A practical treatise on the manufacture of vinegar and acetates, cider, and fruit-wines; preservation of fruits and vegetables by canning and evaporation ..

I

A PRACTICAL TREATISE

ON THE

MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR AND ACETATES,
CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE

ON

PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES BY
CANNING AND EVAPORATION;

PREPARATION OF FRUIT-BUTTERS, JELLIES, MARMALADES,
CATCHUPS, PICKLES, MUSTARDS, ETC.

EDITED FROM VARIOUS SOURCES,

BY

WILLIAM T. BRANOT,

ONE OF THE EDITORS OF "THE TECHNO-CHEMICAL EECEIPT BOOK."

ILLUSTRATED BY SEVENTY-NINE ENGRAVINGS.

PHILADELPHIA :
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.,

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS, AND IMPORTERS,
810 WALNUT STREET.

LONDON :

SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE & RIVINGTON, LIMITED,
ST. DUNSTAN'S HOUSE, FETTER LANE, FLEET STREET, E. c.

1890.

71

COPYRIGHT BY
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.

1889.

PRINTED AT THB COLLINS PRINTING HOUSE,

705 Jayne Street,
PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.

0*

VII7ERSITT

PREFACE.

IT is quite unnecessary here to enlarge upon the prominence
and the commercial value of the products of the various branches
of industry treated of in this volume, since they are indispensable
requisites as well in domestic economy as in the arts. But not-
withstanding the great importance of .these subjects, little reliable
information in regard to them is found in our technical literature,
and that little is so widely scattered as to make it almost inac-
cessible to most manufacturers.

Of all the branches of industry based upon chemical processes,
the manufacture of vinegar has made the least progress, and con-
sequently disturbances and large losses of material are here of
much more frequent occurrence than in other fermenting indus-
tries which are carried on in accordance with established rules,
whose correctness has been ascertained by many experiments.

With few exceptions there are no works in the English lan-
guage in which an attempt has been made to establish the manu-
facture of vinegar upon a rational basis, and in accordance with
the laws of nature as regards the chemical as well as the physi-
cal processes. To attain this object as nearly as possible has
been the aim in the preparation of the portion of this volume
relating to vinegar. Since the physical processes, especially the
exact maintenance of determined temperatures and the production

yi PREFACE.

of a change of air corresponding to the chemical processes, play
an important role in the manufacture of vinegar, the section re-
lating to this subject has been very fully treated.

To the manufacture of wine-vinegar a space corresponding to
the importance of the subject has been devoted. Wine-vinegar
is undoubtedly the most valuable product of the vinegar industry,
and its fabrication might be made specially advantageous in this
country, since in California and other States a vast amount of
material could thus be profitably utilized, which otherwise would
go to waste. On account of its great interest considerable space
has been devoted to the manufacture of acetic acid from wood,
and of acetates, especially those which are used for technical
purposes.

As regards the manufacture of cider and fruit-wines, the
preservation of fruit, etc., much time and care have been devoted
to the gathering of information from all available and widely-
scattered sources in order to do justice to the great and constantly
growing fruit industry of this country. Special attention has
been paid to evaporation, since this process is likely to supersede
all other modes of drying fruit.

The volume is divided into three parts, upon each of which a
few observations are offered.

Part I. treats of the Manufacture of Vinegar. It is chiefly
based upon the German works, Die Schnell-Essig Fabrication
und die Fabrication von Weine&dg, by Dr. Josef Bersch, and
Lehrbuch der Essigfabrikation, by Dr. Paul Bronner. Both are
works of acknowledged authority, in which the authors have
brought together the results of their experience of many years.

PREFACE. VI 1

Part II. contains the Manufacture of Cider and Fruit-wines,
and Part III. Canning and Evaporating of Fruit, etc. For in-
formation on these subjects we are indebted to the French work,
Culture du Pommier d Cidre, Fabrication du Cidre, etc., by Jules
Nanot, and to the German works, Die Hebung der Obstverwerth-
ung und des Obstbaues, by Heinrich Semler, and Die Obstwein-
kunde, by Dr. N. Graeger. Wherever required, the information
derived from the above works has been supplemented by Amer-
ican processes.

The editor also acknowledges his indebtedness to numerous
American and English authors for valuable information, due
credit for which has been given whenever possible.

A copious table of contents as well as a very full index will
render reference to any subject in the book prompt and easy,
and the whole treatise is submitted to the public with a feeling
of confidence as to its value and usefulness.

WILLIAM T. BEANNT.

PHILADELPHIA, Sept. 26, 1889.

CONTENTS.

PART I.

THE MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION.

PAGE

Ordinary vinegar, what it is ; The discovery of vinegar ; Use of vinegar
as a medicine by Hippocrates ; Early knowledge of the property of
vinegar of dissolving calcareous earths ; The dissolving of large pearls
in vinegar by Cleopatra . . . . . . . . .17

The use of vinegar by Hannibal for dissolving rocks ; No early definite
knowledge of the cause of the production of vinegar; The process
of increasing the strength of wine-vinegar made known by Gerber in
the eighth century; Other historical data regarding vinegar; The
first preparation of acetic acid in a pure state and the discovery of
the property of very strong acetic acid to crystallize at a low temper-
ature ; Historical data regarding the formation of an acid body in the
dry distillation of wood ; Determination of the exact chemical consti-
tution of acetic acid by Berzelius and that of alcohol by Saussure ;
Historical data relating to the generation of acetic acid . . .18
The introduction of the quick process of manufacturing vinegar, in 1823,
by Schiitzenbach ; A method of manufacturing vinegar from wine
made known by Boerhaave ; ScMitzenbach's original plan of working
still in use in some localities ; Necessity of progress in the manufac-
ture of vinegar by the quick process; The constantly increasing diffi-
culties in the manufacture of vinegar from alcohol . . . .19

Great purity of the acetic acid at present produced from wood ; Use of
"vinegar essence" for pickling, etc. ; Difference between the acetic
acid produced from wood and vinegar prepared from various sub-
stances ,.......•••• 20

Principal defects in manufacturing vinegar by the quick process in general
use ... 21

X CONTENTS.

CHAPTER II.

THEORY OF THE FORMATION OF VINEGAR.

PAGE

Explanation of the chemical processes by which acetic acid in large
quantities is formed ......... 21

Liebig's theory of the formation of vinegar ; The formation of vinegar
due to a chemico-physiological process ...... 22

Pasteur's theory of the formation of vinegar; Difference between
Pasteur's and Nageli's views; Nomenclature of organisms producing
fermentation ; The vinegar or acetous ferment ; Origin of the acetic
acid formed in alcoholic fermentation ...... 23

Occurrence of acetic acid in nature ; Formation of acetic acid by chemi-
cal processes ; Formation of acetic acid by the action of very finely
divided platinum upon alcohol, illustrated ..... 24

Development of " mother of vinegar" ...... 25

Pasteur's examination of the relations of the mother of vinegar to the
formation of vinegar; The botanical nature of the organisms causing
the formation of vinegar ; Disease-causing bacteria ... 26

What constitutes the entire art of the manufacture of vinegar . . 27

CHAPTER III.

THE VINEGAR FERMENT AND ITS CONDITIONS OF LIFE.

The vinegar ferment, its origin and distribution ; Fluid especially
adapted for its nourishment 27

Experiment showing the conversion of wine into vinegar by the vinegar
ferment, with illustration ........ 28

Duration of life of the vinegar ferment ; Difference between the living
and dead ferment as seen under the microscope ; Requirements of
the vinegar ferment for its augmentation . . . . .29

Results of the withdrawal of oxygen from the vinegar ferment ; Ex-
periment showing the great rapidity of the augmentation of the
vinegar bacteria ; Nourishing conditions of the vinegar ferment . 30

Factors required for the settlement of the vinegar bacteria upon a fluid
and for their vigorous augmentation ; Composition of the nourishing
fluid ; A large content of alcohol in the nourishing fluid detrimental
to the vegetation of the vinegar ferment ; Experiment showing that
the vinegar ferment cannot live in dilute alcohol alone . . .31

The preparation of a fluid containing all the substances essential to the
nourishment of the ferment ; Sensitiveness of the vinegar ferment to
sudden changes in the composition of the fluids upon which it lives ;
The process of nourishment of the vinegar ferment . . .32

Supply of air required by the vinegar ferment ; Limits of temperature
at which the augmentation of the ferment and its vinegar-forming

CONTENTS. XI

PAGE

activity are greatest ; Action of the ferment when exposed to high

and low temperatures . . . . . . . . .33

Difficulty of rearing the vinegar ferment upon a cold fluid ; Reason why
acetous degeneration is not known in cold wine cellars ; Reasons for
the ready occurrence of disturbances in the formation of vinegar at a
high temperature ; Mother of vinegar ; Origin of the term . . 34

Occurrence, appearance, and growth of mother of vinegar ; Different
opinions as to the nature of mother of vinegar . . . .35

Composition of the mother of vinegar according to Mulder and R. D.
Thomson ; Substances which participate in the formation of mother
of vinegar, illustrated by an experiment ; How the formation of
mother of vinegar can be successfully attained . . . ,36

General occurrence of mother of vinegar in young wine ; Erroneous
opinion as to the part mother of vinegar takes in the formation of
vinegar; Summary of the theoretical conditions of the formation of
vinegar of importance to the manufacturer . . . . .37

CHAPTER IV.

PRODUCTS OF ACETOUS FERMENTATION.

The regular augmentation of the ferment the main point of the entire
fabrication ; Occurrence of loss of alcohol in the fabrication . . 38

Bodies, besides alcohol and carbonic acid, formed in the vinous fermen-
tation ; Characteristic properties imparted to alcohol by fusel oils ;
Aromatic substances which reach the vinegar through the conversion
of fusel oils; Acetic aldehyde or acetaldehyde . . . .39

Preparation and constitution of pure aldehyde ; Acetal ; Preparation
of acetal 40

Composition and nature of pure acetal . . . . . .41

Acetic acid ; Glacial acetic acid ; Properties of acetic acid ; Peculiar
behavior of mixtures of acetic acid and water in regard to their
specific gravity 42

Difference in the determinations of specific gravities of acetic acid with
a varying content of water ; Uses of highly concentrated acetic acid ;
Composition of acetic acid ........ 43

Theoretical yields of acetic acid ; Theoretical and practical yields, what
they are ; Mariner of calculating the theoretical yield of acetic acid
from alcohol ........... 44

Quantity of oxygen consumed in the formation of vinegar ... 45

Quantity of alcohol which can be daily converted into vinegar by a vine-
gar generator ; Calculation of the quantity of heat liberated by the
conversion of alcohol into acetic acid ; What the practical manufac-
turer can learn from theoretical explanations 46

Xll CONTENTS.

PAGE

Proof that the generators now in use are deficient ; The optimum tem-
perature, what is meant by it ; Loss of alcohol and acetic acid by
evaporation and its reduction to a minimum . . . . .47

Conditions on which the most advantageous manner of working depends;
Yields of acetic acid obtained in practice ; Unavoidable losses in a
vinegar factory ; Defectiveness of the processes in general use and
the necessity for reformation . . . . . . . .48

Comparison of a vinegar generator to a furnace . . . . .49

CHAPTER Y.

METHODS OF FABRICATION OF VINEGAR.

Reasons for not commencing the description of the various methods of
fabrication of vinegar with the oldest and most simple method known,
viz., the fabrication of vinegar from wine ; Why we can speak of
grain and malt vinegars ......... 50

Alcohol the ultimate material for the fabrication of vinegar ; The slow
and quick processes of fabrication ; Modifications in the old process
according to the materials used . . . . . . .51

Difference in the properties of vinegar derived from various sources . 52

CHAPTER VI.

QUICK PROCESS OF FABRICATION OF VINEGAR.

Invention of Schutzenbach's and analagous processes ; On what the
principle involved depends 52

Appropriateness of the term " quick process;" Comparison of the
generator or "graduator" to a furnace ; Difficulty of conveying the
requisite amount of air to the generator ...... 53

Arrangement of the generators ; The best form of the generator, with
illustration 54

Variation in the dimensions of the generators ; Disadvantages of small
and of large generators ........ 55

Erroneous opinions in regard to the manufacture of strong vinegar; Di-
mensions of the most suitable generators ; Cover of the generator,
with illustration 56

Disadvantage of a number of obliquely bored apertures below the false
bottom, with illustration •••.... 57

Different forms of generator ; Self-acting discharge arrangement, with
illustration . . . . . . . . . . .58

Disadvantage of the self-acting discharge arrangement and substitute
for it ; Arrangement of the disk or false bottom of the generator,
with illustration . 59

CONTENTS. xiii

PAGE

Arrangement for regulating the influx of air from below, with illustra-
tion 60

Modification of the disk, with illustration ; The tilting trough, with
illustrations . . . . . . . . . . .61

Arrangement and manner of working of the tilting trough ; The sparger
described and illustrated . . . . . . . .62

The principal requisite of the correct working of the sparger, with illus-
tration ; Difficulties overcome by the use of the sparger ... 64

A thermometer an indispensable adjunct to a generator; Manner of
locating the thermometer ; Filling of the generators ; Materials used
for filling the generators ; Advantages of beechwood shavings . 65

Preparation of beech shavings ; Volume represented by a shaving in a
rolled state ; Space required for each shaving ; Size of the space to
be filled with shavings in a generator ; Number of shavings required
to fill this space ; Surface of shavings active in the formation of vine-
gar ; Steaming of the shavings ' 66

Drying of the shavings ; Swelling of the shavings . . . .67

Manner of placing the shavings in the generators ; Advantage of hav-
ing all the generators of the same size 68

CHAPTER VII.

ARRANGEMENT OF A VINEGAR FACTORY.

Unsuitableness of the arrangement of the manufacturing rooms formerly
customary ; The principal requisites for a suitable arrangement of the
factory 68

Arrangement of the walls, windows, doors, and floor of the factory ;
Height of the workroom : Heating of the workroom ; The best
arrangement where stoves are used ; Heating apparatus for large
factories described and illustrated . . . . . . .69

Necessity for thermometers in the workroom ; The maximum electrical
thermometer described and illustrated ...... 71

The minimum electrical thermometer ; Location of the reservoirs in
a factory arranged according to the automatic system . . .72

CHAPTER VIII.

ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION OF THE VINEGAR GENERATORS.

The English process of sucking a current of air from above to below
through every generator, with illustrations ; Incorrectness of this *
process . 73

The principal reason advanced for the use of a current of air from above
to below ... 74

xiv CONTENTS.

PAGE

Schulze's ventilating apparatus, with illustrations; Description of

Sehulze's generator .75

Objections to Schul/e's apparatus .... 76

Generators with constant ventilation and condensation ; The object of

special ventilating contrivances ; Ventilating apparatus according to

Bersch, described and illustrated ..... .77

Condensing apparatus, described and illustrated ... .78

Proposed method of regaining the vapors ; Objection to this method . 80

CHAPTER IX.

AUTOMATIC VINEGAR APPARATUS.

The principal work which has to be performed in a vinegar factory . 80
Disadvantages of pouring at stated intervals the alcoholic fluid into the
generators ........... 81

Advantages to be derived from the use of simple automatic contrivances ;
Division of continuously working apparatus into two principal sys-
tems ; Continuously working apparatus — the terrace system . . 82
A factory arranged according to the terrace system described and illus-
trated 83

Objections to the terrace system 84

Advantages of the group system ; Mode of distributing the alcoholic

liquid into each generator in the terrace system . ... .85
Periodically working apparatus — the three-group system ; Modification

of the tilting trough, described and illustrated 87

The siphon barrel, described and illustrated 88

The bell-siphon, described and illustrated 89

Example for calculating the space required beneath the lath-bottom of
the generator for the reception of the fluid ; Arrangement of a vinegar
factory working according to the automatic principle ... 90
Manner of arranging the generators in groups ; Height of the actual
work-room ; Location of the reservoir and of the collecting vessels ;
Description of a periodically working establishment with 24 generators 91
Manner of working in such an establishment ..... 93
Material for metallic vessels used in the factory ; Location of the pump ;
Advantage of heating the alcoholic liquid before its introduction into
the generators ; Apparatus for heating the alcoholic liquid described
and illustrated ••....... 94

CHAPTER X.

OPERATIONS IN A VINEGAR FACTORY.

Acidulation of the generators ; Object of acidulation ; Manner of {undu-
lation ; Quantities of vinegar required for complete acidulation 96

CONTENTS. xy

Example illustrating the gradual commencement of the regular fabrica-
tion ; Accelerated acidulation ; Objection to the ordinary method of
accidulation ......

Percentage of water in the shavings which has to be replaced in the ordi-
nary method of acidulation by vinegar ; How the removal of water
from the shavings and its substitution by vinegar are effected; Time
required for acidulation by the old method ; Loss of vinegar in the
old method of acidulation ; Advantage and mode of using artificially
dried shavings ; Time required for acidulation with artificially dried
shavings ........ 9#

Induction of the operation with artificially raised vinegar ferment;
" Pure cultivation" of the vinegar ferment 99

Preparation and treatment of fluids for the pure cultivation of vinegar
ferment ........ 10o

Preparation of nourishing fluid from beer ; Manner of cultivating vine-
gar ferment . . . . . . . . . . .101

Abortive cultivation of vinegar ferment with illustrations ; Transfer of
the pure cultivation of vinegar ferment to the generators . . 102

Prevention of disturbances which are caused by suddenly changing the
nourishing fluid of the vinegar ferment 103

CHAPTER XI.

PREPARATION OF THE ALCOHOLIC LIQUID.

