in the greatest seclusion, and must
always be allowed to select her own nest, usually deep in a

184 TUEKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER- FOWL.

shrubbery. She lays generally from five to nine eggs, but
sometimes considerably more. The time of incubation is about
twenty-eight to thirty days. One cock should not have more
than three or four hens.

It is no use setting Pea-fowl eggs under, common hens,
which forsake their chickens in about two months, long before
the young Pea-chicks can endure the night air. The Pea-hen
goes with her brood at least six months, and the chicks need
this. They are fed and cared for as turkeys, so far as keeping
them from rain is concerned ; but must be let out on the grass
always in dry weather, or they will not thrive. The food is
also similar in general ; but some worms or other insect food
should be provided in addition, in default of which some raw
meat cut fine is the best substitute.

Pea-fowl are tolerably familiar, and if regularly well fed
will get very tame, and tap at the window when neglected.
They are, however, ill-natured, and frequently beat and even
kill other fowls, sometimes even attacking children. From
this cause they are ill adapted to keep in a general poultry-
yard, apart from their natural impatience of restraint. Young
chickens in particular the cocks will often kill, arid we believe
even eat afterwards. Their proper place is on the lawn or in
the park, where the splendid hues of the cocks show to great
advantage, and their peculiar shrill scream is not too near to
be disagreeable.

They cannot be considered, of course, under the head of
profitable poultry, being always kept for ornament. The flesh
of a year-old bird is, however, excellent, and carves to great
advantage on the table. Of the adult birds we have nothing
to say, never having known any person who had attempted
to eat one. They do not reach maturity until three years
old.

PHEASANTS. 185

CHAPTER XXIIL

PHEASANTS.

THESE birds scarcely come under the head of Poultry ; but as
they are often kept on account of their great beauty by
amateurs, as well as extensively reared for the gun, some notice
of them will not be out of place.

Confined near a house, in an aviary open to view, Pheasants
will seldom lay, and scarcely ever sit. In such circumstances
evergreen or other shrubs should be so arranged as to afford
them some seclusion, which may induce them to breed ; but it
is best to hatch the eggs under a common hen. Some hen
Pheasants, however, will lay and sit very well ; such are usually
those which have been hatched and reared in confinement, and
the fact proves to our minds that with care and perseverance
these birds might in time be as thoroughly domesticated as the
other inmates of our poultry -yards. It is confirmatory of this,
that whilst the wild hen only lays a dozen or fifteen eggs, in
confinement, the eggs being taken daily, a home-reared bird
will often lay forty or fifty, as in the case of the common fowl.

Pheasants require more than any other stock the most
scrupulous cleanliness, with very abundant green food, and
rather more animal substance than other poultry, otherwise
the general treatment is very similar. The cock, who must be
sit least two years old, should be mated with three or four hens
not under twelve months.

One wing should always be cut or stripped, to prevent the
birds flying up and injuring themselves, as they will otherwise
do. This is the more necessary, as an aviary for Pheasants
should never be covered, the adult birds doing much better
in an open run well gravelled and kept clean.

When reared as an amusement on such a limited scale, the
chicks, which hatch on the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth day,

186 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER-FOWL.

should be put out and treated generally mucli like chickens, or
rather turkey-chicks, giving them a hoard coop made tight and
sound, and only letting them run on grass when quite dry and
warm ; always giving them perfect shelter from wet and cold
winds, but at the same time plenty of fresh air. They must,
however, have more animal food than other chickens ; and for
the first few days it is best to feed entirely on hard-boiled egg
chopped fine, ants' eggs, and curd pressed through a cloth till
quite dry, with now and then a little stale bread-crumb soaked
in milk. For green food, leeks or onions minced small are best.
After a week their staple food may be oatmeal dough mixed
very dry, and made into little pills, varied with chopped egg
and bruised hemp-seed, and occasionally crushed wheat, animal
food being also given. Ants' eggs, as is well known, are the
very best animal diet for young Pheasants, and almost necessary
to any great success in rearing, though much may be done
without by care and attention.

The chicks must be fed for some time nearly every hour ;
and their water, which should always be drawn from a spring,
must be renewed several times a day. This is the only way of
avoiding the dreaded "gapes," which is tenfold more fatal to
young Pheasants than to any other fowls; but which may be kept
off by keeping the water always clear, and never letting them
out, while young, on wet grass. Adult birds, however, are very
hardy ; and do not, if the soil be tolerably light and dry, require
shelter from any ordinary weather, beyond what a few shrubs,
or even dry brambles, thrown in their pen, will afford them.

Feeding-boxes, so commonly used, we consider bad. Keep
the ground clean, and scatter the food broadcast. There is no
better than buckwheat and bai-ley for old birds, with green
food regularly, and a little animal food now and then, like other
fowls.

For rearing on a large scale, Mr. Baily, who has had great
experience, recommends laying pens twelve feet square, to be

PHEASANTS. 187

erected on light dry grass land, if possible on the side of a hill
facing west or south. These pens should be made of tem-
porary hurdles or fencing, six or seven feet high, constructed of
laths nailed an inch apart, and touching the ground every-
where at bottom, so as to keep out vermin. The advantages of
such a plan are, first, cheapness, and secondly, convenience ; as
the hurdles can be taken down when the breeding season is
over, and packed away in a very small compass. It is also
advisable to erect them every year on fresh ground, which
such a rough construction eminently facilitates.

Every such pen is adapted for a cock and three or four
hens, whose wings must be cut to prevent their flying over.
For a nest a slight hollow should be scooped in the ground in
the centre, and filled with sand, at each end of which, and six
feet apart, a short stake thirty inches high should be driven, on
the tops of which is nailed a horizontal pole. Against this pole
rough twig fagots are inclined from each side, forming a rough
kind of shelter, which the pheasant prefers to any regular
receptacle.

The eggs should be collected every everting ; and if this
be regularly done, every hen in the breeding-pen will
usually lay at least twenty-five; the 'laying faculty, as we
have already remarked, being increased by domestication.
They are best set under Game hens, but the hen Pheasant
may also be allowed a share, which she will hatch well, but
is not quite so manageable with her chicks as the common
hen.

The early treatment will be as already described, but when
a few days — say a week — old, the board coops are placed in
regular rows out on a grass-field, which should be given up to
the purpose. A space round every coop should be mown close,
but the rest left standing to afford the poults shelter from the
heat, which they are unable to bear, suffering from it almost
more than from cold. The chicks should be shut in at night,

188 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER FOWL.

but let out strictly at daybreak every morning, as they are
early risers.

Feeding will be as before mentioned, taking, of course, equal
pains to keep the water rigidly clear. Many large breeders
hang up pieces of meat to putrefy, in order to procure the
peculiar white worms, called " gentles," which are collected in
a tin or zinc pan placed underneath \ but such should be
sparingly used, as the young poults often refuse plain food after.
Ants' eggs are much better.

"When the breedirg season is over, the old birds, and the
young also when well grown, are most, conveniently kept fifty
or sixty together, in pens fifty feet square; being suffered to-
remain there until wanted, or till the breeding-pens are made
up for next year.

On this system, with good management, eighty per cent, of
the eggs laid may be brought to the gun, and the natural
produce thus more than doubled.

Of the different varieties, the Common Pheasant is most
delicate, and is rather wild, The plumage is too well known
to need any description, especially as the breed is not so well
adapted for the mere amateur as the beautiful Chinese or ring-
necked breeds, which are daily becoming more common, and
are hardier and easier to rear.

The Golden Pheasant cock is also a magnificent bird. The
head bears a crest of beautiful amber-coloured feathers. The
back of the head and neck is of n beautiful orange red, passing
low down the breast into a deep scarlet, which is the colour of
all the under parts. The neck feathers are arranged like plate-
armour, and are often erected by the bird. The back is a deep
gold colour, the tail covert feathers being laced with crimson :
tail-feathers brown mottled with black. The hen is of a more
sober tint, being of a general brown colour with dark
markings.

This variety is very wild and easily startled, but is, never-

PHEASANTS. 189

theless, more easily reared than the common pheasant, and
would probably become more domesticated with perseverance
in breeding under & hen. The hen pheasant herself is so shy
that she scarcely ever hatches, unless in an unusually sheltered
place, with shrubs and bushes arranged to resemble nature as
much as possible.

The Silver Pheasant is most easily tamed of all the varieties,
and is also the hardiest; whilst, in our opinion, it equals any iii
beauty. The cock bird of this breed has a blue crest, and all
the upper part of the body is a silvery white, most exquisitely
pencilled with fine black lines arranged with the most mathe-
matical precision. Breast and under parts usually quite black,
but sometimes a little mottled. The hen is brown, but re-
markably neat and pretty.

This bird, if home-reared, may have its liberty in the
poultry-yard, feeding with the other fowls; and has often been
known to lay forty or fifty eggs. There appears, therefore,
every reason to believe that with perseverance it might be
rendered quite a domestic, and even profitable variety.

HYBRIDS between the Common Pheasant and other birds
are not unfrequent They have been known to breed with the
Black Cock, Turkey, Guinea-fowl, and common domestic hen ;
the latter cross being not at all uncommon, as every gamekeeper
knows. Such hybrids are, however, invariably sterile amongst
themselves, and a very high authority* has declared them also
totally unproductive when mated even with the parent ; but
there is undoubted evidencef of at least two birds having been
reared as the produce of such a cross, mated again with the
cock pheasant. The subject is only interesting from the sin-
gular fact, that although a cock pheasant is a much smaller
bird than the domestic fowl, the cross produced is almost
invariably very much larger in size than the mother, probably

• 31 r. W. B. Tegetmeier.

t See Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1836.

