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PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC

FRUIT CULTURE.

PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC

FRUIT CULTURE.

183y'4

CHARLES R. BAKER,

OF THE
DORCHESTER NURSERIES.

ILLUSTRATED.

BOSTON:
LEE AND SHEPARD.
LONDON: TRUBNER AND CO.

1866.
WV

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866,
By CHARLES R. BAKER,
In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court for the District of Massachusetts.

¢ “ee ANDOVER:
~ ea STEREOTYPED BY WARREN F. DRAPER.
pe Beg OE

\o Presswork by John Wilson and Sons.

‘Tia tS) Vor ks Ee REE
18
RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED TO AMERICAN FRUIT-GROWERS,

IN THE

HOPE THAT IT MAY ENCOURAGE AND ASSIST BEGINNERS, AND BE FOUND
CONFORMED TO THE EXPERIENCE OF THE BEST CULTIVATORS,

xy the Author.

ees

¥ iz

Py Ea 8.

ay ett: there are a number of excellent works

descriptive of fruits, and compiled from ripe
experience and large observation, yet there are
few, if any, which give in detail the arts of culti-
vation.

The minutiae and practical application of these
arts become more important as the interest in fruit-
culture increases, and the profits are understood.
On these topics so much has already been published
as to prevent any demand for additional remark.
But in the progress of our legitimate business a
multitude of inquiries are annually proposed, by cus-

tomers and others, relative to the various branches

12 PREFACE.

of these arts, which are important to their success,
but to which they cannot readily obtain satisfactory
replies. Thus we have felt ourselves called upon
to submit the results of our researches and experi-
ence to the public in print, hoping that the present
volume, though not perfect and complete, may yet
be acceptable and useful to beginners in the culti-
vation of the garden, the orchard, and the vineyard.
And, lest our connection with the Hon. Marsuatt P.
Wiper, of enviable renown for his contributions to
American Pomology, should lead our readers or the
public to think him responsible for what we have
written, we feel it to be due to his official position,
and to our pleasant and intimate relation to him,
to say that he is in no degree accountable for any
peculiar sentiments herein expressed.

We have received from him many valuable sug-

gestions, and are largely indebted to his library and

PREFACE. 13

mature knowledge; and deeply regret that his feeble
health, during the preparation of this work, has to a
great extent deprived us of his counsel, and the
benefits which we and the public might otherwise
have derived from his personal revision of our
manuscript.

For the original suggestion which led to the
preparation of this volume, I gratefully acknowl-
edge my indebtedness to my esteemed friend H. F.
Durant, Esq.; also to my beloved father, Rev. A.
R. Baker, for additional assistance. —

To the following works and authors I am also
indebted for many valuable hints, generally indicated

in the text:

The Gardener’s Chronicle.
Loudon’s Gardeners’ Magazine.

Loudon’s Encyclopedia of Gardening.
2

14

PREFACE.

Johnston’s Agticultural Chemistry.

Stéckhardt’s Field Chemistry.

Johnston’s Farmers’ Encyclopedia.

Lindley’s Introduction to Botany.

Leibig’s Natural Laws of Husbandry.

Tull’s Horse-Hoe Husbandry.

French’s Land Drainage.

Girdwood’s Encyclopedia.

Miiller’s Meteorology.

Blodgett’s Climatology.

Annals of Natural History.

Espy on Storms.

Revue Horticole.

Transactions of the London Horticultural Society.
Rivers’s Miniature Garden.

Insects Injurious to Vegetation.

Transactions of the American Pomological Society.
Patent Office Reports.

The Philosophical Magazine.

PREFACE. AS

Squarery’s Agricultural Chemistry.
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture.
Geological Survey of Massachusetts.
Annales de la Chimie.

Sproule’s Treatise on Agriculture.
Monographie des Greffes.
Bibliotheca Agraria.

De Re Rustica.

The Theory of Horticulture.
Outlines of Flemish Husbandry.
Davy’s Agricultural Chemistry.
Electricity in Theory and Practice.
Jenyns’s Observations upon Meteorology.
Synopsis of North American Fungi.
De Candolle’s Vegetable Physiology.
Botanische Zeitung. 1854.
Physique des Arbres. 1758.
Comptes Rendus. 1853.

Introduction to Chryptogamic Botany.

16 PREFACE.

Fitche’s Noxious Insects, Published in Transactions
of New York State Agricultural Society.
Address to the Meteorological Society of Scotland, by

Dr. Jas. Stark.

We also acknowledge the kind and generous
assistance of Pror. Giover of the Maryland Insti-

tute.

GON TENTS.

CHAPTER I.
METEOROLOGICAL AGENTS.

Altitude — Aspect or exposure — Contiguous bodies of water — Nature
of storms— Climate of eastern and western districts compared —
Snow storms— Severe wind — Stagnant air— Aqueous vapor —
Heat — Light — The limits of the vine — Tables — Cold — Elec-
tricity — Different exposures; as the summit of hills, northern,

southern ; ; 3 ‘ . F Z . F 25

CHAPTER II.
ORIGIN AND PROPERTIES OF SOILS.

Soils the result of disintegration — Causes stated by Sir H. Davy —
Boussingault — Hitchcock — Alluvial agencies. Properties: Spe-
cific gravity — Affinity for moisture — Absorption of moisture from
the air — Capillary attraction — State of division — Cohesion and
adhesion — Absorption of gases from the atmosphere — absorption

and retention of heat . : i P ; 4 P « 49

O*

18 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III.

CLASSIFICATION AND ADAPTATION OF SOILS.

Section I. Classification of soils; Section II. Adaptation to different
fruits —Varieties of the apple, apricot, berberry, cherry, currant, fig,
gooseberry, grape, peach, and nectarine — Varieties of the pear,

plum, quince, raspberry, strawberry ; ; 4 ; 79

CHAPTER IV.

DRAINING THE SOIL.

Method by which the soil is supplied with moisture: rain, springs —
Description of different strata — Capillary attraction — Methods by
which water is removed: running off its surface — Evaporation —
Percolating through its substance — What lands require drainage —
The direction of the drains — The distance —'The depth — The
material to be used —Number of tile to the acre— Manner of
operation — The effects of drainage: promoting pulverization —
Prevention of injury by drought — Increase of the absorption of
moisture — Ventilation — Permitting the warm spring showers to
enter the soil— Freezing the land deeper — Deepening the soil —
Destroying weeds — Causing a more hardy growth— Production

becomes more certain . : a aR ‘ b ‘ i 90

CONTENTS. 19

CHAPTER V.
PULVERIZATION.

A crumbling consistency of soils necessary — The importance of pul-
verization — Stiffness of clays — The non-retention of sandy soils —
Coldness of heavy earths — Summers — Injurious effects of drought
— Example of proper valuation of arable soil— Theory of Jethro
Tull — Effect of insects upon pulverization — Depth — Digging
circles around trees deprecated — Power of extension by roots —
Deep cultivation affords fresh earth — Manner of operation — The
season — Results of it: rapid absorption of moisture — Free admis-
sion of the air — The mixture of earths — The destruction of insects

— The increase of heat 5 - : 2 f 126

CHAPTER VI.
FERTILIZATION.

Selective power of plants — Form in which food is taken up — Ex-
cretion — Circulation of the sap — Organic substances : Oxygen, hy-
drogen, carbon, nitrogen — Inorganic substances — Manures adapted
to different soils: to clays, to peaty soils, to sandy lands — Plants to

be used in green-manuring — Application of manures . , 164

20 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VII.
SELECTION OF VARIETIES.

Evils of indiscriminate selection — Fruits suitable for the amateur, for
family use, for the market — Catalogue of the different varieties
adapted to the different sections of the country — The best six,

twelve, twenty, or one hundred sorts, for each state . : 201

CHAPTER VIII.
SELECTION, ARRANGEMENT, AND TRANSPLANTATION.

Section I. Selection of the tree: The apple — Root-grafted trees —
Height of the tree no criterion of its value — Where they should
limb — The peach— The vine— The currant and gooseberry —
The strawberry, raspberry, and blackberry. Section II. Arrange-
ment : Intensive planting — A garden of one square rod — A garden
of sixteen square rods — Apple orchards — Square planting for the
pear — Quincunx — Distances, and number of trees upon an seen
Section III. The transplantation: Season of — Conditions most

favorable to — Depth of — The dwarf pear — Manner of operation

— The movement of large trees by machinery .» ~. . 271

CONTENTS. 21

CHAPTER IX.
PRUNING AND TRAINING.

The amputation of the limbs of a tree based upon scientific principles
— Facts necessary to be kept in mind: Importance of a sharp knife
— The method of making the cut— Severe pruning productive of
vigor and sterility — The removal of a part of the wood of a weak
plant strengthens the remainder — Importance of sunshine to all parts
of the tree — Circulation of air — Distinguishing the peculiarities of
the variety — The prevention and cure of disease — The season:
Spring and summer — Pruning after transplanting — Training the
peach and nectarine: Seymour’s system— Oblique rod — Oblique
double rod — Double oblique rod— Standard — Horizontal trellis-
training — The apricot — The pear— Standard, quenouille, wineglass,
etc. — The cherry — The vine — The system of the Ionian islands —
Simple cane — Simple thomery. Plan practised in Ohio — The cur-
rant-—— The gooseberry — The raspberry — The blackberry — The

strawberry — Root-pruning . ‘ : . - : : 301

CHAPTER X.
SUMMER CULTIVATION.

Removal of moss and decayed bark — Loosening the soil — Mulching
— Thinning the fruit — Ringing — Watering, tying, supporting, and

gathering the fruit — Preservation = : A 4 , 345

22

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XI.

GRAFTING AND BUDDING.

Influence of the stock— Of the scion —The season — The wax —

Methods — The cleft — Gerffe a un seul rameau, dont une partie du
sujet est coupee en biseau — The crown — Tubular budding with dor-
mant eyes — The peg — Greffe sylvain, renewal, side, whip — Greffe
ferari de Thouin — Grating fruit-spurs -— Inarching — Greffe mor-

ceau — Common inarching

g, in the axis of the leaf, square bud, tu-

bular bud — Greffe en ecusson — The budding-machine — For
immediate fruiting — Renewal — Grafting the vine — Midsummer —

Embryonic . ° ; Bhai : - - : : 364

CHAPTER XII

THE PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES.

Change in the vegetable world — Effect of climate, soil, and position —

Cultivation, degeneracy, or deterioration — Decrepitude — Methods
of production — Selection — Van Mon’s theory as distinguished from
it — Cultivated fruits not descended from their mild types — Impor-
tance of securing seed from a young tree — Hybridization — Exper-
iments of Kolreuter, Herbert, Knight, Gertner, Lindley, Purkinje,
Mirbel, Adolphe Brogniart, Conrad Sprengel, Cassini, Alphonse de
Candolle, Schleiden, Fritsche, Thwaites, Mr. Rogers — Manner of

OPOPAHOR 2. sg ee ee RR

CONTENTS. 23

CHAPTER XIII.
THE DISEASES OF FRUIT-BEARING PLANTS.

Section I. General observations — Berkeley’s theory of classification —
Weigmann — Causes of disease —Insects. Section II. Diseases of
the apple — of the leaf— Fall of the leaf— Fungi — Clados porium
dendriticum, ceratites, raestelia — Insects — Apple-tree louse, com-
mon apple-tree caterpillar, the oak-tree caterpillar, the vaporer moth,
the palmer worm, the hag moth, the unicorn moth, the canker worm,
the handmaid moth, the dotted apple-leaf worm; of the fruit and
flower — Sterility — Immaturity of the fruit— Insects — The saw-

fly, the midge, the codling moth, the rose-bug ;

g ; of the stem — Insects

— The goat moth, the common borer, root-blight insect, the snapping
beetle, the bark louse, the locust of the seventeenth year; of the
tree generally — Profusion of sap, hunger, stagnation from transplan-
tation, canker, freezing, splitting, wind shakes, dropsy, sun-strokes,
wounds, lichens, vitiation of the sap. Section III. Diseases of the
pear — Of the leaf — American pear blight — Insects — The gold-
smith beetle, the red mite, the fly, the lyda, the astyages, the hispa
quadrata, fungi, discolorations; of the fruit and flower — Rotting at
the core, induration, loss of bloom, ete. ; of the stem — Root blight —
Insects — The blight beetle, the bark louse, fungi, ete. Section IV.
Diseases of the peach — The dotted apple-leaf worm, premature fall
of the fruit, the borer, gumming, etc. Section V. Diseases of the

plum — Plum louse, curculio, the plum wart, etc. Section VI.

24. CONTENTS.

Diseases of the cherry — The louse, the May beetle, etc. Section
VII. Diseases of the gooseberry — The caterpillar, the swallow-tailed
moth, the midge, the mildew, etc. Section VIII. Diseases of the
currant — Fall of the leaf, the borer, ete. Section IX. Diseases of
the raspberry — The grub, etc. Section X. Diseases of the vine —
Of the leaf—Insects— The vine plume, the saw-fly, the anomola
vitis, the spotted beetle, the pyralis, the procris Americana, the
haltica chalybea, the leaf hopper, the bombyx quata, the philampelus,
the choerocamepa, the rhynchitis, fungi, common mildew, erysiphe,

botrytis; of the fruit and flower — The rose-bug, shanking . 421

FRUIT CULTURE.

CHAPTER I.

METEOROLOGICAL AGENTS.

ALTITUDE — ASPECT OR EXPOSURE — CONTIGUOUS BODIES OF WATER—
NATURE OF STORMS — CLIMATE OF EASTERN AND WESTERN DISTRICTS
COMPARED — SNOW STORMS — SEVERE WIND — STAGNANT AIR — AQUE-
OUS VAPOR — HEAT — LIGHT — THE LIMITS OF THE VINE —TABLES —
COLD — ELECTRICITY — DIFFERENT EXPOSURES: AS THE SUMMIT OF
HILLS, NORTHERN, SOUTHERN.

HE meteorological agents which affect the pro-
duction of fruit have never received from hor-
ticultural writers the notice which they deserve.
They are necessarily more recondite than the qual-
ities or condition of the soil; and because less
evident, they have been passed over in silence; yet
the importance of understanding atmospheric phe-
nomena is, in some respects, even greater than a
knowledge of the soil. |
In one part of a country a certain fruit is utterly
worthless; its wood is killed by the winter, and its
skin becomes spotted and cracked in summer. This
same variety may, in another district, be universally
fair and delicious, while its wood remains as free
from damage in the winter as the native trees of
3

26 ALTITUDE.

the forest. This phenomenon is often noticed upon
different sides of the same hill. In the latter case,
it cannot certainly be the soil which causes such
varied results; but we must refer them to atmos-
pheric agencies.

Among the most important facts to be determined
is the effect of different altitudes upon vegetation.
It does not require more than a child’s discrimina-
tion to discover that the temperature upon the sum-
mit of a mountain is much lower than at its base,
and therefore that a fruit which flourishes at its
foot would not do so if planted in the most pro-
pitious place upon its top. Naturalists tell us that
if we start where the first glimpses of vegetation
appear at the frigid zone, and approach the tropics,
we shall perceive all the different stages of the vege-
table creation, in the same order in which they were
placed upon the earth. As we ascend a mountain
the effect is reversely the same. Hence it becomes
evident that to determine properly the limit for the
cultivation of a plant, it would be useless to draw
parallel lines, like those which we use for latitude,
because the same line would pass over valley and
mountain in which the temperature would vary
several degrees.

In assigning a position to the isothermal lines,
now quite common in geographical maps, there
are several other facts to be considered.

Aspect, or exposure, exerts a powerful influence

EXPOSURE. 27

upon fruit cultivation. For instance, while some
varieties of grapes will not ripen if exposed to the
north or west, they mature quite early on a south-_
ern or eastern slope. ‘Therefore, if an isothermal
line is to be an infallible guide, it should run down
on the latter, and up on the former. Some slopes
are open to furious and chilling winds from the cold
regions, which tend to depress the line.

These are among the more general facts to be
considered. It can readily be seen that perfect ac-
curacy must be practically impossible. The culti-
vator must exercise a wise judgment with regard to
these principles, or his efforts will not be crowned
with complete success.

Among the more general facts which should
guide us in determining the limits of the successful
cultivation of different fruits, and the proper selec-
tion of exposure for each variety, let us notice the
effects of large, contiguous bodies of water ; or the
difference between island or coast, and inland or
continental climate,—a difference which is very
striking in respect to the limits of cultivating a
particular plant. ‘This is owing to the greater ease
with which land rather than water absorbs and radi-
ates heat. Land becomes warm much sooner, but
falls in temperature with equal rapidity. On the
contrary, the sea is not so soon heated, on account
of its brilliant surface, which reflects the rays of the
sun; neither is it so soon cooled, owing to the great

28 BODIES OF WATER.

amount of its specific heat. While the land changes
its temperature very considerably with the diurnal ©
and annual alternations, the sea does so to a less
degree. During the night, the effect of water upon
the coast is to warm, and in the day to cool the
land. The same results are produced on the change
of the seasons: both the spring and autumn are
later. Places on the shore of large bodies of water
have frequently a clouded sky, and these arrest the
rays of heat from above, as well as prevent its loss
by radiation from beneath. Therefore, island or
coast climates are never subject to such extremes of
weather as are those of the interior. M. Boussin-
eault states that the temperature of London and
Paris is about the same, while the latitude of the
latter is nearly three degrees lower.

As we travel from the coast toward the interior,
the difference between the mean temperature of
summer and winter is much greater than on the
seaboard. Rivers, lakes, and ponds possess to some
extent the same power of equalizing temperature,
according to their size; and therefore we can per-
ceive the great value of isothermal lines established
by Baron Von Humboldt, which are a guide to the
general temperature, independent of the parallels of
latitude.

By reference to an isothermal map which gives
the mean temperature of the United States for
the four seasons, we shall ascertain that this mean

NATURE OF STORMS. 20

degree is the same at Fort Snelling, Minnesota, and
at Boston; while there is a difference in the latitude
of these places of two and a half degrees. The
autumn of the former is colder than that of Boston;
therefore, 1f we possessed no more information, we
should determine that the growing season was
shorter and colder than that of the Atlantic coast,
and that fruits which succeed near the latter would
not flourish in Minnesota. But we must remem-
ber that the effect of ocean upon the coast in the
spring is to cool it; and, consequently, that the
ground at Fort Snelling becomes sensible of the
warm spring sun much quicker, and is free from
the cooling influence of the water all summer. The
mean spring temperature is like that of Southern
Connecticut or New York. Those fruits which
hardly reach maturity in the Northern Atlantic
States, ripen fully and much earlier there, because
the heat of spring and summer is so much more
intense.

From the manner in which altitude, exposure,
and the presence of bodies of water affect climate,
the importance of considering atmospheric influences
in the selection of sites for our orchards must have
become evident. Let us investigate further the gen-
eral phenomena which produce good or bad results
in the growth of fruits.

1. The nature of storms. The difference in these

9
3*

30 STORMS.

and in the climate east and west of the Rocky Moun-
tains is very marked. The prevailing winds of our
continent are western. Although the eastern dis-
trict comprises a most extensive area in. several
latitudes, yet its general features are similar. It
is subject to great extremes, —a cold winter, and a
semi-tropical summer. ‘The variety of its indigenous
plants is very great. The vapor arising from the
Gulf of Mexico is condensed as it passes over the
land, and, falling until it is taken by this western
current, it is spread over the whole eastern portion
of the continent. When these winds are most
severe, as in the autumn, when the trees are laden
with fruit, as well as in early spring, the importance
of shelter in exposed positions will readily occur to
every practical cultivator. But this will be consid-
ered hereafter.

While there are some benefits resulting from the
variableness of temperature in the Eastern States,
there are also serious disadvantages, — such as the
destruction of the fruit-buds of the most tender
species and varieties in the more northern States,
and the encouragement of the fungi, as well as of
other diseases incident to a sudden check or accel-
eration of the sap-flow.

On the contrary, the climate of the Pacific coast
is characterized by great equanimity. If the dis-
eases resulting from sudden changes and extremes
of temperature exist at all, it is in their most ameli-

SNOW AND ICE. oi

orated form. ‘The temperate climate of Spain finds
there a rival; and the wine-grapes of Germany, Italy,
and even those of our hothouses, succeed there per-
fectly. The thermometer seldom falls below forty-
seven degrees Fahrenheit, or rises above sixty.

2. Snow storms. ‘The benefits and evils resulting
from these are about equal. Upon strawberries the
effect is decidedly good, as it defends the tender
crown-buds which are to produce the fruit of the
next year. The result is the same upon all small
fruits, such as currants, gooseberries, and raspber-
ries, as it modifies the extremes of temperature.
When the snow has melted, if the water stands
upon the gound, the subsequent effect may be dis-
astrous: it becomes frozen, and settles down upon
strawberries, frequently occasicning their death. The
cause may not be uniform ; sometimes it may be ow-
ing to the exclusion of air: and yet it is difficult to
understand that plants in a dormant or frozen state
should require air. If the snow first melts, then
freezes, it forms a crust of ice, that may act as a
lens to concentrate the sun’s rays and burn the
plant. The presence of ice upon the ground about
all trees or plants is very dangerous. ‘The radiation
of heat from the tree near the surface of the ice
prevents it from being frozen so solid that the plant
cannot move, else the result might not be so ruin-
ous. A little unfrozen belt surrounds the tree, and

32 ICE-GIRDLED TREES.

against the sharp edge of the ice the tree is blown
by the wind until the bark is cut through, when
the plant is completely girdled. ‘The sap passes
from the roots to the leaves, through the wood of
the tree, and this will not be impeded by the wound;
but as the juice descends in the liber, or inner bark,
it finds its course stopped, and the superfluous sap
produces a large swelling in its endeavor to provide
a channel. If the cut is not very wide, and the
injury has taken place recently, so that the lower
edge of the bark is still fresh, a junction will some-
times be formed: If, however, the case be otherwise,
it will be necessary to resort to artificial means.

The strongest and most luxuriant shoots of the
previous year’s growth may be cut a little longer
than the width of the wound, and after the ends
are sharpened upon both sides, they may be placed
under the bark above and below, —the flat side of
the shoot facing the centre of the tree, thus bridg-
ing over the cut.

Heavy falls of snow, such as we frequently have
in the northern parts of the country, sometimes do
great injury. As it melts in the spring, it breaks
down the spreading limbs, and makes most unsightly
wounds. In such localities, those varieties which
naturally produee such limbs should be avoided;
or, if cultivated, the branches should not be allowed
to start from the trunk lower than the average
height of snow during the winter.

VIOLENT WINDS. 33

3. Severe winds are often followed by most dis-
astrous results. ‘Trees are broken down, and fre-
quently torn out of the ground by the roots, when
exposed to its full power upon an unprotected plain.
This is one of the most serious difficulties of fruit-
growing upon some of the prairie lands of the West,
_ but one which is easily overcome. Belts of pines,
or other evergreens, planted at the most exposed
point, will in a great measure prevent injury. In
more hilly districts the strong winds may not be
from the west; currents draw through the valleys,
and the shields must be placed at the point of ex-
posure. In early summer, when the tree has just
started its young growth, a more than ordinary wind
will so whip these young shoots against each other
as to change the whole appearance of the orchard
in a very short time: when, a few hours before, each
tree was beautifully green, now all of the young
leaves upon the ends of the shoots have become
bruised, black, and dead. The tree will soon recover
from the injury; but the rapid elaboration of the
sap has been checked, and much growth lost.

In the vicinity of Boston there prevails annually
a severe northwest wind, about the twentieth of
September, which strips from the trees hundreds of
bushels of fruit. This injury might be prevented,
ina great measure, by proper shelter.

_ Positions where the air is stagnant should be also
carefully avoided. ‘The atmosphere contains a cer-

34 x STAGNANT AIR.

tain proportion of earbonic acid, which is the chief
source of the carbon of plants, constituting the
ereater part of their wood. ‘This is received by the
plant not only through the roots, but by means of
all the green portions of the tree. If the air was
not in circulation, it can readily be imagined that
this gas would be more or less exhausted in that
part of the atmosphere which immediately surrounds
the plant, and that the tissue would consequently
be pithy and soft. ‘Therefore we can discern the
use, in the great system of Nature, of those gentle
breezes which so lightly rustle the foliage, and sup-
ply to the most minute leaf its proper share of this
great element of live. The stagnation of the aur,
together with electrical influences, we shall discover,
when we investigate the diseases of fruit-bearing
plants, to be the probable causes of the American
pear-blght.

4, Aqueous vapor. Not only does the air contain
carbonic acid with hydrogen and oxygen, but aqueous
vapor, which affects plants powerfully. The first
three constituents form the primary elements of the
bodies cf both animals and plants; these, by their
death and decay, restore the gases to their original
condition ; but the rapidity of these phenomena is
regulated, in a great measure, by the presence of
watery vapor. Its quantity varies with the locality
and the season of the year. Its absence would cause

DEW AND FROST 35

sterility. If the atmosphere in the African deserts
could be saturated with moisture, they would be-
come as verdant as any other portion of the earth.

The amount of moisture, or water, which the at-
- mosphere is capable of containing, to become fully
charged, varies with the degree of temperature. If
it is eighty degrees Fahrenheit, it will contain ten
erains to the cubic foot; if it be twenty degrees
Fahrenheit, the amount of vapor would be little
more than one or one and a half grains. Such being
the case, a sudden fall of the temperature would re-
sult in the precipitation of the superfluous moisture.
The diurnal depression of the thermometer is fol-
lowed by dew, in consequence ; or, when cold enough
to freeze, by hoar-frost, which 1s merely frozen dew.
Every one is aware of the clearness of the air in the
winter, because its low degree of temperature does
not allow it to absorb much aqueous vapor. When
the air becomes heated in the spring, evaporation
goes on very rapidly to supply the deficiency in the
atmosphere, and thus nature dries up the soil.

The vapors contained in the atmosphere, and its
reluctance to part with heat, are among the reasons
why, in our latitude, the temperature does not sink
to the freezing-point every night. Late frosts in
the spring are not so injurious to vegetation on the
coast as inland, because, when the sun is up, and
the temperature begins to rise, a fine mist immedi-
ately ascends to supply the want of the atmosphere,

36 HEAT.

and thus shades the plant from the otherwise de-
structive rays of the sun.

5. Heat is an important stimulus to vegetable
life. The functions of most plants cannot be per-
formed without a certain degree of this agent. The
more rapidly the tree is growing, the more is it de-
pendent on the maintenance of a high temperature.
The requisite degree, however, differs widely with
the species, or even variety. Mr. Lymburn speaks
of a plant of Marchantia which was growing in a hot
spring on the island of Amsterdam, where the water
was above the boiling-point; while, on the other
hand, the curious Protococcus nivalis adorns the polar
regions, where the frost scarcely gives way under
the heat of midsummer: and yet this plant spreads
over vast plains, and illumines them as if by crimson
snow.

A high degree of heat is generally favorable to
the growth of fruit, if it be not accompanied with
drought. By the management of artificial heat,
gardeners make plants perform curious freaks. Sir
Thomas A. Knight caused melons and cucumbers to
produce all male blossoms in excessive heat, and all
female ina low temperature. Heat stimulates evap-
oration from the leaves, and therefore excites the
roots to absorb nourishment from the soil. With
the aid of light it paints the colors upon the fruit,
which show that the saccharine fermentation has
been well performed.

LIMITS OF THE VINE. 37

It is often noticed that the sweetest fruits are
nearest to the ground, because they obtain a greater
amount of heat by its radiation from the earth. Mr.
Murray, of England, proved that this was very dif-
ferent on the side of a hill from what it was in the
valley. In one case the thermometer was thirty de-
grees higher on the inclined surface than in the
plain. He states that upon the plains of Piedmont,
in Italy, the vignerons are obliged to detach their
vines from the poles, and cover them during the
winter, to prevent injury; while on the acclivities
which surround the city of Genoa, the pomegranate,
the lemon, and the orange, flourish.

The principles of radiation were understood in
very ancient times. In the land of Judea the vine-
yards and orchards were often planted upon terraces,
to acquire additional heat. :

In Europe they fixed the limits of the vine by the
mean temperature of the summer months. The
least mean degree required for the ripening of grapes
suitably for wine is sixty-seven degrees. Boussin-
gault thus states the effects of the temperature upon
the quantity and quality of wine produced.’ (See
Table A, next page.)

“In 1833 and 1837, the wines were scarcely
drinkable. A summer whose mean temperature is
below sixty-seven degrees will not produce valuable
wine.”

1 Blodgett’s Climatology, p. 439.
4

38 COLD.

TABLE A.
Mean Mean

F Temperature Temperature Gallons Per-centage

YEARS. of whole of of of
Time of Growth. Summer. Wine per Acre.| Alcohol.
tart Ter re aoe es a ae “eh oh hh cdl Cle

1833 08.4 63.1 311 3.0

1834 63.1 68.5 413 11.2

1835 60.4 67.0 625 8.1

1836 60.4 71.0 o44 Tek

1837 59.3 66.0 184 hi

Mr. Blodgett gives an excellent table of the tem-
perature of the principal wine districts of this
country. (See Table B. p. 39.)

6. It has been shown that heat is a great stim-
ulus to vegetable life. Cold, on the other hand,
diminishes the activity of plants. At certain sea-
sons of the year a sudden fall in the temperature
produces in some kinds of vegetation disease and
death. Ifa frost occurs late in the spring, when
all the organs of the tree are performing their work
with great rapidity, the leaves and all those soft
parts which are filled with fluid become black and
stained, and lose their vitality. ‘The green portions
of a tree are made up of cells, whose membraneous
walls are very thin. On the contrary, those of the
wood are very thick; but this varies according
to their age. When the juice contained in the
former, or young cells, has become frozen, it ex-

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40 FREEZING THE SAP.

pands the slight walls until they are unable longer
to withstand the pressure, and burst. When their
temperature is restored, the sap, of course, runs out
among the tissues of the wood, and its nutritive
action is lost. As the injury done by freezing is
thus not made manifest until the heat is restored, it
has often been thought that it was in the thawing
that the leaf was destroyed. It is no doubt true
that by shading from the sun, or by washing with
water, these organs are sometimes enabled to bear
the immense damage which they have sustained,
and to recuperate their energies, through the action
of those parts which have not been injured; but
the harm is accomplished before it becomes evident
to the casual observer.

A low degree of temperature, even though it be
not at the freezing-point, is injurious to plants, as
it causes stagnation of the sap, in which case fungi
are liable to attack their tissue. Severe cold during
the winter is generally not productive of injury, be-
cause these membraneous walls have then become
thickened by layers of woody fibre, and have greater
resistive force; the flow of sap also being then so
much less, the danger to the tree from its expansion
by freezing is lessened. Steady cold weather during
the winter is beneficial to vegetation. Many tender
plants will endure our climate if protected from the
sun, which defends them from these variations in
temperature. This is the principle which should

‘ MILD WINTERS. Al

be followed in covering all halfhardy trees or
shrubs. It is not necessary to shield them from
the cold, which one would judge was the object
from the immense bundles of straw with which many
such plants are surrounded, but to shade them so
as to prevent those sudden changes, from heat to
extreme cold, which destroy the tissue.

Mild winters are those most destructive to vege-
tation, as they are generally characterized by great
reverses of temperature. A writer says:* “We
_ speak of one year as warmer or colder than another;
but it is a wonderful example of unchanging law,
that they seldom differ materially in the mean tem-
perature of the year. That of London is fifty de-
grees, four minutes; and, however hot or cold the
seasons were, it did not cause the average of the
year to vary more than one-half a degree ; and this
was probably owing to the imperfection of our im-
plements.”

A warm summer is very beneficial to vegetation,
because, as we have already seen, a constant high
temperature at that time stimulates their vital en-
ergies. But as the mean of every year is nearly the
same, in order to have a warm summer the preced-
ing winter must have been cold. Sometimes, how-
ever, the heat following a cold winter seems to be
misplaced, either by an unusually warm spring or
autumn, which produces the mean, even though the

1 Loudon’s Gardeners’ Magazine, Vol. XVII. p. 147.
4%

42 LIGHT.

temperature of the summer should be moderate.
Thus the seasons following a cold winter are the
golden ones for the fruit-grower.

7. The effect of electricity may be considered in
treating of the causes of American pear-blight.

8. Light is another essential requirement of
vegetation. It has a great influence in maturing
the wood of the plant. In places where it is absent
the foliage becomes sickly, and a poor, unripe
erowth is the consequence. It affects not only the
growth of the tree, but also the quantity and quality
of the fruit. A writer’ in the Gardeners’ Chronicle
says: “I send you a few peaches, taken from a tree
which was brought to this garden as a nursery-plant
in 1832; the following winter it was planted where
it now stands, the wall and border being both new.
For the first ten years I do not recollect that it
ever bore a fruit, owing to a large sycamore which
overshadowed the wall where it stood. The tree
being an object visible from various parts of the
premises, my master felt the greatest reluctance to
take it down; but about ten years ago he consented
to remove it, and since that time the peach tree,
which had never before that carried a single fruit,
has rewarded us with a fine crop every year. The
number this year upon the tree was thirty dozens ;

1 John Povey, Thorneycroft Hall, England.

CHEMICAL RAYS. 43

in 1851, thirty-three dozens; and in 1850, thirty
dozens.”

The rays of the sun possess certain chemical
properties which produce saccharine fermentation
in the fruit. Every one who eats it knows how
much superior the flavor is of those which have
been beautifully colored to others of the same va-
riety which are green. In no sort is this difference
more strongly marked than in the Vicar of Wink-
field’s pear. ‘Those which are colored ripen easily,
their flavor is very good, while in the remainder
the saccharine fermentation has never. commenced,
_ and they are only fit for culinary purposes. When
we examine the best system of pruning, we shall see
that the most successful cultivators have adopted
those plans which give abundant opportunity for
the rays of the sun to reach every fruit.

Not only does the light of the sun influence veg-
etable growth, but that of the moon affects them
more than might be expected. It is well known
that during the day the leaves are constantly de-
‘composing the water contained in their sap, and
setting free the oxygen, while they store up the
carbon. In the night this function ceases: the
oxygen is slowly absorbed, and carbonic acid evolved.
Therefore, in the morning the plant must first re-
place the carbon which was lost during the night
before it can grow. |

According to Professor Zantedeschi, in moonlight

44 SUMMIT OF HILLS.

nights this loss of carbon is not only prevented, but
carbonic acid is slowly acquired. He placed several
plants, which were in full growth, where they would
receive no light, and at the rise of the moon he
exposed a part of them to its rays. These kept
their green color and healthy appearance, while the
others perished. He states that this influence of
the moon, if true, is probably the cause of the in-
creased growth of plants during the full of the
moon, which has been noticed by some naturalists.

The meteorological phenomena which influence
the growth and productiveness of fruit-bearing
plants have now been considered, and it remains for
us to name those fruits which are adapted to the
different exposures.

The summit of hills cannot easily be protected from
severe winds in the manner which was suggested
upon plains, but must be more or less sybject to
them. ‘Therefore, in the selection of fruits for such
a position, those should be chosen which hold fast
to the tree. The Flemish Beauty pear is notorious
for the ease with which it separates from the spur.
If we examine for the cause, we find that all those
large pears which have slender stems, drop easily ;
the wind swings them, the stem breaks, and the
fruit falls. This style of stem is more generally
found in the Bergamottes, as in figure 1. Where
the stem is thick and fleshy, and especially if it has

NORTHERN EXPOSURE. 45

a lip on one side, as at (A) in figure 2, it will be
likely to maintain its hold. Among
those pears which are most reliable
upon such a site, may be named,
the Bartlett, the Beurre d’ Anjou,
the Beurré Bosc, the Merriam, the
Nouveau Poiteau, the Onondaga, the
Glout Morceau, and the Vicar of
Winkfield. Such an exposure is de-

1

sirable for the cherry, and most par-

tially tender fruits, because they must
have abundant air to ripen their shoots. All of
the small fruits will succeed admirably.

Northern exposure is best adapted to the most
tender species, because it is comparatively free from
those vicissitudes of temperature which are found
on asouthern slope. It is a well-known fact that
where ivies and rhododendrons will perish during
the first winter in which they are exposed on the
southern or eastern side of a building or declivity,
they flourish often for years on the northen.

If we examine closely the bud of a hardy tree dur-
ing the winter, we shall discover that it consists of
many layers of minute leaves, and that the whole is
covered with a coat of scales that is lined with a
thick pubescence, which acts as a non-conductor of
heat. ‘This is generally true of the buds of all trees
of acold climate. Consequently they require regular

46 NORTHERN EXPOSURE.

heat for a long time to bring them forth from their
dormant state. Thus it will be seen that such spe-
cies as possess this quality will not be subject to
injury during the warm days of winter. Those .
‘fruits, however, which are indigenous to a more
tropical clime, do not possess these outer scales, and
therefore a few warm days bring them immediately
into blossom. Even if they do not fully open their
petals, the heat has started the sap and irritated the
bud, and a sudden fall of temperature will kill the
tender germ. Such are the peach, apricot, and
nectarine.

This is not only a property of species, but is more
or less modified in varieties. Nature does not be-
stow her gifts unnecessarily. A variety which
originates where such protection would not be re-
quired, has this property so modified as to render it
tender in severer latitudes. Therefore native va-
rieties of fruit are generally better adapted to culti-
vation, and freer from disease, than those of foreign
origin. |

On a northern or northwestern exposure, these
tender species or varieties remain frozen during the
whole winter, and do not start in the spring until
all danger from severe frost is past.

‘When we desire to extend the time of maturity
in a variety, it should be planted on such a site;
while to hasten it, the opposite exposure should be
chosen. Grapes should not be planted ona slope to

SOUTHERN EXPOSURE. 47

the north, as they require the direct rays of the sun
to bring them to sufficient maturity to produce
wine, and the cold temperature of the north would
delay this until the early frosts of autumn would
have prevented it.

Southern exposure. This is much more lable to
extremes than the northern. All except the most
hardy fruits will be affected injuriously by the
thaws of winter. But those which do successfully
baffle with these hardships produce the most lus-
cious specimens, as the power of the sun is greater
here, and the saccharine fermentation proceeds
with vigor. On this exposure the amateur would
not think of planting any but the most hardy va-
rieties. ‘There are some fruits, such as the grape,
which flourish on a southern slope. There they
receive a greater degree of heat, and their maturity
is therefore hastened before the early frosts of au-
tumn. In such a case the cold does not injure
them, because they contain so much sugar, while it
destroys those which are immature. The air is
dryer, too, and they are not so subject to mildew
and other diseases.

The cultivation of fruit in low valleys is accom-
panied with great risk; while it is superior to all
others in beauty, yet the succulent growth conse-
quent upon a stagnation of the air, and a partial
exhaustion of its carbonic acid, renders the wood

48 LOW VALLEYS.

liable to be killed during the winter. Generally
these should be avoided; but in the hands of a
skilful cultivator, with a judicious selection of va-
rieties and proper pruning, the result may be more
favorable.

CHAPTER II.

ORIGIN AND PROPERTIES OF SOILS.

SOILS THE RESULT OF DISINTEGRATION — CAUSES STATED BY SIR H. DAVY
— BOUSSINGAULT — HITCHCOCK — ALLUVIAL AGENCIES. PROPERTIES:
SPECIFIC GRAVITY — AFFINITY FOR MOISTURE — ABSORPTION OF MOIS-
TURE FROM THE AIR— CAPILLARY ATTRACTION —STATE OF DIVISION
— COHESION AND ADHESION — ABSORPTION OF GASES FROM THE AT-
MOSPHERE — ABSORPTION AND RETENTION OF HEAT.

HE earth presents a great diversity of soils,

upon which widely different kinds of plants
flourish, each adapted to some peculiar genus,
species, or variety of plant in the vegetable king-
dom. ‘The failure of one orchard, while another,
receiving the same treatment, succeeds, evinces the
necessity of a proper selection of the land for the
growth of fruit.

** All soils are the result of the disintegration and
decomposition of rocks, with the addition of saline
and decayed vegetable and animal substances.” The
materials derived from the rocks constitute by far
the larger part, and therefore by an examination of
these we can form an idea of the composition of the
soil produced from them. Soils may be almost
wholly composed of disintegrated rocks, in which

5

50 MIXED EARTHS.

case the ingredients of the earth which result from
them will maintain their original character; but
if these are decomposed, their relations may be
changed. Soils do not always contain those sub-
stances alone which are found in the rocks of their
immediate neighborhood, for by the action of dilu-
vial currents the loose matter of different rocks is
frequently intermingled, while sometimes the foreign
entirely covers the native material. Alluvial land
is formed by the deposits of streams, and has in its
composition the substances inherent in the various
rocks through which it has passed. Peaty soils are
mostly the result of the decay of vegetable matter,
and have but little of the components found in the
original rocks. The fertility of soils depends in a
ereat measure upon its admixture and subdivision.
An earth, if it may be properly so called, composed
entirely of pebbles, would not support vegetation.
Coarse sand may be knit together by the roots of a
few plants, but in a fine state of division and de-
composition it can nourish almost any plant. The
benefit resulting from the mixture of soils is shown
by the fact that those lands formed from the decom-
position of conglomerate rock are very fertile. Dr.
Hitchcock, in his “ Geological Survey of Massachu-
setts,” says that soils consist, “ first, of their earthy
and metallic ingredients, which are mostly silicates ;
secondly, the acids, alkalies, and salts which existed
originally in them, or are introduced by cultivation ;

ORGANIC REMAINS. 51

and thirdly, of the water and organic matter which
they contain. The latter constitutes the principal
nourishment of plants derived from the soil, while
the salts are necessary to prepare that nourishment
to be taken up and assimilated by their delicate
vessels. The earth serves as a basis of support for
the plant, as a receptacle for the nourishment, and
probably also, in connection with the roots, as a gal-
vanic combination for the development of those
electrical agencies by which the food of plants is
taken up and converted into vegetable matter.
Soils, to be fertile, should contain silica, allumina,
and lime, and should be in a good state of sub-
division, as this has much influence on the reten-
tion of moisture. The proportion of earthy ma-
terials is not of so much importance, if they are
only present, because the amount consumed is so
small compared with the humic acid, or organic
remains. Dr. Dana aptly says that the earths are
the plates, the salts the seasoning, and the geine (or
humic acid) the food of plants.” Cultivation does
not materially alter the natural composition of the
earths, but it modifies its salts and humic acids.
Plants cannot flourish without this latter element.
Alluvial and sandy diluvial contain the least of it,
and should therefore be supplied with ghanure srthe
crops then gathered may be even larger than those
from a soil in which it naturally exists, because
such lands, being porous, the atmosphere is able to

52 PEAT.

penetrate and prepare the whole of it for the nour-
ishment of plants. The amount possessed will not
necessarily effect the first crop; but it may soon
become so exhausted that it will not produce another.
Upon the amount of humic acid which is contained
in the soil will depend the length of time in which
it will continue to produce good crops.

Humus, by absorbing oxygen from the atmosphere,
is able to furnish the plant with carbonic acid,
which is thus produced, and also with oxygen.
While there are soils which are unfertile from want
of humus, yet this element, which exists in such
vast quantities in the peaty deposits of swamps,
would, if mixed with them, render all such fertile.
Dr. Dana says that “the fact that peat, or turf, is
very soluble in alkali, seems not to be known among
our farmers. The usual practice of mixing lime
with peat is decidedly the worst which can be fol-
lowed, as the geine, which forms the largest part
of peat bogs, forms with lime a compound which
is very insoluble. With allumina geine forms a
compound still more insoluble than with lime; and
though the vegetable matters in combination with
these earthy bases are actually absorbed by the roots
of growing plants, still the geine is in a state much
less favorable than when in combination with al-
kali. If we mix the lye of wood ashes with peat,
we form a dark-brown vegetable solution; the al-
kaline properties are completely neutralized by the

GALVANIC AGENCY. 53

geine, and very often ammonia escapes from turf
when treated with caustic alkali.”

Professor Schubler says that pure earths, such
as sand, lime, magnesia, and gypsum, when dry, are
nonconductors of electricity, and that clays are also
imperfect conductors. When oblong pieces of all
the earths are scraped with a knife, they develop
negative electricity. Experiments show that when
solutions of humus are exposed to a current of gal-
vanic electricity decomposition immediately ensues ;
the geine collects about the positive pole, and the
earths around the negative. Dr. Dana supposed
that by means of this galvanic agency the rootlets
of plants were enabled to attract alkali even from
the particles of felspar and mica in the soil, while
it was yet in an insoluble condition. If this is true,
it would depend, says Dr. Hitchcock, to a consider-
able extent, on the subdivision of its particles. If
this be allowed, the presence of alkali in a soluble
condition in the soil is not important when the
rocks are present which contain it in an insolu-
ble state, as the rootlets will supply themselves
from this source. This may be another of the
wonderful provisions of Providence for the well-
being of the plant, because of the liability of the
soluble alkalies to be washed away by rains, while
in their original condition these little rootlets alone
contain the key to their treasures.

Earths are composed of different substances, be-

5*

o4 CHEMICAL DISINTEGRATION.

cause the rocks of which they are the particles are
so various. ‘Thus the stratum may have been of
sandstone, when the soil produced will of course
be sandy ; if of limestone, then the calcareous ele-
ment will prevail; if of slate, then clay. The min-
erals which are generally found in the rocks are
quartz, felspar, mica, amphibolite, pyroxenite, talc,
serpentine, and diallage. These, according to
Boussingault, are formed of metals which enter into
the structure of plants. Thus quartz is almost
pure silica, or sand.

Sir Humphrey Davy observed, with regard to the
chemical causes of disintegration: “ The manner in
which rocks are converted into soil may be easily
conceived by referring to the instance of soft or
porcelain granite. ‘This substance consists of three
ingredients— quartz, felspar, and mica. ‘The quartz
is almost pure silicious earth in a crystalline form.
The felspar and mica are very compounded sub-
stances; both contain silica, allumina, and oxide
of iron. In the felspar there is usually found lime
and potassa; in the mica, lime and magnesia.
When a granite rock of this kind has been exposed
to the influence of air and water, the lime and po-
tassa contained in its constituent parts are acted
upon by water, or carbonic acid; and the oxide of
iron, which is generally in its least oxidized state,
tends to combine with more oxygen. ‘The conse-
- quence is that the felspar decomposes, and also the

MECHANICAL CAUSES. dd

mica; the first the most rapidly. The felspar, which
is the cement of the stone, forms a fine clay; the
mica, partially decomposed, mixes with it as sand;
and the undecomposed quartz appears as gravel or
sand of different degrees of fineness. As soon as
the smallest layer of earth is formed on the surface
of a rock, the seeds of lichens, mosses, and other
imperfect vegetables, which are constantly floating
in the atmosphere, and which have made it their
resting-place, begin to vegetate ; their death, de-
composition, and decay afford a certain quantity of
organizable matter, which mixes with the earthy
material of the rocks. In this improved soil those
perfect plants are capable of subsisting. These in
their turn absorb nourishment from water and. the
atmosphere, and, after perishing, afford new ma-
terial to that already provided. ‘The decomposition
of the rocks still continues; and at length, by such
a slow and gradual process, a soil is formed in which
even forest trees can fix their roots, and which is
fitted to reward the labors of the cultivator.”
Boussingault thus gives the mechanical causes
effecting segregation. “ Water, by reason of its
fluidity, penetrates the masses of rocks that are at
all porous, and filters into their fissures. If the
temperature now falls, and the water congeals, it
separates by its dilatation the molecules of the
minerals from one another, destroys their cohesion,
produces clefts, and slowly reduces the hardest

56 WATER.

rocks, first to fragments, then to powder. During its
frozen state, the ice may serve as a cement, and hold
together the disintegrated particles; but with a
thaw, the slightest force, currents of water, or the
effect of weight, suffices to carry the fragments to
the bottom of the valley; and the rubbing and
motion to which these are exposed in torrents, tend
to break them still smaller, and reduce them to
sand.”

It is well known that water, by an apparent ex-
ception to a general law, expands with great force
when freezing. Over a large extent of surface the
effect may be very considerable, and when boulder-
stones lying in shallow ponds become partially
enveloped in the ice, they must feel the effects of
this expansion, and be driven toward the shore;
since the force must always act in that direction.
As nothing exists to bring back the rock to its orig-
inal position, the ultimate effect must be to crowd
it entirely out of the water; and perhaps to this
cause we may impute the fact, that on the margin
of some ponds we find a ridge of boulders, while
the bottom, to a considerable extent, is free from
them.’

‘There is, however, one agent of excavation that
still operates to some extent, and this is called ice-
floods. Their effect is most powerful upon the
smaller and more rapid streams. Whoever has not

1 Geological Survey of Massachusetts, by Dr. Hitchcock.

ICE-FLOODS. Oy |

witnessed the breaking up of a river in the spring
after a severe winter, when its whole surface has
been covered by ice several feet thick, has but a
faint idea of the prodigious force exerted at such a
time. ‘The ice high up the stream is usually first
broken in pieces by the swollen waters. Large
masses are thus thrown up edgewise, and forced
underneath the unbroken sheet, and the whole bed
of the river is blocked up — perhaps, too, where the
banks are high and rocky. The water accumulates
behind the obstruction until the resistance is over-
come, and the huge mass of water and ice urges on
its way, crushing and jamming together that which
it meets, and thus gaining new strength at every
step. Often for miles the stream, prodigiously
swollen, is literally crammed with ice, so that the
water disappears, and a slowly-moving column of
ice is all that is seen. This presses with such force
upon the bottom and sides of the river-bed as to
cause the earth to tremble, with a sound like heavy
thunder, for a distance of miles. Sometimes the
body of ice becomes so large, and the friction so
ereat, that the waters are unable to keep it in mo-
tion, and it stops, while the river is turned out of its
channel, and is compelled to flow in a new bed for
weeks and even months.”

This cause has a wonderful effect in excavating
the beds of rivers. It sometimes tears up great
rocks, and pushes them for a considerable distance.

58 ALLUVIAL AGENCIES.

Dr. Hitchcock divides the deposits from diluvial
currents into “ first, boulder-stones, formed gener-
ally of the least yielding rocks; second, gravel or
sand mixed, or the more yielding rocks; third, beds
of clay; fourth, consolidated sand and pebbles; and
fifth, beds of sand. ‘The depositions are generally
horizontal, although some of them dip a little, and
lay according to the degree of their pulverization.
Sometimes, by an action which appears to have been
lateral pressure, the strata becomes somewhat con-
torted.

“ From alluvial agencies are produced —

“1. Soil, or disintegrated and decomposed rock,
with such an admixture of vegetable and animal
matter as will support the growth of plants.

«2. Those vast accumulations of sand which are
found in the beds of the ocean and of lakes, and
which, when driven upon the land by the wind, are
called downs. ‘These are constantly shifting, and
are destitute wholly of organic matter, and are
therefore entirely barren.

“©3. Peat. ‘This consists almost wholly of organic
remains, which are deposited by the death of plants.
It is a powder when dry. ‘These beds occur only in
the temperate zones.

“4. Alluvial marl. This varies somewhat in
composition, but consists of carbonate of lime, clay,
and soluble and insoluble geine. It often lies be-

DEPOSITS BY RIVERS. 59

low peat in limestone countries, and is sometimes
found at the bottom of ponds.

“5. Calcareous tufa, or travertine. ‘This is a de-
posit of the carbonate of lime from springs, and
forms a substance like stalactites.

“6. Coral reefs.

“7, Stlictous sinter, which is a deposit of silica
from thermal springs.

“8. Silicious marl, much resembling calcareous
marl, but composed almost entirely of silica, de-
posited from the skeletons of minute infusoria, which
at death sink to the bottom of the pond. |

“9, Bitumen, deposited from springs in the form
of naphtha and asphaltum.

“10. Sulphate of lime, very rarely deposited by
springs.

“11. Hydrate of iron.

“12. Hydrate of manganese.

“13. Chloride of sodium.

“14. Sandstones, conglomerates, and breccias. Sand
cemented, is called sandstone ; when it contains
rounded pebbles, it is said to be conglomerate ; and
when it has angular fragments, it is called breccia.”

The substance deposited by rivers differs with
the distance from the mouth. When it comes forth
from the mountain, coarse stones and boulders are
rolled along, the finer materials are carried further,
and the finest are found near the mouth of the
stream. Alluvial deposits are made from currents

60 ALLUVIUM.

of the ocean. Alluvium is formed upon marshes,
near the coast, by the decay of vegetation, by ma-
terial retained after the flow of the tide, and by
that deposited by streams. In northern latitudes,
peat is thus formed. In the muddy deposit at the
bottom of lakes, ponds, or inlets, aquatic plants
begin to flourish, and by their decay increase the
depth of the deposits; at last it reaches the surface
of the water, and becomes a marsh. The top of
this deposit is composed of vegetable fibre hardly
decomposed at all, and from this is a regular grada-
tion to perfectly-formed peat in the lower strata.
Dr. James E. De Kay, Zoologist for the State of
New York, says: “In a calm, still day I have fre-
quently noticed the surface of the water covered
with patches of sand, varying in extent from one to
six or eight inches square. ‘These patches are com-
posed, of course, only of the finer portions of sand,
adhering to each other by a thin film of gelatinous
matter, which gives buoyancy to the mass. I have
been surrounded frequently by patches of this kind
in tolerably close contact, and covering a surface of
several hundred acres. The lightest touch of an
oar, or a slight breeze, causes them to sink immedi-
‘ately. The rationale of their formation I conceive
to be this: the shore we know to be peopled with
myriads of minute mollusca, furnishing, either by
their excrements or their own proper bodies, a
gelatinous substance, which hardens upon exposure

ALLUVIUM. 61

to the sun, and forms a crust including the subja-
cent sand. In this state the water comes in quietly,
detaches successive portions of this crust, in large
or smaller pieces, which are borne away by the
retreating tide. May not this silent and hitherto
unnoticed transportation counteract, to a certain
extent, the operation of other known agents? It
is not philosophical, I admit, to impute important
effects to slight and apparently inadequate causes ;
but it is equally unphilosophical to neglect trifling
phenomena until the nature and extent of their
agency has been thoroughly investigated.”
Boussingault says: “ The final result of the dis-
integration of rocks, and of the decomposition of
those minerals which enter into their constitution,
is the formation of those alluvia which occupy
the slopes of mountains that are not too steep, the
bottoms of valleys, and the most extensive plains.
These deposits, however formed, — whether of stones,
pebbles, gravel, sand, or clay, —may become the basis
of a vegetable soil, if they are only sufficiently loose
and moist. Vegetation of any kind succeeds upon
them at first with difficulty. Plants, which by their
nature live in a great measure at the expense of the
atmosphere, and which ask from the earth little or
nothing more than a support, fix themselves there
when the climate permits. Cactuses and fleshy
plants take root in sands; mimosas, the brocua, the
furze, and others, show themselves upon gravels.
6

62 DEBRIS.

These plants grow, and after their death, either in
part or wholly, leave a debris which becomes profit-
able to succeeding generations of vegetables. Or-
ganic matter accumulates in the course of ages,
even in the most ungrateful soils, in this way, and
by these repeated additions they become less and
less sterile. It is probable that the virgin forests of
the New World have thus supplied the wonderful
quantity of vegetable mould in which the present
generation of trees is rooted. At Larega de Supia,
in South America, the slipping of a porphyritic
mountain covered completely with its debris, to the
extent of nearly half a league, the rich plantations
of sugar-cane which were there established. Ten
years afterwards I saw the blocks of porphyry shad-
owed by thick groves of mimosas; and the time,
perchance, is not very remote when this new forest
will be cleared away, and the strong soil, enriched
with its spoils, will be restored to the husbandman.

«The chemical composition of the earth adapted
for vegetation must of course participate in the
nature of the rocks and substrata from which it was
derived ; and the elements which enter into the
constitution of mineral species ought to be found
in the soils, which, by the effect of time or human
industry, may serve for the reproduction of vegeta-
bles. It is on this account that it becomes inter-
esting to study the composition of the minerals,
which are the most abundantly dispersed in the
solid mass of the globe.”

CRUMBLING OF ROCKS. 63

Professor Stockhardt says of the weathering and
decay of rocks, that the crumbling of rock into
earth still continues, and renders it capable of be-
coming and remaining a supporter and sustainer of
vegetable growth. ‘The principle on which it acts
may be thus described:

«Through the alternations of heat and cold, cracks
and fissures are formed in the most solid rocks;
with the assistance of air and water, these are deep- :
ened and widened, and separate fragments are de-
tached from their connection with the great mass.
Through the same alternations of temperature a
daily circulation of air is produced in the porous
soil. Moreover, all chemical processes go on more
rapidly and energetically at a high temperature
than at a low; therefore, the warmer a soil is, the
more rapidly will weathering and decomposition
proceed in it.

“ Air, in union with the watery vapor always
present in it, affords oxygen, or water, to all bodies
which have a tendency to combine with these sub-
stances. The particles of iron (protoxide), which
scarcely any rock is without, make use of it, and
become converted into iron-rust, which does not
possess a fixing or binding power, like the protoxide
of iron, and therefore no longer offers any obstacle
to its disintegration. The fact that all rocks which
are traversed by a yellow vein of iron-rust may be
split or broken readily, demonstrates this clearly.

64 DISINTEGRATION.

The avidity with which organic substances, whether
derived from dead plants or animals, absorb oxygen,
is still greater than that of iron. The breaking
down, decay, gradual solution, and disappearance of
these, is caused principally by air; for decomposi- -
tion consists of a constant absorption of oxygen,
which forms with the elements of these organic
substances new, soluble, and volatile compounds,
which, where vegetation abounds, are in great part
absorbed by the roots and foliage; otherwise they
are lost by evaporation. Air in motion, as in winds
or storms, may also, by its mechanical power, di-
rectly or indirectly promote the cracking or loos-
ening of the earth, as also the circulation of air in
the soil, by its pressure on the crown of a tree, thus
exercising a leverage on the roots.”

We have before stated that it was unsafe to judge
wholly of the nature of the soil by the rocks which
underlie it, on account of the numerous chemical
and mechanical agencies which are at work in their
disintegration, decomposition, and mixture. If the
surface of the earth was a vast level, the substratum
of rock would be a more correct index to the nature
of the soil; but such a condition of things would
be decidedly unfavorable to fertility, as it would en-
tirely prevent the mixture of the separated particles
of the different rocks. “The agency of water to
produce this result is almost beyond conception.
In a violent storm, we can perhaps form an idea

SPECIFIC GRAVITY. -» +65

how the breakers of the ocean eat away the shore,
by referring to the North of Germany, where it has
swallowed up large tracts of the continent and
islands. Of twenty-four islands of East Friesland,
which existed at the time of the birth of Christ,
only sixteen at present remain. In like manner we
have examples of the opposite effect of water, show-
ing that at least a portion of that which it has taken
from the land in one place is deposited in another ;
— in the delta of the Nile, which is almost half as
large again as the kingdom of Saxony; in the delta
of the Ganges, twice as large; in the south coasts
of France and Italy, where a band of solid land,
from one to two leagues wide, has been formed by
alluvial deposits since the time of the Romans; in
the Low Countries, in the Coral Islands, etc.” In
the polar regions immense bodies of ice are often
detached from the land, bearing large quantities
of earth with them, and often transport it great
distances. Sometimes glaciers separate from the
mountain-top on the approach of summer, and, in
sliding toward the valley, wear off the rock, and
push the heaps of gravel before them to the plain.

* Rain, frost, and gravity,’ says Dr. Hitchcock,
“are the three principal causes which operate to
degrade the hills and fill up the valleys.”

Let us now consider the PROPERTIES OF SOILS.
Specific gravity. ‘Those soils which weigh the
6*

66 . AFFINITY FOR MOISTURE.

most are the least fertile. Pure sand has the great-
est specific gravity, and we know it to be sterile.
In proportion as it becomes light does the organic
matter, and therefore the fertility, increase. Hu-
mus, or soil of decayed vegetation, is the lightest of
all; then clay, calcareous earths; then sand.

Mr. Johnston found one cubic foot of dry

Silicious or calcareous sand to weigh ; : . ; 110 lbs.
Half sand and half clay, - : : , A é » oe
Common arable land, . : : : ‘ from 80 to 90
Pure agricultural clay, . : ; og
Garden mould, richer than the lest} in es ie ‘heer 70
Peaty soil, . : é : ‘ Z d : from 30 to 50

Affinity for moisture. As the plant receives its
food through the medium of water, it is necessary

that arable land should have the power of imbibing .

a considerable quantity. To be of value for fruits,
a soil should be able to absorb from forty to seventy
per cent. of its weight in water. Mons. Schiibler
made a series of very interesting and useful exper-
iments upon the character of soils, which was pub-
lished in the annals of French agriculture, and
whose tables we take the liberty to use, in consid-
ering this and other properties of soils.

The degree of absorption in different kinds of earth is nearly as follows:

Kinds of Earth. i ialia cts © 8a
Silicious sand, . ‘i ; ‘ 5 : A F ‘ 25.0
Gypsum, . ‘ : ; : ; ; . 4 : - 270
fen Ogleargons Samsun as Remeag ty Bi |
Sandy clay, . ‘ . : d : . 5 ‘ . 40.0
Strong clay, . , ; . : : : : : oy, SOD

Fine calcareous earth, . : : : : ; : - 85.0

RETENTION OF MOISTURE. 67

Kinds of Earth, Petemte
Humus, - : : . ? " : ; A ~/ 4190.0
Garden earth, . - : F ; : : ; : - 89.0
Arable soil, . z ~ . . - : 2 : : 52.0
Arable soil, “ 3 : 5 2 : F - : . 48.0

Retention of moisture. When soils become wet
with dew or rain they part with it by evaporation
with very different degrees of rapidity. Those
which absorb the most are generally the ones which
dry the slowest, and this quality constitutes the
difference between warm and cold soils, as seen
below:

One hundred parts of the water contained in the soil loses in the course of
four hours, at 66° Fahr., the following per centage:

Kinds of Soil. Per cent. of Loss.
Silicious sand, . A ‘ ‘ ‘ : ‘ ‘ ; 88.4
Caleareous sand, . ; . rete : ‘ : schoo
Gypsum, - - ‘ : é : 4 ‘ , ; 71.7
Sandy clay, . : : ; : = : : : - 52.0
Stiffish clay, . sae ; : “ern : : Pea: 157 |
Stiff clay, . : . é a - F . at Sit . 349
Pureclay, . - : - : : ; : 2 31.9
Calcareous soil, . See reds ache ; : : : oO
Garden earth, rae teh ater te che 3 weirdo
Humus, . ; - . ° : = - s op ae

Thus it will be seen that those soils which absorb
the least moisture lose it the quickest by evapora-
tion. As the earth dries, it shrinks. This causes
the cracking of clays, which, as will be perceived in
the chapter on drainage, is such an important qual-
ity, because it permits the water to pass off through
these crevices, when tenacious earths would other-
wise be impervious.

68 ABSORPTION FROM THE AIR. ~
Kinds of Soil. as
Carbonate of lime in fine powder, . . : SOA hee : 95.0
Sandy clay, .. ; ; : : iE Se : : - 94.0
Stiffish clay, . Rak haa . . ae ° - 5 91.1
Sint clay rei s. = - f SULTS Ne gta ‘ ;: . 88.6
Pure clay, . i : , : : : 4 - g 81.7
(arden earth; i. Mist. les. .t epaheelh GREE 9a) tent eene
Humus, . 3 ; ; : 2 3 ; : 5 84.6

Absorption of moisture from the air. ‘This is a
quality of great value, particularly in a hot and dry
country, where the amount of rain for several months
is very small. It restores to the soil a part of the
moisture which has escaped by evaporation. Sir
Humphrey Davy deemed this an index to the good
quality of land. It will be found, according to M.
Schiibler’s experiments, that this property of the
absorption of moisture from the air is in proportion
to the fertility of the earth, since clay and peaty
soils possess it most abundantly, and sandy and
calcareous lands the least. Schiibler ascertained
the following facts by exposing soils to the atmos-
phere at the point of saturation with moisture, the
temperature being from sixty to sixty-five degrees
Fahrenheit. |

« Seventy-seven and one hundred and sixty-five
thousandths (77.165) grains of Troy weight of soil
spread upon a surface of one hundred and forty-
one and forty-eight one hundredths (141.48) square
inches, absorbed in twelve, twenty-four, forty-eight,
and seventy-two hours respectively, as shown in the
following table. | |

— ei ol tera

CAPILLARY ATTRACTION. 69:

TABLE C.

|
Kinds of Soil. In 12 hours.| In 24 hours.| In 48 hours.) In 72 hours.

grains. grains. grains. grains.
0. 0. 0. 0.

Silicious sand, .
Caleareous sand, ... . 0.154 0.231 0.231 0.231
Seen.’ ts | 0.077 0.077 0 077 0.077
Mrenclay, 2 fs 8 pee 1.617 2.002 2.156 2.156
Bemeat Cliy, 6) uw. 1.925 2.310 2.618 2.695
meme Clays ce 2.310 2.112 3.080 3.157
LE a a a 2.849 3.234 3.696 3.773
Chalky soil, in fine powder, 2.002 2.387 2.695 2.695
Gardenearth, .... . 2.695 3.465 3.850 4.004
PBs, tay oui oo es mw 6.160 7.469 8.470 9.240

Capillary attraction. This consists of the sucking
up of the moisture from the subsoil to the surface
of the earth. It takes place in different degrees in
all soils. In some it is not sufficient to sustain
vegetation when the surface becomes dried by the
heat of the sun, and therefore the crops suffer from
drought. In others it is in excess, and constantly
keeps the soil cold and wet, which it is the object
of draining to prevent. Capillary attraction, to a
certain extent, is of great importance to the growth
of vegetation, as the moisture which arises generally
contains valuable saline properties, which are left
in the soil when the moisture escapes by evapora-
tion.

State of division, cohesion, and adhesion. In very
stiff lands, the labor of the cultivator is principally
expended in producing that friability which is ne-

70 COHESION AND ADHESION.

cessary to productiveness. ‘This is one reason why
the chemical analysis of a soil is not always an in-
dex to its value, nor a guide to the quality which it
lacks, because in such an experiment its mechani--
cal division cannot be considered. The frost is a
powerful natural agent in promoting the looseness
of land; but the artificial means of subdivision will
be fully considered in the chapter upon Pulver-
ization.

TABLE D.
Vertical
Tenacity Tenacity Cohesion Bie ianty
Kinds of Soil: a Sees Clay expressed in in the Wood on the
being 100. Weight. | moist state. goer cau ee
| inches.
kilogr. kilogr. kilogr.
Silicious sand, . : 0 0. 0.17 0.19
Calcareous sand, . . 0. © 0. 0.19 0.20
Fine calcareous earth, 5. 0.55 0.65 0.71
Gyrsom, te eee y 0.81 0.49 0.53
TUITE) | (pias Psu [PET 8.7 0.97 0.40 0.42
sandy clay, . .+.. . 57.3 6.36 0.35 0.40
Stiff clay soil, . . . 68.8 7.64 0.48 0.52
pirone clay). fix & 83.3 9.25 0.78 0.86
fe Sto |) line aa 100. 11.10 1.22 1.32
Garden earth, . °. . 7.6 0.84 0.29 0.34

The cohesive and adhesive power of soils is, of
course, increased when they are wet. Every one
knows how difficult it is to separate two wet pieces
of glass. Clay soils possess this quality in the
greatest degree; it is, however, lessened by the
methods described in the succeeding chapters. Schii-
bler called the tenacity of pure clay one hundred,

-

ABSORPTION OF GASES. 71

and gave that of other soils relatively. The diffi-
culty of working land is shown in the last column,
also by its adhesion to the plough. ‘The relative
tenacity of different soils may be learned from the
preceding table (D).

Absorption of oxygen, carbonic acid, etc., from the
atmosphere. 'The power of the soil to absorb these
gases which are so important to vegetation, is de-
pendent, to a large degree, upon the state of division
of its particles. Baron Liebig maintains that the
property of absorbing fertility from rain-water is
dependent upon the amount of humus present in
the soil. We give his words:

« Arable soil possesses in these respects the same
properties as charcoal. Diluted liquid manure, of
deep-brown color and strong smell, filtered through
the land, flows off colorless and inodorous; not
merely does it lose its smell and color, but the am-
monia, potash, and phosphoric acid which it holds
in solution are also more or less completely with-
drawn from it, and this in a far greater degree than
by charcoal. The rocks which by disintegration
give rise to soil, if reduced to fine powder, are just
as little possessed of this property as pounded coal.
There is no perceptible connection between the
composition of a soil and its power of absorbing
potash, ammonia, and phosphoric acid. arth
abounding in clay with a small proportion of lime

72. CARBONIC ACID.

in it, possesses this absorbent power in the same
degree as a lime soil with a small admixure of clay;
but the quantity of humus present will alter the
absorbent relation. |

“ By a closer examination, we perceive that this
power of arable soil differs in proportion to its
greater or less porosity ; a dense, heavy clay, and a
loose sandy soil possess this absorbent power in the
smallest degree.” |

Dr. Seller calculated the annual conversion of
the carbon of organic matter into inorganic carbonic
acid at not less than six hundred millions of tons ;
and infers, on the most favorable aspect of the
amount of soil over the earth’s surface, that such an
annual loss could not be withstood beyond six thou-
sand years; and on a less exaggerated assumption
of its amount, probably very near the truth, that
the waste would absorb the whole of the existing
organic matter of the soil in about seven hundred
and forty years. © Dr. Seller contends that the truth
of these conclusions remains unaltered, even if it be
considered that much of the carbon of plants is
drawn, not from the organic matter of the soil, but
from the inorganic carbonic acid of the atmosphere,
unless some inorganic source of their hydrogen and
oxygen be at the same time admitted. He therefore
regards Liebig’s view of the inorganic nature of the
food of plants as supported not only by many
special facts, — such, for example, as that increase

RETENTION OF HEAT. 79

of the organic matter of the soil, which is often
observed during the growth of plants,—but also by
the general view of the earth’s surface just taken ;
because there is nothing in its aspect to warrant
the idea that its means of maintaining the organic
kingdoms are declining with the rapidity indicated
in the statements just made.1

Although there is ‘no doubt that plants depend
largely upon the atmosphere as well as on the soil for
their carbonic acid, still there is probably no fixed
law which governs the exact proportion which it
shall receive from either, under all circumstances.
If the soil is wanting in this element, or in the
power of setting it free by decomposition, there is
reason to believe that the foliage wiil endeavor to
make up for the deficiency by imbibing it from the
atmosphere. If, on the other hand, the soil is over-
charged with carbonic acid, it may be also true that
the leaves of those plants which are seen upon its
surface exude, like a safety-valve, thesurplus ma-
terial. Such a theory, it appears to us, is consistent
with the belief that God made all his natural laws
so perfectly adapted to each other that, to all ap-
pearances, they are, like the stones which form the
arch, self-supporting.

Absorption and retention of heat. ‘The fact is well
known that the earth, by absorbing the rays of heat

1 Dr. Lindley’s quotation from Annals of Natural History.

7

‘

74 RETENTION OF HEAT.

from the sun, often becomes much hotter than the
surrounding atmosphere. The soil is frequently
raised to a temperature of one hundred degrees
Fahrenheit, and sometimes to one hundred and fifty.
This fact explains the reason for the immense
growth of trees at such times, if moisture is also
present, while the air is only about eighty-five de-
erees.

The exposure of the soil has an influence
upon this quality, as the degree of heat will be
much higher if it is protected from cold winds. Its
color is also a great consideration, as the darker
earths will, of course, absorb the most. But the
power of retaining this heat after it is absorbed is
a different matter. Schiibler’s tables will again
supply us with a valuable guide.

TABLE E.

Highest Temperature acquired by the
Upper Layer, the Mean Temperature
being 25° Cent., 77° Fahr. '
Kinds of Soil.
Moist Soil. Dry Soil.

Degrees Centigrade. Degrees Centigrade.

EEUU EEE Eat anEEnESEnnnEnT

Silicious sand, yellowish gray, . . 1D (99.0 F.) 44.75 (112.5 F.)
Caleareous sand, whitish gray,. . 38 44.50
Bright gypsum, whitish gray, . . : 43.62

‘| Poor clay, yellowish, .. ..- .» é 44.12
ui Clay i" eee Tes es Cs 5) 44.50
Argillaceous earth, yellowish gray, ; 44.62
Pure clay, bluish gray,. . .. . : 45.00
Calcareous earth, NWVintes ne t's i (96.1 F.) | 43.00 (109.4 F.)
Humus, blackish gray,. . . - .| 39.75 (103.5 F.) 47 37
Garden earth, blackish gray, . .| 37.950 45.25

wees
—s

THE SUBSOIL. 75

TABLE F.

Time which 232.2 cubic inches
Power of retaining Heat,|} of Soil required to cool from
Kinds of Soil. that of Calcareous Sand| 144° to 70° Fahr., the tem-
being 100. perature of the surrounding
air being about 61° Fahr.

hm.
Calcareous sand, . . 3 30

puucious sand, . .°-. ao 27
PVPS er) arya pa. o be 2 34

BSNAY CIA. Swe 2 41
Dimish Clay, . . « 2 30
ROME CIAV,: hss: “se 2 24
Pereielay,” 4° sae 219
Calcareous soil, . . 2 10
0 Se er 1 43
Garden earth,-. . . 2 16

In examining all soils, we find that they consist
of two layers, or strata, of varying thickness. The
upper or surface soil is of a darker color than that
which underlies it, because it possesses the organic
remains of vegetable matter. Sometimes it is only
three or four inches in depth, although in many
fertile lands it may be found to as many feet.
Beneath this les the inferior layer, or subsoil.
M. Boussingault, in the translation by W. Law,
says: |

“Tn plains, on high table-lands, the analogy, in
point of constitution, between the soil and subsoil
is not so constant as in some other places. In such
situations the arable land is frequently an alluvial
deposit, proceeding from the destruction or disinte-
eration of rocks situated at a great distance. When
the superior strata possesses properties that are

76 PERMEABLE SUBSOILS.

entirely different from the subsoils, it is easily un-
derstood how the vegetable earth may be improved
by the addition of a certain quantity of the subsoil.
The impermeability of the subsoil is one grand
cause of the too great humidity of much-cultivated
land. <A strong soil, very tenacious through the
excess of clay which it contains, has its disadvanta-
geous properties considerably lessened if the subsoil
upon which it rests is sandy; first, from the evident
amelioration which must result from an admixture
of the two layers ; and next, because it is always a
positive advantage to have a soil which has a strong
affinity for water superposed upon a subsoil which
is extremely permeable. The inverse situation is
scarcely less desirable. A light, friable soil will
have a greater value if it lies upon a bottom of a
certain consistency which is capable of retaining
moisture; with this condition, however,—that the
clayey layer shall not be too uneven in its surface,
that it shall not present great hollows in which
water shall collect and stagnate. An impermeable
subsoil, to act beneficially in such circumstances,
must have a sufficient inclination to admit of its
draining itself. The most essential question, then,
to be considered with regard to the nature of sub-
soils, is, whether they are or are not permeable.
Acquainted with the nature of vegetable earth, it
is easy to judge of the advantages or disadvantages
which will be presented by subsoil having the

CLAYEY LANDS. viv

faculty of maintaining or permitting the escape of
moisture.

“ Generally, clayey lands answer better in dry
climates, and light sandy soils in countries where
rains are frequent. Kirwan made this remark long
ago with reference to the analysis of wheat lands.
The conclusion to which this celebrated chemist
came was, that the soil best adapted for wheat in a
rainy country must be of a different composition
from that required where rains were less frequent.
The fertility of sandy soils is notoriously in intimate
relationship with the frequent fall of rain. Sandy
deserts are sterile because it never rains. Upon
the sandy downs of the coast of the Southern Ocean
a brillant vegetation is. seen along the course of
the few rivers which traverse them; all beyond is
dust and sterility. A sandy and little coherent soil
is by so much the more favorably situated as it lies in
the least elevated parts of a district, since it is there
less exposed to the effects of drought. Any consid-
erable degree of inclination is unfavorable to such
a soil, inasmuch as the rain drains off too quickly,
and because it is itself apt to be washed away. It
is to prevent this action of the drains that. the
abrupt slopes of hills are generally left covered with
trees ; and the deplorable consequences which have
followed from cutting down the wood in mountain-
ous countries are familiarly known.

“Strong soils, on the contrary, are better if thus
fags

78 CLAYEY LANDS.

placed. A certain inclination is peculiarly advan-
tageous to them; and, indeed, in working clayey
lands that stand upon a dead level, we are careful
to ridge them in such a way as to favor the escape
of water.”

CHAPTER III.

CLASSIFICATION AND ADAPTATION OF SOILS.

SECTION I. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS; SECTION II. ADAPTATION TO
DIFFERENT FRUITS — VARIETIES OF THE APPLE, APRICOT, BERBERRY,
CHERRY, CURRANT, FIG, GOOSEBERRY, GRAPE, PEACH, AND NECTARINE —
VARIETIES OF THE PEAR, PLUM, QUINCE, RASPBERRY, STRAWBERRY.

SECTION I. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.

N arranging soils according to system, we shall
adopt, as the most simple, that which was used
by Loudon. ‘The classes are formed from the pres-
ence or absence of organic or inorganic matter in
their bases; therefore they are divided into primi-
tive and secondary earths. These classes are sub-
divided according as they are founded on saline,
metallic, or carbonic matter: the genera, on the
principal earths, salts, metals, or carbon; species,
on different mixtures; varieties, on color and tex-
ture; sub-varieties, on moisture, dryness, richness,
or lightness. Mr. Loudon observes:

“In naming the genera of soils, the first thing to
discover is the prevailing earth or earths; either
the simple earths, as clay, hme, and sand, or the
particular rocks from which the soil has been pro-
duced, as granite, basalt, etc. Where one prevails,

80 GENERA AND SPECIES.

the generic name should be taken from that, as
clayey soils; where two prevail, to all appearance
equally, then their names must be conjoined in
naming their genus, as clay and sand, or lime and
clay, etc. ‘The great thing to be observed is pre-_
cision in applying the terms. Sir Humphrey Davy
observed: ‘The term sandy soil should never be
apphed to any that does not consist of at least seven-
eighths sand ; sandy soils which effervesce with acids
should be distinguished by the name of calcareous
sandy soils. ‘The term clayey soil should not be
applied to any land which contains less than one-
sixth of impalpable earth matter not considerably
effervescing with acids; the word loam should be
limited in its application to soils containing at least
one-third of the same, copiously effervescing with
acids. A soil to .be considered as peaty should
consist of at lcast one-half of vegetable matter. In
cases where the earthy part of a soil is evicently
the decomposed matter of one particular rock, a
name derived from it may with propriety be applied.
Alluvial soils may be designated as‘silicious, calca-
reous, or argillaceous ; and in some cases the term
saline may be added as a specific distinction appli-
cable, for example, at the embouchure of rivers,
when the alluvial remains are overflown by the sea.
- “Jn naming the species, greater nicety is required
than in naming the genera. The species are always
determined by the mixture of matters, and never by

ADAPTATION. 81

the color or texture of that mixture, which belongs
to the nomenclature of varieties. Thus a clayey
soil with sand, is a sandy clay; this is the name of
the species: if the mass is yellow, and it is thought
worth while to notice that circumstance, then it is
a yellow sandy clay, which expresses at once the
genus, species, and variety. A soil containing
equal parts of clay, lime, and sand, would, as a gen-
eric term, be called clay, lime, and sand; if it con-
tained no other mixture in considerable quantity,
the term entire might be added as a specific dis-
tinction ; and if notice was to be taken of its color
or degree of comminution, it might be termed a
brown, a fine, a coarse, a stiff, or a free entire clay,
lime, or sand.”

The following table (p. 82) is used not only by Mr.
Loudon, but by the agricultural establishments of
Fellenberg, at Hofwyl, in Switzerland, at Moegelin,
in Prussia, and also by Prof. Thouin.

SECTION II. ADAPTATION OF SOILS.

The choice of a suitable soil for the different
species of fruits is a matter of great importance.

That which is adapted to the growth of the apple
differs somewhat according to the variety. Yet we
find certain general qualities of the soil applicable
to all. Those lands which part with their moisture
readily are not suited to the growth of the apple,

82

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.

TABLE G.

CLASS.,ORDER.| GENUS. SPECIES. VARIETY. SUB-VARIETY.
. Clay, (ete | DHL ss ys. yer oo. 2 wi | Backes certet “omy wie Moist
ry.
é Rich.
5 Poor.
. = Sterile.
= S Red, ee tot, Bic DAR e Moist, dry, ete.
4 s Yellow, F : - . - | Moist, dry, ete.
So = Gonrgey se we A keh. ae lh ae Moist, dry, ete.
wn i} Fine, . - : : 0 - | Moist, dry, ete.
Q NTE a eI | cee cae wove ie Black, red, yellow, coarse, fine, | Moist, dry, rich, ete.
ia Sand, . .| Entire, . Le ee - - | Black, red, yellow course, fine, | Moist, dry, ete.
ia = .,;| Clay, . .| Ferruginous, . . . Black, red, yellow, coarse, fine, | Moist, dry, ete.
s = Cupreous, . . - - | Black, red, ete., . . : - | Moist, dry, ete.
Ps} @ on ’ Saline, . : : : Black, red, ete., : . 4 Moist, dry, ete.
a =e Lime,. .| Ferruginous, «. « »«/ Black, red, . «. ‘s \ . (si JSIsiwinyerc.
ae Cupreous, A ‘ ‘ Black, red, ‘ 4 * Moist, dry, ete.
| @e Saline, . z 5 4 - | Black, red, yellow, coarse, fine, | Moist, dry, rich, ete.
= 5 Sand, . .| Ferruginous, . ° 2 Black, red, yellow, coarse, fine, | Moist, dry, rich, ete.
3 Cupreots Black Moist ?
| Saling;+s? Ake AM os Black, 2 Z E ah 2 Moist, dry, ete.
@ Clay, . .| Loamy, - «+ « «| Black, red, yellow, ete., . .{ Moist, dry, ete.
& Peaty, LP skEE 42 Black, red, yellow, etc... . Moist.
& Mouldys" is ys. ve wf imei te ne. ek, seen meen near
# limy, . ey Black, 5) dt Pe eet Moist.
= i Sandysief oa pis Pfs) =f] Blacks pares re egy st) tpeyepeone
= . Lime,. .|Clayey, . ° Black, red, yellow, ete., . - Moist, dry.
as Loamy, 0 he heps | sa laekK i.) ricg ° \tu Scud une meen nS
2S Sandy, . " : ‘ Black, 5 : ; . = Moist.
on Peaty,< ) e oe |) Blac ye ee ee ee eee
= Mouldy, . . Black, 2 32 fsa ees Moist.
= Hand 6; ~ | (Clayey, yao, iaerys gos Blick sy 4:¢k 4 aeieeeeeose
a oanty, 4 sate ee) te Black, oF PERE, “ie ees Moist.
= TAMY 5 15:1). few a Wtel lack. | eo)? PE) eee oe
g Feat of ees es Bipek, pare Peewee ay i 5: Mol.
ouldy, oP ht lack, =< 5 : pa SAS oist.
Clay, . .| Ferruginous, loamy, ete.,. | Black, oo) otk: ae a Moist.
Ferruginous, limy, ete., Black, (sv pqey yep. 19 1) eee
Ferruginous, sandy, ete., . | Black, ee een ee Moist.
Ferruginous, peaty,etc., .| Black, . . . ooo ae |) he Ros
Ferruginous, mouldy, ete., | Black, sr) 0 SP eee Moist.
Cupreous, loamy, etc., .| Black, . : - - - | Moist.
Saline, loamy, ete., . | Black, vie any. Aa Moist.
; Cinerous, loamy, ete., ai ERLACK, ae) as 6.) 0) oy peu LORE ES
Lime, . . | Ferruginous, loamy, ete.,. | Black . Moist.
- Ferruginous, sandy, ete.,. | Black, 4 ek - | Moist.
4 Cupreous, loamy, ete, . | Black, “ : : 7 ° Moist.
a = Cupreous, sandy, ete., . | Black, : - | Moist.
ke q Saline, loamy, etc., - | Black, : = Moist.
5 “a Saline, sandy, ete., . a elas : * c - | Moist.
a 5 Cinerous, loamy, ete., . | Black, SPR B SS 20 “ Moist.
‘a oe Cinerous, limy, ete., . a) Black. < F - | Moist.
is = Sand, . . | Ferruginous, loamy, ete.,. | Black, “ r ° Moist.
S = Ferruginous, limy, ete., . | Black, ; £ - | Moist.
2 ae Cupreous, loamy, ete., . | Black, =) oi Moist.
co 3 Cupreous, limy, ete., - | Black, ~ « «| Moist.
= 3 Saline, loamy, etc., a aeiarelcs - : 5 ' ° Moist.
nD & Paco fy, ete., : = ae at Facto We cv. Sh yome woe
a inerous, loamy, cte. P| ack, « Moist.
= : Cinerous, img eee - a deploeko yt : . “ - | Moist.
= Granite, . | Ferruginous, ete., . . Black, red, yellow, ete... . Moist, dry, ete.
2 Quartzose, etc... F - lacie : : $ - - | Moist.
5 Basalt, . PORE nous, Bie So) ic Blacks red, yellow, etc... . po dry, ete.
olumnar, ete., . : FA NC. : = - F, . | Moist.
5 : Whinstone, ete., . ~ Black, - : 5 4 = Moist.
% Schist, .| Ferruginous,ete., . .{| Black, red, yellow,ete., . .{| Moist, ete.
= Micacious, etc., ers Black, “ooo Bae 4). Moist.
Chlorite, ete, =. 2 . | Black, ¢ /)/ 5703.9) eRR Ost:
5 Sandstone,| Ferruginous, ete., . 2 Black, etc., 5 . Moist, ete.
S Caleseegus, on OPE A: Ble, ote, SNE eee oe
= rgillaceous, ete., . ack, 2 as Moist.
3 : Cupteous,etc., 5 ... | Black... : =o) ) «|e Mfotst.
& Limestone,} Chalky, ete., . : : Black, red, etc., 5 a Moist, dry, ete.
) Marble, ete., 5 - «| Black, . 5 7 ‘ ° - | Moist.
g Shelly, cte., . 4 - Black, ‘ . - ~ Moist.
Magnesian, ete., . of oa BG Kea. , «| Moist.
Sulphuric, ete., - A Black, i ° e Moist.
aie SS tec) wl. Blac : ® : ; oo
cous, etc., aes ack, <n Sian eee oist.
Argillageous, ete., . . | Black, 3 - | Moist.
Silicious;ete.0- 5 Black, : Wiens SM ys Moist.
Conl;_s « Slaty, ete., . : P - | Black red, yellow, e‘c., . - | Moist, dry, rich, ete.
| Pyritie, ete., . ‘ 5 Black, - : ‘ § . Moist.
Stony, ete., . z é Pa (a BTS Ait “ 3 : ‘ - | Moist.
Woodys ete ts.) ma tue Black, Br ca, Pep ciel ae Moi:zt.

SS

THE APPLE. 83

because it requires abundant nutriment, and in the
absence of water this cannot be obtained. Neither
does this fruit flourish in a soil which contains
water in excess. The favorite earth of the apple is
one which is deep, loamy, and calcareous. In those
regions where the substratum is limestone, we ex-
pect and find the most beautiful fruits of this species.
Marly earths are therefore adapted to it, because
they contain carbonate of lime. Loamy clays are
also often well adapted to the apple. A table is
suffixed containing, as far as possible, the soils best
suited to the leading varieties of this fruit. We do
not assert that a certain variety will not grow upon
those soils which are here left blank, but that they
generally succeed better upon those indicated.

Name of Variety. Lime. Loamy Clay. Loamy Sand.
American Pearmain, well, tolerably,
Baldwin, = well, tolerably.
Belmont, =
Early Joe, aa well, well.
Fameuse, . a by
Fall Pippin, - a
Golden Sweet, s ee well.
Green Sweet, He ©
Gravenstein, ie ¢ tolerably.
Jersey Sweet, 2] a well.
Ladies’ Sweet, oe was ie oe
Newtown Pippin, .
Northern Spy, ie well, well.
Peck’s Pleasant, si he
Porter, . 5d tolerably.
Rambo, * .
Red Astrachan, * o tolerably.
Rhode Island Greening, rn es well.

Roxbury Russet,

cc

84 APRICOT, BERBERRY, CHERRY.

Name of Variety. Lime. Loamy Clay. Loamy Sand.
Swaar, well,
Large Early Bough, bi well, well.
Talman’s Sweet, ay fe
Wine, id jy cada well.