Definition of the term "alcoholic liquid;" Reason why a content of
vinegar in the alcoholic liquid exerts a favorable effect upon the forma-
tion of vinegar ; Proof that the alcoholic liquid does not require any
considerable quantity of acetic acid for its conversion into vinegar . 104

Reasons why it is preferable to gradually increase the content of alcohol
in the alcoholic liquid instead of at once adding the total amount . 105

Experiment illlustrating the destruction of acetic acid by (he vinegar
ferment in the absence of alcohol ; Limit of percentage of acetic acid
vinegar should have ; Conditions on which the advantageous fabrica-
tion of high-graded or weak vinegar depends .

Quantities of beer and of finished vinegar to be added to the alcoholic
liquid ; Table showing the theoretical yield of acetic acid from alcohol 107

Reasons why practically less vinegar with a smaller percentage of acetic
anhydride is obtained ; Table showing the content of alcohol required
in an alcoholic liquid for the production of vinegar with a certain con-
tent of acetic acid . . . .*.•••••

Calculation for finding the number of gallons of water which have tc
added to alcohol of known strength in order to obtain an alcoholi
liquid with the desired percentage of alcohol ; Examples of the c
position of alcoholic liquid ..••••

XV111 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIY.

METHOD OF THE FABRICATION OF VINEGAR IN APPARATUS OF

SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION.

PAGE

Inutility of most inventions for overcoming the frequent disturbances in
the working of a factory not provided with suitable heating and venti-
lating arrangements ......... 139

Singer's vinegar generator, illustrated and described .... 140

Alirhaelis's rotary vinegar generator ....... 142

Fabrication of vinegar with the assistance of platinum black, and the
apparatus used .......... 143

CHAPTER XV.

FURTHER TREATMENT OF FRESHLY-PREPARED VINEGAR.

The odor of freshly- prepared vinegar and on what it depends ; Filling
of the barrels ; The reciprocal action which takes place between the *
air and the vinegar . . . . . . . . .144

Means for improving the odor of vinegar; Manner of drawing off the

vinegar from the sediment in the barrel, with illustration . .145

The storing of vinegar . . . . . . . . .146

Processes which take place during storing . . . . .147

Advisability of filtering the vinegar; Heating the vinegar; Apparatus
for heating the vinegar, illustrated and described .... 148

Filtration of the vinegar ; Filter for vinegar, illustrated and described . 150
Bag-filter for filtering vinegar under pressure, illustrated and described 151

Sulphuring of vinegar 152

Fining of vinegar ; Coloring vinegar .... 153

Preparation of caramel or burnt sugar .... 154

CHAPTER XYI.

PREPARATION OF VINEGAR FROM VARIOUS MATERIALS.
The formation of diastase ; How vinegar can be prepared from starch . 154
How the various kinds of vinegar might be designated according to the

elementary material used ; Reasons why beer-wort does not seem a

suitable material for vinegar ....
Use of fermented whisky-mashes for the manufacture of vinegar;

Manufacture of vinegar from malt and grain ; Combination of "the

manufacture of compressed yeast with that of vinegar . 156

The most suitable variety of malt for the preparation of vinegar* The

constitution of malt ....

• • .157

CONTENTS. XIX

PAGE

The theoretical part in mashing; Effective diastase; After-effect of
the diastase; Calculation of the yield of acetic-acid which can be
obtained from a given quantity of malt . . . . . .158

Use of a mixture of malt and-unmalted grain ; Doughing in the ground
malt; Mashing . . . . . . . . .159

The percentage of alcohol contained in mashes after fermentation;

Setting the rnash with yeast; Preparation of compressed yeast . 160

Treatment of the completely fermented "ripe mash" for the fabrica-
tion of vinegar ; Preparation of alcoholic liquid from filtered mash ;
Conversion of the fermented malt wort into vinegar . . .161

Filtration of malt vinegar in refining or rape vessels ; " Rape," what it
is; the manufacture of malt vinegar by "fielding"; Utilization of
sour ale and beer for vinegar . . . . . . .162

Preparation of vinegar from sugar beets ; Vinegar from sugar, fruits,
and berries . . . . . . . . . .163

Receipts for making vinegar by Cadet-Gassicourt and Doebereiner ;
Preparation of vinegar on a small scale for domestic use . .164

Table showing the average content of sugar and free acid in the most
common varieties of fruits ; Treatment of currant juice for the prepa-
ration of vinegar . . . . . . . . .165

Preparation of vinegar from bilberries ; Vinegar from berries ; Cider
vinegar ........... 166

Contrivance for making cider vinegar described by S. E. Todd . 167

Vinegar from apple-pomace 168

CHAPTER XVII.

PREPARATION OF VINEGAR SPECIALTIES.

Groups of specialties ; Perfumed vinegars 168

Aromatized vinegar; Manner of dissolving volatile oils in vinegar . 169
Preparation of aromatized vinegars . . . . . . .170

Toilet vinegars; Mohr's volatile spirits of wine ; Aromatic vinegar;
Henry's vinegar ; Vinaigre de quatre voleurs ; Hygienic or preven-
tive vinegar ; Cosmetic vinegar .171

Table vinegars ; Anise vinegar ; Anchovy vinegar ; Tarragon vinegar ;

Compound Tarragon vinegar ; Effervescing vinegar . . .172

Herb vinegar ; Pineapple vinegar ; Celery vinegar ; Clove vinegar ;

Mustard vinegar ; Lovage vinegar ; Preparation of acetic ether . 1 73
Preparation of a fluid for imparting bouquet to table vinegar ; Compo-
sition of pure acetic ether 1 74

XX 11 CONTENTS.

PAGE

Decomposition of wood at a higher temperature ; Cause of the decom-
position of wood ; Reason why a large amount of acetic acid is pro-
duced during the destructive distillation of wood . . . .219

Substances given off during the destructive distillation of wood ; Actual
facts observed in the distillation of wood ; Distillation of wood ; Re-
torts used in the distillation of wood; Form of the retorts . . 220

Dimensions of the retorts ; Position of the retorts ; Retorts used in
France ......... 221

Retorts used in England and Germany ; Vertical retorts ; Kestner's
apparatus, illustrated and described .... 222

Movable retorts, illustrated and described ; Modification of movable re-
torts, illustrated and described 223

Horizontal retorts, illustrated and described .... 225

Apparatus for abstracting the charcoal from the carbonizing cylinders ;
Condensers; Kestner's apparatus, illustrated and described . 227

Collection of the gases in a gasometer; Vincent's plan for cooling the
current of gas and rendering the vapors of acetic acid harmless, Illus-
trated and described 228

Dimensions for a condenser for four retorts, by Gillot ; Most suitable
varieties of wood for the production of wood- vinegar ; Removal of
the bark from the wood ...

Charcoal; Composition of charcoal ; Processes tak ing' place' by h'eatina
the wood in the retorts; Charbon roux or terrified charcoal- Red
wood (roasted wood, boix roux) and its composition ; Charcoals avail-
able for technical purposes

Quantity of charcoal obtained at various temperatures j Influence of the
degree of carbonization and of the variety of wood upon the yield of
charcoal; Variation in the elementary composition of charcoal as
found by Violette .

im'S'":; Properties of 'tar and of woocU

Constituents of wood-vinegar

Woo.1 spirit (methyl aleohol), CH.O, and it's propertied and uses ;' Ace' ***

tone or d.methyl kctone (C3H6O) and its properties
Determ.nat.on of the strength of Wood-vi,,egar ; Mohr's me'thod '
L. Rieffer's method ... -235

Working up the wood-vinegar ; Methods by" which this' is effected' Dis' ^

tillation of wood-vinegar, described and illustrated
The recreation of wood-vinegar, described and illustrated '

Scation of wood-vinegar according to Terreil and Chateau - lathe's

method for the purification of wood- vinegar
Acetic acid for technical purposes

Preparation of crude calcium acetate ' ' ' ' 24°

. 241
and pure sodium

242

CONTENTS. XX111

PAGE

Apparatus for roasting the pale brown sodium acetate, illustrated and
described ; Crystallizing vessels, illustrated and described . . 244

Mollerat's method of preparing sodium acetate 245

Acids, besides acetic acid, which occur in wood- vinegar according to
Barr6 246

Vincent's method of decomposing the mother-lye ; Manner of obtaining
wood-spirit (methyl alcohol) ; Composition of crude wood-spirit;
Processes which take place in digesting crude wood-spirit with slaked
lime ............ 247

Apparatus for distilling the digested mixture, illustrated and described 248

Further purification of wood-spirit; Purification of wood-spirit on a
small scale ; Examination of commercial wood-spirit . . . 249

Yield of charcoal, wood-vinegar, and wood-spirit as well as of tar;
Stoltze's experiments on the products obtained from the distillation
of several varieties of wood . . . . . . . .250

Percentage of acetic anhydride which, according to Gillot, can be ob-
tained from hard wood . . . . . . . . .251

Results obtained by Assmus in manufacturing on a large scale ; Rothe's
experience in obtaining acetic acid and other products from birch ;
Yield of salable methyl alcohol according to Vincent ; Description
of Halliday's apparatus 252

Wood-vinegar from saw-dust ........ 253

CHAPTER XXII.

PREPARATION OF PURE CONCENTRATED ACETIC ACID.

Percentage of acetic acid in the strongest vinegar which can be pre-
pared by the process of fermentation 253

Advisability of increasing the strength of vinegar from alcohol by the
addition of concentrated acetic acid from wood ; Detection of empy-
reumatic substances in acetic acid from wood ; Acetic acid from wood
for the preservation of fruit, cucumbers, etc. ... . 254

Manner of obtaining acetic acid from strong vinegar; Stein's method
of increasing the boiling point of vinegar 255

Preparation of acetic acid from commercial acetates and from those ob-
tained from wood- vinegar ; Former method of obtaining glacial acetic
acid ; Principal acetates now used for the preparation of acetic acid ;
Preparation of acetic acid from normal lead acetate (sugar of lead) . 256

Bucholz's direction for the preparation of acetic acid from lead acetate ;
Preparation of acetic acid without distillation 257

Decomposition of lead acetate by nitric acid ; Calcium acetate and so-
dium acetate the basis for the preparation of acetic acid on a large
scale ; Volckel's method of preparing acetic acid from calcium ace-
tate . . . 258

XXIV CONTENTS.

PAGE

Test for ascertaining the quantity of lime required for rectifying acetic
acid 259

Rectification of acetic acid, illustrated and described ; Use of the ace-
tate prepared from crude wood- vinegar for the preparation of acetic
acid . • .• - 26°

Reichenbach's method of destroying empyreumatic bodies in crude cal-
cium acetate ; Schnedermann's method .... • 261

Preparation of acetic acid from sodium acetate .

Yield of acetic acid from crystallized sodium acetate ; Mollerat's method
of preparing acetic acid from sodium acetate, illustrated and described 263

Glacial acetic acid ; Melsen's method of preparing glacial acetic acid . 265

Calcium chloride as a by-product in the preparation of glacial acetic
acid ; Oil of lemon as a test for pure acetic acid ; Properties of gla-
cial acetic acid . . . . . • • • . .266

CHAPTER XXIII.

ACETATES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE.

Constitution of acetic acid ........ 266

Solubility of acetates ; Preparation of acetates ; Potassium neutral ace-
tate 267

Properties and uses of potassium acetate ; Potassium acid acetate or

potassium diacetate ......... 268

Sodium .toetate ; Properties and uses of sodium acetate ; Sacc's method

of preserving meats and vegetables with sodium acetate . . . 269

Explosive mixture prepared with the use of sodium acetate; Ammo-
nium acetate, neutral acetate of ammonia; Calcium acetate . . 270

Barium acetate ; Mode of obtaining acetone from barium acetate . 271

Strontium acetate ; Magnesium acetate ; Aluminium acetate ; Import-
ance of aluminium acetate in calico printing; Mode of preparing
aluminium acetate for the use of the calico printer .... 272

Preparation of a mordant by decomposing alum by lead acetate ; lle-
ceipts for preparing red liquor ; Crace-Calvert's recommendation of
the use of sulphacetate of alumina for the preparation of mordant,
with formulae 273

Messrs Storck & Co.'s, of Asniferes, France, process for the manufac-
ture of aluminium acetate from the phosphate; Manganese acetate1
Preparation of manganous sulphate ..... 274

Iron acetates ; Ferrous acetate ....... 275

Properties and use of ferrous acetate ; Neutral ferric acetate or sesqui-
acetate of iron . •••.... 276

Mode of preparing pure neutral ferric acetate . . . . 277

Uses of the acetates of iron ; Chromium acetates . . . 278

CONTENTS. XXV

PAGE

Chromous acetate ; Chromic acetate ; Nickel acetate ; Cobalt acetate ;

Zinc acetate 279

Acetates of copper ; Cuprous acetate ; Neutral cupric acetate, or crys-
tallized verdigris .......... 280

Method of obtaining neutral cupric acetate by double decomposition . 281
Crystallization of neutral cupric acetate; Properties and uses of neutral
cupric acetate .......... 282

Basic cupric acetates ; Sesquibasic cupric acetate ; Dibasic cupric acetate ;

Tribasic cupric acetate ; Varieties of verdigris found in commerce . 283
Manufacture of verdigris in France ....... 284

Manufacture of verdigris in England, Germany, and Sweden ; Compo-
sition of French and English verdigris according to Philipps ; Methods

of testing verdigris as to adulterations 285

Uses of cupric acetates ; Scheele's green ; Schweinfurth green . . 286
Lead acetates; Neutral acetate of lead (sugar of lead) . . .287
Stein's method of preparing neutral acetate of lead, illustrated and
described ........... 288

Berard's process of preparing sugar of lead . . . . .291

Other methods of preparing sugar of lead ...... 292

Properties of neutral acetate of lead . . . . . . .293

Uses of sugar of lead . .294

Basic lead acetates ; Manufacture of white lead according to the French

method ; Preparation of lead vinegar or extract of lead . . .295
Lead sesquibasic acetate, triplumbic tetracetate ; Tribasic acetate of
lead ; Preparation of tribasic acetate of lead according to Pay en ;
Manufacture of white lead by the Clichy process and by the Dutch
process ; Sexbasic acetate of lead ....... 296

Uranium acetate; Tin acetate; Bismuth acetate ; Mercurous acetate t 297
Mercuric acetate ; Silver acetate ....... 298

PART II.

MANUFACTURE OF CIDERS, FRUIT- WINES, ETC.
CHAPTER XXIV.

INTRODUCTION.

Definition of the term wine ; Ingredients which are added to artificial
wines ; Ripening of fruits ; Constituents of an unripe fruit . . 299

Occurrence and behavior of pectose ; Formation and properties of
pectine 300

Properties of metapectine ; Action and constitution of pectase ; Pec-
tous fermentation ; Formation of pectosic acid .... 301

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Formation and properties of pectic acid ; Formation and properties of
metupectic aeid .....••••• 302

Definition of the term isomeric ; Development and ripening of a fruit
viewed as chemical process • 303

Results of chemical researches into the changes which fruits undergo
during their development and perfection ..... 304

Stages which a fruit passes through during development and ripening . 305

CHAPTER XXV.

FRUITS AND THEIR COMPOSITION.

Fruits used for the preparation of fruit-wines ; Compilation from
Fresenius giving the average percentage of sugar in different varie-
ties of fruit 306

Compilation according to average percentage of free acid ; Compilation
according to the proportion between acid, sugar, pectine, gum, etc. ;
Compilation according to the proportion between water, soluble, and
insoluble substances . . . . . . . . .307

Composition of the juice according to its content of sugar, pectine, etc. ;
Content of free acid in 100 parts of juice ..... 308

Grape-sugar or glucose ; Acids; Albuminous substances . . . 309
Pectous substances ; Gum and vegetable mucilage . . . .310

Tannin; Difference between pathological and physical tannin . .311
Inorganic constituents ; Fermentation ...... 312

Chief products of vinous fermentation ; Properties of absolute alcohol;

Succinic acid . . . . . . . . . .313

Glycerin; Carbonic acid . . . . . . . . .314

Quantity of carbonic acid developed during fermentation ; Alkaloid in
wine . 315

CHAPTER XXVI.

PRACTICE OF THE PREPARATION OF CIDER AND FRUIT-WINES.

Manner of gaining the juice or must from the fruit; Mr. W. O. Hic-

kock's portable cider mill . . . . ( t gig

Apparatus for crushing apples, illustrated and described ; Davis's star

apple grinder, illustrated and described 317

Presses; Manner of obtaining the juice from berries, etc. ; Manner of

obtaining the juice from apple-pomace, etc 318

44 Farmer's cider press," illustrated and described; "Extra power

cider press," illustrated and described ... 319

Revolving platform of the " extra power cider press," illustrated and

described .,9n

. O & \J

Ferguson's improved racks 321

CONTENTS. XXV11

PAGE

Plain racks ; Willson's telegraph wine and cider mill, illustrated and
described ........... 322

Apple elevator, illustrated and described . . . . . .323

Testing the must as to its content of acid and sugar ; Manner of finding

the quantity of acid 324

Determination of the sugar in must ; Manner of calculating the quan-
tity of sugar which has to be added to the must to give the wine the

desired content of alcohol 326

Glucose 327

Properties of commercial glucose ; Determination of pure sugar in glu-
cose ; Anthon's table for finding the content of anhydrous grape-
sugar in saturated solutions of glucose ...... 328

CHAPTER XXVII.

CIDER FROM APPLES AND PEARS.