190 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER-FOWL.

in consequence of the strong "wild blood" introduced; and
hence some may think the experiment worth repeating. It is
certainly true that by long perseverance great difficulties of
this kind have been overcome, and hybrids, formerly considered
barren, have been found at least partially fertile ; but in this
case interbreeding has been so often tried that we cannot
consider the field very promising. One great obstacle is the
extreme and apparently untamable wildness of the primary
hybrid from which it is wished to breed ; and the only chance
of success would appear to be rearing such singly, in company
with his or her intended mate.

"We have only one farther remark to make. Pheasants
should never be caught with the hand, as their bones are
fractured with the greatest ease. An implement should be
kept for the purpose, resembling a large butterfly net, but with
the bag of open netting instead of gauze. In this way they
may be caught when needed with the utmost facility; but they
should never be meddled with more than absolutely necessary.

CHAPTER XXIV.

WATER-FOWL.

THE above general heading, under which -\v& shall shortly treat
of Ducks, Geese, and Swans, should be borne in mind before
such stock is added to the poultry-yard. They are strictly water
birds; and although ducks may be often seen in courts and
alleys where the nearest approach to a pond which they have
ever known is some filthy mud-puddle, to keep animals whose
proper habitat is so well marked in such unnatural circumstances
must revolt every truly humane mind, and cannot in the long
run repay any one who attempts it.

DUCKS. — In the case of these birds alone may some little

l-~ -

'- .

AYLESBURY DUCKS. 191

exception be made to the above remark, as they will do well in
a garden or any other tolerably wide range where they can
procure plenty of slugs and worms, with a pond or cistern only
a few feet across. Kept in this manner, they will not only be
found profitable, but very serviceable ; keeping the place almost
free of those slugs which are the gardener's great plague, and
doing but little damage, except to strawberries, for which they
have a peculiar partiality, and which must be carefully protected
from their ravages. Other fruit is too high to be in much
danger.

In such circumstances there can be no doubt whatever that
ducks are profitable poultry; and where numerous fowls are
kept, a few should also be added, as they will keep themselves,
very nearly, on what the hens refuse ; but where every atom of
the food they consume has to be paid for in cash, our own
opinion is that ducks do not pay to rear except for town
markets, their appetites are so everlasting and voracious. This
point, however, we must leave to the experience of the reader,
and proceed to consider the two principal varieties — known as
the Aylesbury and Rouen. The following descriptions and
accompanying remarks are from the pen of Mr. John K.
Fowler, of Aylesbury, one of the largest poultry-breeders, and
certainly the most successful exhibitor of ducks, in England : —

" My idea of a perfect Aylesbury drake and duck is, that in
plumage they should be of the purest snow white all over. The
head should be full, and the bill well set on to the skull, so that
the beak should seem to be almost in a line from the top of the-
head to the tip. The bill should be long, and when viewed in
front appear much like a woodcock's : it should be in prize
birds of a delicate flesh colour, without spot or blemish, and
with a slight fleshy excrescence where the feathers commence.
If it occasionally has a very slight creamy tint it would nob
disqualify, but any approach to dark buff or yellow is fatal to
the pen. Eye full, bright, and quite black.

192 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATER-FOWL.

"The legs should be strong, with the claws well webbed,
and in colour of a rich dark yellow or orange. Body rather
long, but broad across the shoulders, and the neck rather long
and slender. The drake should have one and sometimes has
two sharp curls in his tail.

" The weight of each bird in a show pen ought to be about
nine pounds, but this is not very often attained.

" Immense numbers of ducks are bred around Aylesbury.
It is not at all unusual to see around one small cottage 2,000
ducklings, and it has been computed that upwards of £20,000
per annum is returned to the town and neighbourhood in
exchange, whilst the railway not uncommonly carries a ton
weight of the birds up to the London market in a single night.

" The Aylesbury Duck often begins to lay before Christmas.
Sitting hens are then procured ; and immediately after hatching
the ducklings are taken away from the hens and put, fifty or a
hundred together, in a close warm place, with one hen tied by
the leg to teach them to peck and also to huckle them. They
should be given stimulating food ; that is, meal well mixed
with boiled meat and greaves : they are thus made fat in six or
seven weeks, and if sent to market in March or April realise
from 12s. to 18s. per couple.

" With regard to my own breeding stock, the selection gives
me no trouble. All the large breeders know that I will give
a guinea at any timefor a very fine and well-developed bird,
and I thus keep my strain large, and am constantly infusing
new blood.

" Many persons cannot imagine how the specimens of the
breed reared liere acquire such faultless flesh-coloured bills.
The cause is local, as might be supposed. The beautiful prize
tint is obtained by giving the ducks in their troughs of water a
peculiar kind of white gravel found only in the neighbourhood
of Aylesbury, in appearance resembling pummice-stone. In this
gravel they constantly shovel their bills, and this keeps them

ROUEN DUCKS. 193

white. Also, birds intended for exhibition are seldom allowed
out in the sun, as it tans the bills sadly.

" In selecting breeding stock, drakes should be chosen with
very long bills, like a woodcock's, and ducks with broad backs
and large solid bodies."

For the gravel mentioned by Mr. Fowler, it is difficult to
find a perfect substitute. Any other kind of clean white gravel
may however be tried, and it may be well worth while for in-
tending prize-takers to transport a quantity to their yards. It
is also very beneficial to the paleness of the bills to let the
ducks out on the wet grass in the very early morning, before
the sun is up. Besides the tanning influence of the sun, it ia
well known that ferruginous soil has a peculiar specific effect
on the bill, often turning it yellow in a single week. A bill
thus stained can never be paled again ; and Aylesbury Ducks
should therefore never be let out on laud containing iron ore.

" Rouen Ducks," Mr. Fowler states, " are reared much the
same as Aylesbury, but are not nearly so forward, rarely laying
till February or March. They are very handsome, and will
weigh eight or nine pounds each ; and, as a rude, do much
better in most parts of England than the Aylesburys. Their
flesh is excellent, and at Michaelmas is, I think, superior to
the other.

" The best general description of the Rouens in plumage is
to be precisely like the wild mallard, but larger. The drake
should have a commanding appearance, with a rich green and
purple head, and a fine long bill, formed and set on the head as
I have described for the Aylesburys. The bill should look clean,
of a yellow ground, with a very pale wash of green over it, and
the ' bean' at the end of it jet black. His neck should have a
sharp, clearly-marked white ring round it, not quite meeting
at the back. Breast a deep rich claret-brown to well below
the water-line, then passing into the under body-colour, which
is a beautiful French grey, shading into white near the tail

194 TUKKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATERFOWL.

The back ought to be a rich greenish black quite up to the tail
feathers, the curls in which are a rich dark green. Wings a
greyish brown, with distinct purple and white ribbon-mark
well developed. The flight-feathers must be grey and brown —
any approach to white in them is a fatal disqualification, not to
be compensated by any other beauty or merit. Legs a rich
orange. Nothing can exceed the beauty of a drake possessing
the above colours in perfection.

"The bill of the duck should not be so long as in the
drake, and orange brown as a ground colour, shading off at the
edges to yellow, and on the top a distinct splash or mark of
a dark colour approaching black, two-thirds down from the
top j it should there be rounded off, and on no account reach
the sides. I may also remark that any approach to slate
colour in the bills of either sex would be a fatal blemish. The
head of the duck is dark brown, with two distinct light brown
lines running along each side of the face, and shading away to
the upper part of the neck. Breast a pale brown, delicately
pencilled with dark brown ; the back is exquisitely pencilled
with black upon a moderately dark brown ground. The
shoulder of the wing is also beautifully pencilled with black
and grey; flight-feathers dark grey, any approach to white
being instant disqualification ; and ribbon-mark as in the drake.
Belly, up to the tail, light brown, with every feather delicately
pencilled to the tip. Legs orange, often, however, with a brown
tinge. The duck sometimes shows an approach to a white
ring round the neck, as in the drake j such a good judge would
instantly disqualify."

To the foregoing, by far the best description of these two
varieties ever published, we can add nothing. We will only
remark that when intended for fattening, ducks should have
only a trough of water instead of their usual pond, and should
then be fed on barley meal. Celery will add a delicious
flavour. In ordinary rearing the ducklings should be left with

MUSCOVY AND OTHER DUCKS. 195

the hen, or mother-duck, and kept from the water entirely for
a week or ten days ; then only allowed to swim for half an hour
at a time, till the feathers begin to grow, else they will be
liable to die of cramp. They will soon be totally independent
of their mother, and may then be left entirely to themselves ;
only taking precautions against rats, to which ducklings fall
victims far oftener than any other poultry.

The Muscovy ', or Musk Duck, appears to be a totally distinct
breed, the cross between it and other ducks being, at least
usually, unfertile. The drake is very large, often weighing
ten pounds, and looking far more on account of the loose
feathering ; but the female is less than the Aylesbury, not
exceeding about six pounds. The plumage of this variety
varies greatly from all white to a deep blue-black, but usually
contains both. The face is naked, and the base of the bill is
greatly carunculated. The drake is very quarrelsome, and we
well remember the injuries inflicted by an old villain of this
breed belonging to a relative, upon a fine Dorking cock in the
same yard. When excited, the bird alternately depresses and
raises its head, uttering most harsh and guttural sounds, and
with the red skin round the face presenting an appearance
which has been justly described as " infernal."

The flesh of the Musk Duck is very good eating ; but it i*
far inferior as a layer to either the Rouen or the Aylesbury,
and cannot be considered a very useful variety.

Call Ducks are principally kept as ornamental fowl. The
voice of the drake is peculiar, resembling a low whistle. They
vary in colour, one variety precisely resembling the Aylesbury
in plumage, but with a yellow bill, and the other the Rouen;
but in both cases bearing the same relation to them as Game
Bantams do to the Game Fowl The flesh is good ; but there
is too little to repay breeding them for the table, and their
only proper place is on the lake.