Wine Sops,

Lyman’s Sweet,

Keswick Codlin, “ (

Primate,

The Apricot. This truly delicious fruit is of
foreign origin, and the great difficulty in its culti-
vation in the northern part of the United States is
the prevention of injury during the winter. When
it finds no such difficulty, deep limestone soils are
those in which it delights. But at the north such
land would induce too free and late a growth, which
would result in the death of the tree. Therefore a
gravelly or sandy soil must be selected, which shall
in a measure stunt it, and produce a dwarfish habit.
Then the growth will be short, and will ripen,
although the fruit will not be so fair as in regions
where it is not injured by the winter.

The Berberry. This flourishes on almost any
soil, from loamy sands to stiff clays, but its most
natural condition is in a rich, peaty, limey earth.

The Cherry. The observations already made with
regard to the apricot apply equally well to this fruit ;
but the morello varieties require clay soils.

The Currant. A peaty or clayey soil is that

CURRANT, FIG, GOOSEBERRY. 85

which is best adapted to the growth of this berry.
On dry sands the foliage of the old varieties drops
off, and the fruit becomes shrivelled before it is
ripe. Where it is grown on such lands, la Versail-
laise, la Fertile d’ Angers, and la Hative de Bertin
are much superior, as they very persistently retain
their foliage, and the fruit is therefore of greater
size and duration.

The Fig, in those regions where it is hardy, flour-
ishes upon a loamy lime, or clay soil; but in north-
ern latitudes, if planted upon such lands, its suc-
culent shoots are killed during the winter. In the
latter they should be grown upon loamy sands, which
will check their free growth, and induce hardness
and ripeness of wood.

The Gooseberry requires a rich loamy clay for
its perfect development. This applies only to such
varieties as are free from mildew; others are not
worth cultivation.

The Grape. Mr. R. Bucnanan, of Ohio, in his
work entitled “Grape Culture,” speaks thus: ‘“‘ The
soul best suited for a vineyard is a dry, calcareous
loam, with a porous subsoil, not retentive of
moisture ; if mixed with some gravel or small stones,
so much the better. Some vignerons prefer a

sandy soil with a gravelly substratum, as in this the
8

86 THE GRAPE.

grapes are less subject to rot; the juice, however,
is not so rich,—lacking saccharine matter, — and in
dry seasons the vines will suffer from the drought,
shedding their leaves prematurely, and preventing
the grapes from ripening properly. On warm
sandy soil, the fruit-buds, if swelled in the autumn,
are sometimes killed by the frosts of a severe winter.
Soils underlaid by a stiff wet clay are to be avoided,
as also wet or spongy lands.”

Mr. John Williamson, whose wines have a high
reputation, writes, in a letter to Mr. Buchanan:
‘‘T consider the proper selection of the soil almost
everything in the successful cultivation of the grape
for making wine. I have visited nearly all the
vineyards near Cincinnati, and feel confident that
many of them must eventually fail from a want of
selecting at first the right kind of soil; and yet, in
my opinion, there is plenty of suitable land in
almost any neighborhood. Some have planted on
that of a grayish, gravelly surface, with a heavy blue
clay subsoil, impervious alike to water and the roots
of the vine, further than it is loosened by the spade
or the plough in trenching. Such, if it does pro-
duce a growth of wood, causes the grape to rot.

“ Another soil unsuited to the grape is that with
a surface of rich mould, underlaid with a stratum
of fine, bright yellow sand, clammy and adhesive.
This is well calculated to deceive; but it has no
strength below the mould, and the vines invariably

THE GRAPE. 87

become weak, and of small growth. Such lands
may be improved by lime and ashes. ‘The soil on
which I rely, and, from the experience of seven or
eight years, place the greatest confidence in, is of a
grayish black, breaking up into square lumps in
cultivation, deep, and running into a reddish yellow
subsoil, friable lke the surface in working, and
generally resting on limestone rock. On such soils,
with proper cultivation, I have never known the
vine to fail.”

Mr. N. Longworth, in a communication to the
Cincinnati Horticultural Society, says: “In my
vineyards, at Tusculum, the rot has prevailed, and
this season two-thirds of the crop was lost. The
subsoil was a stiff clay, and to this fact I chiefly
attribute it. Among my vines near the foot of the
hill, where the ground was more porous, there was
less rot, and at the bottom, or near it, where the rain
immediately sank deep into the earth, there was no
rot. And this I have found to be the case also at
other vineyards. Where the subsoil was a compact
clay, it prevailed ; where it was mixed with sand or
eravel, or where it was porous, there was no rot.”

The Peach and Nectarine delight in a deep loamy
sand, but will succeed in almost any light soil. In
the north, the soil should not be so generous as to
induce too free a growth.

88 THE PEAR.

The Pear succeeds generally upon such a soil as
that described for the apple; but at the same time it
should be porous, that the roots may roam freely.
The labors of amateurs have resulted, however, in
the production of varieties adapted to almost all
soils ; and in the table which follows will be shown,
as nearly as it is possible to do in a new undertak-
ing, the soils on which particular varieties succeed.
Let it not be surmised that they grow only on such
lands, for in other soils they may flourish with more
or less success; yet those below enumerated are the
soils which experience has proved to be best suited
to them:

Varieties. Clayey. Limey. Sandy.
Andrews, well, well, tolerably.
Abbot, tolerably, gig well.
Bartlett, well, 7 "

Beurré d’ Anjou, "4 3 e

Beurré d’Aremburg, cankers, * ‘

Beurré Bosc, d Ke

Beurré Diel, cracks, oJ §

Beurré Superfin, well, H -

Beurré Giffard, spots, os sheds its foliage.
Beurré Clairgeau, % sf grows feebly.
Beurré Langelier, well, well.
Brandywine, * bed pis

Belle Lucrative; 4 sy

Buffum, oe ‘e “
Dearborn’s Seedling, tolerably, is 3

Doyenne Boussock, well, 4 is

Duchess | d’Angouleme,

Flemish Beauty,
Glout Morceau,
Howell, ©

Louise bonne de Jersey,

Lawrence,
Merriam,

fails in setting,
cracks,

hard at the core,
well,

PLUM, RASPBERRY, STRAWBERRY. 89

Varieties. Clayey. Limey. Sandy.
Onondaga, well, well, well.
Rostiezer, na iis Talk Ss
Seckel, ft fe
Urbaniste, spots,

Vicar of Winkfield, well, o
Winter Nelis, af re grows feebly.

The Plum seems to succeed best upon a stiff clay ;
but many cultivators have been very successful with
it on quite light soils.

The Quince has few large roots; these are mostly
fibrous, and extend but a little distance from the
trunk. It delights in a rich, deep, peaty, or loamy
clay or lime soil.

The Raspberry and the Strawberry require a deep
loamy clay, but for immediate and early production
they are often planted upon sharp sands. ‘The soil
should be retentive of moisture for the general crop,
as these little plants drink freely during the growth
of their fruit.

We have now considered the origin of the soil,
its properties, and its adaptation to the various
species and varieties of fruits. In the succeeding
three chapters we shall notice the improvement in

them resulting from cultivation.
‘ip

CHAPTER IV.

DRAINING THE SOIL.

METHOD BY WHICH THE SOIL IS SUPPLIED WITH MOISTURE: RAIN,
SPRINGS — DESCRIPTION OF DIFFERENT STRATA — CAPILLARY ATTRAC-
TION. METHODS BY WHICH WATER IS REMOVED : RUNNING OFF ITS
SURFACE — EVAPORATION — PERCOLATING THROUGH ITS SUBSTANCE.
WHAT LANDS REQUIRE DRAINAGE — THE DIRECTION OF THE DRAINS
——THE DISTANCE— THE DEPTH—THE MATERIAL TO BE USED—NUM-
BER OF TILE TO THE ACRE — MANNER OF OPERATION. THE EFFECTS
OF DRAINAGE: PROMOTING PULVERIZATION — PREVENTION OF INJURY
BY DROUGHT— INCREASE OF THE ABSORPTION OF MOISTURE — VEN-
TILATION —PERMITTING THE WARM SPRING SHOWERS TO ENTER THE
SOIL — FREEZING THE LAND DEEPER — DEEPENING THE SOIL — DE-
STROYING WEEDS — CAUSING A MORE HARDY GROWTH — PRODUCTION
BECOMES MORE CERTAIN.

S food enters plants through the medium of
water, the proper regulation of it is of par-
amount importance. Jain-water is not only a
powerful solvent, but it extracts ammonia from the
atmosphere, which increases and elaborates those
elements of fertility in the soil on which vegetation
depends for health and fruitfulness. There are
three methods by which the earth is supplied with
moisture.
1. By rain. The average annual quantity which
falls throughout the United States is between thirty
and forty inches. It is a source of great wealth, and

RAIN. 91

contains one-half more oxygen, and four times the
amount of carbonic acid which is found in the
atmosphere through which it falls. The Cyclopedia
of Agriculture remarks: “ Rain-water always con-
tains in solution air, carbonic acid, and ammonia.
The first two ingredients are among the most power-
ful disintegrators of a soil.

“The oxygen of the air and the carbonic acid,
being both in a highly condensed form by being
dissolved, possess very strong affinities for the in-
eredients of the soil. The oxygen attacks and
oxidizes the iron; the carbonic acid, seizing the
lime and potash, and other alkaline ingredients of
the soil, produces a further disintegration, and
renders available the locked-up resources of this
magazine of nutriment. }

‘Before these can be used by plants, they must
be rendered soluble; and this is only effected by
the free and frequent access of rain and air. The
ready passage of both of these, therefore, enables
the soil to yield up its concealed treasures.”

The amount of ammonia contained in the rain-fall
of a year upon a single acre is equivalent to the
amount found in from one to two hundred weight
of Peruvian guano. To retain this in the soil, it is
obvious that the water in which it is contained must
percolate through its particles. This it cannot do
if the land is already overcharged with moisture, as
is the case in most of our soils. When it cannot

92 SPRINGS.

filter through the earth, it is either lost by evapora-
tion, or is washed into the valleys to create unhealthy
swamps.

2. The soil is supplied with moisture by springs.
To illustrate this we quote at length from Mr.
French’s useful book upon “ Land Drainage,’ which
should be in the hands of every enterprising farmer
and fruit-grower. ‘‘ Usually we find the crust of
the earth in our cultivated fields in strata or layers.
First, a surface-soil of a few inches, of a loamy.
nature, in which clay or sand predominates; then, it
may be, a layer of sand or gravel which freely admits
the passage of water; and perhaps next, and within
two or three feet of the surface, a stratum of clay,
through which water passes very slowly, or not at
all. ‘These strata are sometimes regular, extending
at an equal depth over large tracts, and having a
uniform dip or inclination. More frequently, how-
ever, in hilly regions especially, they are quite
irregular,—the impervious stratum often having
depressions of greater or less extent, and holding
water like a bowl. Not unfrequently, as we cut a
ditch upon a declivity, we find that the dip of the
strata below has no correspondence with the visible
surface of the field, but that different strata lie
nearly level, or are much broken, while the surface
has a regular inclination.

‘“‘ Underlying all soils, at a greater or less depth,
but usually only a few feet below the surface, is

IMPERVIOUS STRATA. 93

found some bed of rock or clay impervious to water.
The tendency of the rain which falls upon the earth
is to sink directly downward; but, turned aside
by the many obstacles referred to, it often passes
obliquely, or almost horizontally through the soil.
The drop which falls upon the hill-side sinks per-
haps a few inches, when it meets with a bed of clay,
upon which it glides along for many days, until at
last it is borne out to the surface, to be drunk up
by the sun on some far-off slope. Another, falling
upon the sandy plain, sinks at once to the water-
line which rests on clay beneath, and, slowly creep-
ing along, helps to form a swamp or bog in the
valley. Sometimes the rain which falls upon the
high land is collected together by fissures in the
rocks, or by seams or ruptures in the impervious
strata below the surface, and finds its vent in a
gushing spring upon the hill-side.”

When rain falls on a tract of country, part of it
flows over the surface, and makes its appearance in
the numerous natural and artificial courses which
may exist, while another portion is absorbed by the
soil and the porous strata which lie under it. Let
the following diagram represent such a tract of
country, and let the portion (e) represent clay, or
other impervious strata, while the remaining por-
tions exhibit those layers of gravel, sand, or chalk
which permit a free passage for the water.'

1 Cyclopedia of Agriculture, by Girdwood.

94 IMPERVIOUS STRATA.

“ When rain falls in such a district, after sinking
through the surface layer (represented in the dia-
gram by a narrow band) it reaches the stratified

b

eo RE a
fe

of

layers beneath. Through these it still further sinks,
if they are porous, until it reaches some impervious
stratum, which arrests its progress directly down-
ward, and compels it to find its way along its upper
surface. ‘Thus the rain which falls on the surface
represented between (b) and (d) is compelled by the
impervious stratum to flow toward (c); here it is at
once absorbed, but is arrested by the impervious
layer (e); it is therefore compelled to pass through
the porous stratum (c), along the surface of (e), to
(a), where it pours forth in a fountain, or forms a
morass or swamp, proportionate in size and extent
to the tract of country between (b) and (d), or the
quantity of rain which falls upon it. In such a
case as is here represented, it will be obvious that
the spring may often be at a great distance from the
district from which it derives its supply, and this
accounts for the fact that drainage-works, on a large

SPRINGS AND MARSHES. 95

scale, sometimes materially lessen the supply of
water at places remote from the scene of operations.
“In the instance already given, the water forming
the spring is represented as gaining access to the
porous stratum at a point where it crops out from
beneath an impervious one, and as passing along to
its point of discharge at a considerable depth, and
under several layers of various character. Some-
times, in an undulating country, large tracts may
rest immediately upon some highly porous stratum,
as from (b) to (c) in the following diagram, render-
ing the necessity of draining less apparent, while
the country from (a) to (b) and from (c) to (d) may
be full of springs and marshes. ‘This arises partly
from the fact that the rain which falls in these
latter districts is unable to find a way of escape, and
partly because the natural drainage of the more
porous soils adjoining is discharged upon it.

« Again: the rocks lying under the surface are
sometimes so full of fissures, that although they
themselves are impervious to water, yet so com-
pletely do they carry off rain, that in some parts of
the county of Durham [England] the sinking of
wells is rendered useless, and the farmers find it

96 CLAY AND SAND FAULTS.

necessary to drive their cattle many miles for water.
It sometimes happens that these fissures or cracks
penetrate to enormous depths, and are of great width,
and filled with sand or clay. These are termed
‘faults’ by miners; and some which we lately ex-
amined, at distances of from three to four hundred
yards from the surface, were from five to fifteen
yards in width. These faults, when of clay, are
generally the cause of springs appearing at the
surface; they arrest the progress of the water in
some of the porous strata, and compel it to find an
exit by passing to the surface between the clay and
the face of the upturned strata. When the fault
is of sand or gravel, the opposite effect takes place,
if it communicates with any porous stratum, and
water which may have been flowing over the surface
is at once absorbed.

“In the following diagram, let us suppose that
(b) represents such a clay fault as has been de-

= Ve Za ZA yy
se Ze Lee Zee LOE EEE c
KK Zi Q K WL a OM} \ AWW | ERR

MMA WW SS WN

UL TUM Uli Yi Lil Z
Y < Ce G IIS SSS

ae So Soa
77. SSS =e 2 LILES. FE

ZB
Z
3)

scribed, A that (a) represents a sandy one, and
that (c) and (d) represent porous strata charged
with water. On the water reaching the fault at (6),
it will be compelled to find its way to the surface,
forming a spring, and rendering the retentive soil

ARTESIAN WELLS. 97

from (b) to (a) wet; but as soon as it reaches the
sandy fault at (a), it is immediately absorbed, and
again reaches the porous strata, along which it had
travelled before being forced to the surface at (0).
It will be observed that the strata at the point of
dislocation are not represented as in a line with the
portions from which they have been dissevered.
This is termed the upthrow of the fault, as at (b);
and the dethrow, as at (a). For the sake of the
illustration, the displacement is here shown as very
slight; but in some cases these elevations and de-
pressions of the strata extend to many hundreds of
feet, as for instance at the mines of the British Iron
Company at Cefu Mawre, in North Wales, where
the dethrow of the fault is three hundred and sixty
feet. |

‘‘ Sometimes the strata are disposed in the form
of a basin. In this case, the water percolating
through the more elevated ground, near what may
be termed the rim, collects in the lower parts of the
strata toward the centre, then forcing its way to the
surface, if the upper impervious beds be thin; or,
if otherwise, remaining a concealed reservoir, ready
to yield its supplies to the shaft or boring-rod of
the well-sinker, and sometimes forming a living
fountain capable of rismg many feet above the
surface.

“Tt is in this way that what are called artesian

wells are formed. ‘The following diagram repre-
9

98 WEEPING HILL-SIDES.

sents such a disposition of the strata as has just
been referred to. The rain which falls on the tracts
of country at (a) and (b) gradually percolates toward
the centre of the basin, where it may be made to
give rise to an artesian well, as at (c), by boring
through the superincumbent mass of clay; or it
may force itself to the surface through the thinner
part of the layer of clay, as at (d), there forming a
spring or swamp.

—ZEN
aM

“Again: the higher parts of hilly ground are
sometimes composed of very porous and absorbent
strata, while the lower portions are more impervi-
ous, — the soil and subsoil being of a very stiff and
retentive description. In this case, the water col-
lected by the porous layers is prevented from finding
a ready exit, where it reaches the impervious layers,
by the stiff surface-soil. ‘The water is by this means
dammed up in some measure, and requires a con-
siderable degree of pressure; and, forcing itself to
the clay at various places, it forms those extensive
‘weeping’-banks which have such an injurious
effect upon many of our mountain pastures. This
was the form of spring, or swamp, to the removal
of which Elkington principally turned his attention ;

CAPILLARY ATTRACTION. 99

and the following diagram, taken from a description
of his system of draining, will explain the stratifica-
tion and springs more clearly.

~

“In some districts, where clay forms the staple
of the soil, a bed of sand or gravel, completely sat-
urated with water, occurs at the depth of a few feet
from the surface, following all the undulations of
the country, and maintaining its position, in relation
to the surface, over considerable tracts — here and
there pouring forth its waters in a spring, or denot-
ing its proximity by the sub-aquatic nature of the
herbage. }

“Such a configuration is represented in the follow-
ing diagram, where (a) represents the surface-soil ;

(Qi tWy?
A AW

\

WT NEN
A IQ \

‘Si GK WY
WA \ \ A

(b) the impervious subsoil of clay; (c) the bed of
sandy clay or gravel; and (d) the lower bed of clay
resting upon the rocky strata beneath.”

3. The moisture rises to the soil by capillary attrac-

100 EVAPORATION.

tion exerted upon a wet subsoil. The power of this
agency varies widely in different soils. In those
of a porous character, it is far less potent than in a
close firm clay or loam ; because, in the former, the
interstices are greater, and the attraction is over-
come by the gravity of the water. This principle
should be borne in mind when we investigate the
required depth of the drain; as one of four feet, in
a retentive soil, will thoroughly drain less depth of
earth than if placed at the same distance below the
surface in a loose sand or gravel.

As there are three sources from which the soil is
supplied with moisture, so there are also three ways
by which it is deprived of it.

1. By running off its surface. In this way it is
unproductive of benefit, as the fertility which it
contains is lost. It fails to comminute and disinte-
grate the soil by percolating through its particles.
If the warm showers gain admittance to the earth
in the spring, they raise its temperature, and vege-
table growth commences earlier.

2. By evaporation. As by perspiration the body _
of an animal is kept cool, so the soil in evaporation
parts with a great amount of heat, which would
otherwise be retained to encourage the growth of
the plants. A writer in the Gardeners’ Chronicle,
of England, observes, that “ the principal result of
the loss of water by evaporation is indicated by the

PERCOLATION. 101

fact, that during the conversion of every pound of
it into vapor, as much heat is consumed and lost
as would be produced by burning two or three
ounces of coal; and when you think that an ordi-
nary rain-fall amounts to three thousand tons per
acre every year, you can easily perceive that the loss
of heat by the evaporation of a comparatively in-
considerable portion of this must involve a great
cooling of the land.”

Although some evaporation will take place even
upon drained land, yet, if we can convey off the most
of the surplus water after it has passed through
the substance of the soil and has deposited its fer-
tility, just that amount of heat is gained which
would have been required for its evaporation.

The drained field will be in readiness to till in
the spring ten days before that which is undrained,
and vegetation upon it will not become checked so
suddenly in the fall, but will be hastened to maturity
during the entire summer by the increased degree
of its heat. ‘The difference in the temperature of
the two soils is often from ten to fifteen degrees
Fahrenheit.

3. By percolating through its substance. The same
writer again says: “Let us now consider what
water does by percolation ; and its effects we can do
little more than enumerate. ‘They are briefly these:
It carries the temperature of the air into the soil, a
thing, the possible injury of which in the autumn

Ox ,

102 INCREASE OF HEAT.

and winter, when the air is colder than the soil, is
as nothing when compared with the benefits result-
ing from it in spring, when the air is warmer, and
when the advantages of early growth are great.
The most important experiments which we think
of as proving the influence of draining upon the
temperature of the soil, are those described by Mr.
Stephens in his exceedingly instructive book with
regard to the operations of the Marquis of Tweed-
dale at Yester Mains. There the temperature of
the soil in an undrained state was forty-eight de-
grees Fahrenheit ; but by the cutting of a drain near
it, and the setting in of a current through it, its
temperature was raised one and one-half degrees in
six hours.

‘“ Another effect of water in percolating through
the land is seen in the introduction of the atmos-
plerical elements which it holds in solution. The
carbonic acid, by its operation on the alkalies and
alkaline earths, is a powerful solvent and disin-
tegrator. ‘The oxygen keeps in check the deoxidat-
ing effect of vegetable matter in the soil, which in
its absence tends to reduce the higher state of
oxidation of the iron present in the soil into the
lower state, where it does mischief by forming, with
acids in the soil, soluble salts, which are injurious
to vegetation.

‘But the main purpose served by water during
its percolation through the land is that of a feeder

INTRODUCTION OF FERTILITY. 103

of the plants. A fertile soil, cultivated so as to
exhibit its fertility in the most profitable manner,
has growing upon it crops whose habit and specific
character are adapted to the climate in which they
are placed, and to the character of the soil itself.
It yields these crops in the order in which each,
succeeding to the cultivation of its predecessor, shall
‘find the soil, chemically as regards its contents,
and mechanically as regards its texture, and practi-
cally as regards consequent cleanness of the land,
and the fitness of their respective times of cultiva-
tion to one another, in best condition for the supply
of the wants of the crop in question. It is annually
manured and cultivated so as best to meet the cur-
rent wants of the plants raised upon it; but it is
especially dependent for all its powers to bring these
crops to a fruitful maturity upon the fact that there
is, during and after every shower of rain, a continual
current of water and of air passing throughout its
substance. ‘This current should not be too rapid,
lest its soluble parts should be washed to water ;
indeed, it is hardly possible that it should be too
slow; slow enough, however, to dissolve from the
soil whatever it contains of food for plants, and fast
enough to be continually bringing fresh supplies by
every mouth which the absorbing extremities of
the roots present.

“ All these purposes of warming the soil, of in-
troducing substances into it which shall operate

104 WHAT LANDS REQUIRE DRAINAGE.

chemically upon its minerals, and of converting it
into an efficient vehicle of the matter which it con-
tains, are answered by the percolation of water
through the soil. You must not think, then, of
drainage as a contrivance for getting rid of water
from the land as an enemy; nor must you think of
a wet and ill-drained field as being merely an illus-
tration of the injury done by water in excess, as it is
called. Water need hardly ever be an enemy, and
need rarely be in excess. Drainage is a contrivance
for making use of it as a friend, and an ill-drained
field is an illustration of the mischief done by water,
whether there be little of it or much, when not in
motion.”

We desire, then, to promote the percolation of the
water through the soil, and to do this we lay con-
duits beneath its surface to carry away the surplus
moisture, and to produce currents of water and of
air. We intend to enumerate several points which
are of importance to its accomplishment.

1. What lands require drainage? That it is neces-
sary in land where water stands upon its surface
in summer, is evident to every one; but that soils
where the evil is hidden are as much in need of it,
is difficult for the uninitiated to comprehend. If
rushes, or any aquatic plants make their appearance,
it is a sure sign of the necessity of drainage ; for
all the fruit-growing plants flourish alone upon dry

DIRECTION OF THE DRAIN. 105

land, and these water-loving weeds would not appear
did not the wetness of the soil encourage them. If
the earth is wet and clammy in the spring, so that
it is impossible to cart muck upon it, or prepare
the ground properly for the crop until late in the
season, it is manifest that to gain a week or ten
days in this most important time is a very decided
advantage. When trees or grain heave badly during
the thaws of winter, or generally when the foliage
of plants is pale and sickly during the summer, it is
an index of the necessity of thorough drainage.

2. The direction of the drains. While there are
some general rules applicable in most cases, yet it
is sometimes necessary to vary them with reference
to the outlet and the undulating character of the
ground.

“In many subsoils there are thin partings, or
layers, of porous materials, interspersed between the
strata, which, though not of sufficient capacity to
give rise to actual springs, still exude enough water
to indicate their presence. These partings occasion-
ally crop out, and give rise to damp spots, which
are to be seen diversifying the surface of fields,
when the drying breezes of spring have begun to
act uponthem. In the following cut the light lines
represent such partings.1

““ Now, it will be evident, in draining such land,
that if the drains be disposed in a direction trans-

1 Cyclopedia of Agriculture, by Girdwood.

106 DIRECTION OF THE DRAINS.

verse or oblique to the slope, it will often happen
that, no matter how skilfully planned, they will
not reach these partings at all, as at (a). In this
case, the flow will continue in its accustomed chan-
nel, and discharge its waters at (b). But again,

é€

even though it does reach these partings, as at (c),
a considerable portion of water will escape from the
drain itself, and flow to the lower level of its old
point of discharge at (d). Whereas, a drain cut in
the line of the slope, as from (d) to (e), intersects
all these partings, which furnishes an outlet to them
at a lower level.”’

Mr. French in his “ Land Drainage,” in remark-
ing on this description by Mr. Girdwood, says:
“The line of the greatest fall is the only one in
which a drain is relatively lower than the land on
either side of it. Whether we regard the surplus
water as having recently fallen upon the field, and
as being stopped near its surface by an impervious
stratum, or as brought down on these strata from
above, we have it to be disposed of, as it rests

THE LINE OF DESCENT. 107

upon this stratum, and as borne out by it to the
surface.

‘A drain down the slope gives to the water borne
up by these strata an outlet of the depth of the
drain. If it be four feet, it cuts the water-bearing
strata each at that depth, and takes off the water.
In these cases the different layers of clay, or other
impervious partings, are like the steps of a huge
staircase, with the soil filling them up to a regular
gerade. The ditch cuts through these steps, letting
the water that rests on them fall off at the ends,
instead of running over the edges.

“ Now, looking at the operation of drains across
the slope, and supposing that each ditch is draining
the breadth next above it, we will suppose the drain
to be running full of water, what is there to prevent
it from passing out of that drain in its progress at
every joint of the tile, and so saturating the breadth
below it? Drain-pipes afford the same facility for
water to soak out at the lower side as to enter on
the upper, and there is the same law of gravitation
to operate in each case.

“Mr. Denton says: ‘With respect to the direction
of drains, I believe very little difference of opinion
exists. Ail the most successful drainers concur in
the line of the steepest descent as essential to effi-
ciency and economy.’

“To produce perfect drainage of a portion of this
land, which we will suppose to be a gentle slope,

108 DIRECTION OF THE DRAINS.

the first object must be to cut off the flow of water
upon or near the surface. An open ditch across
the top would most certainly effect this purpose,
and it may be doubtful whether any other drain
would be sufficient. ‘This would depend upon the
quantity of water flowing down; if it be very great
at times, a part of it would be likely to flow across
the top of an under drain, from not having time to
percolate downward into it.

‘In all cases it is advised, when the work stops
upon a slope, to introduce a cross-drain connecting
the tops of all the minors. This is called a header.
Its object is to cut off all the water that may be
passing along in the subsoil down the slope, and
which would otherwise be likely to pass downward
between the system of drains to a considerable depth
before finding them.” |

In deciding the direction of the drains we must
be careful to ascertain the source from which the
water proceeds. If it arises from springs, the aim
must be to direct them so as to cut off the fountain,
—and at this point they must be frequent, —while
below it may not be necessary to place them at less
than double the distance. If the surplus water is
rolled down from higher land, the direction must
be such as to head off and carry it away: the size
of the pipes and frequency of the drains must cor-
respond with the amount of water to be disposed
of. When we have only to contend with the mois-

DISTANCE BETWEEN THE DRAINS. 109

ture which the land itself receives from rain, it
is a comparatively easy matter, and the drains may
be laid with greater uniformity, while in either of
the preceding cases the same rule which we now
pursue would have entirely defeated the object.
Generally it is more economical for the fruit-grower
who proposes to drain his land to engage the ser-
vices of a competent engineer, as drainage, unlike
manuring or cultivation, is a permanent improve-
ment. ‘The system, as a whole, must be formed
before the work is commenced as far as relates to the
place of outlet and the position of the main drain
and its stronger branches, else it would be difficult to
decide on the size of the pipe which was required.
3. The distance at which the drains should be from
one another is an important consideration. ‘This also
must be decided from a knowledge of the cause of
the superfluous moisture. ‘This is well illustrated
in a letter from Mr. Denton by the same author.
‘The wetness of land, which for distinction’s sake
I will call the water of pressure, like the water of

springs, to which it is nearly allied, can be effectually
10

110 VARYING INCLINATION.

and cheaply removed only by drains devised for
and devoted to that object. Appropriate drains at
(bbb), for instance, as indicated in the dark vertical
lines above, are found to do the service of many
parallel drains, which as frequently miss as they
hit those furrows or lips in the horizontal outcrop
of water-bearing strata, which continue to exude
wetness after the higher portions are dry.

« A consideration, too, of the varying inclination
of surface, of which instances will frequently occur
in the same field, necessitates a departure from
uniformity, not only in direction, but in the inter-
vals between the drains. Take, for instance, the
ordinary case of a field in which a comparatively
flat space intervenes between quickly rising ground
and the outfall ditch. It is clear that the soak of
the hill will pervade the soil of the lower ground,
let the system of drainage adopted be what it may ;
and therefore, supposing the soil of the hill and flat
to be precisely alike, the existence of bottom water
in a greater quantity in the lower lands than in the
higher, will call for a greater number of drains. It
is found, too, that an independent discharge, or
relief, of the water coming from the hill at (6)
should always be provided, in order to avoid any
impediment by the slower flow of the flatter drains.

“Experience shows that, with few exceptions,
hollows or slacks observable on the surface, as at
(bb), have a corresponding undulation of subsoil ;

RELIEF DRAINS. 111

and that any system which does not provide a direct
release for water, which would otherwise collect in

and be drawn toward these spots, is imperfect and
unsatisfactory. It is found to be much more safe
to depend on relief drains, than on cutting them
sufficiently deep through the banks at (aa), to gain
a fall at a regular inclination.

“Still, in spite of experience, we often observe a
disregard of these facts, even in works which are
otherwise well executed to a depth of four feet, but
fettered by methodical rules; and I feel compelled
to remark that it has often occurred to me, when I
have observed with what diligent examination the
rules of depth and distance have been tested, that
if more attention had been paid to the source of
injury, and to the mode of securing a permanent
and effective discharge of the injurious water, much
greater service would be done.”

The distances between the drains should be mod-
ified also by the amount of annual fall of rain in
the district. In some parts of our country the
number of inches of yearly fall is double that in
others. ‘The spaces between the drains should also

112 DEPTH AFFECTING DISTANCE.

be regulated with reference to the influence of cli-
mate on evaporation. Drains have been known to
emit water on account of the density of the atmos-
phere ; therefore, when the predominating weather
is cloudy, and the air dense, much more water will
remain to be carried off than when a bright, un-
clouded sun increases the evaporation. Besides
this, the intervals should depend upon the character
of the soil. If the drains are forty feet apart, the
moisture could find its way more easily and in
quicker time through a porous than a close soil,
because of the less degree of attraction. In the
former the distance might be made fifty feet, while
in the latter it would be necessary to reduce it to
thirty or even twenty.

The depth of the drain should also affect the in-
tervals between them in porous soils. It is self-
evident that a drain four feet in depth will reach
further, and draw off the water from a greater dis-
tance, than one of three feet in such a soil; yet in
clay it is not safe to rely upon it to a great extent.
There is an argument of still more force for the
frequency of drains in the orchard, which is seldom
alluded to, but which is, nevertheless, a considera-
tion of importance. It is the prevention of obstruction
from the roots of trees growing into the pipes. This
sometimes occurs on account of the moisture in
them during the summer; and, although there have
been few instances in which drains have been

DEPTH OF DRAINS. 115

stopped in their operation by the roots of fruit trees,
still it is very desirable to place them so frequently
that the water will pass off speedily and leave the
pipes dry.

4. The depth at which drains should be placed. The
first argument that we shall use for placing them
deep is that they may be out of reach of the subsoil
plough, or the spade of the trencher. ‘The necessity
for deep cultivation, in preparing the ground for the
orchard, is considered in the chapter devoted to pul-
verization ; suffice it now to say, that in trenching
three feet in depth, the spade will often be plunged
a few inches further, and that one blow might break
a tile, and result in the stoppage of the whole
system.’ Then it must be remembered that as the
air penetrates more into drained than undrained
soils, they will freeze deeper. If we place the drain
at four feet deep, in a retentive soil, we shall often
find that we have not more than two or three feet
of dry earth, on account of capillary attraction.

The greater sphere which it gives to the roots of
plants for their supply of food, is of itself a suffi-
cient argument for deep draining. Of equal force
is the fact, that it wards off the evil effects of
drought. It may seem to some an anomaly, that to
drain the surplus water from land would make it
less likely to suffer from the want of it; and yet
such is the truth. On an undrained soil the roots of

1 See mode of detecting obstructions.

10*

114 COLD SUBSOILS.

plants do not penetrate much below the surface. The
cold and damp subsoil is repugnant to them; when
a drought occurs, and they meet the destroyer not
only in the parched earth from above, but in the
cold water, charged with noxious gases, from be-
neath, what choice have they but death? Whena
depth of four feet is prepared for the roots, they
cannot suffer to any great extent, as the drought
does not penetrate sodeep. The following diagram
will illustrate this; (a) represents the surface soil
which is deprived of its superfluous moisture by
evaporation, and which thereby loses heat which
would be genial to the roots of the tree; (b) rep-

resents the subsoil, which, although it lays above
the surface of the stagnant water, is yet filled
with moisture by capillary attraction, and is so cold
that it repels the roots; yet they are obliged to
enter it for partial protection from drought.

The next figure represents the condition of a

MATERIALS FOR DRAINING. 115

tree in a soil which is thoroughly drained ; (A)
the surface soil; (B) the subsoil, which has now
been much deepened, and has encouraged the roots
to roam in its substance; (C) is that part of the
subsoil above the drain which is rendered wet by
capillary attraction ; (D) is the stagnant water,
which has been reduced three feet by the drains
which are upon its surface.

f

WG

Therefore, at a depth of four feet or more, the
roots have a source of nutriment and moisture
beyond the reach of a drought.

do. The materials which should be used in draining.
The fact must be kept in mind, in laying a drain
for an orchard, that the trees are to remain for
years, and therefore it would be folly to adopt a
superficial method, which might answer for an an-
nual crop. The question for the fruit-grower to
ascertain is, what materials do, and what do not,
make a superficial drain. Is this the case with

116 STONE DRAINS.

brush? It makes a good drain for a few years, if
properly laid, when upon strong and retentive soils;
but upon light land it soon becomes choked with
sediment, and is rendered useless. Is stone drain-
ing superficial? ‘The blind stone drain represented
in the following figure has the same defect as the
brush; that the water, in percolating
through it, deposits fine sand, which
fills up the interstices, and renders
the drain inoperative. Notwithstand-
ing stone is not the best material for

drains, yet some prefer to use it, even
if it is not so cheap, because it is immediately at
hand ; and being otherwise a nuisance, its use in the
construction of drains answers a double purpose.
We shall therefore endeavor to illustrate the proper
method of constructing a permanent stone drain.
(A) represents three stones placed in
the form of a triangle with the point
down (boards answer a better purpose
if laid in the same position). Some
will suggest laying them with the

broad side down, but experience op-
poses this. A certain quantity of water which
would pass sluggishly over the broad surface, and
leave a sediment after it to obstruct the flow, would,
if run through such a drain as is represented in our
cut, gain considerably in velocity, the surface to
create friction would be less, and sand which might

HORSE-SHOE DRAIN. EY?

be washed in would be carried off. (B) is a square
of turf, old hay, coarse gravel, tan, or sawdust
placed over the stones to filter the water as it passes
to the drain; (C) is the position of the rubble, or
small stones; and (D) represents another layer like
(B). The great objection to this drain is, that
workmen, unless very careful, will lay the stones
forming the triangle irregularly, so that one will
act as an obstruction to the other, and thus cause a
deposit of sediment. Boards are greatly to be pre-
ferred on this account, especially if planed upon
the inside, as they diminish the friction and prevent
obstructions.

Is tile-pipe superficial? It is, unless baked hard,
when it becomes the most durable and perfect
drain. But, as there are many different ways of
constructing them, it is necessary that we should be
more explicit.

The horse-shoe tile is not the most perfect, al-
though in many parts of our country it has been
used to a considerable extent; yet we are assured
that it is not the most desirable. Being open at
the bottom, the earth often becomes pushed up in
the interior, and partially or wholly stops the flow.
In some instances, where obstructions have occurred,
the drain has been opened and the pipe found com-
pletely filled. Sometimes it is laid upon a sole, or
a board ; but it is then open to the same objection
as was the stone drain with the flat side down, —

118 SOLE-TILE.

that of increased friction and loss of velocity. This
is @ more serious matter than might be supposed,
especially in a main drain; for if several branches
deliver into it, and the main has more velocity than
the branches, it is evident that, in that proportion,
can a smaller pipe be used to convey the same
amount of water. In consequence, we lessen the
cost of the material, as well as increase the effi-
ciency of the work.

The sole-tile is the best. If laid on strips of
board it is more efficient, and in
the hands of a skilful workman
becomes an excellent drain. A
square of turf, strips of waste tin, or, what is better
than either, tarred paper, should be placed over the
joints to keep out the sand. Many have supposed
that the water entered mostly through the substance
of the tile. Although this is true to some extent,
yet the principal quantity runs in at the joints, and
therefore it is necessary that they should be defended
from the loose sand which often accompanies it.

We suffix a table from the “ Farm Drainage.”

TABLE H.—SuHowI1nG THE Cost oF SOLE-TILE OF DIFFERENT SIZES.

Size. Cost.

2 inches, $12 per 1000 pieces.

TABLES.

ra

TABLE I.—SHOWING THE NUMBER OF CUBIC YARDS OF EARTH IN EACH ROD
IN LENGTH IN DRAINS OF VARIOUS DIMENSIONS.

Inches.| 7 in. | Sin. | 9in.

30 |0.89 | 1.02 |

88 | 0.98 | 1.12
1.07 | 1.22
39 {1.16 | 1.324
42 {1.25 | 1.426
45 | 1.84 | 1.53
48 | 1.426 | 1.63
51 | 1515] 1.78
54 | 1.604 | 1.83
57 «611.69 | 1.935
60 | 1.78 | 2.086

1.146
1.26
1.375
1.49
1.604
1.72
1,833
1.95
2.06
2.18

}
10in. llin. | 12 in. | 13 in.

1.27
| 1.40
1.53
1.655
| 1.78
1.91
2.04
2.164
2.29
2.42

MEAN WIDTH.

1.40
1.54
1.68
1.82
1.96
2.10
2.24
2.38
2.52

2.66

2.29 Rees 2 80

1.53 | 1.655
1.68 | 1.82
1.83 | 1.986
1.986 | 2.15
2.14 | 2.82
2.29 | 2.48
2.444 | 2.65
2.60 | 281
2.75 | 2.98
2.90 | 3.14
3.056 | 3.31

14 in. | 15 in. | 16 in.

1.78 | 1.91

1.96
2.14
2.32
2.495
2.67
2.85
3.03
3.20
3.38
3.564

2.10
2.29
2.48
2.674
2.865
3.056

3.25
3.44
3.63
3.82

TABLE J.— SHOWING THE NUMBER OF TILES NECESSARY
DRAINS AT DIFFERENT INTERVALS.

Intervals

between the Drains,

in feet.

Oo nw
pt

Twelve-inch

Pipe.

2904
2420
2074
1815
1615
1452
1520
1210
1117
1057

|
|

Pipe.

2680
2234
1915
1676
1489
1540
1219
1117
1051

958

Pipe.

2489
2074
177

ay

1383
1244
1151
1037
957
888

| 2.04
2.24
2.244
2.65
2.85
3.055
3.26
3.46
3.666
3.87
4.074

17 in.

| 2.164
2.38
2.60
2.81
3.03
3.246
| 3.46
3.68
| 3.895 |
4.11
4.33

PER ACRE TO LAY

Thirteen-inch | Fourteen-inch| Fifteen-inch

Pipe.

2323
1936
1659
1452
1290
1161
1056

968 |

893

829

TABLE K.—SHOWING THE NUMBER OF RODS PER ACRE OF DRAINS AT DIF-
FERENT DISTANCES.

Intervals between the
Drains, in feet.

Rods
per Acre.

176
1463
125%
110
973

Intervals between the
Drains, in feet.

Rods
per Acre.

120 DRY WELLS.

6. Manner of laying the tile and completing the
drain. Beginning at the outlet, the trench can, of
course, be dug as narrow as possible, only allowing
space enough for the workman to place the tile.
The pipes should then be laid along the bank. If turf
is to be used for covering the joints, it should be
cut, and immediately at hand. The size of the pipes
for the mains must be determined by the number
of minors and the amount of water to be conveyed.
Generally one of four or five inches is sufficient ;
but when it is not, two can be placed abreast, or
one more aboye them. The workman, walking
backwards, should commence to lay the pipe care-
fully, securing a continuous channel, and preserving
the proper grade by the use of the line. ‘The joints
are secured as the work goes on, and the earth care-
fully shovelled in, and trodden down as hard as
possible, to prevent the washing of the sand.
Where the minors join the main, the junction must
not be too abrupt, but should turn gradually, and
enter it upon a curve, that neither may be obstructed
by the meeting of the currents.

There are many places where it is impossible to
find an outlet. If wells in the vicinity do not rise
to less than twelve or fifteen feet from the surface,
such tracts can be drained by digging dry wells,
and turning the water into them.

It is very convenient to construct traps in the
orchard when draining. These are formed by

THE EFFECT OF DRAINING. 121

sinking a hogshead, or, more permanently, by build-
ing a small reservoir of brick or stone. The drain
above leads into it, and the one below takes off the
surplus water. ‘These are very convenient for use
in the orchard, and in furnishing the workmen with
cool water. They are also interesting, as they show
the operation of the drains.

7. The discovery of obstructions. All drains will
sometimes become stopped, either by some animal
which has taken refuge in the pipe, or by sediment.
When such is the case, and the ground is wet, the
point can generally be detected by the external
appearance of the land. On a slope, the water will
often burst forth upon the surface. When this does
appear, the tile must be taken up at the obstructed
part and cleaned. Over drains from which there is
a continual flow of water, no crop should be planted
whose roots will be attracted by it so as to fill up
and choke the pipe; but there is no danger of this
over those whose flow is confined to the wet season,
and after heavy rains.

We have now considered the sources of moisture
in the soil, and the means of removing it, and thus
are prepared to notice the effect produced.

It promotes pulverization. ‘The comminution of
the soil is of great importance, as it permits the
free entrance of the air among its particles. Indeed,
of so much value is this pulverization of the ground,

11

122 VENTILATION OF THE SOIL.

that a system of cultivation was based upon it, and
the effects were remarkable, even without the
addition of the least manure. Before drainage has
taken place, this is impossible, as the ground is so
wet that the more it 1s worked the closer it becomes ;
but when it is dry it crumbles in handling.

The prevention of iyury from drought, which we
have already commented upon, is another benefit
which arises from draining.

The power of absorbing moisture. The dry and
friable soil is better prepared to drink in the dews
of the night, and thus is partially compensated for
what it has lost during the day by evaporation.
This is a potent source of fertility, for the air is
freighted with fertilizing gases, which the soil im-
bibes with the water.

The ventilation of the soil is also accomplished by
drainage. The earth contains substances which
require the oxygen of the atmosphere to decompose
and prepare them to become the food of plants.
While the soil is filled with stagnant water, decom-
position is arrested; but when the air takes its
place, it progresses rapidly. ‘This decomposition is
. slow combustion, and therefore generates heat, which
increases the warmth of the earth in the spring, at
which time it is so desirable.

It permits the warm, early showers to enter the soil
and aid decomposition, by eae the heat of
the ground.

EASIER DESTRUCTION OF WEEDS. 423

Drained land freezes deeper. This is a matter of
great importance to the orchardist, because the
roots of the trees remain frozen through the winter,
and are not liable to be affected so severely by the
vicissitudes of the climate, which often proves so
injurious to the fruit trees in the eastern portion of
our country.!

Draining deepens the soil, and furnishes a wide
feeding-ground for the roots, as before shown.

The weeds are destroyed more easily. The differ-
ence is just that which the farmer has observed in
killing them upon a wet and dry day. In the
former case the earth adheres to them, and they
soon take root again; while in the latter, they are |
readily torn up and withered. All aquatic plants
are also driven out.

The trees themselves become more hardy, bear more
abundantly, and continue more healthful; the fruit
as less liable to become spotted ; the flavor is greatly
improved ; and the trees are more uniform in growth.
A gentleman of England, who had drained a field
of ten acres, desired to ascertain the practical result
of the aeration of the soil. The field was divided
into five sections, each containing an equal number
of drains. Leaving that in the centre, and one on
each side, he selected the other two for experiment,
and conducted the termini of the drains, and sup-
plied them with a ventilator at each end. Imme-

1 See Exposure, p. 27.

124 INCREASE OF HEAT.

diately after the conclusion of the work a heavy
shower fell, and on the next day the difference was
very marked in their relative dryness. The land
was all planted with the same crop, and the returns
from those sections which were aerated was esti-
mated to be one-half more.

Prof. Stockhardt, in his “ Agricultural Chemistry,”
as translated by Dr. Henfry, thus enumerates the
effects of drainage:

‘“ Wet soils become drier. All our cultivated
plants are land plants, and these require for vig-
orous growth a soil which has moisture, but not in
that liquid form which it presents in standing water.
When the latter is the case, the roots can only
penetrate the earth to the depth at which the water
stands, and aquatic plants are likely to make their
appearance and displace those of land growth.

‘“¢ Some peaty soil becomes too mellow, because air
enters it, where the water had previously been, and
makes the humus produced by putrefaction decay
in too soft a state.

“Cold soil becomes warmer, for it now retains the
heat of the sun and air, which previously was in
great measure expended in producing evaporation.

“‘ Heavy soil becomes looser, more easily crumbled,
and softer ; when it dries, finer cracks are formed
{nan in the undrained, tenacious soils, and it is
more readily worked.

“ Sluggish soil becomes more active and powerful ;

MANURE MORE EFFECTIVE. 125

for, by becoming more open and warmer, the two
great natural processes by which the food of plants
is prepared and rendered soluble (weathering and
decay) proceed more rapidly, and to a greater depth.
Hence the same quantity of manure is more effect-
ive on drained than on undrained land.

“Finally, production becomes more certain. It is
evident the farmer, by draining, changes a fickle and
less fertile into a surer and far more productive and
grateful soil, and renders it, to a certain degree, in-
dependent of the weather, inasmuch as he carries
away harmlessly those extremes to which the in-
habitants of the northern hemisphere are most
commonly exposed. The dread that the rain and
snow-water would wash the manure out of the soil,
and rob it of its soluble nutriment in filtering
through the earth, has proved quite unfounded in
deep draining.”

i”

CHAPTER YV.

PULVERIZATION.

A CRUMBLING CONSISTENCY OF SOILS NECESSARY — THE IMPORTANCE
OF PULVERIZATION — STIFFNESS OF CLAYS— THE NON-RETENTION OF
SANDY SOILS —COLDNESS OF HEAVY EARTHS —SUMMERS — INJURIOUS
EFFECTS OF DROUGHT — EXAMPLE OF PROPER VALUATION OF ARABLE
SOIL—THEORY OF JETHRO TULL— EFFECT OF INSECTS UPON PUL-
VERIZATION — DEPTH — DIGGING CIRCLES AROUND TREES DEPRECATED
— POWER OF EXTENSION BY ROOTS — DEEP CULTIVATION AFFORDS
FRESH EARTH — MANNER OF OPERATION — THE SEASON — RESULTS
OF IT: RAPID ABSORPTION OF MOISTURE — FREE ADMISSION OF THE
AIR —THE MIXTURE OF EARTHS— THE DESTRUCTION OF INSECTS —
THE INCREASE OF HEAT.

CRUMBLING consistence of the soil is a ne-
cessary quality to the perfection of its fertility.

A tenacious clay is unproductive because it is stiff,
and it is therefore rendered an unsuitable pasture
for the roots of plants. Being solid, it resists the
attempt of the spongioles to extend themselves for
food; and even though there be an abundance of
pabulum present, still, as they cannot reach it, it is
as useless to the economy of plant life as though
it did not exist. This tenacity of the soil prevents
the air from penetrating and warming it, and also
prevents the decomposition of manurial substances.
It absorbs too much moisture, and holds it in a

PULVERIZATION OF LIGHT SOILS. 127

stagnant condition. We have already demonstrated,
in the chapter on “ Drainage,” that water should be
in motion, by percolation, to be beneficial. Clay
soils, or those having such a subsoil, prevent the
free action of drains, because the impervious clayey
stratum holds in check the water in its flow toward
the pipes. But this will be again considered.

Soils are often unfertile because of their too light
consistency. Such land may be made productive by
pulverization. ‘The idea which first presents itself
is, that such a course would render it lighter, and
consequently more sterile. We argue, however,
that its openness is decreased by such treatment,
and its firmness augmented. ‘The coarse particles
of the soil become disintegrated by frequent ex-
posure to the atmosphere, and they consequently
lie more compactly in proportion as their size is
lessened. A practical illustration is at hand.

A gentleman, when purchasing an estate in Mas-
sachusetts, hesitated at first, on account of the ex-
treme lightness and sterility of the land. The
surface-soil was but two inches in depth, while the
subsoil consisted of but four, of light yellow, sandy
loam, which rested upon sand and gravel. The
depth of cultivation in the neighborhood was not
more than from three to four inches, as the farmers
dreaded to plough up the sand, because it was
thought that it still more impoverished the soil.
Contrary to these agricultural traditions, he ploughed

128 BINDING EFFECT OF ROOTS.

the whole of his estate to a depth of from ten to
twelve inches. ‘The first year his crops were very
light, compared with those about him ; but still he
persisted in frequent and deep cultivation. Six
years after, his crops were more than double; he
possessed a firmer soil than any other farmer in the
neighborhood, and that to a depth of from ten to
thirteen inches, where formerly existed but two.
Not only was its fertility increased, but its capacity
for sustaining drought was placed beyond dispute.

Light soils both absorb and part with heat readily.
By pulverization they become so much more com-
pact that their capacity for the retention of heat
and moisture is increased. Prof. Stockhardt thus
illustrates the binding effect of the roots of vegeta-
tion upon light lands.

“ The first and principal condition of productive-
ness in a soil is a crumbling, soft consistency, and
this must not be lost through the operations of
tillage. The German farmer terms this condition,
which is especially favorable to growth, ‘ gahu’
(mellow). Whether this name be derived from gar,
which means completely, well, or from gahren (to
ferment), it is in either case expressive, but especi-
ally in the latter, since it is beyond doubt that
those processes of decomposition taking place in
the soil, which may be very properly regarded as a
kind of fermentation, contribute essentially toward
bringing it into this condition. What this is, and

DECOMPOSITION OF HUMUS. 129

how it arises, I conjecture, may be explained as
follows:

“In the more tenacious soils the carbonic acid
evolved in the decomposition of humus forms a
little cavity of humous substances; consequently
the whole mass becomes traversed by fine pores,

just as the carbonic acid in the fermentation of
bread renders the tough mass of paste porous.
The legion of animals, from the earth-worm to the
infusorium, act in the same way, namely, to loosen ;
since they penetrate and perforate the soil in all
directions, as do, moreover, the roots of plants in
proportion as the tenacity of the soil allows them
to spread. The efiect will be greatest in all these
directions when the soil is kept for a long period
undisturbed and in a uniform state of moisture, as
is the case when it exists under an overshadowing
cover of vegetation. Hence the soft and open con-
sistence which the soil exhibits where it has borne
clover, lucerne, rape, or lupines, or has lain fallow
for some time. If such soil is worked while wet,
the cavities become effaced, and the mass close and
clammy, just as wet fermented dough would be if
violently beaten. In freer, looser soils, or those too
loose by nature, the earth also attains a mellow con-
dition through the cultivation of the above-named
crops; in such, however, this condition is charac-
terized by the soil becoming less loose, pulverulent,
and consequently more cohesive. This beneficial

130 NECESSITY OF PULVERIZATION.

change, therefore, by which is produced a crumbling
consistence of the soil, not however through sub-
division, but rather by binding, is doubtless to be
ascribed to the strong net-work of fine root-fibers,
which can develop, spread, and ramify much more
in the loose than in heavy and close soils.”

The importance of pulverization appears from these
considerations.

1. The stiffness of clay soils prevents the drains
from accomplishing the work for which they were
intended.

2. Silicious and gravelly soils are unproductive,
because they do not retain the heat, gases, and
moisture, as they would if properly pulverized.

3. Heavy earths are cold if not pulverized. They
cannot absorb heat from the atmosphere, because it
does not penetrate them; and they do not receive
it from the decomposition of manurial substances,
as such a process is arrested by the absence of the
oxygen of the air, and the presence of stagnant
water. The fact that air fills pulverized and culti-
vated land, can be proved by plunging a pot of
earth under water, when bubbles will rise contain-
ing the air which was forced out when the water
ran in.

The editor of that excellent periodical, “ The
Gardeners’ Chronicle,’ thus beautifully illustrates
the influence of “underground climate”: “ The

UNDERGROUND CLIMATE. 131

roots of plants, although they burrow beneath the
surface, are not on that account insensible to the
influences which are felt by the stem and branches
above. On the contrary, they are fully as sensitive,
or even more so. If leaves and flowers wither be-
neath the scorching air, so do roots when the earth
around them becomes parched; if the verdant
foliage rejoices in the rain-drop, not less is it grate-
ful to the earth-bound root; if cold paralyzes the
blossom, and compels the foliage to shrink and
perish, roots also are affected in like manner. On
the other hand, that warmth which causes the
blossom to unfold and the leaf to open its bosom to
the gentle breath of spring, acts equally upon the
root, exciting it to growth, and putting in action
all the sucking force by which the leaves and flow-
ers are nourished. Nor is the access of air less
important to one than to the other; both extremi-
ties of plants feed on air,— the roots even more than
the leaves. Place a plant where the air can gain
no access to its leaves, and they fall off, and are
followed by the decay of the stem. Roots, if en-
tirely deprived of air, will gradually shrink and die.
Hence it is that the condition of the air in the
ground, the temperature and moisture of the soil
itself, require to be regulated, as well as that of the
atmosphere which rests upon it; and thus the im-
portance of regulating properly underground climate
becomes evident.”

152 ARTIFICIAL HEAT.

Heat in the earth occupied by fruit trees has
been said by some cultivators to be so important
that borders have been prepared, walled, and floored
with cement, and pipes have been introduced con-
taining it. ‘The trees planted in soil thus prepared
have been remarkable for their fine foliage, perfect
fruit, and the greater maturity of their wood. This
bottom-heat is esteemed highly by all good gar-
deners, and its effect on many plants is wonderful.
Compare, as an example, two specimens of the same
species, — the one growing in an unprepared open
soil, and the other plunged in the warm borders of
a green-house or hot-bed.

4. Unpulverized land is sour. Mr. Jos. F. W.
Johntson remarks upon this subject: ‘“ Under the
influence of air, the decomposition of the vegetable
matters of the soil proceeds more rapidly; it is
more speedily resolved into those simple forms —
carbonic acid and water, chiefly — which are fitted to
administer to the growth of new vegetable matter.
In the absence of air, not only does decomposition
proceed more slowly, but the substances immedi-
ately produced by it are frequently unwholesome
to the plant, and therefore are fitted to injure or
materially retard its growth.

“When the oxygen of the air is more or less
excluded, the vegetable matter of the soil takes this
element from such of the earthy substances as it is
capable of decomposing, and reduces. them to a

INCREASE OF CAPILLARY ATTRACTION. 133

lower state of oxidation. Thus it converts the red,
or per-oxide of iron, into the prot-oxide, and acts in
the same manner upon the oxides of manganese.
It also takes their oxygen from the sulphates (as
from gypsum), and converts them into sulphurets.
These lower oxides of iron and manganese are in-
jurious to vegetation ; and it is one of the beneficial
purposes served by turning up the soil in ploughing,
or by otherwise loosening it, so as to allow the free
admission of the atmosphere, that the natural pro-
duction of these oxides is either in a great measure
prevented, or, when produced, they speedily become
harmless by the absorption of an additional dose of
oxygen.”

d. Drought has an injurious effect on unpulver-
ized land.

The pulverization of the soil increases capillary
attraction, and therefore, to a great extent, prevents
drought. Prof. Leslie found, upon investigation,
that capillary attraction increased in an inverse
ratio of the diameter of the soil: if the spaces were
one hundredth of an inch, the attraction would
extend about four inches, but with those of one ten
thousandth, it was increased to twenty-five feet.

The illustration of the effect of pulverization
upon the soil in preventing drought is somewhat
similar, as is the result, to that under the same
head in the chapter upon draining. (a) in the figure
represents the soil which is tilled of only a few