Cider from apples ; " Champagne cider" ; " Sparkling cider" . .329

Reputation of Normandy and Herefordshire and Devonshire ciders ;
Production of cider, in 1883, in France ; Analyses of Brittany ciders
by Rousseau ; Analyses of pure ciders from different parts of France
made in the Paris municipal laboratory 330

Average composition of French ciders ; Analyses of ciders by the
United States Agricultural Department 331

Choice of the varieties of apples for the manufacture of cider . . 332

Test for ascertaining the content of tannin in apples ; Mixtures of apples
used in France for the preparation of cider; Varieties of apples
chiefly used in New Jersey for the manufacture of cider ; List of
apples recommended by P. Barry for cultivation in the Eastern and
Middle States . 333

Mode of gathering and sweating apples for the preparation of cider . 334

Reduction of the apples to an impalpable pulp ; Diversity of opinion as
regards the crushing of the seeds ; Treatment of the pulp ; Pressing 335

Primitive custom of laying the cheese ; Substitution of hair-cloth and
cotton press-cloth for straw in laying the cheese ; Manufacture of
small cider in France ; Extraction of the juice by diffusion . . 336

M. Jules Nanot's improved method of extracting the juice by diffusion,
illustrated and described . . . . . . . .337

Expressing the juice by means of the centrifugal ; Testing the juice with
the must-aerometer and its correction if wanting in saccharine
strength ; Fermentation of the juice 339

Distinguishing characteristic between the fermentation of wine and
cider; Various methods of checking fermentation; Preparation of
very fine cider 340

XXviii CONTENTS.

PAGE

Salicylic acid as an agent for cheeking fermentation; The "salicylic

acid question" ; Manner of using salicylic acid . . . .341
Clarification of cider ; French method of clarifying cider ; Improving

the taste of cider 342

Preparation of cider in the same manner as other fruit-wines ; Red

apple-wine or red wine from cider; Sweet cider .... 343
Dr. Denis-Dumont's directions for bottling cider .... 344
Manufacture of cider in the Island of Jersey ; Devonshire cider ; Heating

of cider 345

Solution of the problem of keeping cider sweet ; Freezing of cider . 346
Champagne eider .......... 347

Artificial wines from cider; Burgundy; Malaga-wine; Sherry-wine . 348
Claret-wine ; Diseases of cider ; Acidity in cider ; Viscosity or greasy

appearance of cider ......... 349

Turning black of cider; Turbidity of cider ; Adulteration of cider . 350
Dr. Bremont on the adulteration of cider ; Adulteration of cider in

France ; Minimum limit for the composition of pure cider . . 351
Results of the investigation of American ciders by the United States

Agricultural Department ; Manufacture of brandy from cider . . 352
Preparation of the juice for distillation ; Brandy from plums, damsons,

etc. ; Distillation 353

Rectification of apple-brandy ; Pear-cider ...... 354

Preparation of " port-wine" from pear-must ; Quince wine . . 355

CHAPTER XXVIII.

FRUIT-WINES.

From small fruits ; Prevention of the turning of wine from small fruits ;

Advantage of a mixture of various juices for the preparation of wine ;

Means of improving the flavor and keeping qualities of fruit-wine . 356

Selection of the fruit ; Expression of the juice ; Fermentation . . 357

Clarification and drawing off of the wine into bottles ; Currant-wine . 358
Composition of currant-wine, two years old ; Preparation of a very

strong beverage from the juice of currants .... 359

VfMous methods of preparing strawberry-wine ..... 360

Gooseberry-wine ......... 361

Gooseberry-champagne . . . . . . . . 3^3

Sender's directions for the preparation of gooseberry-champagne . . 364

Raspberry-wine * . . 365

Blackberry-wine; Mulberry-wine; Elderberry-wine . . . SQQ

Juniperberry-wine ; Rhubarb- wine ; Tomato-wine . . . 357

Parsnip-wine ; Preparation of wine from stone-fruits ; Cherry-wine 368
Morello-wine ; Plum-wine; Apricot and peach-wines; Sloe or wild

plum-wine ofif)

CONTENTS. XXIX

PART III.

CANNING AND EVAPORATING OF FRUIT, MANUFACTURE
OF CATCHUPS, FRUIT BUTTERS, MARMALADES, JEL-
LIES, PICKLES, AND MUSTARDS.

CHAPTER XXIX.

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT.

PAGE

Rules applying to all methods of preserving fruit . . . .371

French method of preserving fruit, known as au Baine-Marie ; Preser-
vation of the flesh of the fruit without boiling ..... 372

Preparation of fruit for preserving ; Preservation of fine table pears ;
Boiling down of fruit in large stoneware pots . . . . .373

Preserving in air-tight cans ; National importance of this method for
the United States and England ; Groups of canned articles embraced
in the American trade lists . . . . . . . .374

Difficulties in canning plums and cherries ; Fruits suitable and unsuit-
able for canning; Selection of the fruits for canning . . .375

List of varieties of fruit preferred by the North American factories for
canning ; Preference of the California packers for the Bartlett pear ;
Various styles of cans and jars 376

Complaint against the use of tin cans ; The soldering of tin cans inside
prohibited in England ; Manner of coating and lining the inside of tin
cans to protect the contents from contact with the metal . . .377

Manufacture of tin cans in the United States canneries; Division of
labor in the canneries ; Preparation of the syrup . . . .378

Apparatus for the expulsion of air by heating the cans ; Cleansing and
testing the cans . . . . . . . . . .379

Mode of heating the cans in boiling water ; Canning of tomatoes . 380

Selection of a site for the canning establishment ; How contracts for a
supply of tomatoes are made ; Arrangement of a canning factory . 381

Scalding the tomatoes; Skinning the tomatoes ; Machines for filling the
cans 382

" Cappers" and their work ; Labelling the cans .... 383

Trials and vexations of a canner's life ; Principal market for canned
tomatoes 384

Catchups ; Tomato catchup 385

Walnut catchup ; Cucumber catchup ; Horseradish catchup . . 387

Currant catchup ; Gooseberry catchup ; Fruit-butter, marmalade, and
jelly; Fruit-butter; Manufacture of apple-butter .... 388

Preparation of raising ; Manner of packing fruit-butter . . . 389

XXX CONTENTS.

PAGE

Marmalade ; Derivation of the term marmalade ; Manufacture of mar-
malade on a large scale . . . • • • • • .391

Quantity of sugar to be used ; Secret of the great reputation of the pro-
ducts of the principal American factories ; Selection of fruit for mar-
malade 391

Perfumed apple marmalade ; Tutti-frutti; Jelly; Erroneous opinion as
regards the quantity of sugar required for making jelly ; Preparation
of apple jelly without sugar ....•••• 392

Use of the saccharometer in jelly boiling; Preparation of jellies from
pears, mulberries, berries, and other small fruit . . . .393

Preparation of jelly from stone-fruit, quinces, rhubarb, etc. ; French
perfumed jelly ; Manufacture of apple jelly in the largest factory in
Oswego County, New York . . . . . • • .394

Arrangement of the factory ; Grating the apples and expression of the
juice ; Description of the defecator ...... 395

Object of the defecator ; Description of the evaporator . . . 396

Proper consistency for perfect jelly ; Mode of packing the jelly for
family use ........... 397

Daily product of the factory ; Saving of the apple seeds ; Value of the
apple seeds ; Importance of such institutions . . . . .398

The kettle ; A kettle much used in American preserving establishments,
illustrated and described 399

CHAPTER XXX.

EVAPORATION OF FRUIT.

Great future of this mode of preserving fruit ; Difference between evap-
orated ami dried fruit ......... 400

Evaporating establishments about Rochester, N. Y. ; Value of the an-
nual product of evaporated fruit in the State of New York ; Water
eliminated by the process of evaporation ; Advantage in the cost of
freight of evaporated fruit ; Total export of evaporated and dried
apples from the United States during 1888, and value of the same . 401

Enormous increase of the fruit growing industry in the United States ;
Award of the first prize at the Paris Exhibition of 1 878 to fruit evapo-
rated by the Alden process ; List of articles which are subjected to
evaporation; Advantages of evaporated fruit; Unreliability of
canned goods 402

Experience of the steamer " Rodgers" with canned goods; Principle
upon which the apparatus for evaporating fruit is based, and the
theory of evaporating fruit ..... 403

Absorption of moisture by the air .... 404

Heat alone not sufficient for drying 40

CONTENTS. XXXI

PAGE

Disadvantage of drying fruit in the oven ; Chemical analysis of a parcel
of Baldwin apples, showing the changes effected in the composition
of the fruit by drying in the oven, and by evaporation . . . 406
The Alden apparatus, illustrated and described . . . . . 407
Sun-drying apparatus, illustrated and described . 409

The improved Williams evaporator, manufactured by S. E. Sprout, of

Muncy, Pa., illustrated and described 410

The American fruit evaporator manufactured by the American Manu-
facturing Co., Waynesboro', Pa., illustrated and described . .412
Manner of operating the Alden apparatus ...... 413

Table of intervals at which the trays must be placed in the apparatus ;
Manner of packing evaporated apples ...... 414

Varieties of fruit used and manner of preparing them for evaporation . 415
Various modes of bleaching apples and pears before evaporation ; Treat-
ment of plums after evaporating ; Manner of placing the fruit in the

trays 416

Conversion of grapes into raisins by evaporating ; Preparation of toma-
toes, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, green corn, etc., for evaporation . 417

Manner of evaporating potatoes 418

How evaporated potatoes should be packed ; French method of drying
fruit in the oven . . . . . . . . . .419

Method of drying fruit in the oven practised in central England and in
the New England States 420

CHAPTER XXXI.

PREPARATION OF PICKLES AND MUSTARD.

Manner of packing pickles ; General rules for the preparation of pickles . 420

Preparation of spiced vinegar ; Utensils used in the preparation of
pickles . . 421

" Greening" pickles; List of fruits which are chiefly used for the pre-
paration of pickles in factories ; Barberries ; Beans ; Cabbage, red
and white ; Cauliflower ; Cucumbers ; Elderberry flowers . . 422

English bamboo ; Gooseberries; Mixed pickles ; Mushrooms; Onions;
Peaches; Peas; Picalilly ; Tomatoes; Walnuts . . 423

Mustard ; English method of preparing mustard ; Substances used for
seasoning mustard ; Gumpoldskirchner must-mustard . 424

Moutard des Jesuites ; French mustard ; Ordinary mustard ; Frankfort
mustard; Wine mustard ........ 425

Aromatic or hygienic mustard ; Dusseldorf mustard ; Sour Dlisseldorf
mustard; Sweet Kremser must-mustard; Sour Kremser must-mus-
tard ; Moutard de maille . . . . . • • .426

Moutarde aux 6pices ; Moutarde aromatis6e ; English mustard . 427

XXXli CONTENTS.

APPENDIX.

PAGE

Table I. Hehner's alcohol table 431

Table II. which indicates the specific gravity of mixtures of alcohol and
water 433

Table III. showing the proportion between per cent, by weight and by
volume of alcoholic fluids at 59° F. 434

Table IV. showing the actual content of alcohol and water in mixtures
of both fluids and the contraction which takes place in mixing . 435

Table V. for comparing the different areometers with Tralles's alcohol-
ometer 436

Determination of the true strengths of spirit for the normal temperature
of59°F 437

Table VI. for the determination of the true strengths of spirit for the
normal temperature of 59° F. (15° C.) 439

Table VII. for the determination of the true volume of alcoholic fluids
from the apparent volume at different temperatures ; Explanation of
the table 444

Table VIII. of the preparation of whiskey of various strengths from spirits
of wine ........... 446

Table IX. for the reduction of specific gravities to saccharometer per
cent. . . . . . . . . . . . .447

Table X. for the comparative synopsis of the aerometers for must gene-
rally used ........... 450

Table XI. to Oechsle's aerometer for must ; Table XII. to Massonfour's
aerometer; Table XIII. for comparing per cent, of sugar with per
cent, of extract and the specific gravity . . . . . .451

Table XIV. for determining the content of per cent, of acetic-acid
contained in a vinegar of — specific gravity (according to A. C.
Oudemans) ... . . . . . . . . 452

Table XV. for determining the content of per cent, of acetic-acid
contained in a vinegar of — specific gravity (according to Mohr) . 453

Table XVI. Comparison of the scales of Keaumur, Celsius, and
Fahrenheit thermometers . . . . . . 454

455

•UNIVERSITY

A PRACTICAL TREATISE

ON

THE MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR, CIDER, AND
FRUIT- WINES;

THE PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES BY
CANNING AND EVAPORATION, ETC.

PART I.

THE MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION.

ORDINARY vinegar is dilute acetic acid, contaminated with
various vegetable impurities. In this form it has been known
from the earliest times, and its discovery must have immediately
followed that of wine, because it is evident that at the tempera-
ture of the Eastern countries, where the first experiments on the
juice of the grape were made, fermentation must have set in
rapidly, and the wine been quickly transformed into an acid
compound. Moses mentions it and Hippocrates made use of it
as a medicine. Its property of dissolving calcareous earth under
the development of effervescence was known in the earliest times,
and there cau be no doubt that its action upon metal, etc., had
been investigated at a very remote period. Pliny relates how
Cleopatra, by dissolving large pearls in vinegar and drinking the
resulting liquid, won her wager of being able to consume the
value of one million sesterces at one meal ; and Livy and
2

18 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRriT-WIXES.

Plutarch state that Hannibal dissolved the rocks impeding his
march across the Alps by ordering his soldiers to pour vinegar
upon them.

Although there can be no doubt that vinegar was in very
general use at an early period, there was until very recently no
•definite knowledge as to the cause of its production and the mode
of its formation. The alchemist Gerber, who lived in the eighth
<>entury, was the first to make known the process of increasing
the strength of wine-vinegar by distillation, and Albucases
(about 1100) stated the fact that vinegar to be colorless has to be
distilled over a moderate fire. Basil ins Valentinus, a monk and
celebrated alchemist of the 15th century, knew that by the slow
distillation of vinegar, first a weak product, and then a stronger
one is obtained, and he was probably also acquainted with the
process of obtaining strong acetic acid by distilling copper
acetate (verdigris). In fact for a long time this was the only
mode of preparing acetic acid, the product of the further rectifi-
cation of the liquid being termed radical vinegar, spiritm Veneris,
Venus'* vinegar, spiritm aeruninis, etc.

Stahl and Westendorf were the first to prepare the acid in a
pure state, and Lauranguais, in 1 759, discovered the property of
very strong acetic acid to crystallize at a low temperature.
Loewitz, however, in 1793, was the first to obtain it as a pure
hydrate (glacial acetic acid).

The formation of an acid body in the dry distillation of wood
was already known in the 17th century. However, it was for a
long time not recognized as acetic acid, but considered as a special
acid (pyroligneous acid). Fourcroy and Vauquelin, in 1800,
were the first to recognize this acid as acetic acid, and Thenard,
in 1802, demonstrated the presence of acetic acid among the pro-
ducts formed in the dry distillation of animal substances.

Berzelius, in 1814, determined the exact chemical constitution
of acetic acid, and Saussnre, in the same year, that of alcohol.
Dr. J. Davy observed that spongy platinum, in contact with
vapor of alcohol, l>ecame incandescent and generated acetic acid.
Dobereiner further studied the nature of the acid, and proved
that the alcohol was oxidized at the expense of the' atmospheric
air, producing acetic acid and water, and that no carbonic acid

INTRODUCTION. 19

was formed — thus pointing out the fallacy of the opinion held by
the chemists of his time that carbonic acid was one of the pro-
ducts of acetous fermentation.

Schutzeubach, in 1823, one year after the establishment by
Dobereiner of the now generally accepted theory of the formation
of acetic acid from alcohol, introduced the quick process of man-
ufacturing vinegar.

Without detracting from the credit due to Schiitzenbaeh for
the introduction of his method and the improvement in the pro-
cess of the manufacture of vinegar, it may be mentioned that as
early as 1732, nearly a century before, the celebrated Dutch
chemist and physician Boerhaave made known a method for the
fabrication of vinegar from wine, which contained the principles
of the quick process.

Although it is now more than sixty years since the introduc-
tion of Schutzenbach's process into the practice, the manufacture
of vinegar from alcohol remains nearly the same. While no
change can be made as regards the theoretical part of the process,
it being erected upon a foundation clearly indicated by a know-
ledge of natural laws, many important improvements may surelv
be introduced in the manufacture of vinegar on a large scale, this
being especially the case where it is uninterruptedly carried on
with the use of suitable apparatus. Many manufacturers still
work according to Schutzenbach's original plan, i. e., they use an
immense amount of labor for a performance which can be attained
in a much simpler manner.

Progress is necessary in every business, but for several reasons
it is especially necessary for the manufacturer engaged in the
fabrication of vinegar by the quick process. Alcohol in every
form (whiskey, beer, wine) is everywhere subjected to a high tax,
and the constantly increasing taxation of this fundamental
material for the fabrication of vinegar, of course increases the
price the manufacturer has to pay for it. Another reason why
the manufacture of vinegar from alcohol becomes constantly more
difficult is found in the great competition arising from the con-
tinued improvements in the manufacture of pure acetic acid from
wood. Not many years ago it was considered impossible to ob-
tain entirely pure acetic acid from wood when manufacturing on

20 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

a large scale, but the article produced at the present time may be
almost designated as u chemically pure" in the true sense of the
word, it containing, besides acetic acid, only water, and the most
accurate analysis cannot detect a trace of the products of tar, which
render unpurified wood vinegar unfit for use.

For consumption on a large scale, especially where only a body
of an acid taste is required, the use of so-called " vinegar essence"
(?'. c., pure 80 to 90 per cent, acetic acid) prepared from wood,
and which, when properly diluted, furnishes ordinary vinegar,
will undoubtedly gradually supersede vinegar prepared from
alcohol, it being considerably cheaper. And notwithstanding
that the price of vinegar essence is decreasing every year, in
regions where wood is plentiful and cheap, its manufacture is a
well-paying industry on account of the many valuable by-products
(tar, wood-spirit, charcoal) obtained besides acetic acid. Even at
the present time for all industrial purposes where acetic acid is
required, as, for instance, in the manufacture of tar colors, that
obtained from wood is used, and the quantities consumed in the
fabrication of table vinegar become larger every year.