The East Indian, or Buenos Ayres Black Duck, is a most

N 2

196 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATERFOWL.

beautiful bird. The plumage is black, with a rich green lustre,,
and any white, grey, or brown feathers are fatal. They should
be bred for exhibition as small as possible, never exceeding five
and four pounds. As they usually pair, equal numbers should
be kept of both sexes. The flesh of this duck is more delicious
than that of any other variety, in our estimation.

The Cayuga, or Large Black Duck, of America, is a breed
well worth naturalising in this country, 'being hardy and a
good layer. The plumage is black, approaching brown, with a
white collar or neck, which with careful breeding might be
soon made into a neat well-defined ring. Weight from six to
eight pounds each, being thus inferior to the Aylesbury and
Rouen, but with better flavour, and greater aptitude to fatten.

The Common Duck needs no description. We believe it
to be the Rouen more or less degenerated, or rather, perhaps,
not bred up to the perfection of that breed.

It should be remembered in keeping ducks that the
wild birds are monogamous, and not more than two or three
given to one drake, if eggs are wanted for sitting. The duck
usually sits well, and always covers her eggs with loose straw
when leaving them, a supply of which should therefore be left
by her. The usual number laid is fifty or sixty ; but ducks
have laid as many as two hundred and fifty in one year ; and
we believe with care this faculty might be greatly developed,
and their value much increased as producers of eggs. At
present they are mostly kept for table.

The Aylesbury Duck is usually heaviest, and is considered
the best layer by many ; but on the wjjole the Rouen is to be
preferred. At Birmingham, however, last Christmas (1866)
the Rouen exceeded the Aylesbury in weight, both being
shown in the greatest perfection.

Ducks should have a separate house, with a brick or stone
floor, as it requires to be frequently washed down. Clean straw
ehould be given them at least every alternate night. Other

GEESE. 197

attention they need none, beyond the precaution of keeping
them in until they have laid every morning. This is necessary,
as the Duck is very careless about laying, and if left at liberty
will often drop her eggs in the water whilst swimming.

Our illustration is drawn from the Birmingham prize birds
of last year.

GEESE. — " Of the two principal breeds of geese," Mr.
Fowler writes, " I very much prefer the Grey or Toulouse to
the White or Embden, being larger and handsomer. I have
had a Toulouse gander which weighed thirty-four pounds, a
weight never, I am sure, attained by the White breed. They
are also better shaped, as a rule, and every way the more
profitable variety. The forehead should be flat, and the bill a
clear orange red. The plumage is a rich brown, passing into
white on the under parts and tail coverts.

" The Embden Goose is pure white in every feather, ar.d
the eye should show a peculiar blue colour in the iris in all
well-bred birds."

We should recommend for market to cross the Toulouse
Goose with the White, by which greater weight is gained than
in either variety pure-bred ; but much will depend upon
circumstances. White or cross-bred geese require a pond, but
the Toulouse, with a good grass run, will do well with only a
trough of water, and will require no extra feeding, except for
fattening or exhibition.

The only foreign varieties requiring mention are the Chinese
and the Canada geese, both of which appear to be really mid-
way between the geese proper and the swans, which they
resemble in length of neck.

The Chinese Goose is of a general brown colour, passing
into light grey or white on the breast, with a dark brown
stripe down the back of the neck. They have much of the
beauty of the swan, which they also resemble in having a dark
protuberance round the ba«e of the upper mandible. The voice

198 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATERFOWL.

is very harsh and peculiar. This breed is not a good grazer,
and is best reared in the farm-yard.

The Canada Goose also is not a good grazer, and does best
near marshy ponds, in which circumstances they will thrive
and be found profitable.

"With regard to the general management of geese little need
be said. More than four or five should not be allowed to one
gander, and such a family will require a house about eight feet
square ; but to secure fine stock three geese are better to one
male. Each nest must be about two feet six inches square,
and, as the goose will always lay where she has deposited her
first egg, there must be a nest for each bird. If they each lay
in a separate nest the eggs may be left ; otherwise, they should
be removed daily.

Geese should be set in March or early April, as it is very
difficult to rear the young in hot weather. The time is thirty
to thirty-four days. The goose sits very steadily, but should
be induced to come off daily and take a bath. Besides this she
should have in reach a good supply of food and water, or
hunger will compel her, one by one,- to eat all her eggs. The
gander is usually kept away ; but this is not very needful, as he
not only has no enmity to the eggs or goslings, but takes very
great interest in the hatching, often sitting by his mate for
hours.

The goslings should be allowed to hatch out entirely by
themselves. When put out, they should have a fresh turf
daily for a few days, and be fed on boiled oatmeal and rice,
with water from a pond, in a very shallow dish, as they should
not be allowed to swim for a fortnight, for which time the
goose is better kept under a very large crate. After two weeks
they will be able to shift for themselves, only requiring to be
protected from veiy heavy rain till fledged, and to have one or
two feeds of grain daily, in addition to what they pick up.

For fattening they should be penned up half-a-dozen,

SWANS. 199

together in a dark shed and fed on barley meal, being let out
several hours for a last bath before being killed, in order to
clean their feathers.

" For exhibition," Mr. Fowler says, " all geese should be
shut up in the dark, and fed liberally upon whole barley or
oats thrown into water. It is essential to great weight to
keep them very quiet, letting them out in the water, however,
for half an hour every day."

SWANS, — There are six or seven varieties of swans known
to naturalists, but only three are at present, or likely to
be, domesticated in this country — viz., the large English
White or Mute Swan ; the Australian or Black Swan, and the
Chili or Peruvian Swan. The plumage of the two first needs
no description; but that of the Chilian Swan differs from
either in being white on the body, with a black head and neck,
making rather a pleasing contrast of colour. In size the White
Swan is largest of all. All three varieties are long-lived, and
particular birds are reported to have reached the age of one
hundred years.

The following remarks on swans are by Trevor Dickens,
Esq., of London, who is well acquainted with these beautiful
birds : —

" Besides ornament, swans are often of considerable use in
clearing lakes or canals from weeds generally, and in particular
from the one peculiar plant which within late years has become
an only too well-known nuisance. To this there is, however, a
drawback, as they also destroy the young fry of fish.

" The large English White Swan is most beautiful in form,
as well as in colour. The Black Swan is also apt to be bad-
tempered, and is more mischievous on the water ; for all which
reasons the first place must still be given to the magnificent
old English breed. It sometimes occurs wild, but in such
circumstances is always of a rather grey colour instead of pure
white. The finest, swans in England are to be seen in the

200 TUKKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATERFOWL.

Thames and Trent rivers, and at Abbotsbury in Dorsetshire.
The Marquis of Exeter, at Burghley Park, the Marquis of
Abercorn, and in Scotland the Earl of Wemyss, are also well
known for their beautiful swans.

" The female swan lays in February, every other day until
seven to nine eggs are laid, and then sits for forty-two days.*
More than five cygnets, however, are seldom hatched. The nest
is made somewhere amongst the flags and weeds at the water's
edge, and it is dangerous to approach either the male or female
during incubation, as they are very irascible, and a blow from
their strong pinions will even break a man's arm.

" The cygnets are best fed by throwing meal upon the
water. The old birds, if they have a large water range, will
only need feeding in severe winter, when they should have
grain. They also like grass thrown to them, and bread, which
they will frequently eat from the hand.

" It is usually asserted that the swan is strictly monogamous.
But I have frequently seen two females with the male during
the breeding season, and believe the idea to have arisen from
the stronger female always seeking to drive the weaker away
before breeding. Full-grown males never agree at all, and
must, therefore, be kept separate."

It is impossible, to add anything on the general manage-
ment of swans, as the young birds must be left to shift for
themselves, the parents being too jealous and powerful to
submit to restraint. But for this, they might perhaps be
more widely kept, as the young cygnets are excellent for the
table, and very easily reared.

* Bechstein, a most accurate observer, and many others, contradict
this, and state that the swan sits for only thirty-five days.

SECTION V.

THE HATCHING AND REARING OF CHICKENS
ARTIFICIALLY.

SECTION V.

THE artificial hatching and rearing of chickens is a matter
of considerable interest to all who breed poultry for exhi-
bition. All such know well how important it is to obtain
early broods, and how difficult it is to obtain hens to hatch
them, even by the regular offer of six or seven shillings
for the loan of a single bird. Yet artificial hatching has
hitherto made little progress; and, to say the truth,
most even of those who attempt it. eventually give it up
in disgust.

We believe this result to be greatly owing to the
general want of sound knowledge on the subject. We
have never met with any treatise. that really and practically
dealt with the difficulties that have to be overcome, or
fairly stated the precautions necessary to be observed.
And this defect we have endeavoured in some sort to
supply ; making it our business not to puff the apparatus
of any particular inventor, but to give rules which all must
adopt who would attain success.

That incubators will ever hatch as many eggs as hens,
we do not believe. But that a fair* measure of success
may be obtained both in hatching and rearing artificially,
we know ; and the means to this end we have set forth in
the following pages.

THE HATCHING AND REARING OF CHICKENS
AETIFICIALLY.

CHAPTER XXV.

THE INCUBATOR AND ITS MANAGEMENT.

THE artificial hatching of chickens, as is well known, has been
practised as quite an ordinary thing in Egypt for thousands of
years, and with the most complete success ; yet, strange to say,
is only a very modern experiment in Europe, and, on the
whole, by no means a satisfactory one.

To give a history of all, or even of the principal attempts
that have been made to hatch chickens by heat artificially
applied, would far exceed our limits, and would be of no
practical use. It will be enough to say that Reaumur was the
first who really took the matter up in earnest, and he suc-
ceeded also about as well as those who have come after him.
His method was to place the eggs in wooden casks, or other
vessels, and then to surround the whole with fresh dung in a
state of fermentation, which was renewed as often as necessary.
For obvious reasons this system is never likely to be popular ;
but it is mentioned by Mr. Geyelin as still employed with
su2cess in France.