12

134 FIRM SUBSOILS.

inches in depth, and from which the roots draw all
their nourishment; (b) is an impervious stratum,

~~~
AND

or very firm subsoil, which the roots can hardly
enter, and the noxious gases which it contains are
poisonous, because the air does not gain admittance
to it. Not only does this stratum retard the ex-
tension of the roots downwards, but it prevents any
benefits from accruing to the surface-soil from the
drainage below; (c) represents the underlying
stratum, which was formerly filled with stagnant
water. ‘This was removed by the drains, and would
add a fine and inviting field to the roots, if the
impervious stratum could be broken up, and the
air gain admittance ; (d) shows the position of the
drains, which have performed their work, and yet
the cultivator is dissatisfied because they do not, on
account of this hard subsoil, prevent the evil effects
of drought. Thus, when a dearth of rain occurs, it
can be readily seen that the surface-soil must be-

VALUE OF LAND. 155

come parched, and the effect upon the tree be the
same as when without efficient 1 geste

‘ey
\WC?}Ky Ke

But remove the stratum (0b), in the last diagram,
and the whole earth which was drained is pen-
etrated by the atmosphere, decomposition com-
mences, heat is obtained, fertility increased, the
drains are made efficient, and the pasture-ground of
the roots is largely increased.

The purchaser generally values land by the
square foot, but the judicious cultivator estimates
it by the cubic foot. If he wishes to increase his
income, and is about to add to the superficial area
of his arable land, let him consider whether the
same amount of money spent in placing another
acre of fertile earth immediately under that which
he now possesses would not yield a more profitable
return.

Jethro Tull considered this subdivision of the
soil as the great secret of husbandry, and thought

136 EXPERIMENTS OF JETHRO TULL.

that manure was superfluous. By this pulveriza-
tion he raised several successive crops of wheat:
upon the same land, while his neighbors were com-
pelled to resort to a rotation of crops. Considering
the state of agricultural science at the period in
which he lived, and the numerous obstacles which
he surmounted in popular prejudice, and his own
enfeebled health, he is certainly entitled to great
praise. In his “ New Husbandry,” he says: “ It is
without dispute that one cubical foot of this minute
powder may have more internal superfices than a
thousand feet of the same soil tilled in the common
manner ; and I believe no two arable earths in the
world do exceed one another in their natural fer-
tility twenty times; that is, one cubic foot of the
richest is not able to produce an equal quantity of
vegetables, ceteris partibus, as twenty cubic feet of
the poorest: therefore, it is not strange that the
poorest, when by pulverizing it has obtained one
hundred times the internal superfices of the rich,
untilled land, should exceed it in fertility. Or, if
a foot of the poorest were made to have twenty
times the superfices of a foot of such rich land, the
poorest might produce an equal quantity of vege-
tables with the rich.

“There is another manifest advantage when a
soil has been finely pulverized, — the roots are
supplied with nourishment nearer to them on all
sides than they could be if the soil was coarser, as

THE WORK OF INSECTS. 137

it is in common tillage; and the roots in the one
must extend much further than in the other to
reach an equal quantity of nourishment; they must
fill above twenty times the space to collect the
requisite amount of food.”

The part which insects perform in the pulveriza-
tion of the soil is often overlooked. White, in his
‘** Natural History of Selborne,” remarks upon this
subject: “ The most insignificant insects and rep-
tiles are of much more consequence, and have a
greater influence in the economy of nature, than
the incurious are aware of. They are mighty in
their effects, from their numbers and fecundity, as
well as from that minuteness which renders them
so little an object of attention. Earth-worms, though
in appearance a small and despicable link in the
chain of nature, would, if lost, make a lamentable
chasm. To make no mention of the birds and
quadrupeds which are supported by them, worms
are great promoters of vegetation, by boring, perfo-
rating, and loosening the soil, and rendering it
pervious to the rain and fibers of plants, by drawing
straws, and stalks of leaves and twigs into it; they
also throw up an infinite number of lumps of earth,
called worm-casts, which, being their excrement, is
a fine manure for grass and grain. Worms also
probably provide new soil for hills and slopes when
the rain has washed the earth away. Gardeners

and farmers often express their detestation of worms;
fy

158 SUBSOIL PLOUGHING.

the former because they render their walks un-
sightly, and cause them much work ; and the latter
because, as they think, they eat their green corn.
But they would find, if deprived of them, that the
earth would soon become cold, hard-bound, void of
fermentation, and consequently sterile.”

Mr. Mechi, of England, so distinguished for his
appreciation of manure in a liquid form, thus enu-
merates the benefits of pulverization in a speech
upon deep cultivation: “ Nature herself has proved
the necessity of some degree of cultivation of the
soil by disintegrating the surface of our globe by
the use of the chemical aid of air and water; by
clothing the earth with a vegetation which was
adapted by Almighty wisdom to its soil and climate.
In vain does man select the most imperishable
material as a record of his skill; chemical affinity,
ultimately, by the action of heat and cold, of air
and water, decomposes and crumbles to dust the
architectural beauties of antiquity. It is a singular
fact, that rarely do we meet with a farmer who
would deny the benefit of a long summer fallow
for tenacious soils—I mean a frequent ploughing
of the surface-soil; and yct, how few are prepared
to admit the advantage of a similar operation on
the subsoil! This fact, however, can hardly be
wondered at when we consider that the greater part
of the heavy and hard-bottomed land of this king-
dom [England] is undrained, or drained in too

SUBSOILING HURTFUL WITHOUT DRAINAGE. 139

shallow a manner to admit of subsoiling. Experi-
ence has shown that subsoiling without previous
draining is injurious. On undrained lands the open
furrows act as drains to the disturbed soil; but
when the subsoil is broken up below, these furrows,
haying no subterranean escape for water, become
after rains a puddled mass, into which the horses’
feet force the upper soil, very much to its injury.
In fact, it is a great impediment to cultivation, and
is hurtful to the crops, and therefore drainage must
precede subsoiling.

‘‘There are many reasons why a disturbance of
the subsoil may be profitable where deep ploughing
or digging would be ruinous. Let us beware
against burying our surface-soil, which has so long
been cultivated and manured; if we do this, and
bring to the surface a bad, stagnated, undecomposed
subsoil, we shall feel its ill effects for years. I
speak practically in this matter; for wherever the
yellow, soapy subsoil of the new ditches has been
spread on the surface, it makes a miserable seed-bed,
and is difficult to work. Let us keep the surface-
soil where it is, for in breaking up the subsoil quite
enough of it will become mixed with the upper.
As the solutions of lime and manure, as well as
atmospheric influences, gradually ameliorate the
condition of the under soil, we can year by year
gain one inch by deeper ploughing; remembering,
however, that this will be a hundred tons of new

140 SOILS WHICH REQUIRE PULVERIZATION.

earth per acre, which is a pretty strong dressing.
I will now state what soils require deep cultivation.
Strong, heavy, tenacious clays of almost every de-
scription are of this class. These should be broken
up in dry weather, because the treading of many
horses is not then injurious; besides, when the sub-
soil is dry, it is torn or broken up into fragments
and irregular masses, which freely admits the sum-
mer heat and evening dew. If done in wet weather,
the putty subsoil would collapse, and the surface
become kneaded by the treading of horses. Sandy,
silty, or gravelly soils, having a hard bottom of iron-
sandstone, or masses of pudding-stone, are much
benefited by subsoiling.

“T find by breaking up these soils to the depth
of from twenty-one to twenty-four inches, instead
of four to five, as is usual, that all plants succeed
better, particularly roots, green crops, and clover.
They descend deeper, and of course are much less
subject to injury from extreme cold or drought;
and drainage secures them from stagnant water.
I speak feelingly on this subject; for before I drained
and subsoiled my land, my winter as well as my
summer crops were often injured. Iam convinced
that it is the freezing of the roots in our shallow
soils that often destroys our clover or tares, and
our wheat. I have traced the roots of wheat and
tares from nine to eighteen inches below the surface,
as early as Christmas, when the soil has. been suf-

THE PROPER DEPTH. 141

ficiently moved and pulverized; and we all know
that clover roots descend very deeply into good
friable subsoils. The pan, or impervious mass that
is often formed immediately below the plough, is a
ereat impediment to the roots of plants; but sub-
soiling remedies this evil. It often requires great
force to break up this pan; but the advantages
accruing from subsoiling such lands as I have
described, are observable for several years. One
result of deepening the staple is, that it causes a
less rapid but more perfect development of the
plants; their growth is prolonged, and forms a
striking contrast to the hasty prematurity and
inferior produce of shallow soils, which have a hard
and unpulverized substratum.

«¢ Another advantage of subsoiling is the destruc-
tion of deep-rooted weeds. I know of instances
where the roots of thistles and other obnoxious
plants, as thick as one’s finger, have been disturbed
by the fork and in subsoiling, which were merely
pruned by the ordinary plough.”

Depth of pulverization. As was noticed under
the last head, the more we gain in the depth of
fertile soil, the more valuable does our land become,
because the root-pasture is increased. It is impos-
sible to go too deep as long as we do not interfere
with the drains. The usual number of inches of
cultivation is from twenty-four to thirty-six. The

142 LENGTH OF ROOTS.

importance of deep pulverization may be stated as
follows :

1. The range of the roots is increased. It is
scarcely possible to limit the extent to which the
minute roots of trees may spread themselves in
search of food in well-prepared ground. It has
been said by some writers that the distance from
the trunk to the termination of the roots was the
same as the height of the tree; but careful investi-
gators have discovered that fibers, invisible to the
eye, extend far beyond this. An experiment of
Tull’s is presented which aptly illustrates this point.

“Two pieces of land, or ridges, were drilled with
turnips, in rows a foot apart, and were very even in
them; the ground at both ends and on one side
was hard and unploughed, and the turnips, not
being hoed, were very poor, small, and yellow, except
the outside three rows (b c and d) which stood
next to the ridge (e), which land, having been
ploughed and harrowed at the time a should have
been, gave a dark flourishing color to these three

EXPERIMENTS WITH TURNIPS. 143

rows. The turnips in the row (d) which stood
furthest off from the newly-ploughed land (e) re-
ceived so much benefit from it as to grow twice as
large as any of the more distant rows ; the row (c),
being a foot nearer, became twice as large as those
in (d); but the row (6) which was next to the land
(e) became larger still.

« A like observation to this on the land (e) has
been made in the turnip-fields of several farmers,
where lands adjoining the turnips have been well
tilled, and all the turnips of the contiguous lands,
which were within three or four feet, received great
benefit, in the same manner as did the rows (bcd).
This is a still stronger proof of the length of roots
and the benefits of deep hoeing than the former
illustration, as all these turnips had been well hand-
hoed, which is a good reason why the benefits of
the deep pulverization should be perceivable at a
greater distance from it than in mine, because, as
mine were not hoed at all, they had not strength to
send out their roots through so many feet of un-
pulverized earth, as these through the soil which
had been pulverized by the hoe, although but
shallowly.

“(f) is a piece of hard ground of about two
perches in length, and about two or three feet broad,
lying betwixt those two lands, which had not been
ploughed that year. It was remarkable that during
the length of this interjacent hard ground the

144 EXPERIMENT WITH THE WITCH-ELM.

turnips in the rows (bcd) were as small and yellow
as any in the land. As those in the row (d), about
three feet distant from the land (e), received a double
increase, it proves that they drew as much nourish-
ment from the land (e) as from (a) where they
stood. In their own soil they must have extended
a yard all around, or else they could not have
reached the land (e), and it is therefore probable
that these few roots penetrated more than another
yard, which gave these turnips their increased size.

“ A chalk-pit, contiguous to a barn, the area of
which was about fifty perches, was made clean, and
swept, so that there was not even the appearance
of a vegetable, any more than upon the barn-floor ;
straw was then thrown into the pit for the cattle to
lie on. About three years after, when the dung
which had been made thereon was hauled away, it
was found that the top of the chalk was covered all
over with roots; which came from a witch-elm
which was not more than five or six yards in length
from top to bottom, and which was about five yards
above, and eleven yards from the area of the pit.
Thus in three years these roots had extended them-
selves eight times the height of the tree.”

If, as was perceived in the first illustration, tur-
nips cast their roots six and nine feet horizontally
to obtain nourishment, the distance to which a full-- |
grown fruit tree will throw out its fibrous roots can
hardly be computed. Mr. J. J. Thomas, of New

BREADTH OF CULTURE. 145

York, in a report to the American Pomological
Society says, “I have just examined with some care
the length of the roots of my dwarf pears, which
were set out last year on my newly-occupied piece
of ground in this village. They were two years
from the bud when transplanted, and had received
moderately good, but not high or rich culture. I
found no difficulty in tracing the roots three and
one-half feet from the trees, beyond which the fibers
were too small to follow easily through a dry and
tenacious soil. ‘They had evidently extended them-
selves over four feet, and thus, small and young as »
the trees were, they had already formed a circle of
roots about them eight feet in diameter. I have no
doubt that in richer and more porous soil the roots
would have run to a greater distance.

‘* A most important suggestion is afforded by this
fact, which is, the indispensable necessity of great
breadth of culture when applied to young trees.
These of which we have spoken were dwarfs, and
the quince stocks on which they were grown are
generally supposed to confine their roots to a com-
paratively small circle; still they had already gained
a diameter of nearly twice the height of the tree.
The practice, then, of digging circles about the stems,
instead of cultivating the whole surface, is compar-
atively useless, unless those circles embrace the
whole extent of the roots, besides the soil which

the roots of the surrounding grass may penetrate.
13

146 SPADING AROUND THE TRUNK.

It is not usual for grass plants to send out fibers
two feet ; but, admitting the distance ordinarily to
be only one foot, there must still be dug a ring a
foot wider on every side of the tree, if we would
prevent the grass from injuring the newly-extended
roots. Two feet added to the eight feet circle
already required, would make ten feet, which would
be the smallest dimension for cultivated circles for
dwarf pears the second year after they have been
transplanted, when surrounded by grass land.
When the trees have grown a few more years, the
cultivation should extend much further; in other
words, it should cover the whole surface, and noth-
ing less will answer under any circumstances.

«There are many who do not cultivate their trees
at all, but allow them to stand in ground occupied
with weeds and grass, or hardened by summer
drought. The roots of such trees will not, of course,
travel very far; and they will make but little
erowth, or remain stationary. There are many
others who think it quite sufficient to spade a small
circle around each, according to the rule once given
by Mr. Downing, and copied since by other writers,
which is to extend the circle as wide as the spread.
of the branches. The heads of my dwarf pears,
already spoken of, average two feet in diameter,
and a circle dug of this size, according to the rule,
would be only one-fourth the diameter of the roots,
and extend over but a sixteenth of their surface,
producing scarcely a perceptible benefit.

EXPERIMENTS WITH THE PEACH. 147

«The practice, then, of digging circles may be set
down as positively injurious, by inducing cultivators
to believe that they are doing something really
useful, when in fact they are doing almost nothing
at all. Itshould be wholly discarded, and thorough
broadcast culture only relied upon.

«A few years since I performed an experiment
to determine definitely the distance at which the
peach would draw nourishment through its roots.
A dozen trees, of the same size and variety, were
set out on a piece of uniform land, and were culti-
vated for a few years until they were about ten feet
high, when the land was laid to grass. <A portion
of the trees were within three feet of a compost
heap, the rest at various distances from it. Those
standing nearest the compost made a summet’s
erowth of four feet eight inches. The tree that
stood seven feet off, almost as far as the height of
the tree, threw out shoots two feet five inches long.
The next, at a distance of fifteen feet, made shoots
fourteen inches long, while all others, twenty or
more feet distant, grew but seven inches.

“Thus we see that a peach tree ten feet high was
doubled in its linear growth by a heap of manure
fifteen feet distant, from which only a small portion
of the rvots on one side could derive any nour-
ishment, proving conclusively that the roots must
extend on each side to at least an equal distance ;
that is, that they form a radiating circle of fibers,

148 PRODUCTION OF A NEW SOIL.

no less than thirty feet in diameter, or three times
as great in breadth as the height of the tree. How
perfectly futile the attempt to benefit such a broad
surface by spading a circle two or three feet in
diameter, which would be but a hundredth part of
the whole area of the branching fibres!”

The importance of an extensive plant-pasture
has been proved by the previous examples. Deep,
thorough pulverization of the soil is absolutely
essential to the growth and success of trees, and
their fruit shows clearly whether or not this fact
has been regarded. 2 |

2. Deep cultivation introduces a fresh virgin soil
from below into the old, exhausted earth above; and
frequently lands which are unproductive have a
‘subsoil of great wealth. Rains which have perco-
lated through the surface have carried to the under
soil the fertility which they themselves contained,
and much of that which was before held in the
upper ; and, by turning and composting them, a
soil which has never been disturbed, rich in those
substances which the atmosphere elaborates into
food for vegetable life, is brought up for use. But
in some localities the subsoil contains those prop-
erties which are decidedly noxious to plants, and
therefore the immediate mixture of these with the
arable earth would be an injury. When fertilizing
substances from beneath are added to the surface
mould, the effect is of course beneficial; but when

MIXTURE OF SOILS. 149

injurious matter is known, or thought to exist, the
mixture of the strata should not be effected until
the drains have run for a few months to temper
them, and reduce these elements of injury to those
of fertility.

The result of the mixture of soils will be consid-
ered under our next subdivision.

3. By deep pulverization soils become mixed.
We agree with Mr. Johnston, that many soils are
deficient in some qualities which are necessary to
productiveness. ‘Thus humus abounds to an excess
in peaty soils, and an addition to their earthy sub-
stance is a means of improvement. ‘This is under-
stood by farmers, and therefore sand or gravel is
applied with good effect; and likewise muck or
clay is carted upon and mixed with porous soils,
and sand with tenacious earths. This alters their
physical condition. It makes the clay more open,
and the peat and sand more tenacious. A chemical
as well as a mechanical change is effected. Often-
times a soil is barren which contains all the ele-
ments of fertility, with a single exception. Thus
some lands require lime, which they might secure

if the substratum should be mixed with the cul-

tivated soil. Earths are often mixed by surface
15*

150 ADMISSION OF THE AIR.

cultivation, as in the diagram before, when the
porous substratum crops out; but where a stratum:
underlies the surface-soil at a regular depth it can
only be incorporated with it by deep ploughing or
digging.

4. The atmosphere is admitted to the roots, and
consequently the fertility increased by deep cultiva-
tion. When a boy, I discovered a hole in which a
woodchuck had residence, and commenced to dig
him out of his intrenchment. The space dug over
was about eight feet square and two feet deep. A
handful of grass-seed was scattered upon the spot,
that our sport might not injure the mowing the
next year, and very little hay was expected ; but it
so far eclipsed the surrounding fields in the luxuri-
ance and quality of its crop, that the whole field
was treated in the same manner. This result must
have been attained through admission of air to the
soil, as no manure was applied. Prof. C. W. John-
son says M. Saussure has shown how essential a
free access of air is to the roots of plants. He
“found that oxygen gas was absorbed by the roots
as well as by the leaves, and that it is there united
with carbon, and transmitted to the leaves to be
decomposed. It has been proved that vegetation is
greatly increased by nourishing it with water im-
pregnated with oxygen gas; hence, too, the superi-
ority of rain-water. Some recent experiments were
made by Mr. Hill, demonstrating the great benefit

ABSORPTION OF AQUEOUS VAPOR. 151

plants derive from oxygen gas applied to their roots.
This is another reason for increasing the moisture
of the soil by deep and complete ploughings ; for
M. Humboldt and M. Schubler have clearly shown
that a dry soil is quite incapable of absorbing
oxygen gas. ‘Thus it must be evident to the most
listless observer that the deeper and more thoroughly
a soil is pulverized, and its earth made permeable,
the greater will be the absorption by it of both
oxygen and watery vapor from the surrounding
atmosphere.

“Tt is, perhaps, needless to prove that the roots
of most cultivated plants will penetrate, under favor-
able circumstances, to a much greater depth in
search of moisture than they usually do, on account
of the hardened subsoil. Thus, the roots of the
wheat plant in loose, deep soils have been found to
descend to a depth of two or three feet, or even
more. It is evident, if plants are principally sus-
tained in dry weather by the atmospheric aqueous
vapor absorbed by the soil, that at such a time their
supply of water at the roots must be increased, by
enabling the atmospheric vapor and gases, as well
as the roots of plants, to attain a greater depth ; for
the interior of a well-pulverized soil, be it remem-
bered, continues steadily to absorb this essential
food of vegetables even when the surface of the
earth is drying in the sun. ‘The free access of air
to the soil adds to its fertility, by promoting the
decomposition of organic substances in it.”

152 DECOMPOSITION OF THE ROCKS.

Prof. Voelcker, of the Agricultural Institution at
Cirenchester, said, in a lecture on this subject:

“ Into the composition of sandy soils but a very
small amount of those substances enter which are
food for plants. Clay soils contain insoluble sili-
cates ; and undecomposed materials, from which the
clay is formed, furnish, on gradual decomposition,
potash, which is one of the most fertilizing constit-
uents. By working the land, fresh quantities of
granite are brought under the influence of the
atmosphere, and the felspar contained in it is grad-
ually decomposed, and furnishes soluble potash.
This benefit is not reaped from stirring a sandy soil.
However much it is worked we cannot eliminate
such a result from it, because there is not potash
present in any considerable quantity ; but in many
clay soils the supply is almost inexhaustible; and
they possess, to a remarkable degree, the power of
absorbing moisture and fertilizing gases from the
atmosphere. ‘They also have the power of absorb-
ing carbonic acid gas and ammonia,—two constitu-
ents which furnish the materials on which the plant
builds up its organic structure.

‘The more we plough the glebe, the more readily
' we give the atmosphere access to it, the more it is
pulverized, the greater is the absorbing surface, and
the more beneficial is the result. The advantages
of deep ploughing, as a mode of improving clay
soils, become more and more apparent from year

EXPERIMENT IN TRENCHING. 153

to year. The nature of the subsoil must determine
whether it is more advantageous to plough at once
very deep, or gradually to improve the condition
of the land by going a little deeper every year or
two, or to allow it to remain in its natural posi-
tion.”

A gentleman in the vicinity of Boston commenced,
about five years since, to prepare the ground for
an orchard. The lot consisted of two acres. One
acre and a half, which we will call (a), was trenched
with the spade three feet deep, and the remaining
half-acre was roughly ploughed to a depth of ten
inches. ‘The whole had been thoroughly drained,
and was fertilized equally; part of the manure
being mixed with the soil by spading and ploughing,
and part applied upon the surface as a dressing.
Pear trees were planted on the whole lot. The
first year those upon (a) were covered with beautiful
rich foliage, increased wonderfully in stock at the
butt, and some made a growth of a few inches.
Those upon the ploughed ground looked sickly and
yellow the whole season, their foliage was small and
malformed, and they increased neither in shoot nor
stock. The owner became so dissatisfied with the
shallow cultivation, that he could not wait to see
the result of the experiment, and the next fall took
up one-half of the trees upon the improperly pre-
pared ground and trenched it thoroughly with the
spade, thus leaving only one-quarter of an acre

154 MANNER OF TRENCHING.

poorly cultivated. At the close of the second season,
the trees upon (a) clothed themselves from top to—
bottom with rich shoots, and bore some fine fruit.
Pears of the Winter Nelis variety weighed nine
ounces, and several of them seven ounces, while
some of his Duchesse d’ Angouleme weighed from
twenty-two to twenty-seven ounces. ‘Those upon
the second lot prepared had much the same ap-
pearance as those upon (a) the first year; and those
upon (c), the ploughed land, continued to look
sickly and slender, and throwing out but here and
there a spindling shoot. In the fifth season the
crop from (a) was sufficient to pay the original
cost of the whole orchard. ‘That upon the second,
though one year behind (a), were yet very good;
while the trees upon the ploughed soil were little
larger than when they were transplanted.

How shall the soil be pulverized 2 The most
thorough mode is that performed with the spade.
A trench of the requisite depth, and two or three
feet in width, is opened across the lower side of the

land to be worked. ‘This is represented in the dia-
eram by (a), the earth being thrown out to (c).
Also the surface-soil of the next space (b) is thrown

MANNER OF TRENCHING. 155

to (c). ‘The subsoil at (b) is then turned into the
trench (a), at the same time being finely broken
with the spade. The surface-soil at (d) is thrown
on the subsoil, spaded from (b) to (a), and so the
work is continued, — the surface-soil being always
in the same relative position as before.

The reason for this course, rather than to turn
the surface-soil of (b) into the bottom of the trench
(a), and the subsoil above it, is readily found in the
fact, that when the tree is first planted its roots
reach but a few inches in depth into the soil, and
they require fine earth about them, which has
already been elaborated by the atmosphere and
fertilized by rain and cultivation... When the roots
find their way into the subsoil, it will have become
tempered, purified, and fertilized. ‘There are soils
where the mixture of the two strata is, however, of
decided benefit. Such is the case when a stratum
of clay underlies a light soil, or the opposite. When
peaty land has a subsoil of clay, their mixture has
a remarkable effect. The Farmers’ Encyclopedia
says of such mixtures:

“ There is, perhaps, no agricultural improvement
in its immediate and permanent effects more 1m-
portant than the careful and judicious mixture of
soils. ‘This mode of improving the land was one
which very early engaged the attention of the
farmer. Nature herself, in fact, portrayed to him in
very intelligible language the means of producing

156 THE SPADE A FERTILIZER.

the richest of soils by the mixture of the strata.
The solid matters brought down from the distant
hills by the flood-waters, and deposited in the val-
leys where the waters rested, formed, by the mixture
of the different strata, the rich alluvial soils of the
old and new worlds.”

The character of the subsoil must be considered
before a mixture is allowed. A writer says: “ By
spade husbandry, extensive districts of blowing sand
have been brought into cultivation in Flanders ;
while in various parts of England it has been equally
successful ; witness, as an example, the gardens of
the cottages of the black, hungry sands of Bagshot-
heath, the poor chalks of Beachy Head, in Sussex,
and the deep, trembling bogs of Lancashire. By
many agriculturists the spade is considered the best
instrument of fertilization, not only for gardens, but
also for fields. ‘The mere moving of the soil pro-
duces incalculable benefit. By the spade, and it
only, some of the poorest, thinnest-skinned lands of
Surrey have, by the deep trenching of the cottagers,
been made to produce all the common vegetables.
‘No gardener,’ observed the late Dr. Fellowly,
‘would think of planting potatoes, cabbages, or
carrots in ploughed land if he could get it dug;
for the difference of produce would far more than
compensate him for the increased cost.’ ”’

The Hon. Marshall P. Wilder once performed
an experiment for the purpose of determining the

THE SEASON FOR PULVERIZATION. 157

propriety of trenching with the spade for ordinary
farm crops. ‘The land was carefully pulverized to
a depth of three feet, and was then planted with
carrots. The result proved unquestionably the profit
of a thorough preparation of the soil.

But under some circumstances, such as the scar-
city of labor, some more economical method must
be adopted. A common plough, with two horses or
oxen, first turns as deep a furrow as possible, and
the subsoil plough following immediately behind it
with four cattle, loosens the earth to from eighteen
to twenty inches more in depth. After this loosen-
ing of the subsoil has taken place, frequent pulver-
ization of the surface by cross-ploughing tends to
comminute the soil more perfectly. It is well to
cultivate the ground for one season with some hoed
crop before planting the trees, which loosens the
earth still more, and gives time for the subsoil to
become sweetened.

The season for pulverization. The best time for
subsoil pulverization is the autumn, because the
frost will then penetrate the earth during the
winter. In some localities insects nearly ruin the
crops; these bury themselves in the soil which is
not disturbed. If ploughing is performed in the
autumn, these insects are exposed to the weather,
and must nearly all perish; but if this is done in
the spring, they are aided in their resurrection,

14

158 EFFECTS OF PULVERIZATION.

appear in large numbers, and cause great havoc.
Preparation in the fall is absolutely necessary when
the land is to be planted the next spring; but to
allow the ground to remain fallow, or to cultivate
it with hoed crops during the season before planting,
is productive of more satisfactory results.

The results of pulverization. It is well in every
important work to consider the effect to be produced.
This, as relating to comminution of the soil, is —

1. The more ready destruction of weeds.

2. The decrease of the tenacity of heavy, and the
increase of it in light, soils.

3. Greater fertility, on account of more rapid
absorption of moisture.

This is a very important quality in pulverized
earths, especially in warm and dry climates. Sir
H. Davy observed that “the power of the soil to
absorb water by cohesive attraction depends in a
ereat measure on the state of division of its parts ;
the more divided they are, the greater is their ab-
sorbent power.”

4. The free admission of the air to the soil.

5. The enlargement of root-pasture.

6. The mixture of earths.

7. The destruction of insects.

8. Increase of heat at the season when it is
desirable.

M. Alphonse de Candolle has admirably illustrated

INCREASE OF HEAT IN THE SOIL. 159

the effect upon vegetation of heat in the soil: “It
has been proved, both by observation and experiment,
that heat acts locally upon the organs of plants
much more energetically than by transmission from
one part to another. The best proof of this is
afiorded in the fact, that if the branch of a tree that
is growing in the open air be protected, or intro-
‘duced into a pit for exotic plants, its leaves will be
developed before those upon the other branches.
So, also, in the polar regions, the warmth of the air
causes the plant to leaf and flower while the ground
is still extremely cold. Nevertheless, since all
plants pump up their sap from the ground, the
temperature of the latter is an important element.
During great heat, it is cooler than the air; during
great cold, it is warmer; and the more variable a
climate is, the greater the importance to the gar-
dener of this phenomenon. ‘The heating or cooling
effect of the soil will be most sensibly felt in those
organs which are nearest the root, in those to which
the sap flows rapidly and copiously, and in those
which are bad conductors of heat. Thus the tem-
perature of the interior of the cocoa-nut differs little
from that of the earth around its roots, because of
the thickness of the husk, which conducts heat
badly; whilst, on the other hand, the young shoots
and flowers of trees acquire the temperature of the
surrounding air. Plants whose roots penetrate the
earth deeply will resist vicissitudes in the surround-

160 TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL.

ing air better than those whose roots are superficial,
because the temperature of the earth varies less the
deeper we penetrate it.

‘“‘ Many interesting observations have been made
with regard to the heat of the soil at different depths;
but, for our purpose, it is necessary only to consider
such as extend to about three feet from the surface:
for the roots of most. plants penetrate no deeper ;
those which do, are generally such as affect a very
hght soil; and even great trees have more root-fibres
near the surface .than at the depth of three feet. It
matters httle to our investigations that, in our cli-
mate, a stratum of unvarying temperature exists at
a depth of from twenty to thirty feet; that this
stratum is found at three feet below the surface in
some very uniform climates, and at much greater
depth in such extremely cold countries as Siberia.
We shall consider only the monthly variations in .
the upper three feet of the soil.

“That the temperature of the soil at this depth
is less variable than that of the air, is proved by
Mr. Muncke’s observation at Heidelberg, which
shows that the diurnal variations are not felt beyond
three feet, nor the monthly beyond five. At Brus-
sels, M. Quetelet has shown that the annual varia-
tions present the following decrease, in descending
from the surface to a depth of three and one-fourth
reer:

TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL. 161

Degrees.
Air in the shade at the surface, . ; , . é $ 2,062
Air at a depth of eight inches, . ‘ : ‘ 2 : > JOO
Air at a depth of two feet, . ; A , , ; ‘ 543
Air at a depth of two feet six inches, : : 4 : a) wes
Air at a depth of three feet three inches, - - ; : dl

It further took nineteen days for the maximum and
minimum temperature of the year to penetrate
three and one-fourth feet; or, in other words, its
march to this depth was nineteen days behind that
of the surface. Prof. J. Forbes has shown how
much the rapidity of transmission, and the amount
of heat transmitted, are modified by the nature of
the soil; and that, in the case of sand, the variation
was three degrees greater, and five days more rapid,
than in sandstone (terrain de grés).

«The roots of most plants are found within a
foot of the surface; and it is the temperature at_
this depth that should be compared with that of
the external air. The Brussels observations supply
us with the necessary data for every month in the
year, and the following table exhibits the differences
between two thermometers, one hung in the shade
two and one-half feet above the surface of the soil,
and the other sunk a foot below the surface, — both
on the south side of the observatory.

Degrees. Degrees.
January, . : , +44 Julys* |. ; . ; —21
February, ; : ey ¢ August, . : : oe
March, ; : = * <3 September, . : ‘ 0;
April; . P eee oe October, . ‘ : aN she
May. : , . | 2k November, . ; A ee!
2 ce 2 Receiver, . « «+4

14*

162 TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL.

Degrees.
Mean of the year, . S . . - 03
Wantery 5. P i 954, Use Ra a get ast ah” +s eede
Spring, . “oe bor ; P nae ee
SLMMECr ik, 4° Gene eee) ht sae
Autumn, « Pate ¢ hep e wea at i fed Aa

‘Hence it appears that from the middle of
autumn to the end of winter the temperature of the
soil is warmer than that of the air at the mean
depth of the roots; and that, on the contrary, at
the season when the plant is at it greatest vigor, it
is colder than the air. In the one case, the maxi-
mum difference between the soil and the air occurs
in January, and in the other during one of the
summer months. In no case does it exceed six and
one-half degrees. At the end of winter and begin-
ning of autumn, periods occur when there is no
difference between the temperature of the air and
soil. This fact, combined with that of the resuscita-
tion of vegetable life in spring and its withdrawal
in autumn, seems to indicate some direct adaptation
of the cooler soil to the wants of plants at that
season of the year. ‘The difference is always greater
in summer than in spring, and vegetation is not
then more active than in April or May in the lati-
tude of Brussels. During winter, a difference of
four or five degrees can have but very little influ-
ence in diminishing the effects of cold; for the sap
scarcely moves at that season, and the effect of
conduction from the roots to the branches must be
extremely small.

THE PREVENTION OF DROUGHT. 163

“ During summer, a mean monthly difference of
five and even six degrees is of considerable impor-
tance ; and even supposing it to be reduced to half
that amount by the time the sap has reached the
leaves, it still lowers very perceptibly the tempera-
ture of the whole plant. This effect is increased
by that evaporation from the leaves which results
from the descent of the sap during the day; so that
the hotter the air is, the greater are the resources
which the plant finds within itself, and the earth in
which it grows, for diminishing the effect of external
heat.”

The prevention of drought. Mr. John Sincham, in
his work for the use of the engineer, thus enumer-
ates the effects of pulverization: “It makes the
drains efficient almost immediately and perma-
nently. It enables the crop to be planted and
harvested much earlier. It is the first and great
step towards increasing the depth, and improving
the condition of all light, bad soils. It allows the
atmosphere to penetrate and circulate freely through
the soil, and admits carbonic acid gas and oxygen
to the roots of plants, to act upon the deleterious
ferruginous compounds and secretions to be found
in most soils. It secures also to them benefit from
every drop of rain that passes through the atmos-
phere.”

CHAPTER VI.

FERTILIZATION.

SELECTIVE POWER OF PLANTS — FORM IN WHICH FOOD IS TAKEN UP—
EXCRETION — CIRCULATION OF THE SAP -—ORGANIC SUBSTANCES :
OXYGEN, HYDROGEN, CARBON, NITROGEN — INORGANIC SUBSTANCES —
MANURES ADAPTED TO DIFFERENT SOILS: TO CLAYS, TO PEATY SOILS,
TO SANDY LANDS — PLANTS TO BE USED IN GREEN-MANURING — APPLI-
CATION OF MANURES.

LAN'TTS, like animals, show a preference in the

selection of their food. They reject some sub-

stances, and elect others adapted to their nourish-
ment.

Their food is supplied in two forms — liquid and
gaseous. It has been stated by some writers that
the former is absorbed by the roots, and the latter
exclusively by the leaves. While this in the main
is in accordance with observation, yet the roots do
also absorb gaseous food, often in considerable quan-
tities, especially in a well pulverized and thoroughly
drained soil.

The cells through which the sap flows are, in
their original and simplest form, cellulose, or par-
enchyma. Toward the root, the sap in these cells
is thin; but at the leaves it becomes thickened by
the decomposition of its water and the elimination

CIRCULATION OF THE SAP. 165

of its oxygen. ‘Thus there is constantly going on
between the cells a process like that which may be
observed if a membraneous bag containing a thick
fluid should be immersed in water, —the thick
becomes thinner by the absorption from the latter,
or endosmose, while the water derives a small
quantity of the former. Hofmeister discovered that
this was the cause which produced the circulation
of the sap from the root to the leaf, and that the
little white fibres, styled spongioles by old writers,
which were emitted during each season of growth,
were formed of cells not covered by the thick skin
or epidermis of the older roots, and that they absorb
the thin fluid of the soil, which contains pabulum
in solution. Thus a regular grade of elaboration,
or thickness of the sap, is established from the leaf
to the roots. ‘These absorbing cells, after having
performed their work for one season, become cov-
ered with the epidermis, and cease to provide for the
erowth of the tree. This should be borne in mind
by the cultivator when he applies his manure to the
ground about his trees. The feeding roots are at a
considerable distance from the trunk of the tree,
and if applied near it, scarcely any benefit will
accrue.

Roots have been said to excrete substances ab-
sorbed, which were unnecessary or injurious. This
was the belief of De Candolle, and others. It was
formed from the fact that a plant will not succeed

166 SELECTIVE POWER OF PLANTS.

where one of the same species had been previously
growing for any length of time, and that substances
existed in that soil which were not to be found in
other parts of the field. But this is by no means a
sufficient proof, because we should expect that if
the existing combinations were separated, others
would be formed.

That the roots possess a general power of selec-
tion, we are led to believe from the fact that the
ashes of various species differ so widely even when
the plants are grown upon the same soil. It is
probably confined to the combinations which the
plant meets with in its indigenous soil, and does
not apply to those artificial substances which are
sometimes applied, nor to the tree when placed in
an unnatural position. ‘Thus, the application of a
large quantity of iron to the roots of a plum tree,
resulted in a dark-colored exudation from its bark ;
and the colors of flowers are often changed by the
substances placed in the soil.

It will be well to examine more particularly the
structure of those organs of the plant which perform
the function of digestion. The upper surface of the
leaves, and all green parts of other portions of the
tree, exhale the oxygen contained in their sap, while
the wnder surface of the leaves inhales carbonic acid
and some other fertilizing gases from the atmos-
phere. The cells, on the upper surface, are there-
fore very close, to prevent excessive evaporation,

THE MULTIPLICATION OF CELLS. 167

while on the under surface they are placed loosely
to admit gases freely. Thus this figure !represents

a cut made through the thickness of the leaf, exhib-
iting its edge highly magnified.

(a) denotes the epidermis ;

(b) aclose layer of parenchyma ;

(c) internal cells ;

(d) the cells of the lower surface ;

(e) stomates, or valves through which the gases
enter.

As the sap descends in the ber by gravitation,
it causes the multiplication of cells between the
bark and wood. Every cell contains within itself
a nucleus, from which the sap flows toward the
walls ; this contains several nucleoli, or cytoblasts,
which, when they have attained size, burst the nu-
cleus, and each becomes like its parent. Conse-
quently, if there are two nucleoli, each creates a
current acting counter to the other, and at their
point of contact a membrane is formed which divides
the old cell. This is very rapid work. We can

1 Dr. Lindley’s Introduction to Botany.

168 ORGANIC FOOD.

form very little idea of the wonderful mechanism, ©
or the rapidity of its motion, which exists in the
interior of a fruit tree. These cells are very minute,
—many of them not more than one-thousandth of an
inch in diameter, —and yet grape vines in a warm
house often grow from one to two inches on the
end of each shoot per diem.

It must be manifest to all that plants, as well as
animals, require food. It remains for us to examine
its nature and adaptation. When a plant is burned,
a part escapes into the atmosphere, and a part re-
mains in the ash. ‘The first we shall call organic,
and the latter inorganic.

I. ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.

1. Oxygen. Myr. Johnston thus states the sources
of this gas: “'The water which plants imbibe so
largely consists of this gas in great part, being eight-
ninths of its whole weight. In this form it is easily
decomposed, and yields an inexhaustible supply.

“The atmosphere contains twenty-one per cent.,
and the leaves of plants, in certain circumstances,
are known to absorb it.

‘Carbonic acid contains seventy-two per cent. of
oxygen by weight, and this gas is known to be
absorbed in large quantities from the atmosphere
by the leaves of plants; while in solution with water,
it is absorbed by the roots.

OXYGEN AND HYDROGEN. 169

« From any one of these sources an ample supply
of oxygen can readily be obtained; and it may be
considered as a proof of the vast importance of this
element to the maintenance of animal and vegetable
life, that it is everywhere placed abundantly within
their reach. It is from the first of these sources,
however, — water, — that plants derive their prin-
cipal supply.

2. Hydrogen. ‘This elementary substance is not
known to exist in nature uncombined. ‘Therefore
it must, like carbon, enter plants in union with
some other element.

‘“‘ Water consists of hydrogen in combination with
oxygen. In the form of vapor, this compound per-
vades the atmosphere, and plays among the leaves
of plants; in the liquid state it is diffused through
the soil, and is unceasingly absorbed by the roots
of all living vegetation. In the cells of plants — at
least during their growth — water is continually
undergoing decomposition ; and this is unquestion-
ably the principal source of the hydrogen which
enters into the constitution of their several parts.
In explaining the properties of water, we have
already referred to the apparent facility with which
its elements are capable either of separating from
or of reuniting with each other in the vascular
system of animals or plants.

“Tn light, carburetted hydrogen, given off during
the decay of vegetable matter, and said to be always

15

170 AMMONIA.

present in highly-manured soils, hydrogen exists to
the amount of nearly one-fourth of its weight. On
the extent, therefore, to which this gaseous com-
pound gains admission by the roots into the plant
will depend the supply of hydrogen which they are
capable of drawing from this source. Had we sat-
isfactory evidence of the absorption of this gas by
the roots or leaves of plants in any quantity, we
should find no difficulty in admitting that plants
might from this source easily obtain a considerable
supply of both carbon and hydrogen. We could
also explain how, that is, by what chemical changes,
it is capable of being so appropriated; but the
extent to which it really acts as food for vegetables
is entirely unknown.

“Ammonia is another compound containing much
hydrogen (one equivalent of nitrogen to three of
hydrogen ), which exercises a manifest influence on
the growth of plants. If this substance enters into
their circulation in any sensible quantity, —if, as
some maintain, it be not only universally diffused
throughout nature, but is constantly affecting and
influencing at all times the functions of vegetation,
— there can be no doubt that the hydrogen it con-
tains must, to an equal extent, be concerned in the
production of the various organic substances which
are formed or elaborated by the agency of vegetable
life. The quantity of ammonia which actually
enters the circulation of plants in a state of nature

AMMONIA. 171

is too little known, and, making the largest allow-
ance, probably too minute, to permit us to consider
it as an important source of hydrogen to the general
vegetation of the globe.” Ammonia is, however, a
powerful agent in hastening the fermentation of
such materials as are to become plant-food. ‘This
it does, according to some authors, directly, and to
others, by acting as food to the little fungi which
do the work. ‘The value of this compound has, no
doubt, been greatly exaggerated by some writers,
who have estimated the worth of fertilizers accord-
ing to the amount which they contained. It is true
that it acts as a stimulant to plants, and perhaps
as a solvent for humus. As a writer in the Gar-
deners’ Magazine states: “ Notwithstanding Liebig,
Johnston, and Schlieden object to this, on account
of the ease with which the humates are decomposed,
yet this process may be going on constantly, and,
being immediately absorbed by the roots of the
plant, this may aid it in building up its structure.
But while Liebig argues that ammonia is derived
from the air, there seems to be abundant evidence
that a portion is also received from the soil. Yet
the fact, as stated by some, that ammonia is fur-
nished exclusively from the soil, cannot be correct.
Both supply it, probably in varying proportions,
according to the necessities of the plant.”
Therefore the cultivator should be careful to
preserve this extremely volatile substance in his

172 GUANO.

manure-heap; and this can be done only by giv-
ing it absorbents, such as peat, sawdust, tan, sods
from headlands, loam, or gypsum. Urine is rich in
ammonia, and should not be allowed to run to
waste. Often the drainings from the manure-heap
containing it are permitted to flow away unmo-
lested. Unless the soil naturally contains a quan-
tity of humus, or has been well manured, fertilizers
containing this substance largely — such as night-
soil, guano, or urine — cannot be recommended for
exclusive application in large quantities. Although
experiments have been cited where land has perma-
nently retained its fertility under an annual dressing
of guano, yet the experience of most farmers has
been to the effect, that such treatment produces a —
certain want of life, and in the end _ barrenness,
while if mixed with the compost-heap it is calcu-
lated permanently to increase growth. If it is
desirable to stimulate the vigor of the tree, the
application of such manures may be well, otherwise
they should be withheld.

Mr. Johnston again says: “The soluble organic
substances which enter the circulation of plants
through the roots consist not only of carbon and
water, but of combinations of hydrogen and oxygen
in various proportions. From these substances,
therefore, plants derive an uncertain and indefinite
supply of hydrogen in a state already half organized,
and probably still more easily assimilated or con-

CARBON. 173

verted into portions of their own substance than
when this element is combined with oxygen in the
form of water.

“We may conclude generally, in regard to the
source of the oxygen of plants, that though there
are undoubtedly several other forms of combination
in which this element may enter their circulation
in uncertain quantity, yet that all-pervading water
is the main and constant source from which the
hydrogen of vegetable substances is derived.

3. Carbon. “ We have reason to believe that
carbon is incapable of entering directly, in its solid
state, the circulation of plants. There are two
sources from which it can be obtained, —the soil
in which the plant grows, and the air by which its
stem and leaves are surrounded. In most soils
much vegetable matter is present, and large quan-
tities are added by the manures used. It is true,
however, that plants are really fed by the vegetable
matter existing in the soil.

(a) “ We know from sacred history, what reason
and science confirm, that there was a time when no
vegetable matter existed in the soil. The first
plants must have grown without the aid of either
animal or vegetable matter; that is, they must have
been nourished from the air.

(b) “It is known that certain marly soils, raised
from a great depth beneath the surface, and con-
taining apparently no vegetable matter, will yet,

15

174 VEGETABLE MATTER OF THE SOIL.

without manure, yield luxuriant crops. The carbon
in such cases must also have been derived from the
air. De Saussure found that two beans, when veg-
etated in the open air on pounded flints, doubled
the weight of the carbon which they originally
possessed.

(c) “Some plants grow when suspended in the
air without contact with the soil.

(d) “ When lands are impoverished, we lay them
down to grass, and the longer they lay undisturbed
the richer in vegetable matter does the soil become.

“In certain extreme cases, as in those of plants
erowing in soil perfectly void of organic matter,
this conclusion” (that they draw all their carbon
from the atmosphere) “must be absolutely true.
But is it as strictly true of the more usual forms of
vegetable life, or in the ordinary circumstances in
which plants grow spontaneously, or are cultivated
by the art of man? Has the vegetable matter of
the soil no connection with the growth of the tree ?
Does it yield them no regular supplies of nourish-
ment? Is nature working in vain when preparing
all this vegetable mould in the soil?

“The consideration of one or two facts will show
that our general conclusion must be moaified.
Plants in certain circumstances will grow in a soil
containing no sensible quantity of organic matter ;
but it is also true, generally, that they do not luxu-
riate, or readily ripen their seed in such a position.

CARBON. 175

“Tt is consistent with almost universal observa-
tion that the same soil is more productive where
organic matter is present than where it is absent ;
that if a crop be carried off the field, less organic
matter is left in the soil than it contained when it
began to grow; that by constant cropping the soil
is gradually exhausted of organic matter. ‘The
conclusion, therefore, seems to be reasonable and .
legitimate, that the vegetation which we remove
from a field has not derived all its carbon from the .
air, but has extracted a portion of it immediately
from the soil. It is to supply the supposed loss of
carbon, as well as other substances, that the prac-
tical farmer applies manure to his land. Supposing
it to be established that the whole of the carbon
contained in plants has originally been derived from
the air, we have only to inquire in what state this
element exists in the atmosphere in order to satisfy
ourselves as to the form of combination in which it
is, and has been received into the circulation of
plants. Carbonic acid, a compound of carbon and
oxygen, is always present in the atmosphere, though
in comparatively small quantities; yet it 1s every-
where to be detected, while no other compound of
carbon is to be found there in any appreciable
quantity. Wemust conclude that from this gaseous
carbonic acid the whole of the carbon contained in
plants has been primarily derived. But in what
state or form of combination do they absorb carbon
from the soil ?

176 NITROGEN.

“The most abundant product of the decay of veg-
etable matter in the soil is this same gas. In land
replete with vegetable matter, therefore, the roots
are surrounded by an atmosphere more or less
charged with it. Hence, if they are capable of in-
haling gaseous substances, this will enter the roots
in the aeriform state; if not, it must enter in solu-
tion.

4. Nitrogen. “The question as to the form in
which nitrogen enters the circulation of plants, at
the present moment engages much attention.

“It is considered an essential part of good tillage
to break up and loosen the soil, in order that the
air may have access to the dead vegetable matter,
as well as to the living roots, which descend to
considerable depths beneath the surface. When
thus admitted to the roots, some of the nitrogen of
the atmosphere, as well as a portion of its oxygen,
will undoubtedly be directly absorbed and appro-
priated by the plant. ‘To what extent this absorp-
tion of nitrogen may proceed we have as yet no
experimental results from which we can form an
estimate ; — whether it takes place at all or not, is
wholly a matter of opinion.

“The leaves of plants absorb certain gaseous sub-
stances from the atmosphere, and we might there-
fore expect that some of the nitrogen of the atmos-
phere would by this means be admitted to their
circulation. ‘This view is not confirmed by any of

NITROGEN. 147

the experiments hitherto made with the view to
investigate the action and function of the leaves.
We are not at liberty, consequently, to assume that
any of the nitrogen which plants contain has been
derived in this way directly from the air. It may
be the case, but it is not yet proved.

“There is little doubt, however, that nitrogen
enters the roots of plants in a state of solution, but
the quantity they thus absorb is uncertain. When
water is exposed to the air in an open vessel, it
gradually absorbs oxygen and nitrogen, though in
proportions different from those in which they exist
in the atmosphere. The whole quantity of the
mixed gases thus taken up, according to Humboldt
and Guy Lussac, amounts to about four per cent. of
the bulk of the water, and in rain-water about two-
thirds of this consists of nitrogen. One hundred
cubic inches of rain-water will therefore carry into
the soil about two and two-third inches of nitrogen

99

gas.

These organic substances were all originally pos-
sessed by the air. The first forms of vegetation
which existed upon the earth were those whose
roots simply served to hold them in position, or to
draw very slightly from the earth. All the organic
elements of growth were to be easily absorbed by
those which were aquatics from the water which
surrounded them, and by land-plants from the
atmosphere. These, by their death, imparted to the

178 INORGANIC SUBSTANCES.

soil organic elements, and upon the remains of their
decomposition sprung up what we call higher orders
of vegetable life. These gave way to others; and at
last, from the death of these numerous generations,
the soil became supplied with organic elements,
and then the fruit tree appeared ; not according to
the Darwinian theory, by development one from
another, but by independent creations of the great
Designer.

Barren sandy lands are unproductive because
they do not contain these organic substances. We
shall consider the method of supplying them in the
proper place.

II. INORGANIC SUBSTANCES.

These are found only in the soil, and although
many of them enter in very small quantities the
organism of plants, they are none the less impor-
tant. One link, however small it may be, is neces-
sary to the completion of a chain; just so a one-
thousandth part of some inorganic substance is
demanded by the plant to perfect its structure.
The names of these inorganic substances are as

follows:
Substance Produced by combining
A = ee

Allumina, Oxygen, Aluminum,
Lime, Oxygen, Calcium.
Chloride of Calcium, Chlorine, Calcium.
Chlorides, Metals, Chlorine.
Iodides, Metals, Iodine.

Oxides, : Oxygen, Iron.

INORGANIC SUBSTANCES. 179

Substance Produced by combining
Sulphurets, Sulphur, Iron.
Magnesia, Oxygen, Magnesium.
Oxides, Oxygen,. Manganese.
Sulphurets, Sulphur, Manganese.
Phosphoric Acid, Oxygen, ; Phosphorus.
Potash, Oxygen, Potassium.
Chloride of Potassium, Chlorine, Potassium.
Silica, Oxygen, Silicon.
Soda, Oxygen, Sodium.
Chloride of Sodium, Chlorine, Sodium.
Sulphurets, Metals, Sulphur.
Sulphuretted Hydrogen, Hydrogen, Sulphur.
Sulphuric Acid, Oxygen, Sulphur.

Alluminum* is a very rare metal.

Allumina is very abundant, especially in clay soils.
It is soluble in acids, but not in water. The pro-
portion of it which plants absorb is exceedingly
small, and, from its abundance in the soil, would
lead one to suppose that ‘it possessed some more
indirect and important quality, ih that of
the absorption of ammonia.

Phosphate of alumina is present in the soil in very
small amounts.

Sulphate of alumina exists in swampy, peaty soil.

Calcium, im its combination with oxygen, forms
one of the most important of inorganic compounds.

Lime. Many substances proceed very slowly in
their decomposition which is hastened by the ap-
plication of lime.

Carbonate of lime forms a part of almost all plants,
and is very important to their growth.

1 Johnston.

180 INORGANIC SUBSTANCES.

Chloride of calcium also has a wonderful effect
upon many crops.

Sulphuret of calcium is produced by the agency
of heat acting upon calcium and sulphur.

Sulphate of lime. ‘This compound of sulphur and
lime is very valuable as a fertilizer, and has caused
lands which before had defied all attempts to render
them productive to bring forth fine crops. Besides
its other properties, it possesses that of absorbing
ammonia from the air.

Nitrate of lime is found in the soil, and is of con-
siderable value, but is very soluble.

Phosphate of lime is the substance from which the
bones of animals are formed, and is important as a
manurial substance. It is soluble only in acids,
when it becomes super-phosphate of lime.

Chlorine, in combination with hydrogen, forms
muriatic acid, which dissolves many of those sub-
stances of the soil that are insoluble in water, and
prepares them to become the food of plants.

Iodine is beneficial to vegetation when combined
with sodium. It is soluble, and exists largely in
the waters of the ocean.

Owvides of iron. Tron combines in two different
proportions with oxygen. One is called prot-oxide,
and possesses about twenty-three per cent. of oxygen.
This is very injurious to plants; but by exposure
to the air it assimilates with more oxygen, and
becomes per-oxide, in which state it is a powerful
absorbent of ammonia.

INORGANIC SUBSTANCES. : 181

Sulphuret of tron exists in some undrained soils,
and although not itself injurious, yet, when exposed
to the air, it produces the sulphate of iron, or green
vitriol, which is decidedly hurtful to plant-life.

If the land is thoroughly pulverized and drained,
this will become the per-oxide, which is so beneficial
a compound.

Carbonate of magnesia exists in many soils, and
has great powers of absorbing moisture.

Chloride of magnesium has been applied with
benefit to lands, but great care must be exercised
on account of its remarkable solubility.

Phosphate of magnesia is present in urine, and in
many of our most valuable fertilizers.

Manganese resembles iron in its action and char-
acter, and in forming several combinations with
oxygen. :

Phosphorus, when combined with other substances,
forms many valuable compounds — such as phos-
phate of lime, phosphate of potash, etc.

Silica produces many valuable substances in its
combination with potash, soda, etc. It is present
in all vegetable matter, and is distributed very lib-
erally through the soil. It is insoluble in water,
and dissolves very slowly in alkalies.

Carbonate of potash exists in the sap of almost all
plants, and the good results following the applica-
tion of wood ashes are produced by its presence.

Chloride of potassium is also found in the ashes

16

182 : ADAPTATION OF MANURES.

of most plants, and its action upon them as a manure
is beneficial.

Nitrate of potash. This is a most important sub-
stance in hastening the growth of plants. It is
formed of nitric acid and potash, and is commonly
known as saltpetre.

Chloride of sodium, or common salt, is found in
all plants. It exists in largest quantities in lands
which le near the seacoast.

Sulphate of soda has a good effect upon many
plants. |

Carbonate of soda in its various forms, as sesqui-
carbonate, bi-carbonate, and in the simple form, is
also beneficial.

Phosphate of soda is another important constituent
of urine.

Sulphuric acid is rarely met with in the soil,
except in union with other substances, forming
sulphates with potash, lime, soda, etc.

These are the compounds which usually exist in
the soil; but land may have an abundance of some
of them, while it is entirely destitute of others, or
of the means of producing them. This should guide
us in the consideration of the next division of our
subject.

II. MANURES ADAPTED TO DIFFERENT SOILS.

Accurate chemical analysis can alone ascertain the
exact substance which is wanting; but we doubt

CLAY AND PEAT SOILS. 183

if this is always practicable. We can merely con-
sider generally those manures which experience has
proved to produce the best mechanical as well as
chemical effect on a soil of a certain general char-
acter.

Clay earths. These have a great amount of fer-
tility stored in them; but they are often so tenacious
as to prevent the entrance of the air, which is im-
portant to the production of valuable compounds.
This is partially remedied, as we have seen, by
thorough draining and pulverization; but a still
further benefit can be realized by an application of
sand to the depth of from one-half an inch to an
inch mixed with the surface, thus not only produc-
ing a mechanical effect by loosening the soil, but
inducing a chemical change by the introduction of
air. In such cases very coarse sand is to be pre-
ferred; that which is rich in lime is the best, as
by its fermentation it produces still greater porosity.
Horse-manure, and others which ferment rapidly,
lime, marl, etc., are best for such land.

Peaty soils are also benefited by applications of
sand or fine gravel. On such lands many plants
fail to succeed because the carbon contained in the
humus absorbs the oxygen as it enters the earth to
form from it carbonic acid. By the increased po-
rosity produced by sand, oxygen is not only pre-
sented to the roots, but the decomposition of the
humus is hastened. Manures possessing vegetable

184 APPLICATION OF LIME.

matter would be superfluous, as such soils already
contain a sufficiency ; but an application of lime
would be beneficial. That which is generally used
for agricultural purposes contains carbonate of lime,
with many other substances, which fact accounts
for its varied effects upon different soils.

When it is caustic, or has disposed of its carbonic
acid trom burning, it is particularly desirable. To
prolong this condition, and prevent its absorption
of carbonic acid and other substances, it should be
mixed with the surface-soil as soon as possible.
Lime should not be applied in too large quantities,
else the humus will be decomposed faster than the
crop could use it, and the application would be-
come in the end a means of impoverishing the soil.
On very stiff clay soils as much as five thousand
pounds has been applied to the acre with benefit,
while hght land would not be improved by more
than three or four hundred pounds. On marshy
land about twelve hundred weight is sufficient. It
should be used in summer, as it can then be more
intimately mixed with the surface-soil.

The cultivator should be warned against the use
of lime, if he has not thoroughly drained his land,
unless he desires to bring it to the consistency of
mortar. ‘The length of time in which it acts upon
the soil varies according to the quantity used; but
the average is from six to ten years. It should be
first slacked in small quantities, by covering with

ACTION OF LIME. 185

earth ; then thoroughly composted with loam spread
over the land; ploughed in at first only an inch or
two, and then deeper, to mix it perfectly. The ap-
plication should never be made in wet weather.

Dr. Dana states that the action of lime on soils
is threefold: “ First, it is a neutralizer; second, a
decomposer; third, a converter. 1. There are cer-
‘tain acids which are free in the soil, such as phos-
phoric, acetic, or malic, which become neutralized
by the hme. 2. There are certain substances which,
for want of decomposition, are locked up, and are
therefore useless to plants; but lime, by forming a
combination with them, decomposes and retains
them in a state in which they can be easily dis-
solved. 3. Lime also acts upon humus, to render
it soluble plant-food, by converting it into acid.
Therefore, if plants such as sorrel are produced by
land, it is evidence that lime is needed to neutralize
these free acids in the soil. The more humus a
soil contains, the more lime will it need to convert
the insoluble matter and undecayed vegetable fibre
into decomposed and soluble food. When a great
amount of lime is appled, manure must also be
added, because the first is not the food itself, but
the fuel which prepares it for use. Lime does not
revive worn-out land, but gives it the means of
using the manure.”

Lime is often applied in a cheap form, as marl.
This widely differs in composition; but that which

he

186 SANDY SOILS.

crumbles is the most valuable. The effects are.
quickly seen, and of short duration; but this is no
objection, for it is as important to the farmer as to
the capitalist to receive quickly the returns from
his investment.

Sandy lands are improved by mixture with sub-
stances containing humus, or vegetable matter.
Chief among these is peat, which is so generally
found in the temperate zone. 1 Martin Doyle's
Cyclopedia of Practical Husbandry gives Lord
Meadowbanks’s method of rendering peat a profita-
ble manure. His suggestion is, to “form a layer
of peat, which had been previously in a dry state, a
little longer than the intended midden, six inches
thick ; and on this to lay fresh dung and peat, in
alternate courses, diminishing each layer of dung
from ten inches in thickness, until the compost is
three or four feet high, when it should be covered
from the ends (which should be formed to overlap
for the purpose) and the sides with peat. His
lordship’s proportion is, one load of dung to three
of peat, in mild or warm, and a little more dung in
cold weather, so as to produce a full and generous
fermentation, which in summer will be so rapid
and violent as to require an additional application
of peat. The heap should be tured upside down,
thoroughly mixed, and all the lumps broken a few
weeks before using, after which it ferments mod-

1 Gardeners’ Chronicle of 1843, p. 39.

VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES AS MANURE. 187

erately a second time, and then presents the ap-
pearance of garden mould, and equals farm-yard
manure.”

One of the most economical methods of applying
vegetabie matter to the soil is by the use of green
crops. Sir ‘Thomas A. Knight, in his experiments
upon manures, found that seeds germinated and
grew more rapidly which had been manured with
green vegetable substances ; and he argues from this
that it was because the plant found there the sub-
stances suited to its nutrition in a state of elabora-
tion nearer to that in which they existed in itself ;
and that it was upon the same principle that car-
niverous animals were nourished by the flesh of
other animals more than by the materials which
constituted the food of their prey.

Dr. Anthony Todd Thompson, in a review of the
same in the Gardeners’ Magazine, says that it is a
“question whether the sap of plants drawing their
nourishment from vegetable matter is in any higher
state of elaboration than those feeding upon de-
cayed manures. But he finds the advantage of the
use of the green manure, as in Mr. Knight’s experi-
ments, to result from the difference in the degree
of heat. Green vegetable matter would, of course,
ferment rapidly, and heat would be the consequence;
so that the ground about such manures would be
affected by it, the germination of seeds and the
growth of plants would be hastened and increr-4

188 PLOUGHING IN GREEN CROPS.

Prof. Sprengel, of Germany, published in the year
1842 a number of valuable papers in the Garden-
ers’ Chronicle upon green manuring, from which
we glean the following:

“It is the operation of growing certain plants
merely for the purpose of ploughing them in as soon
as they have reached a certain maturity (namely,
are in blossom), which may be done either on the
spot or by conveying them to another field. This
is no modern discovery, for it was used even by the
Romans, especially with the lupine. Although

' this sort of manuring has been extolled by some

authors beyond all measure, it cannot be doubted
that it 1s a very advantageous operation, especially
on light land with a pervious subsoil. Its advan-
tages are that most of the plants grown for green
-manuring obtain from the subsoil, by means of
their deep roots, those substances which are required
as food by shallow-rooted plants, and which are
thus brought back to the surface whence they were
previously removed by rain; at the same time they
convey substances to the surface which it never
before possessed. These are the chief advantages
derived from ploughing in green crops, which, how-
ever, have not been hitherto properly appreciated.
Among the more useful substances thus brought
up from the subsoil are potash, soda, chlorine, sul-
phuric and phosphoric acids, magnesia, and lime.
Ths green crop, when ploughed in, enriches the

ECONOMY OF GREEN MANURE. 189

land with carbon, which was absorbed from the
atmosphere by the leaves of plants. That it sup-
plies the soil with nitrogen is very important to
corn plants, for they possess the power of attracting
nitrogen (which is one of their chief sources of
nutrition) from the air only in a very slight degree.
Green crops, moreover, keep dry soils cool and
moist, because the humus which is engendered by
their decomposition not only absorbs much moisture,
but retains it fora long time. Their strong herbage
and woody roots act mechanically on heavy land by
loosening it. After manuring with a green crop,
corn is never laid, although it grows as luxuriantly
as after a dressing of dung. ‘The reason is, that
while the latter supplies the ground suddenly with
a great amount of nitrogen, green manure affords
it much more gradually, in consequence of the
slowness of its decomposition, acting most power-
fully when the plant requires most nourishment.
Its effects will not last, however, more than two
years, as the mass of herbage ploughed in is often
not more than a third of the weight of the dung.
‘This method of enriching land is very econom-
ical, not. requiring more than one ploughing and
harrowing, and the seed is generally very cheap.
When fields are at a distance, it saves much carriage;
and it prevents the soil from losing its humus by
evaporation ; because, as soon as the corn is gath-
ered in, the field is ploughed and the crop for green

199 GREEN MANURE.

manure sown. These advantages have led to the
assertion that plentiful crops may be obtained with-
out any other kind of manure, if, between every
two corn crops, green manure is employed. It has
been forgotten, however, that this itself will ex-
haust the subsoil in the long run. If the subsoil
be very rich in fertilizing substances, the surface-
soil may be kept in full vigor for many years by
green manures, without the assistance of dung;
nevertheless, under any circumstances, it will be
useful to manure occasionally, employing such sub-
stances as gypsum, common salt, bone-dust, wood
ashes, etc., which will be useful both to the crop
for manure, and to that which is to follow it.

‘¢ He who wishes to obtain all possible advantage
from green manure must observe —first: those
plants only must be used whose seed is very cheap.
Second: those must be taken which are sure to
succeed and grow very fast, in order that in the
shortest time the greatest amount of herbage may
be produced. Third: they must not contain sub-
stances which would be injurious to the succeeding
crops. Fourth: they should be deep-rooted plants,
for such will absorb the nourishing substances hid-
den in the earth, and convey them to the surface
for the use of the shallow-rooted crops. We are
not required, however, to confine ourselves to an-
nual plants; on the contrary, it is much better (as
will be seen hereafter) if perennial plants are sown,

GREEN MANURE. 191

because in that case annual cultivation, and all the
seed after the first, will be saved. Such .plants
cannot, as a matter of course, be ploughed in on
the spot; but they must be cut down and carted on
the field most in need of manure. For this purpose
plants may be used that have not yet been much
thought of. Fifth: those plants more especially
are to be used for green manure which have many
broad leaves, because they most absorb aeriform
substances (carbonic acid, hydrogen, and nitrogen).
Spurry is an exception to this rule. Sixth: those
plants must be selected which absorb from the sub-
soil those mineral substances in which the surface
is deficient, and which are required for the nour-
ishment of the future crop of corn; but whether
those substances on which the success of deep-
rooted plants depend are to be found in the subsoil,
can only be decided by a chemical analysis. Seventh:
in order that the plants sown may yield the great-
est amount of herbage, seed must be used abun-
dantly. It may, therefore, be useful to sow different
sorts together, so that if one does not succeed the
other may. In all cases it is essential that the field
should be clear of grass and other weeds ; because,
as the land cannot be ploughed more than once,
weeds may increase subsequently to such an extent
that the failure of the corn crop may be appre-
hended. Deep-rooted weeds are best destroyed by
the closeness and shade of the green crop, and this

192 GREEN MANURE.

is an additional reason for sowing a great deal of
seed. Eighth: the land which is to be manured
must itself be rich enough on its surface to sustain
the green manure on its first development. All
endeavors, by ploughing in green plants, to fertilize
a soil which is deficient in all vegetable nourish-
ment, will be vain. If land is very poor, such plants
must be selected as need very little nourishment,
hke spurry. They should be ploughed in, and re-
sown repeatedly, till the land is capable of bearing
something better. This, of course, takes several
seasons. In most cases, nature is the best nurse,
and a field which is too poor to repay the outlay
for cultivation, if left fallow, or used for pasturage,
will by degrees produce a scanty vegetation. Grasses
or clover may be sown, and then, if the field has
been fed from three to five years, and is again
ploughed, the soil will have received some nourish-
ment from the roots of the grass, and will produce
a tolerable crop. Ninth: all plants used for green
manure should be ploughed in at the very moment
when they are in blossom; if it is done before this
time, the herbage will not have attained its greatest
growth; if later, the humus from the decaying leaves
will needlessly evaporate, and nitrogen be exhaled
from the flowers.”

Thus it is evident that green manure gives to the
soil those organic substances which it has absorbed
from the atmosphere, and the inorganic, derived

THE TURNIP AS A MANURE. 195

from the subsoil. If their decomposition took place
in the open air, many of the most valuable elements
of the former would be lost; but by ploughing them
in, they are absorbed by the soil as they are disen-
gaged. ‘The consumption of turnips on the land
where they were grown, by feeding them to sheep,
is well known to promote fertility; still it is an
open question whether, if ploughed in, they would
not have a more beneficial effect upon the soil.
They gain nothing by passing through the sheep,
but rather lose; for the animal requires their nour-
ishment to sustain him. Whether this would be
as profitable as to feed them to sheep, when the
return from the mutton and wool is considered, we
do not pretend to say, but only to call the attention
of the cultivator, who has in his mind merely the
fertilization of his land, to the principle involved.

The soil of the forest shows the effect of natural
green manuring. It is continually dressed by the
fall of the foliage ; and, notwithstanding the growth
of the tree, the soil gains by the crop, because the
leaves contain organic substances derived from the
atmosphere, which decompose and escape slowly on
account of the shade of the forest. The crops prin-
cipally used for artificial manuring are the vetch,
buckwheat, rye, turnips, red clover, white lupines.
These are adapted to various soils in their several
conditions.

The vetch and white lupine are adapted to all

17

194 PLANTS FOR GREEN MANURING.

soils except those which contain lime. The frost
should be permitted to touch them before they are
ploughed in.

Buckwheat is excellent upon sandy, poor land, if
used while about knee high.

Rye is suited to sandy land, but is inferior to
buckwheat.

Turnips are excellent on almost all soils.

Red clover is a very valuable crop for. heavy land,
as its roots penetrate deeply, and thoroughly loosen
the earth.

Spurry is valuable for sandy.soils. It grows very
fast, and two or three crops can often be secured in
a season.

Some substances are applied as green manure
which are not grown upon the soil; such as straw,
muck, tan, sawdust, etc. These should be partially
decomposed before application ; some of them con-
taining injurious ‘qualities, in the crude state, as
well as those that are beneficial. In the use of
litter for the barn, those materials should be used
which will produce the best result upon the land to
which they are to be applied. Thus the cultivator,
in the manufacture of his barn-yard manure, can
combine those substances most needful to his soil,
and to the life of the plant which he desires to
cultivate.

The fruit-grower should not lose sight of the
value of liquid manure, for it is particularly rich in

LIQUID MANURE. 195

organic substances. It is very valuable upon sandy
soils, where its direct application is not, attended
with those injurious results which sometimes follow
it upon heavy land. It stimulates the plant to pro-
duce an abundance of roots, as well as branches,
and thus binds the soil together, making it more
fertile for the succeeding crop. ‘The urine of all
animals is too valuable to be thrown away, as is
the foolish practice of many farmers. It is partic-
ularly important to those who rely for their manure
upon animals which work hard, as with such the
liquid manure increases while the solid excrement
decreases in value. Urine is very rich in nitrogen,
which is supposed to be particularly valuable to
grain crops, and would be necessary to a certain
extent with orchards to sustain the draft which the
seeds of the fruit make upon it. The application of
liquid manure has been found to bake the earth,
and prevent the free action of the air among its
particles. ‘This is easily overcome, while its good
qualities are still retained, by so placing loam or
some other porous material as to absorb it as it
runs to the cellar from the animal.

The loss of the liquid manure of our animals is
a most deplorable evil in the husbandry of our
country, as it contains much more of those organic
substances which are so valuable to vegetation
than does the solid excrement. ‘There are at least
twenty millions of horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs

196 VALUE OF LIQUID MANURE.

in the United States ; add to this thirty millions of
human beings, and, at a low estimate, the value of
their liquid manure is worth one hundred millions
of dollars annually. It has been said that that of
Great Britain would, if saved, pay her whole in-
ternal tax. What an addition would this be to the
farming capital of our country !

The waste of valuable manurial substances in this
country is enormous ; but, as it increases in popula-
tion, more regard will probably be paid to it. The
soil of China is forced to produce bread for such a_
teeming multitude, that no fertilizer is allowed to
waste which can enrich the land. The Madras
Almanac for 1841 says: “ Most of the individuals
met in the paths of the fields are provided with a
basket and rake; and every evening the cottager
brings home a certain quantity to add to the dung-
heap, which is a most important appendage to every
dwelling. Having but few sheep and cattle, they
are obliged to make the most of the stercoraceous
stock of men and swine. This is carefully collected,
and actually sold at so much per pound; while
whole strings of scavengers may be seen cheerily
posting into the country every successive morning
with their envied acquisitions, little heeding the
olfactory nerves of the less interested passengers.
Every other substance likely to answer the end is
anxiously collected, and carefully disposed, so as to
provide for future exigencies. Decayed animal and

APPLICATION OF MANURES. 19%

vegetable matter, the sweepings of streets, the mud
of canals, burnt bones, lime, and, what is not a little
singular, the short stumpy hair shaven from millions
of heads, every few days is industriously gathered,
and sold for manure throughout the empire.”

There are undoubtedly some lands, in the western
portion of our country, where it would be injurious
to manure for an orchard, because it would cause
so free a growth as to induce blight ;* but these are
exceptional cases, for the majority of the soils of
the world require the addition of manure; and
twenty failures are made in this country, from want
of sufficient fertility, to one where it too much
abounds.

IV. APPLICATION OF MANURES.

The best time for applying manure is the fall,
that its fertility may be washed into the soil by the
rains and thaws of winter. If it 1s well decomposed,
it can be applied just before ploughing. ‘The con-
dition desirable for manure, when applied, depends
upon the mode of its application. Fresh manure
should be placed on the surface, because its juices
are absorbed by the soil before fermentation takes
place ; and this occurring in the soil, its volatile
qualities are retained. But, for incorporation with
the soil, decomposed manure is preferable, because
it has already undergone that decomposition in

1 See Chapter on Diseases.

Le

198 APPLICATION DURING AUTUMN.

which the oxygen of the air was necessary, and
of which it would have been partially or wholly
_ deprived in the soil: fresh manure might have re-
mained unfermented, and therefore useless under
these circumstances. |

M. Boussingault has an interesting paper on this
point. He says: “If opinions are divided on the
question whether manure should be used before or
after fermentation, they are not less so as regards
the manner of spreading it, and the proper season
of carrying it into the field. Those who are con-
vinced that the dung should be used as it comes
from the stall, are quite indifferent as to the time
of carting it; the most convenient time may be
chosen, which is no small advantage, and this is
our practice at Bechelbronn, where it is carried out
as soon as possible. ‘The fields to be fertilized for
spring cultivation are manured in the winter, when
the frost permits. ‘The dung, at first laid in little
heaps at regular distances, is afterwards spread as
equally as possible, generally on the snow,—a
practice in which we have never found any incon-
venience. ‘The method adopted by certain culti-
vators of keeping dung in great masses, with the
view of spreading it when the tillage takes place,
is certainly wrong; the spots in which the heaps
are laid are too highly manured, and the plan is
adapted for fresh dung only. The custom of leav-
ing it for months, perhaps, spread on the land, and

SURFACE APPLICATION. 199

exposed to every variation of the season, has been
criticized. It is said to lose its volatile parts ; that
rain washes out and carries away those which are
soluble; and, induced by these fears, many do not
spread the dung till the very moment when the
land is ready for the plough. ‘This difference of
opinion in parties personally interested in making
the most of their manure, ought not to be passed
over lightly. In agricultural matters it is danger-
ous to generalize too much. The climate ought to
be taken into consideration. In Alsatia, where the
rain during the whole year amounts to twenty-seven
inches, during December, January, and February,
the quantity amounts only to four inches and thirty-
six hundredths. The quality of the manure might,
perhaps, be injured when the proportion in winter
is greater. The quality of the manure itself must
also be taken into consideration, as a heap which
contains a large portion of carbonate of ammonia,
and emits a very decided odor of volatile alkali,
would certainly be deteriorated by prolonged expos-
ure to the air; but this loss is scarcely perceptible
where the manure contains but a small quantity of
ammoniacal salts, as is the case with that which
has been treated with gypsum. When the rains are
not too heavy, the soluble part of the manure which
is spread over the land penetrates it, and is retained
in the upper stratum, exactly as when, instead of
incorporating the manure with the soil, it is spread

200 TOP-DRESSING.

over crops in full vegetation, or before the germina-
tion of the seed. This practice of top-dressing is
often profitable, and is proof enough of the little
inconvenience there is in exposing the dung to the
changes of weather. It arose in the first instance,
perhaps, from necessity; but it has been found so
useful that it has been much adopted. We have
applied it with decided advantage to crops after
hoeing — time being thus gained for the production
of manure. In the district of Marck, it is daily
gaining ground; the dung is spread when the plant
has already appeared, and experience shows that
the passage of the carts over the land is not sensi-
bly injurious. It would be preferable, however, to
choose a time when the surface is hard from frost.
This method, according to Schwartz, is very useful
in Switzerland for hemp, and indeed for almost
every kind of crop. I regard it myself as a matter
of convenience; but Shaer. assures us —and_ his
authority is of great weight — that he has too often
seen its good effects on leguminous crops not to be
convinced of the excellence of this method on loose
land in which grass has been sown late.”

Thus green manure should be applied on the
surface in the fall or winter.

CHAPTER VIL.

SELECTION OF VARIETIES.

EVILS OF INDISCRIMINATE SELECTION—FRUITS SUITABLE FOR THE
AMATEUR, FOR FAMILY USE, FOR THE MARKET — CATALOGUE OF THE
DIFFERENT VARIETIES ADAPTED TO THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF
THE COUNTRY — THE BEST SIX, TWELVE, TWENTY, OR ONE HUNDRED
SORTS, FOR EACH STATE.

e 1. THEIR ADAPTATION TO DIFFERENT LOCALITIES.

E have already considered the influence of the

atmosphere, the properties of the soil, and
the various methods of improving it. The next
subject to occupy our attention is the selection
of varieties of fruit adapted to different condi-
tions.

Much of the failure in the growth of fruit is to
be attributed to an indiscriminate selection, in the
belief that one variety is as well suited to a certain
position as another. Both science and practice
teach us that it is folly to remove a tropical plant
to the polar regions, with any expectation of suc-
cess; the climate is not adapted to it, and it soon
perishes ; vice versa, plants from cold regions be-
come stunted and die in the tropics. To be sure,
art sometimes overcomes these difficulties, and in-

202 ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES.

duces plants to flourish for a time; but, if left to
nature, they soon become extinct, or produce an
offspring suited to their present surroundings.

This law of adaptation is one which relates not
only to the orders, genera, and species of the vege-
table kingdom, but also to its varieties ; and, as we
descend the scale, this distinction becomes more
nice. For instance, some varieties of the pear lux-
uriate upon a rich alluvial soil, while others become
diseased and worthless.

But, as it would be impossible to form an iso-
thermal map of any country in which the influence
upon the temperature of every little elevation of
the surface should be noted, so is it to form one
exhibiting the proper varieties of fruit to be grown
in every conceivable position. There is no universal
law within our knowledge for the government of
the cultivator in this respect, and all the data from
which we have to judge are the results of expe-
rience. |

We avail ourselves of the excellent catalogue of