But the manufacture of vinegar from alcohol and alcoholic fluids
will nevertheless continue to flourish because the product obtained
from them actually possesses different properties from the pure
acetic acid prepared from wood. Vinegar obtained from pure
alcohol, and, still more so, that from fermented fruit juices, as
wine, cider, skins of pressed grapes, or from malt, contain, besides
acetic acid and water, small quantities of bodies, which on account
of their being analogous to those occurring in wine, may be
designated as u bouquet-bodies," and which give to the vinegar
an agreeable smell and taste entirely wanting in acetic acid pre-
pared from wood. These properties are so characteristic that any
one gifted with a sensitive and practised sense of smell can at
once distinguish pure acetic acid vinegar from that prepared from
wine, cider, beer, etc.

By the addition of volatile oils or compound ethers an agree-
able odor can, of course, be imparted to vinegar obtained by
diluting pure wood acetic acid with water, but it is impossible to
produce the harmonious bouquet peculiar to vinegar prepared
from alcohol or fruit juices, a similar relation existing here as

THEORY OF THE FORMATION OF VINEGAR. 21

between wine and so-called artificial wine. The latter can he
made so as nearly to approach, as regards taste and smell, genuine
wine, but a connoisseur will at once detect the difference.

The principal defects of the process of manufacturing vinegar
by tEe quick process in general use are not in the method itself,
for that, as already indicated, corresponds entirely to the theoreti-
cal conditions, and yields as good a product as can be obtained
from the raw material used. The weak point of the process is
found in the practical execution of it : the losses of material are
much more considerable and greater than are absolutely necessary,
the consumption of labor is very large, and, as every manufacturer
knows from experience, interruptions in the regular process of
working are of too frequent occurrence.

All these disadvantages can be reduced to a minimum, if not
absolutely overcome, and it is hoped sufficient hints how this can
be done will be found in the following chapters.

CHAPTER II.

THEORY OF THE FORMATION OF VINEGAR.

INDEPENDENTLY of the formation of acetic acid by the so-
called dry distillation, the chemical processes by which acetic acid
in larger quantities is formed are at present quite well understood,
and will be briefly explained as follows : —

As previously mentioned, Dobereiner, in 1822, established the
theory of the formation of acetic acid from alcohol, and the pro-
cesses taking place thereby may be expressed by the following
formula : —

C2HC0 + 02 = C2H402 + HS0

Alcohol. Oxygen. Acetic acid. Witter.

According to the above formula, acetic acid and water are
formed by the action of oxygen upon alcohol, and hence the for-
mation of acetic acid takes place by a partial combustion or
oxidation of the latter. Alcohol and acetic acid are, however,
only two members of the process, and that, besides the latter,

22 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

other bodies are formed from the alcohol can be readily detected
in a vinegar manufactory by the sense of smell.

By treating alcohol with pyrolusite and sulphuric acid— hence
by the action of oxygen at the moment of its liberation from a
combination (in its nascent state) — Dobereiner obtained a body
which he called "light oxygenated ether" (leichter Sauer-
stoffather). Liebig, later on, studied the nature of this com-
bination more accurately, and found that, as regards its composi-
tion, it differed from that of alcohol only by containing two
atoms less of hydrogen. He applied to it the term " aldehyde."

Aldehyde is composed of C2H4O, and its formation is repre-
sented by the formula —

C2HG0 + <> = C2H40 + H20

Alcohol. Oxygen. Aldehyde. Water.

In the examination of the properties of aldehyde it was shown
that it is readily converted into acetic acid by the absorption of
oxygen, and, based upon these facts, Liebig established a theory
of the formation of vinegar which was for many years considered
correct.

Essentially Liebig's theory is as follows : —
By the exposure, under suitable conditions, of alcohol to the
action of the atmospheric oxygen, one-third of the entire quantity
of hydrogen contained in it is withdrawn, and aldehyde is formed.
The latter, however, immediately further combines with oxygen,
and is converted into acetic acid; the formation of vinegar from
alcohol being, therefore, a partial process of combustion.

From the present stand-point of our knowledge as regards the
formation of acetic acid from alcohol, the correctness of this
theory is about parallel with that according to which alcohol and
carbonic acid are formed by the alcoholic fermentation of sugar.
This latter process can also be illustrated by an equation in as
simple a manner as the conversion of alcohol into acetic acid by
aldehyde. At the present time the processes taking place in the
formation of acetic acid from alcohol must, however, be considered
as far more complicated than supposed by Liebig. According to
the latter, a simple oxidation, i. e., a simple chemical process,
takes place; but, according to the now universally accepted view,
the formation of vinegar is due to a cheniico-physiological pro-

THEORY OF THE FORMATION OF VINEGAR. 23

cess with the cooperation of a living organism. Alcohol and
oxygen alone do not suffice for this purpose, the presence of nitro-
genous bodies and salts, besides that of an organism, being abso-
lutely necessary.

The French chemist, Pasteur, was the first to establish the
formation of vinegar as a peculiar process of fermentation, and
he maintains that a certain organism, the "vinegar ferment'7 or
" vinegar yeast/' consumes the alcohol, nitrogenous substances and
salts, and separates acetic acid, aldehyde, etc., as products of the
change of matter taking place in the living organism. On the
other hand, the German chemist, Nageli, is of the opinion that
the role of the organism is to bring the particles of the substance
to be fermented (in this case, alcohol) lying next to it, into such
vibrations as to decompose them into more simple combinations
— in this case, acetic acid, aldehyde, etc.

The scientific dispute over these two different views is not yet
settled, though the majority of chemists are inclined to accept
Pasteur's theory. For the practical man it is of no consequence
which of these views will be finally accepted as the correct one ;
the fact that the process of the formation of vinegar is connected
with the living process of an organism is alone of imporauce to
him.

As is well known, organisms producing fermentation are named
after certain products which they form in larger quantities, the
organism forming alcohol from sugar being, for instance, briefly
termed " alcoholic ferment." In this sense we may also speak
of a vinegar or acetous ferment, since a definite organism causing
the formation of larger quantities of acetic acid from alcohol is
known, and the cultivation of this ferment is one of the principal
tasks of the manufacturer of vinegar.

Numerous observations have established the fact that the pro-
perties of forming large quantities of acetic acid are inherent
only in this ferment. Small quantities of acetic acid are, how-
ever, also constantly formed by other ferments, so that in examining
products due to the process of decomposition induced by organ-
isms, acetic acid will be generally found among them. In the
alcoholic fermentation, at least in that of wine and bread-dough,
acetic acid is always found. It originates in the germination of

24 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

many seeds, and generally ap|>ears in the putrefaction of sub-
stances rich in nitrogen, such as albumen, glue, etc. It appears
also in the so-called lactic fermentation, the lactic acid formed by
the specific ferment of this species of fermentation being by
further processes of fermentation decomposed into butyric and
acetic acids.

Acetic acid, belonging to those bodies which may be considered
as quite far advanced products of oxidation of higher compound
combinations, its occurrence in living organisms is not remarkable.
It is found in many fluids of animal origin, for instance, in meat-
juice, milk, sweat, and urine. It also occurs constantly in the
fresh fruit of the tamarind. What processes take place in its
formation in these cases are not known, though it is very likely
directly formed from certain varieties of sugar. Just as little do
we know about the origin of the acetic acid found in the mineral
water of Briickenau.1

There is quite a large series of chemical processes in which
certain quantities of acetic acid are always formed. Sugar, starch,
woody fibre, and, in general, all compounds known as carbohy-
drates, when fused with caustic alkalies, always yield certain
quantities of acetic acid, as also by themselves when subjected
to destructive distillation.

Among the processes by which acetic acid is produced in a
purely chemical manner, /. r., without the cooperation of organ-
isms, the most interesting is that by which itvS formation is effected
by the action of very finely divided platinum (the so-called plati-
num black) upon alcohol. Platinum black is easily prepared by
boiling a solution of platinic chloride with an addition of an
excess of sodium carbonate and a quantity of sugar until the
precipitate, formed after a little time, becomes perfectly black and
the supernatant liquor colorless. The black powder is collected
on a filter, washed and dried by gentle heat. From its minute
state of division this substance condenses within it several hun-
dred times its volume of oxygen ; consequently, when the vapor
of alcohol comes in contact with it, a supply of oxygen in a
concentrated state is presented to it, and the platinum, without

1 Free acetic acid is also claimed to occur in the water of a river of Brazil.

THEORY OF THE FORMATION OF VINEGAR.

25

losing any of its inherent properties, effects chemical combination,
the alcohol undergoing slow combustion, and being converted into
acetic acid. In order that the reaction may continue, it is, of
course, necessary to present fresh oxygen to the platinum to re-
place that which is withdrawn. The two actions then go on
side by side.

This can be illustrated by an apparatus similar to Fig. 1. It
consists of a bell glass through the mouth of which a long funnel
passes ; the lower end of this funnel terminates in a fine point,
so that the alcohol poured in may
percolate very slowly. The vessel
is placed upon supports within a
dish in which is a saucer or small
flat basin containing the platinum
black. The interstice between the
bottom of the dish and the bell
serves for the circulation of air in
the jar. On pouring the alcohol
through the funnel, in the course of
a short time the odor of acetic acid
is perceived at the mouth from the
acetic acid vapors, which are gene-
rated. These condense on the sides
of the jar and trickle to the bottom,
where they collect in the vessel in
the dish. It is advantageous for the

success of the experiment to have the alcohol heated to about 90°
F. when it is poured in. By washing and glowing the platinum
used for the oxidation of alcohol, it can be again employed for
the same purpose.

Independently of the purely chemical methods which, with the
exception of that by which acetic acid is produced by the dry
distillation of wood, are of no practical importance, the forma-
tion of vinegar, no matter what method may be adopted, can only
be effected in the presence of certain organisms. It has long
been known that organisms to which the term mother of vinegar
has been applied,- develop upon fluids containing, besides alcohol,
certain other substances, for instance upon weak wine and beer,

26 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

and this mother of vinegar has also been used for the fabrication
of vinegar on a large scale. To Pasteur, however, belongs the
incontestable merit of having more accurately examined the rela-
tions of these organisms to the formation of vinegar. These
examinations gave rise to his experiments on the diseased altera-
tion of wine, which were later on succeeded by his researches on
the formation of wine vinegar.

Pasteur found that upon the surface of every fluid capable by
reason of its composition of being converted into vinegar, organ-
isms develop immediately after the commencement of the forma-
tion of vinegar. He recognized these organisms as fungoid plants
of a low order and called them Mycoderma aceti. More recent
researches on the botanical nature of these plants show them to
belong to the group of lowest fungoid organisms to which the
term bacteria or schizomycdes has been applied.

These plants consist of a single, generally globular or filiform
cell, their special characteristic; being their mode of propagation,
which is effected by the division of the cell into two and then a
separation or splitting of both.

The exceedingly minute size of the schizomycetes and their
great resemblance to each other make their accurate determina-
tion very difficult, and, hence, it is customary to name the better
known species in accordance with the chemical products they
form or in accordance with the phenomena they produce. Among
the first kind may be classed those which effect the formation of
acetic, lactic, butyric acids ; other very little known bacteria must
be considered as the cause of the so-called nitric acid fermenta-
tion, and again others appear in putrid fermentation. A special
group of bacteria reaches development in animal organisms and
give rise to terrible diseases, some causing rinderpest, others tuber-
culosis, and various other maladies. Cholera and other epidemics
have also recently been found to be due to certain bacteria.

The bacteria causing disease are of course very interesting to
the physician ; but to the manufacturer of vinegar a thorough
knowledge of the conditions of life governing the vinegar bacteria
is of the utmost importance, in order to conduct the fabrication
in such a manner that disturbances shall rarely occur, and, should
they happen, that he may be able readily to remove them. It may,

VINEGAR FERMENT AND ITS CONDITIONS OF LIFE. 27

therefore, be said that the entire art of the manufacture of vinegar
consists in an accurate knowledge of the conditions of life of the
vinegar bacteria and in the induction of these conditions of life.
As long as the latter are maintained, the process of the formation
of vinegar will go on without disturbance and the origination of
new generations of vinegar ferment be connected with the con-
version of certain quantities of alcohol into vinegar.

CHAPTER III.

THE VINEGAR FERMENT AND ITS CONDITIONS OF LIFE.

A. The Vinegar Ferm,ent.

XOTHING is as yet known about the origin of the vinegar
bacteria, but experiments have shown these organisms to be every-
where distributed throughout the air and to multiply at an enor-
mous rate when fluids of a composition suitable for their nour-
ishment are presented to them. A fluid especially adapted for
this purpose is, for instance, thoroughly fermented, ripe wine, its
exposure in a flat vessel and at the ordinary temperature of a
room being sufficient to induce the augmentation of the vinegar
bacteria reaching it from the air.

This experiment is, however, only a certain success when exe-
cuted with ripe wine, by which is meant wine which shows but
little turbidity when strongly shaken in contact with air and
exposed in a half-filled bottle to the air. Young wine contains a
large quantity of albuminous substances in solution, and is espe-
cially adapted for the nourishment of an organism (saccharomyces
mesembryanthemum) belonging to the saccharomycetes. It develops
upon the surface of such wine as a thick white skin wrhich later
on becomes wrinkled and prevents the growth of the vinegar
ferment. A fluid well adapted for the nourishment of the vine-
gar ferment, and which may be used as a substitute for wine for
its cultivation, is obtained by adding 5 to 6 per cent, of alcohol
and about J per cent, of malt extract to water.

28 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

By exposing ripe wine or the last-mentioned fluid at the ordi-
nary temperature of a room, and best in a plate covered by a
glass plate resting upon small wooden blocks to prevent the access-
of dust, the formation of a thin veil-like coating upon the surface,
which shortly covers the entire surface, will, in a few days, be
observed. The wine soon shows the characteristic odor and taste
of acetic acid, and in a few days assumes a somewhat darker
color and deposits a slight, brownish sediment consisting of decayed
vinegar ferment. In 14 to 21 days the fluid is entirely converted
into vinegar, i. c., it contains no more alcohol, but instead the
corresponding quantity of acetic acid.

By exposing the vinegar thus obtained for a longer time to the
air, a thick white skin of mold may happen to form on the surface,
and, on chemically examining the fluid, the content of acetic acid
will be found steadily to decrease, the mold which is able to convert
the alcohol into water and carbonic acid possessing also the power
of forming the same products from acetic acid.

The above-described process of the destruction of the wine and
its conversion into vinegar by a veil-like coating of the vinegar
ferment occurs most frequently ; a thick spume, the so-called
'mother of vinegar, may, however, also happen to form upon the
surface, a phenomenon to which we will refer later on.

On examining under the microscope a drop taken from the
surface of the wine when the veil of vinegar ferment commences
to form, a picture like that shown in Fig. 2 presents itself. In
a somewhat more advanced stage the formations resembling
chains and strings of beads appear more frequently, and when
finally the development of the ferment is in full progress, it
appears as an aggregation of numerous single cells mixed with
double cells and many other cells strung together like beads.
The field of vision of the microscope is then completely filled
with a large number of colorless globules, which are present
either singly or in combination of twos, the formations resem-
bling chains or strings of beads occurring but seldom. In many
of the separately-occurring formations oval forms generally
slightly contracted in the centre are observed ; this contraction
indicates the place where the splitting of one cell into two new
cells takes place. By strongly shaking the fluid before viewing

VINEGAR FERMENT AND ITS CONDITIONS OF LIFE. 29

it under the microscope, very few of the above-mentioned bead-
like formations will be found, but more frequently the contracted
ones. By observing for hours a drop of the fluid containing the
ferment in an advanced state of development, the globules strung
together will be noticed to fall apart when at rest. Hence it may
be supposed that in the augmentaHon of cells by splitting, the
newly formed cells adhere together up to a certain stage, and
later on separate in the fluid when in a quiescent state. Like

Fig. 2.

Development of the Vinegar Ferment. The ferment is young but in full activity.

X 500.

every other organism the vinegar ferment only lives for a certain
time, and after dying, sinks below the fluid and forms upon the
bottom of the vessel the above-mentioned sediment. The latter
appears under the microscope in the same form as the living fer-
ment, but differs from it in being less transparent and of a
brownish color. The augmentation of the vinegar ferment takes
place very rapidly, and it will be found in a few hours after the
commencement of its development in all stages of life upon the
surface of the fluid, it being possible to distinguish cells of from
1.5 to 3.5 micromillimetres in size.1

The vinegar ferment requiring /ree oxygen for its augmentation

1 One micromillimetre = v millimetre.

30 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

can exuberantly grow only upon the surface of the nourishing
fluids. By filling a bottle about four-fifths with wine, and after
allowing the vinegar ferment to develop, closing the mouth of the
bottle with the hand and submerging the neck of the bottle in
water, the fluid will be seen to rise for some time in the bottle
and then remain stationary. A determination of the content
of acetic acid immediately before the commencement of this ex-
periment, and a few days after, shows but a slight increase of
acetic acid, because after the. ferment has consumed the free oxygen
present in the bottle, the essential condition for its further develop-
ment is wanting, and it must cease its activity without, however,
perishing. It may here be remarked that the vinegar ferment,
like the majority of bacteria, possesses an extraordinary vitality ;
under unfavorable conditions it passes into a kind of quiescent
state, during which no perceptible increase of cells takes place.
It may remain in this state for a long time without suffering
destruction, and recommences augmentation and propagation in a
normal manner as soon as the conditions required for its nourish-
ment are again presented.

The great rapidity of the augmentation of the vinegar bacteria
can be shown by an experiment of some importance to the prac-
tice. Pour into a shallow vat of about three feet in diameter a
fluid suitable for the nourishment of bacteria, and divide upon
the surface by means of a thin glass rod small drops of wine, upon
which the frequently mentioned veil has been formed. In a few
hours the entire surface of the fluid in the vat will be covered
with vinegar bacteria, spreading concentrically from the points
where the drops of wine have been distributed. From this it will
be seen that the cultivation of the ferment for the purpose of
manufacturing vinegar offers no difficulties, provided all con-
ditions required for the propagation of this organism be observed.