Cantelo was the first to imitate the hen in supplying the
heat from above, and his apparatus was very fairly successful,
the only real objection being its great cost. Precisely the
same may be said of the elaborate contrivance of Minasi ; it

204 ARTIFICIAL HATCHING AND REARING OP CHICKENS.

hatches chickens with success, but is too costly ever to become
popular, unless the price can be greatly reduced ; and, on the
whole, the only incubators we consider well adapted to general
use are those of M. Carbonnier, Mr Brindley, and Mr. F.
Schroder, which we shall first describe, referring afterwards to
the essentials of successful management. That described by
Mr. Geyelin in his well-known pamphlet we do not think worth
consideration.

M. Carbonnier's incubator is so simple as to be easily
understood without a diagram, and can be constructed by any
country workman. The heating apparatus consists of a tin or
copper cistern, or boiler, of any desired size, made with a flat
bottom, and heated by a lamp, for which a chamber is provided
in one end. The lamp must, of course, be constructed to burn
for a certain time without alteration, and it is essential that
the lamp chamber be in the end of the cistern, that there may
be a proper and regular circulation of the water. The cistern
should be kept nearly filled, with a thermometer constantly
immersed to show the temperature.

Under the cistern slides a drawer, in which the eggs are
placed upon a little hay. They should not, however, be ex-
posed direct to the heat of the cistern — the great failing of
most incubators — but ought to be covered with a piece of
canvas, on which is spread a layer of sawdust half-an-inch
thick. The sawdust readily becomes warmed by the heat of
the cistern, and, resting gently upon the eggs, warms them in
a more natural manner than any other incubator we know.
In the egg-drawer a second thermometer should be kept, to
show the heat to which the eggs are actually subjected. It
should be observed that in this, as in every other incubator,
the cistern must extend some inches beyond the eggs on every
side, or those outside will not get their proper heat, and there-
fore perish.

The management of this incubator is very simple. The

THE INCUBATOR.

205

lamp must be so adjusted that the actual temperature of the
sawdust may be kept at a standard of 102° or 103°,* and then

* As this temperature varies from that usually given, see remarks on
the subject further on.

206 ARTIFICIAL HATCHING AND REARING OF CHICKENS.

regularly and properly attended to, so as to ensure this. Once
a day the eggs must be withdrawn, and exposed for twenty
minutes to the cold air of the apartment ; and, when replaced,
each egg must be turned over, and the sawdust laid again upon
them, and sprinkled, from a small watering-pot, with water
heated to 105°, so as to make it slightly moist. In all these
proceedings Nature is most exactly followed, and the result will
be a good proportion of well-hatched chickens.

The arrangement of Mr. Brindley's incubator is shown by
Fig. 14. F is a copper boiler, heated either by a gas jet or by
a paraffin lamp, B, furnished with a reservoir, also marked B,
carefully constructed to burn with steadiness. From this
boiler the hot water flows constantly through a system of
metal pipes arranged in a horizontal plane between two plates
of glass, which thus form a hot-air chamber heated by the
pipes. Under the lower glass plate slides the drawer, 0, lined
with felt, which contains the eggs, E. At each side of the
lamp, at A, are temporary receptacles, or artificial mothers, to
receive the chickens for the first day, after which they must be
removed and provided for separately. The hot-air chamber is
provided with a " safety valve," acted on by the expansion of
mercury, which can be balanced to open at any desired tempe-
rature. Such a valve appears to have been first employed
by M. Yall6e, of the Jardin des Plantes, Paris ; but we believe
Mr. Brindley's valve to be superior, and, within reasonable
limits, to answer its purpose very fairly. To make any valve
the sole regulator, and expect it alone to keep the heat uni-
form, as some appear to do, is absolute nonsense. All that
can be expected of any valve is to open when the heat becomes
two or three degrees too high, and admit cool air to reduce it
to the proper temperature ; but if the air be carelessly allowed
to get really hot, the valve, though open, cannot keep the heat
down, neither can it guard against a lower temperature than is
proper.

Mr. Brindley's incubator, it will be seen, differs radically

THE INCUBATOR.

207

in principle from the preceding, as also from the next we shall
notice, in that water is not employed directly to warm the eggs,
but simply to impart heat to a chamber of hot air, through
which the heat is communicated. Otherwise the management is
very similar. The eggs require to be withdrawn and cooled
once a day ; and before they are replaced they should be care-
fully turned, and sprinkled with warm water, which should

Fig. 15.

also be allowed to moisten the felt lining of the tray in which
they are contained.

The last incubator we shall describe, and the last yet made
public, is the invention of Mr. F. H. Schroder, the able
manager of the National Poultry Company, and is shown in
section in Fig. 15. Mr. Schroder has adopted an altogether
distinct and separate boiler, which is not shown, and which is
connected with the hot-water tank, C, of the incubator by
two pipes, B being the inlet pipe and D the outlet. This tank
is provided with an open tube, I — in which a thermometer can

208 ARTIFICIAL HATCHING AND REARING OF CHICKENS.

be placed to show the temperature — and with a ventilating
tube, H, which is open at top and bottom. Under the tank
slide the egg-drawers, E, which in area resemble the quadrant
of a circle, Mr. Schroder's incubator being of a circular form.
The bottoms of these drawers are of perforated zinc. Under all
is a tank, F, of cold water. The space, G-, above the hot water
tank, is surrounded by perforated zinc, and partly filled with
sand, both to preserve the heat, and to form a convenient and
warm receptacle for the newly-hatched chickens. Curtains
are also provided to surround the sides of the incubator, and
thus guard in some measure against change of temperature in
the apartment.

In using this incubator the egg-drawers, E, are partly filled
with chaff, or other similar material, on which the eggs are
deposited. The water from the cold water cistern F, under-
neath them, slowly evaporates with the heat above, and pre-
serves a gentle moist atmosphere around the eggs during the
process of incubation, percolating as it does through the chaff
and perforated bottom of the egg- drawer. Ventilation takes
place through the middle shaft, or pipe, H. In this incubator,
therefore, sprinkling the eggs is not needful, all that is neces-
sary being to replenish the cold water tank, F, when exhausted ;
but the eggs, as in all incubators, should be withdrawn, cooled
for half an hour, and afterwards turned, every day.

We have no hesitation in pronouncing the cold water tank
in this incubator a most valuable invention, and one which
answers its immediate purpose well; while it also, to some
extent, tends to equalise the temperature. The arrangement
at top for the chickens is also very simple and convenient, and
the whole shows both originality and ingenuity in a very high
degree.

That artificial incubation will ever commercially supersede,
in ordinary seasons and for ordinary eggs, the natural process,
we do not for a moment believe. That it does so in Egypt is

YALUE OF AN INCUBATOR. 209

not the slightest argument ; in that country there is a climate
both warm and steady, whilst in this it is both cold and very
variable. The value of incubators is to hatch when hens
cannot be had, and in such seasons 70, 60, or even 40 per cent,
will often be thankfully accepted by breeders for exhibition as
ample return.

Now it will not do to purchase an incubator, light the
lamp, put in the eggs, and expect that, provided the lamp be
only kept burning, all will go right The consequence would
be utter failure. And, on the other hand, we would undertake
to hatch somewhere between the averages we have quoted with
the very worst Incubator that was ever constructed ; only per-
haps changing the lamp, if very faulty, for one constructed to
burn more regularly. Certain precautions must be taken,
certain conditions must be secured, and certain errors must be
guarded against.

And first it must be remembered that in artificial hatching
it is absolutely necessary the eggs be fresh. Hens will hatch
eggs a fortnight old or more — incubators scarcely ever. Of
course, if the artificial process were perfect, this difference
would not be. But it is not perfect — it is a substitute. "We
are fighting against a host of difficulties ; we must, therefore,
take the fact as we find it, and choose only eggs that do not
exceed five or six days old. This caution cannot be neglected
with impunity; if any inventor promise otherwise, let the
credulous purchaser only try.

Again, the incubator must be placed where it shall not be
exposed to jarring or concussion. That timid hens always
hatch small broods is well known ; yet many appear to think
that they can expose their artificial hen to any vibration or
noise without injury. This is to court a danger which Nature
is ever seeking to avoid.

That the eggs should be daily sprinkled has already been
mentioned. Only in Schroder's Incubator can this precaution

210 ARTIFICIAL HATCHING AND BEARING OF CHICKENS.

be dispensed with ; and we cannot but consider that gentle-
man's evaporating tray the most valuable feature in the whole
invention. Still it answers quite as well to sprinkle with
water daily, if it be done ; the value of Schroder's plan is in
the case of forgetful operators. It must be remembered that
eggs in the circumstances we are considering require moisture
more than under a hen in the very driest season, since even
then eggs naturally hatched get a little humidity from the
perspiration of the hen's body. But in an incubator all must
be supplied, and any omission is death and failure.

But the greatest mistake is in seeking too high a tempe-
rature. In every published work we have seen, the standard
and proper heat for the eggs is given as 105°, and we have not
the slightest hesitation in saying that to this the largest pro-
portion of failures is due, the chickens being roasted in their
shells. We do not mean to say that 105° will kill the chicks,
or will not hatch them; but we do say that some hours of 108°
will kill a few ; and as in this climate it is impossible to main-
tain a constant temperature, if 105° be taken as the standard,
it is sure to be exceeded again and again \ and thus, two or
three perhaps at a time, the chicks are killed. On the other hand,
it has been conclusively proved that whilst 98° is not enough to
hatch successfully, the temperature may be allowed to sink so
low for some time occasionally with little injury. Let 102°
therefore be taken as the proper standard for the eggs, and
more chickens will be hatched than have ever been. A rise of
several degrees will then not be fatal, whilst an occasional fall
will also be borne ; and, with fresh eggs, a good hatch may be
expected.* And this leads us to the great difficulty of all artifi-

* Since writing the above we have had a communication from Mr.
Brindley, in reply to a note embodying the above opinion, in which ho
fully concurs with the view we have here expressed, and encloses the direc-
tions issued with his patent incubator, in which 103° is given as the proper
temperature. We are happy to find our judgment thus corroborated, and
willingly give him credit as the first to publish a correct statement on the
subject.