the American Pomological Society, to which we
have been enabled to add one or two Southern States
from documents in our possession.

As the United States possess such a diversity of
climate, many of the most valuable fruits of one
section will not arrive at maturity in another. This
fact enhances the value of such a table as we insert,
prepared by the able chairman of the General Fruit

SORTS FOR FAMILY USE. 203

Committee of that society ; but the cultivator must
not lose sight of the more particular influences of
soil and exposure.

The use to which the fruit is to be applied should
influence the selection. If the amateur desires a
collection of some one species to combine all the
styles of growth, of beauty, or oddity of form and
delicacy of flavor, the bearing properties will be a
minor consideration. With such a man, a careful
selection is not of importance ; for the discovery of
adaptation is a part of the study in which he
delights.

For family use those varieties should be chosen
which are of acknowledged worth, both for the table
and the kitchen, and such as will afford a constant
succession ; while beauty is unimportant compared
with productiveness.

For the market we should have but few varieties.
Many of our fruit-growers have erred in this re-
spect ; they have multiplied their sorts, which gave
them only a few trees, and so little fruit of each
kind that it was difficult to market it. The most
successful cultivators for the market have been
those whose orchards contained but few varieties,
and their crop of each was sufficiently large to in-
duce them to make a business of selling it. The
variety should also be of vigorous habit, because it
is designed to tax its bearing properties as much as
is consistent with safety. If, by accident, or the

204 PROPERTIES OF MARKET FRUITS.
«

too sanguine disposition of the cultivator, some
trees be permitted to bear a crop which exhausts
their strength, such will generally recover them-
selves easily, while others become diseased and die.
The variety should be prolific. This is such a self-
evident condition of profitable culture, that it is
needless to enlarge upon it. The fruit should be
large and beautiful, even at the expense of quality.
The importance of this fact is acknowledged by all
cultivators for the market. The great popularity
of the Bartlett Pear is. owing, in a measure, to its
size and beauty. ‘The Windsor, or Summer Bell, is
very large and handsome, but of poor quality; yet
it sells in our market at a better price than many
really superior varieties. The size of the fruit is of
more importance to the producer than he may at
first imagine, not only on account of his imme-
diate profit realized from the sale, but also by reason
of the exhaustion of his trees. On a superficial in-
vestigation, one might decide that the production of
a larger fruit weakened the tree more than a small
one. But that which expends the strength of an-
imals and plants is the formation of the offspring.
This is not the fruit, but the seeds contained in it ;
the flesh which surrounds them no more exhausts
the tree in its growth than do the leaves ; for until
the ripening process commences they perform much
the same functions. ‘Those varieties, like the Vicar
of Winkfield, whose fruit has hardly any or no

EXHAUSTION BY THE SEEDS. 205

seeds, can bear an almost unlimited crop without
injury. Thus it will be evident that a little Seckel
pear may exhaust the tree even more than a Bart-
lett. The Belle Lucrative, or Fondante d’Automne,
is one of the most delicious of pears, as well as a
ereat and regular bearer; and yet it will not bring
more than two-thirds the price of greatly inferior
sorts, on account of its green color.

A list of varieties proved to be the best for orch-
ards of different sizes, in various sections of the
country, is added below. Some of the states are
necessarily omitted.

18

206 ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT

TABLE! L.- = <2 +. > a Oe

The Columns indicate: Ist, the Name of Variety; 2d, the Season of Maturity; 3d, the
in which the Varieties are recommended. A star (*) opposite a variety indicates
two stars (**) distinguish those most highly recommended. The Italics in the

The Abbreviations are as follows: Seasons, S. summer; A. autumn; W. winter; E.
asmedium. Use, K. designates varieties recommended only for kitchen purposes;
regarded as dessert or table sorts. M. designates the most valuable varieties for

&
els|.| [El [glia
olaje] |e! |e|s 5
No. NAME. ; Ela) 2/s\S| |Alala
5 2/3/8] 2) 3/8) 8] 2/2
z a -| 2| | 3| oO
< | 2 |S/E/2/Slz|sls|s/2
Q P JOJOO/A\AlOl|sl4(a
CO nea ea eee nom iy te pe W..| K.. |..|.:\2. 3
Br Alles nmder es 65-2 a va dk hiss H, A.| K. |...)
Emperor Alexander.
3 | American Summer Pearmain,----- 2 eae Pr ~2} 20) e421 Sol
American Summer.
Early Sunmer Pearmain.
AY) Astrachan Red, 2.2.4. 22 evn sdeee =< E. S. | K: M. | 2 |--| |-<] 3] aula ee
Or PASHMOTE, --oclseleceee once 2 tect. | AL) Joa oto ee
Cx) autumn bourh, 2... 4..2.-.2 =. 3: A. K. °|--|--|--|<-|22/e eee
Late Bough.
Sweet Bellflower.
Autumnal Swaar,--- 2 ...--..-.. | A. //de25..)--|-- | |ee
8 Baldwin, ete ei oe ate ee oe W. VES hp Voclaee * |--|--|]--]--
Steele’s Red Winter.
De MSaUGV OWES: S22 es oo Soe st Ae eee .-|--) |e eee
Edgerly’s Sweet.
Patterson’s Sweet.
fu Baltimore Pippin, 2.256). oon ec Ayelet eel ae == [2 =] =| a) ee a
11 Belmont, te ee te es Bi. W.-M e. |s-|- 22 eee kK] Ke | =e
Gate. Waxen.
fen pelleseur Yellow, 2. 2. est oe We) Moe, |--|--4¢ 1-2) eee
ESP SEM Te hl kik Aid at ee Sf Sise se alles ~~ |=». sel eel eee
viebeamty or Kent, 20) sosoceee ces 2) Wiewlek caeiee wou] a's ocean
i einckMOm ford). oes ee ue Se Wis ul eterarseee ~ =| =| <= 1\.a/ ee
fot Dlacks Amnette, oo 2<2)e0 esis kk S. |o.2-5-/4+/22)-| 3)
£7 looming Oranve, 22420 -ccee else BOW. |exeooulae = =|-~|. =) ear
iS blue Pearialn, 22. o2ooee ee Wise cLaalee =| --lo/e alee
HAR vO RENAME frei tho ee ore ee re eae Pan i | 2 ee rey me fe | || oll
Buchannan.
2D.|)/Bowling’s Sweet,.<2--.:2-.---.4--. W. K... |--|--|-=|-2] eee
| PME PIOOUTASSH.2 2104 Se le eke Se ee Wiewitickanss |= |<) of ol ele
mere road well,» 222 < settee 2 ee W. K... |2-/-4}s4)22) 22
eaaMerooke’s Pippin, soo. 2ochnac oa W.. |e----+|o2]-2 | =) Se yee
Pear allock’s Pippim,.20s02asse220ee-8 W.. lee ccet lilo] ao ae ee
American Golden Russett.
Sheep’s Nose.
PemPoUckineham, 2. coves eoltoaesee gill cise Ue Pha wo |= |= a1 eee
204 @arolina Red June, .22.22-222222 5 CAE = | Pa ~~ |-=|2 el ep ee
Red June.
27 cannon Pearmain, . 4... o22..2t28 LL. Ws |). M... «|. .|-.|- |
Poapeomerof Virginia,.....2 02.2200. Wicpal teeta =| - --|-2| +] oe) 2s) an
PMN Me ADDER ett ls in alah emoceraaeen A. M. |.2|..]-2).-) 295s

Beauty Red.
Lady Washington.

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 207

eta hena ei acter ey = a= f= 1) APPS;

particular Use for which the variety is best adapted; and the remainder the Districts
that such a variety succeeds well in the district named at the head of the column;
column of Names donote synonymes.

early; L. late. Those not designated as early or late of their season may be regarded
C. those specially adapted for making cider. Those not marked K. or C. may be
the market.

South

of Saginaw Bay.

A
“

Tilinois, Central.

Ilinois, South.
Iowa.

New York, West.

Michigan, North.
New Jersey.

New Hampshire.
New York, East.
Penn., West.
Rhode Island.
Vermont.

Massachusetts.
Virginia.

Mississippi.
Ohio, South.
Wisconsin.

Minnesota.
Michigan,
Missouri.

Kentucky.

Kansas.
Maine.

|--|--] # ]--| oe ]--]--] a |e |--[--]--]--]--] |e [--] & ]--]--[ | ae fe [--] ae |--]--| 3

KR lk |--|--) &]--|--] | [RK] ROR [-- | -- |e RR) ROK | OR] KR] RL OR] OR] KR] HK I--]-- 4

5 a a ARGUE Ee Colts Vedleheicol lal Aa ales
St. See eee B40) et 2 a i FAR |

+-|--|--|--|--|--|--]--|-- --|--)--]-- |e] --1+- ace sae tendon] ak |--] oe | oe | & feel --]--|--] 8

eee ieeiaapee fee fee he howto 2/2 -/5-)- 1 & | e|--|--|2-|--|--|-2) @i/-- |e) sae @

#-|--|--/=--|--|--|--|--|----|]--]--| * |--|-

--|--|--|--|--|--]--|--| & |--|--]--|--]--|--] *| #|--| | & | #|--|--]--]--|--|--]--] 11

|e | x | |--|--|--]--] & [--]% | % |--|--]--] & je}--]--]--faex}--]--] &] ae] ae] & |--] 12
ee eeteeta==|--|--| & |--|-2|--| &|=-|--| 2 | & |--|--) a |e e=|25h--|cel eae

Melee tee paa|ecisof==|a0)—---/54/--[e} ¢ | o-|--| | #4--|--|--|--)--/=-[o=} enlace ae

e=|==|==|==|-=|=-|=-|--|----|--|~-|-+| % |--|--|--|--|--]--|--|--|--|--]--| + lg|--|=-| 18
= =e) ES BS EB ere ey eee Pen) a ee A fe) a NR [| ee) ey (ES i ee |
oo ee Ses ES ES OS Ee es a os Pe eee (ey (Veen es Orr Fl kay ee eal |
Renee es | eset art ls fee || f= (sspee feb ieles eeteelek |celodinahs | oeee
Meme ls frie fecelcl:|.ats.|-| bene el clclet. [osbealeclealaceae
es | Ee bala he closleg eaten
% |--|# |--|--|=-|--]--] |--|--]=-]-+]--]--]--]--]--]--|--] a] aed a] x |e [--]@ ]--] 20

| 2 | o& Jex|--|-=]--|--|----| & [aoe -=]--|--]--]--] & | |--|--] & |--|--]--]--|--]--]--] 26

=-|--|--|--|--|--]--|--|----]| «|---| * |--|--]--]--|--|--|--|/=--]--]--]--|]--]--|--] # |-- 28
= Sool SP eS ES ey ey (RE a PP eR a Pr | TN |e ee ey fe een fete esa tes] ae et Ree 29

208 ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT

a
: | |eléla
w/o: FSIS
Bale} [2 6/0/85
Pig|sislS| |Alela
al ealolals | S| ye
S|S/ Li EIS ales
AP AABER En Sle]
a|a|o|o/.4|o/S/s|s
OJO/O/AlAlOols|sle
Sou Cooper's! Market, -2-..2 2.2222 _- 2.

Cooper’s Redling.

ROOD S WOU fi 5 See toh See ee oe

eae) OOO MURGE, 2. on eek eee

oy uernell’s, Nancy. (20) ccna ee
Cornell’s Favorite.

amen oes He EOL a eee

30 | Danvers Winter Sweet, .-...------ : ;

Se OOMmNnies S50 twa osha Pets oe Slee ee
Wells.

2 RIDE OE 8 es a i a
Early Summer Pippin.

Je 4 Ouich Mionenne, |. .-..b.5.2)-2.-

28 4 Duchess of Oldenburg,...-....-...
Borovitski.
Carlowinski.

40 | Dyer, or Pomme Royal,---------.
Pomme Water.
Tompkins.
Spice Apple.
Beard Burden.

Mi Siar NTATVOSt. eo. cdc de
Yellow Harvest.

a2) snarly Pennock, 22 5.0..2.-4-4----

Bau wany bedstreak,. $2 020lssee. ss

AMIN OG, 722 Bee CUE le bas

451) Harly Strawberry, ~-'.-2-<-..<-2. =.
American Red Juneating.

BG | duarly: hed Margaret,.. 22. -2 222-22
Red Juneating.
Striped Juneating.

ayo emMisnWasset,. o.oo ca cet ee
Poughkeepsie Russet.

2) ERC aS I es ae .-

chow pl Dp ee) As a er are eee re ene eRe py AE ah SEP

RIPE GUS WRLC eo ce cuisines manned :
Fornwalder.
Tulpehocken.

Mest Pippin oat c koma co eee
Holland Pippin (erroneous).

MRM WV ING, NS eh eee ele!
Sharp’s Spice, etc.

53 | Fall Queen of Kentucky,..-..-.-.---

Winter Queen.

Ladies’ Favorite of Tennesse.
Pages wannetting, 02 6p eae scee
an eaOranve,. _.....-.ncuscnewduck en

Holden Pippin.

OMI AMIRNSC ote cone co aaeuenae

Pomme de Neige.

Snow Apple.

Sy eeCOBeie wre, 6.00... na\eseee ne
OG TRIN Boe sdb icia cee bowen

~-|--|--|--| *

209

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS.

°
A
“UISUOOSI AA
“BIULL A
“JUOULII A

34
35
36

37

38
3g

‘puvysy epoyy

“YSO AA “UU

40

41

46

*[BIjUaD “uUIg

qseq “uueg

“yynog ‘o1lyoO
*[BA}UAD SOryO
“UWION SOIUO
"£98.10? AVON,

--|--|k)--)--)--|--/--/--

“SOA “IO K MIN

“qSUq ‘yuo X MONT
*BYSU.AGO NT
“AITYSAULB ET ALO NT
“s}poSnyoUssv]y
*puvpAre fy
*TLNOSS1 AT

‘Td tsstsst fq

--|--|--| % |--]--] % | * |--1 * |--|--]--|--]--]--]--]--|--

“AVG MBUISCY Jo
ynog Suvsryoryy

*

*

~-|--|--| % |--|--| | [--|--|--)--|--] & |--] & Jex]--]--

*

“UMON ‘UBstyon
*BOSOUULTAL

“OULB I

“SUSUR YT
“AMOUNJU Vp
“BMOT

"WyNOS ‘slour[y

"[BajUdD ‘srourl(T |

47

50
ol
52
o3

54
3)
56

57

58

|

RK sek] ok |--] ==] -+
* |= - [kok] ok |--|--

|

mo l--| Kk l--|/--|--|/--|--

enrle-(--|--|--| # Leelee

~-| &|--|--|--|>e|--|--

unt ea erent normal RAHN ete

|

om -- |

|

~~) sek] | ok [== |= = laeoe otek] ok | ok | oe fake] ok | oe | ok | oe ] ok ]--]--

--|--|--] |--]--] | # |--[--|--|--]--]--]--/--] «]--1--

--|=-| | & [--|--] 2 Jak) -|--] & | | ok [--] & |--] & ]--|--

*

*
*

oy) Se |oo OS Sa Sa a es Seo ie a) Sil ll

*

.

|

KR | RK] OK | K |---| -- | -- eR KK) OR] KR] KR] OR] OK
*

wm le nen nm nm ne en nen lee ener en ene) BR ec en- l-- |---| --|--|--|--|--|--/--|--|--|-- *Ii--

--|--|--|--|--|--)--|--|----]--)--|--|--|--|--]--|--| * |--|--|--]--]--/--] «| * |--|--

hh il--|--|--|/-- --)--|--

we|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--] * |--|--|--|--|--|--! * |--]--|--

Dae ee en ee ee ee en ee ee ee ee eee ed re ee

2 || sol beS6) SS 55) 5) be

oe | ee) ee ges lee

# | ok | & [sex] --| & |--]--

--|--|--|--|--)--]--|--|----|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|]--| « |--| * |--|--]--|--

o-|--|--| & |--|--|--|--|----|--|--| & |--|--)--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--}--]--] & [--

(4) \lcslSS| ESS ere

--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--}--|--|--]--|--|--)--]-- |e) & Jax

* |--| x |--|--|--|--|--
* |--| % |--|--|--|--)--

+-| % |--| * |--|--|--|--|----]|--)"%)/--|--|--)--]--j--|--|--|--| « |--]

wa |=-|-+)--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--|--|--|--|-- [oe | & [--]--|--|--]--|--/--/--/--

Oe ee en re ee re as Be re en i ee ee ee ee De (ey

# |--| & |--|--|--|--|--|----|--| «| % | |--!--| & [el --|--|--

wpm lemme nnn lame lan len m merle nln nnn lane n ne |---| |---| -- |---| & el --l--

weer len| Klemm leclerlenre-l--

18*

210 ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT

Autumn Strawberry.

g
ee ie 2| leig/a
g2iz| 12) [5/35
No. NAME. ; Fla) Sislo| |4|/2)4
a B) S/S) S18) S/S) op
FA . |alels/e|.| Si slasls
s | 8 les s/sia stersis
RD BP |OO/O/A/A/o)4)415
EME SGH he ho ee cate nce ele ee i AS |e a =| -./.-|-<)oe ee
Pi voaTOenOROy al: 2. 2-50) sec eee Ay tee e2--|--|-°)_ [22122
Re Mole ee ee ee W. C. |--|--|--) 12 )Se Ieee
Cart House.
Romanite of the West.
Little Romanite.
62 | Golden Russet of W. N. Y., ------- Li, W.| M. | g|.-|¢:|.2) 2S
63 | Golden Russet of Mass., -.-------- W. 1M. | ols - lee) S 2] Sere
Gry Golden Sweeting “2 _ 22-222 2552 Ey A. | K. M. | |--|2-|5 2/28) Se pene
Orange Sweeting.
Trenton Early of some Western
collections.
Ga WoIMVeNS tel, oo! oo eo ke cts = AS ate ge |= =| ge) one ee
Gaul (areen Cheese, 5. ...2..2.2.--2.<.-2 De Woteeee oe ee
Sa MusteeR sweet. 02.8. 6210-2 b-45- W..' | RK. on]. ]22 |S eee
Honey Greening.
Gay (hawinomden,!... ....--..-.------ K.A.| KK. | 4/--|£2).-|/coee eee
fos) diariford Sweeting, ....-.----.-... W. K. |_-|--|_-|22|2 322) eee
70 | Herefordshire Pearmain,.--------- Wie (acess ie Me Pe Pen |
Royal Pearmain.
71 | Hewes’ Virginia Crab, ------------ A. C. |--|--|.-|22\ea) eee
fen taro h-top: sweet, -2---— 2222 2.---- S. K. {--|}-2|-: |e ee
Sweet June.
Summer Sweet.
Pom aorse Apple. oof. bee ee Ss. K. |.«|.-|--|--|-oeeeeeeee
Summer Horse.
PP ELOC Gy 3:2- tor ek aid Soke ce eeoe SE ee eee eS -o|--| |e ee ee
mo lolland Pippin,.- .$.2-,- 4--b eee L. 8, |, AK. {22.16 | SS eee
Summer Pippin.
Pie Apple.
ao (Holladay s Seedline, 222.2 -4.. Wie eee ke =|. =|--|2<| 2 eee
77 | Holden Pippin (see Fall Orange),-.| A. {------ 2|52|--le2| eee
78 | Hubbardston Nonsuch, ----------- E.W.| M. |2-|22) [ec (ceieeeeeee
Was THO, fst. 32 ote t we BW aieece ee _olo<| ¢ o/s
By sersey Sweeting’, '..£ 2. .255-4-o245 BWA: | K. (22 122)22)s2 ae
Pe OMI AN sae coh sh Ate ws W. |). ML... |u-|2.|22) See
King Philip.
MemROCHTICS. «2024.2 ie Jt ote ee A eee EO AE ee ee ee, Be se
me lewett-s Bine Red.) es... 220 20.- 5 EB, Waltsocors _2|..|he2 cee
Nodhead.
fi) Knowles’s Early, '.2.0 24.92 sa.522 ieee see oe Pe Pe ee
BRIBICUNG. oc. oo oh eee Rae ae A alae |. .|2.] 4 [ee leetee eee
Cain.
aaowmeswick Codlin,-. -29--.ns.tLed S. K. | |--|--|2-lcclesteeneenee
87 | King of Tompkins County, ------- E. W.|- Ms. 1_.|--|.4|2-|-- ayaa
3) Larose Yellow Bouch,-.---<----:-- S. | K.M. |-2} 2. laent sede a eee
Sweet Bough.
Sweet Iarvest, etc.
SamendveApOlG 2... 62s sede seen ce Wiilssnnnc|-21< | 9] gee enn
Pomme @ Api.
Of | Ladies Sweeting, .2. .2.0.-.-.--- << W. K. |--|--] @ eee o Soe
Of | Late Strawherry, -..---22...26 220.) AS [eeeck-)- 22) e eee

211

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS.

S SSs 83s S885 SSR RX & FR RERRBS BB 28 BS & BS
‘usuoostA |} tt Betz patel ceeeptend ie eaten SO ERS hel - aie a mate
CBIUISARA| Silay mee Lies BUTE tae Gay ty ins Seba e eee eee Bears
"yuouaA | yy | ost ee ea ee avai aie Brot eh Ss aie Ce aie
"puss epoum | it | aoe re esa, Lee cesta rte eee teu pte ae ee
poy ds ase ae oN ea eT enone ae Ee eee ee ae
[eda “uued | tit Ne feat eee ae ie ate (SST TSE aca a, (gwar sean Baha
‘yseq Sunog | | | % se inane Ae ee Paes i phe ee et eet A eee
‘yynog ‘org | tt igi ee ae eee Pees Mike ee ies et at reothy
"eaguoay OO | tt ae ae eee ae MES ee ee ade a LeSaeicae
"UMON ‘OUD |e | Pays Te eee ae eee ees gt ow th Ste nae ea eee Cee
"Aaswoe MON | ttt He rie eee ee essa it abe) Wee 2 a egereane ea Sits
"IM ‘YIOK Mon] |! | %1% Boren ew ee Ne eget ocean te tae NRE ye eae aha
"SUA MIOX MON | tt #1 % Polen tienen | elec! aay ae ee Leto 1 ae
"BySeqON | ot | ries hiss Santee eh tie eet aM rtee sae eeeumerot ts er
‘oarysdueHy MON | tt | Al Pie een pees ae ee eee ee tear
‘syosnyousseig | jt eae ae eee esis ie Ge Cee eee ee ee
PUBL ALE TY er ie ea aaa eee aT ee ‘ a ce (fu as I a 1 ete
= OST | ie ae Lt # pee ee Wey 1 PON Nee Rit HORS tC nie eres
‘Hddysstssiyg {oj tf us Pi bai a bret ee, Te Pa at a ee ees Se rte
‘AUT MUUISLg Jo gen tot tea bed tS aihed rae fee aban
eee ee ee See
"UMON ‘uso | | | eee eee a eee ee ey Pattee eh bee See eee
“wjosouuryg |} tf ea aaa a rer Pa rae Ua ee Aree ear
US | Pal See Ss aa ee a an eee ee eS nest
‘susuvyt | oo} tf ae elas eels a at eae PRET es 1 cleat tel hhh ile ke Coca (eel
‘Ayonjuoy | oj | & esas pee See rae Pie FR e ea e e eee
"eMOT | #1 I rae ee ae ee ee ae = ee ese ees mee:
“amos ‘srourT | tit ae ee eee ee pe ee ee es Spee 1 a
fetus g POUyE | # tt tt es ee ei eee we ee ee ee ee 1 We

212 ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT

g
‘|.| | le! (g8l4
S/2\3| |2] |BS/s
No. NAME. ; Fia2/ 3/5) |A)2i4
B $)3/3/Si/S/-S) 8) s\a
B = Sia Pa) pol ss S S
a & |8/8\5|\o/4|0|S/ sie
2) P |OlO;O|A/A\O}S)siq
ey MYCE AL WAS, 2 ee iene amines LW.) M. |..|--|2.|2.) 9) 23S
James River.
93 | Lyman’s Pumpkin Sweet, .-------- i. A.) K. |.-|.-|4|2, 1235s
Pound Sweet. }
Ha MUON feck. SC Eee eee A. |b-4.22)-:|22|£2122) 9S)
Orange.
Tallow Apple. |
Greasy Pippin. |
Queen Anne.
Michigan Golden Pippin.
57) Pivcgciel¢ a0) Ge lee 2) Se Re ae See oe 2 7A | ce 2 3.|£.|4.)5 ee
Osgood’s Favorite.
DRMNaIaer BIEN, oo oe ne Soicane mn A, | K.M.|..|--| || 21 ce) eee
RCIA ct nese w Sinise nea rmne sm Witaltoeenice =-lec|-<lsee= eee
BP IOC LD Se loi bs te meee oa a tine ab a Na eee saa om ee ee ee Pee ei
SS UPOLCIOM fe. 8 ee ce kee ek Be Wolba sone -.|4o\e¢|<-).2)ae) soe
VEG TITS (2) eS A em Se WS eee ee Ae ee
OCUDT ULSI TS) ah SE ee ae ee Wis ee ee ee Pe ee
1) OLE pl OS SI a a a, pe eee 9 -2|celocle-tocles lel ae
103); Michael’ Henry Pippin, --2-.--.--- Wie base oe .=|2-|2-)2-| eyeoee ere
P02); Monmouth Pippin, ...4--.-2-.---- L..W.|.. M. |). 2|2-122|22| 23 eee
Red Cheek Pippin.
Pia MiGinere tf bole. Meck Belek .«|«-|2-|2=) 221 ae ees
106) Manson. Sweet,:/-...i0 4 o.4-5b_ A. K. |.-|2.|..|52) 22) 25)
TOs Nivers’ Noppareil, . 05 etmncei= 3 ap | aire Re 2 be =|>=|22|-c|=5)eet eee
Ohio Nonpareil.
Oa New Yorke Pippin: 125 tata e ee L.. W..|. M. j--|--|--|-<16-| Sotelo
Kentucky Streak.
Carolina Red-Streak.
Red Pippin. Victoria Red.
Carolina Red, and by some
Ben Davis. |
02) Newtown, Pippin, ).... 2..-60e-<=n< Li. W.|..----|-.|>-|>=|2-| ee) e eee
Green Newtown Pippin.
110} Newtown Pippin, Yellow,-.-.-.------ 1 FSS a ee Lal en) ae [Se tee) Mell meee
Hie NOLLNEIN. SDV,, cc. o- osc eden cnue cian L..W.). M. | |--|.% |--|setee see eee
a2) Northern Sweet,.¢.0--$ 12% 3) BAY K. |..|2-|2-|2c Zoe eee
Northern Golden Sweet.
Bipswociesbyc 2) eee Ake 5 a aR |e
Sewenrney:, x2. =~ fhe ee eee W. | M. |2|-2)0s)2c)aaieS ee
White Bellflower.
White Detroit.
Woolman’s Long.
| 115| Paradise Winter Sweet, .-.----.---- W...| KK. + |.-|2-|55]2-122] 2
RETA ON Cte bs he A. K. |--|.-|-<|221ec)}2eh gape
Peoeeck:s: Pldasant..t. ). 3.0.) eo Wi. jae ----|--|-+] 4 |--|2e)eel ne eee
118| Pennsylvania Red Streak,--------- W; |--+---|--|.-|2-l24)2<] eee
NOMA ORteT acs he Se koe ee Wea tee “A ii; ae Ge)
PE OURINC GTO oon to ee A BS 09) SET & loc thn| aclee leon me
PE amatey tess coh 2 eo he he ee L..S. \c-b- 4<|--|é-| ie 2eleereeee ee
Rough and Ready.
some roipess i ee be cl Ne bm ae <.- |p| = | Slee ee ee
Esquire Miller’s Best. | |

>

213

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS.

“UISMODSI AA,
"BIULSIL A

"JUOULIO A

“pursy opoyy

cela [eats OS

“4S0 AQ “UU
*‘[erjuay “uuagq

‘yseq “uu

PE Ee) a ny (i

“yynog ‘orto
"[BAQUaD ‘Oro

95

98
99

100

Sale a eS eed
we tiem poe kere

106

"U}ION ‘OrUO

"£98.10 MONT

"SOMA YIOK MON
“qseq ‘YOK MON
“BYSBIqoN
altysdure py MONT
~‘s}jasnyoussuyy
‘pur aeyy
*LINOSSLAL
“Td disstssiyq

Stl ett eee * --

wn )--|--|--)--|--)--|--)--/--)--| & | --|--/--

--|--|--|--] o& | o& | o& Jee] | oe |e J--]--|--]--

--|--|--|--| &| *& | |--|--|--|--|--|--

*i--

m-|--|--|--|--|--|--| * * )--)--|--|--|--|--

“AB MBUISBS JO
yynog $ ‘Suvsryony

*UWON ‘uesiyo

"BJOSOUUTTY
“SUE
aesuey
“AVON
"BMOT
"yng ‘srourLIT
"[B1PUO) “SIOUTTIT

epecb |:

*

* |--| * |--|--|--|--|--

--| */--/--

*

Se a ee eC CP We

*

SeipRe|e + bec |m [af S POR STS ee Pe ee ams eee eee

*

~-|--] oe |--|-~|-~|eok sex] oe |= -]--]--] a |--]--] xe | a |e [--| LID

ed ee ae Es ie ey Lae

~-| & |--|--|--|~-| a |aw|--]--| a |--|--]--]-- |x! aoe] --|--] 117

~-|=-| | |--|-~| 2 faaelaeae|-~|—~] og | ak | ak | a faeael ok ok |--] 119
Pag pope Pacey May arm, eb) 2 fe So al ae | NM i

*

-- *k le * ann nn fen tam nr dr tn tentacle l-- | & l= 102

*

Se ee ee *

| & | ok kx) --)--|--|--

marl emf e eee e -lan- ne le e e e - -- --| Kel -| K -- |---| --|--}--/--|--|--/--|--/|--/--

--|--|--|--|--)--|--|--|----|--|--|--| « )--|--| «| * |--|--|--|--|--|--]--|--|--|--|--

|

bets]

--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--|--|--]--|--] a [ae k|--|--|--] & [--]--

Span} ——|—=)——|—-|—--|—-|-- — |---|) ee fe fea | loi} - |---| --}--|--

mms e fe eA be lacbeleth ballet Po es

--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--|--|--|--]--] * | * |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--] « |--]--

EERIE alas) osc | ele ofecloel on] 1 (2 loc |e locteo|-cle SU sae ae

* |--| *|--|--|--|--|--

| |--| # |--|--|--]--|----|--|--]--|--|--]--] |--] |--|-=] |--] |--|--|--]--]--] 110

*

*
*

Sees ee eal pte | o|-=|-—| +5] | Soe eee ee fo teed eek eh TG

SS ES ae DP Ge Fe aD Ce DS de Oa

A\-seScsSes ass

neo. Sh Ely Le RR pli PR Nf: fel Se fn (PS ae

214 ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT
g
als] .| 1s] leigle
S/zle/ |S] |S/8i6
No. NAME. Fa S/S/O) “ae
> a SB) S/O] al /.8 r
g | . (giziseiSieglge
s | & le/sisislgisisists
a | © [SSc|Sialaloaigia
Bewrervors Red. os. obese ee W. | M. |--|..|..|..| 9/2 ieee
LLIN 227 06 Ye a MS Rs pe Se bs Bo WV eee x |--|--| «|e [--l ae | ]-=
Romanite, Seek-no-further, or
Bread-and-Cheese Apple of
New Jersey.
d2e amour Fran’, 2. secle see le bok. S. K. |--|--|22| 2 aoe
Summer Rambo.
Rambour @ Ete. .
126 || Ramedell’s Sweet, -......-22---2.- W. | K. |.-|.-)--|23)2]
Ramsdell’s Red Pumpkin Sweet.
Red Pumpkin Sweet.
English Sweet.
fey Ra Wieses SAMCH. 2.25 e- an ones L. W.| MM.’ |--|--]--|-=):e9)2 See
Never-fail.
Jannetting.
Rochremain.
Rochrimmon.
123) Republieanwippin, .........---.-- AN th tee eae == |==|==| 52 |e
foo hed Wamauantee sa. 2 se Wierdaucomelee a= |=) =e [eee eae
Old Nonsuch of Massachusetts.
Richfield Nonsuch.
Steele’s Red Winter, of some
collections in Michigan.
Pam iset. LUSestrie,.<. -~ 22) oe ee. ate ae Ee --|--|-<|=-|ee)ee
Pie Weel, oo eee ee LF W. K..” }--|--]--|2=|2oleo eee
Red Winter Sweet.
Pa ned Catieade Jesu eo tee A RS SR! -.|--)|-~|23]22)2o pr
iaremette Canada ew fost ole ble eh pe eee --|--|~2|-) 0
Canada Reinette (the only one
in use here).
134 | Rhode Island Greening,.--..--__-- Wei) Ms ce Fe ertioe ~=)--| #|--|--
fea raiuston Pippi, ! 2605 eb. fe E. W.4----4-| #|-+|"=}-|- ee
(36) Ridee Pippin, .-.-..2-2242/ 0560) W.)|M._||.c1-e eee
Peon eben, 4 Pt bce en ei PU se et = 4} ain {== || ol ee
fos PRO vULy KRUSset,s. oe ee L. W.) M.. | 4 J--les!2-|2 See
Boston Russet.
Putnam Russet of some West-
ern collections.
Po prnome Beauty,b. 20 ll. seeks W. | MM. |-2l-cl2-) oe
Gillett’s Seedling.
fo obeys Seedling, 22s 2222) We oe _.|-|-<|- shee eel
aat)\ hobertson’s: White, 2.2. 2224-2 5. BAWalcexthes _.|==|-c] ae) 2
Paiwoaint (Lawrence, 2. eh tl ceLs « |-=|-ic|=0] 2 el
142 oheppard’s Sweet, 2 2. 65022. - A K.. |-.)-)--] 53) ee
Per home gua mnon, 2. eset escuke ce he i ie A wa | 3 | an) eta Sele
Meith s Cider, <b a cece cece te W.-K. M. |. .|--1.2) ¢ | pee
Peivemiome-NOUse, .. <4 oe ce oe ceed E.. W.|,) Mi... |--|~=|~~] ee ere
Mill Creek Vandevere.
English Vandevere.
1 arioOpe.Ol Wine. 2. 20S. eee ees S. K.. |.-/--|-.| 22/2226) ee
Pie Apple.
Washington.
PAS DL Smeetoweet, boss be ek a ee A; 1 Sap PD, al bel Pg es Be

215

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS.

|

roy oO = Yor) ive) C OO o> on NOD HD & rt 00 [or] SO aN OD HD SO CS @
A ae Sie oa a ott eee > ae ac psc Rac ae fe Se vey ey ea al el ed = 2 |
(Soe iis ; ; ia nee cies estes! ce
“BrUTsrA |} | * a ee Bes. OS fewest ee
‘yuoulaa |} | hea epee Tk pie ite pak ee
‘puysp opoum |} | % Pe See nt sie ie et ae eae %
‘q90M “UUag | | % % * | eae #11 ee Wig et SEE seaman
‘TeQUa) “uueg | | * rt fon satel a ee eal metas erasecde :
i. eq une | | % ae San ee OT ee
“ynos foryg | * * * ae Nici on a Sas ee cst EN Seat Me Sa cn ecg ete
"[Bayuad ‘oro | | * i nes ie eee Es Sistine a
‘UWON ‘oro | | ¥ \ Varies oie ieee Pere |
‘hasiog MeN | | * ca eae a f-) Ree BE Tee nt S
BOM WOR MON | | : ' : x BA A aa ee fr cena anestaa
‘yseq ‘yt0X MON | | % ' ; 1 * Pe citeat ole ae bok tn it oat
“BySBIQON | | | i ie ee ae a at Pa oat ene
aurysduery MON | | va tee 1) oe peas
‘syasnyousseyy |} | . ; et tai oh Tt tea cee %
“purpAleny | | * % es Pee te itslena eee Fe te i ek:
~‘rmossiq | = x ; i i iain tal rae Panay
‘iddississyyy |} “ ae et ae ee EL a ee
Mequon | iy ff i an See
"UMON ‘uvsiyonT |} | ' iz Nagata apeiames| by oh Mertrie Lone
__,_ “Bosounry | ot | a Se a) feet Pac cir MUO
our | | | l % ie eel ad tet Tae eee
‘susuByy | | | Be Ree sats stat or ete tc. ter tags a
‘Ayonjuoy | * % x ey ERR Oe pa OE a tie oo
‘eaoy | i | % ne pee eee eee *
"WMO ‘slourIT | | x i va pear. lisa Path cian See ye
"[BApua) ‘srounTT | %* % x zx ert) Lt rr eee

2]

Vv

No.

ne

ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT

NAME.

Spitzenburg Esopus,
Summer Queen,
Summer Rose,
Woolman’s Harvest.
Lippincott.
Summer Hagloe,
Summer Sweet Paradise,
Strawn’s Seedling,
Sap eai ce Aes NSU es 2 eee
Swaar,
Tetofsky,
Tinmouth,
Teignmouth.
Tolman’s Sweeting,
Towne,
Townsend,
iwenty Ounce A pple, 2: --2 i... 2.
Eighteen Ounce Apple.
Cayuga Streak.
Vandervere of New York,
Newtown Spitzendurg.
Ox Eye.
Joe Berry.
Wagener,
Waugh’s Crab,
Watch Willow: 3020) Sloe bce oe
Wellford’s Yellow,
Westfield Seck-no-further,
Connecticut Seek-no-further.
Seek-no-further.
Witte Wunea tine L3G.
Juneating.
White Pippin,
Canada Pippin.
White Winter Pearmain,
White Rambo,
Wine Sap,
Wine Sop.
lio Tio: tod ee ele
Williams’ Favorite,
Wine Apple or Hays,
meow Incestries: oo. sees eae
Yellow June,
Kirkbridge White of Downing.

Aa ae} ae}o
fe} ri anon
DQ . Si ala
4 oS ae.
mM Se oro
Wed wD, ale.
tas eh eal he be
Oia bee GE ma) a
1 Se ee ie
Wihieciew a eee
2 NS, Where ae Pa Bk
W. on hat art eee lose bea -«|=@ *K
SS iitee. alee
Weave pace Sia
W.. )IC ME) 5 | ohe
eee pela da Ba fe
EAs thts 2 3) see
BOW. ae
Wea Mi i ica
WY has ea
sa Goa a FP
1 ee ee
Worlds. bit tag
a AR PR ios)
Alle ae Se sate alt
TWO. eae
|
Ts, We) is eles
Yale apa (EG 8
BW.) Mes oe
Li Wi) Ae
<r a 4 ra aa:
Urs EMA: 2 he
Si icitin. a) oe aa (is

Dist. of Columbia.

Delaware.

Indiana, North.
Indiana South.

*I--

Illinois, North.

217

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS.

3
G
*UISUOOSI AA.
*BIULSALA
"JUOULII A
“puv[s[ spouy
“Ysa “UUOg
*‘[eaquay “uuag
“‘qseq ‘uu
tno ‘orto,
__Texyua,) ‘or
“UWON ‘Oro |

149
150

42-19 |- ot
152
153
154
155
156
57
158
159
160
161
162
163
164

SSF Foe oo

|

* | ok | oe | ok [--]--|--|--

165

166

x |--| 167
170

175

76

178

wal =< utah late eee eee
169

BA ge
--| 173

|

* AISI MONT
"JSOM ‘YIOK MON

|

* | |--

“4seqT ‘YOK MIN
"BYSBIGON |

--|-- ee --| *|--|--|--|--|--

“aILSdue pT MONT

t

~-|--| 2%) |--|--|--]--| & [--] 2 [aelaex] --] --
won| om poe so eee pees eects] ord |e age

“s}josntousse yy
‘pue Cavey

*LINOSSITL

19

| --]--

~~] |--]--/--|--| «| & |--] * |--]--|--|--|--|--] #/--]--

w }--| 8 | |--]--] ok | | oe |--]--] | oe] oe]

Speciale ciesiieeoa) es iielles| asec) selec

Ae
|

“rd dississi py

“AUT MBULseg Jo
qynog ‘Suvsrmoryy

“UPON SUBS OTT

*
*
*

--|*%*]==|--|--}--|--|=<|--|--|-<] *|=-|--[-<]--]--]--|=- 171

--|--|--|--|--]--| & | & |--|--|--|--] *] | *|--|--|--]--

--|--|) * |--|--|--|--|)--|--|--/--|--'!--|--|]--|/--|/--/--|/--

!

----|--|--|-- |x

*
*

|

wn fn rtm nn fect elon len} -- lene len lend l-- | & l--] & fl -- |---| --]--

'

1

"BOSOM ULI :
‘OUR | |

at le BEAL atl aa) 2 heel etg te ol setae kx % | [ek] == | ==

*SUSUV IT ‘

|

*AYONJUWO Vy

--|--|--|--|--|--| oR j--| # |--)--)--]--] & oex)--|--] & | & |--]--] # |--|--|--]--

*BMOT :
"YNOS ‘sroury[y '
*[B1IZU9D ‘SIOUrT[]T *

Sy ES) NE Sr P(E fae) fete (ese) a fee ead We ey fo fs) |
SS) Ee) Fy A ES ee A eg see fey ee ey ene ses ses tee) (ace ey (| (re

wel--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--|--|--|--]--|--|--|--|--]--|--|--]--|--|--| * |/--|--

--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--}--|--|--]--] * |x#|--|--|--|--]--]--|--|--]--[--]--

10S SS ee ee ee
Be 7) |
* |~-| * |--

*i--

==] ==|2=|-—|==|--|--|--|=---|--|--} % |--|--|-~|--|=-|--|--|--}--|--|--]-<}--|.-

RK) 3K fake) - - |--|--|--) -- --|-- |x| --]--]--]--]--)--|-- book) eok| sek] o& |---| o& |--|--] &

t

--|* S| oie --|--|-<-

|
|

ee pellets) = She] Se ec ry I ee re |) ee i ee (icy ees tea ere el eee eee 1

sep= fa |o=}=—lo-}—=|--|-5--)--|--| ~ so pes} —-|--}ss)--|--/--|--|--}oe/oo|a-(o-] x Joe
ann rn rr nn cc cc ce clo ccc lc lo clon fee] -o-l oe] onl & lee l--|--j--

%# | # |--|--|--|--|--|--|----]--| * |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|-- Je} |--|--]--|--|--]--|--

wnlm-| Kl -- |---| -- eel -- ee --)-- |---| --|--)--}--)--|--|--j|--|--|--|--|--|/--|--|--|/--

* —--}/--j;--|--|/--|--/--
| | & |--|--|--|--|--)----|
w<c|<8 * eeleool(eeleonl/ow

*K
eK,

218 ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT

TABLBe Mise) 6 63 “ee fe ee

The Columns indicate: Ist, the Name of Variety; 2d, the Season of Maturity; 3d, the
the Districts in which the Varieties are recommended. A star (*) opposite a
of the column; two stars (**) distinguish those most highly recommended. The

The Abbreviations are as foilows: Seasons, S. summer; A. autumn; W. winter; E.
Those not marked K. may be regarded as dessert or table sorts. M. designates
are known to succeed well on the Quince stock, and are, consequently, specially

a
al he j
cher Ee] |S\éls
we | 4s = 6] =| e
| 1 Sh ee aes S)
No. NAME. = 18/2) 3/5] _.|4\2/4
A 2. |e] se] O] oi ).8)/S o
8 | .| 4 /SlZ2E S/H 8 sts
4 | 81 2 |Sl8lsisizisisisie
D b>. [oa [OD 1D Ny ey ee
LD ere 2) 01 ee a oa a A A} \..-4|-2.-|~2|2}22|-2) ere
OePAGMMNS coon UN, ook cele FA. |.-=-|----|--|--|--| 2 eee er
if NBLUTSL <2) (70h a ht: en BA. |... --|2--|-2|--]-2] 222 hee
Tens Cte oe os. oka B.A. |o-e-|----|--]--}--|-s] 2)
Depa nCmews. «21 tsi 8 sek ye Ki. A; |-.--|22.-|.2|-2)- 35S
6 | Bartlett or Williams’ Bonchretien,| FE. A.| M. |----|--|--]«]%|--|%/«] «|x
Wasele: LAICTAUIVG, cuckoo h knees E. A. |---| Q. |--|52) 9 le lee eee
Fondante @ Automne.
—o|| Belle Epine Dumas, ...--.-..-.-- EB. W.|-.2-'--2-|-2}52122 | eee
Epine Dumas. |
Due de Bordeaux, etc.
Sil eeurre benoist, ....st-2--- =. -- AC dicesaiceeees --|-=|¢ ectee ee eee
Auguste Benoit. Benoits.
AO ebeiire bOSl. 2. toot mace Hc sols eee ee o- le bap loc ee eee
i tieBeurre Clairgean, .- 2. -.+--.---- L.A. | M. |..--}.-)-<|.-|-2) 22) ene
Pee entre A ANJOU, ...6o-ce-o2bas ect L.A. | M.| Q. |.2|--1 % |-<l22}epleeeeee
Ne plus Meuris of the French.
s63\ Beurre da’ Amanlis,-....-2--25..-- EAA. |..--| Q. |.-|-2].l=2)ee lee eee
f47) Benrre d Aremberg, ...-.-»----=- BE. W. |---| =< --|s<|221--| <0) ee] ae ee
i5:| Beurre de, Brignais, .---.=-..+--- BS, (ae se Rots Ae ae ee fees ee
Des Nonnes.
Siaiepeawe Wiel, ool 2e "eee ees A, |-M. | Q. |-<le-he | 2)o ee eee
17) Beurre de Nantes, .-..------=- += A. |o...|-.-|2-|.2|-c)ceyaete = eee
Nantais.
aS beurre Mastery... iac-sas se ener W. | Mo} Q. |i }o2) g]- flee ee
196) Beurre Giftard,:-< 2-24 se too. B.S. |----|----|2-|-21 & lactone eel eee
20 | Beurré Golden of Bilboa, ------- SO RAS ae _.|-clachcelee eee
Bl | Beurre Goubault, ..--..--.-:--- FE. A. |... |--- 1221. ee
eeeebeuwre bady: 25 2d e- see A. |..--| Q.|-2)--|-2)22 eee ee
Papmenrre menmes, 25 F222 aa- So Wey Mme ey | [2] 2) 2am
24.| Beurré Langelier, -....--------- L..A..|-.--| Q.. |--|-2]_/-212e 2 ee
Bou) Beurré Oswevo,..3--.----.---+- A. |..-2!.~+-)-2]-:|2¢}o2 ee
Ponenenurre Superfin, .i.-.--.--.+--- A, |oc-2] Q. |2) le ele eee
Bii) Gezi de la Motte,...-.-2.----2-- L.A. | 2. |e
paniisiack W orcester,.?--....-'-.2-- TW ee latceice me) ee ees Me
29 Bloodgood, Selle Siete a eteeteeietect te S. ee wa|eensfen| oo) ae | ae ero eee
BOM SOUNE C IOZCC, 8 cnseaueotgoue HN fe RT © | a HP ee BS AF FS
Bie Marany WINC,..- 05-08 ain eae EB. As |e! .Q. |--|--| 61 eee
eee wits - sc... oan ceme ene AG eM Qteh soa «| Hee + lel
To) COL oe ar ee eve pane a Bie AM NE Bg ao ia a-|--|oc}e eee eee
SUP CES 2) cr a eee A. |--..|_.--|2-|--|¢ 2/222 ee
Sop CCE US ca A See See Wears iikc.n| --]--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--
CRI GET 208 ee a Lh. Aa |. i le5--|--| 21et a
ad (| MOHAROPNON tse cn a3 one eee oe i; Aceh cee hee BE ies Fa se ae, |

219

Stock, Q. designates those varieties which

PEARS.

particular Use for which the variety is best adapted; 4th, Stock; and the remainder

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS.
Use, K. designates varieties recommended only for kitchen purposes;

variety indicates that such a variety succeeds well in the district named at the head

Italics in the column of Names donote synonymes.

the most valuable varieties for the market.

early; L. late.

E ATOWOS G S SAH NEE SE ReaAge iSeese cee
“UISUODSI AA eal Mitel agltieedt aaa cack 1 2) cold tlgpuls= Sette at oe otto feotoed Dieiiiee tar bance teak Scala bigs ing Ue
- SBPOENIEA | Sit Si i hee ee ee See aoe iis ee og
*PUOULLD A sad en ewe fo eo Sisksit Shee eee ener bectmeas 20 Shoe Pes Tee ae CR
‘puvjs, opouy | * i je ise | ee ee ee ee ee ee Se ee

‘$50 “UU Pea COT eager Sl Ceara ' fete e SD '
certs ame ee ee
a a
svg ‘Uta, TNE ge a : Pee er ee ee ie ae ae ie sD
OS UO hain a at ‘ lie re ne lene a eae ne en gee eR Tegh ict, tee ema ea
Te1z09) “OUD | a ER ee A ee PN aac a HS Pe ere eINeT I Oe Out
"QHON TOWWO | pt eee ee Se et Cee ee teh ee Me ee ae dhe
*£OS10° MON a oe a A ee, es ee Be at ee ee ee ee
"WSO AA SYLOK MON Se a % ok ee eee eee ee ee ee ee ee ee SO
‘q8Uq “YO X MON roe hot aie eee ee : x * x Paci a 0 at Ge eo) ge ee ge 3} Se ses ean
“BASBIGON ho yon eet est Cees ifpUiaiaN oe el NI coca Wl ght Seas hctesMlan de Lea Nc tu To ae past caee nae een
‘ouysdureyy MON | Pb i i kt is: eerie eu eC cieeee oe
‘syosnyousseyg | x * x | x Be x (ee EB 8 1k 8H HR RRR RHE 1 ae at! uaa
‘paepieyy | th ae Roe 1 ee eee ee ee
FIMOMEENY | te) cl fh secu a jl ae ha eee Oe ee er
‘dds | {i} ities | i ae Se Oe eee
. ‘AB uLS en tet ; ‘ ; 5 : eerie teat rea ; See Ob. F
E oS Dot aie he Pe Peak Se eee
5 UMON SOBSIUDI | ttt tt Ose eee eee cme eee cet
& yoru | et tat ei he eae meme
q “OULBTT cere agit ' 1 i eae ey hice ean ail. Sigg) ns Lo MILA a gE eet on on epee
a C2 Se Seca Pea Pe cee a ee cere eet Tete sce ye |
2 AMONIUOM |e te 1 ee peer 14 ete eerie eee eon
z U0) ele ee re a eh ar ee eee eee ee en TEM er mm rm ie nr
a Tygnog ‘sIOUNIT | jf iii ee Ot Leen he ae eT TeNRL Ee Tire Wee ieee ue te
3 *[BIJUSD “SIOUNIT. | tit a ee ee OF ae eT ee ee eee ee re eee ewer ere:

220

No.

ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT

NAME.

Whelmsford,| <3: -t -de-b- t-te
Wolmpibiak. = boi- 3) aa ae
Columbian Virgalieu.
Conseilleur de la Cour, ----------
UsiiNO ete) eee
MUAY OLEH ct Secon Rees
Dearborn’s. Seedling, =;-=--4>--
Delices d’Hardenpont d’ Angers, -
MORE) he core os oo Seeks eeees
Doyenne Boussock, ------------
Doyenne d’Alencon,------------
Doyenne @ Hiver Nouveau.
Doyenne du Comice,. ----------
Doyenne 0 Bie; 2 .2--¢-e-=.-5--
Doyenne de Juillet. +
Summer Doyenne.
Doyenne Grays. -3--22 o- ~- <2 04 -t
Doyenne Gris.
Red Doyenne.
Doyenne Robin, 4-2). b-4- =: -2.-
Woyenwe White; 2.402. des ees<
St. Michael. Virgalieu.
Butter Pear.
Duchesse d’Angouleme, --------
Duchesse de Berri d’ Ete,--------

Muchesse de. Brabant, boy 2.2524 \2-.-.-|=4=-

Duchesse d’Orleans,--.-----.----

Beurre St. Nicholas.
HOIMMINOTS, noe ies eth selec outke
Harly Rousselet, 222225. 225-5.

Early Catherine.

Rousselet Hatif.
Hlizabeth, Manniners, 4... = 4. 5--
Fiene' d’ Alencon, 2 --!.-3--2.2c\-.
Huemish Peat Vn4oes ee see
Frederick of Wirtemburg,- -- -- --
BAC LOD ct: code ee en Se eee
Gansel’s Bergamot, _-.----------
Chont Morcea, 2 222 esses ke
PAS OMOUS «de. cS Oe cee ee
BA UGG, cc wets Seis Bore ee tee

Gore’s Heathcot.
Elemice elie es 7328 ee ee ero
deny the Rourthy.22ocstes-n5-

Ananas.

Poire Ananas, etc.
Hovey, Dana's, =. 2.2-<20te0 cere
RAP pinot at omioo Lewin tomar ee
Pees oom = ojos See see dete
Jalousie de Fontenay, ---__------
JeMMnN eben coe ese cbuaeetss
JeAMOe VILLE, Saieos cea u co tecbo
JONOUNOL, (oo aed en ss se woke

Canada West.

a
—
e
B/s =
SiS!i jo
R).2)o/O} .
alolalHiea
S/O} | 9) Se
Slals | =
S| Sh doe ee
wn
|S 0] 2 [em he
JO/O AIA SO

--|--|--]--| *

-- * ~-<-|<-<-|/<-=

--|--| */--|--

Indiana, South.
Illinois, North.

Indiana, North.

* | RK |--

221

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS.

3

A
“UISUODSI AA
*BIULGALA
*VUOULIO A
*puvysy apoyyy

-2| 42

“4seA4 “uu

[Bua “UAT

5 C5
qsvuq “uueg

"YOY ‘Oro

*[BVUA,) “OLTO |

“UMON ‘OUO

“£8.10 (° MONT

"90. ‘YOK MON

“4SUql ‘Y10 XK MONT

"BYSBIGON

“OILYSAUULB ET ALO NT

*S}JOSNUYOVSsBI
*puvlAre yy
*LANOSS1 IAT

‘Td dfsstssi fq

“AU MBUISUg Jo
yynos

‘UBS ONT

“UMON ‘aes poy

"BJOSOUULT
“OULBIT
“SUSUBY
“AMON ilo MT
‘BMOT

“YNOS ‘sfourly

*[BlpU9) *SfOUL[[T

--|----|--/--|--|--)--)--|--|--|--|--|--| &/--|--

% |--|--| 8 [--|--| & | # | & |--] % |--|--|--]--)--|--]--

*

eee oea ==) aja a eons tae | Kafe c|e=|—<|-—|==|2-(==|—2/--|--|2 2) 2 =

ete eda —}o-|—- 4} _j_- |---| |--|--| & |=-|--|--|--] % |--|--|--|=-|--|--|=-|--|_-

S| fy (ey Pee ese (ay Peete fete (race) feces ede feed (mares fs aes gre ey Veen [en jee eg Feet |e (oe

* | & |--| * |--|--|--|--]----| *& |--! * | |--|--|--|--| # |--|--| &]--|--| *] «| #|--

See Saqaetam ey anime fe oma || oe |_| | Jea | ee oo oe

--|--| * |--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--|--|#4]--|--|x}ex| & |--|--!--] « |--]--] « |--|--

Se Sa) SS) SF) a eV re re ee rest en eye et fee [es fa fe ee

*

# | |--| x |--|--|--]--

~-|--] | & |--|--| &] | oR I--] & | & | & |--] & |] I--

00

51

52

53
o4
a5)

56
57

58

*& |--| |--|--|--|--]--]--| & | & | |--] oe ]--|--] & | x

% |---| oe | ok [--|--] ok fae} ok [--] & [==] oe [--] oe | ok |---|

Ky--| wR] KR] --)-- pe RK RL RL aR] RL KR] OK] KR] KR] OK] OK

% |--| & | & |--]--| | oe | oe f--|--] &] &[--] oe] &]--] &

ee Vege (eaten (mart | ene ees P| etn] es |e ae | el eS

--|--|--]--|--]--|--]--|----|--]--|--]--]--|--]--|--]--|--]--|--]--| « |--|--|--]--

*

*

*

*

# | | | oe |--|--]--]--

ed dt ed * ee ee ee

<=|=-|--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--|--|--|--|--| «| * |--|--|]--|--]--]--|--|--|--|--

fe —|—— || --|-—-}--}-- --|--|--|--}--|-=|--|--|--|--|_-|--|--] # |---| ¢ |--|--|--

--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--]----|--|--] * | * |--|--| * | * |--|--|--]--]--]--|--|--|--|--

Sana er emma et) gst em fmm iif lf pe] = | gl em | | re ml ml ef

aaa — |} ||} || |---|} =| | oe |---| | --|--}--1-=}--1 =

--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--] * | * ]--|--]--|--|--|--|--|--] « |--|--|--|--|--

Sea dena eet yd en et wa ll mt mi mo fe | mel le oi mlime |= = m | eg e

*|* | ¥*|*|--| *|--|--

| SNe) Sa ET Se | ere Fes, i a | a ed fee) (ese ete ese [ee aes) ea Pel leet ee eae —

Ere kl trea maf Phe | es ifm =| faa

2a) SS) SN Se ea FPR FP far ee I (een nee (ae fs Pee eee [ens] ed | Fe

| ss] |S le SS | | ee) eae Ya re eal [ee re eset J PS PA [ee

*# | * |--|--|--|--|--|--]----]--]--|--] * |--|--|--|--] * |--|--|--]--]--]--|--] « |--

cos) cos e5c Si | UN Sy es ed | te teens (ee) fee ed ee fee [es | | ee ee) eal oe

’ La ' 1
1 ae 1 1
' ie ' '
' 1) ' 1 '
' oo ' ’
i 4 ! 1 ‘
Ly ' ' ' i]
1 Lie ' '
' no ' 1
' Teor ' ‘
' ts ‘ '
' tor ' '
‘ [ie A; ' ‘
1 pF ' 1
' hee wy uw 1
' Peay ye '
1 tir a '
1 1 ee Reg ’
1 Sy ordi '
' ' t ' ' !
1 A BL a SA ‘
rT Binnie an fin «8 1

ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF

NAME.

Josephine de Malines,

Julienne,

Minosessing,..is-25\e22-<e-ie<¢

Kirtland,
Kirtland’s Seckel.

Knicht’s R. I. Seedling,

Lawrence,

Limon,
Beurre Haggerston.

Pepmee Aa teed pete kee Ss
Smith’s Bordenave.

Louise Bonne de Jersey,

Macdelaines. bi eee el ee nee
Citron des Carmes.

Marie Louise,

McLaughlin,

Merriam,

Moyvamensing,

inks Gel 08 aS TS OA Se
Moore’s Pound.

Napoleon,

Nouveau Poiteau,

nONGaT aS foes ok dct eS
Swan’s Orange.

Osband’s Summer, -------------

Oit,

Paradise d’Automne,.--.--..---

Passe Colmar,

Pinneo or Boston,

Pratt,

Rousselet Stuttgart,

Rostiezer,

St. Ghislain,

mb. Michael Archange, 2.0...

Seckel,

BC IGOM, a... cceteee ee eihaere ee

1,22 6 ae ry SPE ce tn,

Stevens’ Genesee,

Supreme de Quimper,

Tyson,

Urbaniste,
Beurre Picquery.

Uvedale’s St. Germain, .--------
Pound. Winter Bell.
Angora. Bolivar, ete.

Van Mons Leon ke Clerc, --------

Dicarot, Wankfield,. 2524. -..22
Le Cure.

IN OTON st eke eee

Wilbur,

Winter Nelis,

Windsor,
Summer Bell, etc.

A.
Ps

FRUIT

Canada West.
Canada East.

Connecticut.
Delaware.

Q.

+ |----|--|--|

--|

« |----|--|--]

--|#
--|*

~-|#

: :

--| *

----|--|--| *
--|--|

Indiana, South.
Illinois, North.

Dist. of Columbia.

Georgia.
Indiana, North.

=< |=-}=—|)36 4) oe om

* |--| *| *| *[--

# |--|--|--]--]

*|--|*&|#] #I--
* |--| &] oe] ]--

--|--|--|--|--| *

= = |ac| <<] leh ee ate

Fe fee) fey fe oe) jo
*% |--|--)--)-=]—6
--|--) &| &| *]--
e-[--|--]--]--] ®

*Ki[--| RK) #R) BLK
~--|--| # |--|--/--

--|--|--] &] & |

we f--[ & | ok [oR] &
% |--|--| & | | x

--|--|--|--|--] *

--|=--|--| * *Ki--

--|--| & |

223

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS.

“UISUOODSE AA
*BIULGALA
“juOULIa A

*‘puvjs[— espoyry

77

78
79

80

‘FSO.AA “UUdg

"(w.quoa,) “uusg

81

82

83

84

85

*i--
*

*

86

87

88

89

%

101

102
=2}lofe~} 108

rr
¢

.-| 106
=| 107
..| 108
..| 109

110
lil

.-| 112

Piva

.-| 115
.-| 116

117
| 118

|

% ok | ok [--

*

‘qseq “uueg

“unos ‘oryO
*[B.juaD ‘oro
“UWON ‘Oro

"JSOAA ‘YLOK MON

* |--|* | || * | &]--]--

*

“qseq ‘Yok MON

"BYSBIGIN

"ASA ue EY ALON

“S}JOSNYIVSSB I
‘purl Airy
“LUINOSSI IT

~ dd ississty
qynog ‘uRsryory
“UMON ‘ues lyont

% |--|--)--|--] # |--|--]--| % |--|--]--]--|--

*

*

ee eee ee *

*

% |--|--| *

--|*

*

--|%]--|%] x] «| «| #1--

*

*Ki--|-

fel alee fala | ae | [--| 108

% |--[-- ake) kok] ok |--] oe | | oR |---|

o-|--| %

*BJOSOUULAL

*

| --|-- ek) ee] ok] | oe] KR] oR] oR] oR]

*

*

*
*

OULU
*SUSUv VT
*AONUWO YT
*BMOT

--|--| & |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--] * |--|--|--] * ]--|--

-- * ee en ee ee eee

*
*

~~ |--|-- fx] --|--| & | | oe |--]--

% |--|--] &|--|--| *

*%

*

*

ok | - - [PRR) skok] - - =~ [sel e *

*
*
*
*

--|--|--] & |--|--] & [eel & |--]--]--| «

mr ptt lr) KB lene rl- cle l- ellen] & len l--]--]--]--

--|--|--|--|--|--|--] «| * |--]--|--]--

“Mog ‘srourlT
“(BAU ‘SOUT

Cl let ett Nett elie Alta Mitt itl lite Celtel altel tte ital Cotte Cw ee keg co es a

--)--|--|--)--|--|--]--|----] # |--| * |--|--|--]--|--|--]--]--] * |--] *]--|--]--]

~-|--| *)--|--|--)--/--|)----/|--/--

~-|--|--|--)--|--|--|--]----| * |--|--|--|--|--]--]--| % | % | ®| * |--|--|--|--|--

~--|--|--|--|--]--|--|--|----]--|--]--] * |--|--|--|--|--|--]--|--|--|--]--]--

hk i)--|--|--|--|--/--/--

mmm nfm mln nln o cj ecle nl ee en lol c le | --l-- |---| --| & J --[--|--|--/--]--

wn lnnl--lae-|--|--)--|--)----|--)--|--| & /--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--

#]%*)#|*|--| *]--|--
--| & |--| #/--|--|--|--

se St ee te pe ed tc fe es bs |e es

mame mle mle mln nelle |---| ee He eo onl nn] Ke -|--}--|--|--|--)--|--|/--|--|/--

=-|--|--|--|--!~-|--|_-]----|--|--|--|x#/--|--|--|--]--]--|--|--|--|--|--

--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--| * | * |--|--| *] * |--

% | |--|--|--]--]--|--

--|--|--| * |--|--|--|--|----|--]--|--] *]--|--| # | * |--|--|--|--] «] | «

ml) KK I--locl--i--

%* |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--]--| * |--]--/--|--

--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--|]--| * |--]--] *] * |--|--|--]--] * ]--]--|--|--|--]-- 104

%* | |--| x |--]--1--]--

# | & |--| x |--|--]--|--

en-je-lm-|-- |---| ee) --|--|----|--|--]--| & I] --|--|--|--|--|--]--/--|--

me foo] | ok |--]--] | oe | oe [--[--] | oe |e] oe] oe |---| & |--

mn [on| B [sek] -- | -- [RK KK) oR RL] ok

*
*

hal] ¥ |--|--|--|--

*

* |--|--|--|--| *|--|--

e|--|--| x] & | & [--

--|--|--|--|--|--]--|--|----|--|--|--] « |--|--] «| * |--|--|--|--] x

eee ae —|oa|ao5-|--|--| | --|—=|==|>—|—=|eelaateslaota

ee eS

~-|==| [aee|-—|--] ae | ae | oe |--|--]--| a |--|--] ae | |e [--] 114

*

--|--|--|--|--|--|--]--|----|--|--|--] * |--|--] «| « |--] « |--|--| «

--|--|--|--|----]--|--]--| * |--]--|--|--|--]--]--|--|--|--]--| #]--]--

wek| o& | ok |--|--]--|--] |e | & | & |--

a4

* |--|# | x rales

-—_— See

224 ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT

TABLE"N, 2 f= > -. 2 Sst) eee

The Columns indicate: 1st, the Name of Variety; 2d, the Season of Maturity; 3d, the
Varieties are recommended. A star (*) opposite a variety indicates that it succeeds
The Abbreviations are as follows: Seasons, E. early, as Early Purple Guigne, ete.,
to the season; M. medium season, those ripening between the 20th of June and
tender-fleshed, sweet Cherries, such as Black Heart, Governor Wood, etc.; B.
having more or less acidity, as May Duke, etc.; M. Morellos, having generally

s
«l.|.| [El (lglg
Slals| |2] |sjsls
No. NAME. 2138/2) 5/5] |Alale
SB | a [S/S/8/s/slSisl sla
2 | = |s/3/z/sleislaisle
= yh fe =
@ | 6 [SIS|Salalols ila!
PW emerican Amber, 25.02 Le M. H.. |.-|--|2-|).)24 2
eB amencan Heart, \..). 22.-c.52ce-524 M. H.. |.-|--|--|..|oe)a2 ase
eaiMenuiien 6) May, 2 oo. sess ee EK, H. |.-|--|--|-e23)
May Bigarreau.
Paisene Gr Orleans, 2.2 00..5. 4.0652 E. H.. |--|--|--|-=)¢)/seleeeee
aaseile de OCheisey ..2.2.... 5.64.2 M. D. |--|--|ss/s<) glee ee
auiebelie Marnifgues 2 0b Se Loe L. D. |--|--}e-|2ch gale hee
7) Biearrean, or Graffion,..-. 2. -.---- M. B.. |..|--|--|-=|4)ea haan
Yellow Spanish.
White Bigarreau, of some.
Srpolack Bigatreau (new),..-.2-.-:-= |-f.20c|aecuselcc .-|..|-=|-> ea) aenee
SiMsiicw wenele: Ro ke eae oY M. H. '|.-|-=)|% |-2|-s/22eee
Me acis GIOHP boo! 5. doe eo 4 M. H. |..|=-|.-|--|22)2 eee
Myepatk Lartarian,: o.oo 025 2°: M. H. |.-|--| 4 |=.) 43(2= eee
12 | Buttner’s October Morello, -------- L. M. |--|--|--|-<4|-cee eee
Pen CaTMaAtiOn, . 0. boy ee see ee Ls M. |..|--|-2)<_|=a)e3 eee
14 | Champagne (Downing), ---------- M. H.. |..|--|.2|2. |e
15 | Cleveland Bigarreau (K.),.-------- M. H.. |--|--!2-|-- 2 )e ae
ioe oe s Prarisparent, 2. ee. M. H.. |.-|--| % |-- oe
Baamlocnira, Maria. 27 hes ES 10 M. |.-|--}.2|2 hoc joel een
Poa moowMer Late. s00.y 2s ee L. He |-4)+- |e |=)
PON mions. 2 aes aes M. H.. |..|--|--]2- |e)
20 | Early Purple Guigne,.---.-...--.- oF H. |..|--|-.).-|)-22ee eee
CPs Is 5 ie MR at Saal A Scala Dee Se Re M. H. |.-)--|-2}22 |g eee
22 | Great Bigarreau, of Downing,.--. | M. B.. |.-|--|-|2] eS
2a »|\Guigne Noir Luisante,-..- 2. ...--- L. D.. |--|--|-2|b- eee
et eGOVEernor W O0ds- 24-2 6S seek kk M. H. |--|-=}'% j=l foo eee
BemeEIOVey, 02ers ee a) B. |. -}--12 21a. |beeeee
Masveentey s/-Duke,- 2: la.4co.2u2 «eee ks M. D,. |;.|--|-.)._ 3
Royale.
Peaaetenitish, it 2 seis me Bees Sra BE Me oi 2ie2 Eee eles ee * | kl
Karly Richmond.
Virginian May.
28 | Knight’s Early Black,........---- M. Hi.” |--|-.|.- |= lee eee
Pompeo uke, | 3.2. 20 ee ok L. D., |=-|+-|-.|b- |
aaonis: Philippe,+ oj... 4-2 222 i, M. |.-|--|.-|o- isco
Pepaniay One, =. 2. ace M. D. |--\--| 4 |<-le eee
32 | Monstreuse de Mezel,.........---- M. B. |: .|--|_-lc- ieee
Great Bigarreau, of Mezel.
Bigarreau Goublais, ete.
33 Morello, SSCS OS age Sores Omorore L. M.. :[-2)- 212 eee * 1K |

English Morello.
Large Morello, etc.

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. (225

ea .-Cknude =. ©. - CHERRIES.

Class to which the Variety belongs; and the remainder the Districts in which the
well in the district named at the head of the column. The Jtalics donote synonymes.
which usually ripen at Rochester (lat. 43°) from the 10th to the 20th of June, according
the 20th of July; and L. late, those ripening after that time. Class, H. Hearts, or
Bigarreau, or firm-fleshed, sweet Cherries, like Graffion, Napoleon, etc.; D. Dukes,
acid fruit, used chiefly for kitchen or confectionary purposes.

va
S

Michigan, North.

E
Penn., Central.
Penn., West.

Rhode Island.
Vermont.

Virginia.

New York, West.
| Wisconsin.

New Hampshire.
New Jersey.

Nebraska.
Ohio, Central.

Mississippi.
Massachusetts.

Maryland.

Illinois, Central
Michigan, South
of Saginaw Bay.
ast

Illinois, South.

Towa.
Minnesota.

Kentucky.
Missouri.

Safa —|——|—-|--|-- |---| -- =. | - ||| i ilaasaos
--)rtl ec Se |e|Ge)ellee|/eees)=)asel|selin-|/eeilesicclina|as||-clleeyice Be ee ee oe
2/26 S SS S555) SS) sees Soiree) PS les ele | Sotelo} |i sole= ees pte |) See
SL I I Fa a FEI ic i al ro (I) fia IE,

'
'
'
'
'
'
1
'

*
'
'
'
1
'

'
'
t
'
'
'
1
'

1
'
1
'
'
'
!
'

Kile-|--

--|%|--)--| # |--|--|--|--|--|--| «| #] «| |] «] ey pe] |--[--|--|--| 27

--|--|--|--|--| % |--|--| *% |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--] «| «| * |--|--]--|--|--!--:-- o

*
'
'
'
t
’
'

*
‘
iy
iT
SS Se aS a
“4
!
'
‘
‘
'
t
xe x

# |--|--|--|--] % |--|--] |--|--]--|--]--]--] |e |e] a] & |e | oe |--|--[2-|--]--|--| 33

226 ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT | fe:

£
Wy FE = é a
iale| |2| \Elg/s
No. NAME. f Pig)/2\slo| |4\24
z . fal slol ale) as] a] a]
3 | @ {3/slslzlciBsiais
S| 8 [S/Slsislzrsisisis
R O [OO[S|AlAlo a aia
34_| Napoleon Bigarreau,---.-.-.-------- M. B. . |--|5:| «14-1 ele
Holland Bigarreau.
Bigarreau @ Esperin.
aRMmO REGIA, Akt SoS se eee M. B. |..|--|22]2-]2-) 34) ee
26, elnmstone Morelio,zc-:--2-. 8. --—- bs M, {::|.-)-).-|23)2 ee
Boi) mem dacker(K, cd Loses fuses M. He less See ee
Beaesciie HORCISE,- 25 oLos ote 8. Pera nas Pe yt oes op Bees 2 2|.-]--]--1 |S 2) eee
39 | Rockport Bigarreau (K.),--------- M. B.) |22)22) 21. lee
Apa eparhawk s' Poney, bri... e202. nese eae le See? ..|--|.<|.1-2 | eee
Areeriimiseti gis.) ) 5 cee theo {belles L. H. | |..|2)| |S
42 | Tradescant’s Black Heart,-------. | L. B.- |22)--|--he ee
Elkhorn.
Large Black Bigarreau.
A3. | White French Gutigne, .-_---.---.-*- M. H. j--|2:) 4/4.) 45)

227

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS.

“TISTLOOSE AA
"BIULSIL A

“‘quOUIaA |
‘pussy apouy

“qsa Aq “UU

*‘[eryUaD “uuag

‘qyseq “uuag
“GIMog ‘oro

"[BayaaD ‘oro

“‘UHON ‘OryO
*£ISIIE MONT

“SOAK “YIOX MON

“4seqy ‘YIOX MONT

“*BYSBIGQON
“OY SAUL FY AON

34

35

36

‘s}jasnpousse yy
‘purl dary
“TUNOSS!

‘tddisstsstyy

yInog ‘uesryoryy
"UMON ‘uesiyory
“BJOSOUULT |
“OULVTY

“SUSUR
*AYONUWO Vy

"BMOT

“yNog ‘srourl]
“(Bj U9,) ‘S{OUTLIT

--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--]--|--|--|--]--| # |] | &] «| «| | & |--| &| # [--]--]--

w-|--|--jee|--|--|--|--|-- -- |---| --|--|--|--|-- |---| & |) --)--)--|--|--)--|--|--]--|--]--
#* |--|--|--|--| *]--|--|----|--|--|--|--|--]--|--| * |--] | «| * |--|--|--|--]--]--|--

--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--]--|--|--|--|--|--] * |--] *] * | *|--|--|--]--|--]--]--
* |--|--|--|--] * |--|--|----|--|--]--]--|--|]--| &] | | & | & | | | & |--|--]--|--]--
_|--|--]--]--|--]--|--|--|----|--|--|--]--|--|--] & | |--| «| «| * |--|--|--]--|--]--]--

aaa [=| || — || =—|—-—|—-|--| i] —-|~-|--|--|=<|=-|=-|—-=|—=|—=|——|——|=— |= =| ——

a= |——|=—-|—=|--|--]—-]--|~---|--|~-|--|--|--|--| % |--]--|--|~-|--|--|--|--|--]=-|--]--

eit iemim lan || — | mm |——| me n= |—-|—--|--|--|--|--| ¢| & }=-|--|--|--|=-|-=|—</=<]-=]2~

43

SS) ES) Sy Se es ry es) sees fe ed ee) aca Wa fee eee ese ese fe fee fers) fee) fetes Feet (ee fee

228 ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT

TABLE (Qf) je" ‘ie Se a

The Columns indicate: 1st, the Name of Variety; 2d, the Class (Freestone or Cling-
Maturity; and the remainder the Districts in which the Varieties are recom-
in the district named at the head of the column. The J¢alics in the column of

The Abbreviations are as follows: Class, F. Freestone; C. Clingstone. Color of Flesh,
(in lat. 48°) previous to or about the lst of September; V. E. very early; M. me-
after that period; V. L. very late. A few only of the very early and very late

2 | ;
5 | i =
S| wn ‘= :
el al lal.) (el eee
gS) = élzl<| || [SBIB
No. NAME. det | . (Elal2ls/8} |Alala
5°) 2 a 2|\|8|s\3/S/ s| l2
Alo D o|ala| Sl. Po) 3| 3) o
Ale | a |Slslsisleisese
BIO] # |OlOIc/alAlo Sale
dee RTOs oo as oti ae ee es BOW. | OM. )|-<|-2l-| 3123
Early Barnard.
Yellow Barnard.
chk EST SCI 0 1 RE AS a a le a ee eee Neer Fee (at ys --|--|=|-:|52)2=( ==
Rasenetarde, 22... one os b= oe F.. |W. - Ms |s-|- le 4) 222182) ee
Avweserzen’s: Yellow,-«--.s----=--+-- F. | Y,. | -M: |.-|-<|---|22)2a)aee
Pameambriagee Belle, -2-..--2.-=- F. | W.|. Ma. |--|-2|--|=2|-2)23)23aeeee
Syiearpenter's White; -.2.-----.-< KF. | W.| LL. |--|--}:3122)-2)23)e
PaMmaGlews tary deed.) 2-0-5. 22o~- F. | W.| -E. _|_-l--}-4)-2) 43)
SS) CEI e ea on rr are F. | Y. | M. |2.|_-}-l2s}20 eee
9 | Cooled#e’s Favorite,-----.------- F.,| W.| E. |.<|--|-2]- 2) eee
‘10 | Crawford’s Early Melocoton,---- | F. | Y.| E. |--|--|--|a|/«|/«|a4]«/x
11 | Crawtord’s Late Melocoton,.- ---- F. | ¥. | LD. +|.-|.-|-2| qe eee
(LEI 3 2 1 FA me FP. | We) LZ. [oat-el--|-2| lee
13 |. Karly Newineton Freestone, -... | F. | W.| E. |--|--|--|--|--)22 ieee
fetveary SlOCUM, ous. ce neeoe ek = F. | W.| BE. |--|.-|-)22)22)2 ee
fpipaariy Lillotson, + so555-222..825- F. | W.] V.E, }.-|--|2¢l-- |e) ged eee
fpaleleanly, Wotlk: 2 vsnocc5e5 gene ose F. | W.| V. Eu. 2|--|--| 3 | eee
Serrate Early York.
Early Purple.
if fay s Early Anti,.:-2.-2--24-. F. | W.) V.E. |. s|<2}-2|2-122) ge eee
is 4"Georce the Pourth,._..-=----.-- F. |W.) FE. |.-|--|-2) 2) eee
19 "Grand Admirable,.......------- | C. |W.) LL. .|.-).-|-<)22}22]geieeee
20 | Grosse Miononne, ...-.- -.--.5 F. | W.| EL |. |c2)e2)sc} eee eee
Brustaimes’ Karly hed, .- 22. 22---.-s F. | Wel E. |.:|--lo.120)58 ee
9 | Hales’ Early (from Ohio), -----. | F..| W.| V.E. |.-|--|. 122) 23,22) eee
23) | Heath Cling,...--..+-:5------ |'C. | W.| LL. | .2|--|22) 2 ee
Peal s Madeira. . 2. o5.. ec esee ce F..| Yo.) My |ccltcl SS
Madeira Freestone. |
Reaarsiop Cling... 2. --¢26---+-=~ O. | W. | Va Te |---| 2) 2
SRMBCUTCS 6. 2. he eee ee ee FE... °Y.| M. |..|2l-che oe
mopicenrick’s ,Heath, >.< 25.-.2---- BF. | W.| V. LD. |2-|--|--}-2) eee
Heath Freestone.
PemesGmanee, . 2g ot poco ee F. | W.| V.G. |..|25]_-|- 2) 4)
Boniarce Marly-York,=.----.-.-+=-- FB. | Wie) -E.. | cles] ee
30 | Large White Clingstone, ------ -- C. | W.| M. |_.tc 2]. ) 3) eee
S15) Late Red Rareripe, .-.----2----- FB. | W.|° Me |.) --)-- ge coe
Be) eemon Clinostone, .~..-.-..-+-- C. | -¥..| Is j2.|-.).2] ese eee
33 | Leopold Clingstone, -....--.-.-- pe ee eee am erg RPE
SUES L |S ea i rr es F. | W.|) M. '|--|--|--|2c Scpeeheenee
Boul Whee 8 White..." .2.25.2-32c25 ¥. | We) -G.. |..|-.|-. |: 2) ee
36 | Morris’s White, Aes che aS F. | W. 1 de a ESE x |x l--| Kk] eI) *
Si A NOMIECRRE ao 2d ook et ie FE.) W. | M. |..|--) oie eee
$8. Old Mixon Free, 22. 1.~-228 BA Wels okie eee --| x ¢ ace

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 229

See ive eter fe -- ‘= PRACHES.

stone) to which the Variety belongs; 3d, the Color of the Flesh; 4th, the Season of
mended. A star (*} opposite the name of a variety indicates that it succeeds well
names donote synonymes.

W. White or pale-colored; Y. Yellow or yellowish. Season, E. early, those ripening
dium, those ripening from the Ist to the 15th of September; L. late, those ripening
have been so designated.

South

A
2

Virginia.

Illinois, South.
of Saginaw Bay.

Illinois, Central.
Venn., Central.
Penn., West.
Rhode Island.

New York, West.
Vermont.

New York, East.
New Jersey.

New Hampshire.

Michigan, North.

Mississippi.
Massachusetts.
Penn., East.
Wisconsin.

Missouri.

Maryland.
Nebraska.

Kentucky.
Kansas.
Maine.
Michigan,

%* | |---| & |--|--

m-|--|-e--| K]--l--

£2) 25a) 5) Oe oe

~-|--|--/ &/--|--

Pela er *
eee 1
Dwar, tp Eh '
Lhe, Ue et '
Ae eit ed '
ae ee eae '
Woy iy i]
jae! Ye) er '
ae as | '
Me oh, 20 '
MILLS i= 1k ck LL Tet Vee Lead | ‘
a eg | i]
Vein de ciee “Vana ima
| ae we See | '
' IF ot
ae ated *
' '
| el gl |e |
reel WC
[ eee) Liat ie '
| Vea, sd ae Coo '
) Pane (Pe ra) | ae
‘ Te a La | '
% ; Pe a
V Upgete eL TeT Sa e baae| ii
i aside | Laie bia} 1
ee tt i]
hog ak | '
WE tied Tein
Lidy iO GR ‘
PAS ae '
i Mate
| Sie) feed De al | '
De ae '
(Fret! ee) a | '
| Leteesl PT ot eal | '
iF 24 '
Be th ptr '
Sm beset Eola | 1
eel |e | ew | '
ee) i]
Sige DR Ol '
1 Fs et 5 es! Poet ‘
elt al | !
oe ae '
ee! cet Loma | ‘
| Wiig | Sale) bled | '
ee) ee oe | '
PS 2a a '
| etc tae OH Se | '
ale A '
00 ~1 2 CAH C900

230

ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT

| # Z
athe @| |l4le
25|/= | |Elzls] 2] (Slg|8
No. NAME. <a} 8| . [Elalglsid| |4lala
Sole) 8 lsls/8/s\sgjalgle
Alo] @ /sle|/slsic|fsls/e
Al S| g [SlslsisiZis/s/siz
Bl oO} a jOjolo ala Si
Sah Old Mixon Cling; 2Jc22--22 Loe C. | W.) DL. | |é-|2-|--] «| 1S
a. Rodman’s Cling, : .. -.t ee. == C.) Wi) VL. \.|-2|--1 2 J-- |S

Red Cling.

Al,.| Royal George; 25-52. Cee ee F. | W.| is) 424|--|2-1-2|--)
42 | Scott's. Nonpareil, ....-.....co5. | Fy ) Yd Ey 15-|-- [22] ig
As) eMC, PTeCSstONe, wo. oes ace EF.) Ys| L. | ) 2 Saaeaaee
BENTO S 602 mies acbie weet sae ee FP.) We ML. je.) 12. 12s) ee
Aa Stiit, TAG. WO). 2 epee ee F.. | W.) -2LS °|2-| <4) 26] 2c) se tae
46 | Sturtevant (of Ohio), -..-------- Fut) YM... |-- |e
27) pusdpehanna,2. 24.12) e+ 42--- =~ F. | ¥.) M. |.-).-).21.-] ee
48 Tippecanoe Chae leo. aoet 5 Cal Ys pe fo-/o2/ ie
BUR PLIOtD. 6 LAMY, wits 2S. oc Lk onto FF. | W.| E.. .|.-}.-|--|2) 422)
50 | Van Zandt’s Superb, poet ees as Waste .|--|--]2-1- oe
aa Ward s Late Kree,..-..=--=--.-4 FB. |W... | Vids |-2|-+]2-]5¢422)2e tee
See ea dae eer ene ae «ten |akas|ae mate a onl doct
rap AV ute Pmpermal, ....0--0---..=2 Boi. Well os =|--|--|-=|2c|celes lee
wan evow, Alberve,....-22---2--<. F..| ¥.:| BE. |.<|--|5-]-422 13)
an) Cllow, tareripe, ...4..5---.-..< F..} ¥.| Miu. |<-|--|2-\(¢ |<] 2 oe

TABLE O.
The Explanation of the Columns and the List

of Abbreviations

s| 3 E

ND 2 . : 3

El ad re E| |S/Sla

20/1 slg] Js] [sss

No. NAME. du| B . |Elels|slo] jA/414

5°} 2] & lslis/Sleis/gi ai gis

al S| a |slelsl|e/.|Ssls\s

al S| g (sslsisie|sisisiz

BPO} wa JOjO|S|AlAlo aes

MC BOSTON coho ccna mcumer catectees 1 ee Ge anal csc chef age

POW NtON: 2a eke eee es F. |W.) M. [2c}-<|--l2-} eo abeeeee

aeary Newinetom,...2--.2-2- <2 Ce] Wet ME. -«|--|<=i]-is cd) ener

PmPbatiy NiO cxatoenweseeee es Boe) a. ~=|-2} 00) eet eens
Violette Hative.

5 Elruge, Se OO oe OOO BS Wel Ma Br (or ch = abe io

MIAUIVICK nina cd emuien ance beds oe AR ie an|a fee

231

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS.

|

S)

A
*UISUOOSI AA
*BIULSIT A

*JUOULII A |
‘puLysy epourT

qsoM “UNIT

39
40

% |--|--|--

Pa elle |i

‘[Byuay “una

“ye “ude

‘INOS ‘oryO

*[B1}U9,) SOIUO

* |--

“UHION ‘orgo
*£ISAI GL? MONT
*JSOAA ‘HILO K MON
“qsuq ‘YIO0X MONT

% | KR) R)--

* ele ie tae Ly
% | |--|--|--|--|--]--|--

--|%

*) | cK | &

"RYSBIqaN

“aILSduIvyy MON

*s}Josnousseyy

*puvyl Arey

--|--|--|--|--|]--|--|--|--] #& |--| & |--|--/--|--

"LINOSSIPT

"rd dississtyy

*k |--|--|--|--|--|/--|--

*

‘AUG MBULSRS JO
Wnog = faesryory

‘UMON ‘ausryorT

|

NECTARINES.

*BJOSIUUTAT

“OUIR IL

“‘SBSUBYT

*AYON}U Wf
*VMOT

* ee ee ee ee

"YN ‘stourliT
*[eaguay ‘sLourry

--|--|--|--|--|--]--|--]----] * |--|--|--]--]--] *] * |--

--|--|/--|--/|--|--/--|--|----|--|--/--|--|--]--|/--|--|] & ]|--]--| */--

8 re re oe oe od oe

FN NO a ee ddl lt

--| Ki--

* ee ee ee

% | * |--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--!--]--|--]--]--]--]--]--|--|--|--

--|--|/--/|/--/--|--|--/--|----/--|--|--|--|--|--|--]--|--| &|--|--|--

w-|--|--|--|--|--|--|/--|----/--|/--/|--/--|--|--|--|]--|]--|--|--|--| *

* | * |--|--|--|--]--|--|----]--]--|--

<||seesisSAlsS\|SsbeSse eles Eal(Se Sse Seelio- jac

der the head of Peaches are applicable also to this Table.

given un

“UISUOOSI AA

"BIUISIL A

ne)

“QUOULI A

“‘pursy opouy

‘qSaAy “UU
‘[BUaD “uUuag

|

‘yseq “uuog
“qos “O44

Dielicte mrelie)

“UHON ‘OrO

*AOSLO? MONT

"WSO AA YIOK MON

“ysey SYIOK AMON

"BYSBAGON

"OATYPSAUIB FY MON

-| *K) RK )--|--|--]--|--|/--|--/--/--/--|--

# | & |--|--|--]--|--]--]--|--|--|--]--

“s}JOSnyoUssvy

“purl avy
"LIMOSs! JT
“TA Isstsstyq

‘AUT MBUTSRG JO
yynog §$ Suvsnmpont

"UMON ‘uBSiporyy

*BJOSOUUTI
“UIC
“SBSUBY
*AYWON UIT
*BMOT

"yINog ‘sfourT

"[BIZUAD “SfOULTIT

--|--|--|--|--]--|--|--|----|--|-- sly. --|--| * | *]--|--|--]--]--]--]--]--

= fess] eS [i PS) FP sf es Fear ES We eee fe a fr ej el fe |

eo ec) Seles ESE) RES Ses ee RS (SS FS) (rm eas) (Se 9 Fs fe (ea ee sSleeioe te

Hem ots [NO wey en le ele lee en lm l--| Bl --|--[--| * %# |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--/--|--

232 ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT

TABLEHQ 4) =)" = = a
The Explanation of the Columns and the List of Abbreviations

ig 3

z| & 3) \alale

Pc ia glals| (8) sells

wi =>) La o wn S| ie o|= 5

‘i v g & = Ss oO -| 2 A S k
No NAME. <2 i) F =|) 010 : L/AIG
AS ZA lelelolal#|.s|s) sly

iS) 3 (o) oalau|o|s|° =p A) Shem

=e) Q o|o}/S|]5]_-|£).8)/.8)9

Bl] 4 4 |slsls|/Si8| elsisia

f—&l Oo <3} Sl) S}O; Lisi Cl sl sia

| © Mm jOjO|O ARIAS ai =
LOE g oC Saag Sa a ads a UAE A ies Aiasleclee is de + es
alUpNliy OWEN ss o.oo mode oaceet FP.) Ys) E. . |2-|22)--|2 bore
eae OP) otis ces se ee So B..| QO.) 3. »|--|--|-2)-/63) 2a
Pete PO UnCUs occa eee does P.O.) M: |a2)- | Lees aes ae
PUM UAV CULCs ae es ache p Seite ee Co a Re Oe eee lec i (ee
DPPMOOTNATIC. . it sleateo ac. ckes ae F.|.0. |. M. °|.-|--)--|¢|/ 4 see
7 | Orange (Royal Orange),-------- C.| Ow) 2. |-- {ke eetoe ee
Bee Ne eS i, nln cil hehe Bi.) Yeo: M. |_| c2|l2) 2 eee
PEO NLASGHING, 2 see lee oe FR. |. Y. | EH. |--|--|-<]q122|)36e oe
Pee cAINDIOISG, Sunto- ou ss0e 3 = FF. |}. Y.| E.. |--|.-|--|-.| 52) 22
SEMMNUEICONG cc cctesece a2 becec ep a. KB. | Y.1 DL. )-(}. e222) 25 eee

TABLE*R. = 9- < =. =) S00

The Columns indicate: Ist, ihe Name of Variety; 2d, the Color of the Fruit; 8d, the
best adapted; 5th, the Season of Maturity; and the remainder the Districts in
indicates that it succeeds well in the district named at the head of the column.

The Abbreviations are as foilows: Color of Fruit, D. dark, including all red, purple,
F. Freestone; C. Clingstone. Use, T. Table; K. ‘Kitchen; D. Drying; M. those
V.L. very late. The divisons of the season for Peaches apply also (in lat. 48°)

a | oF es 2| leléla
BK lar Z\a\=| |B) |s/sls
fy nw |) 2 Le wins
No. NAME. Oo \|42 ~ (KIA S/ S|) 3) 4
° a a }alelel sel -|o|.8!).8/S
A AP Bl 4 sla else ols sls
[o} = ee B S| AEE 2 S| less
oO BB) RP} em OOO AIA oS ais
i |'Sleeker’s Gages -200------2- |--5-\o#-+|=-54]225-les|-<| | 55)
Be MFAOSHAW ¢ X22 oe metre asbse D;|.C. | M..| E. |<-|--|<=|--|s3/22 Sie
3 Coe’s Golden Drop,-=-------- Ps beC. dense] i. |s.|2<l oe oe
SP AMOOMIMDIA, « occu coeerceaacs se (i poslce aeieesslanee wu | «lsat eal ec
MeMVATISON, .--5 62. -hS sao D. |..-<| K.| GL. \eets-|-<|-5| eee
Common Damson.
Black Danson.
Blue Dainson.
Se iweuane’s Purple, ._- -2.2<Ls2e D. | Ce joc 22) -M. 2.1. <|2. 223) eee
» Purple Magnum Bonun. |
7 | Early Favorite (Rivers’), -.--- F..[..-.|V-E.|:~|~|.1 2a a
Bymelembercy ........2s22-04 2 D.|.F. | .D.) MM. |..|.-|_-|.. 2 ae
Italian Prune.
Quetsche Vitalie.
Prune d’Italie.
6) GermmamPiMiMe, co2--.c2s.aeee Di) ee D wai| aot arco alent ool
(Quetsche) M. |
16.) General. Hand, 245.055.2050. 6- P.:| Be 8e0oal Mle ales) salsa --)--!--

233

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS.

APRICOTS.
der the head of Peaches are applicable also to this Table.

given un

)

q
*UISUOOSI AA
*BIULSILA,
*JUOULIO A
*puBlsy oporyryy
"WSO AQ “UUagT

*‘[erjuapD ‘uU9.

“ysuq “uu

*[Bapuay) ‘OLyYO

"YWON ‘OryO

*ADSAI > ALO NT

*ySOAA ‘YOK MON
__8Uq YLOX AON
_ eyserqoN
_foarysdare yy AVON
*sjjosnpousse yy

10
11

% |--

5 (Se es esis ses! (es! fers

Sl esi estate| PORE ams ey ese estes | tele

*

Ay
*

se ee ee eee eee ee
whil--

7

*

Ae
*

C7 Fs fees sy ees bese ee fe (ese een) ne

& | --|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--]--/--

*

*puvlAreyy

|

*LINOSSIJAL
“rd dississiqy

“AUT MUULSBS JO

yynog ‘uvsryoryy
"UWON ‘ast ory

-|--|--|--|--|--| &

*BOSOUULT

OUIB]T

we le-|-- H =| -- | ne ee

|

“SUSUR
* AON} WO Vf

"BMOT
"yo ‘s1OULLIT

—+—_

elem) a= |= a= =| a(n] oo) m= |= | ae] —— [ae

ee ee * --|/--|--

*[BIQUaD ‘sIOntTy

PLUMS.

ich

the Uses to wh

?

4th

which the Varieties are recommended. <A star (*) opposite the name of a variety

The Ztalics in the column of names donote synonymes.

gs

ty belon

1e

ich the Var

tone) to wh

ings

eor Cl

Class (Freeston

Class,

Season, E. early; M. medium; L. late; V. E. very early;

blue, and other dark-colored varieties; P. pale, including green, yellow, etc.

most profitable for market.

to Plums

No.

“UISUOOSE AL
"BIULSAT A
“JUOULIO A
“purysy opoyyy
“4qS0A4 “UOT
"[BQusyD “uuag
‘yseq “uuog

‘Wynog forgo
*"[BQUaD SOIUO
“UWON SOr¥O
“ASLO MONT

*J80 AA “YIOX MIN
“qSUoT ‘YOK MON

"BYSVAQON

% leclmrl-nlncl--|--]--

% | ok

“OT SAUBET AON
“S}JOSHYORssV]T

~-|--| Ki] kl--

*

*puvlArv yr

--|--| &} &|--| &] &| & |--|--|--|--|--]--]--

“TAMOSS 1 AT
‘Td tsstsstyy

“AUT MULIESBYG Jo
Nog ‘uvsryoryy
“UMON “UBSIYOUT
"BJOSOUUTT

“OUIB I

“susue yy

wee l--|--| Kk l--

*AYONJUd Vy

"BMOT
"YMog ‘srourl[y

*[BApUd) *SIOULTIT

je-|--|--|--|--|--]--|----|--|--] &|--|--]--| *

6
7
8

--|--| | &] ok] &| & | & |--|--|--|--|--|--|--

aloe =) ESSERE) Se SA es Sl el Fs

mem ltn| Kh) Kaman len male ele nl aon] -- |---| --]--!)--

wel mel mn lane ee | ne ln ee ne fee ee ee la) Ke

9
10

|

mn-) RK) Klee |---| ae |---| -- |---| -- |---| -- | --

|

%

*hki--

*

3) (S| tes oe 2 le) a

|
20*

|

|

Kh ilecle-le--l--]--

——$

|

234 ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT
spl 3
2 |e
Bisel | [giglel- 3) (epee
Ss) $| a = = S O16
NAME. 8 42 _ Elalsi 3S) jAjela
| g |Oe B s/s isi gala
e) a : & leislsl/s|.|Hislsle
So} #| 8] g lslsisisizissieis
O} B/E] a [OjO|S|AjAjo) SS la
Green Gave, ...-- -.jo¢------=- P.. |, F.. |----f E..|..|--| «| #/2}cetaeneene
Reine Claude.
EFUB A I | eb D.C. PK. | M. |-21..|--|:21 282
Caledonian.
Nectarine (by error).
Huling’s Superb, -- 2222.22. P.. | -C.\---=| Bd. |.-]25] ¢ eee
Imperial, Gare, \:-.«-sse=<<- 4. P. | B..|--=:| M. |..|--|2-)24)25)22 ee
Prince’s Imperial Gage.
Flushing Gage.
MEROKSON, iets gests hee P, | FL |-.<a] ML. j_.|--[ 9) 3/2 ee
Lawrence’s Favorite, --.------- P. | Fey |ic 2M. |. 2 | ee
Lawrence’s Gage.
Pop bard 22455. cc esha 7 Oe == | =| ye |) =< fas ea ene
Beekman’s Scarlet.
Bleeker’s Scarlet.
MeLaygenhiin, .. + ...-+--2 aes P. |.C..|.---| M. |. -|-s)¢ 2322)
mgs eee et ee Sd P..| .F:. |---| M.|.2)-2|2-|22)32) a2 ee
Monroe Gage.
Oricane Smith's, 22060. 22 +... Ds |-C. jee} Me) gel ee
Peseu, Plow, act. oh25-2.t2p sc D..| F.,,|-<.<|.E...|_.|2-|-2|45)25e
PrUneOdeA CON, fo. = ae eein D..|. .F.. |---|. M.4|_.|--|.-|55)5 een
D’ Agen.
Robe de Sergent.
Purple Gace, 2.220. D.| FB. {22.| Me|..|-2)- 2
Reine Claude Violette.
Purple:-Favorite;,..:25-08s-= D. | -F..|..<-| BE. |W0 2] 221 a
Reine Claude de Bavay,------ BP.) | Os jan.) le |os) 4) @ Leo) eee
Royal Hative, |/-'.4. bi 4-42 D..| G..\|.4-.|- EB. |..|-4|-- |
oval de!Toeurs, . 22.5.2. ct. DG i.2-2) Bj.) 22-2 eee
Br Catharmess ts. 25s. ghee eo P, GC. \.2..| Db. |. .)62|23|_ 2)
St. Martin’s Quetsche, ------- P.. Fe. |V GD.) 2.2 at
WiIClONd, Sateen be Ite D..) Bl) Ra pM. ee
Alderton.
Denyer’s Victoria.
Washington, SS RIO ee ap . 12 ee E. wee | mms] nfo afe oe fis an| mins be aoe le
Bolmnar’s.
White Magnum Bonum, ----- P.| C. | K..| M. |. 122) ch
Yellow Magnum Bonum,
Yellow Egg.
Yellow Gage (Prince’s),------ Pol Fo) Bes.) 2

235

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS.

tC)

A
"UISUODSI AA
*BIUISAL A,

"ZUOULIO A

‘puvysy opoury
‘qS0\4 “Ug

‘qseq “ue

“yyNog ‘oryo

*‘[Bayusg ‘oro

“‘UWON “OLUO

“£ISLOE MON

11
12

"}S9.M ‘IO MON

“qseqy ‘Y1OX MONT

*BYSBAqaN

“AIT SAUIB ET ALO NT
“s}jasnyoussvyq

*puvlAreyy
“INOS! JT
“rd disstsstyt

“ABT MBUISBS JO

qynog ‘ues

"UNON “URSIYOIT

“BOSOUUITL |

“aUIR]
"sUsuL yy
*AYONUO yy
"BMOT

"yMog ‘srourIy

*[B4}UID *SfOULT[T

13
14

= oi) sei Seto

* | *|--|--

15
16
17

'
'
*
'
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
'
\
*

Ee iy fd fic se) 5 | |r) eal re arg

18
19

22

*

——-——-

-~-|--|--|--|--| * /--]--

--|--| & |--|--|--] | oe |--|--[--]--] | [--] & | & [--[--

*

en ee oe ee ee

anj--|--|/--|--|/--/--|--/----]--/--|--|--|/-=|--| &/ *&] #& /--|--|--

# |--|--|--|--| * |--|--|----|--|--|--| ® |--|--] #] &] &| &] &| #/--| *|--

--|--|--|--|-- aes --|--|--|--|--|--] % | # |--|--|--|--] & | % | |--| * |--]--

% |--|--|--|--| * |--|--

* |--|--|----|--]--|--| # |--]--] # | | |--|--|--| # |--|--|--] # |--|--

nt NP Ne a PS) ee) | (Se Pre re ee fee fea er se fete | fea eS

we lm ele ele -|--

ees) s5)--|--}o-}..--|sel--|o-|. =) 2-|-2 be | lee] |e |e l--) ee [See 20

wale -|--|2-|--|--|--|--|----|--|--|/--/--|--|--] &] &)--|--J|--|--|--|--|--]--|--/--|--

Sa |o<|— aloo) slope | 8 [=| 22 |= ao) pate

*

--|--|--|--]--|--|--|--|----|--|--|--|--]--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--] * |--] # | *|--|--|--

me )--|--|)--|--|--|--|--|-- --|--|--|--j|--|--|--| &] # loc je] --]--j--y--|--|--|--]--|-

* |--|--|--]--| *|--|--

* |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--|--|--]--|--] * | # |--|--|--|--|--]--|--|--|--]--]--

mn lm nln |---| |---| - n-ne ee lene fe lend anf ent rt eel nfo tlle -[--l--] & IL --l--

a en a ee ee ee ee eee

=) Sell 2) te ES) PD | er reac le Se ote cat fees be ee [etc fesse Ica jes al esi a

--|--|--| &|--|--| |e] fe] ae |e] oe l--| a] ee [--[--] 3

*

* |--|--|--|--| * |--|--

32

*

--|--|--|--]--|--| * | * | * |--|--|--|--|--|--|--]--|--]--

33

--|--|--| « |--|--|--|--| #] e| «| 4%] e] 4%] «| 4%] #[--]--

*

Se a ee ee oc

256 ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT

TABEENS: (is. 2) “2 73S enn

g
a 2] |
5 S| sis
elale] |S} |SsiBle
; so/Bi jo z, Oo}
No. NAME Elalel slo] (Fala
alelo =. 1] 3] SS] SB] oe
S|] YU] S| OS} Ep) S| Slee
o|e/S/E/_;|2/.8/8/2
SISISlIS/B ols sis
8) SS) Se Oe ees
OO YiAIA S| RR
| |
i) renee Or. A pple, 02) ibs) eee ene _.| a bales
eh LO Oe ee Pe i Sata a one oa kee eee, ..|--|--!-_ |.)
Be i ehaerlc GPEC NEO eo ae Cok come ee see ee ~-}<-|s-|--|2e/ee ee
Rea’s Mammoth.
Van Slyke.

TABLE T.--" = =) =, =) 3) ese

The Columns indicate: Ist, the Name of Variety; 2d, the Season of Maturity; 3d,
recommended. A star(*} opposite the name of a variety indicates that it succeeds
The Abbreviations are as follows: Season, E. Early; M. Medium; L. Late. Color,

loa) ; .
Bhi =| |sl€la
& {eldis| |B] |e
v = = °
S ae! Pace) 4, aie
No. NAME, Bm IES) S| 3/5] [ail
Pa : slald| sisal a| a | az
3] O/ S| O]ep] S| Slew
@ | o |S s/ei ale sis/e
a 5 |sals|9)/2/s/sisls
oD) O JODO AAO |4/5
lands; Madeira, e2.240-foceee aster =e ealeee Bs ms al
Brinclk|e, ... 22.220 lent nn ad eee seca soo 2-2-6255) 2] ee

PUMP CMMO MO Ait eee a eee ee iets tel fap
Poumon Si ket ee a a eee E. Bio idee eae
Concord tea eal Ee alan S EK. Bute % ene
Oiyahoei. i soe Sheet ewes L.o | W. |..|--)-) 2
OMAN GARE) alte. S ct Se Siew Phe ets E. R. ‘|=-|=-| 4 | onl eee
Diatia,. 2. -20.-e setae cael etcs| eM! Be cl
PCISUIOT UR ER eh op kG ye L. B., |-.|--|-=|22|25) ee
PiHarifor Provaceatee ee oe poe i, B.. | ..|--|-. |e) ee
12 | Hybrid“(Allen’s),.--.....-L.....-. | M. | W.|--\_-)5 |2o eee
Mee iicnbella; has hte! thee M, | B.. |a-[b-ll ee
is Oh IGS To) | een an ON rh RS Beek PO CRN 8k ISEB aa) ncn) melee! ee
ROSA, 2 1. sae leks pasts ed B. --|-+|-+|-<|ols alata
16 | Maxcntawnye ¢.\ eee eae eee em Ls. W. .|..|--|S.)

17 | Northern Muscadine, .....-------- Ep a eiecee ae .. {tee

%
*

ROSE AICOD, ig. bao tts ct eb epee hd ae R.. |2-|--|2=| 95/22 eeee
x
*

—
FPOUMWOAUFLWNURe

POU OIETO go ey a on cela es een en Boece aes
Peiauline, 222 Lo tte. Wee se Bless Selon oe |
2.) | NU ar rr EL Oar one SB on W... \u-|--] lo alcove dee
PIMC TION, oe acta S oe ote o eee we L. B: .|.-|-<|<.|22)2eleekee ee
Pein WiACe, 2... so lecino on eu ena G.. |-.|--|--}oe}oo tae

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS.

QUINCES.

“UISUODSI AA |

"BIULL A
*PUOULLO A
*pusB[s[ opoyry
“yo “UNIT

*[BIpUaD “Una
“qsuq “Uda

‘NOY ‘oryO

-=-| & |--|--

|

*‘[Bipuay SOLO
“UIAON SOLYO
*A£OS19° AVON

“SO AA SYLOK MON
“gSUOL ‘LOK MON
——*eysutqanr

“ALY SAUIB ET AVON

“s}Josnpousseyy

*puvy Arey

*LUNOSSTL

‘dd yssisstyq
“AUT MBUIsEg Jo
Wnog ‘avs

“UMON SUBSLYOIAT

‘BOSOUUTTY

“OUIRIT
“SUSUUYT

“AYON} UO

= "BMOT

"YINOS ‘SIOUtL[T

"[BAQUaD ‘SOUT

~-|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--|--|--|--|--] | «| « |--|--)--]

Se a mm mn mn lem enn nnn fen fmt nt trate clon lee lone |--1 & | & =-l--

--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----|--|--|--|--|--|--] «| * ]--|--]--|--|--]--]--|--]--

NATIVE GRAPES.

the Color of the Fruit; and the remainder the Districts in which the Varieties are

well in the district named at the head of the column.

B. Black; R. Red; W. White.

a)
4

“UISUOOST AA

“BIULSIL A,
“JUOULIO A

“purysy opoyy

“qso AQ “UOT

"[eQUaD “UUs

‘ysuqt “uuag

“TQNOS ‘OO
*‘[BAjUaD ‘oOIUO

* | * |--| *]--|--|--|--

| ene eer feed [sen tl =

*| 1 | | oe] &I--/--

el ||| el | reat ret eee

* | ok | %
% | oK

|] ok |--/--

*& (|) ]--

10
11

12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

|

|

we le-l--|--|--| & l--|--

# j--|--|--|/--|--!--|--

woelew ele ele e lew ele ee ee

21

22

‘UMON ‘Oro

*AOSL9(° MON

“WSO M LOR MON

%* | K | ok | *&

%* | & j--)--|--| & | oe | ok | --| & |--

ll ete de ee ser

“qsUqq ‘YO X MON
“BYySvIgqaN

“OALYSAULB FT MONT

%

%

“s}Josnyoussv]y

*purvlAreyy
“LINOSS! AT
‘tddisstsstyq

|

wml mfr ntl t aml mls ele nmleclmrlen| Kl --|--|--] --]--/--

--|--| % |--|--| % | & | & |--]--|--] «]--1 & |e] & |--|--

% |--|--|--/--|--

--|--|--|--|--)--|--|--] «| *

% |--|--|--| «| x] x

“ABT MBULSRY JO
Yjnog ‘ues

"UWON ‘UBSLYOIT

DUB]
‘SUSU YT

“Ayonjuoyy |

"eMOT

"BJOSOUUTTL

ma al I LY) Ya See 2

*
*

--|--|) # |] Kk l--l--

--jo-| | oe [--[--] oe | oe ok | ok |
--|--| | & [--|--|e] 4%] &] x] x

|

!
|

|

*
%

--| Kl--|--

eee ee

|

--|--|--|--|----|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--| «| x

sepe eee

*

Kh jen lela a - ee eH lee | ee | = [ee | - - | - - |e =| - -e

"YNO ‘SOULTIT

“(BAUD ‘srour[y

wh i--j--|--

ee se oi | = 2

wn |--[--|--/--) & le-|--

*ki--

ee ee ee ee ee

*

SE ee

o-|--| & |--|--|--|--|--]--] | # | # |--|--|--|--|--|--]--

|
[- a ae

238

ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT

TABLE aUs.<.--> «.*'s 3. So gee
2 |.) .|.| le] [eles
Be Isles) 12) |S) S15
No. NAME. & (Ea) SislS| |Alala
el alol als 8] 8) SY) oe
B |eelele/S/= ei sle
a /e/sls|sizislsisle
a os) CICS IA ALO|S ele
LO RN oC 0 Ct ene ae ea ee ne pene Be 2. White, |...|--|--|-:|--|25)ee ene
P msiaek Naples oo 2* io2 4) a te kas oe Black, | + }--|--|--|2- se )eeieenees
Dr cia PRONE cae eto Flesh, ~|--|--|-=|=</--)o212 eee
CSTE OT sth g ey eg ea © te a ON Yo | Red, | | x |.-] » |--| a [bere aie
2 |Common Black (Black English), ....-- | Black, |‘, }--|--|--|--|L-}o-/e-]2e
Bilweruie WeuPallnaw 2240. 3:2) ee Red, ° |--|--| 942. / 9) 22) eee
Py were WU Anvers,| 30.0) 252-205 oe oe Red, |.-|=-|--| = |# eleet eee
Beondoninghed, & i252) de tet ee eed Red, |.-|--|--|--| ae eeeene
Pa taOncmmi? WHITE, #2! ee et White,.|_-|--|_-|2.] 22) eee
oa Some hts: uarce hed, 2 38 ok Red, |--|--|-<|a:|25)oe eee
as Ln EFSaillaIses. foci ee Red, |_-|--\% | 4 leetealeeeeae
LENE ek US fe) 9: A rer ear a ned, se | facies fr el ea
Pe PGE ANBRTE, 8a) ek oe mo See see Red, . |--|.-|s-|=¢]--(o2tee eee
ce ETE ME) OUT) ARES Sam A a SE te ae ht Red, |'s. |-~|\.|_- Joc jee) eee
Penben rane 0. Poe SI oe med, Yoo 2 a5 (22 ea
ips ransparent W hites:...-...22- cs. 2262 White, |. -|-.|2-|-< ee eee
Pepe MOMtCh, 2. 3. 0. J. 2 ts lb jo White, | .}-.|% |-- |e Zo) ae eete
Mgiay Mite (rape. 2. 18 e922 ce oe Sota White; | 4 |=) ¢ | ]be) Eo ee
TABLE V. - = Se, 0," s ) ce) ne

: g| ||
F =} oe S\eic
Rm |B2le! [2] |slsle
No. NAME 8 |F/8\8) 3/5) .|4)2l4
2 |S/S/S/SiS Sie sla
° a|al|a| -| 2}.3|.3]/8
o «(|S SiS s/Zi8iSisle
Oo lO\OlSAlalo Siaie
Lor American. Seedling, 3.522512. 2 5 Red,, . :|--|-~|--|-»)2ed Sp eee
ONC MOT PAINE 9s) eS a Se Soe eee Red,.. -|<-|--]--]--|-edee) oe eee
BC VET TSO fk ke Mee hw eS ee Red,... .|--|=<|-- Jon Joe) eee
= i; Downing’s. Seedling,,- .--4 ----2 Green, |../--/--|--)/2elee) seen
meeuerly Sulphur (oo) 4G. e ok ae Yellow, |_-|--|--|--|-clae| eee
meiremneen (Gare, ste tee ee ae Green, .|-|-~|=2 |=) 22) eee
peicreen Walnut,’ 6 see i ee Green, .|..-|--|-=|=.|-.12eI ee eee
So Houshton’s Seedling, 22.0.2 2: Red, ~-lax| & | -oloe ee eee
eS) ironmonger, —i:.- 20-22-42 n-letco pes i wed, . | |4-]22|-2] Se eee
Memierorels <n ek ee Green, |..|-2|_.| 2. |ouleeiee ene
Pee ouniain Seedling, 2. oh. 2 ia ee ee Red,. .. .|4-|--]-.|--|22)2e eee
PPV OrrlOrton, 2: ~~ Jac tee at wa ee ee Red, _-|.-|.- | eee ee
13 | Woodward’s Whitesmith,___..-.------ White, .|_-|--):./-2]22)201 eee

239

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS.

- CURRANTS.

*UISUOOST MA
*CLULSALA
*7UOULIO A

"puvls[ epoury

“ys0M “Ua

*‘[eijuay “UUs,

‘ysbq “uUuog

‘NOS ‘OrqO.
*[B.1}U9,) ‘OLN

"YHON ‘OrgoO
*AISIIE MONT

"WSO AA ‘YAO K MON
‘yseq ‘Y10X MON

"BYSBIGON

‘aautysduupyy MONT

“s}Josnyousse yy
‘pus Aieyy

* | | &|--|--

*|«]«{--|--] 18

*LINOSSIL
*rddississt qr

--|--| «| x [--|--| # | * | & | *] | & |--|--] | |--]--]--

--|--| «| « |--|--| * | &| & |--|--|--| *|--| & | # | #|--|--

“AUT MBULSBS JO
ynog SuBsiyoryy

"UMON SaRsryor

*BJOSAUUITT
“OUIC TN
*SBSUBY
*AYONU Vf
"BMOT

“YINOY ‘sloull[]
"[VAQUaQ ‘SIOUur[]

--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--]----|--|--|--|--|--]--| * | * |--|--|--|--|--|--] # [--] # |--|--

--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--]----|--|--|--|--|--|--| | * [--[--|--]--]--]--]--]--] ® f--[--

*

*

~-|--|--|--/--| & | --|--|-2 ee [ onl e elem fen l en le nlm crf lene lt ttt tit tio ctr tin

Ce ee ee ee ad etl Retell Ctrl Reel (ented Need Died *Kil--|--

walenw eel eel ef ee lee fee] ee ee el ee ee | ee le el ee ee ee me fee fe el we | me fee le ele] Kel --

a es re re er re er ee ne a we femme l mel --|--)--| Kl--|--

--|--|--]-+|--| # |--|--|----|--|--]--| # |--]--] * | * |--|--|--]--] * |--|--|--] #[--[--
--|--|--|--|--| # |--|--|----|--|--|--|--|--|--] | * |--] | & | ® |--|--| # | & | ®|--|--

--/|--|/--|--|--|--|/--|--|----|--|--|--|--|2<-/--|--|/e-|--)--|--|--| & l--| # J --|--|--/--

--|--|--| & |--|--|--|--] * |--I--|--| *]--

*
=-|--|--|--|--] #|--|--| # |--|--] *|--|--|--|#|#| * # | | ok # |--

GOOSEBERRIES.

*UISUOODSE AA.
"RIUISIL A
*JUOULIO A
*puxysy epoyy
“qso Ay “UOT
‘[erqUID “uUIgT
“qseq “ude
“yINOS ‘oryO
“1843099 “Or”
“UHON ‘OrUO
*£dS19? MONT
"JSOAA “AIOK MON

“ySUq_ ‘YAO X MON
"BYSB.IGON
‘OITYSdwWBpY MON
“s}josnyoussvyy
‘pur favyy
“LINOSSITT
‘tddtsstsstyy

"AUG MUUISBG JO
qyNog Suvsrlpoyyt
"UWON ‘UBS
“BJOSOUULTL

“OUIE TL.

"SBSUB
*Ayonjuo yy
*BMOT

RPNMAOOrWDAOnAN®
SaaS
1 1 1 ' ' ! ' 1 ' ' ' '
1 ' ! ' 1 ' 1 ' ' ' ' 1
' 1 ‘ ' 1 ‘ 1 ' ' ' '
' 1 ' ! 1 ' ' ' ' 1 '
' (ak cies
1 ' ' ' 1
' ! ' ' '
' 1 an ee
' 1 ' ' '
' ' i] ' !
' ' ' ' a |
' ' 1 ' '

' ' 1

' ' '

' 1 '

' ' !

' ‘ '

' ’ '

' 1 '

i 1 !

' ' '

' ' '

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"YNoY ‘srourIIT
"[Bazuay ‘s1ourT]

--|--|--|--|--|--|--]--|----]--|]--]--]--]--|--] *® | # |--]--|--|--]--]--]| * |--|--

--|--| #|--|--|--] #] &| «|| 4%] &] ae] « [--] |

*

ee ee ee ee ee ee re ee es ees oe

*

--|--|--|----|--|--|--|--|--|--|]--/--[--|--|--]--!--]--| * |--|--]--

--|--|--|----|--|--|--|--|--|--| % | * |--|--|--[--

ze

- =| =) S53)6=) S563) 52

240 ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT

TABLE AI - fe fe ek ee

; E
b 2 NER | ber 3
2 ult | |! [sigle
me |elals| |2] [Slee
x|=| |! 7| 2 °
No. NAME. B |Ela|S/ sid} | ala
2» |Slslslelsisigigie
3 slelels|;|2|sisis
4 S/S/slSIe] olsislé
<) S|) S/S 5/5 |2) sl eis
'S) VCIS|S IAA S/S 4 |

1 | American’ Black, fs! 42.58 5.2e2eteeee Black, |:-].-|--]2-|--|--)=eeeee

2 } Antwerp Red, of Hudson River, ------- Red, |--|5<!--|5-|-slaaoeee

BLAM EWerp. LelOW, 2 os-us-o.us sce eee Yellow,) + |~-|--|<-|-2|4e)eeleeuan

4+) belle de'Fontenay,.':2.- 2225-22 2e22225 Red, -).-|.2)..]-<) Set alleeneen

Dtatawissare sco Ue ese. ee ete Red... |--]-=|% |<] Saleen

SaeastOli = s- Sot ole ee ee eae Red,._ .|--|-<| » |--12<) sien

PAE CACO ties 2 Pes Soe =. Be See oe ee Ned, lee |e |= lee een

Be Mien On. neato n ae ae~ ee eee ee usen Red, _|-,|--|2-|2-|2olecheenee

Vice-President French.

Sine vittes lant 6 Job eth leek Red, {--|<=|:%1-|oa)oaee een
19 | Merveille de 4 Saisons,---22--....2--- Red,. |=-|--|+-|-=|22 22a
Pi Morante. 5.22 cnc s tot CIR ceoccecs Yellow,|--|--|. 4 |--|22]22)g eee

Brinckle’s Orange.
PP TMOnIO LVerlastine ss ooo 5a Secs ke op scte Black, |..|-¢|--|--|--}oo) ea ae

TABLE Y: - -- <= = |= =e

= | kt |e
. _ |
Bley; 5 reic
o| 2 = o;o0
S| S)/2) ./0] lala
No. NAME. e\Ri.2)/e|O} .|*t |G
28/8) s/y/ S| 818 | az
e\sie|S\:|2\s/8/8
Slslajsla cols sls
BB! SO | Olas | OS betes
VO |S AIA SS se
A Dorchester, i oat Bee te eee Ie ee Pg eg ee) es ae
2.1 New Rochelle,‘or Lawton, 5-5 2..2.--5--2---9-ols< ¢|\4.|<<|-eleepaenem

241

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS.

RASPBERRIES.

No.

=

ISMOODSE AA

*BIULSILA
*JUOULIA A
*puvys— spony

BS ee
au Lene
isl ere
4

5)
226
euler
= Shs
9

ESP hO)
11

12

*KI--
*
*

4soM “UOT

* |

*‘[Bipuay ‘uUud,|[
“‘yseq “uueg

“Nog ‘oryo

*[B1} U9.) “OLYO
"UWON ‘orpo
* AISI AON

--| |

% }--| | ok | ok [--
*#il)--|--|--|--|--

*
*

we | 2 | ok

*|&| x
%
*# |--|--|--/-- --|<--/--
* | *|--|#| &| & |--|--

* | %
* | ok

* | ck

*
*
*
%

"89M ‘YOK MON

*

“qseq ‘YOK MONT

%

"BYSBIGIN

aTLysdueyy MON
“s}Josntpousse yy

*puvy Arey

--|--|--|--|--|--| & | | |--]--| | oe] ]--]--

5 [Srey Sey] ot) ea fee

H
wKil--j--|--
*

--|--]--|& | x

% |--|--|--| * | * |--|--|--]--]--|--]--|--]--]--

* |--|--|--] |

*LINOSSI
“rd dississi yr

“ABT MBUISBS JO

yynog ‘uvsryoryy
“UMON ‘uBsryory

Seles (os) pe) a eal 6 2) 63 les

*
*

~~|----]--[--]--|--]--]--] # | [--]--]--]--|--]--[--]--]-2f--]--

*BJOSOMUIPT

“OUIVI
"SUSUR
*AYONJU Wy
*BMOT

|

"YINOS ‘sloull[y

*[BA}U9D ‘SLOUurTT

*

*

*

--|--|--|--|--| «]--|--|----]--|--|--|--|--]--| & | # |--|--|--

BLACKBERRIES.

“UISULODSI AA

“BIUISIT A

“JUOULIO A
“pussy apoyy
‘qSOA\ “Ug

‘[BIyUaD “uUUaT

‘qseq CuUag
‘WaNog ‘oryO.
*[BijuaD ‘oIyO

"UHON ‘ONO

*AOSIOL? MONT

"WSOAA “YIOX MON

“yseuyy SYIOX MON

"BYSBIQIN

OITSAWB EY MON
“s}jasnyoussvyy

*puvlArvy
*LIMOSSITAL
“rd dississiyt

“ABT MUUISLG JO
Ynog ‘Suvsriqoryt

"UWON ‘UBSIYOrT

*BJOSOUULT
Eig
“SUSUB YT
*AYONJUIV
*BMOT

"yINOY ‘slourIyT

*[BI}UAD ‘STOUT

mn
too
i
4
os
* *
ro
ean
* *
esi
teal
* *
ros
a
tot
tent
ian
Camel)
*
* x
es}
lect
ro
im
bo
* *
* *
hot
ooo
tos
4
* *
too.
oo
too.
tot
* *
an
6
oo
‘ot
oo
ooo
oo8
ooo
oo

242 ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT

TABLE:Z. = .- .- = Sl US

The Columns indicate: 1st, the Name of Variety; 2d, the Sex (Hermaphrodite or
which the Varieties are recommended. A star (*) opposite the name of a variety
The Abbreviations are as follows: Sex, P. Pistillate; all others are Hermaphrodite;

&
g 3| |alals
© gisis! (2 B/E
46 |Eials|s\S| |A\2\4
cS SSS Sse) alate
a | aS |S eleistelsiggie
ical 2H |alalo|o|.4|/o = = =
n q JO O|o a ajo sla
iAlive Mande,to) i. det. Poe ee By, >| 2|--| 26) a
PUPDMICHLOM ime, sb SS Soi oe Le eee A. |..|--|-2!-o)2/ 23a
AbebinisnQucen hoot. Lk ose ele ee Beas ee ee
Beposton Fre, ct 20. fo. foots Se eee A. |..|--|--|-2)22)22) 220
Of burrs New Pine,. lo: 242-8. 22 P. AS” [gues Soha a ae HES
BeremnmisonvCones) 200520. oe ee oe PS A. |..|--|-.|22]- 42a
faowners Prolite, tio 23.32 2542 eee A. *|.-|--|}-|-2)get=s)=s ream
2) LOU G) 2) all ee Ce ee eR ing [SERS A. |..|.:[22)-3o2heaeee
OP | CLT SS Cea AE Sd A EASA aes op eae (an | eg A. ||.2).-l22)2 2) 2p
OP booker, _o.)2/ 20 J.-L u2---2c: =. [Le 2-cel’ AS 2)23)8 2) ee
ile doyey s Seedling, _..-...2_- pee te A. |..|-2| #|-4) /2)eeyne
Pome Ree a foe woos tot tee eet A. |...) 22). |22]22)e5
fan denny s Seedling, ..--..-.2------- P. A. |-.|5.|..|.- 3)
14 Jenny Lind, Be eS Sea AO Sa Ee me loraoo> A. x |--| e/--|*%|*]--|--|--
POM OONS ANC a2 a 2 ese ce Se etc V. \o.|.c) (22 ee
fod earce arly Searlet, 22222226022. s6°|eoS27e A. |_.|_2\._\.)22 2
ia eLonrwerths rouie, ..b.s 2552) |-os-—- A. |..|--|.-|..|-2l 9g.) See
18 | McAvoy’s Superior, -.-....------- ies A. |.-|s<l's|-2|22) eee
TOs Motives Scarlet, i= 5.6 ade 8 --22'|) P. AG | alien ee =a{ss
Sal Movamensine bs ose 2) eee | oe A, |..|2-|-2|.4/33)23=
el msCcott 6 MeCEdIM, [S00 22282 oS ale Cabae ihe A. |--|--| a2 -\ea}oaaa en
22 Tmomplie de Gand: $22 255225222. tle2 ste FB. | |o-l<)¢ |S
eauerolope’s. Victoria, 322 2284-06 -2Ne eee FF.’ |. .|22|--les a
2 neyvalkers Seedlin®, 20 wee 2 222 oe eee A. |.-|2=)@ le. (25)
25 Wilsons Albany,<..-- 22-.-.-s-222)|-S2.e8 A. ~ | |--| a | eee oe te eee

243

TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS.

STRAWBERRIES.

}
7,
‘UISUODST AA

"BIULSAL A,
“JUOULIO A |

"puxlsy opoyy
“qso Aq “UNE

‘[erjUAD “uueg
‘qseq “uu

“yINog ‘oro

‘[BszUaD ‘oryO
“ION ‘OryO

~-|--|--|--] &)--|--/--/--

|

*£O8.10(* MONT

"SO AA ‘YIOX MON
“qseqy ‘YOK MON

"BYSVIGIN

EL tats

*

“OILY SAUUB EY MON

|

“s}Jasnyoussv yy

‘pur daeyy
“TINOSSITL
‘Tddisstssiqy

SS Ge) |S aiS-))/2 =) Sell si|Se)o oS eS)| “lee ea) Seile ale =!)

--|--|--] |--}--| & | | & |--|--]--] * }--]--| | * |--]--

--|--| * |--|--|--| «| *]--|--|--|--| «| *|*] *] * |--|--

Pistillate); 3d, the Origin, American or Foreign; and the remainder the Districts in
indicates that it succeeds well in the district named at the head of the column.

Origin, A. American; F. Foreign.

“AV MBUISLG JO
Wynog ‘weston
"UWON ‘UBSIOrT
“BJOSOUUL,

“OUIVINT

*
*
*

SESE SS) He SS) siSaile— Soleo a S||S= Si aafsal/ es) ool ssllee lien
--|----|--]--|--| * |--|--|--]--|--|--|--|--]--]--| «| «| *|--]--

--|----|--|--|--| % |--|--] *] *|--|--

|
|

“SUSUR yy
“AYOn} Uo yy
"BMOT
“"qynog ‘srourl[]
“[eaquay ‘stourly

teresa miei oem = ml) [mi em mlm |i |= |= —|——| ll ef oe aml =| =| || a ee a
--|--|--|--|--|--|--]--|----]--]--] « |##/--!--] «| *] * |--|--]--|--] « |--] «| #/--|--
--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----]|--|--|--|--|--|--] «| «| * |--|--]--|--]--]--]--|--|--|--

Sa ee Nt ee a le le ed ed

-~-|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|----]--|--|--]--|--|--]--|--| « ]--|--|--| *] «| «| *] *|--]--
cei) 221 SP P(e PV Pe (ies es ed ee pee a

--|--|--|--|-=] * |--|--|----]--|--| « |--|--|--| «| * |--|--|--|--| * |--| *|--|--|--|--

--|--|--|--|--| * |--|--|----]--|--|--|--|--|--] * | * | * |--|--|--|--]--] *]--|--|--]--
~-|--|--|--|--] * |--1-- *% |--|--| * |--|--|--] &| | # [--|--|--| &| | «| «| « |--|--

Ss) | ce) SS] Se PE) PE a (| re ea yf rc eet es fe ese ae) oes
Cae ee * --
oo)oc|eeleslpaSs) SiS sets) Sey eI ey ead) es) ee) ye) ee | a a Se sai =

S| |S SE 2 Pe rs ee WE a a Ve) |e es ay feet ee fetes fees fe (oes

m--|--|--j--|--| *]--|--

244 THE BEST SORTS FOR CULTIVATION.

§ II. BEST SIX, TEN, TWELVE, OR TWENTY VARIETIES.

It is of great importance to the practical fruit-
erower to know not only what varieties will flourish
well in his locality, as set forth in the preceding
pages, but also in what manner those varieties
should be combined so as to secure him an orchard
of the greatest value for domestic use and for the
market. To teach the latter lesson, we have col-
lated, from the issues of the American Pomological
_ Society, and from other authentic sources, the follow-
ing results of the experience and observation of the
best cultivators in a number of the states of the
American Union.

It has been our aim to obtain full reports on this
point from every part of the country. But this has
been in a measure prevented by circumstances be-
yond our control. We have classified these results
geographically, so that cultivators, in states from
which we have no returns, can form their judgment
as to the combination of varieties, so as to secure
the best reward of labor and expenditure from an
inspection of returns from other states in their
vicinity. As reliable data may be received by us
from other states and territories, and from the Pa-
cific coast and the British provinces, we shall add
them to these specifications, in the hope of accumu-
lating ultimately the ripe experience of American
fruit-growers.

FOR MAINE AND MASSACHUSETTS.

I. NEW ENGLAND STATES.

1 FOR MAINE.

BEST VARIETIES OF APPLES.

Ramsdell’s Sweet, R. I. Greening,
Red Astrachan, Black Oxford,
Sweet Bough, Cogeswell,
Early Harvest, Ribstone Pippin.

PEARS.
Urbaniste, | Winter Nelis,
Fulton, Onondaga,
Beurré Clairgeau, Dearborn’s Seedling,
Doyenne Boussock, Lawrence.

PLUMS.
Imperial Gage, Lombard,
McLaughlin, Reine Claude de Bavay,

_ Green Gage, Coe’s Golden Drop.
Washington,
CHEREIES.

Only the Dukes and Morellos.

2. FOR MASSACHUSETTS.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES.

Williams, Fameuse,
Early Bough, Hubbardston,
Gravenstein, Baldwin.

BEST TWELVE VABIETIES ADD:

Red Astrachan,
R. I. Greening,
Ladies’ Sweet,

Roxbury Russet,
Smith’s Cider,
Talman’s Sweet.

ZA

240

246 FOR MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND.

BEST VARIETIES OF PEARS, ON PEAR STOCK, FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Bartlett, Rostiezer,
Urbaniste, Merriam,
Vicar of Winkfield, Flemish Beauty,
Buffum, Belle Lucrative,
Beurré d’ Anjou, Doyenne Boussock,
Lawrence, Onondaga.

ON QUINCE.
Louise bonne de Jersey, Vicar of Winkfield,
Urbaniste, Beurré d’ Anjou,
Duchesse d’Angouleme, Glout Morceau.

BEST VARIETIES OF STRAWBERRIES.

Hovey, Brighton Pine.

Early Scarlet, Jenny Lind,
Boston Pine,

BEST VARIETIES OF GRAPES FOR OUT-DOOR CULTURE.

Delaware, Concord,
Diana, | Hartford Prolific.

8. FOR RHODE ISLAND.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Early Harvest . . . |. «= 10| Baldwin. . . . “) Seu
William’s Favorite . ...,. 10] R.I.-Greenine . \). 7 are
Porter. < . . «ee! «15 | Roxbury Russet ).0% 3 eee

BEST TWELVE.

Marly Harvest . . . . .« » 4|R.1. Greening. .| . 0
Early Sweet Bough . . . . 4/| Peck’s Pleasant. . . . . . 5
William’s Favorite . . . +» 6| Baldwin. .. ... Joe
Porter. . .. . . . .' . 10 |'Hubbardston Nonesuch). ee
Gravenstein. .°. .. <. 4|jSheppard’s Sweet |) 750m

Beauty of Kent... .. . . 41 Roxbury Russet .'.. (sae

FOR RHODE ISLAND. 247

BEST TWENTY.

Karly Harvest . Fall Pippin . ; 4
Golden Sweet Hubbardston Moneieel is ht At:
Red Astrachan . Peck sPleasant; 2.) 3) act
William’s Favorite Yellow Bellefluer . 5
Early Bough Talman’s Sweet 2

Rul Greenitiig 4557. 40s0 si eeeee
Baldwin . : . eer sty. 7)
Sheppard’s Byaht. du! cage
Northerm Spy.' sexo |stats
Roxbury Russet, '> 2 rps? us

Porter .« ‘
Pomme Royale .
Dartmouth Sweet .
Beauty of Kent.
Gravenstein .

wonmnWdnwmn mw ww w w

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES ON PEAR STOOK.

Dearborn’s Seedling. . . . Pratt. 0 30 2 a Pace? cee eee
Beurré Giffard. . .. . Fondante at Autorun HY oho
mentee cr a UA Re ES |, ie Lawrence: “S -< 2 7.) Yel "se ee

BEST TWELVE.

Bloodgood B leletrapa ane de a Sg | Ra Bt Ri er ene oe DL
eeerGuuard.: : : >. °.'." 5) Mlemish Beauty's “><. "52110
Dearborn’s Seedling . a seckelt.... «2° VE eis= 2 See
Doyenne Boussock Sel Button 27. iy.) ok on
Seems i.) ee 20) | Lawrence + 2 ot’. ae gee
Meemeotagerative: » + 2) 4/110) Haster Beurré 2°52 2 294s

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES ON QUINCE STOCK.

Meare Giftard .. . « «%. 15) Beurré Diels) 2° .%0 9°. 97k8
Louise bonne de Jersey. . . 35] Urbaniste . .... . . 10
Duchesse d’Angouleme . . . 20/ Glout Morceau. . . . . . 10

BEST TWELVE.

Pere attard.. ..fs. ~ » 20} Urbanite, 6°. =. 2 ss NS
Doyenne d’Ete. .. . . . 5{| Louise bonne deJersey. . . 20
Meenezer. . ..J.«). .'. 5 | Duchesse d’Angouleme-.-..\-. 10
Mearrad Amaulisi:( 2... '. &|, Beurré Diel). .. a sw .°4. 10
eee uueratve: (20.0 46. 10 1) Glowt. Morceau .. . 5.0.04... 6

ented Amel 9. 6 | 10 Waster-Beurré. . . ote

248 FOR CONNECTICUT.

4, FOR CONNECTICUT.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Marly Harvest ...°.:. + « °2]| Talman’s Sweet. . .° 2
Golden Sweet... . . . « './10)-R. 1 Greening . . .° eee
Cayuga Red Streak . . . . 10] Roxbury Russet . .. . . 20

BEST TWELVE VARIETIES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Marly Harvest .° . 20. °. 2-9 2"| Fall Pippi .-:.°-.. .
Marly Bough . . 2s. 1) Talman’s Sweet |...
Mpice Apple. ....¢6)\s0i.’ . 1.| Peck’s Pleasant... .. 5) ceeee
Golden Sweet .°. . . . . 51] Esopmns Spitzenberg . .. |.) «310
Cayuga Red Streak . '. . . 10] R. I. Greening. . . . -spncpap
Yellow Bellefleur... .... .) .'°1 | Roxbury Russes- . ~ “:\ekeee

PEARS ON PEAR STOCK. BEST TWELVE VARIETIES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Bartlett . . . . . . « 25-| Gansel’s Bergamotte .:..) vie
Fondante d’Automne >| Beurré Diel . .. «4s yang
Paradise d’Automne . . . . 2] Vicar of Winkfield . . |. 526
REEKEL 6%. 5 ye he oe LON Sawrence ©... ¢>\) ne
Flemish Beauty; . . +... .° 8| Winter Nelis .. . ). eth aap
Louise bonne de Jersey... 10 | Bufflum ... .. . ).jWe) Beene

BEST TEN VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK.

Louise bonne de Jersey, Duchesse d’ Angouleme,
Belle Lucrative, Beurré d’ Anjou,
Urbaniste, Glout Morceau,
Flemish Beauty, Vicar of Winkfield,
Beurré Diel, Easter Beurré,

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEACHES.

Early York, Morris’ White,
Coolidge’s Favorite, Late Red Rareripe,
George IV., Bergen’s Yellow.

FOR NEW YORK.

II. MIDDLE STATES.

I. FOR NEW YORK.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Red Astrachan . . 10°: ‘Baldiwiths;<4 ee

Fall Pippin .

Kt. I. Greening .

Early Harvest .
Red Astrachan .

Sweet Bough
Primate
Gravenstein .

Fall Pippin .

Early Harvest .
Red Astrachan .

Early Joe