B. Now*wkmy conditions of the vinegar ferment.

.Through many observations and experiments made in practice
the conditions most favorable for the development of the vinegar
ferment, and for converting in the shortest time the largest quan-
tity of alcohol into acetic acid have been determined. These con-

VINEGAR FERMENT AND ITS CONDITIONS OF LIFE. 31

ditions will first be briefly enumerated and then the separate
points more fully discussed.

For the vinegar bacteria to settle upon a fluid, and for their
vigorous augmentation the following factors are required : —

1. A fluid, which, besides alcohol and water, contains nitro-

genous bodies and alkaline salts. The quantities of these
bodies must, however, not exceed a certain limit.

2. The fluid must be in immediate contact with oxygen (at-

mospheric air).

3. The temperature of the fluid and the air surrounding it

must be within certain limits.

As regards the composition of the nourishing fluid itself, it
must contain all the bodies required for the nourishment of a
plant of a low order. Such substances are carbohydrates, albu-
minates, and salts. Alcohol must be named as a specific nourish-
ment of the vinegar ferment, provided the supposition that the
latter consumes the alcohol and separates in its place acetic acid
is correct. The quantity of alcohol in the fluid intended for the
fabrication of vinegar must, however, not exceed a certain limit,
a content of 15 per cent, appearing to be the maximum at which
acetous fermentation can be induced. But even a content of 12
to 13 per cent, of alcohol is not very conducive to the vegetation
of the vinegar ferment, and every manufacturer knows the diffi-
culty of preparing vinegar from such a fluid. Like a high con-
tent of alcohol, a large quantity of acetic acid in the nourishing
fluid exerts also an injurious influence upon the vinegar ferment.
Upon a fluid containing 12 to 13 per cent, of acetic acid, and 1
to 2 per cent, of alcohol, the ferment vegetates only in a sluggish
manner, and considerable time is required to convert this small
quantity of alcohol into acetic acid.

That the vinegar ferment cannot live in dilute alcohol alone
may be shown by a simple experiment. By placing fully developed
ferment upon a fluid consisting of only water and alcohol, a very
small quantity of acetic acid is formed, but the ferment perishes
in a short time — it starves to death. A fluid suitable for the
nourishment of the ferment must therefore contain the above-
mentioned nourishing substances, sugar, dextrine, or similar com-
binations occurring in wine, malt extract, beer, being generally

32 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

employed as carbohydrates. These fluids further contain nitro-
genous combinations which may serve as nutriment for the
ferment, and also considerable quantities of phosphates. Hence
by an addition of wine (or must), malt extract, beer, or any fruit
wine (apple or pear cider) to a mixture of alcohol and water, a
fluid can be prepared, which contains all the substances essential
to the nourishment of the ferment.

The quantity of these nourishing substances, as compared with
that of alcohol, is very small, the quantity by weight of vinegar
ferment required for the conversion of a very large amount of
alcohol into vinegar being only a few fractions of one per cent, of
weight of alcohol used. Hence the manufacturer may be very
economical with the addition of nourishing substances to the fluid
to l>e converted into vinegar without having to fear that the fer-
ment will be stinted.

The vinegar ferment is very sensitive to sudden changes in the
composition of the fluids upon which it lives and suffers injury
by such changes which is recognized by diminished propagation
and decreased conversion of alcohol into acetic acid.

By bringing, for instance, vinegar ferment which vegetated in
an entirely normal manner upon a fluid containing only 4 to 5
per cent, of alcohol, upon one with a content of 10 to 11 per
cent., its augmentation, as well as fermenting energy, decreases
rapidly and remains sluggish until a few new generations of cells
have been formed which are better accustomed to the changed
conditions. By bringing, on the other hand, a ferment from a
fluid rich in alcohol upon one containing a smaller percentage the
disturbances in the conditions of the ferment can also be observed,
but they exert a less injurious influence upon the process of the
formation of vinegar than in the former instance.

The process of nourishment of the vinegar ferment must, how-
ever, not be understood to consist simply in the consumption of
sugar, albuminates, and salts. It differs according to the compo-
sition of the nourishing fluid, and is so complicated as to require
a very thorough study for its explanation. If, for instance, wine
is converted into vinegar, and the composition of the latter com-
pared with that of the original wine, it will be found that not
only the alcohol has been converted into acetic acid and the fluid

VINEGAR FERMENT AND ITS CONDITIONS OF LIFE. 33

has suffered a small diminution of extractive substances and salts,
which might be set down to the account of the nourishment of
the ferment, but that the quantity of tartaric, malic, and succiuic
acids has also decreased as well as that of glycerine, and of the
latter even nothing may be present. Hence it must be supposed
that the vinegar ferment also derives nourishment from these sub-
stances, or that its fermenting activity acts upon them as well as
upon the alcohol. There is finally the very important fact for
the practice, which has not yet been sufficiently explained, that
the vinegar ferment develops more rapidly upon a fluid which,
besides the requisite nourishing substances, contains a certain
quantity of acetic acid, than upon a fluid entirely destitute of it..
Regarding the supply of air, it may be said that, while for mere
existence the vinegar ferment requires comparatively little air,
large quantities of it are necessary for its vigorous augmentation
and fermenting activity. In the practice it is aimed to accom-
plish this by exposing the fluid in which the ferment lives in thin
layers to the action of the air, and, in fact, upon this the entire
process of the quick method of fabrication is based.

Besides the above-mentioned factors the temperature to which
the ferment is exposed takes an important part as regards its
development. The limits at which the augmentation of the fer-
ment and its vinegar-forming activity are greatest, lie between
H8° and 95° F. Above this limit the formation of vinegar
decreases rapidly and ceases entirely at 104° F. By again
reducing the temperature to 86° F. the ferment reassumes its
activity. At a temperature exceeding 104° F. the ferment suffers
perceptible injury ; heated to 103° F. it becomes sensibly weaker,
and at first augments very slowly, regaining its original vigorous
development only after several generations. By raising the tem-
perature of the fluid to 122° F. the ferment perishes.

To low temperatures the ferment seems to be less sensitive.
By lowering the temperature of a fluid showing an exuberant
growth of ferment to 50° F. or less, the formation of vinegar
continues, though at a very much reduced rate. Experiments
especially made for the purpose have shown that by exposing
wine with a growth of ferment to a temperature of 14° F. so
that it was converted into ice, the ferment recommenced to grow
3

34 VIXEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

and to form acetic acid after melting and heating the fluid to 59°
F. It should, however, be expressly stated that while vinegar
ferment in a state of development keeps up a slow growth when
the fluid is reduced to a low temperature, it is very difficult to
rear it upon a cold fluid. This is very likely the reason why
acetous degeneration is not known in cold wine cellars, while in
those having a temperature of over 59° F. this dreaded process
can only be guarded against by the greatest care. .

Since the augmentation of the ferment and its fermenting
activity increase with a higher temperature, it would appear most
suitable to keep the temperature of the fluid to be converted into
vinegar as near the uppermost limit of 95° F. as possible. Ex-
perience, however, has shown that at this temperature disturb-
ances are of frequent occurrence in the generators, and for this
reason one of 86° to 89° F. is generally preferred. The process
of the formation of vinegar itself explains why disturbances may
easily occur at a high temperature. It is a chemical (oxidizing)
process in which a certain quantity of heat depending on the
quantity of alcohol to be oxidized within a certain time is always
liberated. If now by the use of a temperature close to 95° F.
the activity of the ferment is strained to the utmost, a large quan-
tity of alcohol is in a short time converted into acetic acid, and
consequently so much heat is liberated that the temperature in the
generator rises above the permissible maximum and the ferment
immediately ceases its activity. Thus it may happen that in a
generator which has satisfactorily worked for some time, the for-
mation of vinegar ceases all at once, and on examining the ther-
mometer placed on the apparatus the cause will be generally found
to be due to too high a temperature.

Mother of Vinegar.

In connection with the description of the conditions of life of
the vinegar bacteria, a peculiar formation, playing in many cases
a role in the practice of the fabrication of vinegar, has to be
mentioned. This is the so-called mother of vinegar, the term
having very likely been applied to it on account of its causing

VINEGAR FERMENT AND ITS CONDITIONS OF LIFE. 35

acidification when brought into a fluid suitable for the formation
of acetic acid.

The mother of vinegar occurs generally only in fluids which,
besides alcohol, contain large quantities of extractive substances,
for instance, wine or beer. After the ordinary vinegar ferment
has for some time grown upon the surface of these fluids a coat-
ing is formed which acquires a thickness of up to j- inch, and
such consistency, that with some care, it can be lifted as a cohe-
rent mass from the fluid. The mother of vinegar then represents
a very elastic transparent mass of a yellowish-white color and
closely resembles an animal hide swelled to a high degree by treat-
ment with water.

Upon the side of the skin exposed to the air numerous molds
frequently settle and form complete sods of the well-known gray
green or yellow color. This is, however, only a secondary phe-
nomenon, the mother of vinegar being especially adapted as a
basis for the development of molds. By exposure to the air, best
upon a porous support (a plate of brick or gypsum), the mother
of vinegar quickly decreases in bulk and finally dries to a very
thin layer resembling paper. Viewed under the microscope the
mother of vinegar appears as a mass entirely devoid of structure
in which numerous individuals of the vinegar ferment are
imbedded.

Several opinions have been expressed as to the nature of the
mother of vinegar, and among others that it is a special variety
of vinegar ferment, wrhich, however, cannot be accepted as correct,
it being far more probable that its formation depends on the
nature of the fluid upon which ordinary vinegar ferment grows.
As previously mentioned, the mother of vinegar reaches develop-
ment upon young wine and beer, and these fluids always contain
certain quantities of albuminous substances in solution. Now it
is very probable that the mother of vinegar consists of pecu-
liarly changed albuminous substances — eventually also of carbo-
hydrates— and that innumerable organisms of the vinegar ferment
are distributed throughout the mass which cause the acidification
of fluids to which it is transferred. This view is supported by
its composition, with regard to its organic substance, as deter-
mined by Mulder.

36 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

Composition of the mother of vinegar, according to Mulder :—

Carbon 46-8

Hydrogen ....-'•• 6-4

Nitrogen 3-9

Oxygen 42<^

According to R. D. Thomson, who also examined the mother
of vinegar, its composition is : —

Organic substance .{ C^lul°Se } about 5 per cent.

I al lin-ini nrtim snhstaiioe t

'I albuminous substance
J potash, lime
I phosphoric acid
Water ..... more than 94

salts . . . i*: ;'— - ., "

These analyses justify the opinion that albuminous substances
as well as carbohydrates participate in the formation of the mother
of vinegar. (In beer carbohydrates are always present, while in
wine extractive substances occur which, at least, are closely allied
to the carbohydrates.) An experiment especially made for the
purpose conclusively proves that the formation of the mother of
vinegar depends on the presence of the above-mentioned sub-
stances in the fluid upon which it grows.

A thick cover of mother of vinegar had formed upon young
wine ; this being removed it was in a few days replaced by a new
growth, which, however, was not quite so thick. This cover
being also removed a third but very slight one was formed until
finally a cover of mother of vinegar was no longer developed
upon the fluid, but only normal vinegar ferment. The explana-
tion of this phenomenon is that with the decrease of nitrogenous
substances in the wine, the conditions for the development of
mother of vinegar became constantly more unfavorable until
finally nothing but vinegar ferment could form. By transferring
a piece of mother of vinegar to a fluid composed of alcohol, water,
and some old wine (hence such as contained only very small quan-
tities of nitrogenous substances) the slimy mass remained floating
in the fluid without increasing or undergoing alteration, while the
surface became covered with ordinary vinegar ferment and acidi-
fication proceeded in a normal manner.

The formation of mother of vinegar can always be successfully
attained by exposing young wine to the air until the commence-

VINEGAR FERMENT AND ITS CONDITIONS OF LIFE. 37

ment of the formation of mold is indicated by the appearance of
white dots and then transferring the wine to a room having a
temperature of 86° F. At this temperature the development of
the vinegar ferment proceeds so vigorously that it suppresses the
mold ferment, and the peculiar mass constituting the mother of
vinegar soon forms upon the surface.

Mother of vinegar occurs so generally in young wine (which
is chiefly used for the preparation of wine vinegar) that its for-
mation was considered as inseparably connected with that ot
acetic acid from alcohol, while actually it is only due to the pecu-
liar constitution of the fluid to be converted into vinegar. In
many places this opinion is still entertained, and especially where,
as is generally the case, the manufacture of vinegar from wine is
yet carried on in the primitive way of centuries ago. In speaking
of the preparation of vinegar from wine, it will be shown that the
conversion can be effected by means of the ordinary vinegar
ferment without the appearance of mother of vinegar.

Summary.

Briefly stated the points of the theoretical conditions of the
formation of vinegar of importance to the manufacturer are : —

1. Acetic acid is formed during many chemical conversions;

for the manufacture of acetic acid, and consequently of
vinegar on a large scale, only two methods are available,
viz., the preparation of vinegar from alcohol by fermenta-
tion, or the obtaining of acetic acid by dry distillation of
wood.

2. All alcoholic fluids formed by vinous fermentation of saccha-

riferous plant juices or fermented malt extracts are suitable
for the preparation of vinegar by fermentation. Specially
prepared mixtures of water, alcohol, and vinegar may
also be used for the purpose, provided they contain small
quantities of certain organic substances and salts, and not
over 14 per cent, of alcohol.

3. The acetous fermentation is induced by a microscopic organ-

ism belonging to the bacteria, and the conversion of the
alcohol into acetic acid is in a certain ratio to the aug-
mentation of this organism.

38 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

4. Besides the substances mentioned in 2, the vinegar ferment

requires for its vigorous development free oxygen and a
temperature lying between 68° and 95° F.

5. In the acetous fermentation the greater portion of the alcohol

is converted into acetic acid and water ; besides these small
quantities of other products are formed which are partially,
not yet thoroughly, known. In the conversion of wine,
beer, etc., other combinations contained in the fluids,
besides alcohol, are also essentially changed.

CHAPTER IV.

PRODUCTS OF ACETOUS FERMENTATION.

THE formation of vinegar by fermentation being a chemico-
physiological process, many and complicated chemical processes
must take place in the fluid to be converted into vinegar in order
to produce all the combinations required for the augmentation of
the ferment. Attention cannot be too frequently called to the
fact that from the standpoint of the manufacturer, the regular
augmentation of the ferment is the main point of the entire fab-
rication, the quick conversion of the alcohol contained in the fluid
being a necessary consequence of it.

The body of the ferment, however, contains cellulose, albu-
minous substances, very likely fat and other combinations not yet
known, all of which must be formed from the nourishing sub-
stances (sugar, dextrine, albuminous substances, etc.), present.
It being very probable that a portion of the alcohol contained in
the fluid is consumed for this purpose, a small but nevertheless per-
ceptible loss of alcohol will occur in the fabrication. It would
be erroneous to suppose that the conversion of alcohol into acetic
acid and water is effected according to the Formula given on p. 21 ;
a certain portion of it is always converted into other combinations,
the nature and formation of which can only be, to a certain extent,
explained.

In the vinous fermentation, which of all fermenting processes

PRODUCTS OF ACETOUS FERMENTATION. 39

has been most thoroughly studied, we find that besides alcohol
and carbonic acid large quantities of glycerin and succinic acid
and probably other bodies are formed from the sugar, which must
undoubtedly be classed among the products of vinous fermenta-
tion. Similar processes, no doubt, take place in the acetous fer-
mentation, and besides acetic acid and water other little known
products of fermentation are regularly formed.

According to the nature of the sacchariferous fluids subjected
to vinous fermentation small quantities of certain bodies called
fusel oils are formed which are decidedly products of fermenta-
tion. They impart to the fermented fluid, as well as to the alcohol
distilled from it, such characteristic properties that from the odor
of the alcohol a correct judgment can be formed as to the material
employed in its preparation.

In the conversion of such a fluid, or of alcohol prepared from
it, into vinegar, the fusel oils are also changed — very likely oxi-
dized— and with some experience the material (wine, beer, malt,
etc.), from which the vinegar has been made can be determined
by the sense of smell. The quantities of aromatic substances
which reach the vinegar in this manner are, of course, very small,
but they must nevertheless be classed among the most important
products of acetous fermentation, they being very characteristic
as regards the nature of the vinegar. Of the products of acetous
fermentation, besides acetic acid, aldehyde and acetal are best
known, these combinations appearing always, even if only in
small quantities, in the fabrication of vinegar according to the
methods customary at the present time.

Acetic Aldehyde or Acetaldehyde.

Acetic aldehyde, commonly called simply aldehyde (from alcohol
dehydrogenatum), is obtained by oxidizing spirits of wine by
means of manganese dioxide (pyrolusite) and sulphuric acid,
chromic acid, or platinum black, in the presence of air, or if alcohol
or ether is burning without a sufficient supply of air. It is also
formed by heating a mixture of acetate and formate of calcium.
It is contained in considerable quantities in the first runnings
obtained in the manufacture of spirit of wine.

40 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

To prepare pure aldehyde 3 parts of potassium clichromate in
small pieces are placed in a flask surrounded by a freezing mix-
ture and a well-cooled mixture of 2 parts of spirit of wine, 4 of
sulphuric acid, and 4 of water added. After connecting the flask
with a condenser the freezing mixture is removed ; a violent reac-
tion soon sets in and the liquid begins to boil. The vapors have
first to pass through an ascending tube surrounded by warm water
at about 122° F. Alcohol and different products are condensed
and flow back while the vapor of the aldehyde, after having
passed through a descending condenser, is absorbed in anhydrous
ether.