MANAGEMENT OP THE INCUBATOR. 211

oial hatching — that of maintaining a regular temperature in our
variable climate. The same lamp-flame will not keep up during
the night the same heat in the water by many degrees as it
maintained during the day, and the difference must be carefully
provided for, or disappointment will ensue. This is where
many fail, and where so much attention is requisite. Changes
of weather must be guarded against, and compensated in like
manner ; and for all this there must be the most constant
reference to the thermometers, both the one in the heating
chamber or cistern, and the other which should always be kept
in the egg-drawer itsel£ It is here that Mr. Brindley's valve
vrill be useful ; but it will not do to depend upon it ; it will
help) but it will not do the work of supervision. Mr. Schroder's
idea of surrounding the whole with curtains is also good, and
may be applied to any incubator. But, with all these helps,
the lamp itself must be carefully arranged so as to give more
heat during the night than in the day, and in cold weather
than in mild ; and the process should also be carried on in the
part of the house where the temperature is most uniform. A
bedroom is a good place, as it is untenanted in the day, whilst
at night the occupants help to keep up the heat. Another,
and the best plan, is to place the incubator in a room with a
fireplace, but not near it, and to light a fire in the evening
proportionate to the coldness of the weather. By this means
something like uniformity may be preserved in the room, and
this will go a long way to maintain it in the machine.

It is for the same reason that in the simpler forms of
incubators the hot water cistern should extend several inches
beyond the eggs on every side. In small machines this is
specially required ; and the neglect of so necessary a precaution
is one great reason why the small ordinary incubators fre-
quently purchased almost always fail ; the outside eggs cannot
be kept warm enough without roasting the others.

It is by constant and careful attention to such minute

o 2

212 ARTIFICIAL HATCHING AND BEARING OF CIIiCKiiXS.

circumstances, and thus only, that success in hatching can be
attained. No particular form of incubator will answer without
such care, and with it almost any will do, though the three we
have selected are indisputably the best. The two last men-
tioned are more elaborate, and perhaps more complete ; whilst
that of M. Carbonnier is the cheapest and most natural. In
his system we particularly like the layer of damp sawdust
gently resting upon the eggs, and communicating a moist heat
from the hot cistern, which closely approaches the natural
hatching of a hen, and we believe will be ultimately found to
be more successful at the very last, when the chicks actually
chip the shell, than any other.

To the rearing of the chickens without a hen, after they
are hatched, we shall devote a separate chapter.

Just as these pages are going to press, \ve have received a drawing
and description of a new Incubator invented by Col. Stuart Wortley, well
known as an enthusiastic poultry amateur, which appears to us superior to
all those above described.

D is a saddle-backed or other convenient boiler, furnished with a

steam-dome, B, by which the steam is collected and allowed to escape.
Connected with the boiler is a supply cistern, C, by which the height of
the water is always kept uniform, a glass guage, A, showing the height at

THE ARTIFICIAL MOTHER.

a glance. The -water in the boiler is always kept boiling, and circulates
therefore at a uniform temperature through the pipes which heat the egg-
chamber. These pipes pass through padded holes, and hence by sliding
them more in. there is greater heat imparted for cold weather, or by
withdrawing them a little the temperature will fall.

The radical difference in principle of this Incubator from the preceding
will be readily seen. Whilst they attempt to heat the water to some given
temperature, and have to encounter the almost insuperable difficulties of
then keeping that temperature from variation, Col. Wortley takes advan-
tage of the natural law which, without trouble, gives him always a tempe-
rature of 212°, and then pr«vides for changes by giving more or less of
heating surface. His Incubator has not yet been generally tested, or
indeed (March 31) hardly even published ; but we know that highly satis-
factory results have been attained, and have not the slightest hesitation in
saying that the principle of its construction is scientifically the most
accurate, and its prospects of success the most encouraging, of any yet
made public. For the use of the engraving we are indebted to tha
proprietors of The Fidd.

CHAPTER XXYI.

REARING CHICKENS ARTIFICIALLY.

THE artificial rearing of chickens must be regarded as a
question entirely distinct from the artificial hatching of them,
and may often become advisable, or even necessary, when they
have been hatched under a hen. The mother may die just when
her care becomes most necessary ; or she may be a valuable hen,
whose eggs are much wanted, and whom it is not advisable tc
subject to the wear and tear of a young brood. And lastly,
some persons consider that it is absolutely better to bring up
chickens by hand, even when they have been naturally hatched ;
believing that under the shelter provided, and not being forced
to accompany the hen in her rambles, a greater portion are
reared, that they grow faster, and make ultimately finer fowls.
We cannot certainly agree in such an opinion, though there
are respectable authorities who hold it. We admit that, with
care, chickens may be reared with as much success as by a hen,

214 ARTIFICIAL HATCHING AND HEARING OF CHICKENS.

but more we cannot concede; and even for this much the greatest
care is requisite, and proper management is absolutely necessary.

Some sort of an "artificial mother" must of course be
provided, and the best form of all is the ordinary one. This
consists of a board sloping down from four inches above the
ground to about two inches ; and for a brood of a dozen chicks,
about a foot square. It is covered on the under side with a
piece of lamb or sheep-skin dressed with the long wool on, and
which should only be tacked round the edges of the board, so
as to fall a little slack with its own weight, and thus rest upon
the chickens. By attending to this, as well as to the slope of
the board, the largest and smallest chickens will be accommo-
dated with equal comfort. A few small gimlet holes should be
bored in this cover for ventilation.

Instead of sheepskin, some employ a manufactured article
which resembles a number of cotton wicks hanging thickly from
a sort of linen foundation. We should prefer this when
obtainable, but it is very difficult to procure, while sheepskin is
always at command.

The board so furnished must be mounted on two sides and a
back of wood, the back being two inches high, and the sides, of
course, sloping up from that height to four inches in the front,
which is left open for the chicks to enter by. This front side
is, however, furnished with a curtain of flannel four and a half
inches deep, which thus sweeps the ground and excludes the
cold air, whilst the chicks push under it either way with the
greatest ease. There should be no bottom at all. We believe
the addition of a wooden bottom to be the great reason why so
many have difficulty in rearing chickens artificially. Such a
bottom may be sanded or covered with ashes with the most
sedulous care ; but it will harbour vermin, and become more or
less tainted, and the chickens will then be sure to droop away.
Moreover, it is hopeless to expect good constitution in birds
reared more than the first fortnight on a wooden floor. Let

THE ARTIFICIAL MOTHER.

215

the " mother " be set on the ground, evenly covered an inch deep
with sand or nice dry ashes ; let it be never left two nights in
precisely the same spot, and let the ground it is to occupy be

Fig. 16.

A is the frame of the wire run.
B are the wire blinds, each movable, and thus allowing the run to be Cleaned

out easily.
C is the " hood," which takes off — as shown at the dotted line — and is used when

the chickens are able to perch.
D is the hairy cover — the substitute for the hen's body. This is detached, and

fits either along the dotted line, and so is suited for chickens not able to perch,

or when the hood and perch are used, forms the cover to the same.
E Perch. F Tressels and stand.

perfectly clean and dry before each removal. Such care will be
well repaid.

In severe weather, however, it is almost necessary to keep
the chickens within doors till about three weeks old, and a
wooden floor to the "mother" then becomes necessary. .No

216 ARTIFICIAL HATCHING AND REARING OP CHICKENS.

better arrangement perhaps can be devised than that contrived
by Mr. F. H. Schroder, and shown in Fig. 16; which is
constructed to stand upon trestles at a convenient height for
cleansing. The roof of the " mother " is here made so as to be
raised at pleasure when the chickens are able to roost, and allows
of a perch being introduced; but long before this time they
ought to be removed to the ground, if designed for anything but
mere in-door amusement. The floor of such temporary homes
must be scrupulously cleaned every day, and sprinkled with
clean sand or fine ashes so as completely to cover the wooden
bottom.

But in ordinary weather it is better, warming the " mother "
with hot water, to put the chickens on the ground at once.
In front of it must be a covered run, which may be about
three to four feet long, enclosed at the sides and end by board,
and covered with glass. The board enclosing it must not be
less than a foot in height, with a few holes bored near the top
for ventilation ; otherwise the atmosphere within will be too
close for the chicks to live in it. It is well to make the glass
top so that it can be lifted in warm weather like a cucumber
frame, or the heat will become stifling. Neglect of these pre-
cautions also causes many failures.

In front of the covered run, again, must be an open run
fenced in and covered over with small mesh wire netting. This
may be any convenient size, and should extend over grass if
possible. Communication between this open ruin and the
covered run and " mother," is maintained by one or two small
traps large enough for the chicks to pass when tolerably well
grown, which are left open to allow of their free passage in
fine weather, but should be kept closed when it is wet or
very cold.

As in very heavy weather the glass roof of the covered run
is not sufficient protection, the whole arrangement must be
placed under an open shed in some sheltered situation.

MANAGEMENT OF THE CHICKS. 217

Cleanliness in the two runs is of nearly as much importance
as under the " mother." They should be raked over constantly,
if gravel or sand ; and if set upon grass, the whole should be
moved to fresh ground every two or three days.

The fleece or upper part of the " mother " itself is liable,
if neglected, to get infected with insects. To prevent this,
powdered sulphur should be frequently dusted into it, and a
little paraffin put on here and there occasionally will also in a
great measure expel them by the strong smell. No point is
perhaps so universally neglected as this. But chickens when
tormented by vermin never thrive, and we believe are occa-
sionally worried even to death by this intolerable plague.