Primate
Sweet Bough
Jersey Sweet
Porter .

Fall Pippin .
Gravenstein .
Belmont .

BEST VARIETIES FOR MARKET, FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES.

Red Astrachan

Golden Sweet.
Duchesse of Aldenburgh
20 oz. Pippin .

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON PEAR STOCK.

Beurré Giffard,

Bartlett,
Tyson,

. 12. Talman’s Sweet
. 24 | Roxbury Russet

BEST TWELVE.

20 oz. Pippin
R. 1. Greening .

Talman’s Sweet
Baldwin
Roxbury Russet

ar EF LP Lh LP

BEST TWENTY.

4 | 20 oz. Pippin

4| R. 1. Greening .
2
2

King Tompkins Co.

_Fameuse .
2 | Mother
2 Talman’s Sweet
2 Ladies’ Sweet
4 | Baldwin
4 Northern Spy
4

|
|
|
| Roxbury Russet

60.) Ro Greening
60 | Talman’s Sweet
80 | Baldwin .

. 200 | Roxbury Russet .

Seckel,
Sheldon,
Lawrence.

King Tompkins Co.

- 100

249

250 FOR NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY.

FOR BEST TWELVE ADD:

Bloodgood, Beurré Clairgeau,
Flemish Beauty, Winter Nelis,
Duchesse d’ Orleans, Vicar of Winkfield.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK.

Beurré Giffard,
Brandywine,
Belle Lucrative,

Duchesse d’ Angouleme,
Louise bonne de Jersey,
Vicar of Winkfield.

FOR BEST TWELVE ADD:
Easter Beurré,

Glout Morceau,
Beurré d’ Anjou.

Beurré Langelier,
Beurré Diel,
Urbaniste,

FOR THE MARKET.

Duchesse d’Angouleme, Easter Beurré,
Louise bonne de Jersey, Vicar of Winkfield.
Glout Morceau,

BEST TWELVE VARIETIES OF PEACHES.

Early York, Old Mixon Free,

Senate, Old Mixon Cling,

Early Newington, Red Cheek Melocoton.
Crawford’s Early, George IV.,

Coolidge’s Favorite, Crawford’s Late, or
Walter’s Early, Langworthy’s Late Rareripe.

Morris’ White,

FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Early York Serrate.\..:. ..>. 25 |-Old Mixon Cling, .. . (.° cee
Crawford’s Early . . ... . 20} Red Cheek Melocoton . . «18
Old Mixon Free’. . . »«.. 20.! Langworthy’s Late -. Sou

2. FOR NEW JERSEY.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Yellow Harvest . ..... ..5|R.1. Greening «....°\¥ (ages
Maiden Blush .°. .). . . 10} Baldwm . . \ . ° em
Fall Pippin 2 03/05... % .. 10 |: Roxbury Russet ©: ¢°S°sS ae

FOR NEW JERSEY.

BEST TWELVE

=v ellow: Flarmeshe(s L .” B
Maiden Blush ; 8
Hubbardston Nonesuch . 8
Sweet bough 2 sy. f°... 8
Fall Pippin . 8
R. I. Greening .

Baldwin :
Yellow Bellefleur .
Monmouth Pippin
Esopus Spitzenberg
Newtown Pippin
Roxbury Russet

BEST TWENTY.

mectlom Harvesh. . . 2.» 8
Sweet Bough 2
Summer Hagloe 3
Maiden Blush Se EI,
BREED ss, 6 yee oe So
Gravenstein . 5
Jersey Sweet , 2
Hubbardston Nonesuch . 5
R. I. Greening . 4:
OLE c it a eC

BEST VARIETIES FOR

Yellow Harvest 30
Sweet Bough . 25
Maiden Blush . 50

Fall Pippin 50
Gravenstein 50
Jersey Sweet . 25
Hubbardston Nonesuch 50
R. I. Greening . 100
Baldwin . : 60
Yellow Bellefleur 60
Talman’s Sweet . 25

Monmouth Pippin .

Yellow Bellefleur .
Newtown Pippin

Talman’s Sweet

Dominie . a ie” te ai
Seeknofurther (Westfield) .
Esopus Spitzenberg . ,
Roman Stem

Roxbury Russet

Lady Apple .

ONE THOUSAND TREES.

Esopus Spitzenberg .
Newtown Pippin .
Monmouth Pippin
Roxbury Russet .
Dominie..

Lady Apple

Smith’s Cider .
Seeknofurther .
Roman Stem .

Wine.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON PEAR STOCK.

Beurré Giffard,
Bartlett,
Seckel,

Winter Nelis,

| Beurré d’ Anjou,
Glout Morceau.

FOR BEST TWELVE ADD:

Madeleine,
Belle Lucrative,
St. Ghislain,

Vicar of Winkfield,
Beurré Diel,
Easter Beurré.

251

HH Or Or Gr Ot GS GS ot ow

252

FOR NEW JERSEY.

BEST FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Madeleine

Beurré Giffard .
Bloodgood . . ;
Dearborn’s ne ;
Rostiezer .

Tyson .

Bartlett

Heathcot .

Belle Lucrative

St. Ghislain .

Flemish Beauty

Beurré Bose

Andrews .

Louise bonne de ey
Seckel . :
Duchesse anenasaieine ,
Beurré d’ Anjou

—

a ee ae

So wp CO wp

Cr > &

Cr we

Urbaniste .

Beurré Clairgeau .
Sheldon . .

Vicar of Winkfield
Beurré Diel . .
Winter Nelis
Lawrence

Glout Morceau .
Bergamotte d’Esperen
Doyenne d’Alencon
Kaster Beurré .
Windsor (for cooking)
Jargonelle (for cooking)
Hericart (for cooking)
Hessel (for cooking)
Uvedale’s St. Germain

BEST FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES.

PeelGIne. 4. cou. ee Re et) as, 0D
ome Gittard- ... «+.» 10
Bian 6. ys tes
Dearborn’s Seedling. . . . 5
ere MeR OT ete! c's me eae ae
MO ely ons se oP any peu
Bartlett . 100
eACNOOe: 5's le, Seas a wt ae
ee Lucrative. i... . Zo
Seensiain . 4. «Sos. « 20
@emish Beauty... ... . -50
Beare Bose i... BO
MOUMEWR cc; even siping BOO
Louise bonne de Jersey . . 50
mecker so. ke wie ett ako
Duchesse d’ Bo coulomel! See ab?
BemreamAnjou:. . . - . 50

Unbaniste: es laa
Beurré Clairgeau
Sheldon .

Vicar of Winkfield .
Beurré Diel

Winter Nelis

Lawrence

Glout Morceau
Bergamotte d@’Esperen .
Doyenne d’Alencon .
Columbia

Easter Beurré .
Windsor.

Jargonelle .

Hericart .

Hessel :
Uvedale’s St. Gedtnetn ‘

BEST TWELVE VARIETIES ON QUINCE STOCK.

Rostiezer,
Belle Lucrative,

Beurre d’Anjou,
Beurré Diel,

Se Re RSP ON HO EP dw Oo oOo &

FOR NEW JERSEY.

Duchesse d’Angouleme, Glout Morceau,
Louise bonne de Jersey, Doyenne d’Ete,
Vicar of Winkfield, Doyenne d’Alencon,
Bergamotte d’Esperen, _ Easter Beurré.

FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Doyenne d’Ete. . . . . . 8 Louise bonne de Jersey .
Rostiezer . : 3 | Urbaniste :
Meters sk ke Ce 5 | Beurré d’Anjou
Duchesse d’Angouleme 5 | Vicar of Winkfield
Bon d’Ezee . 2 | Beurré Diel .

Belle Lucrative - . + O2@olombia:.

Beurré Superfin . .,. . . 2] Glout Morceau.
Andrews . ‘ 2 | Bevrré Langelier .
Stevens’ Genesee . 2 | Bergamotte d’Esperen
Henry IV. 2 | Doyenne d’Alencon
Doyenne Boussock 3 | Easter Beurré .
Kirtland’s Beurré . Palak lacs ~ ces 5.4

Buffum 2 | Uvedale’s St. Germain
Kingsessing ... . . . . . 2/| Epine Dumas
Flemish Beauty 2

FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES.

Doyenne d’Ete . . . . ~. 10] Louise bonne de Jersey
Seetiever =~. .; ») + 10,| Urbaniste
Partiett..-. -. -. . . - +» 35.| Beurré d’Anjou
Duchesse d’Angouleme. . . 100] Vicar of Winkfield .
Meaaiizee. , . % « » ~. ' 25,| Beurré Diel
Belle Lucrative . . . . . 25 Columbia
Beurré Superfin ~ yt a So) lout Moreeau
Amiirews- +... . + .. « 25.) Beurré Langelier
Stevens’ Genesee . . . . 25 Bergamotte d’Esperen .
Bieary iV... . . > «+ . 54 Doyenned’Alencon-.
Doyenne Boussock . . . . 25 Easter Beurré.
femtiand's beurre -. . . ~ 10,) Catillae. Go4 «= -.
boa . . . . . . =. « 25) Uvedales-St..Germain .
Kingsessing . . . - . ~- 10] Epine Dumas.
Piemicn ieauty .°./ ., -+«% 25
BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEACHES.

Early Newington, George IV.,

Early Crawford, Old Mixon Free,

Late Crawford, Morris’ White.

22

253

bow Ww KH ww ow or

- 100

50
75
75
65
50
75
25
30
25
10
10
10
20

“O54 FOR NEW JERSEY AND PENNSYLVANIA.

FOR BEST TWELVE ADD:

Early York,
Old Mixon Cling,
Noblesse,

Grosse Mignonne,
Late Heath,
Royal George.

3. FOR PENNSYLVANIA.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Early Harvest .
Fallawater
Townsend ..

Early Harvest .
Jeffries :
R. I. Greening .
Roman Stem
Townsend
Holland Pippin .

Knowles’ Early
Benoni ‘
Maiden Blush
Rambo

Baldwin

Wine Sap
Pennoch .
Early Harvest .

American Summer Pearmain .

Holland Pippin

BEST TWELVE.

BEST TWENTY.

15]
1
4
5
6
9)
9)
2
2
a

BEST FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES.

Early Redstreak .
Maiden Blush .
Smith’s Cider .
Townsend

Smoke House .

Mee i,

25
25

2 25
- 500

Oonranwm won a

Baldwin . 2p
Smoke House igh - on
Golden Russet of Mass. . 20
Baldwin 15
Lady 10
Benoni 2
Smoke House 20
American Golden Bice 10
English Golden Russet 10
| Fallawater . 10
American Golden Ruse

Smith’s Cider ‘ ‘
English Golden Russet . id
Townsend

Jeffries :
Smoke House at
Paradise .

Roman Stem

Ailes

Lady . ; . 2 one
American Summer Pale tis
Fallawater . 2) peer
Golden Russet 100

FOR PENNSYLVANIA AND VIRGINIA.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON PEAR STOCE.
Beurre Gitlardeee 8.0 fo.) . OO. Seckel.

Bartlett... ns. 's\-.''. 10)} Belle Lucrative
Pye0m <0 --+ 54s 0s fs. 10 | Lawrence

BEST TWELVE VARIETIES FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES.

Doyenne d’Ete . . . . . 251 Belle Lucrative
Rostiezer . . . . . . . 25/4 Duchesse de Brabant
Seecmeton. . . . . . s 25} 'Tyson

ME a eS . 100 | Bartlett

Beurré Giffard . . . . . 501 Beurré Bosc

ei. Ghislan. ... . . . 25) Lawrence

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARSON QUINCE STOCK.

Rostiezer, Duchesse d’ Angouleme,
Louise bonne de Jersey, Belle Lucrative,
Brandywine, Glout Morceau.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEACHES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Wroth’s Karly Red. . . . .,15 | Ward’s Late Free .
George IV... . . =. . «15 Coolidge’s Favorite
Large Early York. . . . . 20! Molden White .

BEST TWELVE VARIETIES FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES.

Troth’s Early Red . . . . 150 | Crawford’s Late .
Coolidge’s Favorite. . . . 50 | Ward’s Late Free
Old Mixon Free. . . . . 25 Red Rareripe .
Molden White . . . . . 100 | Morris’ White .
Large Early York . . . . 200/ Druid Hill .
George IV. . .. . . . 50 Late Heath

III. SOUTHERN STATES.

1. FOR VIRGINIA.

BEST VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Siemans +2... Ct + Of eed Cathead
Stripe June. . . . . . « 5 |-Brooke’s Pippin
Rastemomeen i... .--. SP liglady’s Seedling .

. 100

uke
. 10

250°

oe
10
« 10

50
25
50

. 500

25

TOO

. 20
a)
“a

. 100
=" LOO

50
25
50

256

Summer Golden Pippin .

Porter . A
Baltimore Pinpia ,
Robey’s Seedling .
Winter Cheese .

or Or or Or cr

FOR VIRGINIA.

Rawle’s Janetting .
Northern Spy
Wine Sap

Limber Twig

BEST FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES.

Mary
Stripe June .
Garter... |.

Summer Euler, Pippi ;

Benoni

Spice

Porter .

Red Cathead
Baltimore Pippin .
Robey’s Seedling .
Robertson’s White
Yellow Bellefleur .
Bowling’s Sweet
Winter Cheese .

=i20
220
20
- 20
=ij20
2 20
- 20
Re)
. 20
7 eu.
. 20
20
= 10
. 00

Brook’s Pippin. .
Holady’s Seedling .
Rawle’s Janetting
Northern Spy
Wine Sap

Limber Twig
Waugh’s Crab .
Strawn’s Seedling .
Welford’s Yellow .
Oglesby

Milan . :
Long Island im aeeet
Micker Jack .
Calasaga .

BEST TWENTY VARIETIES OF PEARS ON PEAR STOCK FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Bartlett,
Julienne,

Beurré d’Amaulis,
White Doyenne,
Nouveau Poiteau,
Seckel,

Vicar of Winkfield,

Hawes’ Winter,
Taylor’s Winter,
Lawrence,

Catinka,
Madeleine,
Belle Lucrative,
Tyson,

Beurré Diel,
Oswego Beurré,
Urbaniste,
Flemish Beauty,
Winter Nelis,
Buffum.

BEST TWENTY VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK

Madeleine,
Julienne,

White Doyenne,
Belle Lucrative,
Bartlett,

Seckel,

Vicar of Winkfield,

Beurré Easter,
Glout Morceau,
Lawrence,

bo
Cr
a |

FOR VIRGINIA AND GEORGIA.

Rouselet de Stutgart, Taylor’s Virginia,
Beurré Diel, Winter Nelis,
Duchesse d’Angouleme, Bezi de la Motte, ‘
Oswego Beurré, Beurré Clairgeau.

Louise bonne de Jersey,

2. FOR GEORGIA.

BEST SEVENTEEN VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

ed June (summer) . . . . 2| Buff (wintery. .....- 38
Cane Creek Sweet (summer) . 2 | Camak’s (winter sweet). . ~« 10
Julien (summer) . . . . . 2j{ Calasaga (winter) . . . .- 9
Sweet Paradise (summer) . 2 | Cullawkee S bebe

Bachelor (autumn) 8 | Equinetley (winter) . . . . 20
Disharoon (autumn) . . . . 4] Hoover (winter) . . . - . 10

Chistalee (autumn, for cooking) 2 | Maverick’s Sweet (winter). . 10
Rome Beauty (autumn). . . 2] Nickerjack (winter). . . - 9
Berry (winter) . 6

BEST TWELVE.

Red June (summer). . . - 2/|Nickerjack (winter). . - - 10

Julien (summer) . . . . - 2/| Equinetley (winter). . - . 20
Cane Creek Sweet (summer) . 2 | Camak’s (winter sweet) . . . 20
Bachelor (autumn) . . . . 10| Calasaga (winter) . . . . 10
Disharoon (autumn) . . . . 5) Junaluskee (winter). . . . 10
Rome Beauty (autumn). . . 5 | Winter Queen (winter). . . 4
BEST SIX.

ea 2... ses lec axi.> 6) Nqumetley, pb 0374 cca iene 26
eeelgr ... » +... «-- 6} -Camak’s Sweet. fjet -2) 30.2

Ee aye + + 260 Hoogemer iy ye tos line’ «710

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON PEAR STOCK.

Doyenne d’Ete, Winter Nelis,
Beurré Bosc, Seckel,.
Bartlett, Beurré Gris d’ Hiver nouveau.

“ 2.9%

258 FOR GEORGIA. ‘th ;

FOR BEST TWELVE ADD:

Bloodgood, White Doyenne,
Sterling, Lawrence,
- Belle Lucrative, Compte de Flanders.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK.

Doyenne d’Ete, Glout Morceau, :
Duchesse de Berri d’Ete, Duchesse d’Angouleme,
Louise bonne de Jersey, Easter Beurré.

FOR BEST TWELVE ADD:

Beurré Diel, Lawrence,
Rostiezer, White Doyenne, ‘
Soldat Laboreur, Belle Epine Dumas.

FOR AN ORCHARD OF ONE HUNDRED OR ONE THOUSAND TREES, WITH THE ABOVE

ALSO INCLUDE:

Buffum, . Van Asche,

Manning’s Elizabeth, Beurré Clairgeau,
Camok’s, Henry IV.,

Beurré d’Anjou, Tyson,

Delices d’Harden pont, Heathcot,

Columbia, Kirtland,

Flemish Beauty, Rivers’ Winter Beurré,
Beurré Langelier, Sheldon.

Neighbors, |

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEACHES.

Early Tillotson, Large Early York,
Stump the World, La Grange,
Heath Cling, Bough.

FOR BEST TWELVE ADD: ‘

Serrate Ispahan,

Washington Rareripe (of Par-
sons),

Washington Cling,

Chinese Cling, .
Edwards’ Late White,
| Hull’s Athenian.

FOR GEORGIA AND MISSISSIPPI. 259

FOR AN ORCHARD OF ONE_HUNDRED OR ONE THOUSAND TREES, WE SHOULD ADD

TO THE ABOVE, OF CLINGSTONES:

Georgia Cling, | Old Mixon Cling,
Tippecanoe, Horton’s Delicious,
Large White Cling, Blonton.
Donohue,

OF FREESTONES:

Serrate Early York, Harker’s Seedling,
Druid Hill, Crawford’s Early,
Van Zandt’s Superb, Camok’s Serrate,
Smock Free, Crawford’s Late,
Fay’s Early Ann, Lady Perham,
Montgomery’s Late, Late Admirable,
Coolidge’s Favorite, Baldwin’s Late.

FOR SHIPPING:

Early Tillotson, Early Chelmsford,
Fay’s Early Ann, Crawford’s Early.
Columbus June,

FOR DRYING:

Heath Cling.

3. FOR MISSISSIPPI.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Se mauna hed June . .....«:-, 10; Caméngere... 2 2+." ep 26
RSENS ets rec oe, a WO) Shockley falas ap a2
Peweregd: 2": «ic. ce» «lO boule ase Gop cls 2.4 ee

BEST TWELVE.

‘ May . DAOC aMIeMew eWay. clive ee arte a
Carolina June . 5 | SSweebbusseh *...-. 6 jae he. td
John Hunt Di CUMS Toei e Peis Wale) 10
Horse Apple fp COUR otG ort «oth ss ath ate sO
Summer Red «... . 5| Shockley .. . . 15
Covington” fs... Ei Pon OMCMM ey Sea 5 0 ens oso See

260 FOR MISSISSIPPI.
BEST -WweNTT,
May : 2| Wonder .
Carolina June . 4 Camenser.
Red Astrachan . 2 | Sweet Russet
Sweet Bough 2) Fall Pippin .
John Hunt 4/ Buff
Horse Apple . . 3 | Carter.
Summer Red 3 Colley .
Covington 4 | Cooner °
Summer Pearmain 4} Poole +4 9.4. 21
Julian . 4 | Shockley .
BEST VARIETIES FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES.
Wie i a Ae 50 | Carter
Carolina June. . . . . . 50/| Colley
Pema... « » . + BO| Cooner™.
Covington . . . . . . . 50| Shockley
mammer hed). =,” .) Sabi ctl BO Poole... ss ss fe
Buff . 25
BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON PEAR STOCK.
Madeleine, Beurré Diel,
Belle Lucrative, Bartlett,
Dearborn’s Seedling, Winter Nelis.
FOR BEST TWELVE ADD:
Bloodgood, Rostiezer,
Seckel, Tyson,
White Doyenne, Doyenne d’Alencon.
FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.
Madeleine .... . . . 5|’White Doyenne
Doyenne d’Ete Seckel .
Beurré Giffard . Belle Lucrative :
Bloodgood Beurré d’Anjou

Julienne . ;
Galden Reus 1) ...°...).. ces
Bark eth. ee a Satta bea 1G

Beurré Diel .
Winter Nelis

9)
9)
ot isn ie poh OS
Dearborn’s Seedling . . . . 5] Doyenne d’Alencon
9)
9)
5

anna n&n kk DD >

me bo
oO

50
25
50

. 100
- 500

FOR MISSISSIPPI AND KENTUCKY.

FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES.
Madeleine . ... .:. . . 100 ; Flemish Beauty . . .

Doyenne @Ete ... . . 50 Seckel

Beurré Giffard . . . . . 100} White Doyenne
Bloodgood . : - . . . .. 25 Belle Lucrative
Dearborn’s Seedling . . . 25] Beurré Diel

English Jargonelle . . . . 25) Doyenne d’Alencon.
meeezer =; . . » . .. . 25| Winter Nelis
eis . . ss. 95) Beurré d’ Anjou
Meesmneton . . . . . . 25 '| Kirtland’s Beurré
Golden Beurré . . . . . 25] Julienne

Weems? Fos. ss th 100

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK.
Beurré Giffard, Beurré Diel,
Duchesse d@’Angouleme, Rostiezer,

Tyson, Easter Beurré.
FOR BEST TWELVE ADD:
Seckel, Bartlett,

Belle Lucrative,
White Doyenne

Louise bonne de Jersey,
Glout Morceau,

BEST VARIETIES OF PEACHES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Early Tillotson... . . . . 20| Van Zandt’s Superb .
Coolidge’s Favorite . . . . 10} Lagrange :
Crawford’s Early . . . . . 10] Columbia

George IV. Peaye Ya) sp

9)
Royal George 5 | Bermuda Cling
resse Miononne .,. . . . 4|.Héath . :
Skinner’s Superb . . . . . 4 Hubbard Cling .
Lovejoy Cling . 4
4

De Soto Cling Baldwin’s Late .

IV. THE WESTERN STATES.

1. FOR KENTUCKY.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Early Harvest. . . . . . 5j Small Romanite
Maiden Blush . . . . . . 5/| Wine Sap
Remo es. . le... 10 |) Bawle’s Janet

Burford’s October Cling

261

50
25
25
©, 20
. 100
50

« 109

25
25
50

~~ Pek PR DP Pp

«h@
- 30
. 46

262 FOR KENTUCKY.

BEST TWELVE.

Early Harvest . . . . ... 5| Yellow Bellefleur. . . .
Maiden Blush 7.53. Olena. d
Carolina Red June . . . . 3] Wine Sap ;
American Summer Pearmain . 3 | New York Pippin
Rambo - - 5] Small Romanite
Pennsylvania Red Str oii . . 5| Rawle’s Janet

BEST TWENTY.

White Juneating 2) Yellow Bellefleur .
Early Harvest . . Milan . :
Carolina Red June New York Eigen
Black’s Annette Wine Sap

Red Winter Guest
Pryor’s Red
Newtown Pippin
Rawle’s Janet
Small Romanite
Carolina

Fenley Secces
American Summer Pearmain .
Maiden Blush

- Fall Queen .

Rambo

Pennsylvania Red Str ek

eo Or > Cr > GO HDD OO

BEST FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES.

Early Harvest . . . . . 100) Pennsylvania Red Streak .
Carolina Red June . . . . 100) Wine Sap

Maiden Blush. . . . . . 50] New York Pippin

Red Astrachan . . . ..* 50:| Rawle’s Janet .

BEIEY (ic sve Se oe, ys bye Oe oman,

Ravshippim: 25. ae a a

BEST VARIETIES OF PEARS ON PEAR STOCK.

Madeleine, Buffum,
Bloodgood, Belle Lucrative,
Tyson, White Doyenne,
Bartlett, Flemish Beauty.
Seckel,

BEST VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK.

Duchesse d’Angouleme, Louise bonne de Jersey,
Belle Lucrative, Tyson,
White Doyenne, Seckel.

. 100

. 100
- 150

FOR KENTUCKY AND NORTHERN OHIO.

BEST VARIETIES OF PEACHES.

Early Tillotson,
Crawford’s Early,
Old Mixon,
Crawford’s Late,
Grand Admirable,

Large White Heath,
Hill’s Superb Jersey,

Leopold,

Early Red Rareripe,

Royal George,
Malta,

New York Cling,
Van Zandt’s Superb,
Catharine,

Columbia,

Freestone Heath,
Smock’s Late,

Druid Hill,
Tippecanoe,

George IV.,

Hobbs’ Seedling.

2. FOR NORTHERN OHIO.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES,

Yellow Harvest
Garden Royal .
Belmont .

Garden Royal .
Belmont .
Baldwin

Red Canada. :
Myers’ Nonpareil .
Jersey Sweet

Garden Royal .
Belmont .
Baldwin

Red Canada’.
Myers’ Nonpareil .
Jersey Sweet

Fall Pippin .

Westfield - ae

Coggswell

Paradise Winter Sweet .

R. I. Greening .
Baldwin .
Rambo

BEST TWELVE.

Early Harvest .
R. I. Greening .
Rambo :
Red Astrachan
Sweet Bough
Wine Sap

BEST TWENTY.

Esopus Sl a :
Early Harvest . :
R. I. Greening .
Rambo :

Red Astrachan .
Sweet Bough

Wine Sap

American Summer Pearmain .

Swaar .
Lady Apple .

263

264 FOR NORTHERN OHIO.

FOR THE MARKET.

Letofsky . 5 | Maiden Blush

Red Astrachan . 5 | Baldwin :

Early Harvest . 5 | R. I. Greening . Ree
Duchesse of Aldenburglé 5 |Gxambo =...
Myers’ Nonpareil . 5 | Wine Sap

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON PEAR STOCK.

Zoar Beauty, Beurré Bosc,
Bartlett, Flemish Beauty,
Kirtland, Winter Nelis.

FOR BEST TWELVE ADD:

Beurré d’Anjou, Ananas d’Ete,
Washington, Seckel,
Stevens’ Genesee, Nouveau Poiteau.

BEST TWELVE VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK.

Beurré Giffard, . Beurré d’ Anjou,

White Doyenne, Stevens’ Genesee,
Louise bonne de Jersey, Nouveau Poiteau.
Urbaniste, Zoar Beauty,

Jalousie de Fontenay Vandee, Belle Lucrative,
Kirtland, Bon Chretien Fondante.

FOR THE MARKET.

Louise bonne de Jersey, | Duchesse d’Angouleme,
Bartlett, Beurré d’Anjou

BEST TWELVE VARIETIES OF PEACHES.

Early York, Old Mixon Cling,
Coolidge’s Favorite, Ward’s Late Free,
Sturtevant, Yellow Rareripe,
Grosse Mignonne, Hyslop’s Cling,
Large Early York, Crawford’s Early,

Old Mixon Free, Crawford’s Late.

FOR NORTHERN AND CENTRAL OHIO.

260

BEST FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES, AND THE SAME PROPORTION FOR ONE THOUSAND.

Hale’s Early
Crawford’s Early .
Crawford’s Late

. 20
Hey!)
she

Yellow Rareripe
Ward’s Late Free .
Hyslop’s Cling .

3. FOR CENTRAL OHIO.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Benoni
Maiden Blush
Belmont .

Early Harvest .
Benoni

Maiden Blush
Ohio Nonpareil .
Rambo
Talman’s Sweet

Early Harvest .
Benoni aed
Early Strawberry .
Red Astrachan
Golden Sweet
Maiden Blush

Fall Pippin .
Qhio Nonpareil
Belmont .

Rambo

= LO
3 LO
ae dl.

Rambo
Smith’s Cider
White Pippin

BEST TWELVE.

aA DD wo

ae

a

Fallawater

Rome Beauty

Smith’s Cider
Newtown Spitzenberg
Baldwin

White Pippin

BEST TWENTY.

me PB Ee DOF wT WH CO O&O WH

Talman’s Sweet
Peck’s Pleasant.
Rome Beauty
Fallawater

Smith’s Cider
Newtown Spitzenberg
Baldwin :
Yellow Bellefleur .
White Pippin

Wine Sap

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON PEAR STOCK.

Madeleine,
Bartlett,
Flemish Beauty,

Bloodgood,
Belle Lucrative,
Buffum,

23

White Doyenne,
Seckel,
Lawrence.

FOR BEST TWELVE ADD:

Louise bonne de Jersey,

Kirtland,

Doyenne d’Alencon.

. 20
aye
vtO

266 FOR CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN OHIO.

FOR MARKET.

Madeleine,
Doyenne d’Ete,
Bloodgood,
Bartlett,

Flemish Beauty,
Louise bonne de Jersey
White Doyenne,
Seckel.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK.

Doyenne d’Ete,
Belle Lucrative,
White Doyenne,

Duchesse d’Angouleme,

Louise bonne de Jersey,
Doyenne d’Alencon.

FOR BEST TWELVE ADD:

Bartlett,
Rostiezer,
Kirtland,

Buffum,
Beurré Superfin,
Beurré d’Anjou.

BEST TWELVE VARIETIES OF PEACHES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

les Wary . 2... 4 «. 10
ary ork. 6 ts .. 8
Coolidge’s Favorite ..... . 8
Fellow Alberge . . 9: «,-. 18
Dares Harly York \: . <u. 8
Crawiord’s Early . 2°. 0... 12

Old Mixon Free . ’.
Smock’s Free
Crawford’s Late

Old Mixon Cling .

Lemon Cling

Ward’s Late Free .

4. FOR SOUTHERN OHIO.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Marly Harvest... .,....-. &| Yellow Bellefileur
Ienoni . «7. .'. « » » 0 | Jonathan, .
Ball Pippin... -. s4-*, + «15 Cannon Pearmain

BEST TWELVE.

Early Harvest .
Red Astrachan .
Benoni

Fall Wine
Ashmore .
Maiden Blush

or or or Or Or Oo

Rambo sy ‘ps
Yellow Bellefleur .
Broadwell
Jonathan .

Rawle’s Janet
Cannon Pearmain .

» Sz
ree by

FOR SOUTHERN OHIO.

BEST TWENTY.

Early Harvest . 3 | American Golden Russet
Red Astrachan . 3 | English Golden Russet .
Benoni 3 | Pomme Gris
Ashmore . 4 | Broadwell
Fall Pippin . . 5 | White Winter Pearmain
Maiden Blush 5| Wine Sap .
Fall Wine - 3 | Rawl’s Janet
Yellow Bellefleur . 8 | Newtown Pippin
Ortley 4 | Cannon Pearmain .

9)

Fall Queen .

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARSON PEAR STOCK.

Early Catharine, Seckel,
Bloodgood Julienne, Glout Morceau,
Bartlett, Passe Colmar.

FOR BEST TWELVE ADD:

Early Butler, Onondaga,
Golden Beurré, Beurré Diel,
Flemish Beauty, Dix.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK.

Doyenne d’Ete, Seckel,
Bloodgood, Louise bonne de Jersey,
Tyson, Vicar of Winkfield.
FOR BEST TWELVE ADDS
Poire des Nonnes, Lawrence,
Onondaga, Napoleon,
Buffum, Soldat Laboreur.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEACHES.

Large Early York, Old Mixon Free,
George IV., Rodman’s Red,
Crawford’s Early, Heath Cling.

FOR BEST TWELVE ADD:

Ward’s Late Free,
Grande Admirable,
Heath Free.

Coolidge’s Favorite,
Serrate Early York,
Columbia,

268 FOR ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN.

5. FOR ILLINOIS.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Red June (summer) . . . . 10; Domine (winter) . . . . . 20
Summer Pennock (summer) . 10] Wagner (winter). . . . .~ 20
Snow (fall) . . . . « -) - 15] Willow Twig (winter) . « . 25

BEST TWELVE.

Red June (summer) . . . .10/ Domine (winter) . . . . . 15
Sops of Wine (summer). . . 5 | Wagner (winter). . . . . 15
Summer Pennock (summer) . 10 | Willow Twig (winter) . vl
Tompkins (autumn) . White Belleflenr Goitee a 6, Bl
Snow (autumn) Yellow Bellefleur (winter) . 5
Cloth of Gold @utumn) » New York Pippin (winter) . 5

or Sr

BEST TWENTY.

Red June (summer) . 5 | Sweet Wine (autumn) :
Sops of Wine (summer) 2| Cloth of Gold (autumn). . . 2
Summer Pennock (summer) . 5 | Domine (winter) . . . . . 10
Red Astrachan (summer) 3,| Wagner (winter) .°.. -) Soe
Cooper’s Early White (summer) 2 | Willow Twig (winter) . . . 10
Leicester Sweeting (summer) . 2] White Bellefleur (winter) . . 2
Tompkins (autumn) . . . . 3/ Yellow Bellefleur (winter). . 2
Snow (autumn) . . . . . 5, New York Pippin (winter) .. 10
Fall Wine (autumn). . . . 2/| Red Seeknofurther (winter) . 10

Hawley (autumn). . . . . 3{| Swaar(winter) ... . . 10

BEST VARIETIES FOR MARKET, FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES.

Red June (summer) . . . 200| Wagner (winter) . . . . 150
Summer Pennock (summer) . 100 | Willow Twig (winter) . . . 200
Snow (autumn) . . . . . 50 New York Pippin(winter) . 200
Wemime (winter). . .°%2°'. 100

6. FOR MICHIGAN.

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Early Harvest)... . . . . 5| Fall Pippin’,s %..",.;° » a5)
Red Astrachan«..,.° .-. : 5 | B.D Greening . \..., . see
Michigan Golden Pippin . .10'Red Canada. . . . . . « 30

FOR MICHIGAN. 269

BEST TWELVE.

Early Harvest . Sitaleeippn tte Pe. 8
Red Astrachan . 3) Yellow Belicfieur?. 7°. SO eh
Large Yellow Bough . 2) Pie ee Geneon. 7.) yg
Michigan Golden aay 4.| Roxbury usdet 001! i. See
Gravenstein . : 4°) Red: Canada #55) 4.) See
Keswick Codlin 4| Ladies’ Sweeting 3 3°.) ne

BEST TWENTY.

Belfort 3,22 \ +... eee
Yellow Bellefleur ~ ..... 5

Early Harvest .
Red Astrachan .

3
2
Large Yellow Bough . 2°) Roxbury Russet’... 3. Ome
‘Early Joe . oe we Ota GRCeRInG 9 . n- cas ee nemeene
American Summer Pearmain . 3 | Esopus Spitzenberg 5
Gravenstein . 3 | Jonathan . a Serene!
Fall Pippin 30 a) JS | eALERTS eas ot ah Ne ee
Pomme de Neige . . . . . 2/{ Northern Spy 5
Meandevere . ~~... =. 2 .°"4| Ladies’ Sweeting 2 Ree
Pearardstom: (a hres) 0 E46 | Red Canadair 2 i- ) 20! eae

BEST FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES WHERE THE MARKET IS NEAR.

Hiatly Harvest. . . . -, - -25 | Hubbardston .-... . =. 90

Red Astrachan. . . a2 20 Nandevere.. <2 2 sa) ieee
Beeet Bough. . . . . .. 25|R.1.Greenmg . .. - ~ 10D
Michigan Golden Pippin . . 25) Baldwin. . . . . - - + 50
BEReCOSCIN 6s « «82 2 O0,)Jonatham so. Vc 2 soe ee
Fall Pippin... . . . 50) Roxbury Russet er a")
mans Sweet:. . . ... 25} Red Canada . .. =. 2%. 308

Ladies’ Sweeting. . . . . 25

BEST WHERE THE MARKET IS REMOTE.

Fall Pippin R. J. Greening. .... + » #200
Wqpbbardston . . . . . . 100} Roxbury Russet... . . 200
Mandevere.’.... . . . 100) Redi@anada’ . 9 .°. . 3/400

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON PEAR STOCK FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Dissdenod. . ss +e Dp Onondaga, «s+ ls, oi: 15

Pemicthias. |. . “..», - » 20 ip White Doyenne er

Belle Lucrative . . .. .10] Winter Nelis . . . ~~ « 29
23*

270 FOR MICHIGAN.

BEST TWELVE.

Madeleine Flemish Beauty . . . .:. 6

3
Bloodgood 3'| Quondaga ~. 2 .' 2
Rostiezer 8| White Doyenne ... . «= 20
Sterling ahs eee ae oD VOB WROTE... 2
eeartict: . |. « » «,».. \- 20)\sGawrence’ - . . = nn
Belle Lucrative . .:~+ |. « 5! Winter Nelis . . . °) (ptm
BEST VARIETIES ON QUINCE STOCK.

Belle Lucrative, Duchesse d’Angouleme,

Vicar of Winkfield, Glout Morceau,

Louise bonne de Jersey, Doyenne d’Alencon.

Beurré Diel,

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEACHES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES.

Serrate Early York . . . . 5) Harly Slocum « ..... >, mall
Coolidge’s Favorite . . . .15 | Karly Crawford -. 2 2 oem
Barnard’s Seedling . . . . 20) Late Crawford. . . | canemem

BEST TWELVE.

Serrate Early York . . . . 5 | Early Slocum . >
Coolidve’s Favorite . ... . 5 | White Imperial . . . 2aeeeee
Barnard’s Seedling . . . .10| Early Crawford . . . . . 15
Idaree: Early York. «.. . . 5| Late Red Rareripe . . 2) jeg
Jacques Rareripe .. . . .10)| Old Mixon Free . . | eo
Poole’s Late Yellow . ..'..~ 10 | Crawford’s Late . . => 3aeaaim

FOR TRANSPORTATION TO NORTHERN MARKETS.

Barnard’s Seedling . . . . 300| Crawford’s Early. . . . . 400
White Imperial . °. . .. . 100 | Crawford’s Late . . ... 3208

It is very evident, to one who considers the dif-
ference in these lists for the various portions of the
country, that it would be impossible for a nursery-
man to have them all in his possession. Some
varieties are confined to very limited districts, and
the demand for them is not sufficient to warrant his

STRONG-GROWING VARIETIES. 271

keeping a stock; others are of such poor growth
from the bud, that it is difficult to procure a good
tree, and the proportion of them which would be
salable would be small. Therefore the producer
is obliged to limit his attention to a few strong-
growing varieties. When this is the case, the cul-
tivator should plant these, and graft after one season’s
erowth. This will not postpone their bearing, as
he might expect ; but it is a great question whether |
it is not better to obtain strong trees, and graft upon
them those which are weaker, than to procure them
immediately from the bud.

CHAPTER VIII
SELECTION, ARRANGEMENT, AND TRANSPLANTATION.

§ I. SELECTION OF THE TREE: THE APPLE—ROOT-GRAFTED TREES —
HEIGHT OF THE TREE NO CRITERION OF ITS VALUE— WHERE THEY
SHOULD LIMB — THE PEACH — THE VINE — THE CURRANT AND GOOSE-
BERRY — THE STRAWBERRY, RASPBERRY, AND BLACKBERRY. § II. AR-
RANGEMENT : INTENSIVE PLANTING —A GARDEN OF ONE SQUARE ROD
— A GARDEN OF SIXTEEN SQUARE RODS — APPLE ORCHARDS — SQUARE
PLANTING FOR THE PEAR — QUINCUNX — DISTANCES, AND NUMBER OF
TREES UPON AN ACRE. § III. THE TRANSPLANTATION: SEASON OF —
CONDITIONS MOST FAVORABLE TO — DEPTH OF — THE DWARF PEAR—
MANNER OF OPERATION— THE MOVEMENT OF LARGE TREES BY MA-
CHINERY.

§I. SELECTION OF THE TREE.

ERE it is generally best to confide in the
judgment of a trustworthy nurseryman. Above

all, avoid purchasing cheap trees, which drag out a
miserable existence for a few years, only in the end
to waste the capital and to disappoint the reasonable
expectations of the cultivator who spends time and
money in the preparation of the soil. Many per-
sons, on account of the purchase of inferior stock,
become disgusted with fruit-culture, and conclude
that it requires more experience than they possess.
A good tree will always command its full value,
and those which are sold at a-cheap rate are, para-

CHEAP PLANTS MOST EXPENSIVE. 273

doxically, the most expensive. A reliable nursery-
man has his reputation at stake, and, when it is
left to his judgment to select, will send to his cus-
tomers only trees of good quality, and those which
are properly labelled. But, as all dealers are not
of this class, it will be well for all to know the
general points of excellence in a tree.

For apples we should prefer those of four or five
years’ growth from the bud: they then have uni-
formly sufficient strength to succeed. It is a great
trial of patience to find that a few, which are grow-
ing rapidly, are shading and crowding out their poor
neighbors. A certain proportion will always be
feeble and sickly, which results, probably, from the
seed from which the stock was raised. This is
not so apparent in infancy as after three or four
years, as the strong tree gains over the weak a little
every year. Thus one tree, which at two years
seems scarcely inferior to another, often at the latter
age requires a year or two more of nursing before
planting in the orchard. ‘The profit to the producer
is, of course, greater to dispose of them while young;
but that does not subserve the interest of the pur-
chaser.

Many apple trees are sold which are grafted at
the root. These may or may not be valuable, ac-
cording to the method in which the work has been
performed. Every seedling plant has a root, or
descending axis; and a stem, or ascending axis.

274 ROOT-GRAFTED TREES.

Where these meet at the surface of the ground, there
is a swelling, called a collar, which is perhaps, more
than any other part, the seat of life. The mainte-
nance of its proper position is of vital importance.
Perhaps one-half of the trees which fail, after trans-
planting, do so because this collar is placed beneath
the surface; and this stifles the tree. This swelling
is only possessed by seedlings, and never by lay-
ers, or otherwise artificially-produced plants. Some
years ago it was the custom to cut the long tap-
root of a yearling into three or four parts, into each
of which a scion was inserted. In this way several
plants were produced from one. ‘That upon the
upper cut, or collar, would, of course, form trees
equally as good as those which were budded. ‘The
next piece, on account of its strength, might make
a good tree; yet it would be of more dwarfish habit
than the former. Those grafted upon the remaining
portions of root would be nearly, if not altogether
worthless, sometimes never coming into fruit. They
may grow in the nursery lines until large enough
to sell, but, compared with a budded tree, or one
grafted properly, they are only calculated to disap-
point and discourage the beginner.

But why are such practices encouraged by pur-
chasers? In the endeavor to buy at a cheap rate
the cultivator has driven nurserymen to this only
remaining expedient for obtaining remuneration for
his labor. In this manner he can raise several

ROOT-GRAFTED TREES. 275

plants, where by the old and better method he could
produce but one; and the labor can be performed
at a season of leisure. Only the experienced few
will purchase the first class of trees, and pay a cor-
responding price for them. We believe, with the
lamented William Reid, of New Jersey, that many
apple trees which have been sold, especially in the
Western country, will not be likely to attain a
bearing condition. Such is the demand for cheap
apple trees, that the very best nurserymen are
obliged to keep those of this class.

If such trees are examined critically, it will be
discovered that their roots are a mass of fibres, like
a head of hair, and possessing very few, if any, large
roots. After the most careful transplanting in
excellent soil, or in that which was barren, it is
impossible to induce them to throw strong roots. ’
Under such circumstances they will be sensitive to
the least wind, and there is nothing to prevent their
being blown to the ground. ‘The tree is merely a
cutting, and the little piece of reot into which it is
grafted serves to keep the scion alive only until it
is established.

While the use of the third or fourth cut as a
stock for grafting should be discountenanced, that
of the second may be of use in some cases. As its
effect is to dwarf the tree, it may bring some of the
late-bearing varieties to an earlier maturity. Such
has been the repeated effect upon the Northern

276 ROOT-GRAFTED TREES.

Spy. Still, even such are better confined to a small
garden; and, if I judge not too harshly, they will
often want propping to guard them against the
wind. When the root is used entire, the tree is as
valuable in every respect as one which has been
budded.

Some naturalists have argued that all the plants
of any variety are parts of one individual, which is
the original seedling ; that every layer, cutting, and
offshoot which have been rooted and dismembered,
are not separate individuals, but only parts of the
parent. Others, among whom have been some of
the most renowned, state, with equal persistence,
that each is a perfect individual in itself. But do
not the latter overlook the fact that these layers and
parts were made independent by artificial means ?
that they must be noticed scientifically, as they
would exist ina natural state? An individual plant
must be one which has passed through all the
periods of growth, from infancy upwards ; originally,
directly from a seed; having, or having had, cotyle-
dons, a plumule, an ascending axis, a descending
one, and a collar. Artificial plants have none of
these but the ascending axis.

The fact that some diseases will attack a certain
variety at once, or nearly so, — some locations being
so favorable as to ward it off for atime, — shows that
varieties grow old and die, as they would have done

SEEDLINGS AND BUDDED TREES. 277

if confined to the original plant. The supporters
of the opposite theory argue against this, by saying
that the family becomes diseased and extinct through
the influence of something analogous to scrofula in
the human family. But, can this be the case, when
their offspring from seed are often perfectly free
from infection? ‘Thus some pears, which were once
very fair and fine in growth, become uniformly
cankered and cracked, and finally disappear, while
plants from their seed are entirely free from both.
An eminent gentleman of this country has said
that “the plant which springs from a bud is as
really a new plant as that which springs from a
seed.” No seedling is exactly similar to its parent.
It differs either in the flavor, form, or size of its
fruit, or in the habit of its growth. There is some
point by which we can instantly determine that it
is an entirely different individual. Is such the case
with the plant derived from the bud? Must they
not be the same, when their fruit and habit are
exactly alike? Can it be said to be a distinct in-
dividual? The same author adds, that “if the
feebleness of a tree be general, its functions languid,
its secretions thin, then a bud or graft will be feeble ;
and so will be its seed.’ Although the former
is generally true, are not the seeds of such trees
often unusually plump and fine? and is not this
feebleness often caused by expenditure of strength

in forming them? But, while the seed does often
7: a

978 ! YEARLING PEAR TREES.

escape the diseases of its parent, and accommodate
itself to the influences which affect it in its new
position, —as a tender variety produces from seed
one perfectly hardy, — does a plant from a bud ever
escape, unless through those artificial means which
only influence it for the time? It retains the dis-
eases (perhaps undeveloped and latent), the form,
flavor, and texture of fruit, and the habit of growth
of the original seedling; and would always have
been a part of it, had it not been for art. No bud
of the Bartlett pear, wherever or however inserted,
ever produced anything but a Bartlett ; and no seed
of the Bartlett ever originated a tree which was the
same as that variety.

Some authors have recommended planting pear
trees of one year old, because then they might be
formed as desired. While this may be best in the
erounds of those gentlemen who employ profes-
sional gardeners, and have walls to which they wish
to adapt an espalier,* yet, in our country, such
persons of skill are rare, and our standard method
of pruning does not render it important. ‘Trees of
two years old, also, are much better in the nursery
lines; but, after three years, or, still better, if trans-
planted the second, and set in the orchard the fourth,
they will have a strength of constitution which,
compared with a tree of one or two years from the

1 See chapter on Pruning.

HEIGHT FOR THE LIMBS. 279

bud, would be lke that of a man in his prime to a
tender infant. ‘They will become less liable to
injury in winter, as their wood is more firm, or to
remain stunted for several seasons, as the former are
likely to do.

The height from the ground at which the lower
limbs of the standard pear should grow is about
two and one-half to three feet, and with varieties of
weeping habit, perhaps a little more. The old ©
method was to train them much lower; but it was
found that these limbs trailed upon the ground,
and rendered their fruit almost worthless. Most
inexperienced persons ask for trees limbed so high
that a horse can cultivate under them. ‘The admit-
tance of such cultivation into an orchard of pear
trees, planted as near together as we should advise,
is of very doubtful propriety. Even if the trees
were sufficiently far apart for such an operation,
the danger of scalding the trunk from the sun
should not be risked for a matter of so little con-
venience.

- The height is too often considered as a crite-
rion of the value; so that, for a certain class of
purchasers, the strength must be sacrificed to satisfy
them: but the true value of a tree should be esti-
mated by the size of the butt, or trunk, at the ground.
To produce a stocky plant, the top is kept pruned
back, which makes the tree very sturdy ; while, for

280 VALUE OF TRANSPLANTING.

a tall tree, the top is allowed to run, and its growth |
is obtained in nearly half the time, but results in a
slender, withy whipstick.

The value of transplanting the tree before setting
in the orchard, is, that the roots are brought into a
limit where they can nearly all be retained.

This diagram ex-
hibits the roots of a
tree as they lie in the
ground, and the circle
the proportion of roots
which would be re-
tained by the tree as
it is usually dug. (a)
represents a root. with
the little spongioles |

through which the
tree feeds. These are very soft and tender, and, in
transplanting, it is almost impossible to retain them
alive. But this is of no great importance; for if there
is a good supply of the small roots, of the size of
a pipe-stem, or of even half that, they will readily
supply themselves with feeders. But it will be seen
that most of these small roots are outside of the
circle, and are, consequently, lost. To be sure, the
large roots will supply themselves also, but not so
readily as the former; and therefore this transplant-
ing more properly takes place in the nursery, where

ROOTS OF TRANSPLANTED TREES. 281

the trees will have better care than they generally
receive in open culture.

The result of transplanting
will be seen to be, in the third
or fourth year, or the first or
second after the operation, that
in this circle a large number
of these small roots have been
formed, and consequently the
strength of the tree greatly in-

creased after moving. If the
tree was to be carried but a little distance, the
spongioles might be kept fresh by wrapping a
moist cloth about them; but even then they would
be likely to be bruised in sifting the soil into the
hole, however carefully performed.

The limbs of the dwarf pear, or that upon the
quince stock, are much stiffer than those of the
standard, and can be allowed to grow much nearer
to the ground. The nearer the limbs are to the
earth, the less height shall we allow to the tree, and
therefore the wind will have less effect upon it,
and will blow off its fruit much less. Several years
ago the pear was budded on the quince, some inches
above the surface of the ground.’ When the present
practice was introduced of placing this junction
entirely under ground (the reason for which will
be explained in the directions for planting), the
point of union was so high that it was impossible

24*

282 PLANTING DWARF PEAR TREES.

to fix it in its proper place without plunging the
roots into the cold soil below. Now, all skilful —
nurserymen bud their trees as low as possible; but,
should they be of the former description, they
ought to be placed at the proper depth, even at
the risk of losing the lower roots, as the quince
furnishes itself easily from any part of its stem.

Peach trees are of very rapid growth, and bear
transplantation easily; so that a tree of one year is
preferred, and a crop will be realized quite as soon
as from an older one. ‘The limbs upon the yearling
peach are of no importance, as they are cut off at
planting.

In general, grape vines of two or three years are
better than those younger. The most common
method of propagating them is by layers. If they
have not been cut and transplanted, those of two
years are no better than those of one; yet, if they
have been, they are much more valuable; although
those of one year may be used for vineyard planting
where the land has been skilfully prepared. A year-
ling vine, grown in a pot, has a great quantity of
very fine roots, which it is difficult to preserve fresh
during the winter. If not in dry, barren soil, the
fibres decay, and disease seems to extend to the
larger roots, so that it is doubtful whether it is of
much more value thana cutting. Therefore, if such
vines are used, they should not be planted in the
autumn, nor until the time arrives in the spring

AGE OF THE PORTABLE VINES. 283

when they will immediately grow. Much the best
way is to trim off these fibres entirely; and if they
are diseased, the roots should be cut to the sound
part. After it has been transplanted another year
in the nursery it is in better condition for general
planting.

A great mistake is made by the purchase of large
and old vines. The roct is, like the top, a great
ranger, and it can hardly be imagined what an~
exceeding small proportion of its roots can be
obtained by the most careful attention in trans-
planting. Besides, it is a useless expenditure, for
such will seldom acquire a healthy habit, and will
certainly never succeed as well as young vines.
Those who buy are often disappointed, upon re-
ceiving their vines, to find that the top has been
nearly all cut off, and only a foot or two remains.
Unlike a tree, if it possesses three or four sound
eyes, the rest is useless. Even a single eye is all
that is absolutely requisite.

Currant and gooseberry bushes should be of the
old fashioned form, or bush-shape, and not tree-
formed. When there is but one stem, a single
attack of the borer may destroy the whole top,
while if there are several, such an occurrence would
only give the remaining parts more strength.

Plants of the strawberry should be runners; those
of the blackberry and raspberry suckers of the pre-
vious summer.

284 A GARDEN OF ONE SQUARE ROD.

§ II. METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT.

If one has a limited tract of land, it is a question
which naturally suggests itself, how can he plant it
to the best advantage? This inquiry is pertinent
where large tracts are possessed. In this country,
land has been of so little value that our cultivation
has been too evtensive. The liability has been to
spread over a large area, cultivate superficially, and
obtain only that from two or three acres which
should have been produced from one. ‘The aim
should be more zntensive, —to place upon one acre
the number of trees often planted upon several, and
to give it as much care and as good treatment as the
larger tract would have received. This will un-
doubtedly be productive of better returns. The
farmer who possesses one or two hundred acres of
land, and designs becoming a fruit-grower, will do
well to retain but ten or twenty, and invest the
amount received from the sale of the remainder in
stock to be placed upon what he retains, and in
bringing the same to the highest possible state of
tillage. If we mistake not, his profits will be very
much increased.

There is hardly any one who does not possess
land enough, accessible to the sun, to raise some
fruit. Supposing he has but one rod square, let us
see how he may use it for a fruit-garden, and what

A GARDEN OF ONE SQUARE ROD. 285

results it will be possible for him to obtain. This
diagram represents such a plat.

(a) denotes the spot
where four grape vines
are placed, which are
eight feet apart, and
' against the north and
| west wall or fence,

where they receive the
sun from the opposite
direction.

(5) represents cur-
rant bushes, planted about three feet distant from
one another, on the south and east.

(c) is a line of strawberries, one foot apart, ex-
tending entirely around the apparent interior of the
border, but really, however, over the whole rod,
thus affording a fine field for the roots of the vines
to roam. Its superficial boundary, as shown in the
plan, is three feet from the outside.

(d) represents pots of eighteen inches in diameter,
each containing a peach tree, which is dwarfed by
pruning; the pot being plunged to the rim in the
earth of the border, to prevent too ve evaporation
of moisture.

Now, what may we expect, as the practical result
from such an orchard, if kept in good heart by an-
nual manuring and a judicious use of the knife?
The four grape vines should bear, at least, fifteen

286 A GARDEN OF SIXTEEN SQUARE RODS.

pounds each, making sixty pounds. The ten cur-
rant bushes would yield one-half a bushel. The
strawberry bed should produce, at least, thirty boxes
of fruit. And the six peach trees, two dozen each.
Let us extend the tract to sixteen square rods. _

A border is constructed all around the plat, of
eleven feet in width, but a walk is laid over the
interior three feet, which is represented in the dia-
gram by(c). In this border grape vines are planted,
eight feet apart, all around the plat. These are
distinguished by (a). On the north and west should
be a fence nearly tight, but not wholly so, as it is
desirable that the air should pass through it. The
vines are to be trained on stakes, or on a trellis, at
least a foot in front of it. On the south and east
should be, if any, only a light slat or wire fence,
through which the sun may shine.

PRODUCT OF SIXTEEN SQUARE RODS. 287

(b) upon the plan denotes a line of strawberries,
one foot distant from each other, extending around
the outside and inside borders on both sides of the
walk. |

(d) is a line of peaches, reaching across the inside
border, eight feet apart, pruned into a dwarfish
habit.

(e) represents four lines of dwarf pears, of the
same distance from each other as the peaches, and
containing a selection of varieties which shall afford
a supply for the whole season.

(f) is a line of summer-bearing raspberries, four
feet distant, three plants being set in a hill.

(9) is a row of currants.

(h) a line of fall-bearing raspberries, planted
like (/).

(7) is a row of gooseberries.

By this plan we have, upon one-tenth of an acre,
thirty-two grape vines, four hundred strawberry
plants, five peach trees, sixteen pear trees, eight
hills of summer raspberries, the same number for
the autumn, eight currant bushes, and an equal
number of gooseberry plants. This is a sample of
the intensive cultivation which should be more ez-
tensively practised. One often hears it said that
such cultivation becomes a garden, but is not
adapted to the orchard. But this should be a
garden; and, until it is so considered and treated, it
will not yield all the profit of which it is capable.

288 INTENSIVE ARRANGEMENT.

The Clapp Brothers, of Dorchester, Mass., have
well illustrated the profit of intensive cultivation
in their orchard of thirteen acres. The general
plan is somewhat like the following. '

(a) represents the
apple trees.

(b) peaches plant-
ed between them ; but
these become so ten-

der in this locality
that many of them have been killed.

(c) denotes lines of currants, three feet distant
each way.

This plan has an advantage in the fact that the
whole ground must be kept in cultivation, which is
very necessary to the best results; and the annual
manuring which the currants receive also enriches
the trees, and that at the extremities of their roots,
where the spongioles are placed; and it is therefore
more available than immediately about the trunk,
as generally applied, where there are no roots to
make use of it. Dwarf pears may be used instead
of peaches, where the latter are not hardy; and they
will yield many fine crops before the apples require
the room. An excellent plan, practised by many
apple-orchardists, is to plant four times as many
trees upon the land as they design to have remain
there. If it is proposed that in the end they be
forty feet distant each way, another line would be

QUINCUNX PLANTING. 289

planted between them in both directions. By this
method, when the trees commence to bear fruit, and
during the first fifteen years, they receive four times
the quantity which they would have done in the
old method, which often amounts to a full crop
from an established orchard. When they begin to
interlock, the superfluous trees are cut out.

The old method of planting the pear intensively
may be seen in the figure below.

(a) denotes the standard
pears, sixteen to twenty feet
distant.

(b) the dwarfs.

(c) small fruits; such as
currants, raspberries,or straw-

berries.

The beauty of the orchard, as well as its utility,
is a point to be considered by the cultivator, when
the latter is not sacrificed to the former, and the
quincunx is therefore generally preferred.

(a) (b) and (c) correspond
to the same numbers in the
preceding diagram, and (d)
represents a line of grape
vines, extending around the
whole. The manner of lay-
ing out this plan upon the ground may confuse
the planter, and we therefore give a more simple
method. On examination, it will be found that the

25

290 NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE.

distance from one tree or bush to another is just
four or five feet, according as the standard pears
were placed sixteen or twenty feet apart. The
whole is laid off in squares of four or five feet with
a line, and marked upon the ground by nicking with
the spade. Stakes are then easily driven down,
representing the standard, dwarf or shrub. In this
way the trees will be set exactly in line, which adds
greatly to the attractiveness of the whole.

NUMBER OF TREES OR PLANTS ON AN ACRE, WHEN PLANTED AT THE FOLLOWING
DISTANCES APART, IN FEET.

30 feet apart each ies : , ‘ : : Z ; : ; 49
7 es “4 : ‘ : : p “ : 69
90 ce ce ce ce e 109
19 cé “ce “¢ ce 120
18 «e ce ce 6s 135
ily “ce cc ce ce 5 150
16 ce ce « ce ‘ s 170
ae ce “cc “eé ce bs - * 194
14 ce ce ce 6e 999
13 6c v9 6é 6é . 3 957
12 « (73 “cc “ec f : . 802
itu: a9 6ée ce ee ‘ B x 360
10 “ce ce ce ce 7 F < 436
9 ce “ce ce ce . es 4 537
8 “ce ce “ce a3 - : ” Z . J 681
7 ce “e 79 ce y y, Re 889
6 “cc ec (73 “ce - z - - 1210
5 (77 ce ce ce = 1742
4 ce ce ce ia 2 Py .3.)
% (c9 (73 ce ce ; 4840
y (9 cc ce “ce 10890
1 cé ce ce ce 43560
DISTANCES FOR PLANTING.
Standard Apples . : : : . 24 to 30 feet distant — Way
Standard Pears : : ; Z . £6 to20) :* rt
Standard Cherries . f : +p Loto 20° iid a a
Standard Plums and Peaches . . Ate 16.“ es “ %
Pyramid Pears on Pear roots : .: Oto 12). ce a .
Pyramid Pears on Quince roots . once tO 20: -*” - a z.:
Currants, Gooseberries, and Raspberries. 3to 4 “ “ Ogee
Strawberries cree ee ae Wiese Ns pare

or 1 foot in the row, fill the rows 3 fect apart.

BEST SEASON FOR PURCHASE. 291

§ Il. TRANSPLANTATION.

When the trees arrive at the orchard they should
be carefully unpacked, and the moss or other ma-
terial about the roots removed, as otherwise it may
promote decay. A deep trench should be dug, in
dry, gravelly soil, and the roots set in properly to
a considerable depth, that they may remain fresh.
_If, from any accident, the top has become shrivelled,
the trees should be buried root and branch until
they become plump.

The best time for the purchase of trees, even if
not to be planted until spring, is undoubtedly the
autumn. Between the sale in the fall and that in
the spring, there is no season of growth, and those
disposed of at the latter time have been left over
from the former. ‘Therefore the order should be
given as early as possible in the summer previous,
if the cultivator designs that the nurseryman shall
make a wise selection. If these trees are to be
heeled in until the spring planting, the earth should
be finely shaken about the roots, that no recesses
be left for retaining the water or sheltering mice.
After the earth has been banked up about them to
a considerable height, it should be stamped hard.
The trench must be, of course, where no water will
stand about the trees, and not in the vicinity of
heaps of weeds, old turf, or any other rubbish from
which the mice can make a sally.

292 THE SEASON FOR TRANSPLANTING.

The best season for transplanting most trees is,
no doubt, the autumn. ‘The earth is then in good
condition — dry, friable, and still containing much
of its summer heat. This latter circumstance is
of much. importance. It encourages the wounded
parts of the roots to heal over, and to throw out
numberless rootlets, which fix the tree in the ground,
and enable it to start quickly and healthfully into
growth with the first opening of spring. As we
approach mid-winter, this terrestrial heat diminishes ;
therefore, the earlier the process can take place the
better. At the same time, it should not be before
the tree has shed its leaf; for then the evaporation
from the top would be more than the shortened
root could sustain ; it would not find a recompense
in the absorption at the root, and the top would
shrivel. This same rule is of application after the
buds have begun to swell in the spring, except that’
then the vital functions are just commencing, and
the roots, being thus stimulated, are more liable to —
furnish spongioles, and sustain the dratt.

Altogether, autumn planting is on these accounts
to be preferred ; yet it is somewhat dependent upon
the age and style of tree to be set. Those which
are young and succulent, or those varieties which
are tender, might be injured by immediate exposure
from the nursery to the vicissitudes of winter. Such
should be heeled in, in some sheltered situation, for
use in the spring. The aspect, too, may be such as

CONDITIONS FAVORABLE FOR PLANTING. 293

would forbid the work being performed in the
autumn. If strong winds prevail, the newly-planted
tree will be thrown about, loosening the roots in
the soil, and preventing the formation of rootlets by
the constant strain which is made upon it in main-
taining its position. ‘Trees planted at this season
should always be protected by a mound of earth
around their base, made hard by the foot or spade; -
and if a stake is added, it will afford a still better
support.

Lhe condition of the soil most favorable to plant-
ing, is when it is not wet, so as to be clammy or ad-
hesive, but dry and friable. If the sky should be
overcast, so much the better, as the roots will not
be as likely to become dry. Strong wind is very
unfavorable, as it dries the fibres, and hinders the
planter from performing his work thoroughly. If
the soil is wet, it cannot be placed suitably between
the roots.

No matter what care the nurseryman may exercise,
it will be impossible to retain all the roots, as in
the preceding diagram, as well as in the chapter
upon fertilization, it is shown to what length they
erow. When they are to be set, therefore, the ends
of the roots and all bruised parts should be pared
with a sharp knife, that the wound may be smooth.
The cut should, if possible, be made from beneath,
so that it will rest upon the earth when the tree is
upright. The benefit of this operation is, that the

25*

294 MANNER OF PLANTING.

fresh wound will send out roots immediately, while,
if not pared, the ragged parts would decay, which
would prevent the production of rootlets, and per-
haps produce death in the whole root. The hole
should be dug of sufficient diameter to allow all the
roots to be spread easily in their natural positions,
and several inches deeper than was originally re-
quired by the tree. The fine surface-soil may then
«be placed in the bottom until the hole is of the
proper depth. If the roots are dry, they may now
be sprinkled with a rose-pot, that the earth may
cling to them more compactly. One person should
hold the tree, while the other carefully places the
roots, as the earth is finely sprinkled in. ‘The person
spreading these cannot be too particular in their
arrangement. If possible, the tree should be set,
at first, about the height at which it is to stand, so
that it will not require lifting after the setting is
completed, which disturbs the position of the roots,
and often breaks their tissue. But it must not be
left too deep on this account, for the latter evil
would be greater than the former.

The tree should be set as deep in the ground
as it was in the nursery. If the collar is below
the surface, the tree will never thrive. ‘The pear
upon the quince is an exception to this rule. ‘The
quince stock is raised from a layer or cutting,
and has no collar, and the ease with which it throws
out roots from any part of its stem permits it to

DWARF PEARS. 295

accommodate itself to any depth of planting. The
union of the pear with it is not so perfect as it
would be with its own species; therefore, if this
point of junction is above the surface, a great strain
is brought upon it by the wind, which sometimes
results in its parting. This, of course, ruins the
tree. The borer is very fond of the quince, and he
makes his attacks at the surface of the soil. By |
placing the junction three inches below the level
of the soil, it is beyond his attack, and the pear
stock, like a cutting, soon throws out roots, which
strengthen the hold of the tree at the same time
that they lengthen its longevity. If the quince
decays, the pear roots maintain the tree in fruitful-
ness.

The question may arise, What is the advantage
of placing the pear tree upon the quince stock at
all, if it is to be on its own roots in the end? The
union between the two has been said not to be
perfect, because the pear is naturally a much more
vigorous grower than the quince. Being united
with the latter, it must receive nourishment only as
fast as the quince would give it to its head. By
this the pear is to a degree stunted or matured, and
that slow circulation of the sap is induced which is
promotive of fruitfulness. This may be encouraged
to an extreme, and the cultivator who argues against
dwarf pears, and complains of their stunted growth,
want of productiveness, and yellow leaf, will be able,

296 AGE OF DWARF PEAR TREES.

probably, to remember a time, it may be years be-
fore, when the tree brought on this ill health by
a too large crop. The addition of the pear roots
give the tree greater strength, and consequently
increased power of production. The period of
barrenness before maturity in the pear on free stock
is cut short by the quince, and the life extended
nearly as long as the standard, if cropped judiciously.
The life of pears upon the quince independently,
has, I believe, been understated. Where blight or
other diseases have attacked them, or exhaustion -
has followed overbearing, their life will not probably
exceed fifteen or twenty years at the most; but an
observation of those from thirty to forty years of
age, in the gardens of my esteemed partner, Hon.
Marshall P. Wilder, which are still bearing crops,
and the large number, of fifteen to twenty years of
age, apparently in full health and productiveness,
must lead one to extend this period.

Some one may ask why these trees are not rooted
from the pear. Formerly the importance of such
deep planting of the dwarf was not rightly esti-
mated, and the necessity of it has become impressed
by the results of the experience of the cultivator,
although it was taught theoretically more than two
centuries ago.

If manure has been applied broadcast, according
to the preceding directions, there will be little need
of using it at the time of planting; but if not, a

PLANTING STRAWBERRIES. 297

good quantity of old rotten manure should be placed
at each hole, and finely composted with the loam to
be sifted in at the setting. If the dung used is not
well rotted, or at least a year old, it must not on any
account be placed with the loam, as it will greatly
injure the roots of the tree, but must be used on
the surface as mulching, which will be explained
hereafter. When the tree is set, the ground should
be made as firm as possible by treading.

The fibrous roots of a grape vine should be spread
out carefully; and it is well if the cane is laid
down carefully. Each eye, in this case, will throw
out a bunch of roots, and strengthen the vine.

Strawberries, of old, were planted in beds, and
were permitted to remain for several seasons; but
the care required to keep out the weeds was very
great, and a remunerative crop was seldom realized
after the second year. Among the best growers,
strawberries are now planted in rows two and a half
to three feet in width, and about one foot distant in
the rows. The ground is prepared as directed, and
the runners of the preceding year, not plants which
have borne fruit, are dibbled out like cabbage plants
in cloudy weather in the spring. During the whole
of this season they can be kept clean with a horse-
cultivator and a hand-hoe. After producing one
crop the second year from planting, they are per-
mitted to make runners for a new patch, and then
ploughed in, to make way for the plants the next

298 - SEXES OF STRAWBERRIES.

spring. It scarcely ever proves to be good practice
to let them remain another summer. By some they
are grown in hills, and not allowed to extend; but
the former method is productive of greater results.

A variety of strawberry may produce blossoms,
however, which are destitute of stamens, or the
male element; or they may be so sessile as not to
perform their office of throwing the yellow pollen
upon the stigma of the pistil, so as to impregnate
it, and the consequence will be utter or partial
barrenness. Such plants are called pistilate, or
female. Others there are where the pistil 1s imper-
fect, while the stamens are fully developed. ‘These
are called staminate. When the former are planted,
every fourth or fifth line should be of the latter
class, when the whole will be productive. But
they must be of the same species; a haubois must
be fertilized with one of the same. There are some
varieties which have both sexes well developed.
These are called hermaphrodite; but they are not
generally as great bearers as the pistilate sorts.

The movement of large trees is accomplished with
great labor. Mr. Stewart McGlashen, of Great
Britain, invented, a few years since, a wonderful
machine for digging and removing those of almost
any size. An account was published of the first
experiment in the journals of the day. We do not
know whether it has been brought much into use,
but give a description of it that it may perhaps lead

DIGGING TREES BY MACHINERY. 299

to something else, which shall be of general utility.
This machine was applied to a tree fifty feet in
height, and of more than five feet in circumference
at the trunk.

“The first process of Mr. McGlashen, is to lay
down a frame of T-iron—in this case, ten feet
square. He then takes cutters, made of malleable
iron, one foot broad, and three feet deep, or, in-
cluding the head and neck, four and one-half feet.
These cutters are driven, by a wooden mallet, into
the soil to the depth of three feet all around, and
being inserted sloping inwards, they give to the
enclosed mass the form of a square blunted wedge.
A rod of iron is then laid along the top of the four
rows of cutters, and extensive rods going across the
frame force the heads of the cutters apart as far as
possible, and, consequently, cause the point to con-
verge at the bottom. * A clasp or gland is then put
around the trunk of the tree, with a mat under it
to preserve the bark. Two parallel beams are then
laid across the frame, and fastened to it with chains.
The above constitutes the frame to be raised. The
means of elevating it is a carriage (which also serves
the purpose of transportation), consisting of two
strong common carts, one at each end, with bolsters
raised above the axletree of both, and on which
bolsters rest two massive parallel beams secured to
them with strong bolts. The height of the beams
from the ground is about six feet. They, of course,

300 DIGGING TREES BY MACHINERY.

enclose the tree. The process of lifting is ex-
ceedingly simple, the whole being accomplished by
_the power of the screw. The screws are four in
number, and so arranged as to make them lift
equally. They are made fast to the beams of the
frame, and are worked by men standing on planks
across the beams of the carriage. The frame and
enclosed mass are slowly raised, and the tree, with
gentle oscillation, moves erectly upwards. ‘The tree
may, it is evident, be raised without the use of any
ropes, — the solid mass of earth effectually balancing
the trunk and branches, — but they were used on
this occasion as an extra precaution. After about
twenty minutes’ working of the screws, the tree was
completely raised from the pit, the operation having
been effected in an easy and gradual manner, and
amidst tributes of admiration from all around. It
was not the intention to remove the tree exper-
imented upon; but the means of removal being
exhibited and explained, all seemed satisfied with
the feasibility of the apparatus provided for the
purpose. A strong case was shown for the enclos-
ure of the ball of earth when the tree is to be
removed to any distance. In moving, the tree still
maintains its erect position. ‘The propelling power,
when horses cannot be used, is by a winch in front
of the foremost cart, and block and tackle; but
when the way is clear and the road good, horses
will do the work safely, and more expeditiously.

DIGGING TREES BY MACHINERY. 301

The tree is lowered into the pit prepared for it, on
the same principle.

“ Tt is calculated that, in this instance, the weight
lifted was thirteen or fourteen tons ; but the inventor
and patentee states that, by an enlargement of the
apparatus, he could lift almost any tree.”

26

CHAPTER IX.

PRUNING AND TRAINING.

THE AMPUTATION OF THE LIMBS OF A TREE BASED UPON SCIENTIFIC
PRINCIPLES — FACTS NECESSARY TO BE KEPT IN MIND: IMPORTANCE
OF A SHARP KNIFE — THE METHOD OF MAKING THE CUT— SEVERE
PRUNING PRODUCTIVE OF VIGOR AND STERILITY —THE REMOVAL OF
A PART OF THE WOOD OF A WEAK PLANT STRENGTHENS THE RE-
MAINDER — IMPORTANCE OF SUNSHINE TO ALL PARTS OF THE TREE —
CIRCULATION OF AIR—DISTINGUISHING THE PECULIARITIES OF THE
VARIETY — THE PREVENTION AND CURE OF DISEASE — THE SEASON:
SPRING AND SUMMER — PRUNING AFTER TRANSPLANTING — TRAINING
THE PEACH AND NECTARINE: SEYMOUR’S SYSTEM — OBLIQUE ROD—
OBLIQUE DOUBLE ROD — DOUBLE OBLIQUE ROD — STANDARD — HOR-
IZONTAL TRELLIS-TRAINING — THE APRICOT — THE PEAR — STANDARD,
QUENOUILLE, WINEGLASS, ETC. — THE CHERRY —THE VINE —THE SYS-
TEM OF THE IONIAN ISLANDS —SIMPLE CANE—SIMPLE THOMERY,
PLAN PRACTISED IN OHIO — THE CURRANT —THE GOOSEBERRY — THE
RASPBERRY — THE BLACKBERRY — THE STRAWBERRY — ROOT-PRUNING.

HE amputation of the limbs of a tree is based
upon scientific principles ; and when it is done
indiscriminately, or at variance with these, disease
or death may be the consequence. ‘The wild tree
is naturally of strong growth, at the expense of
fruitfulness. The designs of pruning are to check
undue luxuriance, and induce the immediate pro-
duction of fruit; to reduce the size of the tree to
such an extent that it is manageable with ease; to

METHOD OF USING THE KNIFE. 303

enable it to sustain itself from injury while bearing
heavy crops; and to adapt it to the peculiarities of
climate, soil, or position.

The facts which are to be kept in mind as neces-
sary to good pruning are —

First, the importance of a sharp knife, with which
to perform the operation. ‘The wood of all plants
is composed of cells and of woody fibre. If a keen
instrument separate these, the neighboring parts
are not materially disturbed, and their action will
be continued, and the wound healed; but if the
knife is duil it tears these one from another, and
disarranges the tissue surrounding, so that, unless
the plant is very vigorous, the outer parts decay, and
the wound becomes an unsightly scar.

Second, the method of making the cut... So many
instances occur of ugly knots disfiguring the tree
from an utter disregard of this, that the following
plates are inserted.

——

j
—
eS : >
— = ES
—— Ss

fxs
iy
ve)
F]
TALS
ev k
Hi
Bt
aia
Hy
Pa
ih \\
i

1 The remarks under this head were suggested by an article in the Gardeners’
Chronicle of 1847, and the plates are thence derived.

304 THE EFFECT OF SEVERE PRUNING.

(a) represents the proper cut, at an angle of
about forty-five degrees, with the bud at the back.
As the bud grows, the bark is thrown over the
wound, and it becomes scarcely distinguishable.

(6) is a cut in which the bud is left so much ex-
posed that drying winds or accident may destroy
it. In either case the next one below will push,
and the intermediate space become an ugly knot.

(c) represents the wound usually made in pruning
by beginners or women, resulting from a dull knife
or want of strength to make a firm stroke. The
disadvantages are evident, as the surface to be healed
is more than double that of (a). (d) (e) (f) are cuts
made at hap-hazard ; in which the bud is not liable
to take so straight a direction; and an unsightly
joint is left above it.

Third, severe pruning produces vigor, but sterility.
There is a certain balance which is to be maintained
between the roots and the branches of a tree; and
if this is disturbed, it seeks to restore the equilib-
rium before it will produce fruit. Therefore, if the
branches are continually cut while the roots remain
the same, the whole force of the tree will be spent
to accomplish this by increased vigor. If a tree
already possesses a quantity of fruit-spurs, and the
knife be used severely, this force may transform
them into wood-buds, and the tree be filled with
spray-wood in consequence.

Fourth, the removal of a part of the wood, when the

IMPORTANCE OF SUNSHINE. 305

plant is weak, strengthens that which remains. This
was made so patent under the last head, that it
requires no additional remark.

Fifth, 7¢ 7s important that the sunshine reach every
part of the tree. If a close, thick head is formed, the
leaves are crowded together, and none of them act
as freely as they might. Consequently, they are
weak, light-colored, sickly, and produce debility in |
the whole tree. But if a part of the limbs is
removed, or never allowed to form, so that each
leaf can expand independently in the sunshine, the
foliage becomes active and healthy. Although the
number of leaves is diminished, yet their superficial
area is increased, and the strength and longevity of
the tree augmented.

The pear tree naturally grows to a considerable
height, having a bare stem of several feet, and a
spreading top, upon the exterior of which the fruit
is produced, when it has access to the sunshine.
One of the objects of pruning is to dispose of this
bare stem, and keep the tree in such limits as will
be within reach of the operator, and so low as to be
protected from winds which would otherwise throw
off the fruit. But as the tendency of the plant is
always upward, it will soon go beyond the boundary
unless we prune it. If this be merely the cutting
back of those shoots which exceed the limit pre-
scribed, the tree will soon become filled with brush,

to the exclusion of sunshine and of worthy fruit.
26*

306 NECESSITY FOR A CIRCULATION OF AIR.

Some plan must be pursued from infancy which
shall provide against these evils; this will be de-
tailed hereafter.

Sixth, the importance of a circulation of air through
the head of the tree is closely associated with that of
light. As the latter is composed of rays of different
colors, acting chemically upon vegetation, some
absorbing one ray and some another, so the rust-
ling of every leaf is necessary to secure to it those
atmospheric substances which aid it in the elabora-
tion of its sap. To produce this the same means
are employed as with the last, —a loose, open head.

Seventh, the formation of an equal system of
branches. All trees throw most of their vigor into
a strong central shoot. This is while they are
young; with increased age it is generally lost in
the mass of vertical branches which form the head.
The horizontal Lmbs, which were produced at the
outset, receive so small a share of sap, that they
become insignificant. By pruning, this energy and
vigor should be equally distributed. The tendency
upward is so great that in those trees which have
been trained horizontally for a long time, a single
bud, if allowed to escape the knife of the gardener,
would soon turn the balance of strength in its favor.
All systems of pruning contain this principle to a
ereater or less extent.

To accomplish it one must be aware of the nature
of the buds upon a shoot, and the difference in

THE PECULIARITIES OF VARIETIES. 307

result to be obtained from cutting to a bud near or
at a distance from the base of ashoot. On account
of this tendency upwards, if unmolested, the eyes
near the terminus of the last season’s growth would
burst and grow, while those at the base would
remain dormant. But if the shoot is cut off to
these latter, they are stimulated and produce stronger
growths than those at the terminus would have
done. The fruit-bearing buds are scarcely ever those
at the base, but are generally about two-thirds of
the length of the shoot from it, although sometimes
terminal. ‘Therefore, these dormant buds at the
base produce shoots which will not fruit so quickly,
but continue to elongate. Horizontal limbs grow
slowly ; and it is of importance to secure buds from
the base of the shoot to form them. If the hmbs
are of equal strength, and light and air are admitted
freely, they will be clothed with fruit-spurs to their
very base, where they are capable of sustaining ten
times as much weight as at the terminus, and where
the risk of loss by winds is very small.

HKighth, the importance of distinguishing the peculi-
arities of the variety to be operated upon. Some sorts
are very vigorous in their character; others weak ;
and some of decumbent or weeping habit. In prun-
ing them the plan should be conformed to these
peculiarities rather than to a uniform system.

Ninth, the prevention and cure of disease. If the
subject has become exhausted by overbearing, and

308 THE WINTER PRUNING.

throws out nothing but sickly foliage, the removal
of a part of the top, with judicious manuring,
strengthens the remaining parts. Canker and other
diseases are often formed by too close pruning when
the roots are very strong. Withholding the knife
entirely will help to stay it, although a more effect-
ual cure is wrought by root-pruning.

The season of pruning. ‘This depends upon the
end to be attained. As a general rule these seasons
are two, — winter and summer.

If the winter pruning is done in the autumn, as
soon as the growth is ripe there is danger from a
warm season following that the tree would push
forth a soft growth, on account of the stimulus given
by severe cutting. When done in early winter, the
end of the shoot which is cut does not heal, because
the energies of the tree are dormant, and it becomes
an unsightly black knot, requiring a pruning in the
spring to remove it. If the invigoration of the tree
is the object, this should be performed in the spring
before the buds have started, and after all danger
from severe frost is past. If it is desired to check
undue luxuriance, it should be done after the buds
have well started, or are even in leaf. The plum is
very stout in its growth, and the more it is cut, the
more luxuriant does it become. When it is neces-
sary to use the knife, it should be when the buds
are swollen, or the tree is coming into leaf. As it

THE SUMMER PRUNING. 309

has then expended considerable strength in bursting
these forth, and is deprived of some foliage, it
weakens the remaining parts, and induces that con-
dition which is favorable to fruitfulness. If it had
been performed earlier, all the force of spring life,
which would have been distributed through all
these buds, is concentrated in those remaining, and

_ the result would have been still greater vigor and

less fruitfulness.

No precise time can be assigned for summer prun-
ing. It must extend through a great part of the |
season of growth. It should be used in reference
to the winter pruning. All gourmands, or watery
shoots, which are taking a wrong direction, should
be pinched before they have become so strong as to
draw necessary nourishment from other parts. All
stone-fruits are lable to exude gum from their
wounds after severe pruning, so that summer prun-
ing with them should be only the prevention of the
formation of shoots by disbudding them before
actually grown. If some should escape attention,
it will be better to permit them to remain until the
winter pruning, when the sap is moving sluggishly,
and the wound will heal readily. With those fruits
which bear upon the growth of the last season, as
the peach, the laterals, which are designed for pro-
duction, should not be disbudded or shortened to
the proper length until the winter pruning, else
- they would burst all the eyes upon them, and fill

$10 - PRUNING AFTER TRANSPLANTING.

the tree with soft shoots, which would be likely to
injure it, by inducing late growth, which would be
hazardous during the winter.

The season for pruning the vine will be considered
particularly hereafter.

Pruning after transplanting. In transplanting, the
majority of the roots will under any circumstances
be lost. We have seen before that the tree while
growing maintains a certain equilibrium between
the roots and the top, and that the growth of the
latter results from that of the former. ‘Therefore,
after transplanting we must so prune the top as to
secure the balance, which had been broken in the
removal of the tree. ‘They should therefore be cut
back very severely, when they will develop a few
healthy leaves which will aid the tree in establish-
ing itself, much more than the weak foliage which
would be thrown out if they were not pruned.
Trees planted in the autumn need not be cut as
closely as those set in the spring, because they will
be in a condition to throw out new roots imme-
diately to support a larger top.

This figure represents a peach tree
ge, and the transverse lines
indicate where it should be cut. ‘The
main stock is left at not more than

at plantin

eighteen inches in height, and all the =
limbs are trimmed to an inch or two from the stem.

SEYMOUR’S SYSTEM. 311

Training the peach and nectarine. Many methods
of espalier training are in use in Europe, but among
them that recommended by Mr. Seymour seéms to
be, perhaps, particularly desirable.

The arms which form it are, of course, permanent,
and are kept in position by tying to the trellis,
at proper distance from each other. The laterals,
represented above, start from these. It is intended
that each shall bear a single fruit, which is allowed
to grow about midway from its base to terminus.
(a) represents where the fruit is
to be borne. (5) the lateral for the
next year. The buds which push
are also pinched after making three
or four leaves, with the exception
of that at the terminus, which is
allowed to grow a little longer, and the lower

bud, which extends to form a lateral for the succeed-
ing year. At the winter pruning the old lateral is
cut as close to the main limb as possible without
injuring the new shoot.

312 OBLIQUE ROD TRAINING.

Oblique rod training. 'This system has recently
been introduced into our country as applied to the
pear. In Europe it was found to be a simple and
expeditious method of growing the peach, and with-
out doubt might be applied to other fruits. It is
claimed that it is superior to the other styles of
trellis or wall-training, on account of the ease with
which the rod can be replaced. It has been prac-
tised in the vicinity of Paris since about 1840.

\
\
\
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\ ‘ ak, Ke
\ \\ »
\\ i 4
NX NY (- \ \
= ¥ \ \
ets xy \Ye
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\ \
\ \
Seeeeeeiel > \ —\ ~
———- : ——— : ———. —

The trellis should be about ten feet high, and the
trees trained at an angle of nearly forty-five degrees.
After planting, the rod is cut to about eighteen
inches in height. The buds bursting must be
pinched and treated like those upon the arms of an
espalier, in order that they may produce fruit, with
the exception of that at the terminus, which is
allowed to grow. If the shoot be strong, it may be
retained for three feet, and so carried up by degrees
until it reaches the proper height. On the left it
will be seen that there is a vacancy to be filled.

OBLIQUE DOUBLE ROD TRAINING. 313

This is done by bending down the growth at the
end of the first year, and permitting the uprights to
proceed from it. On the right, after the rod has
become formed the lower bud is allowed to burst,
and throw up the remaining shoot.

Oblique double rod training. ‘This is practised in

some parts of France, and is somewhat similar to
the simple rod-training. ‘The trees are four feet
and four inches apart. A single hmb is first grown,
and when it is strong enough, is bent to the angle
(a) (b), and the lowest bud at the point where it
bends is allowed to make another arm, which is
afterwards placed as in (c) (d). All these inclined
methods of training the branches have for their
object the improvement of the fruit in quality and
quantity; the bend causes a stagnant flow of sap,
which is favorable to that object.

Double oblique rod training. ‘This differs from the
simple method only in the fact that the branches
are placed at one foot apart instead of three, and
that it is composed of a single tree. Great care

27

314 DOUBLE OBLIQUE ROD TRAINING.

should be observed that one side does not become
stronger than the other.

/ ‘Ge
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: N
Y Z
— \
' fj Y
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( \\
S ‘i "J G \
Ss | y/ y Y \ \ ;
Y / fj VJ N \ )
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\ | ye ff y IN \) \ )
i f/ YW ff ‘ ‘ } \ ‘I
SS ‘ Yi N core: \ | Y
oe
, Ny
Sela 4 —— Se i

A style of training practised by M. Lepere, near
Paris, is given on page 315 as figured in the Gar-
deners’ Chronicle for 1857, page 233.

All these styles, it will be perceived, are designed
for the trellis or wall, because, in the countries
where they originated the sun is not as powerful
as in the United States, and by means of these helps
they receive an increased amount of heat by radia-
tion. ‘This is not necessary here, and therefore the
standard is the more favorite form of growing all
fruits. The peach is not so short-lived a tree, when
properly cared for, as some would have us believe ;
but, with the neglect which it too often receives, it
soon falls a prey to disease.

Standard training. By reference to the first part
of this chapter, under the head of “ Pruning after
transplanting,’ it will be found that it was recom-
mended to cut down the yearling tree to a few
inches. This is to encourage the branches to start

Lien)
oe)

ALPHABETICAL TRAINING.

316 STANDARD TRAINING.

near the ground. The majority of neglected trees
are broken down during the production of their
fruit, by its weight on the end of very long limbs.

bs "
Hf 4 Ys
mi os, __ Wi

(a) represents the peach tree at the end of the
first year, the arms having been formed, which show
the skeleton of the tree. These are cut back at
the winter pruning to one or two feet, according
to their strength, and laterals are allowed to form
and bear fruit at every bud, except that at the ter-
minus, which is to grow. After two or three years
the tree presents the appearance of (b), and is to be
pruned so as to keep it within its prescribed limits,
which should be less than ten feet in height.

But in many of our northern districts the peach
is injured seriously by the vicissitudes of climate.
In such positions it is evident that the standard
tree would not succeed, nor the espalier unless cov-
ered in winter, which its size and form preclude.
The fact, which has been repeatedly observed, that
limbs near the ground fruit when others do not,
even when there is no snow of consequence to cover
them, has suggested the following diagram.

Figure 1 represents the tree after the growth of

HORIZONTAL TRAINING. 317

the first year; it having been cut down at planting
to one foot. ‘The second year the limbs are drawn

down horizontally and tied; the branches having
the appearance of a wheel laid upon its side, which,
when clothed with spurs, and seen from the top, is
hke figure b.

But, in certain sections, even this is attended
with uncertainty, and still more precaution is ne-
cessary. In such cases, the cultivator should resort
to the inclined trellis. Posts about one foot in
height are set in the ground
for the front of the trellis, and
those for the back are two
feet. Rails are then laid from
post to post, and slatting across |
them. The tree having been |
planted before the trellis, is ¥-
cut to about a foot in height,
and at the end of the season
the arms are laid in their proper position upon the
slats, the after pruning being the same as that of

27*

318 PRUNING THE APRICOT.

an espalier. That they may be protected from the
winter’s sun, which is the cause of their injury,
straw, seaweed, or some other light material should
be shaken over them in so small a quantity as not
to afford shelter to mice; or a second trellis may
be constructed over the first which shall be covered
with such materials, or with loose boards.

The Apricot. ‘This is trained by the espalier or
standard methods, in the same forms as those ap-
plied to the peach and: nectarine. ‘The standard is
always to be preferred where it is hardy. The
remarks of Mr. Loudon, in his “ Encyclopedia of
Gardening,” upon the pruning of the apricot, are
given at length.

“ ‘The winter pruning should either be performed
at the fall of the leaf, or at mild intervals from that
time to the beginning of March” (in northern lat-
itudes just before the swelling of the bud). “If it
is deferred until the buds begin to swell, the prom-
ising shoots can be better distinguished. This
pruning comprehends a general regulation both of
the last year’s shoots and of the older branches.
The apricot bears upon the wood of the previous
year, and upon spurs arising from that which is
older.

“A general supply of the most regularly-placed
young shoots, must be everywhere retained for
successional bearers the ensuing year. Cut out

PRUNING THE PEAR. , 319

some of the most naked parts of the last two years’
bearers, and old branches not furnished with a com-
petent supply of young wood or with fruit-spurs ;
cut, either to their origin, or to some well-directed
lateral, as most expedient to make room for training,
a new supply of the young bearers retained; and
cut away all decayed wood, or old stumps. Gen-
erally observe in this pruning to retain one leading
shoot at the end of each branch; either a naturally
placed terminal, or, where a vacancy is to be fur-
nished, one formed into a proper leader by cutting
to it. Let the shoots retained for bearers be mod-
erately shortened ; strong shoots being reduced the
least — one-fourth or less of their length; from
those which are weak take away one-third, and
sometimes half. ‘This will conduce to the produc-
tion of a competency of lateral shoots the ensuing
summer, from the lower and middle placed eyes.
As small fruit-spurs, an inch or two long, often
appear on some of the branches of two or three
years, these spurs should generally be retained for
bearing, and thick clusters of spurs, which are apt
to be formed upon aged trees, should be thinned.”

The Pear. This fruit does not, like the preced-
ing, bear upon the wood of the previous season, but
on permanent spurs; and the method of treating
them is important. The accompanying figure from
the Gardeners’ Chronicle, represents “ (a) as pro-

320 STANDARD TRAINING.

gressing a blossom bud, while (6, b) are already
such, known by their
plumpness, and from
early spring these buds
exhibit signs of active
vegetation; but in(a)the
surrounding scales re-
main undisturbed until
late. ‘The scar at (c) is
where a portion of the
spur which bore fruit
has been cut back, at the
winter pruning; after
(b,b have produced, they
also are cut back to buds likely to form at their
bases, as did those at that of (c).” Unless this was
done, decay would commence in the old spur, and
spread among the tissue of the wood, until the
whole spur was destroyed.

The causes which render it necessary to train

the pear against walls in England, are not of force
in this country. The summer is of such warmth
as to perfectly mature the fruit without the aid of
artificially radiated heat, and the standard is gen-
erally preferred.

Standard training. A bud of one year’s growth
will, of course, be a straight shoot, having buds
from the base to the extremity. As the sap always
seeks the highest point, those buds which are at

STANDARD TRAINING. 321

the terminus will grow most rapidly. If the shoot
has been strong, this would carry the limbs of the
tree too high, and leave the stem very slender ;
therefore it is cut back to the height from which it
is desired to have the highest limbs start, which
should be from two and a half to three feet.

=—_—— A= ———- SS —
SSS SE = —™ Se

ae

At the close of the second year the young tree
will present the appearance of figure b. Then
four shoots have been formed, the central leader
being the highest. At the next winter’s pruning
the tree 1s cut at the point indicated by the trans-
verse lines. The lower branches are left the longest,
because the force of the sap tends upwards, and
these will elongate slower. The next summer the
buds upon these limbs are pinched to three or four
leaves, except two at the terminus, which are allowed
to grow. At the end of the third year the tree
appears as in figure a. The transverse lines show
when the third winter’s pruning is to be performed.
The same course should be pursued until the tree
has attained about ten feet, when these terminal

322 QWENOUILLE TRAINING.

shoots, which are allowed to grow during the sum-
mer, to draw up the sap into the fruit-buds below
them, are cut back to one eye every year.

It may be suggested, how can such a course be
pursued with a tree thirty or forty feet in height?
The answer is that a good cultivator will not allow
his trees to attain that height. While summer
pruning generally holds the vigor of the tree in
check, yet it is sometimes necessary to resort to
root-pruning, which will be described in another
part of this chapter. After the tree has arrived at
full size, all the pruning which is essential, is, cut-
ting back the growths upon the end of each limb,
and trimming the spurs.

The method of pruning the dwarf pear is the
same as that upon the free-stock. By proper train-
ing the latter can be planted as near as dwarfs, and
will succeed as well as when at a greater distance.

Quénouille training. ‘This system is founded upon