Pure aldehyde thus obtained is a colorless liquid of the com-
position C2H4O. Its specific gravity is 0.800, and it boils at
about 71.5° F. It has a pungent and suffocating smell and is
readily soluble in water, alcohol, and acetic acid. Like all the
aldehydes it is very easily oxidized and acts, therefore, as a pow-
erful reducing agent. Thus, on heating it with a little ammonia
and nitrate of silver, metallic silver separates out, coating the
sides of the vessel with a bright mirror. It combines with ammo-
nia and forms a crystalline compound which has a peculiar smell
of mice.

Though it is likely that in the fabrication of vinegar by the
quick process, besides aldehyde, acetic and formic ethers are
formed, they are of comparatively little importance for our pur-
poses. Of more importance, however, is acetal, the formation of
this combination affording an interesting insight into the compli-
cated processes accompanying the conversion of alcohol into acetic
acid.

Acetal.

This combination is best prepared by distributing pieces of
pumice, previously moistened with 25 per cent, alcohol over a
large glass plate, placing watch crystals containing platinum black
upon the pieces of pumice and covering the whole with a large
bell-glass. The alcohol absorbed by the pumice being converted
into acetic acid, 60 per cent, alcohol is poured upon the plate and
the air in the bell-glass from time to time renewed. In a few

PRODUCTS OF ACETOUS FERMENTATION. 41

weeks a quite thick fluid of an agreeable odor has collected upon
the glass plate. This is collected and distilled, the portion passing
over at 219° F., being collected by itself.

Pure acetal is composed of CfiHl4O2. It is a colorless liquid,
has a specific gravity of 0.821, and boils at 219.2° F. It has a
refreshing odor, calling to mind that of fruit ethers. By oxi-
dizing agents it is quickly converted into acetic acid. Nitrate of
silver in the presence of ammonia is, however, not reduced by it,
and it remains unchanged on boiling with potash lye. From its
composition acetal may be considered from several points of view.
It may be regarded as an ethyl alcohol (glycol) C2H6O2, in
which two atoms of hydrogen have been replaced by two mole-
cules of the radical ethyl C2H5, hence thus

f } - ^hyl-glycol

C6H14O2 acetal.

This view of the composition of acetal is supported by the fact
that methyl or amyl can be substituted for either one or both mole-
cules of ethyl in the combination.

According to other opinions, acetal may be considered as a com-
bination of aldehyde and aldehyde ether : —

C2H4O aldehyde

C4H10O aldehyde ether

C6H,4O2 acetal,

or as a combination of aldehyde with ethyl alcohol, one molecule
of water in the latter having been replaced by the aldehyde : —

Ethyl alcohol : 2(C.H6O) — JI2O = C4H/)

aldehyde C9H,O
acetal C6HJ4O2

By keeping in view the fact that the process of the formation
of vinegar is an oxidation of the alcohol which does not proceed
with equal energy in all parts of the apparatus, it will be under-
stood that during this process aldehyde, acetal, and acetic ether
can be formed which, if the operation be correctly conducted, will
be finally converted into acetic acid, though small quantities of
them will be found in the vinegar when just finished and exert
an influence upon its constitution.

42 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

Acetic Acid.

Pure acetic acid, C2H4O21, cannot be directly obtained from
vinegar, but only from acetates by methods which will be described
later on. The strongest acetic acid which can be prepared is
known as glacial acetic acid, from its crystallizing in icy leaflets
at about 40° F. Above a temperature of about 60° F. the
crystals fuse to a thin, colorless liquid of an exceedingly pungent
and wellrknown odor. When diluted it has a pleasant acid taste
and agreeable odor. Pure acetic acid is a powerful restorative
when applied to the nostrils in impending fainting. It is the
strongest of the organic acids and nearly as acrimonious as sul-
phuric acid. When dropped on the skin it acts as an escharotic,
speedily raising a blister and producing much heat and rapid
inflammation ; when taken into the mouth or applied to any
mucous membrane it blackens like sulphuric acid. Highly con-
centrated acetic acid is a solvent of many volatile oils, resins,
albuminates, and glue; the ability to dissolve lemon oil is used in
the practice as a test for the high concentration of acetic acid,
since in the presence of only 2 per cent, of water in the acid
lemon oil is no longer dissolved by it.

The specific gravity of pure acetic acid is at 59° F. : —

According to Onderaans 1.0553

Roscoe 1.0564

Kopp 1.0590

Mendelejeff 1.0607

Mohr 1.0600

According to Mohr's determinations, the specific gravity of
pure acetic acid varies much at different temperatures, it being

1.0630 at 54.5° F.

1.0600 " 59.0 "

1.0555 "i 68.0 "
1.0498 77.0 "

1.0480 79.0 "

Mixtures of acetic acid and water show a peculiar behavior in
regard to their specific gravity ; the latter rises steadily until the
content of water amounts to from 20 to 23 per cent. ; the density
of the liquid then diminishes so that a mixture containing 46

PRODUCTS OF ACETOUS FERMENTATION. 43

per cent, of water shows the same specific gravity as the anhy-
drous acid. From this point on, the specific gravities of the
mixtures decrease with the increase in the content of water.

This peculiar behavior of the mixtures renders the accurate
determination of the content of acid in a concentrated mixture
by means of the aerometer impossible. There are a number
of determinations of specific gravities of acetic acid with varying
contents of water (by Mohr, von der Toorn, Oudemans, etc.),
but they differ considerably from each other, like the tables at the
end of this volume, so that, while the specific gravity test answers
very well for the determination of the amount of anhydrous acid
in dilute solutions, it is very fallacious when the acid increases in
strength, and an accurate determination can only be effected by
chemical methods.

Highly concentrated acetic acid has recently found considerable
application in photography and surgery, and frequently occurs in
commerce in the form of so-called vinegar essence. The acetic
acid occurring under this name is generally prepared from wood
vinegar and is only fit for the preparation of table vinegar when
a chemical examination shows no trace of tar products, which are
formed in abundance, besides acetic acid, in the dry distillation of
wood.

In regard to the composition of acetic acid, it may be men-
tioned that one atom of hydrogen can be readily replaced by
univalent metals or univalent compound radicals which may be
expressed by

H lo

c2H3or

TT ~j

wherebv the acetic acid is considered 'as water tr > O in which

M J
one atom of hydrogen is replaced by the compound radical

C2H3O = acetyl

If the one atom of hydrogen standing by itself be replaced by
a univalent metal a neutral acetate is formed, for instance :—

Na )Q
C2H3OJC
or sodium acetate.

If this atom of hydrogen is replaced by a uuivalent compound

44 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

radical, for instance by methyl CH3 or ethyl C2H3, the so-called

compound ethers are formed.

CH3 \n C2H5 \0

C2H5Oj° C2H30/C

Acetic acid-methyl ether. Acetic acid— ethyl ether.

If a bivalent metal or compound radical yields a neutral com-
bination with awtic acid, the substituted hydrogen in two mole-
cules of acetic acid must evidently be replaced by this bivalent
metal, for instance : —

Ca \0

2(CaH/>) j J*

Neutral calcium acetate.

Theoretical Yields of Acetic Acid.

In industries based upon chemical processes a distinction is
made between the theoretical and practical yields.

By theoretical yield is understood the quantity of the body
to be manufactured which would result if no losses of substance
were connected with the chemical process ; the practical yield,
on the other hand, is that in Avhich such losses are taken into
account, the average being ascertained by long-continued compari-
son of daily yields. The closer the practical yield approaches
the theoretical, the more suitable the method pursued in the fabri-
cation evidently is, and thus the manufacturer, who has a clear idea
of the theoretical yield, can readily judge of the value of his
method by comparing it with the practical yield attained.

Now suppose no loss of substance (by evaporation or forma-
tion of other combinations) occurs in the conversion of alcohol
into acetic acid, it can be readily calculated from the composition
of the two bodies how many parts by weight of acetic acid can
be formed from a determined number of parts by weight of
alcohol.

Alcohol has the composition C2H8O, or an atomic weight of 46,
because : —

C9« ...... 24

Hn = 6

O = 16

Makes 46

PRODUCTS OF ACETOUS FERMENTATION. 45

The composition of acetic acid is C2H4O2 aud its molecular
weight 60, because : —

C2= 24

H<- 4

O2= 32

Makes . . 60

Hence from 46 parts by weight of alcohol 60 parts by weight
of acetic acid may be formed, or by reducing the ratio to 100
parts of alcohol it follows that 100 parts by weight of alcohol
must yield 130.43478 parts by weight of acetic acid. (The
increase in weight has to be attributed to the absorption of one
atom of oxygen, atomic weight 16, against the loss of two atoms
of hydrogen, atomic weight 2.) Since these two atoms of hydro-
gen are themselves oxidized to water by the absorption of oxygen,
the total yield from 100 parts by weight of alcohol would be : —

Acetic acid 130.43478 parts by weight.

Water 39.13043 " " "

Total .... 169.56521 parts by weight.

The quantity of oxygen required to form acetic acid and water
from 46 parts by weight of alcohol, amounts to 32 parts by
weight, hence for 100 to 69.562 parts by weight. The oxygen
is conducted to the alcohol in the form of air, and it can be
readily calculated how much of the latter is required to convert
a given quantity of alcohol, for instance 100 grammes, into acetic
acid. In round numbers the air contains in 100 parts by weight
23 parts by weight of oxygen. Since 1 liter of air of 68° F.,
i. e., of that temperature which should at the least always prevail
in the vinegar generators, weighs 1.283 grammes, the oxygen con-
tained in it weighs 0.29509 grammes. Since, as above stated,
69.562 parts by weight are necessary for the conversion of 100
parts by weight of alcohol into acetic acid, it follows that 235.70
liters of air are required for the same purpose.

Examinations as to the content of oxygen in the 'air escaping
from weir-conducted vinegar generators have shown that on an
average only one-quarter of the entire content of oxygen is con-
sumed in the formation of vinegar; hence four times the theorcti-

46 VIXEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WIXES.

cally calculated quantity of air must pass through the apparatus
to completely convert the alcohol into acetic acid. Hence 100
grammes of alcohol require at least 942.92 liters of air for their
conversion into acetic acid, and, without being far wrong, it may
be assumed that in a vinegar factory, in round numbers, 1000
liters or one cubic metre of air are required for every 100 grammes
of alcohol to be converted into acetic acid.

A vinegar generator can, on an average, convert daily 3 liters
of alcohol into acetic acid ; 3 liters of absolute alcohol (specific
gravity 0.794) weigh 2382 grammes. Now, if, as stated above,
1 cubic metre of air is required for every 100 grammes of alcohol,
it follows that 23.82 cubic metres, or 23,820 liters of air must
pass daily through each vinegar generator in operation.*

Calculated to 16 working hours a day, somewhat more than 0.4
liters (more accurately 0.413 liters) must pass every second through
the generator in order to supply the quantity of oxygen required
for the conversion of alcohol into acetic acid.

Since the formation of vinegar has theoretically to be con-
sidered as a process of combustion, in which of 46 parts by
weight of alcohol 2 parts by weight of hydrogen, or of 100 parts
by weight of alcohol 4.34782 parts by weight of hydrogen, are
consumed, the quantity of heat liberated by the conversion of
100 parts by weight of alcohol into acetic acid can also be calcu-
lated. By combustion 1 gramme of hydrogen yields 34.126
units of heat, and hence 4.34782 grammes of hydrogen 148.373
units of heat, i. e., in the conversion of 100 grammes of alcohol
into acetic acid sufficient heat is liberated to heat 148.373 kilo-
grammes of water from 0° C. to 1° 0., or 1.48 kilogrammes from
0° C. to boiling, and thus a considerable development of heat is
caused by the rise of temperature in the apparatus in which a
vigorous formation of vinegar takes place.

In answer to the question, what can the practical manufacturer
of vinegar learn from these theoretical explanations, it may be
said there are many points of great importance for the execution
of the work. The calculation of air shows that the alcohol

* It is always supposed that the manufacture of vinegar is effected in
generators used in the quick process.

PRODUCTS OF ACETOUS FERMENTATION. 47

requi res a Jarge suppl y} but the generators in general use in the
quick process are by no means so arranged as to be adequate to
ie^ theoretical demands. In fact it may be said that most of
them allow~only a limited change of air and consequently work
slower than they actually could. That the generators now in use
are deficient is conclusively proved by the numerous constructions
which have_ been proposed, especially in modern times, whose
chief aim isjx) afford a free passage to the air.

The fact that considerable heat is developed in the interior of
the generator deserves consideration in connection with the heat-
ing of the manufactory. If the temperature of the latter is so
high as nearly to approach the optimum, i. e., the temperature
most favorable for the formation of vinegar, it may easily happen
that, in consequence of the vigorous oxidation of the alcohol, the
temperature in the interior of the generators is increased to such
an extent as to exceed this optimum, and the activity of the
vinegar ferment would immediately diminish and even cease
altogether.

If, on the other hand, the temperature of the workroom is
kept too low, the generators act sluggishly and do not produce as
much as when the correct conditions are observed. But as by
raising the temperature of the workroom the activity of the
generators is increased, too low a temperature is less injurious to
the regular course of the process than too high a one.

The optimum of the formation of vinegar is at about 86° F.,
and hence the aim should be to maintain this temperature as
nearly as possible in the interior of the generator. The temperature
of the workroom must, however, be kept sufficiently low, so that
the optimum in the interior of the generator cannot be exceeded.

Another factor may here be mentioned. The closer the tem-
perature in the interior of the generator approaches the optimum
mid the quicker the supply of air, the more alcohol and acetic
acid are lost by evaporation, or, in other words, the smaller the
yield ofacetic acid. By the skillful utilization of conditions the
manufacturer must aim to reduce this loss to a minimum, and
this can be best effected by a suitable arrangement of the work-
room. By regulating the change of air so that it is not greater
than absolutely necessary, the air will soon become so saturated

48 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

with vapors of alcohol and acetic acid that no further loss will
take place until the renewing of the air in the workroom appears
necessary. In which manner the manufacturer is to work in
order to carry on the business most advantageously depends^ on
the conditions of trade. If large orders have to be filled, he will
endeavor to increase the capacity of the generators to the utmost
by maintaining the optimum of temperature and a vigorous
change of air in them, and in this case must submit to the in-
creased losses inseparably connected with this high performance.
If, on the other hand, he works for stock, he will not force the
capacity of the generators to the utmost, but in order to work as
cheaply as possible direct his attention to reduce the losses to a
minimum.

Yields of Acetic Acid obtained in the Practice.

By keeping for some time an accurate account of the actual
yields and comparing them with those theoretically obtainable,
the former will be found to fall more or less short of the latter,
and the difference will be the smaller the better the method of
fabrication in use.

In a vinegar factory occur many unavoidable losses, the
sources of which have been indicated iu the preceding explana-
tions ; alcohol and acetic acid evaporate, and besides a portion of
them is entirely destroyed by too much oxidation. Now a Joss
by evaporation, etc., of ten per cent, of the quantity of alcohol
originally used must no doubt be considered a large one, but from
numerous observations it may be asserted that even with the
greatest care in working the loss in vinegar factories is not less
than from 15 to 20 per cent., and may even be as much as 30
per cent.

These enormous losses of substance conclusively prove the de-
fectiveness of the processes in general use and the urgent neces-
sity for reformation. The experiments made for this purpose,
and which have been especially directed towards a remodelling of
the apparatus used, cannot be considered entirely satisfactory,
though they were partially instituted by practical manufacturers,
who, however, lacked the necessary theoretical education.

PRODUCTS OF ACETOUS FERMENTATION. 49

The principal requirement in our opinion is to provide the
generator with a suitable ventilator, which will allow of the pas-
sage through the generator of exactly the quantity of air required
foTtEe conversion of the alcohol into acetic acid, and is so con-
structed that the vapors of alcohol and acetic acid (or at least the
larger portion) carried away by the current of air are condensed
and thus regained.

A vinegar generator has frequently been compared to a furnace,
and in continuation of this comparison it may be said, that the
construction generally used is a furnace lacking every arrange-
ment for the regulation of combustion. In such a furnace as
much fuel is burned as corresponds to the quantity of oxygen
entering, while in a furnace of suitable construction the combus-
tion of fuel can be accurately regulated by increasing or de-
creasing at will the supply of air by means of a simple con-
trivance.

A vinegar generator of suitable construction should be provided
with a similar arrangement. If the thermometer on the apparatus
shows too low a temperature — hence too slow a process of oxida-
tion— the course of the operation can in a short time be accel-
erated by the production of a stronger current of air and the
temperature correspondingly increased. If, on the other hand,
oxidation proceeds too rapidly, which on account of the high
temperature then prevailing in the apparatus is accompanied by
considerable loss of substance, it can be quickly reduced to
within the correct limits by decreasing the current of air. An
apparatus unprovided with a ventilator is left more or less to
itself, while one provided with such an arrangement is under the
entire control of the manufacturer.

50 VINEGAR. CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

CHAPTER V.

METHODS OF FABRICATION OF VINEGAR.

THE fabrication of vinegar from wine is undoubtedly the
oldest and most simple method known, since it is only necessary
to leave the wine to itself at a sufficiently high temperature to
find it within a certain time converted into vinegar. A similar
process takes place in all fermented fruit juices resembling wine.

It would, therefore, seem proper to commence the description
of the various methods of fabrication of vinegar with this simple
process, but for reasons of an entirely practical nature it has
been concluded not to do so.

Since alcoholic fluids directly formed by the vinous fermenta-
tion of sacchariferous plant juices possess the property of chang-
ing under circumstances favorable to acetous fermentation into
vinegar, it is evident that the latter can be prepared from them,
and, in fact, it is possible to prepare it from all sweet fruits and
parts of plants, such as cherries, strawberries, figs, bananas, etc.,
as well as from the juice of the sugar-cane, beet, chicory root, etc.