Such will be all the accommodation needed in ordinary
eummer or spring weather, during which the chicks, when in the
"mother," will keep themselves comfortably warm. But for
the preservation of broods hatched in January or February, it
will be necessary to add artificial heat, which may be done by
having on the top board of the " mother " a vessel to be filled
with hot water the last thing at night, and once or twice during
the day. In very severe weather even this will not be sufficient,
and the water must be kept hot through the night by a lamp
or other contrivance. Of course, if there be hot air apparatus
for a greenhouse, or any other permanent source of heat, it may
be made available in any convenient manner, and a lamp
dispensed with.

The feeding will not differ from that already given. Hard
boiled eggs chopped up, and very coarse oatmeal moistened with
milk or water, is best to commence with, as the chickens will
begin to peck much more readily at such tiny morsels than at
anything in the shape of sop. Groats chopped up small are
also very useful in teaching them to feed. This is, in fact, the
only difficulty, and is best got over by tapping on the floor with
the end of the finger, at the same time clucking like a hen.
But very few chickens give any trouble in this way, and the

218 ARTIFICIAL HATCHING AND REARING OF CHICKENS.

art of feeding is one which, once learnt, is fortunately never
forgotten. Let not animal or green food be neglected, or the
chickens will never be superior specimens ; and let grain be
added by degrees, but still letting the chief diet till at least three
months old consist of soft food. This, however, has been fully
treated of in Section I., and we will only add a caution that
the young birds be never neglected. Remember that chicks with
a hen, if at liberty, can almost always procure some food —
enough to maintain life at least — if their regular nieal be for-
gotten; whilst those reared in this manner are entirely de-
pendent upon their owner's care, and one forgotten meal, even if
not fatal at the time, frequently lays the foundation of mortal
disease, by leaving the poor little things with no strength to
endure any inclemency of the weather. The want of such
support is what makes bread sops so objectionable a food for
young birds.

To sum up all : WARMTH (with ventilation), CLEANLINESS,
and CONSTANT FEEDING will give unfailing success in the rearing
of chickens artificially j and when there has been signal failure,
tho cause will be found in neglect of one of these three. The
whole art is therefore simple enough, and every large poultry-
keeper should make himself to some extent conversant with it,
as such experience may often prove serviceable, even should he
be one of those who shun "incubators" as they would the
plague. For instance, a hen cannot cover well more than six
or seven chickens if hatched very early, but can hatch well ten
or eleven : hence a poultry-breeder experienced in artificial
rearing has much advantage over another ignorant of it, as
he can set all his hens in January (when "broody" hens are
very scarce) on their full complement of eggs, and when
hatched give each as many as she can properly protect, and
bring the remainder up by hand. To exhibitors especially the
possibility of thus getting early stock in increased numbers is
of great and special importance.

SECTION VI.

THE BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY
UPON A LARGE SCALE,

SECTION VI.

VARIOUS circumstances, to which we need not particularly
refer, have lately contributed to direct much attention to
wholesale poultry-breeding; and in all probability much
time will not elapse before it is successfully taken up by
British capitalists. We cannot therefore pass the subject
by, although to give minute details and rules for every
department of it is obviously impossible in one section of
a work of this description.

Such details would moreover be of no practical benefit,
since they must vary in nearly every case. The utter
inutility of mere theoretic minutiae has already been
notably proved ; and we are far more concerned to point
out sound principles, which, if general, may be still plain
and reliable in their application, and easily adapted to any
particular circumstances.

So much, and so much only, is intended by this
Section. It is not meant to be so much dogmatic as
suggestive, on a subject which is confessedly attended
with many difficulties, and has never, in England, been
as yet practically illustrated.

POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE.

CHAPTER XXVII.

SEPARATE ESTABLISHMENTS FOR REARING POULTRY. POULTRY
OX THE FARM. CONCLUSION.

Ix seeking to give such information as may be useful to any
contemplating tlie wholesale rearing and keeping of fowls as a
distinct business, we labour under the great disadvantage that
there is no successful concern of the kind in England to which
we can refer. That this is not for want of a market for either
eggs or chickens, is proved by the continuous high prices of the
one, and the many millions of the other yearly imported from
France and Ireland. Still it is the fact ;* and for any actual
examples which we can consider worthy of imitation, we have
therefore been compelled to cross over to France, where such
enterprise is carried on to an extent, and with a success little
dreamed of in this country, and which proves that here also
the first who shall bring to bear upon it the same amount

* In this and other observations which more or less directly appear to
reflect upon the well-known National Poultry Company's establishment at
Bromley, it is not meant to assert that the concern there is a losing one; on
this point we have no information whatever, and make no such imputation
of the slightest kind. But it has become, from sheer necessity, a mere
assemblage of pens for breeding and showing prize poultry, and selling eggs
therefrom ; and has altogether failed to provide a supply of fowls for the
market at a cheap rate, as every ono predicted it would, and on which
ground it was ostensibly inaugurated.

222 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE.

of practical knowledge, sound judgment, and good business
management, will not fail to reap a similar harvest.

It is, however, very necessary to make these reservations.
Nothing is more easy than to publish sanguine calculations
showing from one to three hundred per cent, profit to be
derived from such concerns, and more than one such have we
seen; but unless these computations are founded upon some
sound practical knowledge of such details as are contained in
the foregoing pages, they cannot but prove delusive. It was
here that Mr. Geyelin so signally failed. With many good
ideas — some of which have been found truly valuable — he
utterly lacked that real knowledge of fowls which could alone
have turned them to account; and hence his well-known
pamphlet, full as it was of really useful conceptions, and
awakening as it deservedly did very great attention to the
subject of wholesale poultry -breeding, abounds also with
absurdities which could only provoke a smile from every one
who had actually kept fowls. He was essentially a theorist ;
and since his theories involved certain principles which were
fundamentally wrong, that his plans should fail practically was
an inevitable necessity. And that they have done so is an
admitted fact.

Mr. Geyelin's fundamental idea was, that with proper care
and judicious feeding, fowls could be bred, reared, and kept
for any purpose — either for chickens or for eggs — far more
economically, and in better health, in close confinement, than
even with a moderate degree of liberty. And to those ignorant
of the subject he apparently demonstrated his point. He
alleged truly that the chickens would be protected from wet
and cold ; that they would never be over-tired ; and that they
would always be properly fed ; and in his arrangements he
therefore provided that they should be hatched and reared on
wooden floors. But he forgot that such treatment would not
give constitution, without which no system can in the long run

CLOSE CONFINEMENT. 223

be remunerative ; and tins one flaw in the argument has
rendered valueless all his after reasoning. On the first appear-
apce of Mr. Geyelin's pamphlet, we ventured to predict that
whilst he might keep in health and good condition grown
fowls, his plans would fail altogether with regard to chickens ;
and since chicken-rearing is at the very root of all plans for
keeping poultry on the large scale, would practically fail alto-
gether. The event has justified this prognostication to the
letter ; for whilst the National Poultry Company have kept in
good health, and taken numerous prizes with, adult birds from
their small pens, they have not succeeded in sending any
amount of dead stock to the London market ; and on a recent
visit to their establishment at Bromley, we found the Geyelin
system of rearing the broods altogether abandoned, and the
chickens were being brought up out of doors as usual. At
a smaller establishment in the provinces, built on the exact
model of that at Bromley, we found precisely similar
results.

Such being the case, we shall not give any detailed descrip-
tion of Mr. Geyelin's plans, referring those who may be
desirous of investigating them to his own pamphlet for further
information.* But in justice to him we must nevertheless
remark that he has rendered real assistance to the advancement
of poultry-breeding of no small value. He has conclusively
proved that adult fowls can be kept in health in pens of only
six feet by twelve, and demonstrated in connection with this
the great value and importance of deodorisation ; he was the
first in this countiy to insist publicly upon the necessity of
giving soft food as well as grain ; and, most important perhaps
of all, he pointed out perspicuously the design of nature, and
the necessity to the most profitable result, of making the fowls
feed the land whilst the land fed the fowls. These are im-

* " Poultry Breeding from a Commercial Point of View." London ;
Simpkin and Marshall

224 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE.

portant services, and it would ill become us not to acknowledge
them, though we cannot follow him to his conclusions.

In attempting ourselves to give such information as may be
useful to those contemplating this branch of commercial enter-
prise, we shall in the first place, with the help of an interesting
work * published under the authority of the French Minister
of Agriculture, give a short and illustrated description of one
of the latest and best managed establishments in France, after-
wards making such remarks as may appear advisable.

The establishment in question belongs to the Baroness de
Linas, and is situated at Charily, a picturesque village near
Paris. Left a widow some years since, with a small estate of
about fifteen acres, which bears the name of Bel air, Madame de
Linas, partly for amusement and partly in order to augment a
rather scanty income, turned her attention to poultry, and has-
for some time succeeded in both objects. Many of her arrange-
ments are peculiar; but all are the result of much thought,
and are worthy of attentive examination.

The poultry-house at Belair is represented in perspective by
the accompanying plate. It is in , two storeys, each 7 J feet iii
height ; measures in all 60 by 15 feet, and is divided by par-
titions into four compartments of equal size. This house is
designed for the accommodation of about 1,200 laying hens,
with a due proportion of cocks, which are lodged in the four
upper apartments; whilst the lower are devoted to storing,
cooking, hatching, and other necessities of the business.

Round the front and ends of the house there is a gallery,
five feet wide, at the level of the upper floor, roofed like a
verandah, on which the doors of the fowl-houses open, and to
which the birds ascend by broad step-ladders. The gallery carries
a small railway, travelled by a truck, and at each end is a lifting
tackle, by which simple means the manure and eggs are col-

* " Poulos et CEufs," par Eug. Gayot. Paris : Librairie Agricole, 26,
Rue Jacob.