the fact that the fruitfulness
of a tree is augmented by plac-
ing its limbs horizontally, or
in a weeping position. They
are tied to stakes driven in the
ground, and made to assume
the form represented in the figure. By the same
means, the balance can be restored to an espalier,
when one side has gained an advantage over the
other, by depressing the thrifty limbs. In this

WINEGLASS TRAINING. yt

way refractory trees can be forced to become fruit-
ful. With these exceptions the style has no prac-
tical value, as all bearing trees assume this habit,
more or less, with age.

Wineglass training. The permanent arms, which
are five, start from a point about
eighteen or twenty inches from the
eround. ‘These are not allowed to
make any minor branches. ‘The
shoots, as they make their appear-
ance, are shortened back to three or
four leaves, to encourage the forma-

tion of fruit-buds. ‘The terminal
eyes are allowed to extend at will, and are cut back
at the winter pruning to one or two eyes — suffi-
cient to secure one for a shoot the next summer.
If the tree is very vigorous, the shoots should not
be pinched too severely, else it will cause the fruit-
buds to become transformed into wood-buds, and
erow; but they are permitted to extend, and are
then shortened at the winter pruning. It is urged
in favor of the above, that in violent winds the
branches have full sweep to swing without interfer-
ing with each other, and the spring given from so
long a limb gives so easy a motion as to hold the
fruit fast, while it combines all the advantages of
the pyramidal or standard pruning. On the other
hand, it is contested that the weight of the fruit
upon the terminus of these limbs, at such a distance

824 PRUNING THE CHERRY.

from the fulcrum or base, is often so great as
severely to strain, if not to break, the branch. This
argument is easily overthrown on two grounds, and
it therefore resolves itself into a mere matter of
taste. 1. Each limb should not possess more than
from twelve to eighteen pears. 2. If the branches
should by neglect or bad judgment be allowed to
produce more, the elasticity of so long a branch is
so great that the end of the lhmb could almost
touch the earth with its weight of fruit without
injury. The standard is, however, more natural,
simple, and more beautiful.

There are some positions where an espalier, or
wall tree, may be grown where a standard could not,
and it is therefore proper that we enter more large-
ly into those plans which are most practised in
those countries where they are favorites.

Mr. Loudon, in his valuable Encyclopedia, pub-
lishes the following forms, which are used in England
for small trees (see page 325).

The Cherry. This fruit is so uncertain a crop
when left to itself, and yet so delicious, that it is
well to devise some method of pruning which shall,
if possible, remove the obstacles to its culture. It
is of very vigorous habit, even upon poor soils, and
in northern climates does not always ripen its wood
sufficiently to escape unscathed the vicissitudes of
the winter. While the tree is forming, the young

ESPALIER TREES. 325

28

326 PRUNING THE VINE.

shoots should be directed properly, and the winter
pruning should not be performed until all danger
of cold weather is past. When it has attained the
height which we desire (not more than fifteen feet),
the pruning should be done in a way to check its
luxuriance. Root-pruning will accomplish this,
but a more mild operation may be attempted first,
and the former used as the next resort. ‘This tree
pushes its buds with great force in the spring,
and expends considerable strength in the process.
Therefore if pruning is done after the buds have
well swollen, we shall probably arrest its undue
vigor. The morello varieties bear fruit upon the
wood of the previous season, and regard should be
had to a constant supply of young wood, and that
which has produced should be cut out.

The Vine. ‘Totally different from that of any of
the plants to which we have referred is the pruning
of the vine. It produces its fruit on wood of the
same season’s growth, and its vigor is therefore to
be encouraged. As the size and quality of the
bunch and berry are influenced considerably by the
strength of the cane, it is evident that, for constant
fruitfulness, a succession of young wood must be
secured. Almost as many methods of training the
vine have been recommended as men who grow it,
each having advantages, yet all being similar in the
endeavor to keep the trellis covered with bearing wood.

FAN-TRAINING. 327

When the vine is planted, it should be cut down
so as to leave one eye to grow. Some accident
might destroy this, however, and two or three should
therefore be left at the fall pruning, when those
which are superfluous should be destroyed. ‘The
first season this bud should throw a straight shoot of
several feet. During November it should be cut
back to five eyes; if it is delayed until spring, the
wound will bleed, weakening the vine, and causing
the shoots to start with less vigor. ‘This stump will
throw five branches, which are spread out on the
trellis like a fan. At the next fall pruning, these
arms are shortened, leaving two eyes upon each,
and the next summer the vine possesses ten arms.
The vine has now attained it stature. At the next
fall pruning, beginning at the bottom, the first lhmb
is cut within two eyes, so as to secure one, and the
next to nine, and so on alternating two eyes and
nine. ‘The next summer, the five arms which have
nine buds will fruit from each, and the lateral
should be pinched within two joints of the bunch
of fruit; the other five limbs throw five strong
shoots, for fruiting the following season. At the
next fall pruning the bearing arm or branch should
be cut back to grow, while the other is left with nine
eyes to fruit ; thus each arm fruits on alternate years.

Sir Humphrey Davy, in his Notes and Observations
on the Ionian Islands, says that the pruning of the
vine is such as would be pronounced severe even in

328 SIMPLE CANE TRAINING.

the wine regions of France. ‘The value of the pro-
duce is so small that the cultivator cannot afford to
use manure, or stakes to support the vines. The
poorer the soil, the more vigorous do they prune.
“In the rocky situations of the district of Erisso,
in Cephalonia, where the vine is planted in the
crevices of the rocks, only one or two of the last
year’s branches are preserved, and of these the
greater part is removed, only two or three buds
being allowed to remain.” This practice is proved
to be beneficial. It is urged that the branches of
the vine extend further than the roots, and unless
severe pruning 1s practised in poor soils the branches
will exceed in proportion, and the vine become
weak in consequence.

Simple cane training. The vine produces fruit.
upon the new wood, and con-
sequently a succession of it
must be secured. A very
simple method is that repre-
sented in the figure. The

first year the vine is kept to
a single cane. At the winter pruning, which takes
place after the fall of the leaf, and the ripening of
the wood, the cane is shortened back according to
the strength of the growth, and the next season the
terminal bud is allowed to extend, and one of the
lower buds to start also, to make the cane upon the
left. As soon as the strength of the vine will per-

SIMPLE CANE TRAINING. 329

mit, the cane upon the right is carried up, and the
vine is ready to produce fruit. ‘This is borne upon
the laterals which start from the buds on these
canes, and which are pinched off after forming two
leaves beyond the bunch of grapes. At the winter
pruning these laterals are cut back to the lowest
bud, which is to cast that for the next year.

Simple Thomery. This, although not so easily
covered as the preceding, is well
for cold or extreme latitudes, as it
is for all others. The permanent
arms, being so near the surface of

> —_——__
Sr 2 Se er SS

the ground, are not very lable to

5 :

suffer from extremes. For if the
temperature becomes suddenly cold
after extreme heat, to such a degree
as would be ruinous to canes higher
from the ground, yet these receive
radiation of heat from the earth,
which enables them to cool off more
eradually. The first season the
vine is trained to one cane, and at
winter pruning is cut back to two
eyes; each of these will make a new
cane, which is cut the next winter
to about three feet, or rather pruned
to the same number of sound eyes.

These canes are bent down, and
make the permanent arms, from which the canes
28*

330 TRELLISES USED ON KELLY’S ISLAND.

will grow the next summer. These canes are
then cut back to two eyes, and each eye may be
allowed to bear one or more bunches of fruit, and
produce a cane of about three feet in length. Care
should be taken that the shoots are of equal length,
as if one gains the ascendancy it will rob the others.

Systems to be practised where there is no need of
winter protection. ‘The training of vines upon Kelly’s
Island, Ohio, seems to be more or less peculiar
to the locality, and as few failures have occurred, it
is well to investigate it. Mr. George C. Hunting-
ton, one of the vignerons of that island, gives a
description of the trellises used. ‘They are con-
structed of posts set in the ground, eighteen feet
distant in the lines; on these is stretched No. 9
annealed iron wire, weighing about one pound per
rod, and therefore, if the rows are eight feet distant,
requiring about one thousand pounds for the acre.
In placing it a cylinder is used of the proper size
to take a coil of wire. This is set upon a horse,
like a grindstone, when it uncoils much smoother,
and with less twist than if laid flat upon the ground.
It has been found that the strain of the whole trellis
comes upon the posts standing at each end, where
the intermediate ones are bored to admit the wire
through them, but by straining each length as the
work proceeds, and fastening it with a staple driven
hard, the strain is more equally distributed. Three
lines of wire are made to each trellis. The end

SYSTEMS PRACTISED IN OHIO. 351

posts have a brace inside to support them. A better
and more permanent, although more expensive
method of sustaining the posts, is to fix a stone
under ground outside the end-post, with a rod
reaching from it to the top of the former, which is
tightened at pleasure by means of a coupling iron.
Figure (a) represents this, and (b) the old methods.

Mr. Huntington says that the plan of training is
one of three canes in the form of a fan. ‘These are
cut back after bearing, to single eyes, which produce
others, while the young canes that have been made
at the same time are retained for fruiting the next
year.

Plan practised in Ohio. This is thus described by
Mr. Buchanan, in Elliott’s American Fruit Grower's
Guide. “In the spring” (at planting) “cut the
young vine down to a single eye at first; if two are
left for greater safety, take off one afterwards, drive
a stake six or seven feet long firmly to each plant.
Locust or cedar is preferred, but oak or black wal-
nut, charred at the end, or coated with coal tar, and
driven into the wood, will, it is said, last nearly as

332 PLANS PRACTISED IN OHIO.

long. Keep the young vine tied neatly to the stake
with rye or wheat straw; pick off all suckers, and
let but one cane grow.

“The second spring after planting, cut down to
two or three eyes, and the third to four or five,
pinching off all laterals, and tying up the vines.
The third year they will produce a few grapes.
Train two canes to the stake this year, and take off
laterals. Pruning the fourth year requires good
judgment, as the standard stem has to be established.
Select the best cane of last year, and cut it down to
six or eight joints, and fasten it to the adjoining
stake in a horizontal position; tie to the stake at
the top, or bend it over in the form of a hook or
bow, and tie it to itsown stake. This is the bearing
wood. The other cane, cut down to a spur of two
or three eyes, is to make bearing wood for the next
season. Give the shoot the first tie to the stake,

at}
i
a3:
i
i
Woe

pad =
= SSS

a Oe FO are

Second year, Third year, Fourth year, Fourth year,
before pruning. before pruning. pruned. summer training.

nine inches from the ground, and the second nine
inches above this.

RENEWAL SYSTEMS. O03

“In the succeeding, and all subsequent years, cut
away the old bearing wood, and form the new bow,
or arch, from the best branch of the new wood of
the last year, leaving a spur as before to produce
bearing wood for the coming season, thus keeping
the old stalk of the vine down to within eighteen to
twenty inches of the ground. The vine is thus
within reach and control.”

Some grape-growers prune according to a renewal
system, in which only two canes are used. ‘Thus
while the cane at the right is bearing a crop, that
on the left has been growing to take
its place the next year; when the
former will be cut to one bud, and
make a new cane for the alternate
year. ‘Those who practise this urge

that strong buds are formed, which
produce the finest fruit, and although this may be,
and is, true to some extent, yet, as Mr. Charlton
has said in his work upon the vine, the cutting off
such a large proportion, and leaving so little per-
ennial, structural base is of very doubtful economy.
It must keep the plant in constant excitement,
which is likely to result in disease and premature
debility.

The following is the same principle applied in a
more complex form. ‘The first year the central
cane was allowed to grow to half its present height.
Upon that is produced fruit the second year, while

304 RENEWAL SYSTEMS.

it added as much more to its height, and the cane
on the left also in the second
year grew to half its present
length. The third year the
vine had the appearance of the
figure. The top of the central
cane, and the lower half of the
left, produce fruit ; and the lat-
ter adds to its length, while
that upon the right forms itself, as in the above
representation, upon which to bear the next season.

An easier system of renewal is represented by the
following. Every alter-
nate bud upon the arm
makes a cane while the
other bears grapes. The

next year the former bear,
and these are cut back to one eye to push a cane
for the next season.

The celebrated Thomery system is thus given.
A wall is erected about seven feet high, and before
it a trellis is placed.

When vines are trained upon poles brought
together at the top, a hoop should be inserted, to
give opportunity for a free circulation of air.

The Currant. This fruit should receive an over-
sight in the summer to see that no improper or
unnecessary growths are made which shall interfere

PRUNING THE CURRANT. 339

with the limbs that are designed to remain; and
also that suckers, which make their appearance,
may be checked. ‘This latter should not be done
by simply cutting them off, which would only in-
duce a more vigorous growth; but they should be
twisted off, and then the tissue of the wood will be
so far destroyed as to prevent its throwing a new
shoot. ‘The bush should not be restrained to one
stem, because in the frequent attacks of the borer
the plant would be entirely destroyed; but two or
three stems may be allowed. ‘The currant bears
fruit on spurs from the old wood, as well as upon
the new ; therefore if any of the superfluous shoots
of the last year are cut back, an inch or two should
be left on which spurs may be produced. All the
old wood which has become unfruitful should be
cut out, to make room for some of the young limbs.
Very many successful growers of this fruit in Eng-
land have cut back the growth to a few inches,
when the berries begin to color, and have thought
that it greatly improved the quality of the fruit; but
in this country such treatment would be far from >
judicious, as our sun is so powerful that it would
cause them to shrivel and dry, as do the common
Dutch varieties under ordinary treatment. The
shade afforded by the young shoots is not as injuri-
ous here as the deprivation would be, as affecting
the length of the season.

336 PRUNING THE GOOSEBERRY.

The Gooseberry. Maher states that if the goose-
berry bush is crowded with superfluous shoots of
the present season, they should be thinned so that
the fruit will not have want of light and air; but
this pruning must be moderate. At the winter
pruning, in early spring, all the unnecessary growths
can be removed, together with those which bend too
low and drag upon the earth. The finest specimens
of this fruit are produced upon the young wood of
the preceding year. In general the shoots may not
be pruned at all, except when they extend beyond
the limits, when they may be cut back to eight or
ten inches, but not shorter, for it would induce a
superfluity of wood. ‘The gooseberry bush is seldom
retained in bearing for many years in the gardens
of the most successful growers. It bears its best
fruit during the fourth or fifth year, after which it
depreciates each season. The gooseberry is the
pride of some gardeners, and great pains are taken
to make the bush beautiful as well as productive.
Those varieties which are naturally upright in their
growth should be planted at a distance of five
feet. A central stem is carried up, and from it the
branches proceed, which are cut back so as to form
the bush hke a pyramid. ‘The limbs are not allowed
to start within a foot of the ground. When the
plants have completed their growth, they will be
about six feet high. The weeping sorts do not
reach more than half that.

PRUNING THE RASPBERRY. oad

The Raspberry. At planting, the cane is cut down
to six inches, and will throw up shoots which are
to bear fruit the next year. ‘These are sometimes
fastened to stakes driven in the ground, or a trellis
is built on which the canes are laid. The latter is
not upright, but generally at an angle of about sixty
degrees. ‘This encourages the buds to burst every
eye, and to throw the little shoots upon which
the fruit is produced. Some tie one-half of the tip
of one plant to that of another, and the remainder
to that on the opposite side, which answers the
same purpose. The summer pruning consists in
cutting out the old canes after they have finished
fruiting, and the superfluous and weak young shoots.
This strengthens the buds upon the new canes. By
a judicious winter pruning the season of bearing
can be extended through six weeks.

Dr. Warder, of Ohio, published an _ excellent
article upon this subject in the report of the Agri-
cultural Department. He thought it a great mis-
take to leave the canes so long as they are generally
seen. ‘The tendency of the sap is always upwards,
and therefore the weak buds at the top are those
which push, producing inferior fruit compared with
that below, which would have been borne on those
had they not been smothered. ‘The finest raspber-
ries are always borne by the laterals which start
from the strong buds at the base. ‘The black-cap
varieties should be pruned to three feet at least, and

29

358 PRUNING THE BLACKBERRY.

our common sorts to twenty or thirty inches, de-
pending, of course, upon the strength of the shoot.
As the buds at the top of the cane bear the earliest
fruit, the season may be extended if some are left
unpruned, others cut as directed for the main crop,
and some as low as one foot, for the latest supply.
During one season the frosts held

| off, and quarts of berries of the
\ Belle de Fontenay were gathered on

4 £ i the sixth of November, in the vicin-
~ reo ity of Boston.

we ie} &S The Blackberry. This is such a

Kh | delicious and beautiful fruit for the
AY! ' dessert that it is surprising it has
n i ' been permitted to be only a nui-
ie { sance in most gardens. If they are
fa pruned properly, they can be as
\ : easily cultivated as any other fruit,
aN Ys k and with little care yield wonderful

s dG returns. When the plants have

<(s-4) been set at regular distances, the
10% i suckers which are allowed to grow
_ should be kept as near as possible
to these places, and only a sufficient
number’ grown to replace those
which are to be cut out after producing a crop. If
an unnecessary number are allowed to start, they
draw away the sap, and prevent the production of

PRUNING THE STRAWBERRY. 339

fruit. The berries are borne on the young spurs
arising from the buds, and, by bending over the canes
and tying them together, as seen in the figure, all
the buds will be encouraged to throw these spurs.
One of the most beautiful as
well as successful methods of prun-
ing the blackberry is to pinch out
the terminal bud when the cane
has grown about two feet and one
half in height, when side branches
will be thrown out, on which the |
fruit will be borne.

The Strawberry. In this country
the cultivation of the strawberry
is beginning to attract more atten-
tion than formerly, and various |
plans of training them have been
proposed, to reduce the necessary
amount of labor. The old style
was to grow them in beds, and
renew them once in a few years;
but the expense of weeding them
was so great that it made fearful

inroads upon the profit. It was

soon ascertained that it was scarcely profitable to
allow them to bear more than one crop before re-
newal, when grown in beds. The runners of the
_ year previous are planted in the spring, cultivated

340 IRRIGATION OF STRAWBERRY PLANTS.

during the first season with the horse-hoe, and
ploughed in the next summer, after producing the
crop and growing enough runners to reset the plat.
By this method every alternate season is left blank,
while the plants are becoming established. Some
plans unite the advantages of constant renewal with
a yearly crop. After the fruit has become mature,
the plant commences to make runners ; on each of
these, three or four plants may be formed. When
the first has been produced upon the runners, if its
roots are covered with a little loose earth, and all
further extension of the runners prevented, the
plant will very speedily become strong, and, if
transplanted about the first of August, a crop may
be obtained the first year, and one season’s unprofi-
table cultivation saved. If they are planted in hills,
the cultivation can be done
e almost entirely with a horse,
| and the plants can be renewed
7 = each year, as shown in the
diagram, and the old plants
destroyed.
¢ The strawberry plant is very
fond of moisture, and irriga-
a tion at the time of the growth
of the fruit produces an astonishing increase in its
size. Many methods have been attempted to secure
this benefit with the least labor. Mr. Loudon gives
an account of the practice of a gardener in the

ROOT-PRUNING. 341

neighborhood of Chatham. The beds were upon
level ground, each of them being about one yard in
width. Between each of these beds was a trench
nine inches wide. The
beds were kept in place
by three heights of
brick without mortar,

leaving the trench two bricks in width at the bottom.
When the plants were in fruit, if the ground became
dry, these trenches were filled with water from a
pump near at hand. The result was an improve-
ment in quantity and quality, and the extension of
the season.

Root-pruning. By cultivation the roots are en-
couraged to extend, while the top is pruned and
produces such a disturbance in the flow of sap,
and the top not being able to dispose of the large
amount of sap in circulation, that various diseases,
such as canker, are induced. ‘The addition of fer-
tility to the soil increases the difficulty, while
transplanting, which is virtually root-pruning, re-
stores the equilibrium. ‘Therefore, by this method
of cutting the roots, undue luxuriance may be
checked.

It encourages the formation of fruit-spurs, which
takes place in unpruned trees after the luxuriance
of growth has expended itself, and the cool weather
of the autumn commenced. foot-pruning hastens

this maturity, and consequently develops these buds
29*

342 ROOT-PRUNING.

more fully. For the same reason it prevents late
growth, which so often leads to frozen-sap blight.
Thus it may be said to render the tree more hardy,
and it is probable that in the more northern parts
of this country and the Canadas this would insure
them many fruits which do not now succeed.

The operation should be performed with some
regard to the variety of the fruit, and the present
vigor of the tree. If it is just furnishing itself
with blossom-buds, one pruning may prove sufi-
cient, as all that is required is to induce the habit
of fruitfulness. A tree of great vigor would be
injured if pruned so severely as the former, and
must be operated upon gradually, or by cutting
only a part of the circumference of the ball of roots
annually. Root-pruning, as productive of fertility,
was originally suggested by the fact that mutilation
of plants is often followed by prematurity. ‘This
can be observed upon those trees which have been
girdled or severely injured in the stem, or whose
roots have become bared. The practical application
of this principle in gardening was made about the
first of the present century, and fruit growers are
largely indebted to Mr. Thos. Rivers, of Sawbridge-
worth, England, for his demonstration of its advan-
tages as applied to the different fruits. He thought
it particularly adapted to those persons who had
small tracts of land, and wished to realize the great-
est returns ; although the practice was by no means

ROOT-PRUNING. 343

inexpedient for large orchards. He thus describes
the method of performing the operation :

« A trench should be dug around the tree, about
eighteen inches from its stem, every autumn, just
after the fruit is gathered, if the soil be sufficiently
moist; if not, it will be better to wait until the
autumnal rains have fallen. ‘The roots should be
carefully examined, and those which are inclined to
perpendicular growth cut with the spade, which
must be introduced quite under the tree on all
sides,! so that no root can possibly escape amputa-
tion, and all the horizontal roots, except those that
are very small and fibrous, shortened with the knife
to within a circle of eighteen inches from the stem,
and all brought as near to the surface as possible,
filling in the trench with compost for the roots to
rest on. ‘This should be well-rotted dung, and the
mould from an old hotbed, in equal parts, which will
answer exceedingly well. It may be found that after
a few years of root-pruning, the circumferential mass
of fibres will have become too much matted, and
that some of the roots are bare of fibres towards
the stem of the tree; in such cases, thin out some
of the roots, shortening them at nine inches or one
foot from the trunk. ‘This will cause them to give
out new fibres, so that the entire circle of three feet
or more around the tree will be full of fibrous roots

1 This part of the work may be entirely avoided, if the bottom of the hole
is floored with tile-brick or stones, when the tree is planted.

344 ROOT-PRUNING.

near the surface, waiting with open mouths for the
nourishment annually given to them by surface-
dressings and liquid manure.”

If a branch be lost from accident or disease, and
it be necessary to produce another, the
method adopted by M. Jamin may be use-

(a) represents the position of a dormant
bud, which will not burst naturally, because
the force of the sap tends toward the
highest portions of the tree. A cut is made through
the bark, across the top and down the sides of the
bud, which causes it to start and grow.

CHAPTER,

SUMMER CULTIVATION.

REMOVAL OF MOSS AND DECAYED BARK — LOOSENING THE SOIL — MULCH-
ING — THINNING THE FRUIT — RINGING — WATERING, TYING, SUPPORT-
ING, AND GATHERING THE FRUIT — PRESERVATION.

HE labors demanded of the fruit-grower during

the summer are varied, and will be considered

in the order in which they will necessarily require
his attention.

The removal of moss and decayed bark. 'The pres-
ence of moss or lichens is not itself injurious to
trees, except as providing a shelter for insects; but
it is generally an index to a bad state of health in
the tree. ‘They are among the agents which nature
employs to restore vegetable substances to earth,
after life has left them. They never attack any part
of the tree which is still alive, but only those which
are in a state of decay. A tree which is in full
vigor, as it grows and its trunk increases in size,
bursts its old covering, and it peels off. When it is
persistent it shows that the health of the tree is
bad, on account of the barrenness of the soil, or,
more frequently, the want of drainage.

The evils resulting from such a state, are that the

346 LOOSENING THE SOIL.

tree is stifled or hidebound, and that this old bark
affords shelter for myriads of insects, which ravage
the crops the next summer. To restore the tree,
the remedy must be applied to the primary cause,
in the form of manure to increase the fertility of
the land, or by draining to regulate its moisture.
The tree should then be scraped so that the moss
and old bark shall be entirely removed; but the
instrument used for this purpose must not be too
sharp, else it will mutilate the tree by exposing
unduly the liber, or live bark. It is very well to
wash the trunk with a very weak dilution of potash-
water, to destroy the larvae which may be present.
A great many orchards are treated so severely in
removing the old bark as really to wound the tree,
and the operation is generally rendered fruitless by
the scrapings being left upon the ground, in which
case the larvae can crawl upon and attack the trees
almost as well as if they had never been touched.
The bark which is scraped off should always be
gathered up and burned, when the destruction of
the insects will be certain.

Loosening the soil. The constant pulverization
of the surface-soil, particularly by the use of the
hoe, greatly promotes its fertility. By this means
it is kept porous, and in a condition to absorb ferti-
lizing gases, as well as moisture, from the atmos-
phere. It will readily be seen that deep ploughing
or spading is injurious. The little fibres which

SHALLOW CULTIVATION AFTER PLANTING. 347

produce and sustain fruitfulness are near the sur-
face; they are almost invisible, and drink in the fer-
tility of every shower, and that of the morning dew.
The strong roots, which penetrate immediately to
the subsoil, sustain the vigor of the tree, and it
is the object of root-pruning, as has been seen, to
prevent their formation, or to destroy them when in
existence. Thus by this operation extreme vigor
is checked, and maturity gained. ‘The same results
are often obtained by encouraging the roots to come
to the surface. This does not follow deep cultiva-
tion, for by it the little root-fibres in the surface-
soil are destroyed, or prevented from forming. It
can, therefore, be understood why orchards deeply
cultivated refuse to bear fruit, and still exhibit a
luxuriant growth; they are receiving a constant
pruning, which is discouraging fruitfulness, and pro-
moting vigor. <A fork, with tines only two or three
inches in length, or a horse-cultivator, used judi-
ciously, will answer all the good ends, without the
evil results which follow the use of a deeper instru-
ment.

The frequency of this operation cannot be gov-
erned by any fixed rule; the state of the weather,
_the condition of the soil, and the presence of weeds
must decide it. The land should not be stirred
when wet. ‘The object in moving the soil is to so
increase its porosity, by the separation of each par-
ticle from its neighbor, that the air may penetrate

348 MULCHING.

through to the subsoil, and aid in the decomposition
and recombination of those substances which fur-
nish nutriment to vegetable life. If the earth is
wet when it is worked, it will lie even more close
than before, and assume that condition which is
described by the farmers as “ baked,’ and thus the
very object aimed at be lost.

Mulching. 'This consists in covering the earth,
to the depth of an inch or two, with some porous
material. It is always, and under almost all cir-
cumstances, attended with beneficial, and sometimes
with remarkable, results. It is indispensable to the
most successful production of fruit. Many of our
best fruit-growers consider it so necessary that,
should they be obliged to omit any of the important
operations of cultivation, this would be among the
last. It prevents, to a great degree, the cracking
of fruit, and causes those varieties which are gen-
erally spotted and defaced, to become clean, and
covered with a rich bloom.

The material to be used is not of so much im-
portance; yet it is well that it be some substance
which contains fertility, as thus a double object is
gained in its application. Stable-manure, tan, saw-
dust, peat, or anything of this nature, will answer
the purpose. Such as the second and third should
not be fresh, for the gases generated might be un-
favorable, or positively injurious. The time of
application must be determined by the end which

BENEFITS OF MULCHING. 349

it is designed to accomplish. If it is protection
from vicissitudes of temperature during the winter,
which is given by the shade, it should be applied
late in the fall, after the ground has frozen. If
to prevent the ground from becoming too dry, and
encouraging the roots to the surface, then in early
spring.

The depth of the material should not exceed two
inches. This maintains a regular degree of mois-
ture in the soil, and it is thus always in a condition
to absorb gases from the atmosphere, which is done
more frequently in moist than in dry earths. The
experiments of chemists have proved that air, passed
through a long tube containing moist earth, loses
entirely its ammonia. It also keeps the soil at an
- equal temperature, and prevents those sudden in-
fluxes of sap which cause many species to gum ;
the roots derive more fertility, both from their near-
ness to the surface, and on account of its porosity.
In the autumn it lengthens the season, which the
tree requires to thoroughly ripen its wood, and to
perfect its fruit-buds; which it does when the flow
of the sap has become sluggish. The soil does not
lose its warmth so quickly; but, when it has once
become frozen, the mulching prevents those thawings
which stimulate the roots, and which often cause the
death of the tree. As the sun has not so much
power upon the soil in the spring, the frost comes

out slowly, and the buds do not start until all danger
30

350 MULCHING THE GOOSEBERRY PLANT.

is past; but, when they do vegetate, they progress
with great rapidity. This is of so great importance
that the balance of success often turns upon it, and
yet it is the very operation which is generally most
neglected.

The gooseberry is very sensibly affected by changes
in the amount of aqueous vapor in the atmosphere,
as well as in temperature, which produce mildew
upon its fruit. If some material, such as has already
been named, or charcoal dust, be spread upon the
ground about the bushes, it will often prevent these
diseases. ‘The annual application of these substan-
ces will produce a mould very favorable for the
perfection of this berry. Tan has a peculiar value,
as it throws off an effluvia which is destructive to
insects, or prevents the deposit of their larvae.

If once commenced, it should be continued. If
omitted for a season, the tender fibres, which have
been encouraged to come to the surface, will be
destroyed by exposure to the parching rays of the
sun, or by the severe cold of the winter, intermitted
by thaws. It should be either constant, or neglected
altogether. When trees have attained sufficient
size to shade all the ground, it will not be so neces-
sary, as this answers the same purpose, at least
during the summer. Its value is very clearly seen
in the culture of the strawberry. This originally
received its name from the fact that straw was placed
under the vines for the purpose which we have
stated, and to keep the fruit clean.

THINNING THE FRUIT. dol

Thinning fruit. Cultivators often speak of the
“bearing years” of their trees, or the season when
they produce a full crop. These fruitless years are
the results of the exhaustion produced by the crop
of the year previous; and the tree or plant has not
strength enough, after maturing the fruit, to. pro-
duce fruit-buds for the next season. ‘This is par-
ticularly true with regard to late varieties. In the
chapter upon pruning, it was stated that the fruit-
buds were formed during the cool weather of the
autumn, and this is the very time when the tree is
taxed, in the producing year, in maturing the fruit.
Summer varieties feel this strain upon their energies
at an earlier part of the season, and recuperate
before the time for the growth of the blossom-buds,
and the consequence is that such sorts usually bear
annually. If art can lessen the debility produced
by the bearing year, and result in a full crop an-
nually, it will be a triumph; and yet so it is.

The flesh of the fruit is formed like any other
green part of the tree; its cells are similar, as is
the duty it is called on to perform in the elaboration
of the sap. ‘This portion, therefore, which we
desire for food, is rather a strengthening than a
weakening ally to the foliage. It is the production
of offspring, which exhausts the strength of plants
as well as of animals; and this reproducing germ
in fruit is formed in the seed. As soon as the an-
nual has matured its seed, it droops and dies. It

352 EXCESSIVE THINNING OF THE FRUIT.

is evident that the seeds of an inferior specimen
exhaust the energies of the tree as much as those
of a superior quality. It is therefore important.
that the plant should be rid of all poor specimens,
and that the good fruit should be so reduced in
number that the tree can easily produce its burden
without losing its vigor. Although the number of
the fruits will be thus diminished, their measure or
weight will be increased, their beauty improved,
and their flavor made more delicious.

The extent to which this thinning of the fruit
should be carried has, however, a limit. <A single
fruit could not receive all the size and flavor which
would have been expended in the production of
those which were plucked, for it would not furnish
a sufficient field to satisfy the tree’s habit of fruit-
fulness, and gourmands or supply-shoots would soon
make their appearance. The proper extent to which
this operation should be carried will be readily de-
termined by the good judgment of each cultivator,
according to the power of his soil, and the thorough-
ness of his cultivation.

It is important that the orchardist should know
which fruit to remove. Some varieties bear in clus-
ters, and the rule should generally be to take off all
but one in each of these; but with regard to this a
suggestion is necessary. If the pruning has been
conducted as it should have been, the spurs, and con-
sequently the fruit, will be distributed over the whole

RINCING LIMBS FOR LARGE FRUIT. 353

length of the limb. If this is not so, but the tips
of the branches are provided with a large portion
of the fruit, the thinning should be free upon that
part, so that the strain upon the hmb shall be equal-
ized.

Ringing. ‘This process is sometimes resorted to,
in order to obtain fruit of extraordinary size; but
although allowable in certain cases, it cannot be
recommended for general use. It consists in cutting
a ring of bark off, of about one-half an inch in
width, and scraping the alburnum which lies imme-
diately under it, so as to make an obstruction to the
- backward flow of sap, which is through this liber
or newly-forming bark. The sap having reached
the leaves, by means of the woody ducts, is elabo-
rated, and, finding its downward passage checked,
is precipitated into the fruit which lies above the
girdle, which is thus greatly increased in size. It
is better that this operation should be performed
upon several small shoots, each of which has a fruit
or two, than upon one which is common to all.
The limb above this ring is of course destroyed
after the first year. Some cultivators produce this
same result by tyimg a string tightly about the
limbs.

Mr. Knight accounts for this phenomenon by the
hypothesis that the part below, being deprived of
descending sap, ceases to grow, so that it does not

impel the descending current with the usual force.
30*

3904 IRRIGATION OF THE ORCHARD.

_ Thus the effect produced is like that of a drought
which hastens its maturity; and, consequently, if
persisted in, it will weaken and eventually destroy
the plant.

Watering. Fruit is increased in size, when it is
growing, by a good supply of water; and if extra-
ordinary specimens are desired, it 1s necessary to
apply it artificially. The effect of irrigation upon
the strawberry has been illustrated in the chapter
upon pruning. It has been stated by some straw-
berry growers that it is profitable to keep one man
watering every half-acre while the fruit is green.
This should be done before it begins to color, for
this indicates that the saccharine fermentation has
commenced, after which the berry ceases to grow.
Irrigation, of course, detains the maturity of the
fruit, as the time is spent in growing which would
otherwise be occupied in fermentation, but the berry
is much larger and finer. In producing specimens
of other fruits for exhibition, irrigation will increase
the size very perceptibly. ‘The water is poured by
means of a little trough scraped with the hoe at
some distance from the trunk of the tree, so that it
may reach the fibrous roots through which the tree
is nourished. If it consists of diluted sewerage
water, with a small proportion of urine, the effect is
still more obvious. Mulching answers the same
purpose, while it has the superiority of keeping the
supply of moisture constant.

TYING. UP THE FRUITING LIMBS. 395

Tying and staking the limbs. Sometimes the
branches are so laden with fruit as to bend almost
to the earth, and to give the cultivator great anxiety
lest they should break and disfigure his trees.
Although there is not much to be feared when a
proper regard has been paid to the rules of pruning,
which would so distribute and develop the limbs
that each would be stiff and strong, also to the.
thinning which would regulate the strain, yet it is
to be expected that some cultivators will neglect
them. Such will be apt to find their fruit is all
upon the tips of the branches, while the stronger
portions, which are best able to bear the strain, are
entirely free from fruit. This is owing to the amount
of superfluous wood which was allowed to grow,
which caused a want of light, and of proper circu-
lation of the air. Such limbs evidently need sup-
port. This necessity is not always the result of bad
cultivation, for trees are often taxed beyond the
strength of endurance, especially those which have
brittle wood. Support can be given them either by
strings fastened to some higher portions of the tree,
or by the use of stakes fixed in the ground. The
latter is much the better way. If strings are used,
they should be of very soft material, and should not
be fastened tightly about the tree, but abundant
room should be left for a free circulation of the sap.
The usual method of support is illustrated in the
figure :

306 TYING UP THE LIMBS.

(a) represents the tree.

(b) the limb loaded with fruit.
(c) the point of attachment.

(d) the stake to support the limb.
(ec) the weight of the fruit.

This method entirely defeats the
object in view, and increases the danger of break-
ing the hmb. While the strain was distributed
through the whole branch before the support was

used, it is thus concentrated at (c), which becomes
the fulcrum, while that part of the limb beyond the
stake acts as the lever.

The proper plan is the following:

(a) again represents the tree.

(b) the limb.

felt after being equally distributed
through the whole branch.

(d) is the stake.

In the first instance, when sufficient force 1s ap-
plied at (e) by the growth of the fruit, the limb
will break, while in the latter mode of treatment

the power must be enough to pull asunder the
very tissue of the wood before any damage can be
done.

With some varieties the point of junction between
the stem of the fruit and the spur is not firm; and
when these are cultivated so that they attain a
much larger size.than they would naturally, it is

TIME OF GATHERING. 307

very well to aid the stem by tying a string around
it and then over the limb or the spur. This little
work will reward the grower with still larger fruit.
But what is better, is a bag made of gauze, drawn
over the specimen and tied to the imb. ‘This will
not only give it support, but will catch it if broken
off, defend it from birds, and to a considerable ex-
tent, too, from mischievous boys, who would seldom .
take off the bags, while others immediately at hand
remained unprotected.

Gathering. ‘This is generally esteemed a matter
of little importance, but it is really one of great
consequence. If fruit is gathered during a hot day,
when the leaves have begun to wilt, and rapid
evaporation is going on both from them and from
the fruit, the flavor will be less desirable than in
the morning when it is full of juice, which it has
absorbed during the cool, moist hours of the night.
But fruit should never be gathered during rain, or
when wet, because this extreme is as bad as the
other, and the fruit will be comparatively flavorless.
The fact can be easily ascertained by permitting a
fruit to remain in water for a few hours, and then
tasting it. If picked in the heat of the day, when
almost deprived of juice, it will absorb the flavor
of almost anything near it, provided the atmos-
phere is moist. On this account fruits from a damp.
room, which is finished with pine, often taste of
that wood.

508 THE MANNER OF GATHERING.

The proper time for gathering a fruit is when the
saccharine fermentation has begun, and before it
has become tender to the touch. If the fruit be
permitted to remain upon the tree until ripe, the
young cells, which were full of active sap, become
lined with woody matter, and are farinaceous, or
mealy, to the taste. If plucked as directed, this
process of the production of woody tissue is stopped,
because the supply from the roots is cut off, while
the fermentation goes on, sugar is elaborated, and
the flesh becomes tender.

The manner of gathering should not be by shak-
ing the tree, and permitting the fruit to fall to the —
ground. In that way the fruit-spurs are broken,
and the fruit itself is bruised by the limbs and soil,
and will consequently decay much sooner than if it
had sustained no injury. By examination of the
stem of the fruit it will be seen that the point of
attachment with the spur is clearly defined. It is
at this place that the separation should be made in
gathering. The reason that so many orchards bear
only on alternate years is often owing, not so much
to their over-bearing as to the careless manner in
which the fruit was gathered. The spurs are thus
destroyed, and the energies of the tree are required
the next year to refurnish itself with them.

The fruit, after being gathered, should be carefully
laid in the basket or barrel, and not thrown in, as is
the custom with many. [If it is bruised, the tissue

THE RIPENING OF FRUIT. oo

of the cells is broken by the blow, the juice is lib-
erated and runs about the healthy cells, and soon
its decomposition takes place, which is speedily
communicated to the whole.

Preservation. ‘The proper ripening of fruit is
owing in a considerable degree to the influences to
which it is exposed after gathering. The fruit is
still green, and therefore as active as ever in con- ©
verting the water contained in its juice into wood,
and as this is the very end to be avoided, all con-
ditions, such as light and heat, which stimulate
vegetative action, should be withdrawn. ‘The shriv-
elling of fruit is owing to evaporation caused by the
presence of these and similar agents.

The fruit should be handled as little as possible,
as all are covered more or less, according to the
variety and the soil upon which they were grown,
with a waxen substance called “bloom,” which pre-
vents, to a great extent, the evaporation of juice.
Therefore washing, wiping, or handling are injurious,
because they deprive the fruit of this natural cover-
ing.

Several plans of rooms for the preservation of
fruit have been recommended, and been practised
upon with more or less success. Among the most
prominent was that of Mr. Schouler, which was
thought to be of great promise. ‘The following is a
description of one built according to his plan:

The sides of the fruit-room proper are double,

360 FRUIT-ROOMS.

and the space between these, about eighteen inches,
is stuffed with tan, saw-
dust, and shavings. The

outer room, which is

filled with ice, is just

—— above the fruit-room
proper, and at its back. (a, a) are ventilators,
which receive the cold air as it falls from the ice,
and (b) is another in the door of the room
which governs the current of air, and therefore the
melting of the ice. The water is discharged from
the floor of the apartment into the open air, by
means of a pipe, which should be provided with a
faucet, and the water let off at stated times; other-
wise a strong current of air would be created, like
that circulating through the room. ‘The top of the
fruit-room proper must be strongly built, and cov-
ered with zinc, to support the immense weight and
prevent leakage. While the structure remains in
good order, the design seems to be accomplished.
Summer fruits, such as strawberries, can thus be kept
for a long time. They have been preserved for a
month, when fully ripe, but the moisture deprives
them of their sprightliness, and it is necessary to eat
them immediately upon their exposure to the air.
The fault of the invention is that the moisture
and a constant circulation of air encourages fungi,
which destroy the life of the timbers which settle
under the weight of the superincumbent ice, and

FRUIT-ROOMS. 361

leakage commences. All manner of expedients have
been tried, and failed to prevent this. It is unnec-
essary that the fruit-room be such an elaborate
structure, or that so large an expense be annually
incurred in procuring the supply of ice, and in re-
pairs. The humblest can have one, containing all
the principles of the very best, which will be within
the reach of all, pecuniarily. Thus a small barrel, -
set within a large one, will answer the purpose.
The space between the two should be carefully
closed at the top, so as to preserve a close stratum
of air between them, and a cover, pierced with holes,
fitted upon the inner one. Fruits have been kept
thus for a long time.

Upon a more extended plan an excavation is
made in the side of a hill of the size required for
the room, exceeded by about three feet in each
direction. It is then enclosed by a wall, and the
top arched over, the earth being thrown over the
whole; or it may be covered by a wooden roof, if
trees are planted so as to shade it. The inside of
this wall is covered with cement. Within this the
frame of the fruit-room is raised, and covered with
well-matched boards, so as to leave a close air-
chamber between it and the wall. From the top of
the room should be ample ventilation, but not con-
necting with the surrounding air-chamber. The
entrance should have double doors, and the passage
between them be also lined with matched boards

ole

362 TEMPERATURE OF FRUIT-ROOMS.

so as to preserve the air-chamber perfectly tight.
Such a room will answer every purpose in both
summer and winter.

Fruits should never be placed where the temper-
ature descends below forty degrees Fahrenheit, for
the effect is much the same as in freezing; the ripe-
ening process is checked, seldom to be resumed.

As a general rule those varieties of fruit which
have the highest tint will mature earlier than those
which are green, and in some kinds, such as the
Vicar of Winkfield pear, those specimens which
have not a red cheek are difficult to ripen at all in
the fruit-room, and must be used for culinary pur-
poses.

In packing apples or pears for transportation, the
boxes or barrels should be filled so full that there
will be no jolting, as that would bruise and ruin
the whole. They should be pressed so hard that
the upper layer will be destroyed, and then they
will be transported safely. Packing them in ma-
hogany sawdust will prevent decay.

Formerly grapes were packed closely in bran,
but by this means they were rendered unfit for
exhibition. They are now sent hundreds of miles
without any packing whatever among the bunches.
They should be laid on the thickness of four sheets
of cotton wadding, and tied down by the shoulders
with stout cotton thread, which has previously been
fastened to the bottom of the box. Let the layer

PRESERVATION OF GRAPES. 365

of grapes be composed of bunches laid closely
together, and as nearly of equal thickness as possi-
ble. Put no paper over them, but let thin boards
be fitted to rest securely over the bunches as closely
as possible without actually touching them. Pad
the upper side of these boards with cotton, on which
secure another layer, and thus proceed until the
box is filled.’ These directions are for grapes grown -
under glass, whose skin is thin and tender; so great
a thickness of cotton would not be necessary for the
native grapes of this country.

For the preservation of grapes they should be
cut with a joint or more of wood below the bunch.
A clean cut should be made, and sealing-wax ap-
plied to exclude all air from communicating through
the tissue of the wood with the fruit. The bunches
should then be hung on cords suspended across a
closet in a cool, airy room, taking care that they do
not touch each other ; and they can be cut down as
wanted. ‘They must not be exposed to a current of
warm air, nor yet be so damp as to cause mould. The
proper sealing of the bunches is a most important
feature in the operation. This is best done by
charring the end of the stem. ‘This process closes
the vessels, and prevents the escape of the sap, and,
of course, also the decay of the berry where it
adheres to the stem. We have thus kept autumn
grapes in a perfect state during the whole winter,
till early in the succeeding spring.

1 Gardeners’ Chronicle of 1848.

CHAPTER XI.

GRAFTING AND BUDDING.

INFLUENCE OF THE STOCK — OF THE SCION —THE SEASON — THE WAX

| — METHODS — THE CLEFT—GERFFE A UN SEUL RAMEAU, DONT UNE
PARTIE DU SUJET EST COUPEE EN BISEAU—THE CROWN TUBULAR
BUDDING WITH DORMANT EYES—THE PEG—GREFFE SYLVAIN, RE-
NEWAL, SIDE, WHIP — GREFFE FENARI DE THOUIN — GRAFTING FRUIT-
SPURS — INARCHING — GREFFE MORCEAU -—— COMMON INARCHING, IN
THE AXIS OF THE LEAF, SQUARE BUD, TUBULAR BUD — GREFFE EN
ECUSSON — THE BUDDING-MACHINE — FOR IMMEDIATE FRUITING —
RENEWAL — GRAFTING THE VINE — MIDSUMMER — EMBRYONIC.

HESE are among the most interesting and im-

portant operations of the orchardist; for by
means of them he can transform his trees from
those of little value to such as are of rare ex-
cellence. Without these processes there would be
no way of disseminating many desirable fruits ; for,
as each variety originated in a single tree, by the
natural course of reproduction from seed, there
would never be a certainty of another like it.

Although the influence of the stock upon the
scion may be small in altering its specific character,
yet there is no doubt that it does in some degree
change its appearance and texture. The reader has
probably seen two trees of the same sort standing
side by side, exposed to the same influences, and

EFFECT OF THE STOCK. 369

receiving the same care, which universally have
differed in the form, color, size, or flavor of their
fruit, or in the growth and foliage of the tree. Two
trees of the Beurré Superfin pear, both standards,
stood within ten feet of each other, and received the
same care. One of them always produced large,
yellow russet fruit of very fine flesh, and of a deli-
cious, vinous, nutty flavor, while the other as con-
stantly bore large, green, smooth fruit, without
russet, and of coarse texture and poor flavor. The
influence of the quince stock upon the pear is very
evident, as is that of the Paradise and Doucin stock
upon the apple.

Yet while a given sort may vary, it does not lose
those distinct peculiarities by which it can be readily
recognized. A tree was grafted with three different
kinds of pears, one naturally cracked and spotted,
the second remarkably fair and clean in its appear-
ance, and the third a russet. ‘The tree soon fruited,
and all these varieties produced the same year, each
one preserving perfectly distinct its own peculiarities,
while all were fed from a common root and stem.
This faculty was supposed to result from the effect
of the foliage of each, which elaborated its sap to
suit its own wants. But against this hypothesis
must be brought the oft-repeated experiment of
grafting rings of bark, one above another, and not
allowing a shoot to grow from them; even then
they retain their distinctive characters. Thus we

31*

366 INFLUENCE. OF THE SCION UPON THE STOCK.

would say that while the foliage aids in accomplish-
ing this result, yet the main work hes hidden in the
secret recesses of each cell. |
That the scion has a great influence over the
stock, is also easily observed, particularly in the
formation of roots. The amount of its influence
depends greatly upon the fact, whether or not the
scion forms the whole top. If a portion of the
limbs of the old wild stock is retained, the native
character will be prominent in the roots; but if the
scion has full control, the name of the variety can
be as readily determined by a careful observer of
them as from the branches. The general habit of
the tree beneath the ground corresponds usually
with that above. When the tree throws an upright,
stiff head, as in the Buffum pear, the roots as di-
rectly descend. Where the head is crooked, and
the shoots turn with curious elbows, the roots cor-
respond. ‘Trees with abundant lhmbs, anda compact
heads, have a close and generous supply of roots.
Those which cast withy shoots, like the Winter
Nelis pear, have wiry roots. ‘Those which have
a few fat branches, like the Vicar of Winkfield pear,
have a few chubby roots. Men who have worked
for years in nurseries, and have been accustomed to
digging trees, are aware of these peculiarities. ‘The
Buffum pear tree, on account of its strong, straight
top roots, will, as they say, ‘bear a pull,’ while
such a method with the straggling Rostiezer would

THE SEASON OF GRAFTING. _ 367.

deprive it of all its valuable fibres. This formation
of a system of roots corresponding with the top,
must of course begin when the stock is young, to
be perfect in its character; for when it has reached
a mature age, the insertion of a scion could not
alter the peculiarities of those roots already in ex-
istence, although it would be a guide in the forma-
tion of those to be made.

The season of grafting varies according to the
plan to be used. ‘There are those adapted to all
times in the year. As a general rule, those per-
formed with ripe, dry wood should be done while
the tree is dormant, or while the leaves are off, and
after danger of severe frosts is past; and that with
green wood, while the tree has such upon it during
the summer. ‘The knife to be used in the operation
should be sharp, for the same reasons as were given
in the chapter on pruning. If the scion is cut with
a dull instrument, and the tissue torn and lacerated,
the chances of its healing or joining with the main
stock are much lessened. In all operations in gar-
dening in which a knife is used, it is absolutely
requisite that it should have a keen edge.

No tree of full size should have its whole head
cut off and grafted at once, as it 1s too great a shock
and disturbs disastrously the balance which nature
keeps between the stem and the root. ‘The result
of such treatment would be likely to be an enormous
growth, which if not killed the first winter, is

363 GRAFTING-WAX.

almost sure to be the second, and thus the whole
tree would be lost. Not more than one-third should
be grafted at a time, and thus its vitality will be
preserved.

After the scions begin to grow, water-shoots are
often thrown out from the stock, which, if not re-
moved, will exhaust the nutriment necessary for the
erowth of the grafts. If the scion grows strongly,
it may need some support to protect it, while green
and soft, from breaking by the action of the wind.
In that case a stick tied to the stock, to which the
scion is caught, will be a preventive.

Scions of the apple, pear, peach, and plum are
better and more certain of freedom from injury in
winter, if they are cut in the month of December,
preceding the grafting of the next spring. They
should be rolled in a damp cloth during the winter,
being tied previously in bundles of from twenty-five
to fifty, and the ends, which are cut, plunged into
melted grafting-wax. Thus they will be preserved
bright and fresh until the spring.

Grafting-waxv is made of one part tallow, one part
beeswax, and two parts resin. The tallow and bees-
wax should be melted first, then the resin, and the
whole poured together and well stirred. Care must
be taken that no fire be near, as the composition is
highly combustible. After it is well mixed. it is
poured in small quantities into a tub of cold water,
and worked like molasses candy. No.more should

THE GRAFTING-POT. 369

be poured into the water at a time than can be
worked at once, as it will cool very quickly and
require to be melted again. This wax is greatly
superior to any other within the knowledge of the
author.

For some of the smaller grafts it is often better
to use waxed paper. For this purpose strips of
paper are floated in the melted wax for a moment, -
so as only to moisten one side, and then permitted
to cool.

When the wax is applied, it should be carried in
a pot of hot water, and the hands of the operator
should be smeared with some oily substance. Below
is a figure of a pot which is often used for this pur-
pose.

(a) represents the pot containing the hot water in
which is the wax.

(5) is the lamp.

(cc) are the holes which ad-
mit air.

(dd) ave the holes which
complete the draft.

(e) is the vessel containing
the fat to be rubbed on the
hands as the wax is used. The pot for the water
can be taken out, and should, of course, be provided
with a cover.

370 THE CLEFT GRAFT.

THE METHODS OF GRAFTING.

1. The cleft graft. This is the most common
method of grafting old trees. It consists in sawing
off the limb at the point where it is desirable to in-
sert the scions. It is then smoothed
with the knife. <A clean cleft is
made with a sharp knife and a
mallet. ‘The scion is cut. If the
wood is of good growth, one con-
taining two or three buds is enough.
The scion is next pared down in
the form of a wedge, one eye being
on the part forming the wedge, as
at (a) in the cut No. 2, which, when
inserted, is placed outside, as in (0)
of figure 1. The outer side of the
wedge is left wider than the inside,

Fig. 2. Wi
as the grasp is then firmer. In set-
ting the scion, no regard should be

paid to having the outer surface of
the bark of the scion and the stock even; for as the
latter is much older and thicker than the former,
such a proceeding would prevent the junction of the
inner bark, through which the sap flows in its
downward course, and by means of which the two
are joined. Great care should therefore be used to
have the inner bark of both meet. A peg should
be used to keep the cleft open while the scions are

THE CLEFT GRAFT. 371

being inserted, after which it should be withdrawn.
The wax, having been formed into a thin plate in
the fingers, is first placed upon the top of the stump,
pressed firmly without moving the scions, and then
brought over the sides to the dotted lines in figure
1, except when the clefts are made, and it is carried
down so as to cover the whole, save the eye at (d).
Thus the air will be entirely excluded. |

It is not desirable in the end that both the scions
should remain, as a crotch would be formed which
would be liable to split in after years. ‘Therefore,
after the second year the scion should be selected
which has thrown out the strongest shoot, and a cut
should be made to it. This should be waxed thor-
oughly, and the wound will soon heal completely
over, and care for itself. ‘The inquiry may be sug-
gested to the reader, Why not cut the other scion
off at the top of the stump, as well as to cut ina
slanting direction? ‘The reason is, that the remain-
ing scion will heal over a slanting cut much quicker
than one that is square; and if it is merely cut off,
that part is very apt to become diseased before it is
calloused over. In some cases, when the limb which
comes from the eye (b) is desirable, it may be done ;
but it should be avoided if possible. The benefit
of putting in two scions at first is, that the chance
of success is greater, and that the balance with the
roots is kept more even. Sometimes, however, a single
scion is used, when is formed what the French call—

372 THE BERTEMBOISE AND D’ALBRET.

2. Greffe a un seul rameau, dont une partie du sujet
est coupeé en biseau, or Bertemboise.

) 3. The crown graft. After the limb
has been sawed off at the proper point,

and the wound smoothed with the
| knife, one, two, or three slits are made
in the bark (as at a), according to the
number of scions which are to be in-
serted, and the bark slightly raised on
each side of it. The scion is then
| carefully cut thin upon the inside, and
is slid down between the bark and the
wood, —the side which is cut being
toward the wood.

4, D’ Albret, or tubular budding with
dormant eyes. This is similar to that
performed with pushed eyes, to be de-
scribed hereafter, except that the latter
is done in August, when the sap is running, and
upon those species of trees whose bark will not rise
in the spring. This is done exclusively upon the
young wood. The top is not cut off, as when graft-
ing with pushed eyes, but the bark having been
taken from the part to be grafted, the tube of bark
to be put on is cut longitudinally, so that it will go
on easily. The benefit in leaving the top on is that
the new bark will partake of the growth of the
shoot during the summer, and become united much |
better.

GREFFE SYLVAIN, THE PEG, AND THE RENEWAL. 373

d. Peg-grafting, De M. Thouin. A hole is bored
into the stock, of an inch or more in depth, accord-
ing to its size, and around the hole the outer bark
is removed, so as to leave the liber exposed. Then
a scion is selected of the size of the stock, and its
lower end sharpened like a peg, so as to fit the
hole. The scion must have a shoulder, and the
liber must meet that of the stock ;—— upon the latter.
particular depends the whole success of the operation.

6. Gregfe Sylvain. This consists in making a
cut like that represented in (a)
upon two trees near each other,
and bending them so that they uh
unite. They are then fastened #f
byanail. This method is used fy
only for ornamental purposes.

1. Renewal grafting. When a large tree is broken
off near the ground, a new head
is sometimes formed by a plan
described by M. Thouin. A small
tree is planted by the side of it,
and a slanting, triangular cut is
made in the side of the old trunk,
as at (a), while the young one is pared to match it,
as at (b). This is then inserted and bound on.
The scion thus derives strength from its own roots,
and a union will soon be formed with the old trunk
when the scion is separated from its own roots, and
becomes the head of the large tree.
32

374 SIDE, WHIP GRAFT, ETC.

8. Side grafting. A chisel is used to make the
’ notch in the trunk, as at (a). A
slit is then made down the bark,
which is raised a little. The scion
is then cut thin, that the bark at
(b) may close over it, and a heel
; left at (c), where it rests upon (@).
The sap, as it flows upward, is stopped by the notch,

and tends to nourish the scion.

9. Whip grafting. Greffe en feute dite a Re
The stock and scion are chosen of the
same size, and each is sharpened on
one side, by a cut of about equal
length. That on the stock, of course,
slants upward, and that on the scion |
downward. <A tongue is then eut in Ff ff
both, the one being the counterpart
of the other. ‘These are interlocked,

and the whole bound together.

10. Greffe Ferari de Thouin. It is necessary here
that the stock and scion be of equal size.
The latter is now cut (unlike the Bertem-
boise) of the same thickness at both sides
or edges, in the form of a wedge. A piece
of the stock of the same size is then taken
out, instead of making a cleft. This method
is more particularly adapted to soft-wooded plants.

11. The fruit-spurs of one tree are sometimes
grafted upon another. ‘This is advantageous where

a

INARCHING. 375d

it is desired to prove a great many sorts, and the
number of trees is small. The operation is per-
formed in September. The bark upon the limb
which is to receive the bud is cut in the form of a
T’,.and the sides raised a little with the ivory of the
budding-knife, and the spur, its wood being pared
down very thin, is slid in, bound and waxed, to prevent
all access of air and moisture. The fruit produced ©
upon these spurs is said to be of extraordinary size.

12. Inarching. Among the various plans which
are described by M. Thouin, is one for strengthen-
ing a tree by giving it the help of its neighbor.
The tree of which it is intended to make the scion
is bent over toward the one which it is to aid, so
as to determine where it is to be cut. This is then
done, and the part which is to be toward the tree
is sharpened as if for a whip-graft. At the point
where this 1s to be inserted in the main tree, a per-
pendicular cut 1s made, and an incision in the bark
below, to allow the wedge to enter easily. The
sharpened top of the smaller tree is then slid into
the place prepared for it, and bound firmly, to pre-
vent the wind from changing its position; the
wound is then covered with wax. It is very im-
portant that the graft be well bound, that all moist-
ure be excluded.

13. Greffe morceau. This is done with wood of
one or two years’ growth, and the scion and stock
should be of the same diameter. The tree to

376 GRAFTING AT THE AXIS OF THE LEAF.

be used as the arch or scion is bent as before,
and when cut is sharpened on both
|i sides like a wedge, as in figure (a).
| In the stock is made an incision
from the outside. slanting upward to
the very pith, as in figure (>), when
the wedge is slid into it, bound, and
waxed as below.

14. The common method of inarching small plants
is, after placing them both together, to pare a slice
from the side of each, of about equal size, when they
are simply brought together, and treated like the
others. ‘These latter three methods are used when
the species or variety will not endure grafting in

the more independent ways.

15. Root-grafting of the vine. Some cultivators
afirm that they have tried this process with great
success ; but our experience is quite different.

16. Grafting in the axie of the leaf. In the axis
of a young shoot or a leaf a
downward slit is made almost
to the heart, and into it is
placed a wedge-shaped scion of
the same size. It must be re-
membered, says Albret, that the , i
cleft should be made in green SQ
wood as quickly as_ possible, |
else the knife will deposit oxide “=
of iron, which is easily distinguished in the stained

BUDDING. 3717

appearance of the wood, and which is very inju-
rlous.

17. Square bud-grafting. This is performed by
cutting out a square piece of the bark, ~s
as at (a), and putting in its place a sim- {
ilar one of the variety designed to be |
erafted, and binding so as to exclude a

the air. el 3
18. Tubular bud-grafting. When the bark will
rise, the end of the shoot to be

() operated upon is cut off at a place

‘41 where it is free from all inequali-

|| ties, and the bark stripped down

| for about an inch, as in figure a.
' A scion is selected a little larger,
and its limits marked out with the knife below.
After being held in the hand a minute or two, the
bark will expand and the tube come off, when it
should be placed upon the bare wood, and the bark
stripped down until it fits tightly.

19. Greffe en écusson (budding). This has the
advantage that, if it does not succeed, the subject has
not been injured by the operation, and another bud
can be introduced. The proper season is when the
sap is flowing, and the bark will rise easily. All
shoots which would interfere with the young bud are
first cut away. Detaching the bud is done in two
ways. Some species of plants have tender wood and

bark, and it is necessary that the wood be removed
39%

378 BUDDING.

from the back of the bud, which is done as fol-
lows:

The knife is inserted at (a), and drawn to (6),

through the bark and wood; then a transverse
cut is made only through the bark at (6), from
the cut on the opposite side to that upon
this; the bud is then grasped by the thumb
and finger, and by a slight pressure will
separate from the wood.

Usually, however, it is not necessary to
separate the wood from the bud, and then the long
cut at (b) is carried out. A cut is then made in the
stock of the shape of a T, the upright part being
the same length as the bud to be inserted. The
bark is rolled back slightly to admit the bud, and it
is slid down, the bark brought over it, and bound
tightly.

The author invented a machine for doing this
work, a few years since, which worked successfully.
A description of it is given more as a matter of
curiosity than in the belief that it would be of
practical value in the hands of our common work-
men.

The machine consisted of a cylinder about three
inches long. The upper inch of this contained
another cylinder, which was made to revolve. ‘This
contained on its exterior ten grooves, of a shape
suited to hold each a bud ready for insertion, the
part of the bud which was to go next the stock

THE BUDDING-MACHINE. 379

being turned outward. ‘The casting of the machine
was made of German silver, to prevent the oxidation
which would be produced by iron. ‘This cylinder
was made to revolve but one of these grooves at a
time, by means of a lever on the top, which locked
into a notch at every move, bringing the bud toward
the exterior groove in the machine, when the stock
was clasped. ‘These clasps were India-rubber, which
opened when pushed against the stock, and clasped
it when it entered the groove. ‘There was a knife
that cut the top incision of the T, which worked by
a spring from behind. An erect shaft held a plough-
shaped knife, which cuts the perpendicular incision
of the T and opens the bark. ‘The lower end of
the bud fitted behindthe plough, and was pushed
down so as to leave the bud under the bark by
means of a rod which followed; the plough-knife
then sprang out, and back into its original place.
It is kept against the stock by a spring which works
against a lever in the interior of the machine. The
placing of buds by means of it was much more
rapidly performed than it could be by hand, and its
execution was beautiful, at the same time that it
was hard for the operator. The fault of the ma-
chine was that it was not sufficiently automatic.

20. Grafting for immediate fruiting. When a new
_ seedling promises well through its general growth,
it is exceedingly desirable that some method be used,
if possible, to determine, in a shorter time than

380 RENEWAL GRAFTING.

would be required for the natural maturity of the
young tree, the character of the fruit. Mr. Robert
Cornelius, of Philadelphia, has from his fund of
ingenuity invented the following: As soon as the
young seedling has grown sufficiently to mature
from six to ten buds, a good strong shoot is selected
upon an old bearing tree, and these buds are in-
serted in a spiral form, as they are always placed
naturally. The next spring the terminal bud is
allowed to grow, while the lower ones are pinched
according to the rules for forming a fruit-bud. By
this method fruit will often be secured much earlier.

21. Renewal grafting. Often the orchardist or the _
vigneron is puzzled how in the best way to fill the
blank side of a tree with limbs. <A system of in-
arching may be advantageously resorted to. A
young shoot is bent forward to the place which the
limb is desired to occupy, and a slice taken from it

| and from the trunk, either with or

4) without a tongue. ‘They are both

“347 placed together and bound firmly, as
in the figure. After the limb is per-
fectly united, and has acquired suffi-
cient strength, it is cut where the
transverse line indicates.

22. Grafting the vine. The root-grafting of the
vine is so uncertain an operation, in the hands of
most cultivators, that they must hesitate to cut
down a whole vine to prove a new variety of no

MIDSUMMER GRAFTING OF THE VINE. 381

established merit. Our readers are again indebted
to Mr. Cornelius. A joint of the vine which is to
become the scion is selected, which bends outward
as much as possible, and each end being sharpened,
is forced into a cut made for it, as seen
in the figure. After becoming thor-
oughly established, the old wood is cut
off at the transverse lines, and the sap
is allowed to flow uninterruptedly to
the scion.

23. Midsummer grafting the vine. The soft end
of a growing shoot should be selected of not more
than a half-inch in length, and sharpened with a
very keen knife. (b) is where the in-
cision is made for the scion (a); it thus

» occupies the place of an auxiliary
bud, and if the growth of the lateral is
checked, this will push and grow very
strong. ‘The lateral must be shortened

gradually, however, according as the scion is capable
of disposing of the sap.

24. Grafting embryos. Dr. Lindley, on pages 627
and 698 of Volume I., 1855, of Gardeners’ Chronicle,
gives an account of this very curious operation. It
is done, he says, in Egypt, where it is said to bea
very old custom. It is claimed that thus an orange,
citron, and lemon were all “ combined into one fruit
beneath a common rind.” Of this fact there is no
doubt. “It was said by the people of the country

382 GRAFTING EMBRYOS.

to be produced by grafting the embryos of the
three fruits, which are allied to each other by family
relationship. ‘The manner was as follows: One of
the three seeds is wholly skinned, so as to lay the
embryo quite bare; the skin of the others is re-
moved from one side only. This being done, the
naked embryo is placed between the others, so as to
be in contact with their skinned sides, and the
whole is bound with fine grass. They are then
committed to the ground in the usual way. The
embryos grow together into one plant, and ulti-
mately the trifacial fruit in question is produced.”
Dr. Lindley thought the operation was possible
because such things often resulted from accident.
M. Decaisur found seeds often containing more
than ore embryo, “ which occasionally grew to each
other, forming a true
vegetable twin.” Cu-
cumbers and nectarines
are thus sometimes pro-
duced double. An ex-
ample is presented by
the monstrous apple of
which a figure is an-
nexed. In this instance,
two apple-flowers, acci-

dentally brought into
= close contact in the ear-
liest state of the bud, being kept firmly in contact

GRAFTING EMBRYOS. 383

as they advanced in growth, ended by becoming
half incorporated, notwithstanding they ended by
finally becoming a twin fruit, consisting of two very
unequal halves. In the smaller fruit four cells for
seeds were formed, but in the larger but three. In
other respects the structure was complete, but each
was furnished with a vein of elevated lines on the
side next the junction. The nature of these is
unknown to us. What is particularly deserving
of attention here is, that the hairy surface of the
young apple offered no obstacle to the junction in
question ; possibly it took place before the hairs
were formed. It remains to be proved by practice,
but certainly appears a possible, but exceedingly
difficult operation.”

CHAPTER XII.

THE PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES.

CHANGE IN THE VEGETABLE WORLD— EFFECT OF CLIMATE, SOIL, AND
POSITION — CULTIVATION, DEGENERACY, OR DETERIORATION — DECREP-
ITUDE — METHODS OF PRODUCTION — SELECTION — VAN MONS’ THEORY
AS DISTINGUISHED FROM IT—CULTIVATED FRUITS NOT DESCENDED
FROM THEIR MILD TYPES —IMPORTANCE OF SECURING SEED FROM A
YOUNG TREE — HYBRIDIZATION — EXPERIMENTS OF KOLREUTER, HER-
BERT, KNIGHT, GAERTNER, LINDLEY, PURKINJE, MIRBEL, ADOLPHE
BROGNIART, CONRAD SPRENGEL, CASSINI, ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE,
SCHLEIDEN, FRITSCHE, THWAITES, MR. ROGERS— MANNER OF OPERA-
TION.

NE of the most interesting properties of vegeta-
ble, as well as animal nature, is its susceptibil-
ity to change. This does not extend, however, to
species, genera, orders, or classes, but is confined to
varieties; thus the seed of a pear or apple will
always produce the same species of fruit, while a
variety of these species always originates in its
offspring a totally different character; and the
improvements of which these varieties are capable,
through the skill of man, are without end. Let us
consider some of the means which man makes use
of to create these changes. |
Difference of climate. It is evident that, if a va-
riety of peach or other fruit be brought from a

INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE UPON OFFSPRING. 3885

warm climate to a cooler one, the effect would be
to stunt its vigor, prevent the perfect ripening of
the fruit, as well as that of the wood. A seedling
raised from such a tree, we should expect, would be
possessed of less vigor than its parent, bear fruit of
inferior quality than when in its native clime, at the
same time that it would gain greater hardiness of
wood, which would adapt it to its new position. If
this same tree should be removed from its native
clime to another, more favorable, it would find
physical influences as unadapted to its character as
the parent found in its place of nativity, and the
next generation would return again to the first
type. Thus through successive generations nature
adapts the variety to the conditions in which it is
placed. Mr. Knight, in a paper which he read
before the London Horticultural Society, in 1806,
said: “If two plants of the vine, or other tree of
similar habits, or even if obtained from cuttings of
the same tree, were placed to vegetate during several
successive seasons in very different climates, — the
one planted on the banks of the Rhine, and the
other on those of the Nile,—each would adapt its
habits to the climate in which it was placed ; and if
both were subsequently brought in early spring to
a climate similar to that of Italy, the plant from
the north would instantly vegetate, while the other
would remain torpid.” We think, however, that
the observation of Mr. Knight has not been sus-
o3

586 CULTIVATION AFFECTING THE OFFSPRING. .

tained by subsequent investigation, and that it has
been found that the qualities of the plant itself do
not vary so much as he then believed. If this had
been so, the foreign varieties of peach in this country
should have obtained something near the hardiness
of our native varieties. It is true that conditions
may exist which will bring out in bolder relief some
inherent quality which they possessed, and which
was not evident in the country from which they
came, because the influence did not exist to mature
them; and in their new position these qualities,
thus strongly brought out, may be stamped strongly
upon their ofispring; yet we have no reason to
believe that the constitution of the plant itself will
be in the least degree altered.

Soil and position also influence the character of
the offspring of fruit trees. Thus a pear tree
requiring for its successful cultivation a light
soil, if planted upon heavy land will be likely to
produce progeny suited to such a soil. This, how-
ever, depends upon the care and skill used in its
cultivation. If it be neglected, and the soil be cold
and wet, it will be likely to entail disease upon the
next generation, when proper cultivation would have
secured an invaluable variety.

Cultivation. ‘This does not improve the character
of the plant itself, but has an immense influence to
induce hardiness, vigor, early maturity, and product-
iveness. Those particular means should be used

DETERIORATION OF VARIETIES. 387

which will have the effect to bring out prominently
some desirable trait in the offspring. If hardiness
is desired, those methods should be employed which
shall conduce to the perfect ripeness of the wood of
the parent tree ; if vigor, those which shall produce
this ; if early maturity and productiveness, vigorous
summer pinching and root-pruning, to produce such
in the parent. |

It may be suggested by some that there is no
necessity for the production of new sorts as long as
we have those which are delicious, and which satisfy
our wants. But it must be remembered that varie-
ties have a limit of existence. They increase in
strength until they reach an age like that of man-
hood in the human race, when deterioration and
decay commences. This is not confined to the ori-
ginal seedling tree, but extends to all the buds or
scions obtained from it directly or indirectly. Thus,
if we do not produce new: sorts, the standard of
excellence will become very much lower by the
deterioration of the older kinds, and at last none
will be left worth cultivation. This can be seen in
the fact that many of the sorts which were once
vigorous, hardy, and easily grown, with ordinary
cultivation, now resist the nicest conditions to their
production and health. The St. Germain pear was
once remarkably fine and beautiful in this country,
and was cultivated with comparative ease ; but now
it is almost impossible to bring it to any degree of

388 THE LENGTH OF PLANT LIFE.

perfection. By some this may be referred to the
change which has taken place in the climate, to the
felling of the forests; but this cannot fully account
for it, because in new parts of the country, where
these forests remain standing, it is the same misera-
ble fruit when compared with its former beauty and
excellence. The White Doyenne, or St. Michael,
was once universally fair and beautiful; but in the
most favored districts it isevery year becoming more’
and more subject to the diseases which have expelled
it from other regions.

We are aware that this limit to the life of varie-
ties is denied by many able men, who state that
disease rather than decrepitude is the cause of their
disappearance: yet does not disease in these cases
result from a weak state of the system on account
of old age? Much room has been left for argument
to those who oppose this theory, because many who
have upheld it have endeavored hypothetically to
state the exact life of varieties. This in some cases
has been proved by actual experience to be false,
which has cast obloquy upon the theory. It would
be as difficult to state exactly the limit of plant-life
as of that of man. That of the latter is put down,
in a general way, at threescore years and ten ; and
yet, by great care, and through the possession of a
strong constitution, some men live to half as much
more, while thousands die in infancy. Just so some
seedlings do not have sufficient strength to survive

DISEASES OF INFANCY. 389

a single year in the seed-beds, while others, either
because they never were affected by disease, or had
sufficient strength to pass through those exposures
which a plant, like a child, is peculiarly subject to
in a state of infancy, survive. It seems evident that
varieties die in obedience to some great law, higher
than that of disease, which accomplishes the work.

“ When, towards the end of the last century, Van.
Mons commenced his essays, and published the
grounds of his theory upon the production of fruit
trees by means of successive generations, pomology
was entirely delivered from infancy and the dull
routine which she had long followed, and took her
position with the other sciences through the succes-
sive labors of Quintinie, Merlet, Legendre, and
Duhamel. ‘The culture, the form, and the descrip-
tion of fruit trees were from that time established.
One point was not even alluded to in the works
of these latter authors ; this was that of the degen-
eracy or deterioration of varieties.

“ According to Van Mons, the cause of this degen-
eracy is the age of the variety. He thus expressed
himself:

“ «The decay of the old varieties of fruit is gen-
erally complained of, and with reason. Every one
remarks the imperfections of the old sorts, and
avows it with grief. I know nothing so deplorable,
in point of culture, as to raise a tree in the hope of
deriving pleasure from its fruit, and to see it go to

30*

390 VAN MONS UPON DECREPITUDE.

ruin at the very moment when this hope ought to
be realized. Is there anything more discouraging
than the loss of the labor bestowed during the for-
mation of the tree, without hope of being rewarded
for its care in the future? It is attacked during its
infancy by all the diseases to which old age is liable.

«<<«Tf disease results from decrepitude, it will be
persistent, and no remedy can apply to it. When
disease results from some foreign cause, which it is
in our power to avoid, it ceases when the influenc-
ing cause is withdrawn. An imperfect form, an
unseasonable pruning, a barren or too-wet soil, an
exposure which the air and light cannot reach freely,
are the causes of artificial diseases.

«<«'The age of the variety dates from the moment
when it is produced from the seed; its first step
toward old age or decay dates from the time when
it produces its first fruit; the good or bad quality
of the fruit, and the greater or less productiveness
of the tree, influence the length of its life. That
which bears fruit of excellent quality, abundantly
and annually, wastes itself sooner than that which
produces inferior fruit, and in small quantity.’

“Old age announces itself by loss of vigor, and
inability to perform healthfully the functions of
nutrition and reproduction. JSefore its entire decay,
and during the time when the tree still produces
fruit, its approach is to be discerned by bursting
and cracking of the fruit, and that the flesh, without

PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES. ool

4

juice or flavor, is filled with gritty, vascular matter.
In the latter stages of decay the wood becomes
attacked with gangrene, the branches die, one after
another, without apparent cause. Its inability for
reproduction will be discovered by the absence of
flower-buds, or, if they still remain, by the imbecility
of the organs of generation.

« According to Van Mons (and it seems to us_
to be sufficiently proved), all our old varieties are
in full decay ; with many, also, and some of the best,
this is attaining such a point that their culture is
almost abandoned. It is very evident not only from
the experience of the learned professor, but from
causes which have passed daily under our observation,
that many old varieties, and also those of less age
which are not of much reputation in Belgium where
they are not cultivated on the wall, are fast passing
away.

“The Beurré d’Hardenpont, Delices d’Harden-
pont, Passe Colman, Bon Cretien de Rance, Reine
des Poires, Beurré Diel, etc., — fruits known about
the time when Van Mons commenced the applica-
tion of his theory, — already show signs of yielding
to this natural law of decay.” }

There are two methods by which new varieties

are produced.
First, by selection. This consists in choosing the

1 Translated from the ‘‘ Annales de Pomologie.”

392 NATURAL SELECTION.

best seeds of the finest specimens of fruit, and plant-
ing them for successive generations. Nature uses
this method more or less in the production of
varieties in the vegetable kingdom as well as the
animal. In the latter, the strongest and most
perfect animals conquer and slay those which are
inferior, according to a merciful provision of Prov-
idence, and thus a strong and healthy progeny is
secured, and the race prevented from deterioration.
Just so, it is generally only the strong, vigorous
seedling which can resist all the obstacles which it
meets in its growth; and such will overshadow and
kill all which are of an inferior character about it.
This selection is to be distinguished from that prac-
tised by Van Mons, in that he planted seeds of the
wild fruit, and endeavored to produce valuable and
stronger varieties, free from the diseases peculiar to
cultivated fruits by amelioration and careful culti-
vation, upon the hypothesis that our table-fruits
originated from these wild types.

Van Mons commenced his experiments upon an-
nuals and roses, when less than twenty years old,
and he gives as the result of his observations —

That successive generations remove the progeny
further from their condition as wild plants, and
make them more susceptible to variation according
as it is repeated often and with the least interrup-
tion. That a plant once entered upon variation,
does not return, if, through uninterrupted genera-

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION. 395

tions, we do not allow it time to fix itself defin-
itely; and that an interruption produces in the next
generation a plant of so much worse quality as has
been the length of this time.

That to delay the flowering, produced the most
beautiful flowers.

That fertility increases with repeated generations.

That the plant, after being regenerated a certain.
number of times, loses in vigor what it gains in
form ; that is to say, that, in laying aside its rude
and wild nature to take one more delicate and
domesticated, it becomes more sensitive to the
severities of the seasons.

At the age of twenty-two years Van Mons com-
menced to apply his theory, resulting from his
experiments upon annual plants, to fruit trees. The
first generation of Van Mons departed very much
from its type, producing a crop, after ten or twenty
years, of very small and inferior fruit. This he
sowed immediately, and obtained the second genera-
tion of less wild appearance, but yet not suitable
for table use. The seeds of this were again sown,
and so on to five generations, when he obtained
trees which bore in five to ten years.

Dr. Van Mons started upon the hypothesis that
all our cultivated varieties of fruits were ameliora-
tions, by cultivation and successive generation, of
the wild sorts; and yet may not there be a vast
difference in the specific nature of the wild and

O04 ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED FRUITS.

cultivated pear, as well as the three or four other
fruits which are particular favorites of man? That
is, have not the apple, pear, peach, cherry, apricot,
vine, etc., always been cultivated since the origin of
the human race, as the horse, ox, dog, and sheep
have been domesticated? The mention of some of
these fruits and animals in the very earliest history