Honey, which represents a concentrated solution of ferment-
able sugar, as well as crystallized cane sugar, can likewise be in-
directly used for the preparation of vinegar, since solutions of
either can be brought into vinous fermentation and the resulting
alcohol converted into acetic acid.

By malting grain a peculiar body called diastase is formed,
which possesses the property of converting starch into ferment-
able sugar, and upon this fact is based the manufacture of beer
and alcohol. In an indirect manner (the starch having to be
converted first into sugar, and the latter into alcohol) it is, there-
fore, possible to prepare vinegar from every substance containing
starch, and for this reason we can speak of grain and malt
vinegars. The beer prepared from the malt containing already

METHODS OF FABRICATION OF VINEGAR. 51

a certain quantity of alcohol can thus be directly converted into
vinegar.

Alcohol furnishing ultimately the material for the fabrication
of vinegar, the direct use of dilute alcohol or spirit of wine for the
manufacture of vinegar became obvious. By the employment of
a suitable process, i. e., one corresponding to the1 laws of acetous
fermentation, it was found that the conversion of dilute alcohol
into acetic acid could be effected in a much shorter time than by
the old method, and upon this process is based the quick method
of fabrication now in general use. A distinction may, therefore,
be made between two principal methods of fabrication, viz., the
older or slow process, which requires more time, and the more
modern or quick process.

In the old process many modifications are found, which are
partially based upon old usage and partially upon the difference
in the chemical composition of the raw material used. Beer, for
instance, which contains only about 4 per cent, of alcohol and
a large quantity of extractive substances (sugar, dextrin, salts,
etc.), requires a different treatment from wine, which contains on
an average 10 per cent, of alcohol, but scarcely 2 per cent, of
extractive substances. Fruit-wines (cider, etc.), with only 5 to ft
per cent, of alcohol but a large quantity of extractive substances,
again require different treatment from grape wine, etc., so that,
in a certain sense, it may be said there are as many different
methods of fabricating vinegar as there are fundamental materials,
and by taking into consideration the difference in the chemical
composition of the latter, it is evident that there must be just as
many varieties of vinegar. Besides acetic acid and a certain
amount of water, every vinegar contains other substances, which,
though frequently only present in very minute quantities, never-
theless exert considerable influence upon its properties.

Even vinegar obtained from dilute alcohol shows differences in
odor, which depend on the material used in the preparation of
the specific alcohol. Potato alcohol always contains traces of
potato fusel oil (amyl alcohol), while certain fusel oils are found
in alcohol prepared from grain or molasses. In the oxidation of
the alcohol by the vinegar ferment these fusel oils are also oxi-

52 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

dized and converted into combinations distinguished by their
peculiar and very strong odor.

Though these bodies occur in the vinegar in such minute quan-
tities that they can scarcely be determined by chemical analysis,
an expert can detect them by the sense of smell, and from the
specific odor of the vinegar form a conclusive judgment as to the
material used in its preparation.

The differences in vinegar from wine, fruit, beer, and malt are
still more prominent, and extend not only to the odor but also to
the taste. Besides a specific odoriferous principle every wine
contains oenanthic ether, tartar, tartaric and succinic acids, gly-
cerin, and a series of extractive substances not thoroughly known.
The odoriferous substances and the oenanthic ether also undergo
alteration in the oxidation of alcohol, and are converted into
other odoriferous combinations, with such a characteristic odor
that wine vinegar can at once be recognized as such by it. On
account of the presence of so many substances possessing a
specific taste, that of the wine vinegar must, of course, differ
from that of pure dilute acetic acid.

Similar conditions prevail in fruit-wine, beer, malt-extract, etc.,
and hence vinegar prepared from these fluids must possess definite
properties.

CHAPTER VI.

QUICK PROCESS OF FABRICATION OF VINEGAR.

^\

IN 1823 Schutzenbach conceived the idea that by greatly en-
larging the relative surfaces of contact of the alcoholic solution
and air containing oxygen, the process of acetification would be
greatly facilitated. His experiments proved successful, and soon
after the quick vinegar process was generally adopted. Analo-
gous processes were nearly at the same time invented, in Germany
by Wagmann, and in England by Ham.

The principle involved of course depends on an extreme
division of the liquid being effected. This is very skilfully con-

QUICK PROCESS OF FABRICATION OF VINEGAR. 53

trivcd. By making the alcoholic solution percolate slowly
through and diffuse over a mass of shavings, wooden blocks,
pieces of coal or cork, etc., it forms a very thin layer, the surface
of which is very extensive, and is therefore better adapted for
the chemical appropriation of the oxygen in the current of air
which is transmitted over it. The mass of shavings, etc., serves
not only for the division of the liquid into fine drops but also as
a carrier of the vinegar ferment.

It will be readily understood that this arrangement presents in
a high degree all the conditions required for the formation of
vinegar : the vinegar ferment upon the shavings acquires from
the liquid all the substances required for its maintenance and
augmentation, and by the current of air passing through between
the shavings is enabled to oxidize the alcohol to acetic acid. This
process taking place simultaneously on thousands of points in a
normally working generator explains why a large quantity of
alcohol can in a comparatively short time be converted into
acetic acid. The term quick process is hence very appropriate -
for this method, it differing from the older slow process only in
less time being required for its execution ; the chemical processes
are the same in both cases.

It will be seen that the generator, technically called " gradu-
ator," used in the quick process may be compared to a furnace in
which the fuel (in this case the alcoholic fluid) is introduced from
above and the air from below. The spaces between the shavings,
etc., may be compared to the interstices of a grate ; combustion
takes place on the points of contact of the alcoholic fluid, vinegar
ferment, and air. The product of (partial) combustion — the
vinegar — collects in a reservoir in the lower part of the
generator.

Eachj^enerator, as previously stated, requires about 0.4 liter of
air per second, which must ascend uniformly from below through
tKeTnass of shavings, etc. At the first glance this would seem
very simple, but its practical execution is accompanied by many
difficulties, and hence a large number of various constructions of
generators have been proposed by which this object is claimed to
lie best attained.

54 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

Arrangement of the Generators.

A generator consists of a large vessel divided into three spaces
above one another, the uppermost serving for the division of the
alcoholic liquid into many small drops ; in the centre one, which
forms the largest part of the apparatus, the alcoholic liquid is
converted into vinegar, while the lower one serves for the collec-
tion of the vinegar.

The best form of the generator is that of a truncated cone.
This form oifers to the alcoholic liquid in its passage from the
upper part of the generator the opportunity of spreading over a
constantly increasing surface, and by thus coming in contact with
the fresh air entering the lower part of the apparatus its oxida-
tion must evidently be promoted. The current of air in passing
from below to above yields a certaiu portion of its oxygen in .the
lower part of the apparatus, and if it were allowed to ascend in
a vessel of a purely cylindrical shape, the alcoholic fluid running
down would come in contact with air quite poor in oxygen.
Hence this evil must be sought to be overcome by the accelera-
tion of the motion of the air upwards, which is accomplished by
giving the vessel the form of a slightly truncated cone.

The generator, Fig. 3, consists of the vat Kof larch, fir, or other
durable wood. The use of oak cannot be recommended, partially
because of its being too expensive, and further on account of being
so rich in extractive substances that a generator constructed of it
has to be several times lixiviated with water before use, as other-
wise the vinegar prepared in it would for a long time acquire a disa-
greeable tang and dark color. In the upper portion of the vat is a
perforated wooden disk S, and in the lower a false bottom of laths,
the so-called lath-bottom L. The aperture A serves for the dis-
charge of the fluid collecting underneath the lath-bottom. The
cover D, the arrangement of which will be described later on,
serves for regulating the draught of air in the generator.

The hoops of the generators, as well as all other metallic parts
in the factory, should IK? coated with good linseed-oil varnish or
asphaltum lacquer, and care should be had immediately to repair
any injury to this coating, as otherwise strong rusting is caused

QUICK PROCESS OF FABRICATION OF VINEGAR.

55

by the vapors of acetic acid contained in the air of the work-
room.

In the lower portion of the generator, holes, 0, are bored.
These holes are intended for the entrance of air, and in number

Fig. 3.

General Form of a Generator.

may be as many as desired, since the regulation of the current of
air is not to be effected on the lower portion of the apparatus, but
on the cover.

There is considerable variation in the dimensions of the gene-
rators, some having only a height of 5 feet, with a lower diameter
of 3 feet 3 inches, and others again a height of 20 feet or more,
with a diameter of up to 6| feet. The small generators have
the disadvantage of rapidly yielding heat to the exterior, and
hence a correspondingly high temperature must be maintained in
the workroom in order to keep up the proper degree of heat in
their interior. On the other hand, generators of considerable
height have the disadvantage of the shavings, etc., with which
the centre space is filled, becoming strongly compressed by their

56 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

1 /

ownjweight, thus obstructing the proper passage of the air^ It
has been sought to overcome this evil by placing several false
lath-bottoms in the generator, in order to divide the weight of
the filling into as many smaller weights as there are lath-bottoms.
Bnt^ this arrangement is also attended with inconveniences^ jt
being difficult to maintain a sufficiently strong draught^ofjairjLn^
generators of such height.

Some manufacturers hold that the production of very strong
vinegar containing 11 to 12 per cent, of acetic acid is only pos-
sible in very tall generators. This opinion is, however, un-
founded, the manufacture of very strong vinegar being just as
well or rather better effected in small generators than in those 20
feet or more high, which besides are very expensive.

The manufacture of vinegar should be carried on in a room with
a low ceiling, since even with the best heating arrangement .the
temperature near the ceiling is always much higher than on the
floor. However, with the use of generators 20 feet high the
ceiling of the workroom must be at least 26 feet high, which
makes it impossible to maintain a uniform temperature, as the
difference between the upper and lower parts would frequently
amount to more than 25°.

The most suitable generators are very likely those with a height
not exceeding 10 feet, and a lower diameter of about 45 inches
f^uud an upper one of about 35 inches. A large diameter, to be
\ sure, contributes towards the maintenance of a uniform tempera-
\ ture in the generator, but it has the disadvantage of making it
1 difficult for the air to ascend uniformly through all parts of the
filling. This evil is sought to be overcome by placing in the
centre of the generator a tube open above and below and pro-
vided on the sides with holes. Such tube, however, does not
produce the intended favorable effect upon the draught of air in
the parts of the filling surrounding it, experience having shown
that the greater portion of the warm current of air ascending .in
the interior takes the nearest road to the tc-p, i. e., through the
tube, without passing sideways into the filling. Every generator
of suitable construction should be provided with a well-fitting
coyer. In this cover, Fig. 4, are bored in concentric circles holes
which are intended for draught apertures. If the draught of air

QUICK PROCESS OF FABRICATION OF VINEGAR.

57

in the interior is too great, it can be at once diminished by closing
a number of these holes, it being even possible to direct it to-
wards a certain portion of the filling. This arrangement is,
however, only available when the false bottom to be described

Fig. 4.

Cover of a Generator provided with Draught Apertures.

later on is either not used or provided with a number of short
vertical tubes which permit the passage of the air.

Many generators are provided with a number of obliquely
bored apertures below the false bottom through which the air can
escape. This is, however, attended with the disadvantage that
a regular draught of air only takes place in the outer layers of
filling next to the walls, while it is not sufficiently strong in the
centre of the apparatus. It is also incorrect to have but one air
aperture in the cover, which can be enlarged or diminished by
means of a slide. In a generator thus arranged the current of
air entering below will naturally pass chiefly through the conical
portion of the filling, the basis of which is formed by the lower
lath-bottom and the apex by the draught aperture in the cover.
The lower portion of the filling, which embraces this cone, re-
mains without sufficient ventilation and is ineffective as regards
the oxidation of alcohol.

In Figs. 5 and 6 the hatched surfaces terminated by the dotted

58

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

lines illustrate the portions of the generator in which, with the
use of many apertures below the false bottom and a single one in
the centre of the cover, the regular current of air from below to

Fig. 5.

Scheme of the Incorrect Conduction of Air in Vinegar Generators.

above passes ; though a current of air takes place outside of these
lines, it is in most cases too weak, and consequently the entire
available space of the generator is not sufficiently utilized.

The generators may also be entirely open below and stand in a
shallow tub, which serves for the collection of the vinegar ; gen-
erally, however, the lower portion of the generator itself is used
for this purpose, and is provided with an arrangement for the

Self-acting Discharge Arrangement on the lower part of the Generator.

occasional discharge of the collected fluid. This can be effected
either by a spigot fixed immediately above the bottom,. or, as in

QUICK PROCESS OF FABRICATION OF VINEGAR.

59

Fig. 7, by a glass tube, which bends upwards nearly as high as
the air-holes and then curves downward so as to discharge the
liquid, when it rises as high as the shelf in the interior of the
apparatus, into an appropriate vessel placed to receive it. Simple
as this arrangement is, it is scarcely suitable in the practice on
account of its being too liable to breakage, and hence it is better
to provide the generator with an ordinary spigot, and prevent the
vinegar from rising too high, by boring about J inch below the
draught apertures a hole in which is fitted a pipe leading to a
tub. The vinegar rising to the height of this pipe will commence
to run off, and thus give warning to empty the generator by
opening the spigot.

In generators of older construction a strong hoop is fixed about
one foot from the top, on which is placed a perforated disk which
serves for distributing the alcoholic fluid as uniformly as possible
over the entire filling. The disk, Fig. 8, is perforated with
numerous holes (about 400 with a disk diameter of 3 feet)

Disk of a Generator.

arranged in concentric circles. These holes are loosely filled with
cotton wick or packthread, a knot being made at the top end to
keep them from falling through. The threads pass down to the
shavings, and serve the double purpose of conducting the liquid

60 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

equally through the body of the generator and also of stopping it
from passing too rapidly through it (see Fig. 9). It is important to
pack the disk so tightly against the walls of the generator that none
of the liquid can percolate, which is best effected by a packing of
tow and coating this with a mixture of equal parts of wax and
colophony. The dripping of the alcoholic fluid through the disk
taking place uniformly only when the latter lies perfectly hori-
zontal, great care must be exercised in placing the generator. To
prevent warping several strong cross pieces are inserted in the
lower side of the disk.

Fig. 9.

Cross Section of the Disk.

As previously mentioned the current of air must pass through
all portions of the filling, and for this purpose seven short glass
tubes, r (Fig. 8), about J inch in diameter, are inserted in the disk.
These tubes are so arranged that one is in the centre of the disk
and the others in a circle equidistant from the centre and the
periphery. Upon the disk is placed the well-fitting cover, pro-
vided with an aperture for the passage of the air. This aperture,
about 3 inches square, is provided with a well-fitting slide, so
that it can be made larger or smaller at will. As previously
stated, it is more suitable to provide the cover with a large
number of draught holes arranged in concentric circles and to fit
each hole with a wooden stopper. By withdrawing or inserting
the stoppers the draught of air can then be properly regulated.

To effect the influx of air from below in such a manner that it
not only takes place through the draught holes in the circumfer-
ence, but also insures its conveyance to the centre of the appa-
ratus, it is recommended to insert in the centre of the lower part
in which the fluid collects a tube, R, Fig. 10, which is open at
both ends and protected above by the hood H against the drop-
ping in of alcoholic liquid.

QUICK PROCESS OF FABRICATION OF VINEGAR.

61

A uniform distribution of the alcoholic liquid upon all portions
of the filling of the apparatus would be effected if about the same
quantity of liquid dripped from all the threads. This being, how-
ever, difficult to attain, it has been sought to give the disk a more

Fig. 10.

Generator with Air-tube in the Lower Portion.

suitable arrangement, which consists, for instance, in the insertion
of small wooden tubes with a small aperture on the side (Fig. 11).
This arrangement, though very suitable in itself, becomes, however,
useless in case of the slightest warping of the disk, a number of
the tubes being then raised so high that no fluid runs through
them while it passes in a full stream through the others.

Fie. 11.

Disk with Wooden Tubes.

These evils connected with the use of a disk can be somewhat
diminished by the employment of a so-called "tilting trough"
(Figs. 12 and 13), which is arranged as follows : —

62 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

Upon a perfectly horizontal axis is placed a rotatory, trough-
like vessel divided by a partition into two equal parts.

If the tilting trough is in the position shown in Fig. 12 the
alcoholic liquid runs through the cock, placed above, into the
partition marked 1.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

Tilting Trough.

As soon as this partition is filled to a certain height it turns
over in consequence of the disturbance of the equilibrium of the
trough and assumes the position shown in Fig. 13. In this posi-
tion partition 2 is gradually filled with alcoholic liquid, the trough
then tilts back into position 1, and so on.

It will be seen that with the assistance of such a tilting-trough
the same quantities of liquid can always be poured out at certain
intervals, and that this arrangement can be used for distributing
the alcoholic liquid upon the disk, the latter in this case being
best provided with holes having the form of an inverted cone.
The apex of this cone forms a very narrow aperture through
which the alcoholic liquid poured upon the disk trickles in very
thin jets upon the filling of the generator.

But even this arrangement is not free from objections ; it works
entirely satisfactorily only as long as the disk remains in a per-
fectly horizontal position. In the more modern constructions of
vinegar generators the disk is generally entirely omitted and the
distribution of the alcoholic liquor effected by a so-called "spar-
ger," similar to the one used in beer brewing for sprinkling malt
residues. The sparger is arranged like a simple turbine, and is
moved by reaction in the direction opposite to that in which
the discharge of the fluid takes place. Spargers used in vinegar

3

QUICK PROCESS OF FABRICATION OF VINEGAR. 63

factories can be constructed only of a material indifferent to the
action of acetic acid, such as wood, glass, hard rubber, etc. Their
construction will be understood from Figs. 14 and 15.

Fig. 14.

Sparger (view from above).

Into a hollow cylinder of wood are screwed four thin wooden
tubes, closed at both ends and perforated lengthwise with nume-
rous small holes ; the tubes are so arranged that all the holes are

Fig. 15.