2-26

POULTRY OX THE LARGE SCALE.

lected and lowered down, whilst straw, sand, and anything else-
required, are hauled up, and distributed with the least possible
amount of labour. The doors of the hen-houses do not open
on hinges, but slide in panels, so as always to leave the gallery
clear. They are furnished with traps, as usual, by which the-

Fig. 17. View of Hen-house.

birds can enter when they are closed. The object of thus-
elevating the hen-houses are two-fold — dryness and salubrity,
and security from thieves and vermin, as the ladders can be
taken away at night, and all access cut off.

The interior arrangements of all four upper apartments, or
hen-houses, are precisely similar, and are shown in Figs. 17 and 18.

HEN-HOUSE.

227

Each apartment is designed for about 330 fowls, and the
interior dimensions are 16 feet by 15. The perches, shown in
plan at j, Fig. 18, consist of flat planks, four or five inches
wide, with only the top corners rounded off, and arranged on a
frame so as to be movable, at a heighi of 16 inches above the

npH

yiiiiTn mn i> living
TOT

Fig. 18. Plan of Hen-house.

floor. Such perches never cause crooked breast-bones; the
heaviest fowl can reach them, and there is never any dispute
for the highest place, which is always the case when arranged
en echelon or ladderwise.

The nests, shown at N N, are arranged in five tiers against
the front and back walls. They are formed very simply, by
dividing long square troughs, open at the top, into compart-

228 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE.

ments, by means of partitions sliding in grooves. The bottoms
of the troughs project, so as to form broad ledges, along which
the hens can walk; and inclined ladders, shown at E, give
ready access to each ledge, and, consequently, to any nest.

The floor is formed of resinous pine wood, in order to repel
vermin. Every crevice is stopped up, and the whole scraped
clean and profusely sanded every morning whilst the birds are
at their first meal. In addition to this, the whole is well
fumigated and whitewashed twice a year.

Air is admitted to each apartment by the pipe B, which
rises through the middle of the floor, and which is brought
from over the furnace in the kitchen, as shown at o in the
plan of the ground-floor (Fig. 20). By this means the tem-
perature in winter is kept warm. Another pipe through the
ceiling carries off the products of respiration. In summer,
ventilation is further promoted by keeping open the Venetian
blinds, F, with which the house is furnished. A is the door
opening upon the gallery.

Fig. 19 shows the arrangement of the open runs, which
occupy about an acre and a-half each, and are of a wedge-
form, converging on the compartments of the fowl-house, and
opening towards the further end, where they are bounded by a
clear running brook. Each run is provided with a spacious
shed, built on rising ground, and small clumps of trees and
bushes are also grown, to afford shelter from the sun. Shallow
pits, filled with fine sand, are also provided. Every three
months a fourth of each run is sown with hay-seed, and lightly
dug over, in order to renew the turf and bury all manure. A
supply of worms is also in this way afforded to the fowls.

The fences might, of course, be of any adequate kind, but
are constructed at Belair in a very ingenious manner. A
double row of poplar, elm, or apple-trees is planted, and
suffered to grow for several years unmolested. Then each tree
is nearly cut through with a bill-hook, and bent over, but

POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE.

leaving, of course, some of the wood and a broad strip of the
bark. The effect of this treatment is to make the trees send
out vigorous shoots in every direction, of which the largest are
again cut and laid down as before ; and the whole being kept

HATCHING-ROOM.

231

in bounds by a rude trellis, the effect in a few years is a dense
living wall of foliage, which is absolutely impassable.

At the side of the runs for the grown fowls is seen another
large grass field, reserved for the young chickens. Against the
back wall of this run a number of rude sheds are erected, each
covering a coop, as represented in Fig. O, page 46.

The arrangements of the ground- floor of the poultry-house are
shown in plan by Fig. 20, and in perspective by Figs. 21, 24 and 25.

Fig. 21. The Hatchins-mom.

Xo. 1 on the plan, and Fig. 21 in perspective, represent the
hatching-room, which is at one end of the building, and is very
ingeniously contrived. The nests P are arranged on a double
dresser, running round three sides of the room, and consist of
wicker baskets of an oblong square form, made larger at the
top than the bottom, in order better to accommodate the hen's
head and tail. Each basket has a cover, and a small ring
for affixing a label, to denote the date of hatching. A table
with drawer, a thermometer, registry-book, with writing mate-

232

POULTRY OX THE LARGE SCALE.

rials, and a small cupboard, complete the interior furniture
of this room.

On the opposite side of the room to the nests, and outside
the wall, are two tiers of coops for feeding the hens. The con-
struction of these feeding coops, which measure sixteen inches
wide by eighteen long, is more clearly shown by Fig. 22, D being
a side section, and E a front view. They open at the rear into
the hatching-room by trap-doors, built in the wall, and in front,
on ledges. The food and water are supplied in two earthen pans,
to which the hens get access by thrusting their heads through

Fig. 22.

the bars. The partitions between the coops project beyond
the bars, so that the hens cannot see each other whilst feeding.

The management of the hatching-room is easily understood.
Each hen is taken in turn from her basket, and put through
the trap-door into a coop until all are occupied, the pans having
been replenished previously with food and water. They are put
back in the same order as they were taken out, the attendant
never leaving the room, except to clean out the coops and re-
plenish the feeding vessels, should there be more hens than the
number of coops will contain at one time. Thus all is con-
ducted without noise or disturbance.

When hatched and strong, the hen and her brood are con-
veyed to the rearing-field in the quietest manner, without even
taking them out of the nest, by slipping the hatching-basket (as
already noticed, of a taper shape), into an iron ring furnished
with handles as shown in Fig. 23.

THE KITLIIIIX.

233

Xo. 2 jon the plan is the kitchen, shown in perspective by
Fig. 24. This contains a furnace, F, with two copper boilers for
cooking the roots and vegetables, a dresser, T, and the necessary

Fig. 24. The Kitchen.

234

POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE.

shelves and utensils. In one corner is a staircase, E, leading to
the cellar below, in which the potatoes and vegetables are
stored. Pipes from over the furnace convey warm air to the
hen-houses above, and to the hatching-room, when required.

Fig. 25 and No. 3 on the plan show the arrangements of the
store-room, which contains the stock of meal and grain, in bins
carefully designed for its good preservation^ The corn-bins are

Fig. 25. The Store-room.

shown on a larger scale by Fig. 26, and are the invention of
M. Audeod. The framework, F, is of wood, the sides of wire
gauze, properly supported by additional wooden stays, T. Inside
these is also a ventilating chimney, similarly constructed of wire
gauze, on a wooden frame, which passes through both the lid and
bottom of the bin, and maintains a draught of air through the
centre of the mass, whose exterior is also ventilated through tho
gauze sides. The bottom is formed of a double slope, slanting
like a shallow trough from the sides, A B, to the middle line, c D,
and the trough also sloping lengthways from back to front. At

CORN BIN.

235

the lowest point is a shallow spout, D, to which access is afforded
by a shutter; and it will be readily seen that the bin will
empty itself to the very last grain.

The Audeod corn-bin deserves to be adopted in all large
poultry establishments. From the free ventilation provided, the

Fig. 26. The Audeod Corn Bin.

grain — however long kept — never becomes musty, but is pre-
served in a sound state, and the bottom, or stalest portion, is
always used first. The elevation on legs is also not only con-
venient for delivering the corn into the receiving vessels, but
secures it from the attacks of vermin.

The bins at Belair contain nearly thirty bushels each, and

236 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE.

five of them, c C (Fig. 20), are ranged in a line at one end of the
room, lozenge fashion, in order that air may have free access to
them. At the other end, one each side of the door, are two large
chests, B B, for meal and bran. These cannot of course be made
of gauze, and are best of sheet-iron. They have, however, gauze
covers, and are inclined at the bottom like the corn-bins, so
that the least aerated portion is first used. The necessary
measures and vessels complete the furniture of this room.

No. 4 on the plan (Fig. 20) represents the egg-room, of
which a view is unnecessary, as it is simply furnished round the
walls with shelves, H, on which are placed the oblong square
boxes in which the eggs are packed. Each box has marked
upon it its date, which, with the date on which it leaves the
establishment, is entered in a registry book. A separate corner
is appropriated to eggs for hatching.

A separate building is devoted to fattening purposes, fitted
up all round the interior with tiers of cages, each large enough
to contain one bird. The fowls are either crammed by hand, or
by a machine which has been recently invented for that purpose,
but of which we cannot approve.

Such is the establishment at Belair — confessedly one of the
most complete and perfect of its kind in France, and which has
been conducted for several years with the most eminent success.
This being so, any critical remarks may appear invidious, but we
must, nevertheless, make a few observations respecting modifi-
cations which we think desirable.

"We confess to not liking the arrangements for hatching.
To set the hens in baskets on shelves may perhaps be inevitable
in large establishments, but the birds should certainly have more
room to stretch their legs when off the nest than is afforded by
a pen a few inches square, and it is also needful they should have
access to a dust-bath, or they are tormented by vermin to an
intolerable degree. It would be better to give up more space
to the hatching department, so as to give each pair of hens a,

EGGS FOR HATCHING. 237

small yard, and set them on the ground. For instance, twenty
pens, 10 feet by 3 feet, would each contain two nests at one end,
would give room for exercise and ablution, and would accom-
modate forty hens in a space of only 30 feet by 20. This would
be amply sufficient to hatch 3,000 chickens per annum, and they
will be of much stronger constitution than on the plan, ingenious
us it is, which we have described.

Neither do we consider an acre and a half of run the most
really economical allowance for 330 fowls, whilst we should also
recommend the keeping of them in flocks of lesser number.
It is true that by the quarterly digging of the runs much evil is
prevented ; but by keeping say 120 fowls on an acre this would
be dispensed with, and the additional rent would be more than
compensated by economy of food and saving of labour.