of man, would lead one to suppose so ; and that the
results of the successive experiments of Dr. Van
Mons in the production of thousands of seedlings
of the pear from the wild type, were practically so
barren, — not one variety being raised of particular
merit. The large number of them which the au-
thor has had the privilege of examining in the
garden of the Hon. Marshall P. Wilder, all exhibit
the wild habit and the astringency of the wild type,
even in the furthest generations from it. His ex-
periments would almost seem to satisfy scientific
men that some distinct line separated those cul-
tivated sorts from those found in a wild state. So
great is the difference between these remote genera-
tions of Van Mons, and of valuable sorts, that one
can, without any view of the labels, easily point
them out as a separate species of plants. These
apparently specific properties are transmitted to
their offspring, and they can be selected and sep-
arated in the seed-bed, when sown indiscriminately.

We are aware that some persons will urge, as an
explanation of this, that by the long domestication

SELECTION FROM YOUNG TREES. 395

of the cultivated sorts, their characteristics have be-
come fixed. Yet thefe are as great specific differ-
ences between the wild and cultivated varieties of
fruit as between men and the baboon. One might
as well argue that all the races of men are develop-
ments of the latter, or admit the mutability of
species ; and still the abandonment of man to the
mere satisfaction of his animal appetites, as is the .
case with some of the Bushmen of Africa, continued
for centuries, produces no more similarity to the
baboon in him, than in the tribes elevated above
him of his own race. The cultivated fruit, although
left to be wild for a generation or two, still never
fails to preserve well marked its domesticated char-
acter, any more than the wild sorts lose their char-
acter under the most accurate culture for generations.
Among the millions of seedlings from the wild fruit
raised for grafting the pear, we have never heard
of the appearance of a desirable sort.

The seed should always be taken from young
trees which are free from disease, so as not to entail
upon the seedling any difficulty resulting from
decrepitude in the parent tree. As an instance of
the importance of securing perfect seed from healthy
trees, it is stated by one having great practical
knowledge concerning it, that estates in Scotland
on which larches are grown, and producing a crop
of timber worth ten or twenty thousand pounds,
have been ruined by a disease called dry-rot, rend-

396 HYBRIDIZATION.

ering them entirely worthless. Upon investigation,
it was discovered to have resulted from having ob-
tained seed from unhealthy trees, while seed from
the Swiss forests had produced trees which were in
perfect health.

Hybridization. From 1780 to 1790, Kolreuter
published the results of his experiments in hybri-
dizing vegetables. According to Mr. Herbert, this
interesting branch of horticulture commenced with
this celebrated man; but that his efforts were com-
paratively unnoticed, and induced no further efforts
until those of Sir Thomas A. Knight, in England.
Mr. Herbert commenced his experiments upon veg-
etables in 1819. While Mr. Knight considered
a fertile hybrid as proof positive that the parents
were of the same species, Mr. Herbert denied
it, and extended it to the genus, and thought there
was no difference between species and “ permanent
or descendable varieties.” This will be denied,
probably, by most modern physiologists. While va-
rieties change according to physical influences, spe-
cific characters do not. No two species ever became
so confused that there could not be drawn between
them a distinct line, although this specific character
may be varied in degree by these influences. One
of the most remarkable proofs of the fallacy of the
hypothesis which would make physical influences
produce mutability of species, is found in the fact

IMMUTABILITY OF SPECIES. 397

that there are certain periods marked by an entire
extinction of the species of flora and fauna, and a
re-creation under the same types, classes, and orders.

As Professor Agassiz remarks, this genesis is so
various among all the different branches, taking
place at the same time, how could the same physical
influences produce such opposite characters? The
four types of vegetable life are represented as present
in the earliest formations; but each had its epoch
of supremacy. The Carboniferous period was dis-
tinguished by its remarkable acrogens. The Lipo-
dendra, or Club-mosses grew from fifty to sixty
feet in height, and their appearance must have been
beautiful. The stems of these giants were strength-
ened by bands or buttresses of vascular fibre run-
ning vertically. The curious Sagillaria was con-
temporaneous. ‘The carvings in its trunk resembled
designs for some highly ornamental style of archi-
tecture; knots single or double, circles, graceful
grooves, crescents or eyes, protruded from their
trunks at regular distances. Their roots were alike
marked by peculiarities, and probably also their fern-
like foliage. The Oolitic period brought the beau-
tiful and varied Thujas, the Biotas, the Pine, and
other relatives of the Conifera. Then the gym-
nogens were supreme — then wild forests of ever-
greens covered the earth. But in the Tertiary
deposits, the plants of the Carbonifera sink to their

present size, the Conifera occupy only a portion of
o4

398 FERTILE HYBRIDS.

the surface of the earth, which the Monocotyledons,
or grain-bearing plants, and the Dicotyledons, or
fruit-bearing make their appearance and predom-
inate to prepare the earth for man, by affording
food to the ruminating animals, which compose
most of his meat, and the fruit tree to tempt his
appetite. Instead of these different types of vegeta-
tion gradually succeeding and displacing one another,
the change has been abrupt and simultaneous, ac-
companied by great physical commotions. These
have been not a few; but, according to some writers,
from sixty to one hundred. Thus the earth has
been the theatre of a series of alterations and re-
creations, which have prepared it to become the
dwelling-place of intelligent man.

Mr. Herbert asserts that hybrids between plants
of the same species do not always produce fertile
offspring ; but that 1¢ “ depends upon circumstances
of climate, soil, and situation ;” and that “there does
not exist any decided line of absolute sterility in
hybrid vegetables ; though, from reasons which I
did not pretend to be able to develop, but undoubt-
edly depending upon certain affinities, either struc-
tual or constitutional, there was a greater disposition
to fertility in some than in others. Subsequent
experiments have confirmed this view. to such a
degree as to make it almost certain that the fertility
of the hybrid, or mixed offspring, depends more
upon the constitutional than the closer botanical

FECUNDATION DEPENDING ON CONSTITUTION. 399

affinities of the parents. The most striking and
unanswerable proof of this fact was afforded by the
genus Crinum, which is spread round the whole belt
of the globe, within the tropics and a certain distance
from them, under a great variety of circumstances,
affecting the constitution of individuals, which
nevertheless readily intermix by human agency.
Crinum Capense impregnated by either Crinum
Zeylanicum or Scabrum, produced offspring which,
during sixteen years, proved sterile, probably because,
notwithstanding their botanical affinity, the first is
an extra-tropical aquatic plant, and the latter two
tropical plants which affect dryer habitations, and
readily rot, at least in this climate, in a wet situa-
tion.” And yet this same plant, impregnated with
others which were swamp-plants, yielded fertile
crosses ; and the two which were extra-tropical pro-
duced a more fertile offspring than one extra-tropical
and the other tropical.

The constitution of the offspring will be more or
less like that of both parents. Thus, if it is desired
to give hardiness to the offspring of a tender fruit,
and it is impregnated with the pollen of a hardy
sort, there is every probability that, while it will
endure the climate, it will be more sensitive to
severe extremes, which would not injure its hardy
parent. Mr. Herbert states that to obtain any pe-
culiarity in the corolla, the parent which has it
should be used as the male, and its pollen fertilize

400 INFLUENCE OF BEES.

the other, because the corolla belongs to the male
portion, and is, directly or indirectly, connected
with the stamens.

Great care should be taken to protect the plant
from which the pollen is to be taken from bees or
other insects, which rob it of this powder. To do
so, a light netting may be thrown over the twig,
else they would soon put to an end any certainty
of pedigree, by bearing pollen grains upon their
bodies from other plants, which is easily brushed
upon the stigma as the insect seeks the pollen.
Another result to be guarded against is the fertil-
ization of the blossom by its own pollen. This
can be done by removing all the anthers, or sacs
which contain it, and the petals, — for in the latter
case the pollen seems to lose its attraction to the
insect race. During dry weather, and when the
stigma is in the proper condition, the fertilization
may be performed. ‘This state may be detected in
some plants by a viscous exudation from the surface ;
in others it is not discernible. The pollen should
be dry and powdery, which it will not be in cold,
damp, or chilly weather. ‘The distribution of the
pollen thinly over the stigma may be performed
either by a camel’s-hair brush, or by dusting it
directly from the anther, the stamen being held in
a pair of nippers. ‘The female has the advantage,
it is generally conceded, in the process; and we
should therefore use that one for the seed-bearer

ROGERS’ HYBRID GRAPES. 401

which has most of the qualities that it is desirable
to retain in the offspring. Some have assigned the
determination of habit to one parent, and the bear-
ing properties to the other. But this is not abso-
lutely true, as the characters of both are blended.
For instance, the Rogers’ hybrid grapes have, most
of them, the vigor of the native, or female, but the
short joints of the foreign, or male. They resemble
the mother in vigor, hardiness, form, and texture of
leaf, while the form of the bunch and berry, the
sex of the blossom, and flavor of the fruit, resemble
the father. Almost all natural seedlings of our
native grapes are male, or staminate, and therefore
fail, im a great degree, to set their fruit, and have
broken bunches in consequence. But these hybrids
are like the father in being pistilate or hermaphro-
dite. |

Gaertner asserts that the juice of the pollen
grains combine with that of the stigma to fecundate
the germen, which Herbert considers as very ques-
tionable, and adds, that the superabundant viscous
juice on the stigma of some plants obstructs fecun-
dation.

The experiments of Mr. Herbert, in regard to
the slowness of the process of fecundation, seem to
agree generally with those of Kolreuter. It required
at least one hour and a half for the pollen grains
to become emptied; and the latter gentleman found

that no more grains than were sufficient to complete
34* |

402 SLOWNESS OF FECUNDATION.

the process would change color when placed on the
surface; but that the more distant the relationship,
or (as Herbert expresses it) the affinity, the greater
was the amount of pollen required; and as the
relationship was more or less distant, was the pro-
portion of perfect seeds procured ; — with the most
distant, the least number. He thought that the
life, or sensitiveness, of the stigma was longer when
fertilized by foreign than by its own pollen. This
change of the stigma was at very different periods
in natural fecundation, from eighty-five minutes to
several hours; that it probably merely saturates
the stigma in that time, and does not really fertilize
the germen. He reasons that, “if the fertilization
was complete, and the office of the stigma defunct,
it might be cut off without any detriment, unless
necessary to the mere nourishment of the ovules,
whether fertilized or not, which does not seem
probable; but I have repeatedly cut it off a few
days after [ had applied pollen to the rhododendrons,
and the result has been that no seed was formed.
The whole of my observations have led me to think
that, at any period before the decay of the stigma,
the access of the natural pollen may supersede the
influence of the foreign that may have been pre-
viously applied, if not from a closely allied species
or variety ; but that, on the other hand, no foreign
pollen can act upon the germen after the stigma
has been fertilized naturally. The incomplete sat-

THE STYLE AFTER FECUNDATION. 403

uration of the stigma in the first place enables the
natural pollen to gain access; but, if the absorption
of the pollen first applied causes immediate fecun-
dation, it cannot be explained how the subsequent
access of the natural dust should supersede it ; and
it has seemed to me that the natural pollen could
supersede that of an Azalea on the stigma of an
evergreen Rhododendron, even after the flower had |
fallen off,

“This point might be elucidated by cutting off
the stigma with portions of the style of various
lengths, at different periods after the application of
pollen, and seeing in what manner the operation
interferes with the fructification of the plant.
Gaertner thinks it doubtful whether the corolla is
essential to the fertilization of the stigma; my
observation is, that its early destruction is very
prejudicial to the growth of the germen and stigma,
but that after their development it is not usually
essential. He observes that the corolla perishes
more quickly and completely after fecundation, and
is more persistent, and sometimes withers instead
of falling off in cases of hybrid impregnation; but
he seems not to have distinguished the cases of
successful and abortive hybrid impregnation. I
observe that he admits that the viscous juice remains
on the stigma of Datura and Nicotiana two or three
days after fecundation, which does not exactly agree
with his theory, and seems to mark that the stigma

404 CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO HYBRIDIZATION.

has not become quite inoperative. Some days
elapse before any other signs of fecundation ap-
pear after the fall of the corolla, such as the en-
largement of the peduncle, or strengthening of its
articulation, and that period seems to him longer in
hybrid impregnation, as well as the interval before
the seeds are vivified. Both he and Kolreuter
observe instances, such as I have found, of false
hybrid impregnation, producing an enlargement of
the germen, or even seeds with an imperfect embryo,
or without any. ‘They remarked that they did not
usually obtain the full complement of seeds from a
hybrid impregnation, unless the affinity was very
close. Myown observation is that this circumstance
depends rather on similarity of constitution.”

The art of hybridization can be used not only in
the production of new sorts by crossing different
species, but its results are generally of more prac-
tical value, as applied to crossing the different
seminal varieties of the same species.

When two plants are to be hybridized, it is im-
portant that both the stigma and the pollen be ina
state to act upon each other immediately. All
anthers should be taken off from the flower which
is to be acted upon, so that its pollen can not an-
ticipate the action of the foreign grains, and they
must therefore be removed before they have ap-
proached the time of dehiscence. To do this it
will be necessary to open the corolla, and cut these

NATURAL HYBRIDS. 405

before the flower has blown. It is equally neces-
sary, as was shown by the experiments of Gaertner
and Herbert, that the flower be in a condition after
fecundation in which it will not be liable to be
affected by the natural pollen grains. The flower
from which the dust is taken should be perfect,
and not withered in the least.

When we consider how much greater is the
effect of natural pollen upon its stigma than the
foreign, does it not appear that hybrids are seldom
produced in a state of nature? Many practical men
have said that the pollen is conveyed so freely in
all directions, by insects and the wind, that a great
many of our accidental seedlings of merit are the
result of this natural hybridization. But, if the
anthers of the flower were present, their pollen
grains would assuredly gain the ascendency, even if
applied afterwards, which renders such a theory
exceedingly questionable.

While the pollen of varieties remote in their re-
lationship acts less freely than that which is closely
allied, yet Herbert found that the production of
seed by hybrid varieties is often increased by the
use of the pollen from closely allied plants. In an
experiment by him to elucidate this point, he states
as a result, that “almost every flower that was
touched with pollen from another cross produced
seed abundantly; and those which were touched
with their own, either failed entirely, or formed |

406 MIXTURE OF POLLEN.

slowly a pod of inferior size with fewer seeds, the
cross impregnation decidedly taking the lead. This
circumstance may be analogous to the introduction
of a male from another flock or herd, which has
been found advantageous to the breeds of domestic
animals.”

Herbert was not successful in obtaining any
results like those of Mr. Knight from the blending
of the pollen of several species before application.
He says he “ attempted to fecundate a plant with
the pollen of twelve species, most industriously
mixed together, but very few seeds were ripened,
and they differed very little from those which had
been procured by the pollen of one of the twelve
species. I obtained mule and natural seed from
the same capsule, but they were probably formed
in different cells. Experiments should be made to
ascertain whether, in cases of partial and imperfect
fecundation, the pollen of another species, and even
of a nearly allied genus, which could not alone
fertilize the ovary, can act in conjunction with a
single grain, or at least with an insufficient quantity
of the natural dust to affect the fertilization, and
_ occasion the seed to produce a variety, not exactly
hybrid, but in some degree departing from the nat-
ural form. It is certain, by the result of many
experiments made at Spofforth, that the pollen of a
nearly allied genus, which can not affect the pro-
duction of seed that will vegetate, will often cause

THE DEHISCENCE OF THE ANTHER. 407

some of the ovules to swell to a large, and occasion-
ally to a preposterous size, and become seed-like
masses without an embryo; and the same circum-
stance has been observed in Germany ; and, as it
can act so far, I do not see the impossibility of its
influencing the character of the seed when the
access of natural pollen is insufficient: and it seems
to me questionable whether some of the singular —
varieties which occur among vegetables may not
have been so produced.”

Dr. Lindley states, that ‘“ Purkinje demonstrated
the correctness of Mirbel’s opinion in 1808, that the
dehiscence, or bursting open of the walls of the
anther, which allows the grains to escape, is gov-
erned by hygrometrical causes; or that the inner
lining of these walls is peculiarly sensitive to the
dryness and moisture of the atmosphere, as well as
the ripeness and dryness of the pollen; that this
lining is of fibrous, cellular tissue, forming an in-
finite multitude of little springs,” which by their
concentrated action open the valves of the anthers
when the pollen is ripe, and the atmosphere dry:
“so that the opening of the anthers is not a mere
act of chance, but the admirably contrived result of
the maturity of the pollen,’ when the surrounding
tissue, and of course this inner lining, has been ex-
hausted of its moisture by the developing pollen
grains. The observations of Mirbel confirm his
statement, for he found a great quantity of sap in

408 DEPOSITION OF THE POLLEN.

the cells surrounding the pollen, only a little before
their maturity, while, “by a dislocation of these
cells, the pollen loses all organic connection with
the lining of the anther; and yet these same cells
are exhausted of their sap and dry when the pollen
is perfect.” |

There are a variety of methods by which the
pollen is conveyed from the anther to the surface
of the stigma. In some plants it is by means of
long hairs. M. Adolphe Brongniart states, “It
has long been known that the external surface of
the upper part of the style, and of the stigmatic
arms of companulaceus plants, are covered with long
hairs, which are very visible in the bud before the
dispersion of the pollen, and which are regularly
arranged in longitudinal lines in direct relation to
the number and position of the anthers.’ ‘These,
and their connection with the pollen, he says, were
first noticed by Conrad Sprengel, then by Cassini,
and afterwards by Alphonse De Candolle. “ At
the period of the dehiscence of the anthers, before
the expansion of the corolla, and when the arms of
the style are still pressed against each other in the
form of a cylinder, these hairs cover themselves
with a considerable quantity of pollen, which they
brush, so to speak, out of the cells of the anther;
and for this reason they have been named collectors.
At the period when the flowers expand, the arms
of the style, or stigma, too, separate and curve back-

THE POLLEN-TUBE. 409

wards, and the anthers that surround them retire
and shrivel up, after having lost all their pollen ;
but at the same time the pollen, which was deposited
on the outside of the style, detaches itself, and the
hairs that covered the surface disappear.”

Dr. Lindley remarks in relation to these hairs,
that if a longitudinal slice of a young style be ex-
amined before the pollen is emitted, that it will be
seen that these hairs are found formed without any
partitions, being an external lengthening of the epi-
dermis. ‘These hairs, having become covered with
grains of pollen, begin to retract into cavities of
about one-half their depth, immediately below them
in the cellular tissue.

Soon after the pollen grains reach the stigma
they commence to emit a tube, which, according to
Dr. Lindley, does not exceed the one fifteen-hun-
dredth or one two-thousandth of an inch in diameter.
It reaches down to the placenta and to the foramen,
or orifice of the ovule. Among the many methods
which are provided for the fertilization of the ovule,
when the position of the foramen is peculiar, and
which are described by that distinguished author, is
that of Euphorbia Lathyris, where “ the apex of the
nucleus is protruded far beyond the foramen, so as
to lie within a kind of hood-like expansion of the
placenta ; in all campylotropal ovules, the foramen
is bent downwards by the unequal growth of the

1 As quoted by Dr. Lindley in his ‘‘ Introduction to Botany.”

30

410 CONTENTS OF THE POLLEN-TUBES.

two sides, so as to come in contact with the con-
ducting tissue ” through which the pollen-tube con-
taining the fertilizing matter forces itself. In some
plants, “the surface of the conducting tissue actually
elongates and stops up the mouth of the ovule while
fertilization is taking effect. In plants of the genus
Helianthemum the foramen is at the end of the
ovule most remote from the hilum; and although
the ovules themselves are elevated upon cords much
longer than are usually met with, yet Brongniart
ascertained that at the time when the stigma is cov-
ered with pollen, and fertilization has taken effect,
there is a bundle of threads, originating in the base
of the style, which hang down in the cavity of the
ovary, and, floating there, convey the influence of
the pollen to the points of the nuclei.”

As was stated by Herbert, the process of fertiliza-
tion is very slow, and. it is often a great while (sev-
eral days, or even weeks, after the fecundation of the
stigma) before the pollen-tube reaches the foramen.
Yet the life of the corolla, and the other parts of the
flower, will be finished long before this time. The
membrane immediately surrounding the embryo is
called the amnion. Comparative mystery envelopes
the operation which takes place in this amnionic sac.

Schleiden maintains that the microscopic observa-
tions of Fritsche prove that the molecules which
exist in the pollen and its tubes are not animalcular,
from the fact that they were undisturbed by alco-

THE POLLEN GRAIN — THE EMBRYO. 411

holic solutions of iodine, which would immediately
kill such; and he pronounces the contents of these
tubes as nothing more than a “ solution of gum, and
small crescent-formed bodies, which are starch.”

He doubted the wisdom of tracing the analogy
between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and
denied even the sexuality of plants as generally
understood ; that if the pollen-tube be followed to
the ovule, it will be found that generally only one
reaches the embryo sac, and, forcing and indenting
that part which it comes against, it forms the “ cylin-
drical bay which constitutes the embryo in the first
stage of its development;” and that it consists only
of a parenchymatic cell. Thus, on all sides except
one end, the embryo has a double membrane, having
that of the indented sac, and that of the pollen-
tube. Thus the latter becomes the embryo. This
he has proved, because he has been able to separate
the tube from the sac after it had considerably ad-
vanced in development. He stated, even while the
contents of the pollen grains and the tubes at first
are simple starch, that they may be changed chem-
ically in the inter-cellular passage, or they may not.
Yet from this starch cells are formed at the ter-
minus of the tube, which eventually become the
parenchyma of the embryo. He found additional
proof in the fact that where there was more than
one embryo in a seed, there was a corresponding
number of pollen-tubes present. Considered in this

412 STERILITY AN ADVANTAGE.

light, it was difficult to find which was the male and
which the female element, as based upon analogies
to the animal kingdom.

The extent to which hybridization can be carried
is limited. Thus hybrids can, and have been, ob-
tained from plants of an entirely distinct genera;
and yet these were sterile, and not capable of pro-
ducing a new genus of plant. The Creator has wise-
ly ordered this, else confusion would take the place
of order. Plants of two species often produce a hy-
brid; these are generally sterile, or productive only
by impregnation from the pollen of one of their
parents, to which type they will revert in the next
generation. But this is one of the most fertile
causes of the production of varieties. Thus, while
species seem to be immutable, varieties are as muta-
ble as the individuals from which they originate.

Sterility is not always a disadvantage, but some-
times positively the opposite, as regards cultivation.
For example, such varieties of fruits as are destitute
of seed are for that very reason eminently desirable,
because the demand for nourishment which would
have been made by the seed is not felt, and thus a
much larger crop of fruit may be realized with less
exhaustion to the tree.

In the Annals of Natural History, M. Thwaites
said, “The most eminent physiologists seem to be ar-
riving at the opinion, that the fertilization of the
ovule, as it is termed, consists in the union of a

THWALTES’ THEORY. 413

part of the contents of a pollen grain with cer-
tain matter contained in the ovule, and that the
embryo originates from this mixed matter. The
correctness of this opinion is rendered still more
probable by the consideration of what takes place.
under the circumstances of hybridization of species.
The phenomena which present themselves in these
cases are of the highest physiological interest ; and it
seems impossible, after a careful consideration of them,
to doubt that the hybrid plant owes its existence to—
consists in its earliest condition of — an endochrome
made up of a portion of that of each of the parent
plants; for the development of the hybrid embryo
into the mature plant indicates a quality of the con-
tents of this embryonic cell of a character combining
that of the endochrome of each of its parents.
“The ovule of Fuchsia coccinea, fertilized with the
pollen of Fuchsia fulgens, produces plants of every
intermediate form between these two species, —some
of the seedling plants closely resembling one, and
some the other species, but the majority partak-
ing equally of the characters of the two plants;
scarcely, however, will any two be found so much
alike as to be undistinguishable from: each other.
With respect to each of the hybrid seedlings, sep-
arately considered, there is a uniformity throughout
in the mixed character of the various parts; so that
it 1s easy, from the examination of the foliage, to

arrive at a tolerably correct idea of what will be the
30*

414 TWIN PLANTS FROM ONE SEED.

character of the blossom. Somé persons, perhaps,
will be disposed to believe that an endochrome may
be modified in its character, and that the peculiarities
of the hybrid plant may be produced by the situa-
tion in which it is at first developed ; but, if this were
the fact, it is clear that the hybrid seedlings ought
all to resemble each other as much as do individuals
of one species, which is far from the truth, as has been
just now stated. Moreover, a fact came under the
observation of the writer which completely set aside
the idea of such an explanation of the phenomena ;
for, in one example of the hybrid fuchsia seedlings,
the singular circumstance occurred of one seed pro-
ducing two plants entirely different in appearance and
character. It cannot be doubted that these very
dissimilar structures were the produce of one seed,
since they were closely coherent below the two pair
of cotyledon leaves, into a single cylindrical stand,
so that they had subsequently the appearance of be-
ing branches of one trunk. The plant was, before
flowering, killed by an unexpected, severe frost, but
not before this peculiarity had been observed by
many persons. In the case just cited, the idea of a
modification of structure caused by a mere circum-
stance of situation in the early stages of growth is
quite untenable; for, were such the case, it is clear
there could not have been the great dissimilarity
which presented itself in these twin plants— the
product of a single seed.” ?
1 As quoted by Dr. Lindley.

KNIGHT'S THEORY. 415

The conclusions which Mr. Knight drew from a
series of experiments in hybridization were, that
“ new varieties of every species of fruit will generally
be better obtained by introducing the farina of one
variety into the blossom of another, than by prop-
agating from any single sort. When an experiment
of this kind is made between varieties of different
size and character, the farina of the smaller sort
should be introduced into the blossoms of the larger ;
for, under these circumstances, I have generally
(but with some exceptions) observed in the new
fruit a prevalence of the character of the female
parent; probably owing to the following causes:
The seed-coats are generated wholly by the female,
and these regulate the bulk of the lobes and plan-
tule ; and I have observed, in raising new varieties
of the peach, that when one stone contained two
seeds, the plants these afforded were inferior to
others. ‘The largest seeds obtained from the finest
fruit, and from that which ripens most perfectly and
earliest, should always be selected. It is scarcely
necessary to inform the experienced gardener that
it will be important to extract the stamina of the
blossom from which he purposes to propagate some
days before the farina begins to shed. When young
trees have sprung from the seed, a certain period
must elapse before they become capable of bearing
fruit; and this period, I believe, cannot be shortened
by any means. Pruning and transplanting are both

416 THE AGE OF PRODUCTIVENESS.

injurious, and no change in the character or merits
of the future fruit can be effected during this period,
either by manure or culture. The young plant
should be allowed to extend its branches in every
direction in which it does not injuriously interfere
with another, and the soil should be sufficiently rich
to promote a moderate degree of growth, without
stimulating the plant to preternatural exertion,
which always induces disease. ‘The soil of an old
garden is peculiarly destructive. The periods which
different kinds of fruit trees require to attain the
age of puberty are very varied. The pear requires
from twelve to eighteen years; the apple from five
to twelve ; the plum and cherry four or five years;
the vine three or four; and the raspberry two.
The strawberry, if its seeds be sown early, affords a
crop the succeeding year.

“ A seed, exclusive of its seed-coats, consists of one
or more cotyledons, a plumule or bud, and the
caudex or stem of the future plant, which has gen-
erally, though erroneously, been called its radical.
In these organs, but principally in the cotyledons, is
deposited as much of the concrete sap of the parent
plant as is sufficient to feed its offspring till that has
attached itself to ,the soil and become capable of
absorbing and assimilating new matter.

“The plumule differs from the bud of the parent
plant in possessing a new and independent life, and
thence in assuming in its subsequent growth dif-

GROWTH OF THE SEED. AIT

ferent habits from those of the parent plant. The
organizable matter which is given by the parent to
the ofispring in this case, probably exists in the cot-
yledons of the seed, in the same state as in the
alburnum of trees, and, like that, 1t apparently un-
dergoes considerable change before it becomes the
true circulating fluid of the plant. In some it
becomes saccharine, in others acrid and bitter, during
germination. In this process the vital fluid is drawn
from the cotyledons into the stem of the plumule
‘or bud, through vessels which correspond with those
of the bark of the future tree, and are indeed
perfect cortical cells. From the point of the stem
springs the first root, which at this period consists
wholly of bark and medulla, without any alburnous
or woody matter; and, if uninterrupted by any
opposing body, it descends in a straight line toward
the centre of the earth, in whatever position the
seed has been placed, provided it has been permitted
to vegetate at rest.

“Soon after the first root has been emitted, the
stem elongates, and, taking a direction diametrically
opposite to that of the root, it raises,in a great
~ many kinds of plants, the cotyledons out of the soil,
which then become the seminal leaves of the young
plant. During this period the young plant derives
nourishment almost wholly from the cotyledons, or
seed-leaves, and if these be destroyed it perishes.

“The bark of the root now begins to execute its

418 GROWTH OF THE SEED.

office of depositing alburnous or woody matter; and
as soon as this is formed, the sap, which had hitherto
descended only through the cortical vessels, begins
to ascend through the alburnum. ‘The plumule, in
consequence, elongates, its leaves enlarge and unfold,
and a set of vessels which did not exist in the root
are now brought into action. These, which I have
called the central vessels, surround the medulla, and
between it and the bark form a circle, upon which
the alburnum is deposited by the bark in the form
of wedges, or like the stones of an arch. Through
these vessels, which diverge into the leaf-stalks, the
sap ascends, and is dispensed through the vessels
and parenchymatous substance of the leaf; and in
this organ the fluid, recently absorbed from the soil,
becomes converted into the sap, or blood of the
plant: and as this fluid, during germination, de-
scended from the cotyledons and seed-leaves of the
plant, it now descends from its proper leaves, and
adds in its course to the bulk of the stem and the
erowth of the roots. Alburnum is also deposited
in the stem of the plant, below the proper leaves, as
it was previously below the seed-leaves; and from
this spring other ascending vessels, which give ex-
istence to, and feed, other leaves and buds.”

CHAPTER XIII.

THE DISEASES OF FRUIT-BEARING PLANTS.

§ I. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS — BERKELEY’S THEORY OF CLASSIFICATION
— WEIGMANN — CAUSES OF DISEASE —INSECTS. § II. DISEASES OF
THE APPLE —OF THE LEAF — FALL OF THE LEAF — FUNGI — CLADOS
PORIUM DENDRITICUM, CERATITES, RAESTELIA — INSECTS — APPLE-
TREE LOUSE, COMMON APPLE-TREE CATERPILLAR, THE OAK-TREE CAT-
ERPILLAR, THE VAPORER MOTH, THE PALMER WORM, THE HAG MOTH,
THE UNICORN MOTH, THE CANKER WORM, THE HANDMAID MOTH, THE
DOTTED APPLE-LEAF WORM; OF THE FRUIT AND FLOWER — STERIL-
ITY —IMMATURITY OF THE FRUIT— INSECTS—THE SAW-FLY, THE
MIDGE, THE CODLING MOTH, THE ROSE-BUG; OF THE STEM — INSECTS
-—— THE GOAT MOTH, THE COMMON BORER, ROOT-BLIGHT INSECT, THE
SNAPPING BEETLE, THE BARK LOUSE, THE LOCUST OF THE SEVEN-
TEENTH YEAR; OF THE TREE GENERALLY — PROFUSION OF SAP,
HUNGER, STAGNATION FROM TRANSPLANTATION, CANKER, FREEZING,
SPLITTING, WIND SHAKES, DROPSY, SUN-STROKES, WOUNDS, LICHENS,
VITIATION OF THE SAP. § III. DISEASES OF THE PEAR—OF THE
LEAF — AMERICAN PEAR BLIGHT — INSECTS — THE GOLDSMITH BEETLE,
THE RED MITE, THE FLY, THE LYDA, THE ASTYAGES, THE HISPA
QUADRATA, FUNGI, DISCOLORATIONS; OF THE FRUIT AND FLOWFR —
ROTTING AT THE CORE, INDURATION, LOSS OF BLOOM, ETC.; OF THE
STEM — ROOT BLIGHT — INSECTS —THE BLIGHT BEETLE, THE BARK
LOUSE, FUNGI, ETC. § IV. DISEASES OF THE PEACH—THE DOTTED
APPLE-LEAF WORM, PREMATURE FALL OF THE FRUIT, THE BORER,
GUMMING, ETC. § Vv. DISEASES OF THE PLUM—PLUM LOUSE, CUR-
CULIO, THE PLUM WART, ETC. § VI. DISEASES OF THE CHERRY — THE
LOUSE, THE MAY BEETLE, ETC. § VII. DISEASES OF THE GOOSEBERRY
— THE CATERPILLAR, THE SWALLOW-TAILED MOTH, THE MIDGE, THE
MILDEW, ETC. § VIII. DISEASES OF THE CURRANT—FALL OF THE
LEAF, THE BORER, ETC. . § IX. DISEASES OF THE RASPBERRY — THE
GRUB, ETC. § X. DISEASES OF THE VINE—OF THE LEAF — INSECTS
— THE VINE PLUME, THE SAW-FLY, THE ANOMOLA VITIS, THE SPOTTED

420 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

BEETLE, THE PYRALIS, THE PROCRIS AMERICANA, THE HALTICA CHALY-
BEA, THE LEAF HOPPER, THE BOMBYX QUATA, THE PHILAMPELUS,
THE CHOEROCAMEPA, THE RHYNCHITIS, FUNGI, COMMON MILDEW, ERY¥-
SIPHE, BOTRYTIS; OF THE FRUIT AND FLOWER—THE ROSE-BUG,
SHANKING.

§1.— GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

Tue diseases of plants have never received the
attention which they deserve. Of latter years in-
vestigation has been directed to insects injurious to
vegetation; but this has been done more in relation
to entomology than to pathology. We had de-
scribed a great number of diseases affecting fruit
trees, and had classified them in such a manner as
we had hoped might contribute to the progress of
vegetable pathology, when we discovered that its
introduction to this volume would increase its size
beyond proper proportion. ‘Therefore we are con-
strained to retain many of the results of our inves-
tigation on this topic, which we may hereafter issue
in a separate form. In this chapter we insert only
some leading facts on the more common diseases.
Even these we must treat with special regard to
practice, omitting, for the most part, those novelties
and freaks of nature which should be noticed in a
full pathological treatise.

We shall not confine ourselves to a strictly philo-
sophical method ; because, in the cultivation of some
plants, the very state which we desire to induce is
one of disease, provided this be considered as a de-
parture from the normal type. For instance, the

CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES, 421

enlargement of the flesh of a fruit, the entire or
partial absence of seed, are the results of disease,
strictly considered; and yet these conditions are
very desirable in fruit culture. Therefore, practically,
we will regard as disease whatever is unfavorable to
the growth of the plant for the purpose intended.
This view is taken by Mr. Berkeley, of England, who
defines disease as “a deviation from the normal con-
dition of species.” He treats the subject practically
only as it is unfavorable to these deviations from
nature produced by cultivation.

Species have no natural tendency to disease, be-
cause this might destroy them; yet individuals or
varieties have such a tendency, which they mani-
fest in whatever condition they may be placed, and
which they transmit to their offspring.

Berkeley thus classifies diseases: Internal, or Con-
stitutional; External, or Accidental; Doubtful, or
Conjectural. Weigmann arranged them thus: Those
which affect the organs of Nutrition, of Respiration,
and of Reproduction. But we shall adopt a classifi-
cation better suited to the object of this chapter,
and shall speak of the diseases of different species
of fruit according to the part of the plant which
they affect. This arrangement will enable the fruit-
grower to avail himself readily of the results of our
investigation.

While far the larger part of the diseases of plants
may be rather mechanical and accidental than con-

36

422 CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASE.

stitutional, yet there is a large class of the latter which

have not been sufficiently studied to be described
in detail. They are undoubtedly those which result
from causes analogous to inflammation in the animal
system, taking that term in its largest acceptation ;
yet their proportion is small. In some cases, during
the inflamed condition of the organ there is an in-
creased degree of heat, like that so often accompany-
ing the same state in animals; while in other cases
no difference in the temperature is perceptible” M.
Huber found when the heat of the atmosphere stood
at twenty-one degrees centigrade, that the instrument,
surrounded with spadices of the arum cordipolium,
during the process of fecundation, rose as high as
forty-two degrees. While plants have not as definite
a form as animals, and it is therefore more difficult
to detect malformation, yet they exhibit a peculiar
sensitiveness to external influences during their
erowing season.

Mons. J. De Jonghe, of Brussels, states the causes
which produce disease in fruit trees as follows :?

1st. Constitutional weakness of the variety. Some
sorts are weak because the conditions in which they
are placed are unfavorable ; perhaps they originated
in a warmer region, and the severity or vicissitudes
of the climate induces disease. Other varieties are

1 Gross’s Elements of Pathological Anatomy.
2 In a paper published in “‘ Gardeners’ Chronicle,” vol. for 1857.

CAUSES OF DISEASE. 425

constitutionally weak. This, according to Dr. Van
Mons, is owing to a diseased state of the parent at
the formation of the seed.

2d. The attacks of insects, induced by a state of
weakness. Many insects attack more readily a weak
tree, and, feeding upon its vitiated sap, decrease its
strength, and cause ultimately its death.

3d. The influence of a poor stock on which the tree
is grafted. As these stocks are seedling plants, they
of course vary as much in constitution as the culti-
yated sorts. If the stock be naturally weak, the
scion inserted therein partakes of this weakness, and
seldom attains full size; while, if the stock be con-
stitutionally strong and robust, and the scion insert-
ed therein weak, the vigor of the former will over-
come the weakness of the latter. This accounts
not only for the varying strength, but for the differ-
ence in the quality of trees of the same variety, and
under the same conditions of culture.

4th. The use of improper scions. Fruitfulness is
often delayed by using scions from young undeyvel-
oped trees; or weakness may be produced by the
use of those from an old and decrepid tree. If pos-
sible, the scions should be taken from a tree which
has just commenced to bear, and is in the prime of
life.

5th. Bad soil. If the soil is cold, however great
may be the constitutional vigor of the tree, canker,
or some other disease will, sooner or later, appear.

-

424 WEAKNESS.

But if the earth is warm, yet exhausted, the roots
do not find sufficient food, and weakness ensues.

6th. Improper management. If the tree has been
planted too deep or too shallow, the roots not
properly spread out in planting, the pruning inju-
dicious, or the cultivation of the soil during the
summer insufficient, the effect will be for the time
to weaken the tree, and, it may be, permanently to
injure it.

ith. Accident. Contusion, gnawing by animals,
sun-strokes, or cutting the roots severely with the
plough, may prevent the tree from becoming vigor-
ous.

But there are many other causes of weakness
besides those above mentioned, such as superabun-
dant production.. Yet weakness is not always the
cause of the diseased action, although it may often
produce it. But there are multitudes of maladies,
where this is only the effect of the disease. A par-
asite may have been at work for years, sapping at
the life of the tree, before its results are visible
weakness. Some insects attack a tree when in
full vigor, —the apple-tree caterpillar, or the canker-
worm,— and they soon reduce the tree from vigor to
debility.

But we are too much accustomed to consider all
insects as our enemies. If they cross our path, our
first impulse is to crush them; if one of them falls
upon us, our flesh crawls with repugnance. What

>

THE LIFE OF AN INSECT. 425

is more mortifying to a host, disgusting to his guest,
or disheartening to the amateur, than to discover a
writhing worm wounded by his teeth in a fruit which
the sun has painted with the image of God’s glory,
and to which the morning breezes have imparted a
delightful fragrance, and from which he anticipated
an almost ambrosial morsel? While some insects,
destructive to our fruit, are real enemies, others
are true friends and valuable allies, destroying
the former. Insects cause a number of diseases,
and we will consider briefly a few facts respecting
them.

The life of an insect is divided into three periods.
The first state is that in which it is hatched, then
called a larva, and is wingless; it may be a maggot
destitute of legs and sight; a caterpillar or grub.
The latter has six legs, sometimes with an additional
pair of false legs attached to the posterior segment
of the body. The caterpillar has six true legs, like
the grub, and several pairs of false legs, amounting
altogether to from ten to sixteen.

From this state, in which it feeds enormously, and
erows very fast, it passes to the second state. In
this it is called a pupa, or chrysalid. The latter is
distinguished by the gilt spots. In this state some
insects eat, and are active; but most of them are
dormant, and enclosed in a cocoon.

In the third state they are generally provided
with wings. The females deposit their eggs, and

36*

426 COLEOPTERA, ORTHOPTERA, NEUROPTERA.

die. In the first of these states they do the most
injury.

The following description of the orders of insects
was suggested by those of Burmeister, Harris, and
Glover.

1. Coleoptera — Beetles. These undergo a perfect
change of form, as described above. ‘They have a
mouth, furnished with jaws formed for biting; two
thick, wiry covers, meeting in a straight line on the.
top of the back ; and two filmy wings underneath
them, folded transversely. The larvae are grubs;
the pupae with wings and legs distinct and uncon-
fined.

2. Orthoptera — Cockroaches, crickets, grasshop-
pers, straight-winged insects. These have only an
imperfect change of form; and in their mature state
are like grasshoppers. They have a mouth like
the preceding, furnished with jaws for biting or
masticating; two thick, opaque upper wings, over-
lapping a little on the back; and two larger, thin
wings, folded in plaits, like a fan. The larvae and
pupae are active, but wingless.

3. Neuroptera — Net-veined insects. These have
a perfect change of form: the mouth is furnished
with jaws for biting. They have four wings, of

LEPIDOPTERA, HEMIPTERA, DIPTERA. 427

similar texture, of which the hinder are the largest,
with narrow, meshed netted veins.

4. Lepidoptera — Butterflies and moths. These
undergo a perfect change of form; have a mouth
with a spiral trunk, furnished with a piercer, or
sucker, and not capable of biting; four wings, of
similar texture, wholly or only partly covered with
fine dust-like scales; the larvae are caterpillars, and
have six true legs, and from four to ten fleshy pro-
legs; pupae, with the cases of the wings and of the
legs indistinct, and soldered to the breast.

5. Hemiptera — Bugs, locusts, plant-lice. These
have an imperfect change of form. The mouth is
armed with a beak, furnished with a piercer, or
sucker, and not capable of biting. ‘They have four
wings, generally standing up, when at rest, like the
roof of a house, and frequently all of the same mem-
braneous texture. The larvae.and pupae are nearly
like the adult insect, but are wanting in wings.

6. Diptera — Mosquitos, gnats, and flies. These
undergo a perfect change of form; the mouth has
a proboscis for sucking, sometimes having small
lancet-like appendages for piercing concealed inside
the trunk, as in the horse-fly. They have two
naked, transparent wings, and in place of the two
hind wings a slender stalk-like appendage on each

428 DISEASES OF THE APPLE.

side; this terminates with a button, or knob-like
end. The larvae are maggots without feet, and
with the breathing-holes generally in the hinder
extremity of the body. ‘The pupae are mostly in-
cased in the dried skins of the larvae; sometimes,
however, they are naked, in which case the wings
and the legs are visible, and are more or less free
or unconfined.

7. Hymenoptera. ‘These insects have a_ perfect
change of form. Their mouth is armed with dis-
tinct mandibles, or jaws, and also has a ligula,
tongue, or proboscis for suction. ‘They have four
membraneous wings, divided into large cells. The
larvae are mostly maggot-like, or slug-like; that
of some species are caterpillar-like pupae, with legs
and wings unconfined.

§ II. “DISEASES OF THE APPLE.

I. Tuose arrectinc THE Lear. 1. The fall of
the leaf— Phylloptosis. In most plants there. is a
point of articulation between the leaf-stock and the
wood, but not always. Nearly all the plants which
come under our notice in this work possess such a
junction. When the leaf is about to fall, a chemical
change takes place in the chlorophyl, which gives
the green color to plants, — a change by which they
assume the hue so familiar to us as that of autumn.
Thus the leaf dies, and is no longer of any value to
ihe} tree.

PREMATURE FALL OF THE LEAF. 429

Dr. Schacht describes this more in detail. He
says, “ The cells at the place of separation are cork,
and the scar is subsequently covered with it. The
transmission of sap is consequently impeded, and at
length entirely cut off, insomuch that the leaf hangs
loose, and finally falls.”

But, with much reason, Dr. Berkeley contends
that this is not the cause of the phenomenon, but
only an effect, by which these cells endeavor to
cover the live wood of the tree in such a manner as
to prevent the transmission of any morbid matter.
This transmission he often observed to be the cause
of canker. The-fall of the flower and the fruit he
considered as belonging to the same class of phe-
nomena. It may be said that, in the case of a fruit,
death has not taken place ; but it will be seen, upon
a moment’s reflection, that as far as its relation to
the tree is concerned, the fruit has really ceased to
live as soon as it stops drawing nutriment from the
tree. “The parts have all arrived at maturity, and
therefore neither require any more food from the
mother plant, nor are they in a condition to make
any further interchange,” (fermentation having
probably commenced) “ and separation takes place.
The fall of the leaf, considered as a disease, is when
this phenomenon takes place at an improper time,
and results either from some constitutional or
accidental cause.”

The Flemish Beauty and the Paradise d’Automne

430 THE PRESENCE OF FUNGI.

pears may be cited as examples of this disease result-
ing from the first of these causes. ‘These drop their
foliage oftentimes before the fruit is sufficiently
mature to pluck from the tree. This makes the
fruit less in size and inferior in quality.

Among the varieties of the currant, the Red
Dutch is, especially in this country, liable to shed
its foliage prematurely, in which case the fruit
shrivels and dries up; or, if gathered, possesses a
peculiar acidity, showing that the saccharine fer-
mentation had scarcely commenced. While this
is the character of the Red Dutch, some varieties,
like La Versaillaise, retain their foliage. This in-
creases the size of the fruit, and its adhesion to the
bush.

2. The presence of fungi. Myr. Berkeley, in a re-
view of the work of Mons. Muger on the causes
which induce fungi, states them as follows:

(1) Fungi always originate on plants which are
young and full of sap; and hence it is in spring
that they are found on the young and tender parts.

(2) Young shoots of trees are more lable to be
attacked.

(3) Younger trees are more predisposed than
those which are older. Many species occur in
young plantations, which are rarely found in those
of older growth.

(4) Galls are frequently covered with fungi.

CLADOSPORIUM DENDRITICUM. 451

(5) The lower branches are more affected than
the upper, and the propagation of the parasite takes
place from the base to the summit.

(6) Land too highly manured induces rust.

Among the occasional causes producing fungi
are — |

(1) An atmosphere habitually charged with mois-
tare:

(2) Absence of light.

(3) Sudden changes in the atmosphere, as a tran-
sition from heat to cold, or from a dry to a moist
state.

(4) Long-continued drought.

(5) Crowded growth.

(6) Plants with creeping stems.

(7) Leaves soiled with earth, or other impurities.

(8) Changes of climate, causing corresponding
changes in the development of the plant.

(9) Inundation.

Of Fungi, these kinds deserve special notice —

(1) Cladosporium dendriticum. This fungus at-
tacks not only the leaves, but also the fruit of the
apple and pear. It completely exhausts the foliage,
spreading over it, and causing black spots which,
in the fruit, often produce cracks. Those caused
by fungus must be distinguished, however, from
those cracks caused by a sudden and superabundant
flow of sap. This fungus is very persistent, and
seldom leaves a tree in which it has once obtained

432 CERATITES, RAESTELIA.

a sure lodgement. Some vegetable physiologists
have even thought it was transmitted to the next
generation by the seed.

Like the species Botrytis, it dces not work upon
the surface, but beneath it; and the disease is on
that account not so easily exterminated as those
which result from fungi, and run upon the surface.
The only alleviant for the disease is to gather all
the leaves after they have fallen, and burn them.
At the same time the whole tree should be washed
with a mixture of sulphur and lme-water, as recom-
mended for mildew on the vine (Oidium Tuckerii).
Thus, whatever spores may have been deposited on
the buds and wood will be destroyed.

(2) Ceratites. 'This fungus attacks the apple, pear,
and quince. It more often appears upon the pear,
not only upon its leaf, but also on its fruit. This
has a single lobe at the orifice of the peridium,
from which the spores escape for reproduction
( Berkeley).

(3) Raestelia. This fungus has a number of
lobes, all connected together, so as to form a little
cage, through the interstices of which the spores
escape. When a pear tree is once affected by this
pest, it seldom escapes its influence in future years ;
on the contrary, the evil generally increases, spread-
ing to every neighboring tree, and thus propagating
itself indefinitely. The better plan is to pick the
leaves which are infected, as soon as the orange-col-

THE APPLE-TREE LOUSE. ; 433

ored, thickened spots appear, and before the spores
are developed. ( Berkeley.)

3. Insects. (1) Apple-tree Louse — Aphis mali.
This is a small, green insect, which crowds upon the
tips of the young shoots, and of the leaves. It
sucks the juice of the tree, and causes the leaf to
curl under. This provides it with a shelter from
the dew and rain. It is very prolific. In the
autumn the male and female produce eggs, which,
during the winter, are laid in the crevices of the
bark. The females are hatched early in the spring,
and arrive at maturity in a few days. Without any
intercourse with those of the opposite sex in this
generation, they give birth to living young, bringing
forth about two daily for a period of two or three
weeks. ‘The young soon become parents, and they
are thus multiplied almost inconceivably. From
twenty to forty generations are produced in a single
season. Mr. Curtis states that, from a single egg, in
seven generations, seven hundred and twenty-nine
millions of lice will be bred, if unmolested ; and if
they all lived the allotted time, by autumn every-
thing upon the face of the earth would be covered
with them.

On this account it is a source of gratitude that
Providence has given this insect so many enemies ;
perhaps no other has an equal number. ‘These are
wasps denominated Crabonidae, and a number of
flies called golden-eyed and lace-winged. But one of

oT

454 COMMON APPLE-TREE CATERPILLAR.

its most active enemies is the common lady-bug.
This bug grasps the lice, and sucks out all their
juices, leaving nothing but the skin. But while they
have so many enemies, they also have friends and
protectors. These are large black or reddish ants,
which run over their backs and tickle them, induc-
ing them to exude a drop of sweet fluid, which the
ant consumes. The lice do not seem to flourish as
well where the ants are not their attendants.

As these insects attack only the tips of the
shoots, where the skin is young and tender, the best
method of destroying them, if the tree is small, is
to immerse the shoot in a pail of water in which
a piece of whale-oil soap of the size of the fist has
been dissolved (Ltch).

(2) Common Apple-tree Caterpillar — Clisiocampa
Americana. The territory which is the theatre of
operations for this worm is extensive. Although it
can subsist upon the leaf of almost any species of
the order of Rosaceae, yet it always chooses first
the wild cherry, then the apple. Dr. Fitch, of New
York, attached nests of them to trees and bushes
of various kinds, and found, while they generally
existed, that they did by no means flourish, and did
not become strong enough to spin cocoons. The.
seasons which are the most propitious for fruit, are
also for the development of these as well as of other
insects. This is a sage provision; otherwise our
whole crop might be destroyed in an unfavorable

COMMON APPLE-TREE CATERPILLAR. 435

year, while in seasons of abundance we can afford
to lose a portion. ‘The eggs are placed in a cluster,
forming a ring about the twig of three-quarters of
an inch in length. In one of these belts is at least
three hundred eggs —the product of one female.
They are deposited early in July, and remain until
the latter part of the next April or first of May,
when they begin to hatch. The young larvae at
first feed upon the glutinous matter which sur-
rounds and covers the eggs; but when they have
gained sufficient strength, they begin to forage upon
the leaves. Each one, as he travels, spins a thread,
attaches it to the bark, which secures his foothold.
When he arrives at a fork in the limbs, he com-
mences the dwelling by spinning threads in every
direction. ‘These caterpillars, having eaten suffi-
cient, repose upon the outer surface of their netting.
When others return, they spin another net over
these, and walk over those which are asleep. Thus
a nest consists of several of these nets, one over the
other, with space enough between them to allow the
passage of the insect.

When they first come forth from the egg they
are not more than one-tenth of an inch in length.
But they throw off their skins five or six times, and
at each change become larger. They seem to be
destitute of sense to guide them toward their food.
They will sometimes pass, and almost touch fresh
leaves, when they are half starved, without noticing

436 THE OAK-TREE CATERPILLAR.

them. Neither do they have any mode of commu-
nicating information to their companions in regard
to food. One hungry worm after another examines
the end of every twig upon a limb unsuccessfully for
food; and, returning, they meet others going out
upon the same errand. They take daily three
meals, — one in the morning, another in the after-
noon, and a third at night. Each worm will con-
sume about two leaves per diem ; and as each nest
contains about three hundred individuals, they will
destroy at least six hundred leaves daily. In the
early part of June they separate, and select some
retreat where they spin their cocoons. They repose
about three weeks in the pupa state; and early in
July they pair and deposit their eggs. At this time
they are the dingy, dusty moths which flutter about
the lights in the evenings. If these insects are un-
molested, they will often entirely strip the tree of
foliage.

The best method of preventing their ravages is to
take the nests from the trees with the hands, imme-
diately after their appearance, and to stamp them so
as to crush the young. If they are merely thrown
upon the ground, they will soon crawl up again,
and resume their attacks upon the same, or another
tree (Etch).

(3) The Oak-tree Caterpillar — Clisiocampa sylva-
tica. This caterpillar attacks the apple and the
oak. It not only eats the leaves of the former, but

THE VAPORER MOTH. 437

enaws the stem of the fruit, making it fall to the
eround. It is found generally in the more southern
parts of our country. It makes its appearance a
ttle later in the season than the common cater-
pillar, and its nest is attached to the sides of the
tree, instead of to the fork of the limbs. In other
respects, it 1s very much like those in the preced-
ing description.

There are various insects which prey upon this
caterpillar in the pupa state. Some of them spin
small cocoons upon the larva, and consume the
pupa. As in respect to the preceding, it is often
necessary to destroy the nest several times, as a
portion of the worms will be foraging, who will re-
construct their abode on their return (Ftch).

(4) The Vaporer Moth — Orgyia leucostigma. The
caterpillar of this moth “is slender, with pale yellow
. hairs and tufts, and black pencil-marks; its head,
and two small protuberances on the hind part of
the back, are bright coral red.” It is about one
inch in length, has sixteen feet, and is very beauti-
ful in its appearance. Among the fruits, it feeds
upon the leaves of the apple and the plum during
the month of July. It is not gregarious, but lives
solitary, and eats only the soft parts of the leaf and
the smaller ribs. Their cocoons which are to pro-
duce females are spun, in the latter part of this
month, to twigs and limbs, while those from which

the male moths are to be hatched are often attached
37*

438 THE VAPORER MOTH.

to fences. Two leaves are often drawn together, and
tied by their threads, to form the cocoon of the
former. The cocoons of the females are always
placed where the eggs are to be deposited. ‘The
implantation of this instinct is a wise provision,
because the females are wingless. |

Early in August the moth appears. Its color is
dark brown, with very few spots or streaks. The
flight of the male is peculiar, made up of short
jerks. The body of the female is at first very thick
and unwieldy, but, after the deposition of her egg,
appears slender and flabby ; and she soon becomes
so weak as to drop to the ground and perish. The
number of her eggs is from one hundred to two
hundred. ‘They are placed upon the exterior of the
cocoon just vacated, where they are covered with a
frothy matter, which glues them together, and pre-
vents their destruction by birds.

The caterpillar, however, is not without enemies.
It is attacked by a very small, bee-like insect, that
punctures its skin and inserts an egg, soon hatch-
ing a maggot, which feeds upon the fatty matter of
the caterpillar, and finally kills it.

The vaporer moth can easily be destroyed, be-
cause the cocoon of the female, upon which the eggs
have been placed, can be readily distinguished, when
the leaves have fallen, by the prominence of the
dry leaf forming a part of it. They should then be
gathered and burned (Lich).

THE PALMER WORM. 439

(5) The Palmer Worm — Chaetochilus pometellus :
Harris. There seems to be seasons when this
insect is very destructive. Generally they make
their appearance only in small numbers; when in
quantity, their numbers are prodigious, and they
destroy all the foliage upon a tree in an almost in-
credibly short space of time. They prove most
injurious after a hot, dry season, when the orchards
which they attack appear as though fire had gone
over them. If an infested tree is shaken, hundreds
of them let themselves down to the ground by a
fine thread. Their attacks are not confined to the
leaves, but also extend to the fruit. They are very
variable in color; and this circumstance has given
rise to their division into several species ; but spe-
cific difference does not, probably, exist. Their
bodies have thirteen segments, and sixteen feet.
Their general color is greenish yellow; but a shade
of pink, or a tendency to white, is often observed
among them. ‘They have upon them several small
black dots, each giving rise to a single hair. Where
they exist in small number, they spin their cocoons
upon leaves; but where they are numerous they so
completely destroy the foliage that this becomes
impossible, and they take refuge under dead leaves,
or some other material upon the surface of the
ground, or in any secure position. ‘Their cocoon is
very superficial, when compared with that of some
other insects, as they remain in it a very short time.

440 THE HAG MOTH.

In ten or twelve days, or about the middle of July,
the moth appears. This worm is attacked by a
parasitic insect, which feeds upon it until it has
attained its growth, and then perforates the skin of
the palmer worm, and spins its own cocoon. Of
course it kills the worm upon which it has preyed.

The most effectual method for the destruction of
the palmer worm is to syringe the tree, by means of
a garden engine, with a strong solution of whale-
oil soap. Heavy showers dislodge the worm; and
it is therefore only in a season of long drought that
they can increase so as to become injurious to any
great extent (Lich).

(6) The Hag Moth—Limacodes pethecium: Smith.
In its very slow motion, this resembles a slug. It
attacks the apple and the cherry. Its color is brown,
and it is covered with short, downy hairs. Its body
is nearly oblong square, and about one inch in
length. The moth appears in June, and the larvae
consume the leaves until the middle of September
(Harris).

(7) The Unicorn Moth— Notodonta unicornis. ‘This
attacks both the apple and the plum. It is an inch
or more in length, and is generally solitary in its
habits. ‘“ The top of the fourth ring of this cater-
pillar rises in the form of a long horn, a little slop-
ing forward.” The tail and hindermost legs are
always. raised, except in walking. Its head is large,
and brown in color; the sides of the next two rings

THE UNICORN MOTH. A4l

green ; and the rest of the body brown, variegated
with white. It has two broods during the season ;
but, as they are generally small in number, they
seldom do sufficient injury to produce a noticeable
effect (Harris).

(8) The Canker Worm — Phalaena vernata: Peck.
In the male moth of this species the atennae have
a narrow, almost downy, edging on each side,
scarcely perceptible to the naked eye. The wings
are large and thin. It is ash-colored, variously
marked with white. The female is wingless; the
atennae short, slender, and naked. These insects
rise from the ground, where they have undergone
their transformation, in the autumn and winter in
small numbers; but the larger part of them do not
come forth until about the middle of March. The
females advance toward the nearest tree, and climb
slowly up the trunk. The winged males flutter
about, and accompany them. ‘The female deposits
upon the limbs of the tree from sixty to one hun-
dred eggs, glues them together, and dies. These
eggs hatch early in the succeeding May. The
larvae attack generally only the foliage of the apple
and the elm, but occasionally the cherry and the
plum. ‘These worms vary exceedingly in color, —
from green to dusty brown, and blackish. At full
size they are about an inch in length.

A month after their appearance, they stop feed-
ing, and leave the trees, creeping down the trunk,

442 THE CANKER WORM.

or suspending themselves by threads. They then
burrow in the soil to the depth of a few inches, and
become transformed. They are prevented from
spreading over any new tract of country very rap-
idly, by the wingless condition of the female. They
are exceedingly voracious during the period of their —
growth, often entirely depriving the tree of leaves.

To prevent ravages of the larvae we should stop
the female from ascending the tree. For this pur-
pose various methods have been adopted. Strips
of paper, covered with tar, have been used; but the
necessity of a frequent application renders this only
a partial preventive. Boxes or troughs are some-
time fitted areund the tree, so that the female is
obliged to make her way over them in ascending.
These are filled with a noxious fluid, or some liquid
which drowns the insects, and proves beneficial.
The Messrs. Clapp, of Dorchester, Massachusetts,
used this remedy when their orchard was troubled,
and state that for a few evenings during the ascen-
sion of the insect the boxes became so completely
filled with moths that others travelled over the
bodies of their dead and dying companions.

The most simple and efficient remedy is to place
a strip of zinc, four inches in width, around the tree,
so that the upper edge shall grasp the tree tightly,
and the lower stand out two inches from the trunk.
Then all the little interstices between the upper
edge and the tree should be stuffed to prevent their

THE HANDMAID MOTH. 445

ascent. They cannot pass over the lower edge, and
therefore slide off and fall to the ground, to repeat
the attempt until they become. aware of their ina-
bility to reach the limbs. This collar must be made
of zinc, and not of tin, for the latter will rust, and
thus afford the worms access to the top of the tree.
Orchards thus treated have been entirely free from
these pests, while those in the immediate vicinity |
were entirely deprived of foliage.

(9) The Handmaid Moth— Eumetopona mimstra :
‘Drury. This is one of the worst insects affecting
the apple. It commences at the tip of the limb, and
entirely strips the tree of foliage. Like the palmer
worm, these seldom make their appearance in sufi-
cient numbers to do any great harm. ‘The caterpil-
lars are yellow or black, feed while huddled together
on the under surface of the leaves, and gnaw at the
margin. If they are alarmed, they throw their tails
at right angles to their bodies, and their heads up
over their backs, and remain in this posture until
the danger is past. They are from six to eight
weeks in attaining their full size, and appear as
moths about the middle of June. They then deposit
from seventy to one hundred eggs, which are glued
together on the surface of the leaf. In the latter
part of July, when the worm is hatched, it com-
mences to consume the leaf. In September it enters
the soil to the depth of two or three inches. No
effectual method for their destruction is known

444 DISEASES AFFECTING THE FRUIT AND FLOWER.

except that of plucking them off aa
(Iitch).

(10) Dotted Apple-leaf Worm — Brachytaenia mal-
ana. ‘This insect is of a pale green color, is dotted
with white, and has fine whitish lines running lon-
gitudinally. They make their appearance in the
latter part of May, and attack the under surface of
the foliage of the apple, cherry, and peach; and
after their growth they spin a very peculiar and in-
genious cocoon. ‘They draw the edges of a leaf so
as to perfectly enclose themselves, and thus provide
a dwelling for the pupae. ‘They are transformed
into moths in July. They deposit their eggs in the
leaves, and produce another generation the same
season. This new race, having entered their cocoons,
fall with the leaves, and come out as moths the next
spring. But some of them, encouraged by the heat
of the autumn, come forth, and hide themselves
under the old bark, or in some such safe position,
where they remain frozen all winter, and come forth
in early spring. This insect, ike many other spe-
cies, seldom appears in sufficient numbers to do any
very serious injury; but, when it does, the tree
can be shaken, —a sheet having been spread under
it, — and the worms gathered.and burnt (ich).

Il. Diseases AFFECTING THE Fruit AND FLOWER.
1. Sterility. This is not always an injury to the cul-
tivator of fruits, but is often a positive benefit.

STERILITY. 445

It denotes, not the non-production of fruit, but of —
seed, the entire or partial loss of which, though a
disease strictly considered, is generally attended by
the production of fruit, because the resources of the
tree are not exhausted. The Vicar of Winkfield
pear seldom produces perfect seed; and hence it is
a very regular and abundant bearer. There are
some varieties of grapes which do not produce seed,
and this is regarded as a point of excellence.

But, in a practical view of sterility, it will be well
. to consider it only affecting the production of fruit.
Though all the parts of the flower may be perfect,
and proper fecundation. take place, and even an
embryo be formed, yet the plant may be sterile as
to seed from habitual abortion, which is especially
liable to take place in those varieties in which the
walls of the ovary are highly developed. Hence,
in some of the finer varieties of pears, perfect seed
is a comparatively rare product. As the properties
which make the fruit valuable are altogether inde-
pendent of the seed, it is sufficient for all ordinary
purposes if impregnation has taken place to such
an extent as to insure the swelling of the sarcocarp
or intermediate flesh. Many cases of sterility result
from the fact that fertilization takes place only suf-
ficient to stimulate temporarily the contents of the
embryo sac and the fleshy walls of the fruit, but
not sufficient to ensure its growth to maturity.
Hence, after a time, the embryo ceases to grow, and

38

446 STERILITY.

the sarcocarp withers. This is especially the case
in stone fruits, as is well known to every cultivator, —
whose fruits so frequently drop just when they are
undergoing the process of stoning. Meyer studied
this subject as regards forced cherries. From a very
early stage of growth he could predict, from a change
in the external form, and sometimes from a peculiar
intensity of color, what fruit would ultimately prove
abortive. But the shrivelling of the embryo takes
place previous to the peculiar elongation of the
fruit (Berkeley).

The prevalence of rainy or cloudy weather at the
time of flowering may prevent the style, or female
element, from receiving the pollen. The anthers
require dry weather in which to burst open, or
dehisce, and throw forth their pollen. If this
weather does not occur at the proper time, the style
may fade, and its sensibility to the process of fecun-
dation cease. Or, if the pollen has been already
deposited, a heavy rain may wash it away before it
has commenced its work.

Upon this subject Dr. Berkeley remarks, that the
secretion of viscous fluid, which is exuded from the
surface of the style; and which develops the tubes
that insert themselves down the style to the ovule
from the pollen grains, is often washed off in rainy
weather, so that even if the pollen falls upon the
style afterwards, it produces no result. Sudden
heat succeeding a fog or cloudy weather, he thinks

STERILITY. 447

one of the most powerful agents in drying up and
destroying the delicate tissue of the blossoms; and
sometimes this takes place in flowers which have
been impregnated, as well as those which have not.
Such cases of failure are repeatedly noticed in this
country, as well as in England. ‘There is no doubt
that sterility sometimes occurs from a superabun-
dance of this viscous fluid.

Fungi and insects often attack the organs of fruc-
tification, and cause more or less injury, according
to the stage of progress in which the blossom then is.
Sterility is sometimes occasioned by injury of the
embryo, before the time of blossom, by extreme changes
in the temperature. ‘Those seasons which are usually
called the most severe, are generally best suited to
plants. A low degree of the thermometer is not
necessarily injurious if it is regular, and not inter-
mitted by warm seasons, which excite the bud and
cause it to swell, and sometimes even to put forth
blossom. If such seasons are succeeded by extreme
cold, they destroy the embryo. Such extremes are
not so liable to injure the bud in the early part
of winter, because then it would not be natural for
the bud to start; but towards spring, when the sap
is just beginning to flow, such changes are more
serious.

Sensitiveness to extremes is almost always con-
fined to foreign fruits, and is never noticed in native
varieties unless such extremes are very severe.

448 STERILITY.

The buds of apples are covered with thick scales,
and these are lined with pubescence, which make
them still less conductors of heat; and therefore
these are not so easily affected by the warm days in
severely cold seasons. But the peach and the
cherry are natives of a warmer climate, where, as
such, a protection is unnecessary. Hence nature did
not give them these peculiar properties. As species,
never lose their specific character, it is impossible
to raise a peach which shall have scales thick
enough, or be coated with sufficient hair, to defend
them from these vicissitudes.

After an extreme of cold has just passed, and it
is again comparatively warm so that decay can go
on, a cultivator can easily determine whether the
vitality of the buds is destroyed by cutting one
smoothly in halves, and seeing whether there are
any dark spots in the centre, since these denote the
death of the embryo.

“One of the ordinary causes of sterility,” says
Dr. Berkeley, “whether permanent or temporary,
is the hypertrophy or absence of some particular part
of the plant. The nutriment which should have
been employed in the formation and perfection of
the organs of fructification is thus diverted to some
other purpose. These organs may be apparently —
perfect, and yet no impregnation take place, even
though the pollen grains may germinate. It is
possible that, in such cases, there is some deficiency

HYPERTROPHY. 449

of power in the ovules, or in the vegetable force,
by which they are excited, and not in the pollen
erains themselves ;— an inference supported by
analogy in the animal kingdom.”

In the fruit tree this hypertrophy is often seen
in the unnatural growth of wood, induced by a
highly nitrogenous soil. The force of this growth
is often so great, that if any fruit-buds are formed,
they are changed into wood-buds the next spring,
and shoots start from them. This disease can be
remedied by severe summer pinching, as described
in the chapter upon pruning, and by root-pruning,
which will effectually check undue luxuriance.
This condition is often induced by too severe and
injudicious spring pruning. As was noticed in
another chapter, the limbs which proceed from the
buds at the base of the shoots do not produce fruit
as readily as those from the terminus, or even at
midway ; and, therefore, by pruning back to these
at the base, the fruit-grower is constantly producing
either partial or total sterility.

In some cases sterility is caused by the monacious
character of the plant (or the possession of only
one of the sexes, the other being absent or sessile),
and consequently by a defective fecundation, or
none at all. This is particularly the case with
strawberries. Some of our most valuable varieties
are utterly unable to produce a large crop without

the presence of other varieties in the line, or near
38*

450 IMMATURITY OF THE FRUIT.

them, which have a superabundance of pollen, and
can part with it for their benefit. ‘The former are
called pistillate, because the female element largely
predominates ; while the latter are staminate, because
the male element is the stronger. Sterility in a
pistillate plant can easily be remedied by planting
through the bed, or in an adjoining line, those which
are staminate.

Again: sterility often results from bad cultiva-
tion, which allows the tree to produce too large a
crop, and to exhaust itself in maturing its seed.
The production of some varieties only once in two
years is owing to the fact that the tree becomes so
weak in maturing such an inordinate number of
seeds, that no strength is left for the formation
of fruit-buds in the autumn for the succeeding year.
This can be prevented by judiciously thinning the
fruit, which does not diminish the quantity; for, as
before mentioned, what exhausts the tree is the
seed; and therefore, by taking a part of it away,
the fruit becomes larger, and the measure remains
the same, with only a diminished number of fruits.

2. Immaturity of the fruit—Carpomosia: Re. This
is a condition of the fruit in which the cells are
woody, and the juice acid, as it is before the com-
mencement of the saccharine fermentation. It is
impossible to ripen fruit when infected by this
disease, which results from one of three causes:
First, from excessive dampness and coldness of soil

EFFECT OF LIGHT. 451

during the season of growth. This may be reme-
died by proper drainage; secondly, from gathering
the fruit before saccharine fermentation has com-
menced ; and, thirdly, from absorption of too much
oxygen. This may generally be remedied by judi-
cious pruning, which admits the hight. <A ray of
light is composed of several colors, each of which
has independent and peculiar qualities, and pro-
duces distinct chemical results. By the union of
two or more rays, compound colors may be_pro-
duced, which combine the effects of the rays com-
posing them. Every vegetabie cell has a nucleus,
which, exposed to the light, takes some color, gen-
erally green. Upon the skin of fruits these colors,
changing from green to yellow, and then to brilliant
red, seem to mark or produce chemical changes
which result in the ripening of the fruit. When
this change of color in the skin of the fruit does
not take place, the fruit seldom ripens; or, if it
does become mellow, the flavor will be very inferior,
showing that the usual chemical changes have not
been thoroughly performed. The amount of color
necessary to a fruit to bring it to perfection varies,
of course, in different varieties. ‘The Rhode Island
Greening apple, in its most highly colored state, is
yet very pale when compared with a Baldwin only
moderately so. Those fruits which require little col-
or are generally peculiarly sensitive in regard to the
least. Such is the Vicar of Winkfield pear, which

452 PUNCTURE OF THE FRUIT BY THE SAW-FLY.

never becomes very highly colored, and yet is
scarcely edible unless it has some little shade of
brown or red upon its cheek, when it becomes aro-
matic and delicious.

While this disease sometimes attacks the apple,
yet it is more frequently noticed in the pear.

3. Insects. (1) The puncture of the fruit by the Apple
Saw-fly — Tentredo testudinea. ‘This insect makes its
appearance during the last of June and first of July,
when the apple is one-quarter or one-third grown,
and causes the fruit to drop to the ground. If the
apple is immediately examined, it will be found to
contain the larva, or worm, which very soon escapes
to the ground. The fly deposits its egg as early as
the period of florescence. Its wings are light brown;
its legs and body orange, with the exception of the
upper surface, which is a glossy black. Its length
is about five-eighths of an inch. ‘The caterpillar,
which appears as a borer, is of a pale orange color,
having twenty legs, three pairs of them being tho-
racic, six pairs of them short ventral, and one pair at
the extremity. The larvae increase in size with the
erowth of the apple, eating the heart of the fruit,
which at last causes it to drop. ‘The only remedy
for this serious malady is to pick up immediately
the fruit which has fallen, and destroy the larvae
before they have escaped, either by boiling them,
or feeding them to some other animals. Some per-

APPLE MIDGE AND CODLING MOTH. 453

sons allow their swine to run in the orchard during
this period, and pick up the apples as they drop
( Westwood).

(2) The Apple Midge — Molabrus mali. The flesh
of an apple which has been attacked by this little
insect becomes spongy and dry, with deep fissures
perforating it. It is probable, although not alto-
gether certain, that the fly deposits her eggs at the
calyx, or flower-end of the fruit, and that the worm
then perforates to the core, where it becomes a
pupa. ‘The dampness of the apple seems necessary
to aid the fly in its transformation; as Mr. Fitch
found that the exposure of the insect to the air re-
sulted in the immediate arrest of its growth. They,
of course, spin no cocoon in such a position, but
surround themselves with a peculiar glutinous
matter (itch). |

(3) The Codling Moth — Tinea pomonella, Linn,
Pyralis Pomana: Fabr. This moth appears the
latter part of June. “The fore wings are crossed
by numerous gray and brown lines, scalloped like
the plumage of a bird; and near the hind angle
there is a large, oval, dark brown spot, the edges of ©
which are of a bright copper color. The hind
wings and abdomen are yellowish brown.” It lays
its eggs upon the calyx, or flower-end of the fruit ;
the moth generally selects early varieties. The eggs
hatch in a few days, and the worm burrows in the
core, from which he bores a hole to the side of the

454 THE ROSE BUG.

apple; through this he thrusts its fragments. They
leave the apple either before or immediately after
it falls to the ground, so that it is then almost im-
possible to destroy it.

Dr. Trimble, of New York, found that many birds,
such as the chickadee and the downy woodpecker,
devoured these insects; and although the worms
are under the bark, where they have spun their
cocoons, yet the latter of these birds seems to have
a remarkable instinct for discovering their position,
striking through the bark with its bill at the exact
spot, bringing them forth and consuming them. He
thought that the instinct of this worm, leading it to
seek shelter for the winter in the old bark and in any
old material, might be made a means of destroying
it. “A most effectual remedy,” he says, is “ tying a
hay rope two or three times around the trunk of the
tree, when they seek refuge under this rope and
can be destroyed, if it is taken off and burnt when
winter approaches. The expense and trouble of
such an operation is very tritlmg, and the experi-
ment is certainly worth trying.

(4) The Rose Bug — Macrodactylus subspinosus :
Fabr. ‘These attack the fruit of the apple, grape,
plum, cherry, and peach. They devour not only the
fruit, but also the leaf and the blossom. They make
their appearance about the middle of June, when
they crowd in immense numbers upon the fruit or
blossom and entirely consume them. They sometimes

THE GOAT MOTH. 455

appear in orchards year after year, and deprive
them of every fruit. The beetle is only about one-
third of an inch in length, and is covered with little
scales, which cause it to appear as of a deep yellow
color. After about a month it is not to be seen: the
female has crawled into the soil, and deposited her
eggs, which hatch in about three weeks; the grub
descends below the frost, and remains torpid during ©
the winter.

The dragon-fly and several sorts of birds destroy
great quantities of this bug; but when it appears
in great numbers, these seem wholly insufficient.
The only method of preventing its ravages is to
pick it off by the hand, and shake it into a vessel
of hot water.

III. Diseases wHicH AFFECT THE STEM OF THE-
AppLe Tree. 1. Insrcrs. (1) The boring of the Goat
Moth — Cossus ligniperdu. This is an insect which
attacks, especially, large trees of the apple. It bores
holes into the trunk, and, by the admission of air and
water, promotes the decay of the tree. The moth
is about three inches in the spread of its fore wings,
and is of a grayish-brown color, shading into that
of a darker hue, and is covered with a quantity of
black streaks, which are very narrow and irregular.
The posterior wings are darker, with more minute
lines; the thorax is yellow near the head, becoming
lighter as it reaches the back, where there is a
black bar.

456 THE COMMON BORER.

The head of the caterpillar of this moth is black ;
the prevailing color of the body, lemon, with a slight
pink tinge. The back is brownish; and the first
segment of the body has two black dots, and the
skin has no hairs. It is about three inches in
length, and very stout. ‘The effects of its attack
are to be seen in the decay of the ends of the
branches, which gradually extends until the whole
tree dies. The insect collects the chips which he
has gnawed from the tree, and with these he pro-
tects himself. Inside of these he constructs his
cocoon under the bark. ‘The best time to hunt for
and destroy him is when he is just emerging from
the chrysalis state, and is coming forth from his
burrow (Harris).

(2) The common Apple-tree Borer— Saperda bivittata:
Say. ‘The winged beetle, which is from one-half
to three-quarters of an inch long, covered with a
white pubescence, and having three broad stripes
above, makes its appearance early in June, and flies
only in the night. In the course of this and the
following months the female deposits her eggs, one
in a place, low down upon the bark, at or very near
the surface of the earth. But when these beetles
are numerous, some of their eggs are placed higher
up, particularly in the axil of the lower limbs, or
where they proceed from the trunks. From each of
these eggs is hatched a minute maggot. It is white,
with a yellowish tinge upon its head. © It eats its

THE COMMON BORER. 457

way directly downwards in the bark, producing a
discoloration. If the outer, dark-colored surface
of the bark be scraped off with the knife the last
of August, so as to expose the clear white bark
beneath, as can easily be done without injury to the
tree, wherever there is a young worm it can readily
be detected. <A blackish spot, a little larger than a
kernel of wheat, will be discovered wherever an egg
has been deposited ; and by cutting slightly into
the bark, the worm will be found. It gradually
works its way through the bark, increasing in size
as it advances until it reaches the sap-wood. ‘There
it feeds upon the soft fibre, and forms a round, flat
cavity. It keeps its burrow clean by pushing its
excrement out of a small opening through the bark
at its lower end. ‘These castings resemble fine saw-
dust, and enable one to detect the presence of the
worm.

“When it is half grown, it seems to become con-
scious of the danger of its situation from wood-
peckers and other birds, and gnaws a cylindrical
retreat for itself in the solid heart-wood of the tree.
The excrement now, instead of being ejected, is
crowded into the hollow part at the bottom of the
cavity. This hole runs first inward and then out-
ward to the sap-wood, and is only covered from the
external air by the bark. But, as though the cast-
ings at the entrance were insufficient to keep out

some marauding insect, it seems to turn itself around
39

458 THE APPLE-ROOT BLIGHT.

in its hole, and tear down some of the woody fibre
upon the sides, which it crowds also to the bottom.
While this is going on, its excrements are placed at
the top of the passage, leaving a chamber, in which
the insect turns around, enters the pupa state, and,
at its close, bursts the bark covering at the top of
its hole, and comes forth a beetle ” (Itch).

Several methods of destroying these worms, or of
preventing the deposition of their eggs, have been
proposed ; of these we mention washing the trunk
and lower limbs with strong soft soap at the time
of the deposition of the eggs; scraping the bark
during the latter part of August, and discovering
the young maggot before it has commenced to .
burrow, by the discoloration of the bark; digging
them out with a knife when the excrement is dis-
covered, or any indication given of their presence ;
running a tolerably flexible wire into the hole, and
stabbing the grub. When this latter method has
been efficient, it will be shown by the stained color
of the wire when withdrawn. This borer is one of
the greatest pests of the apple orchard, and needs
constant attention. The woodpecker is one of its
greatest enemies, and should, therefore, receive our
protection.

(3) The Apple-root Blight — Pemphigus Pyri:
Fitch. Pemphigus Americanus: Walker. Trees
affected by this disease lose their vigor, and their
foliage becoms pale yellow. If this is not attributa-

THE APPLE-ROOT BLIGHT. 459

ble to borers, or to some unfavorable condition of
the soil, it very probably results from the attacks
of the little woolly louse named above.

In the autumn the female of this species pene-
trates the earth, following down near a root, deposits
her eggs, and dies. As these eggs hatch, the young
insinuate their beaks to the liber of the roots, and
draw from them the sap, upon which they subsist. -
This irritates the part, and induces a greater flow
of sap to that point, and causes little excrescences to
be formed upon the roots, from a very small size to
that of a pea. It is very evident that these excres-
cences must very seriously weaken the tree, if they
increase to any extent. The larvae are almost in-
visible to the naked eye, being not more than four
hundredths of an inch in length. From the tip of
‘the abdomen protrudes a short thread of “cotton-like
‘matter, variously curled and crinkled. This renders
them more perceptible. The insect afterwards be-
come winged, attains a quarter of an inch in length,
and is covered with a mass of white down.”

The disease which they produce is often seen in
its primary stages in young trees as they come from
the nursery, and can be detected by the excres-
cences upon the roots. Thousands of trees have
been uselessly thrown away as valueless when
this has been found to be present. Dr. Fitch sug-
gests that if these roots were immersed in, or
washed with, a strong solution of soft soap, the in-

460 THE BARK LOUSE.

sect would be killed, and the tree soon recover from
its temporary weakness (£%tch).

(4) The Snapping Beetle—Chrysobothris femorata:
Fabr. This very much resembles the common
borer, and preys upon the apple and peach. ‘The
worm is about one-half an inch in length; greenish-
black in color; and its burrow is flat, instead of
round. It has a very powerful enemy in a little
parasitic bee-like insect, about ¢ne-tenth of an inch
in length. The female of this parasite probably
discovers the borer when it is lying just beneath
the bark, before it has commenced its burrow ; and,
piercing the bark and the skin of the insect, it de-
posits its egg, the larva from which is to subsist
on it, and finally to destroy the borer. The same
means may be used in this case as were with the
common borer (fitch).

(5) The Bark Louse — Aspidiotus conchiformis :
Gmelin. Coccus arborum linearis: Modeer. Diaspis
linearis: Costa. Although very small, this is one
of the most injurious insects which attack the apple.
It probes the bark, consumes the sap, checks the
vigor of the tree, and, where it makes its appear-
ance in considerable quantity (as is often the case),
causes death in three or four years.

Its appearance is that of a dark-colored, or black
scale, resembling an oyster-shell in shape, adhering
to the bark, and particularly attacking young trees.
This scale is about one-eighth of an inch in length,

THE LOCUST OF THE SEVENTEENTH YEAR. 461

and is the remains of the female, who shelters the -
egos which are placed beneath it. These eggs vary
in number from twenty to one hundred, according
to the health of the tree. Those which are the
most vigorous have the greatest number. About the
middle of May the eggs begin to hatch, and the
larva to run about. It is pale yellow in color, has
three pairs of legs, and appears upon the wood only -
asa minute dot. It has an enemy in a maggot which
finds shelter beneath the scale, and feeds upon the
egos. ‘This louse seems to be advancing westward,
and is particularly injurious in the new districts,
probably because it does not meet so many enemies.

Two methods of destroying it are practised; in
one, the trees are thoroughly painted in early spring
with tar and linseed oil, heated together, and applied
warm. When this becomes dry it peels off, bring-
ing the scale with it. In the other method, tobacco-
leaf is boiled in strong lye until it is reduced to an
impalpable pulp, and soft soap is mixed with it to
make the mass about the consistency of thin paint;
the object being to obtain a preparation which will
not be washed off by the first rain. The trees are
first cut in, and the mixture applied with a paint-
brush to every twig. ‘This will destroy the insect,
or prevent the deposition of eggs for the next
season, so that an application once in two years will
suffice (L%tch).

(6) The effusion of sap caused by the puncture of the

39*

462 PROFUSION OF SAP.

wood by the “ locust of the seventeenth year” — Cicada
septemdecim. ‘This is a most remarkable beetle, ap-
pearing only once in seventeen years. There are
six or more broods of them in this country, which
have their distinctly defined routes; and while the
length of time from the first to the second appear-
ance of each brood is always seventeen years, yet
these seasons are not identical in the different
broods. One of them appeared in 1843; another
in 1847. They utter a note considerably prolonged,
the middle of which is piercingly shrill. They do
not seem to be very discriminating as to the species
of plant which they attack. Dr. Fitch, entomol-
ogist to the State of New York, said that the tops
of the forest trees for more than a hundred miles
seemed as if they had been scorched by fire, a
month after these beetles had left them. The injury
was done by the deposition of the eggs. The female
punctures the wood, making a cavity large enough
to contain about twenty eggs, and continues to lay
in this manner from four hundred to five hundred
egos, From these punctures the sap weeps, weak-
ening the limbs, and often causing, ultimately, their
death. The larvae penetrate the earth to a consid-
erable depth, sucking the sap from the roots of all
sorts of plants (1%tch).

IV. DIsEASES WHIGH AFFECT THE TREE GENER-
atty. 1 Profusion of sap — Profusio simplex.

PROFUSION OF SAP. 463

This is sometimes constitutional, but oftener the
result of cultivation. It becomes a disease when
all the energies of the tree are directed to vigor,
rendering the tree partially or wholly barren. It
may be general ; or it may be confined to a part of
the tree, which is robbing the remainder by the pro-
duction of gourmands, or watery shoots. Or it may
result from the growth of suckers from adventitious
shoots at the base of the tree; perhaps from the >
wild stock in which the scion or bud were inserted.
When it is general, it may be produced by excessive
manuring or by injudicious pruning. Profusion of
sap seldom results from the former of these causes
in the eastern part of this country, because the soil
is of so poor a quality ; but it frequently occurs in
the fertile soils of the West.

As was remarked in the chapter upon pruning, a
very severe cutting-back in the spring leaves the
roots much stronger than the top. Therefore, as in
this case, the roots are capable of supporting a much
larger area of foliage than will remain to be supplied
with sap after such a severe pruning. In the
endeavor to restore the equilibrium, it will push all
the remaining buds with great vigor; and even the
fruit-buds may be transformed, and throw shoots.
Continuance of severe pruning of such trees will
cause the disease to become more and more settled.
The remedy is vigorous summer pinching, and root-
pruning. ‘These are described in the chapter vpen
“ Pruning and Training.”

464 STARVATION.

2. Stagnation of the sap, resulting from hunger —
Stagnans effames. This is not the decrepitude occa-
sioned by old age, but that which occurs when the
tree is young, and should be in full vigor. It may re-
sult from the barrenness of the soil in which the tree
stands, the presence of stagnant water, or from a sub-
stratum of poor soil near the surface, through which
the roots cannot penetrate. From whichever of these
it immediately results, the primary cause is insuffi-
cient or improper food. When a tree has become pos-
sessed with this disease, it ceases to grow; the foliage
is diminutive, and of a yellowish color. The bark
adheres very closely to the tree, which, if it produces
fruit, is of a most insignificant character. After this
disease has become settled, it is incurable ; but in its
earlier stages it is very susceptible to proper treat-
ment. When simple barrenness of the soil is the cause,
abundance of good, rich manure should be applied.
Stagnant water can be removed by draining, and an
impervious stratum broken up by proper subsoiling.

3. Stagnation of the sap from transplantation —
Stagnans elethargia. ‘This disease is principally con-
fined to trees which have been set late in the spring.
If the season of planting is followed by drought, the
tree does not burst its buds, although it is alive, be-
cause the production of rootlets is prevented by the
dryness of the soil. It can be prevented, and is
sometimes remedied, by mulching the ground about
the tree, and by moistening the stem.

STAGNATION FROM TRANSPLANTATION. 465.

_ Mr. Berkeley, in a paper published in the Gar-
deners’ Chronicle, says: “ Where moisture has been
long withheld from a plant, the vitality descends so
low that it is unable to endure a sudden or extreme
change. Under such circumstances, if water is too
rapidly admitted, it stagnates, and therefore reduces
the quality of those supplies on which the develop-_
-ment of buds or adventitious roots depend. This _
may cause decomposition. Or it may carry noxious
matter into the circulation” (if the water was ap-
plied at the roots) “in such abundance as to act as
a putrefactive ferment upon tissues already in a
weak and languid condition. If the foliage flags,
the power of evaporation will also be diminished.
Mr. Knight found that shading and moistening the
bark of trees long removed from the soil was better
than supplying water directly to the roots. The young
and tender bark partially performs the functions of
' the leayes, and in some succulent plants supersedes
them. By judicious moistening, the vitality of the
cellular tissue is gradually restored to its former
strength, and the consequent formation of new roots
at length enables the plant to sustain itself under
ordinary cultivation.”

4. Canker of the Apple Tree — Carcinodes mali.
This disease is not confined to the apple, but is here
more frequently seen. It attacks the pear, as well
as almost all the cultivated fruits, and results, when
not constitutional, from one of three causes.

466 CANKER. ‘es

(1) Excessive rain succeeding a long period of
dry weather which had hardened the sap-vessels.

(2) Severe pruning while the roots extended
themselves, under high cultivation, and disturbed
the equilibrium. | |

(3) A sudden change of temperature. )

This malady is most likely to appear first where
the tree has been bruised, or cut with the knife.
When it results from excess of moisture in the soil,
thorough draining is a most effectual preventive ;
when from improper pruning, cutting the roots will
restore the equilibrium ; but when from vicissitudes
of temperature, it is entirely uncontrollable. This
malady is not as common in the United States as in.
Great Britain, but nevertheless occasionally appears. —

Mr. Berkeley says: “I have before me some
branches of the Golden Pippin apple, which, in the
living portion, is still strong enough to bear very
fine fruit, though the tree is evidently fast approach-
ing the end of its existence. ‘The fruit appears‘on
two kinds of branches, equally fertile ; the one, tall
spring twigs, grown with great rapidity; the other
stunted, more or less divaricate branchlets, whose ;
growth has been extremely slow. Both are equally
affected with canker, though not visibly, in the same
~ way; that upon the vigorous branches apparently
growing downward and casting their thin bark,
while the other perishes first at the base, and de-
prives the upper parts of nutriment. On closer

CANKER. A467
‘

inspection, however, the difference is only apparent ;
for even the smooth twigs have decayed spots,
involving the superior organs. _

“Tf the cankered branch be examined as soon as
the mischief is visible, a vertical section through
the pith generally reveals the point at which decay
has commenced ; some bud, frequently a fruit-bud.
The flowers, in the first instance, may not have set, .
on account of some one of the causes which usually
produce sterility. The foot-stalks may have sep-
arated from their point of attachment, leaving the
bud in a state unfit for further vegetation. The
young fruit may still remain withering on its matrix,
which has not vitality enough to throw it off. Either
the matrix itself or the dry fruit decomposes as the
season advances. The morbid matter is carried
down to the tissues surrounding the pith. If the
branch has strength enough to resist the infecting
matter, the wound is soon covered over with fresh
layers of wood, and no permanent injury results.
On the contrary, if the constitution be weak, and
the vitality low, the woody tissue perishes, and soon
involves the bark which covers it, so that both are
incapable of transmitting the nutritive fluids, and it
perishes as if by a flash of lightning.

“Where there is great weakness of constitution,
it is obviously very difficult to contend against the
disease. Something may be done by very careful
inspection of the trees, and by the removal of every
unhealthy spur” (Berkeley).

468 . DECAY.

5. Decay..There is a time when all vegetables
must decay ; but this is often very much hastened
by constitutional or accidental disease. The tree
in a healthy state grows in circumference, and
throws off the old bark, replacing it by a layer of
new beneath it: a similar process goes on in the
wood. ‘This is annually increased in thickness by
layers upon its outside. The sap ascends from the
roots to the foliage through the wood of the last
two or three years, the latest being the most active;
and the sap, as it returns elaborated by the leaves,
forms these new layers of wood and bark.

In process of time the ducts of the new wood
receive such a coating of woody fibre on their
interior surface as to fill up the orifice through
which the sap passed, and thus become useless.
This old wood is now as dead as the old bark ; but,
not being exposed to the air, it remains sound:as_
long as it is not so exposed, and is useful, mechani-
cally, in strengthening the structure of the tree.
But if an accident breaks this outer covering of new
wood, the air will be admitted, and the limb decay,
spreading the disease to the very heart of the tree.
Although this does not essentially weaken the nu-
tritive power, yet the tree will not have proper
mechanical support.

The proper remedy for a tree thus diseased is to
cut out carefully all the decayed parts, and fill the
cavity with a cement made of sand or gravel, lime,

FREEZING. 469

and coarse stones or brickbats. » This furnishes me-
chanical support, and the tree may flourish as well
as before. ‘

6. Freezing —Congelatio. Plants vary in their
natural capability to endure frost. Late in the
autumn, and early in winter, the tree is not easily
stimulated ; and a severe frost, even after a warm |
season, does not necessarily injure the tree. But
late in the winter, and early in the spring, when the
energies of the tree are active, a frost is very inju-
rious; and if the buds are swollen, or the tree in
leaf, it is disastrous, possibly fatal ; because the tree
is then full of fluids, expanding as they freeze, and
the'thin walls of the cells are thereby broken and
destroyed. When these thaw, the sap runs out
among the intercellular spaces, and deranges the
whole circulation. From the decomposition of the
stagnant sap it spreads decay through the whole plant.

Duhamel and Buffon maintain that frost-splits
occur more frequently —“ Aux expositions du Nord
et du conchaut” —on exposures to the north than on
other aspects, because they were colder. On the
contrary, Ehrhart says: “Those trees or shrubs
planted on the southern side of the heights suffered
more than those on the north side.”

Dr. Caspary believed that these frost-clefts did not
depend upon cold winds coming in any one direction,

but upon injuries received, either from the decay of
40

470. FROST-CLEFTS.

limbs, accidents, or the work of man. These inju-
ries cause a mechanical weakness in that part. He
had at first supposed that a thaw caused the clefts
by the contraction of the outer layers, which were .
then too small to contain the inner, and therefore
burst. But, upon observation, he found that they
occurred in the severest cold, and closed upon the ©
approach of a thaw.

That these clefts were occasioned iy freezing and
thawing, was the theory of Gaudichaud. - He exam-
ines the conjecture of Goppert, that those that occur
in the axils of the branches are to be attributed to
the influence of wind. But he found that clefts
seldom, if ever, occur here; but are beneath the.
branch, in the toughest and strongest place: ‘and :
that the wind, at the time of the clefts wae he
observed, was very gentle. |

They may have occurred from the outer layers be-
ing reduced in volume by evaporation, Thus they
were unable to endure the expansion of the inner
layers not affected by this evaporation. ‘This theory —
exploded on discovering that the moisture of the
atmosphere, when the cleft took place, was greater
than for some time preceding. ‘The author states
that De Vriese, in his “Principles of Vegetable
Physiology,” expresses the opinion that the. sap
rises in the winter, and that the cold splits the stem, .
and allows the juice to run out. . But, as the-tree is
frozen to its centre, there can be no ascension of the

FROST-CLEFTS. 471

sap; and there being no foliage, and in consequence
no evaporation, this theory cannot be sustained.
Besides, no sap runs from the clefts. The most
popular theory attributes this phenomenon to ex-
pansion in the act of freezing; but, according to
Brunner, ice reaches its greatest bulk at the moment
of congelation. At thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit it
acquires about. one-eleventh of its bulk; therefore, —
if a tree becomes cleft at all from this cause, it must
be at this moment; for,as the cold increases, Brun-
ner found its volume to diminish. He observed that
the linear contraction of ice is one twenty-six thou-
sand seven hundredths for every degree Centigrade.
But the clefts did not appear until the cold was
below twenty-three degrees Fahrenheit ; so that the
freezing of the sap could not have been the cause.
Duhamel, Buffon, and Treviranus entertained the
opinion that the stems are burst by the “ volume
acquired, on congelation, by a mass of moist, decayed
wood, or an accumulation of sap in the interior of
_ the tree.” Although Dr. Caspary allows that such
may sometimes cause a cleft, yet he had never seen
an example of it. He had never found ice in. the
splits, and the decayed wood seemed to be dry.
He finds the same difficulties to this theory as to
the last: if they cleave for this reason, it should be _
at the moment of congelation.
He thus sums up his observations: “ The bursting
takes place at night by severe frost, not less than

Cl ae FROST-CLEFTS.

fifteen degrees Reaumer (one and one-half degrees
Fahrenheit). _Remeaux has shown that the temper- -
ature of the concentric layers of wood by night in-
creases from outside to inside. A very severe, sudden
frost, that cools down the outer layers, must occasion -
an important difference in temperature between
these and the inner, and at the same time a consid-
erable difference in relative bulk. The inner layers,
whether frozen or not, must considerably exceed
the outer, and thus increase the strain upon them,”
and eventually causes the cleft.

Sir James Ross, in the history of his antarctic
voyage (Vol. I. p. 223), says: “ We have often, in
arctic regions, witnessed the astonishing effect of a
sudden change of temperature during the winter
season, causing great fissures in the ice of many
miles in extent. A fall of thirty or forty degrees
in the thermometer immediately occasions large
cracks in every direction, attended with loud ex-
plosions. Some of them open several inches by
the contraction of the upper surface in contact with
the extreme cold of the atmosphere.” Dr. Kane’s
observations are similar, in his explorations of the
arctic regions.

7. Wind Shakes ——- Anemosis :. Berkeley. Aside .
from the injury done by winds in breaking down
the limbs of trees, is that to the young and soft
shoots. By whipping these one against another,

DROPSY. 473

the lesion, or breakage, of the young cells results.
This causes the death of a part or the whole of a
shoot. Although this may not injure the tree per-
manently, yet it gives it a very severe check. It
may be prevented by proper shelter.

8. Dropsy. This is a disease which may not
closely resemble that to which this name is applied —
in animal pathology, yet it is the best term that
can be used to express the idea. During a long
season of rainy weather the plant becomes gorged
with moisture; the circulation is slow, and the
evaporation small. Growths made at such a season
are watery and tender, and the fruit is almost
without flavor. If this condition lasts for any
length of time, the fruit never ripens, and may
decay upon the tree; the foliage of the young
shoots becomes white, or a sickly yellow, on account
‘of a deficiency of light; and both the fruit and
foliage drop off prematurely. This disease scarcely
ever exists where the drainage of the soil has been
thorough (Berkeley).

9. Sun-stroke — Desiccatio. ‘This embraces the
drying up of the fluids in either the roots or the
foliage. ‘The former may be occasioned by a drought,
particularly in undrained land, which bakes in the
sun; or the latter may follow as a result of the
former, be occasioned by the work of insects, or

40*

ATA - SUN-STROKES.

some atmospheric agency. It is very evident that
the destruction of the rootlets cuts off the supply
of sap, which is most disastrous. While the death ;

of the tree may not always result, great weakness _
always follows. This disease is particularly liable |

to attack newly-planted trees, especially those set
in the spring. When this is the case, and the
drought continues, the tissue of the whole tree dries
up. ‘The best preventive is a well drained and
thoroughly pulverized soil, where it has never made
its appearance.

10. Wounds — Vulnera. These are more or less
injurious, according to their nature. If a large
limb has been cut or broken down, the inner wood,
which has lost its vitality, commences immediately
to decay; and, unless it is prevented, it extends
through the old wood of the tree. ‘To prevent this
loss of mechanical strength, it is necessary to cover
all wounds which penetrate deeper than the vital
wood with grafting-wax, paint, or some other ma-
terial, protecting the wound from immediate contact
with the air. If the tree is healthy, the new or vital
parts soon extend over it. |

Cattle should not be allowed within the precincts
of a young orchard, since they are likely to rub
against and break the limbs. Mice or rabbits often
totally destroy trees by gnawing off the bark around
their base during the winter. Thus, when the sap

WOUNDS. 475

starts in the spring, and has ascended to the foliage
through the young wood, it is arrested in its back-
ward passage by this girdling of the bark of the
tree. If the least channel exists upon any side, the
tree will often recover; but if the girdling is entire,
certain death results. Field-mice are encouraged
by the presence of turf, or any rubbish in the
vicinity of the orchard. After deep snows, when -
; other supplies are cut off, they are especially active ;
when found, they should be killed if possible, and
the snow about the base of the tree trodden hard,
to prevent their burrowing.

11. The presence of Lichens. These give to an
orchard a very neglected appearance. Although
they are not directly injurious, yet they are so
indirectly, by affording harbor for insects. They
are also often an index of a poor state of health in
the tree. They grow upon the dead bark, which
has not. been cast off because the vital functions
are not sufficiently active, and the tree did not grow
fast enough to burst this outer coating. In old
trees it may be a proof of decrepitude; in which
case the vigor of the tree can hardly be permanently
restored. But, with young trees, it results from
some unfavorable condition; generally the want of
thorough drainage and liberal manuring.

12. The circulation having been vitiated or poisoned .

476 - DISEASES WHICH AFFECT THE PEAR.

— Veneficium. Plants, in common with animals,
are sensitive to the influence of poisons. These
may enter the plant through the root by solution,
as the power of selection in the root is, to a degree,
limited, or through the stomates of the leaf, as a
gas. Many substances, poisonous or not, affect plants
and animals in a similar manner. A twig of the
sensitive plant was placed in a glass tube which
contained sulphurous ether; it soon unfolded, and
could be handled without recoiling in the least ; but,
through the influence of the external air, it grad-
ually resumed its former character. The specific
characters of poison may be as different as the
number of substances which are poisonous, and the
species of plants which they affect. ‘The vicinity
of gas-works, and that of some chemical works, are
generally considered as unhealthy for plants; yet
it would be impossible, except in a monograph, to
describe, even if it were known, all the different
effects produced, and state remedies for them.

§ III. — DISEASES OF THE PEAR.

J. DisEAsES WHICH AFFECT THE Foutace. 1. Amer-
ican Pear Blight — Effusio subcutanea. There have
been a variety of conjectures relative to the origin
of this disease. In this country it is the worst
malady with which the cultivator of the pear has
to contend. Sometimes, entering a nursery, it will

>

AMERICAN PEAR BLIGHT. A477

entirely destroy blocks containing thousands of
trees, or leave them to struggle for years against
the poison thus introduced. Some varieties are
peculiarly susceptible to it, as the Belle Lucrative
(I’ondante d’Automne), and particularly the Glout
Morceau. ‘The latter sort shoots a great many soft
twigs, and grows late, unless prevented by summer
pinching.

Blight commonly makes its appearance in districts,
more or less extensive, not exposed to any severe
sweeps of wind during the season of growth, A
gentleman in Western Massachusetts once doubted
the truth of this assertion, and said that his orchard
had been severely attacked, and yet it was on the
top of a hill. It was visited on a stormy day in
autumn, when the wind was very severe; but, on
entering, the air was calm and still; for, while the
orchard lay open toward the south, at all other
points it was skirted by forests.

The strength of timber grown upon mountains,
or in exposed positions, is known to be much greater
than that grown in low valleys or on plains, where
the air is more or less stagnant.

Trees growing on the former sites always better
endure the severities of winter than those on the
latter. As before suggested, the gentle breezes of
summer are of immense importance to the tree dur-
ing the growing season, supplying the leaves with
abundance of carbonic acid, so that the wood be-

478 AMERICAN PEAR BLIGHT.

comes firm. After a young cell has. been formed,
the interior of its membraneous walls is constantly —
receiving an increased coating of woody fibre. This
takes place most rapidly in the cool weather of the
autumn, after the growth has stopped, and the whole
force of the sluggish circulation seems to be directed
to this deposition. Consequently, it is then that
the young. wood requires the greatest abundance of
carbon; and therefore an all-wise Providence sup-
plies strong winds and gales to ripen their sub-
stance. | , | ao
If a frost sufficient to destroy vegetation occurs
when the soft growth has just put forth, as in June,
1861, in some sections of the United States, all the
young parts of the tree present the same stained
appearance as after blight. This results from the
cells’ lesion, which precipitates: the sap into the in-
tercellular spaces. This causes the burst cells to
decay, with all the other parts, which have been
corroded by the fusion of sap. As vegetable, like
animal tissue, is extremely sensitive to. decaying
matter, not only these may be destroyed, but also
the decay may spread through the young parts of
the whole plant.

The pear blight frequently occurs about the time
of thunder showers. According to experiments
made under the direction of the London Horticul-
tural Society, it was found that just before, during,
and immediately after a thunder-storm, ‘the growth

’

THE GOLDSMITH BEETLE. . 479

of vegetation was considerably retarded. The dif-
ference in that of the hop was from sixty-four to
eighty per cent., while in others it was not more
than four. If this occurred when the wood was
soft, it caused a sudden stagnation of the sap in the
leaves, while the cells were distended with the cir-
culation. ‘Their lesion, and the discharge of their
contents, can easily be accounted for in a district
where a plant had not been furnished with sufficient —
carbon to properly strengthen its cell walls. Thus
it seems to result from lesion produced by weakness
of the cell wall from want of carbon, acted upon-so
as to produce stagnation. The only remedy yet dis-
covered is immediate amputation of the part. The
_. prevalent idea that it is contagious, results from the
rapidity with which this poisonous sap conveys the |
elements of decay, when the circulation is restored,
and it becomes mixed with healthy sap.

2. Insects. (1) The attack of the Goldsmith Beetle
— Areoda lanigera. This appears about the middle
of May. It flies during the night, and clings to
the under surface of the leaf during the day. It
consumes the young leaves of the pear and those
of some forest trees. It is not usually sufficiently ©
prevalent to injure the tree. If it becomes unduly —
‘multiplied, spread a sheet under the tree, and strike
the stem a smart, quick blow, when it falls, and can
be picked up and burnt. It is “nine-tenths of an inch

480 THE PEAR-TREE SLUG.

long, colored lemon above, glistening like burnished’
gold on the top of the head and thorax; the body
beneath is copper colored, and thickly covered with —
whitish wool ” (Harris). )

(2) The Red Mite — Acarus geniculatus: Linn.
This little insect 1s gregarious, congregating in the
spring at the base of the twigs, and is often found
in great numbers. It attacks the foliage of many
fruit trees, particularly the pear. It causes a pecu-

liar and sickly hue on the leaf. It can be distin-
| guished at a distance by the reddish tinge of its
body. If unmolested, it destroys the tissue of the
leaf, and thereby induces one of those diseases re-
sulting from weakness. The insect becomes darker
colored with age, attains about the size of a grain
of very fine gunpowder, and during the winter lives
under old bark or lichens. It may be destroyed by
a profuse syringing of whale-oil soap-water, like
that used for canker worms.

(3) The Pear-tree Slug — Selandria Aethiops. This
is the slimy larva of the saw-fly, and feeds upon the
leaves of the pear. It is found upon the upper sur-
face, solitary, or in groups of two or three. It is
about five-eighths of an inch in length, is green in
color, becoming darker with age. It eats nothing
but the soft parts of the leaf, and commits its rava-.
ges in June and July. If unmolested, it strips the
tree of its foliage. It is particularly injurious in
seasons of drought. In that of 1864, two generations

THE PEAR-TREE LYDA. 481

were developed, the last of which did not disappear
until October. Prof. Peck discovered a minute
ichneumon fly, which deposits an egg in that of the
saw-fly, and which, when hatched, feeds upon the
contents, becomes transformed, and flies away upon
its mission. This slug may be destroyed by dust-
ing slacked lime upon the foliage when the dew is
upon it.

(4) The Pear-tree Lyda—Lyda fosciata. During
_ the month of July the larva of this insect attacks the
foliage of the pear. It is of a pale yellow color,
with a black head, and is nearly one inch in length.
It spins its silken web round the young leaves, and
quickly consumes them. After its work is done, it
lodges in the earth, and comes forth the following
May asamoth. The male is black, with a yellow
front of the head and abdomen. It is about a half-
inch in length. The female is a little larger, but
of the same color, except it has the yellow only
between the atennae, at their base, on the mandibles,
the legs, and the latter half of the abdomen. The
larvae can be destroyed by dusting the foliage with
slacked lime ( Westwood).

(5) Large Pear-tree Astyages — Astyages Hemero-
biella, ‘* My attention was directed, at the end of
May, 1850, to the state of several pear trees trained
against a wall in the gardens of the Horticultural
Society at Chiswick. ‘These were infected by myr-
iads of small caterpillars in a blackish, cylindrical,

41 «

482 HISPA QUADRATA.

movable case. The leaves exhibited large brown
patches where they had been attacked. ‘The case of
this caterpillar is about half an inch long, enclosing
the body of the insect, and both ends are open.
Through the lower the animal can protrude its head
and fore segments, and from the upper it discharges
its excrement. On alarm it withdraws to its case.
This stands erect at right angles to the leaf with which
its mouth comes in contact. Its general position in
walking is oblique. When it is fixed upon a spot
to feed, it carefully forms a circular orifice in the
cuticle of the leaf. It then attaches the mouth of
the case to the edges of the orifice, and feeds upon
the cellular matter. It soon introduces its head
and the fore segments of its body to the cavity be-
tween the two surfaces of the leaf, and then adopts
the habits of the ordinary leaf-mining caterpillars.
When it has consumed this patch, it withdraws
to its case, and fixes upon another spot.” ‘This in-
sect is generally found not in sufficient numbers to
do particular injury; but, when it abounds, the only
method of destroying it is to pick it by hand ( West-
wood). |

(6) Hispa quadrata: Faby. HH. Marginata : Say.
H. rosea: Weber. This little insect, whose grub is
about one-fifth of an inch in length, deposits its
eges in numbers of from one to four on the surface
of the leaf. ‘The larva bores through the epider-
mis, and feeds upon the soft pulpy matter of the

DISCOLORATION OF THE FOLIAGE. 483

interior. Its presence may be detected by a brown
or black spot upon the leaf; and wherever it is
noticed, the leaf should be plucked off and burnt.

3. Funer. (1) Ascomyces bullatus. This is a veg-
etable parasite attacking the leaves of the pear, and
causing shallow, brilliant spots. Another, much
like it, affects the leaves of the peach, and resem-
bles large blisters, which distort the foliage. It is
induced by cold weather in spring, and by want
-of drainage. When the disease commences, the
folage should be dusted on its under surface with
dry flour of sulphur, or syringed with water mixed
with sulphur and lime, as for the vine mildew
(Berkeley).

(2) Ceratites. Page 432.

(3) Cladosporium dendriticum. Page 481.

4. Discoloration of the foliage— Chlorosis. In the
cells of growing vegetation are nitrogenous globules,
containing a substance called chlorophyll. This
takes various colors, but in leaves and new wood
is generally green. ‘The deeper colored the foliage,
the richer it is in this substance. This shows that
the globules.are larger, and therefore that the cells

containing it are more fully developed, active, and

vigorous. Some varieties of fruit are constitution-
— ally remarkable for deep-colored foliage ; and such
are vigorous and healthy under almost any circum-
stances.

484 ROTTING AT THE CORE.

_ Berkeley says: “A portion of the plant, greater or
less, does not assume its natural green hue, but ac-
quires a yellowish tint. This may spread to other
tissues, or remain isolated.” “No chlorophyll is
formed ; the walls of the cells become flaccid ; their
contents undergo chemical changes, and the whole
either dries up, leaving additional work to be done
by those tissues which remain healthy, or the walls
give way, decomposition takes place, the putrefying
mass spreads its contagion in every direction, and
involves the neighboring structures. When the
- tissues dry up, the process may be slower, but the
result is not less sure. Every part of the plant is
liable to be affected ; and even the tissue of the seed
may be unhealthy, and transmit the disease through
succeeding generations. ‘Thus, what was at first
accidental, may eventually become constitutional,
or even hereditary.” |

This disease results from weakness, produced by
superabundant bearing, barren soil, or imperfect
drainage. In the first case, rest and good care must
be the remedy ; and in the latter two, these must be
combined with fertility and thorough drainage.

5. Premature fall of the Leaf — Phylloptosis.
Page 428.

II. DiIsEASES AFFECTING THE FLOWER AND FRUIT.
1. Bletting, or Rotting at the Core— Hyposathria.

INDURATION. 485

‘In some cases, no sooner has the fruit arrived at
that condition which renders it available for the
uses of man, than a further change takes place.
The cell walls and their contents pass into a state of
incipient decomposition, acquiring the brown tint
so frequent where decay takes place in vegetables.
The peculiar aroma vanishes, and the whole be-
comes a soft, vapid, tasteless mass, devoid of every
useful quality. Some varieties of pears so rapidly
pass into this condition that they are scarcely worth
cultivation, though some of them are of first-rate
quality when in perfection. The change generally
takes place in a centrifugal direction. This distin-
guishes its condition from many forms of putres-
cence” ( Berkeley).

This disease, if constitutional, condemns the
variety. Yet very many of our best pears are
subject to undergo this change so slowly as not
to materially injure them for table use.

2. Indwration—Sclerogenia. ‘This disease is more
common with the pear than with any other fruit.
The vascular tissue becomes a tough, woody mass,
which, of course, lessens the amount of sugar, and
destroys the fruit for use. Although it is often
accidental, depending upon soil or climate, yet
some varieties are more lable to it than others,
as the Easter Beurré upon cold soils; but in the
rich, warm lands of the West, or California, it is

41*

486 WANT OF BLOOM.

very juicy and excellent. The Glout Morceau is
subject to induration in the youth of trees, but in
their maturity and.age is free from it.

3. Sterility. Page 444.

4. Immaturity of the Fruit — Carpomosia: Ré.
Page 450.

D. Deficiency in the cutaneous secretion — Ephi-
drosis. Fruits, when grown most perfectly, are coy-
ered with a sort of waxen secretion. ‘This prevents
the escape of their juices by decomposition or evap-
oration. It forms a coating, and renders the fruit
almost air-tight. When this is absent, they cannot
be preserved for so long a time, and very soon
wither. ‘The entire or partial absence of this may
arise from some derangement of the secretion, oc-
casioned by atmospheric causes, or by an uncongenial
soil. It has often been remarked that this bloom
is more abundant where the land has been drained.

Some times its absence is accidental, resulting
from handling the fruit. Therefore it should never
be touched more than is necessary while in growth ;
and in gathering and preserving, great care should
be practised that it be retained. The secret of
the superior preservation of fruits, when barrelled
immediately after being plucked, is that they are
not handled, and consequently this coating is un-
disturbed.

ROOT BLIGHT. 487

III. DisEAses arFEcTING THE Stem. 1. Root Blight.
This especially affects young dwarf pear trees. Very
soon after the trees begin to grow, the leaves and
wood turn to a deep brown color, approaching
bronze. It differs entirely in appearance from the
common pear blight, because that is black, and at
first extends only over a portion of the tree; while
_ this is general, and takes place earlier in the season.
On examination, the roots will be found dead,
which, in the young dwarf pear, are very near the
surface of the earth, and possess no strong taps to
keep them in place; and therefore, in undrained
land, when the ground freezes and thaws, the tissue
of the root is destroyed by the constant strain.

2. Insects. (1) The Pear-blight Beetle — Scolytus
Pyri: Peck. Tomicus Pyri: Harris. ‘“ This insect
causes a blight.of the limbs, which, in its outward
appearance, resembles the common pear blight.
The limbs which it attacks, turn black, and die in
early summer, while other parts of the tree remain
healthy. The disease is caused by the larva of this
insect, whose egg was laid in the axil of a bud, who
ate his way inward, and followed the eye of the
bud toward the pith. Around this it passes, and
partially consumes it. ‘Thus the insect, after pen-
etrating through the alburnum, forms a circular
burrow or passage in the heart-wood, contiguous to
the pith. By this means the central vessels are

488 THE PEAR-BARK LOUSE.

divided, and the circulation cut off.’ Thus the
whole part above becomes deprived of its necessary
nourishment, and dies. The Hon. J. Lowell, of
Massachusetts, who discovered this insect, recom-
mended the following method for its destruction:
As soon as the blight appears, the limb should be
cut off below the point of his burrow, and the whole
be burned before he has time to come forth as a
beetle, and provide for the extension of his race.
(Harris). |

(2) The Pear-bark Louse — Secanium Pyri:
Schrank. This is similar in its habits to the apple-
bark louse; but it is considerably larger. The
remains of the female, under which the eggs are
placed, is a brown scale, about one-fifth of an inch
in diameter. When this comes off, a white spot -
of the same size remains, which is easily distin-
guished. It is injurious to the tree, because it sucks
the sap through the young bark. For methods of
destroying them, see those used for that of the
apple.

(3) Cicada Septemdecim. The puncture of the
wood by the locust. Page 462.

3. Fungus upon the Root. Pear trees sometimes
do not thrive, notwithstanding they are surrounded
by all those conditions necessary to insure health.
This is often. occasioned by a fungus, which has
attached itself to the root and wound around it;

' FUNGUS UPON THE ROOT. 489

and if the tree is taken up, its threads can be seen.

It feeds upon the sap, and thus deprives the tree of
its proper nourishment. It results from the pres-
ence of decaying matter in the soil, or often from
the remaining roots of trees of a former generation.

IV. Diseases AFFECTING THE TREE GENERALLY.
1. Profusion of Sap. . Page 462.

2. Stagnation of Sap after transplanting — Stagnans
elethargia. Page 464.

3. Vitiation of the Sap —Veneficium. Page 476.
4. Canker — Carcinodes. Page 465.
5. Decay — Caries. Page 468.
6. Freezing— Congelatio. Page 469.
7. Wind Shakes — Anemosis. Page 472.
8. Dropsy — Anasarca. Page 473.
9. Sun-stroke — Disiodeaie Page 473.
10. Wounds — Vulnera. Page 474.

11. Lichens. Page 475.

490 PREMATURE FALL OF THE FRUIT.

§ IV.— DISEASES OF THE PEACH.

I. Diszases AFFECTING THE Lear. 1. Dotted
Apple-leaf Worm— Brachytaenia malana. Page 444.

2. A Vegetable Parasite — Ascomyces. “Page 483.

I]. Disrases AFFECTING THE Fruit. 1. Rose Bug
— Macrodactylus subspinosus. Page 454.

2. Sterility. Page 444.

3. Premature fall of the Fruit. This results from
the bursting of the stone in consequence of injury
during the spring, by a late frost after impregnation.

III. DisEases arrectinc THE Srem. 1. Insects.
(1) Peach-tree Borer — Buprestis divaricata: Say.
This derives its name from the fact that the wing-
covers are spread apart a little at the tips. “ The
beetles are copper colored, covered with punctures.
They are from seven to nine-tenths of an inch in
length.” The larvae bore the trunks of the peach
and cherry. When they are found in the tree, a
flexible wire should be run into the hole, SO as to
stab the worm.

(2) Snapping Beetle — Chyrsobothris ‘Gunde
Page 460.

GUMMING OF THE PEACH. AQ]

2. Gumming—Apostaxis. Plants contain in their
economy a substance called gum. This is trans-
formed as occasion requires. Its composition is, of
carbon twelve parts, of hydrogen and oxygen eleven
-each ; while that of starch is one part less of the
latter two, which are the elements of water, so that
the elimination of these two parts transforms it into
starch. Sometimes the tree stores up gum for |
future use. The cells become full, and often, by
their lesion, cause the spaces between them to be
filled. If one cell is broken, the gum will flow
until there is no more room for it, the cell being
constantly replenished. So far, its effects may not
be injurious ; but if any break takes place in the
outer bark, the gum exudes; and, as the air and
moisture are admitted, the decay of a part, or even
the whole of the tree, may be the result, either from
simple decomposition or from corrosion.

3. Profusion of Sap. Page 462.

4. Vitiation of the Sap —Veneficium. Page 446.
5. Decay — Caries. Page 468.

6. Sun-stroke — Desiccatis. Page 473.

7. Wounds — Vulnera. Page 474.

492 THE CURCULIO.

§ V.— DISEASES OF THE PLUM.

I. Diseases AFFECTING THE Lear. 1. Insects.
(1) The Plum Louse — Aphis pruni. This affects
the leaves of the plum, curling them as upon the
apple and cherry, and the same remedy applies.
See page 433.

(2) The Vaporer Moth — Orgyia, lencostigma.
Page 437. |

(3) The Unicorn Moth — Notodonta wunicornis.
Page 440.

II. Diseases AFFECTING THE Frurr. 1. Insects. -
(1) Curculio — Rhynchaenus nenuphar. This is a
native of America, and has wonderfully increased
within the last fifty years. It is a small beetle, of
about one-quarter of an inch in length. Its color
is a grayish-brown, varied with spots of white, —
yellow, and black. It has a curved beak or bill,
and appears in small numbers as early as the first
of April, but not in quantity until the middle of
May.

Early in June, when the fruit is sufficiently large,
it begins to deposit its eggs. It seems to prefer the
nectarine and plum, but also attacks the apple,
pear, peach, and cherry. The crescent-shaped mark
is made by its jaws at the end of its beak. This is
not so distinguishable in the apple, because it soon
heals over, and only a little speck remains. Having

THE CURCULIO. 493

made this aperture, it drops in one egg. From this
is hatched a maggot, which feeds on the flesh around
the core or stone, and appears during the latter
part of July as a beetle, like its parent. Not only
does it deposit its eggs in the fruits above named,
but also in the soft substance of the plum-wart, or
knot. It also pierces little holes in the bark with
its beak, like the puncture of a pin, by which it |
draws the sap. What becomes of the beetle be-
tween this time and the spring has been a mystery.
Dr. Harris says, through the spring, bectles come
forth from larvae which were retarded in growth,
so that they remain in the ground as pupae all
winter. Dr. Fitch very properly remarks, that the
earth is warmer during the month of August than
it is in July, and an insect whose transformations
under ground are completed in three weeks in July,
would not remain in the earth during the whole
month of August. . He says, these beetles, perfected
in July, deposit eggs in the soft bark of the young
wood, particularly in that of the butternut; that
these eggs are hatched, and become maggots, which
eat out a space so as to form a little cavity, where
they remain during the winter, and come forth in
the spring. He found that a fly, somewhat resem-
bling the gall-fly, gives birth to a parasite which
preys upon the curculio. It is furnished at the tip
of the abdomen with a very sharp, bristle-like sting,

with which it penetrates the skin of the larva of the
42

494 THE CURCULIO.

curculio, and deposits there an egg, and soon hatches
a worm. This fly is called Sigalphus curculionis. It
is hoped that it will so increase as to prevent the
ravages of the curculio.

A great many preventives of the destruction
caused by this insect have been proposed. The one
most widely practised is that of spreading a sheet
under the tree, and striking the stem smartly, when
the beetle falls, as if dead. It should then be taken
up and committed to the flames. If left to itself,
it soon starts up and flies away.

Dr. Fitch speaks highly of an application sug-
gested by Mr. Cummings, of the “ New York
Observer.” This consists of four ounces of sulphur,
with a pound of whale-oil soap, added to four
gallons of lime-water, the whole poured into an
equal quantity of strong tobacco-water. But he
thinks the effect will be equally efficient if sulphur
and lime were omitted. ‘This is syringed over the
leaves of the tree, and repeated as often as it is
washed off by the rain. The process should begin
at the time when the curculio first makes his
appearance.

(2) The Rose Bug — Macrodactylus sibljnsees
Page 454.

2. The fall of the Fruit. Page 490.

3. Sterility. Page 444.

THE PLUM WART. AQ5

II]. Disrases AFFECTING THE Stem. 1. The Plum
Wart — Sphaeria morbosa. This is a fungus com-
mon in the United States, where it attacks particu-
larly, but not exclusively, the plum. It sometimes
appears:on the cherry. It produces great, gouty
swellings upon the branches, and the glands of
the bark look as if they had received poison. This
is its appearance in the autumn. In the spring the
part is very much enlarged, the skin broken, and
_the soft substance exposed, leaving the wound raw.
It soon changes from its natural yellowish-green
color to black ; and the fungus then becomes quite
visible. ‘The curculio takes advantage of this soft
place to deposit its eggs. It is doubtful whether
there is any remedy for the disease; but it can be
checked by vigorous amputation.

By some this wart has been attributed to the
sting of the curculio, because its larvae are so often
present. But this is not always the case; and the
disease is often very prevalent where the curculio
is not very abundant, and where it could find many
other more natural and desirable positions in which
to deposit its eggs. :

By others it has been attributed to rankness of
growth, or the absorption of some poisonous ma-
terial. Another writer thinks it is the result of
the extremes of temperature which take place during
the period of growth. He says that his opinion is
corroborated by the fact, that years ago, before the

496 THE PLUM WART.

forests were cleared away, and when the seasons
were more equable, it was not troublesome; and
now, in many new countries the plum can be raised
with ease previous to the clearing which precedes
a growing population. But he overlooks the fact
that, if such be the cause, it should be more preva-
lent in the interior districts, and less so on the coast,
where the ocean tends to equalize the temperature.
But this is not sustained by experience.

2. Gumming — Apostaxis. Page 491.

TV. DisEASES AFFECTING THE TREE GENERALLY.
1. Profusion of Sap — Profusio simplex. Page 462.

2. Vitiation of the Sap — Veneficium. Page 476.
3. Lreezing — Congelatio. Page 469.

4. Dropsy — Anasarca. Page 473.

0. Wounds —Vulnera. Page 474.

§ VI.— DISEASES OF THE CHERRY.

I. Diseases AFFECTING THE Lear. 1. Insects. (1)
Cherry-tree Louse — Aphis cerasi: Fabr. This is
wonderfully reproductive. It makes its appearance
from the fifteenth to the twenty-fifth of June, when

THE CHERRY LOUSE. 497

it feeds upon the young foliage. Its number is
then almost incredible, — more than one thousand
being accommodated on both surfaces of a leaf one
inch inlength. The young sometimes lie two deep,
only caring for room to run their beaks into the
tissue of the leaf and feed upon the juices of the
tree. The foliage is often black with them. It is
necessary that the cultivator should use the prepa-
ration of whale-oil soap, as recommended for the
apple louse (Lich). |

(2) The May Beetle — Phyllophaga quercina:
Knock. ‘This insect is chestnut-brown in color;
smooth, covered with little impressed dots; each
wing-case having two or three slightly elevated
longitudinal lines. The breast is clothed with
yellowish down.” It is about an inch in length,
and feeds upon the leaves. It can be shaken from
the tree in the morning upon sheets, and burned ;
or killed by immersion in hot water. The grub,
while in the earth, lives upon young roots (Harris).
(8) The Hag Moth—Limacodes pethecium. Page

440.

(4) The Dotted Apple-leaf Worm — Brachytaenia
malana. Page 444.

II. DIsEASES AFFECTING THE Fruit. ‘1. The Rose
Bug— Macrodactylus subspinosus. Page 454.

III. Diseases AFFECTING THE Stem. 1. Wounds —

Vulnera. Page 474.
42%

498 THE GOOSEBERRY CATERPILLAR.

2. Inszcrs. (1) The Borer — Buprestis divaricata.
Page 490.

(2) The Cylindrical Borer — Linodendron cylin-
dricum. Page 464.

3. The Wart —Sphaeria morbosa. Page 495.
4. Gumming — Apostaxis. Page 491.

LV. DIsEASES AFFECTING THE TREE GENERALLY. lI.

Profusion of Sap — Profusio simplex. Page 462.
2. Decay— Caries. Page 468.
3. Freezing — Congelatio. Page 469.
4. Dropsy — Anasarca. Page 473.

5. Sun-stroke — Desiccatio. Page 473.

§ VII.— DISEASES OF THE GOOSEBERRY.

1. Iysecrs. (1) The Gooseberry Caterpillar. The
moth has four transparent wings. The body and
legs are yellow; the head, atennae, and feet black.
The male is smaller, and is all black except the
tip and sides, which are yellow. ‘These insects, as
flies, emerge from the ground in the spring, and lay
their eggs on the under surface of the leaves. ‘The
larvae, when hatched, feed upon the leaf, piercing

THE GOOSEBERRY CATERPILLAR. 499

it with holes, which soon enlarge until the leaf
is destroyed. This not only ruins the crop of fruit
of the present year, if the attack is made while it is
growing, but it prevents the ripening of the wood,
and thus destroys the prospect of a crop for the
next year. Various methods have been resorted to
for preventing their ravages; as catching the flies
when they emerge from the ground in the spring.
But this is impracticable. Others have picked them
from the leaves, or removed the earth while the
pupae were in the soil; or have covered it with
some material, like fresh tan, which was obnoxious
to them.

The powder of white hellebore is understood to
be a most effectual remedy if dusted upon the
under part of the leaf when the caterpillar is at
work. Its efficacy depends, in a great measure,
upon the dryness of the powder. If it has absorbed
moisture, it is sure to be inoperative. It should,
therefore, be thoroughly dried before the fire pre-
vious to use.

(2) The Swallow-tailed Moth — Ourapteryx sam-
bucaria: Linn. ‘This infests the leaves of the
apricot, and the gooseberry among fruit-bearing
plants. The caterpillar is brown in color, and is
two and one-half inches in length. On the sixth
and eighth segments of the body are two tubercles
each. The terminus is divided into two points.
Attached to the first three segments of the body are

500 THE GOOSEBERRY MIDGE.

three pairs of jointed legs, and behind one pair of
ventral, and one of pro-legs. It is of the genus
Geometridae, rising upon its hind legs and throwing
forward those at the front, and measuring a regular
distance each time. ‘The tubercles are their distin-
guishing peculiarities. ‘The moth is about two and
one-half inches in the spread of its fore wings, and
is of a pale yellow color, with light green lines.
The posterior wings end in points, which have two
brownish-red spots.

(3) The Gooseberry Midge—Cecidomyia grossulariae.
The fly of this insect deposits her eggs in the fruit
when it is very small. The presence of the larvae
can be detected afterwards by the prematurity of the
berry. It turns red, is putrid, and, if examined, a
number of small, yellow maggots will be found,
which have been hatched from the eggs. ‘These
cause the fruit to fall to the ground, when the
insect becomes a fly, and produces still another
generation the same season. The maggots of this
second family seek shelter in the ground during the
winter, and come forth as flies the next June. To
prevent their attacks, all those fruits which show
this prematurity should be plucked and burned
before the maggots have time to leave.

2. The Gooseberry Mildew — Erysiphe mors wwval.
This is the common brown mildew which attacks
the smooth varieties of the gooseberry. It some-

THE CURRANT-BUSH BORER. 501

times renders a whole crop utterly useless. It con-
sists of tufts of brownish strings of spores, “in a
sac which opens above.” It covers not only the
fruit, but often the leaves and young wood. Dr.
Berkeley represents it, in its first stages, as similar
in many respects to the grape mildew. Sulphur, as
_applied to the vine, will prove an effectual remedy,
if used during the first part of its growth.

§ VIII. —DISEASES OF THE CURRANT
1. The fall of the Leaf — Phylloptosis. Page 428.

2. The Currant-bush Borer — Aegeria tipuliformis :
Linn. “The moth is blue-black; the under side
of the feelers, the collar, the edges of the shoulder-
covers, and three very narrow rings on the abdomen,
are golden yellow.” It deposits its eggs during the -
latter part of June, at the axil of a leaf; and, when
the larva is hatched, it bores to the pith, which,
with the bordering cells, it consumes for a great
distance. ‘The limb becomes very weak, the foliage
sickly, and the fruit small. Whenever a branch
exhibits these marks, and, upon examination, a
borer is found to be at work, the diseased part
should be cut off, with the borer, and the whole
burned, to prevent their multiplication (Harris).

502 THE RASPBERRY GRUB.

§ IX.— DISEASES OF THE RASPBERRY.

The Raspberry Grub — Tinea corticella: inn.
This insect, in the larva state, attacks the cane.
It commences in the bud that is to produce fruit,
which, from its tenderness, is a very acceptable
meal. It then consumes the major part of the in-
side of the bearing-stalk, which wilts and dies. By
pinching the wilted bud and stalk vigorously be-
tween the fingers, the grub may be killed. It is
about a quarter of an inch in length, of a scarlet
color, and has a black head, with one longitudinal
light line over the centre. The first segment has
two double, black spots, with very few hairs; and
is largest in the middle of its body, which is fur-
nished with sixteen legs. The first three pairs are
upon the first three segments. There are then four
pairs of ventral legs, and one pair of anal pro-legs.
By the first part of June the caterpillar will have
accomplished all the injury he will do; then it
becomes a chrysalid among the dead foliage, and
appears in about a fortnight as a moth.

The fore wings of the moth are brown, covered
with livid yellow spots. The hind wings have no
spots. ‘he head has a great many yellow hairs
covering it. The life of the moth is only about a
month or six weeks in length, during which time it
deposits its eggs upon the young shoots. They soon

THE GRAPE-VINE PLUME. 9038

hatch, when the larvae eat the leaves until they
have acquired sufficient growth, when, with the
approach of winter, they take up their abode upon
the stem ( Westwood).

§ X.— DISEASES OF THE VINE.

J. DisEASES AFFECTING THE Fotiace. 1. Insects.
(1) The Grape-vine Plume— Pterophorus periscelidac-
tylus. ‘The larvae are about one-half an inch in
length, having sixteen feet, and fourteen segments to
their bodies. They are pale green in color, “and have
two rows of elevated white spots along the back, and
one on each side, from all of which little white bris-
tles stand out.” These insects become moths the
latter end of June or first of July ; and very probably
give birth to another generation the same season.
They may be easily detected upon the vine when in
the larva state, for they draw together two or three
leaves by means of threads. When this is observed,
the leaves should be cut off very carefully, so as not
to disturb the worm, else he will escape; and the
whole should be burned, or trampled under foot, so
as to destroy the insect ([vtch).

(2) Sawfly of the Vine —Selandria vitis. The
color of this fly is generally black, except the under
part of the thorax, which is red, and also the fore
legs and under part of the other legs, which are
pale yellow. The wings are of a smoky color, with

504 SAW-FLY OF THE VINE.

brown veins. ‘The female is one-quarter of an inch
in length ; the male, somewhat shorter. They rise
at irregular intervals from the ground, and lay their
eggs on the under part of the terminal leaves. In
July these hatch.

The larva commences at the edge of the leaf, and
consumes all the soft parts, working in company
with a dozen or twenty. It is a little more than an
inch in length, and has twenty-two legs. The head
and tail are black, the upper parts of the body light
green, and the lower yellowish; becoming more
yellow at every moulting. After attaining their
size they excavate, and line with silk little cavi-
ties in the earth. In about two weeks they come
forth, and again lay eggs. The young from these
remain in the ground as chrysalids all the winter.
The larvae may be destroyed by immersion in a
solution of whale-oil soap and water, or by dusting
with air-slacked lime. ‘The solution of soap should
be in the proportion of two pounds to fifteen gallons
of water (Harris).

(3) Anomala vitis: Fabry. This beetle penetrates
the ground for a few inches, deposits its eggs, which
amount to about a hundred. ‘These hatch, and the
worms feed upon the tender roots of all sorts of
plants. During May they make their appearance.
The beetles are brown; “the atennae nine or ten
jointed ; the knob is of three leaf-like pieces, which
open and shut. The visor is short and wide; the

THE SPOTTED VINE BEETLE. . 505

upper jaws are furnished at the base, on the inner
side, with an oval space, crossed by ridges for grind-
ing. The thorax is transversely square. At times
they attack the vine very furiously, depriving it of
foliage. The only remedy is to pluck them by
hand” (Harris).

(4) The Spotted Vine Beetle — Pelidnota punctata.
The larva exists in decayed wood and roots, and the
beetle attacks the leaves, sometimes in large quan-
tity. ‘The wing-covers are dull brownish yellow,
with three distinct black dots on each. The thorax
is darker, with a black spot on each side. The
body beneath, and the legs, are deep bronzed
green.” They are about an inch in length, and
can be readily detected and plucked off by hand
(Harris).

(5) The Vine Pyralis — Tortrix vitana. This is
an insect which causes immense damage to the vine-
yards of France, by consuming the young foliage.
The moth is nearly an inch in the spread of its
fore wings, which are green and glossy, with three
transverse brown lines. The remainder is brown.
The female deposits her eggs on the leaves during
the month of July. When the larva comes forth it
hangs from the leaf, and eats the young foliage dur-
ing the summer. ‘The caterpillar is green, except
the head and first segment of the body, which are
brown. When the winter commences they hide
themselves, by a silken cover, under the dead bark.

43

006 ; THE VINE PYRALIS.

Several methods have been proposed to destroy
them, among which was this: to collect the leaves
upon which the eggs were deposited. But the method
which is generally practised is that discovered by
M. Raclet. Early in the spring, before the cater-
pillars have come forth from the bark, the whole
trunk of the vine is washed with hot water. This
effectually destroys them, and is found to be far
from injurious to the vine, provided it is done after
severe frosty weather is past ( Westwood).

(6) Procris Amerciana. When in the caterpillar
state, these attack the leaves of the grape-vine, con-
suming all except the framework. The eggs are
laid in groups of about twenty, and the worms live
together. They are yellow, with black tufts on
each segment of the body. The eggs are laid upon
the under surface of the leaves. The moth depos-
its them during the first part of July (Harris).

(7) Haltica chalybea —Illiger. ‘This is a beetle,
attacking the leaves and buds. It is, as its name
indicates, generally blue, but not always. It is
about one-seventh of an inch long. Two broods
make their appearance each year: one in May, and
the other the last of July. The eggs are deposited
upon the surface of the leaf, and the larva con-
sumes the interior soft part. Whenever this min-
ing of the foliage is observed, the leaf should be
plucked and burned. When they abound, if the
foliage is sprinkled with lime, or with soap-suds,

THE LEAF-HOPPER OF THE VINE. 507

every day or two during the time that the eggs are
deposited, the females will be prevented from laying
(Harris).

(8) The Leaf-hopper of the Vine — Tettigonia vitis:
Harris. This little hopper is about one-tenth of an
inch in length. “Its color is generally pale yellow.
The back part of the thorax, the scutel, the base
of the wing-covers, and a broad band across the
middle, are scarlet. The tip of the wing-covers are
blackish, and some little lines between the broad
bands and the tips, red.” They live on the under
surface of the leaves. In the larva state they feed
upon the juices of the plant, drawn through its
leaves. The effect upon the vine is that the sap-
flow is reduced, the vine becomes weak, the foliage
yellow, and production prevented.

In August the insect arrives at maturity, but still
sucks the sap, and on the approach of winter hides
in any material which will give it shelter. After
the deposition of its eggs in the spring, it dies.
The only means by which it can be completely
destroyed is by using a little tent, which is spread
over the affected vine, and filled with tobacco-
smoke. The tent should be tight, to prevent its
escape (Itch).

(9) Bombyx grata: Fabr. These attack and de-
vour the foliage ; not only the leaves, but also the
stalks. They are solitary in their habits. They
disappear before the first of September. The cater-

508 THE PHILAMPELUS.

pular is about an inch and a quarter in length, of a
blue color, transversely banded with deep orange
across the middle of each ring. The bands are
dotted with black; the head and feet are orange.
They appear the middle of July, and the moths
which produce them the last of June (Harvis).

(10) Philampelus. This caterpillar is fully three
inches in length, and is a great consumer of the
foliage. Its color is pale green or brown. It has a
tail, curved like that of a dog, when it is young;
but as it grows and changes its skin, this disappears.
It enters the earth during August, and, after being
transformed, comes forth as a moth early in the fol-
lowing summer. It is of so large a size that it can
readily be detected and destroyed (Harris).

(11) Choerocampa vitis. This is a large, fleshy
caterpillar, like the preceding, feeding upon the
foliage. But the injury which it inflicts does not
stop here; for it nips off the young bunches of
fruit and throws them upon the ground. It is for-
tunate that it is solitary, and that it does not in-
crease to such an extent as to ruin the whole crop
when half grown. It can be destroyed, like the
preceding, only by hand-plucking (Harris).

(12) Rynchitis vitis. This insect has been very
destructive to the vine in Europe, and in some parts
of the United States. It rolls up the leaves in form-
ing a retreat for its larva; and by this means a
whole vineyard is sometimes deprived ‘of efficient

VINE MILDEW. 509

foliage. It also attacks fruit trees, but seems to
prefer the vine. It can be destroyed by carefully
gathering the leaves which are rolled, and burning
them. ‘This will kill the larva, and prevent further
multiplication.

2. Funer (1) Vine Mildew — Oidium Tuckeri :
This is a fungus appearing upon the under surface
of the foliage, resembles a white powder, and is very
rapid in its propagation. It often spreads upon, and
destroys, the fruit. If not arrested, it will ultimately
ruin both the foliage and the young wood.

As fungus generally attacks vegetation when it is
inactive, we must look to some previous cause. Cer-
tain writers have considered the oidium as epidemic;
but it is probably endemic. It seems to depend
upon a certain condition of the plant, and the fun-
gus is really but the consequence. This is to be
proved from the observations of so many cultivators
of the grape, who describe it as attacking the vine
in fine weather, after a cold or wet season. There
seems to be no doubt that its appearance is due to
a stagnation of the sap, resulting from a sudden
transition from warmth to cold in the atmosphere.
Among the instances of injury by it was one in
which the vines were situated in a cold grapery,
and a hail storm having broken some of the
glass, the change in the temperature was imme-
diately followed by mildew upon the vines. There

43*

010 VINE MILDEW.

is seldom an occurrence of this disease when it can-
not be traced, in like manner, to a sudden extreme.
The summers of 1862 and 1863 were remarkable,
in the eastern part of the country, for these changes;
and consequently there was a great prevalence of
mildew, while in 1864 the opposite was the case.

The vine mildew which results from this oidium
was so much feared in France, on its first appear-
ance, that the Government offered a prize of ten
thousand francs, in connection with the “ Society for
the Encouragement of National Industry,’ for a
remedy. ‘Three thousand francs were added for
the best essay upon the disease ; and prizes of from
five hundred to one thousand francs were given to
eight gentlemen for their efforts in observing and
explaining the nature of this fungus. It threatened
at one time to cause as much suffering among the
inhabitants of the vine districts of France and
Madeira, by the ruin of the crop, as did the pota-
to disease in Ireland.

The remedy is to apply water containing sulphur
and lime, slacked together. In large vineyards it is
almost impossible to apply this wash, and therefore
dry flour of sulphur is thrown on the under side of
the leaf. This should be a very fine powder ; and
the purchaser must be careful that the ground,
coarser material be not substituted. It should be
applied when the fungus first makes its appearance.
The oidium of the vine creeps over the surface of

VINE MILDEW. oll

the leaf, like the fungus of the hop, and therefore 1s
more accessible than many other species which
insinuate themselves among the intercellular parts
of the foliage, and can only be affected by remedies
when they make their appEM EAS through the
stomates.

Mr. Forrester, the author of a work upon the
vine disease, states that in Portugal the flour of
sulphur does not check the fungus as well as fumes
of the same, or as a solution of penta-sulphide of
lime. Three thousand four hundred and forty-four
tons of sulphur were used in the French vineyards
for arresting the oidium during the summer of 1856.

Mr. P. Lazaris, of Athens, Greece, claims to have
discovered, in the year 1858,’ that “any substance
which is dry and pulverized, and which does not
injure the foliage, will cure the mildew.” This he
states as the results of experiments, and attributes
his success to the fact “ that, attaching itself easily,
it dries the fungus, absorbs its juices. and thus cuts
off its nourishment.”

His experiments were as follows: “I powdered
my vines with sulphur, except one corner which
stood apart from the rest. This was divided into .
two portions: one was treated with the sulphurous
earth of Kalimaki; the other, simply with clay
which had been separated from sand or gravel, very
finely pulverized, and dried a few hours in the sun.

1 Transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society, 1859.

'

512 VINE MILDEW.

At the same time, a few vines were left in thei
natural state. The three portions treated with the
different materials all showed the cure alike, while
the vines not powdered at all were entirely destroyed
by the disease.” As some persons thought the
sulphur exerted an influence at a distance, he de-
termined to have another trial. He powdered the
vines with clay before flowering, and twice at a
later date. At one stage of his experiments there
were some signs of the disease; but by repeating
the application it was entirely arrested.

From these experiments he drew the following
conclusions: earth should be free from all sand and
gravel, dried afew hours, pulverized, and then sifted
or bolted like sulphur.. Clay is easily prepared,
and adheres well to the vines. The application is
best after sunrise, while the vines are moist with
dew.

We have repeated the experiments of the above-
named gentleman, but with success not equal to
his. This, perhaps, resulted from inaccurate prepa-
ration of the clay ; and it therefore deserves another
trial.

(2) Erysiphe. “This word denotes white mealy
fungi. Examined under the microscope, they are
found to consist of necklace-like threads, springing
from a creeping mycelium. These clothe the surface,
and send down little suckers, which adhere firmly to
the leaf and decompose its tissue, or crawl among

VINE MILDEW. 015

the intercellular spaces, and send up fertile threads
from the stomata. The joints of these threads vary
in form. Some are cylindrical, others elliptic.
The upper joints fall off, and germinate: thus the
fungus is propagated with great rapidity. Some-
times the endochrome gives birth to multitudes of
minute spondia (or seed-vessels), each of which is
capable of germination within the external cell.
Thus the original spore looks like a little hedge-hog,
as the germinating threads project from its surface
in every direction” (Berkeley).

(3) Botrytis. 'This is a branched mycelium which
wanders among the intercellular spaces near the
under side of the leaf. It penetrates to the air
through the stomata, and sets free the spores which
are to reproduce it. This is of the same genus as
the potato murrain which caused such ravages in
Ireland a few years ago. Not only does it rob the
plant of nutriment, but induces decay by its own
putrefaction. ‘This disease can be reached only with
great difficulty, and none of the remedies proposed
are of much value (Berkeley).

II. DisEASEs AFFECTING THE FRuIT AND FLOWER.
1. The Rose Bug— Macrodactylus subspinosus: Fabr.
Page 454.

2. Shanking. ‘This is the decay of the stem of
the bunch, or of the footstalks, caused by disagree-

5014 SHANKING.

ment between the temperature of the soil and that
of the air. It is particularly lable to appear after
a long, cold rain. Thorough drainage is an efficient
remedy. ‘The rotting of the berry results from the
same cause.

The preceding chapter is only an outline of the
treatise which such a subject deserves. As was
suggested at the outset, it treats only of the more
common maladies, and is but introductory to a
work, more strictly scientific, which may hereafter
be given to the public.

Adaptation of varieties,
Affinity of soils for moisture,
Air, essential to roots,
‘“¢ importance of a circulation,

Altitude,
Alluminum,
Allumina,

A: phosphate of,

as sulphate of,
Alluvial agencies,
Ammonia,
Anthers, dehiscence of
Apple, soil for,

«« varieties adapted to different

soils,
‘¢ age of tree proper to plant,
‘¢ _ root-grafted trees,
‘4 diseases of :
I. Those affecting the leaf —
1. The fall of the leaf,
2. The presence of fungi, -
(1) Cladosporium dendriticum,
(2) Ceratites,
(8) Raestelia,
3. Insects:
(1) Apple-tree louse,
(2) Common caterpillar,
(3) The oak-tree caterpillar,
(4) The vaporer moth,
(5) The Palmer worm,
(6) The hag moth,
(7) The unicorn moth,
(8) The canker worm,
(9) The handmaid moth,

(10) The dotted apple-leaf worm,444 |

IT. Diseases affecting the fruit and

Slower —
1. Sterility,
2. Immaturity of the fruit,

ak: Poe
PAGE PAGE
201 3. Insects:

66 (1) The apple saw-fly, 452
150 (2) midge, 453
306 (3) The codling moth, 453

26 (4) The rose bug, 454
179 III. Diseases which affect the-stem—
179 1. Insects:

179 (1) The goat moth, 455
179 (2) The common borer, 456

58 (3) The root-blight beetle, 458
170 (4) The snapping beetle, 460
407 (5) The bark louse, 460

81 (6) The locust of the ‘‘seyven-

teenth year,” 462

83 IV. Diseases which affect the tree gen-
273 erally —

274 1. Profusion of sap, 462

2. Stagnation of the sap from hun-
ger, 464

428 8. Stagnation of the sap from
430 transplantation, 464
431 4, Canker, 465
432 5. Decay, 468
432 6. Freezing, 469
7. Wind-shakes, 472
433 8. Dropsy, 473
434 9. Sunstrokes, 473
436 10. Wounds, 74
437 11. Lichens, 475
439 12. Vitiation of the circulation, 475
440 | Apricot, soil for, 84
440 oe training and pruning of, 318
441 | Aqueous vapor, 34
443 | Arrangement, intensive, 289
“Fs No. of trees per acre, 290
Aspect, 26
444 | Bark, removal of, 846
450 | Berberry, soil for, 84

516
PAGE
Blackberry, pruning of, 338
Buckwheat for green manure, 194
Budding machine, 878
Calcium, chloride of, 180
s sulphurate of, 180
iT 179
Canada East, fruits adapted to, 206-243
ae 1 62-15 sh 206-243
Capillary attraction, 69
Carbon, 1738
‘© origin of in the soil, 175
Cells, multiplication of, 167
Cherry, soil for, 84
ag pruning of, 824
25 diseases of:
I. Those affecting the foliage —
1. Insects:
(1) The cherry-tree louse, 496
(2) The May beetle, 497
(3) The hag moth, 440

(4) The dotted apple-leaf worm, 444
II. Diseases affecting the fruit —

1. The rose bug, 454
IIT. Diseases affecting the stem —
1. Wounds, 474
2. Insects:
(1) The borer, 490
(2) The cylindrical borer, 498
8. The Wart, 495
4. Gumming, 491
IV. Diseases of the tree generally —

1. Profusion of sap, 462
2. Decay, 468
8. Freezing, 469
4. Dropsy, 473
5. Sunstroke, 473
Chlorine, 180
Circles around trees, 145
Climate, island or coast, 27
as inland or continental, 28
a east of the Rocky Mountains, 30
66 west ee 66 80
-- influence of upon offspring, 384
Coast or island climate, 27
Cold, 38
Colors of fruit, 36
Continental climate, 28
Connecticut, fruits adapted to, 206-243

se best 6 varieties of apples
for 100 trees for, 248
* best 12 varieties do., 248

INDEX.

PAGE
Connecticut, best 12 varieties of pears
on pear stock for 100

trees for, 248

ae best ten varieties of pears
on quince stock for, 248

as best 6 varieties of peach- —

es for, 248

Corolla, withering of after fecunda-
tion, 403
Cultivation, shallow for summer, 347
< summer, object of, 347

O: influence of upon produc-
tion of offspring, 386
Currant, soil for, 84
" training of, 283
ae pruning of, 334

ef diseases of:

1. The fall of the leaf, 428
2. The currant-bush borer, 501
Degeneracy, resulting from age, 3889
Dehiscence of anthers, 407
- hy grometrical, causes of, 407
Delaware, fruits adapted to, 206-243
Dew, 35
Diluvial currents, deposits of, 58
Disease, general observations upon, 420
‘¢ manner of considering it, 420

“ classification of, by Berkeley, 421
ig os *“ Weighmann,421
< constitutional, 422

statement of causes of by J.

De Jonghe, 422

Disintegration, chemical causes of, 54

Ai mechanical causes of, 55
District of Columbia, fruits adapted

to 206-243

Drains, direction of, 105

se! distance apart, 109

“ depth of, 112

Drainage, 90

os what lands require it, 104

a materials for, 115

ne manner of operation, 120

Ke obstruction of, 121

es benefits of, 121

Embryo, formation of, 411

Evaporation, 100

loss of heat by, 10

Exposure, 26

ue the summit of hills, 44

4 varieties of pears for, 45

INDEX. 017
PAGE PAGE
Exposure, northern 45 | Georgia, best varieties of freestone
a extending the season of _ peaches, 259
fruit, 46 “« best varieties for shipping, 259
s for the vine, 46 ‘“« best varieties for drying 259
es southern, 47 | Gooseberry, soil for, 85
i running of, 336
2 “s bush, form of, 283
Fecundation, false hybrid, 404 e BU ne of:
ae obstruction of by super- gee :
espe thse patie 401 (1) The gooseberry caterpillar 498
a Ges £ 401 (2) The swallow-tail moth, 499
Fi ty teed 85 (3) The gooseberry midge, 500
18» : II. The gooseb ildder 00
Flemish Beauty, blowing off of, 1 ae an ae .
Foramen, position of, 409 nies cate 370
Frost, inland and on coast, 35 Fe anes 372
S elon j ee “« D’albret or tubular, 372
Frost-bitten plants, 40) i ce 373
Fruits for the amateur, 203 i Pulraic 973
“family use, 203 -: aa 373
=) . {> market, 203 eo loping , 374
“size of, 204 - aihip 974
‘* adapted to different states, 205 be Ferari oc4
. . ~ ‘
ee Ce ab ae froin 374
“« production of, not exhaustive, 351 cea) eee ; 375
pes a cpa 375
‘“ . F
fee oun in faewail of Medeae 376
‘¢ gathering of, 857 ye squire.bud: 977
‘« preservation of, 359 %, tubular bud, 377
‘
, eae t £ Bi “en écusson, 377
: ; vemipere ure 01, aa ‘“« for immediate fruiting, 379
packing of, ea x renewal, 380
“f of the vine, in midsummer, 381
Garden of one square rod, 285 | a _. embryonic, 381
“of sixteen square rods, age | Gr api ; py
Gathering fruit, Bhg pk oy Meamence ae eR a
: 6 : . scion
. ane re He season of, 367
& manner of, 858 i ’
Georgia, fruits adapted to, 206-243 i wee. 368
“best 17 varieties of apples for pot, 369
100 trees, aby FEtape (hee Wine) :
“best 12 do. do., 257 7 soil for, Bs
f ~ | Green crops 7
¢ best 6 do. do., 257 vm nae fae 199
“best 6 varieties of pears on a Ps Saat age fs aa
pear stock 257 SET STI ECE.O ; z
fn halt 19. do. af 258 s ce vetch and white lupine
“ best 6 varieties of pears on sy Ee a hae aM
quince stock * 258 ; eee art
“ best 12 do. do., 258 «é ** rye, turnips, red clover,
‘« best for 100 or 1000 trees 258 and sperry for, 194
a best 6 varieties of peaches, 258
= best 12 es os ee 258 | Hardiness of species and varieties, 46
“« best for 100 or 1000 trees 259 | Heat, a stimulus, 36

44

518

PAGE
Heat, Knight’s experiments with, up-
on melons and cucumbers, 36

“radiation of, ov

“ effect of, on the quality and
quantity of wine, 37
‘¢ of soil increased by drainage, 102
Heeling-in, 291
Hoar-frost, 30
Humus, 52
Hybrids, obtaining seed from, 405
Hybridization, 396
we manner of operation, 404

oe gualities obtained from

the female and male
parents, 415
Hydrogen, 169

Ice resting upon strawberry plants, 31

“trees girdled by, 32

“floods, 56
Illinois, Northern, fruits adapted

to, 206-245

cr Central, do. do., 206-243

Be Southern, do. do., 206-248

‘© best 6 varieties of apples for

100 trees, 268
G best 12 do. do., 268
s«* ‘best 20 do. do., 268

“< _ best varieties of apples for
market for 1000 trees 268

Indiana, Northern, fruits adapted

to, 206-248
ee Southern, do. do., 206-243
Inland climate, 28
Inorganic substances, 178
Insects, life of, 425
se Coleoptera, 426
ae Orthoptera, 426
a Hemiptera, 427
uf Neuroptera, 426
tc Lepidoptera, 427
cs Diptera, 427
“s Hymenoptera, 428
Todine, 180
Jowa, fruits adapted to, 206-245
Iron, oxides of, 180
‘¢ sulphuret of, 181
Irrigation of fruit trees, 304
Island or coast climate, 27
Tsothermal lines, ‘26
Kansas, fruits adapted to, 206-243

INDEX.

PAGE
Honmees fruits adapted to, 206-248
best 6 varieties of apples

for 100 trees, 261
sig best 12 do. do., 262
ES best 20 do. do., 262

e best varieties of apples
for 1000 trees, 262

ff best varieties of pears on
pear stock, 262

f best varieties of pears on
quince stock, 262
s best varieties of peaches, 263
Land, value of, 135
Light, . 42
ce experiment with, upon peaches, 42
gc chemical properties of, 43
uC of the moon, 43
Lime, 179
“carbonate of, 179
‘¢ sulphate of, 180
“c nitrate of, 180
s¢ phosphate of, 180
SS action of, 185
Magnesia, carbonate of, — 181
Magnesium, cloride of, 181
Maine, fruits adapted to, 206-243
‘¢ best varieties of apples for, 245
& 6c “ “ pears ‘* 245
cc a9 (73 ce plums 3 245
“ Cd te “ eherries “ 245
Manganese, 181
maine adapted to clay earth, 183
tc" S peaty soil, 183
* “tt sandy soil, 186
oe heap, formation of, 186
ig uaa, 194
st oe value of, 196
‘¢ application of, 197

6c “ec ‘© paper upon,

by Boussingault, 198
ie green, application of, 200
Marl, 185
Maryland, fruits adapted to, 206-243

Massachusetts, fruits adapted to, 206-243
s best 6 varieties of ap-
ples for,
best 12 varieties of ap-
ples for,
uf: best varieties of pears
on pear stock for 100
trees,

245

245

246

“ce

INDEX. 519

PAGE PAGE

Massachusetts, best varieties of pears Nebraska, fruits adapted to, 206-243
on quince stock, 246 | Nectarine, soil for, 87

best varieties of straw- “ training of, 311

ce

berries, 246
best varieties of grapes,246

Michigan, Northern, fruits adapted

“cc

“cc

to, 206-243
Southern, do. do., 206-243
best 6 varieties of apples

for 100 trees, 269
best 12 do. do., 269
best 20 do. do., 269

best varieties of apples for
1000 trees with a near

market, 269
do. where market is dis-
tant, 269

best 6 varieties of pears
on pear stock for 100

trees, 269
best 12 do. do., 270
best varieties of pears on

quinco stock, 270
best 6 varieties of peaches

for 100 trees, 270
best 12 do. do., 270

best varieties of peaches
for transportation to
northern markets, 270

Mississippi, fruits adapted to, 206-243
6c

best 6 varieties of apples

for 100 trees, 259
ae best 12 do. do., 259
of best 20 do. do., 260
am best 6 varieties of pears
on pear stock, 260
a best 12 do. do., 260
a best 6 varieties of pears
on quince stock, 261
4 best 12 do. do., 261
ae best varieties of peaches
for 100 trees, 261
Missouri, fruits adapted to, 206-243
Moisture, absorption of by soils from
the air, 68
Moss, removal of, 3845
Mulching, 348
66 material for, 348
- time for, 349
ce depth of, 349
Ks effect of upon the goose-
berry, 350
6 continuance of, 350

New Hampshire, fruits adapted to, 206-243
New Jersey, fruits adapted to, 206-243

cc te

best 6 varieties of apples

for 100 trees, 250
best 12 do. do., 251
best: 20 do. do., 251
best varieties for 1000

trees, 251
best 6 varieties of pears

on pear stock, 251
best 12 do. do., 252
best for 1000 trees, 252
best 12 varieties of pears

on quince, 252
best varieties for 1000

trees, 253

best 6 varieties of peaches,253
best 12 varieties of do., 254

New York, Eastern, fruits adapted

be “ce

66 6

Nitrogen,

to, 206-243
Western, do. do., 206-2438
best 6 varieties of apples

for 100 trees, 249
best 12 do. do., 249
best 20 do. do., 249
best varieties for market

for 1000 trees, 249
best 6 varieties of pears

on pear stock, 249
best 12 do. do., 250
best 6 varieties of pears

on quince stock, 250
best 12 do. do., 250
best for market, 250
best 12 varieties of peach-

es, 250
best 6 do. do, 250

176

Ohio, Northern, fruits adapted to, 206-248

a4

6c

te

best 6 varieties of
apples for 100 trees, 263
best 12 do. do., 263
best 20 do. do., 263
best varieties of ap-
ples for market, 264
best 6 varieties of
pears on pear stock,264
best 12 do. do., 264

020 INDEX.
PAGE PAGE
Ohio, Northern, best 12 varieties of 2. Sterility, 444
pears on quince 3. Premature fall of the fruit, 490
stock, 264 ITI. Diseases affecting the stem —
5 si best 12 varieties of 1. Insects:
pears for market, 264 (1) The peach-tree borer, 490
ue a best 12 varieties of (2) The snapping beetle, 460
peaches, 264 2. Gumming, 491
a FP best 12 varieties for 3. Profusion of sap, 462
100 trees, 265 4, Vitiation of the sap, 476
Ohio, Penal fruits adapted to, 206-243 5. Decay, 468
x best 6 varieties of ap- 6. Sunstroke, 473
ples for 100 trees, 265 7. Wounds, 474
“ di best 12 do. do., 265 Pear, soil for, 88
ae se best 20 do. do., 265 | ‘ varieties adapted to soils, 88
rs is best 6 varieties of “age of trees for planting, 278
pears on pear stock,265 “height of tree not a criterion of
he us best 12 do. do., 265 value, 79
se si best 12 varieties of ‘© deep planting for dwarfs, 281
pears for market, 266 ‘¢ pruning of, 319
- se best 6 varieties of ‘* varieties for winter exposures, 45
pears on quince ‘¢ diseases of :
stock, 266 I. Those affecting the leaf—
¥ if best 12 do. do., 266 1. American pear blight, 476
oe cf best 12 varieties of » Thscete:
peaches for 100 (1) The goldsmith beetle, 479
trees, 266 (2) The red mite, 480
Ohio, Southern, fruits adapted to, 206-248 (3) The pear-tree slug, 480
a Ee best 6 varieties of ap- (4) The pear-tree lyda, 481
ples for 100 trees, 266 (5) Large pear-tree astyages, 481
oe 66 best 12 do. do., 266 (6) Hispa quadrata, 482
- a best 20 do. do., 267 3. Fungi,
& 44 best 6 varieties of (1) Ascomyces Bullatus, 483
pears on pear stock, 267 (2) Ceratites, 432
» «best 12 do. do., 267 (3) Cladosporium dendriticum, 481
7 i: best 6 varieties of 4. Discolorations, 483
pears on quince A 5. Premature fall of the leaf, 428
4: - Ay oi ne ‘tel oe II. Diseases affecting the flower and
uf p> best 6 varieties of J ig :
ks 1. Bletting, or rotting at the core, 484
P ; Sian oe 2. Induration, 485
A : best 12 do. do., 267 3. Sterilit 444
Oxygen, 168 ok AD ;
4. Immaturity of the fruit, 450
Packing fruit, 362 5. Keats a in the cutaneous se- oo
Peach, soil for, 87 ,
“ age of tree for planting, 282 IIT. Disaeses affecting the stem —
“training of, 811 1. Root blight, 487
‘¢ diseases of : 2. Insects:
I, Those affecting the leaf — (1) The pear-blight beetle, 487
1. Dotted apple-leaf worm, 444 (2) The pear-bark louse, 488
2. Vegetable parasites, 483 (8) The locust of the “‘seven-
IT. Diseases affecting the fruit — teenth year, 462
1. The rose bug, 454 3. Fungus upon the root, 488

INDEX. :

. PAGE
Pears, diseases of:

IV. Diseases affecting the tree gen-
erally —
1. Profusion of sap, : 462
2. Stagnation from transplanta-
tion, 464
3. Vitiation of the sap, 476
4. Canker, 465
5. Decay, 468
6. Freezing, 469
_ 7. Windshakes, 472
8. Dropsy, 473
9. Sunstrokes, 473
10. Wounds, 474
11. Lichens, 475

Pennsylvania, fruits adapted to, 206-243

4 best 6 varieties of ap-
ples for 100 trees, 254
“ best 12 do. do., 254
x3 best 20 do. do., 254

bt best varieties of apples
for 1000 trees, 254

o best 6 varieties of pears
on pear stock, 255

- best 12 do. for 1000
trees, 255

i: best 6 varieties of pears
on quince stock, 255

a best 6 varieties of
peaches for 100 trees, 255

As best 12 do. for 1000
trees, 255
Percolation, 101
Phosphorus, 181
Physical influences, 397
Planting, distances for, 290

Plum, soil for, 89
“diseases of:
1. Those affecting the leaf —
1. Insects:

(1) The plum louse, 492
(2) The vaporer moth, 437
(3) The unicorn moth, 440
if, Diseases affecting the fruit —
1. Insects: :
(1) The curculio, 492
(2) The rose bug, 454
_ 2. The fall of the fruit, 490
_ 8. Sterility, dit
III. Diseases affecting the stem —
1. The plum wart, 495
2. Gumming, 491

44*

:

521

PAGE
Plum, diseases of:
IV. Diseases affecting the tree gen-
erally —

1. Profusion of sap, 462
2. Vitiation ef the sap, 476
3. Freezing, 469
4. Dropsy, 473
5. Wounds, 474
Pollen, manner of conveyance of, 408
«tubes, size of, 409
Potash, carbonate of, 181
“nitrate of, 182
Potassium, chloride of, "181
Preservation of fruit, 359
Protection of half-hardy plants, 40
Protococeus nivalis, 36
Pruning, designs of, 802
< importance of a sharp knife
in, 803
§6 method of making the cut in,303
«6 severe, productive of vigor, 304
Ae formation of an equal sys-
tem of branches by, 306
a for the cure of disease, 307
te season of, 808
ae winter, 308
se summer, 309
cc after transplanting, 310
o the peach and nectarine, 311
a the apricot, 318
oni (f the. pear, 319
€ the cherry, 324
ee the vine, 326
2 the vine, season of, 327
ne the vine in the Ionian Island ,327
Me the currant, 334
ae the gooseberry, 836
t the raspberry, 337
“ the black-cap raspberry, 337
oe the blackberry, 538
ee the strawberry, 339
&¢ root, 341
Pulverization, 127
Vik increase of capillary by,133
“ effect of upon root-pas-
ture, 134, 142
a Tull’s theory of, 136
“ by insects, 137
¢ effects of, by Mechi, 138
- depth of, 141
+ production of fresh soil
x by, 148
e mixture of earths by, 149

022
« PAGE
Pulverization, admission of air to
. roots by, 150
ee experiments upon, 153
“4 with the spade, "154
cs do. do., effects of, 156
<e season for, 157
ee results of, 158
prevention of drought
by, 1638
' Purchase, time for, of trees, 291
Quince, soil for, 89
Radiation of heat, 87
Rain, fall of, in wine districts, 39
Raspberry, soil for, 89
be grub, 502
eS pruning of, 337
Red clover as a green manure, 194
Retention of moisture by soils, 67

Rhode Island, fruits adapted to, 206-243
4 “ best 6 varieties of ap-

ples for 100 trees, 246
es “ best 12 do. do., 246
oe - best 20 do. do., 247

best 6 varieties of
pears on pear stock
for 100 trees,

best 12 do. do.,

best 6 varieties of
pears on quince for

247
247

_ 100 trees, 247

44 “© best 12 do. do., 247
Ringing of fruit, 853
Roots of plants in undrained soil, 114
“ do. do., drained soil, 115

* length of, on dwarf pear trees, 145

“do. do., peach trees, 147
** selective power of, 166
‘pruning, 341
Rye as a green manure, 194
Saccharine fermentation, 43

Seed, selection of, from young trees, 395
Seedlings, effect of pruning and trans-

planting upon, 415

a number of years before
maturity, 416
Selection, in raising new sorts, 391
5 of the tree, 272

RS indiscriminate, of varieties, 201

INDEX.

PAGE
Shelter on prairie lands, 35
Silica, ; 181
Snow, limbs broken by, 82
Soda, sulphate of, 182
“© carbonate of, 182
‘¢ phosphate of, 182
Sodium, chloride of, 182
Soils, disintegration of, 49
‘¢ description of fertile, bl
“galvanic power in, 53
“¢ properties of specific gravity, 65
“¢ affinity for moisture, 66
“ retention of moisture’ P 67
‘¢ absorption of moisture from the
air, 68
“¢ -capillary attraction, 69
“ 6weight of, 66
‘shrinkage of, 68
‘¢ state of division of, 69
“ absorption of oxygen, carbonic
acid, etc. by, 71
‘* absorption and retention of
heat by, 7
“ heat of, depending upon color, 7
‘¢ classification of, 79
“¢ adaptation of, 81
‘¢. adapted to the apple, 81
‘¢ drainage of, 90
‘© sourness of, unpulverized, 132
‘« temperature. of, at different
depths, 161
‘temperature of, in different
months, 161
‘¢ loosening of, _ 3846
‘and position, influence of, upon
offspring, 386
Specific gravity, 65
Spurry as 4 green manure, 194
Stagnant air, : 34
Staking limbs, 355
Stigma, season of sensitiveness of, 402
Storms, nature of, 29
te snow, 31
Strawberry, soil for, 89
= pruning of, 339
ss irrigation of, 341
Sulphuric acid, 182
Sunshine, importance of, 805
Thinning fruit, 351
Tile-pipe, cost of, 118
Trellises for the vine, 330
Training the peach and nectarine, 9311

.

INDEX. 523
rm PAGE PAGE
Training oblique rod, 812 | Vine, diseases of:
We double oblique rod, ~ 3138 I. Those affecting the foliage —
‘¢ standards, 814 1. Insects:
«« alphabetically, 815 (1) The vine plume, 508
‘¢ horizontal, 317 . (2) The saw-fly, 503
‘« the apricot, 318 (8) Anomala vitis, 504
‘¢ quenonille, 822 (4) The spotted vine beetle, 505
‘¢ -wine-glass, 823 (5) The vine pyralis, 505
oe the vine, simple cane, 828 (6) Procris Americana, 506
the vine Thomery, 829 (7) Haltica chalybea, 506
. the vine in Ohio, 381 (8) The leaf-hopper, 507
us the vine for renewal, 833 (9) Bombyx grata, 507
Transplantation, season for, 292 (10) Philampelus, 508
ee dependent on con- (11) Choeroeampa Vitis, 508
‘dition of soil, 293 (12) Rynchitis vitis, » 508
« paring roots at, 293 * 2, Fungi,
at manner of opera- (1) Vine mildew, 509
tion, 294 (2) Erysiphe, 512
a depth of, 294 (8) Botrytis, 513
# use of manureat, 297 II. Diseases affecting the flower and
ce of strawberries, 297 Sruit—
ia by Mr. McGlashins 1. The rose bug, 454
machine, 298 2. Shanking, 413
Transplanting, value of, 280 | Virginia, fruits adapted to, 206-243
Turnips as a green manure, 194 ae best varieties of apples for
Tying and staking limbs, 855 100 trees, 255
f best varieties of apples for
Van Mons, results of his experiments, 392 1000 trees, , 256
Varieties, production of, 384 ‘« best 20 varieties of pears on
“necessity for new, 387 pear stock, 256
ae limit to life of, 998 | ‘pest 20 varieties of pears on
‘“« production of, by selection,391 quince stock, 256
of adaptation of, 201
Vermont, fruits adapted to, 206-243 | Water, contiguity of large bodies of, 27
Vetch as a green manure, 193 | Watering of fruit trees, 354

Vicar of Winkfield pear, ripening of, 43
Vine, limit of, in Europe, 37
* age of, for planting,

season of pruning, 327
© trellises for, 330
‘« pruning of, in Ionian Islands, 327
“simple cane training of, 828
“¢ Thomery training of, 329
‘¢ training of, in Ohio, . 831
‘* training of, for renewal, 333

282 |

Weathering of rocks, agencies in, 63

White Lupine as a green manure, 193
Winds prevailing east of Rocky
Mountains, 30
ss “severe, 33
‘in vicinity of Boston, 33
Wine, quantity and quality modified
by heat, 37
Winters, mild, 41
Wisconsin, fruits adapted to, 206-246

fai
Ay
|

niin