Lastly, we consider it a very unadvisable plan to select the
eggs for hatching from even the finest of those laid by the
general stock. It is far better, from amongst the large mass of
chickens reared annually, to select the very finest specimens,
and reserve them in pens of, say, one cock to from four to six
liens, for breeding alone. Many advantages will be thus
secured. In the first place, all the eggs will for certain be of
first class quality, and well fecundated. The cocks in the
general runs may also be reduced to about one in twenty, or
even dispensed with ; thus sending more to market, and saving
their food. And lastly, a share of the honours of exhibition
may be secured, and sums not to be despised realised by selling
at high prices to amateurs. At the same time, these select
yards must not be allowed to degenerate into mere pens for
breeding " fancy fowls," as will be the case if not watched.
They must be mainly regarded as the sources of supply to the
general yards, and will then be found a valuable addition to
the arrangements at Belair.

For the scale of that establishment, say 1,200 laying hens,
•we do not think its arrangements can be further improved, save

238 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE.

that for the small detached shelters over the coops in the
chicken nursery, it would be far better to substitute one long
and spacious shed. We should ourselves also prefer the hen-
houses on the ground-floor, in which case the kitchen, store-
room, &c., might be placed behind ; but these are merely
matters of opinion and detail.

But on a larger scale some further modifications will be
desirable, if only for the simple reason that the triangular
shape of the runs will be very inconvenient if multiplied ;
whilst, if rectangular, as they must be the width of the houses,
they would be nearly as awkward from their length and nar-
rowness. It is needful to mention this, as we have a strong con-
viction that with less than 10,000 fowls there is not sufficient
return to be worth the attention of the English capitalist. And
whether there be an adequate market for the produce of such
a number must in all cases be carefully ascertained before such
an undertaking be engaged in. This much being taken for
granted, we would make the following suggestions respecting
the formation of a chicken farm.

Of the 10,000 fowls we would reckon 400 as the breeding
stock, and 9,600 as laying, or ordinary stock, divided into 80
flocks of 120 each. These flocks should each have an acre of
run ; 15 acres more would be required for the chicken run
or nursery ; 3 acres for the breeding yards, and the remainder
for hatching runs and buildings, pigs, &c., &c. In all, 100 acres.

The simplest and best arrangement would be to have the
grass runs, say 80 feet by 550 feet, with a house or close
shed 80 feet by 4 feet at one end, provided along its whole
length with traps, for the fowls to enter. One long perch will
then roost all the birds, and the nests will also be contained
in a single row. In front of the house should be a shed
extending about 20 feet, and floored with hard gravel or
asphalt, under which the food will be thrown, and to which
the birds can retreat. The runs should be side by side, and

STEAM ENGINE. 239

two rows of houses arranged back to back, with a passage
between, into which their doors open. This passage should
have a sky-light roof, and the houses be only fronted into it
with netting ; this part of the arrangement being like that of
Mr. Lane's establishment, figured at page 65, only that each
house is much longer. The nests should similarly be reached
by trap-doors from the passage, which should be traversed by
a railway-truck "to collect the eggs and manure.

By such an arrangement, all the needful operations will be
conducted with the least possible labour.

The conditions of health, fecundity, and profit will not
differ from those enunciated in the first section of this work.
But in a large concern all operations will range themselves
into five great divisions : the breeding-yards, the hatching-pens
or rooms, the chicken-nursery or rearing runs, the ordinary
stock-yard, and the fattening pens. These must be arranged
in any way that will best secure economy of labour and effective
supervision.

As much machinery as possible should be employed in pre-
paring the food, and to work these a small steam-engine will
be found very economical, whilst it may be made auxiliary to-
cooking purposes.

Great care must be taken that the land is well drained,
and, if possible, slightly sloping to the south. A light, dry
soil is also very desirable, but good drainage will overcome
great difficulties in this respect.

The selection of breeds is of the very utmost importance.
\Yith a good market for both eggs and fowls, we would recom-
mend one- fourth Dark Brahmas, one-fourth Dorkings, one-
fourth Houdans, and one-fourth a cross between the three,
obtained by fii«t mating the largest Brahma hens with a
Dorking cock, and then breeding from the progeny with the
largest Houdan cocks that can be procured. Of this cross we
cannot speak too highly, as admirable chickens, thus bred, may

240 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE.

be sent to market at ten weeks old — an earlier period than is
possible with any other fowls we know. All the runs, except
the Dorkings, will yield an abundance of eggs, and that breed
will be most valuable for table fowls, and also as mothers. If
another breed be desired, La FISche should be selected, for the
sake of their fine large eggs, combined with good and heavy
table qualities. Except in very favourable situations, Creves
are too delicate to be remunerative.

The profitable disposal of the manure should be especially
studied, and for this reason we should strongly recommend some
measure of farming operations to be carried on in combination.
A number of pigs should likewise be kept, as they may be
fattened on what the fowls refuse. Or ducks will also make
capital " save-alls."

We are reluctant to enter into figures, we have seen so
many visionary and delusive statements j but we know that some
data, however rough, will be expected. It is only as such that
we offer the following ; and if our figures do not show three
hundred per cent, as the probable profit, it is because they are
based upon some attempt, however rough, at calculation from
actual facts, not upon the sanguine theories of persons totally
ignorant of fowls. We shall still suppose an establishment
of 10,000 birds.

For capital we would estimate —

10,000 fowls, at 2s. each £1,000

Buildings, Fittings, Engine, Plant and Utensils, including

2 horses and carts ... ... ... ... ... 1,350

One month's food ... ... ... ... 150

Spare cash working capital ... 500

Say total capital £3,000

Our plan of commencing would be to purchase first simply
400 first-class breeding birds at an average of about 20s. each
{some would be much more than this). The stock for the second

ESTIMATE OF EXPENSE. 241

year would then cost less than £1,000, but there would belittle
to spare for sales.

Our estimate for the working of such an establishment
is based upon the fact, that of all the breeds mentioned above
except Dorkings, 150 eggs per annum may be obtained from
each hen. Including them the average will be 140 all round,
or with the cocks say 130. On the large scale, we are als«>
satisfied that the keep of a fowl will not exceed 3s. per annum,
and from these facts we are justified in reckoning every fowl
in the yard as representing a gross profit (including the manure)
over and above her food, of 4s. per annum, leaving all other
expenses to be deducted. A rough estimate may then stand
thus —

RECEIPTS. i EXPENSES.

Gross profit over food from
9,600 stock fowls, at 4s.
per annum each £1,920

Rent— 100 acres, at 40s. ... £200

Taxes 40

Interest on capital of £3,000

at 5 percent 150

Wages — 2 men with their

families 200

Horse keep 60

Fuel and attendance for en-
gine 100

Gross balance of profit 1,170

£1,920 I £1,920

In this estimate nothing is allowed for renewing the stock, because all
the fowls, which should never be allowed to become old, can be sold when
fatted for more than they actually cost as delivered from the breeding-
yards.

There will be other items of expense which cannot be sec
down. Railway carriage is difiicult to estimate, and will affect
profit ; there is also wear and tear to allow for. But on the
other hand, the above balance-sheet represents the profit of
the laying stock alone, and a gross profit of at least equal
amount will be derived from the dead stock sent to market
from the breeding-yards. Of this we give no details, as tlio

242 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE.

returns from chickens sold at ten to eighteen weeks old — and
they should not be older — may be easily estimated. In the
main, therefore, the above figures will be found sufficient ; and
if they show a somewhat more moderate return than preceding
writers have promised, they are at least likely to be realised,
and certainly — making the sole and all important stipula-
tion of a market — offer sound inducements to the enter-
prising capitalist.

It is, however, to the farmer that poultry-breeding on a
large scale more especially commends itself; and it may be
pursued most successfully on either of two quite distinct
systems. A large number may be kept all through the year,
and a portion of the farm — say one-fourth — permanently
appropriated in regular rotation to their use, the fowls being
removed to fresh ground every year. Or, on the other hand,
a moderate breeding-stock only may be permanently retained,
but a large number of chickens reared from them every season,
which should be sent to the fields as soon as cropped, in
travelling houses mounted on wheels. There they will speedily
get fat at very little expense, and may be killed off for the
market. The first plan is most suitable for large farmers with
good business and administrative capacity; the last will be best
adapted for smaller holdings. But either system will not only
yield a handsome profit in itself, but greatly benefit the other
produce ; both by manuring the ground, and by removing
myriads of worms and insects very injurious to the growing
crops. Indeed, considering the ravages yearly committed on
every farm by these tiny pests, it is to us most astonishing
that, instead of the bungling methods of extermination at
present employed, the farmers of England do not have recourse
to the philosophical and lucrative remedy which nature has
provided.

The choice of breeds will be generally as already mentioned,
but will vary with circumstances. Dorkings should not be

FAKSI POULTRY. 243

when eggs are the principal object ; nor Brahmas when
dead poultry is the end in view. If only one breed is desired,
Houdans will be best, with a few Brahma hens for hatching
and crossing.

It is on the farm poultry ought to be most profitable ;
and, in such circumstances, we consider every well-chosen
stock-fowl should represent a clear profit of five shillings per
annum ; whilst we are quite sure chickens will yield a much
heavier weight of meat for the same outlay than any other
stock whatever. The time is fast approaching when this will
be generally recognised ; and then, and not before, will
poultry-breeding occupy its legitimate position in the general
economy of agriculture.

To contribute in some slight degree towards this result,
has been one object of the preceding pages.

LONDON:
CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN, BELLE SAUVAGE WORKS,

LULGATE HILL, E C.

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "The practical poultry keeper : a complete and standard guide to the management of poultry, whether for domestic use, the markets, or exhibition"

See other formats