Sparger (cross-section).

directed towards one side. The basin in the centre is closed on
top by a glass tube about 20 inches long and of sufficient width
to allow of the passage of as much fluid as can at one time run
off through all the lateral tubes.

64

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

The principal requisite of the correct working of the sparger is
that it revolves with ease around its vertical axis. This is effected
by placing in the centre of the vessel a glass pin drawn out to a
fine point and running in a small glass step ; the vertical glass
tube is guided in a sharp-edged wooden ring fastened to a stay
placed upon the cover of the generator (Fig. 16). The sparger
finds its centre of motion upon a lath inserted in the direction of
the diameter of the generator. This lath is placed at such a height
that the sparger can move freely between it and the cover of the
generator. The sparger being in position as shown in Fig. 16, a
funnel-form vessel, through which the alcoholic fluid is poured in,
is placed upon the glass tube.

Sparger placed in the Generator.

^ By now pouring through this funnel-form vessel the alcoholic
liquid in a sufficiently strong stream, so that during its influx the
glass tube remains filled, it passes in fine jets through the lateral
openings, and, the sparger revolving in an opposite direction, is
distributed in the form of a fine spray over the filling in the gene-
rator.

The use of the sparger overcomes the difficulties frequently
occurring with the disk, especially as regards the position of the
latter, and the circulation of air through the apparatus also takes

Q

QUICK PROCESS OF FABRICATION OF VINEGAR. 65

place in a perfectly uniform manner. A number of apertures in
the cover of the generator serve also here for the regulation of
the current of air.

A thermometer is an indispensable adjunct to a generator, and
should be so placed that the temperature prevailing in the appa-
ratus, and especially in the centre, can be readily read off. This
is best effected by introducing at about half the height of the
apparatus, through an obliquely bored hole in one of the staves,
a glass tube closed at the lower end and reaching to the centre of
the filling. This tube serves for the reception of a thermometer
fastened to the lower end of a stick of wood. The latter pro-
jects from the glass tube, so that the thermometer can be quickly
drawn out and the temperature read off.

Fitting of the Generators.

For filling the space between the upper disk and lower lath
bottom, material offering a large surface for the distribution of
the alcoholic liquid is used. Pieces of charcoal and of pumice
stone, washed in hydrochloric acid and well rinsed in water to
remove empyreumatic substances, which would render induction
of acetous fermentation impossible, have been used for the pur-
pose, as well as old corks or waste of cork. Pumice stone
especially has the advantage of being easily cleansed by water
and by fire when the liquors, such as those from fruits, contain a
great deal of mucilaginous and albuminous substances, which
will rapidly accumulate and prevent the proper working of
shavings. Grape-stalks, which actually present a very large
surface, were formerly much used for filling the generators, but,
independently of the fact that they cannot be everywhere obtained
in sufficient quantities, they have the disadvantage of becoming
in a short time so strongly compressed as to prevent the free pas-
sage of air.

J3ut beechwood shavings are now nearly everywhere employed
for filling the generators. Indeed, beechwood presents many ad-
vantages; it can be had easily and cheap; it curls well and
stands without breaking for a length of time. White woods will
curl as well, but they will hot stand so well as beech ; resinous
5

66 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

woods are not porous enough, and besides their resin is objection-
able, as it may partly dissolve in the vinegar ; oak wood does not
curl as well and contains too much coloring matter and tannin.

The beech shavings are generally made in special factories.
They consist of wooden bands about J millimeter (0.02 inch)
thick, 4 centimeters (1.57 inches) wide, and 40 to 50 centimeters
(15.74 to 19.68 inches) long. They are rolled into close spirals
by a special machine, and each shaving, according to the above
dimensions, presents a surface of about 400 square centimeters (62
square inches). Now, as a generator of moderate size contains many
thousands of such shavings, it will be readily seen that the sur-
face over which the alcoholic fluid is distributed is an extraordi-
narily large one.

A shaving of the stated dimensions represents in a rolled state
a cylinder with a volume in round numbers of 28 cubic centi-
meters (1.7 cubic inches). By allowing an interspace of 14
cubic centimeters (.85 cubic inch) between the shavings, 28 + 14
= 42 cubic centimeters (1.7 + 0.85=1.92 cubic inches), space is
required for each shaving. The space to be filled with shavings
in a generator 1 meter (3.28 feet) in diameter and 2 meters
(6.56 feet) high is equal to 1.57 cubic meters (55.44 cubic feet),
and hence 58,000 shavings, with a total surface of 2112 square
meters (22,733.56 square feet), are required for the purpose.
Now suppose only 5 per cent, of this surface is continually active
in the formation of vinegar, we have still a surface of over 100
square meters (1076.43 square feet) at our disposal. But the ac-
tive surface would seem to be actually much smaller even with
the most favorable working of the generator, as otherwise the
average quantity of alcohol daily converted into acetic acid in a
generator would be much larger than is actually the case.

Beechwood shavings contain a considerable quantity of ex-
tractive substances, which if not removed would for a long time
impart a disagreeable tang (woody taste) to the vinegar. Hence
it is recommended to lixiviate the shavings in water repeatedly
renewed, in order to get rid of the substances soluble in cold
water and remove the last traces by treatment with steam.

This steaming is best effected in a large tub or a vat, which is
later on to be used as a generator. The shavings are thrown in

QUICK PROCESS OF FABRICATION OF VINEGAR. 67

loosely and covered with a loaded lid. A steam-pipe is intro-
duced through a hole near the lid and the tap-hole near the
bottom is opened. The steam-pipe being connected with a boiler,
in which prevails a tension of If to 2 atmospheres, the steam-
cock is at first opened but slightly, to prevent the steam entering
with great force, from throwing off the lid, or even bursting the
vessel. In the commencement of the operation the steam con-
denses on the shavings, but after some time the vessel becomes
very hot, and a dark-colored fluid, consisting of almost boiling
water charged with extractive substances of the wood, begins to
run off. After continuous steaming for about 20 to 60 minutes
— according to the size of the vessel — the fluid running off be-
comes clearer until finally clear water is discharged, which is in-
dicative of the removal of the extractive substances soluble in
water.

Although not absolutely necessary it is advisable to dry the
steamed shavings. When air-dried they still contain about 20
per cent, of water, which in the subsequent " acidulation" of the
generator must be replaced by vinegar. Hence it is recommended
to dry the shavings completely by exposing them for some time
to a current of air of 194° to 212° F.

In a factory provided with a central heating apparatus* in the
cellar, this drying of the shavings can be effected without diffi-
culty, it only being necessary to put them in a vessel with a per-
forated bottom and open on top, and place the vessel over an
aperture of the channel through which the hot air from the heat-
ing apparatus ascends, closing all other apertures.

Entirely dry wood absorbing with avidity moisture from the
atmosphere, the shavings thus dried should immediately be
brought into another vessel and, while still hot, moistened with
the vinegar intended for acidulation.

Before using the shavings for filling the generators it is neces-
sary to allow them to swell by placing them in water or alcoholic
liquid. If this were omitted and the shavings introduced in a

* The arrangement of a central heating apparatus will be described later
on in speaking of the arrangement of the factory.

68 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

dry state they would rise above the generators as soon as moist-
ened, on account of the increase in volume by swelling.

In most factories it is customary simply to pour the shavings
into the generator, but for a uniform distribution of the alcoholic
fluid it is advisable to proceed with the filling in a certain order.
First place the shavings in three or four regular layers upon the
lath-bottom, then pour them in loosely to a height of 8 to 12
inches, and after levelling the surface as much as possible pour in
again, and continue in this manner until the generator is filled ;
the uppermost portion should again consist of three or four regu-
lar layers.

All the generators used in a vinegar factory should be of the
same size and charged with the same number of shavings, which
is best effected by filling them with the same quantity by weight.
The total surface of shavings being thus nearly the same in all
generators, the latter will work uniformly, i. <?., with an equal
temperature and draught of air ; and in the same time convert
equally large quantities of alcohol into acetic acid.

CHAPTER VII.

ARRANGEMENT OF A VINEGAR FACTORY.

THE arrangement of the manufacturing rooms formerly custo-
mary even in large factories is by no means a suitable one. The
generators were generally simply placed in a room adapted for the
purpose by its size, while the high temperature required was
sought to be maintained by heating. By considering, however,
that every considerable variation in the temperature causes also a
disturbance in the formation of vinegar, it will be seen that the
object of keeping up an undisturbed working of the factory can-
not be attained by such primitive means. A suitable arrange-
ment of the room in which the vinegar is to be manufactured is,
therefore, absolutely necessary.

The principal requisites to be observed are : the maintenance
of a uniform temperature in the room and a suitable arrangement

ARRANGEMENT OF A VINEGAR FACTORY. 69

for ventilation. Further, simple means for the conveyance of
the raw materials and the finished product must be provided for
and means devised for regaining the acetic acid, with the vapors of
which the air in the manufacturing room is constantly saturated.

For the maintenance of a uniform temperature in the work-
room, which should remain almost constant even in the coldest
season of the year and during abrupt changes in the outer tem-
perature, the walls should be of more than ordinary thickness
and the number of windows and doors sufficient only for the
necessary light and communication, and so arranged that 110 un-
intentional ventilation can occur. The windows and doors
should, therefore, be double, and the latter so placed that one can
be closed without opening the other. The walls and ceilings should
be plastered and preferably papered with stout packing paper.

Asphaltum, being impermeable and also indifferent to the ac-
tion of acetic acid, is undoubtedly the best material for the floor
of the workroom, though it may also be constructed of large
slabs of sandstone with the joints filled in with asphaltum.
Cement floors can only be recommended provided they are im-
mediately after their construction coated with water-glass until
they cease to absorb it. In constructing the floor care must be
had to give it such an inclination that the entire surface can be
cleansed by a simple jet of water. If the heating channel is
conducted lengthwise through the workroom, gutters for the
rinsing water to run off must be arranged on both sides.

The height of the room depends on that of the generators.

Heating of the Workroom.

Heating by a stove placed in the workroom itself can only bo
recommended for very small factories ; in larger ones a special
heating apparatus should always be provided. Where stoves
are used it is recommended to arrange them so that the fuel can
be supplied and the ashes removed from the outside, i. e., from a
room adjoining the actual workroom. In attending to the stoves
fine particles of ashes will unavoidably reach the air ; from the
latter they may get into the generators, and being soluble in
acetic acid may injure the vinegar ferment.

For large factories a heating apparatus similar to the one shown

70

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

in Figs. 17 and 18 can be recommended. The iron heating cyl-
inder, which is provided with the feeding-door H and the air-
regulating door A, stands in a vault beneath the centre of the
room to be heated. It is surrounded on all sides by the sheet-
iron jacket J/, reaching from the floor of the cellar to the top of
the vault. In the vault is a circular aperture, 0, for the reception
of the channels C and <7r The latter, ascending slightly, run

Figs. 17,18.

P P

Ground-plan and Elevation of Heating Apparatus.

along the centre of the room to be heated. Above they are cov-
ered by cast-iron plates, P, and by pushing these plates apart or
substituting a lattice plate for one of them in any part of the
channel, warm air can be admitted to the room. If the room is
to be heated without renewing the air, the register in the flue L
which communicates by a flat iron pipe with the lower part of

ARRANGEMENT OF A VINEGAR FACTORY.

71

*. 19.

1L-55

the jacket, is opened. The furnace being heated the air in the
room is sucked in the direction of the arrow through the flue L,
and passing between the jacket and the furnace, ascends strongly
heated through 0 and penetrates through the openings in the
channel ; air is again sucked through L, and so on.

If, however, the air in the workroom is to be entirely renewed,
the air-flue L is closed and a register (not shown in the illustra-
tion) in the lower part of the jacket opened.
In this case the air in the cellar is sucked in,
heated and distributed through the channels
C and Cv By partially opening this register
and that in L a portion of the air can be re-
newed at will.

In order to be able to form a correct idea
of the state of the temperature prevailing in
the room, it is advisable to have several or-
dinary thermometers and also a maximum
and minimum thermometer. If the latter
showrs no greater variation than from 4° to
5°, the process of heating may be considered
as satisfactory.

A very suitable apparatus for controlling
the temperature in a vinegar factory is au
electrical thermometer, which is so arranged
that a bell rings in case the temperature rises
above or falls below a certain degree. By
placing two such thermometers in the room,
the bell of the one indicates the rise of the
temperature above the limit, and that of the
other that it has fallen below it.

Fig. 19 illustrates the principle of a maxi-
mum electrical thermometer, i. e.> one which
rings a bell when the temperature of the room
exceeds a certain limit. Into the bulb of an

Maximum Electrical

ordinary mercury thermometer is melted a Thermometer,
platinum wire ; another platinum wire is in-
serted in the tube up to the mark indicating the temperature not
to be exceeded, for instance, 35° C. The ends of the platinum

-35

=-30

=-20

=-15

72 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

wires projecting from the thermometer are connected by insulated
copper wires with a galvanic battery consisting of several ele-
ments, an ordinary door-bell being inserted in one part of the
conductor. If, now, in consequence of a continued increase in
the temperature, the mercury rises to the point of the platinum
wire at the figure 35°, the circuit of the battery is closed at the
same time by the column of mercury, and the bell rings and
keeps ringing until the circuit is again opened by the mercury
falling below 35°.

The minimum electrical thermometer, used for indicating the
falling of the temperature below a certain degree, is so arranged
that one platinum wire is melted into the bulb of the ther-
mometer and the other in the tube at the point below which the
temperature is not to fall. As long as the mercury remains above
this point a battery, which changes a piece of iron to an electro-
magnet, whose anchor opens a second battery which is connected
with an electric bell, remains closed. .If the temperature falls
below the minimum, the circuit of the first battery is opened, and
the anchor of the electro-magnet falling down eifects the closing
of the second battery and sets the bell ringing.

By placing such thermometers not only in the working room
but also in every generator, the control of the entire process
would be immensely facilitated, but at the present time these
useful and at the same time inexpensive instruments are but little
used in vinegar factories.

In factories arranged according to the automatic system, the
alcoholic liquid is contained in vessels placed at such a level that
their contents can run directly into the generators. The alcoholic
liquid having to be correspondingly heated, adequate provision
must be made for heating the space in which the reservoirs are
placed. In order not to increase the height of the entire room, it
is recommended to place these vessels in the centre and give only
to this portion the required height. This has the further advan-
tage that the pumping up of the alcoholic liquid can be effected
by the use of a pump with a short rising-pipe, and the liquid can
be readily conducted from the reservoirs to the separate generators
by means of pipes.

ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION OF VINEGAR GENERATORS. 73

CHAPTER VIII.

ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION OF THE VINEGAR GENERATORS.

THE first experiments in conveying direct air to every gene-
rator were made in England ; but though this step towards
improvement in the fabrication of vinegar must be considered
an important advance, the English process failed of being ac-
cepted in practice on account of the inadequacy of the apparatus
used.

In the English factories by a special apparatus a current of air
was sucked from above to below through every generator. As
shown in Fig. 20, the tall generators are open on top and
divided by false bottoms, upon which the shavings, etc., rest, into
several partitions ; above each false bottom holes are bored in the
circumference of the generators. In the bottom of the generator
is inserted a pipe which is connected with an arrangement for
sucking in the air, a blower or air-pump being used for the
purpose.

As will be seen from the illustration, the suction of air through
all parts of the generator cannot be uniformly effected by the use
of this apparatus, the current of air being much more checked
in the upper portions, by the false bottoms and holes in the
circumference, than in the lower. Hence the effect of the air-
pump or blower will chiefly assert itself in the lowest partition.
This evil might be remedied by leaving out the false bottoms
and placing no air-holes in the circumference of the generator
entirely open at the top ; by these means the air would be forced
to pass in a uniform current through the entire layer of the filling
material.

That the passage of the current of air from above to below is
entirely incorrect, because contrary to all theoretical requirements,
can be readily explained : In a generator in full activity, oxida-
tion of alcohol must already take place in the uppermost portion,

74

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

air.

Fig. 20.

and hence a certain quantity of oxygen is withdrawn from the
This process being also continued in the lower parts of the
generator, a current of air already
deprived of a portion of its oxygen,
and hence less suitable for the fur-
ther formation of acetic acid, would
be sucked in the same direction
which the drops of alcohol take.

The principal reason advanced
for the use of a current of air from
above to below is that by these
means a uniform temperature is
maintained in all parts of the gen-
erators, while it rises considerably
in the upper part of those in which
the air passes from below to above.
This rise of temperature is, how-
ever, agreeable to nature. The air
entering from below oxidizes the
alcohol to acetic acid, becoming
thereby poorer in oxygen and again
heated. By the higher temperature
it acquires, it is, however, capable
of a more vigorous chemical activity,
so that it will induce the process of
the formation of vinegar, even in
the uppermost portions of the gen-
erator. Besides, the warmer cur-
rent of air moving upwards has the
further advantage of yielding heat

to the drops of alcoholic fluid trickling down. With the use oi
generators of moderate height, and with a suitable regulation ot
the draught of air, the maximum temperature will not be ex-
ceeded, even in the uppermost portions of the generator.

If no rise of temperature is observed in the lower portions of
a generator in which the air passes from above to below, it only
proves that the air has lost too much oxygen to further effect a
vigorous oxidation of the alcohol. It will be readily understood

Generator with Ventilation from
above to below.

ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION OF VINEGAR GENERATORS. 75

that under these conditions a diminution in the loss of substance
can, to a certain degree, be effected, but it is doubtful whether
the generators are utilized in the manner they should be ; besides,
the diminution in loss of substance cannot be very considerable.
Since a high temperature also prevails in ventilated generators,
the current of air passing downward will be loaded with as much
vapor of alcohol or of acetic acid as it can absorb at this tempera-
ture, and, hence, it would seem no diminution in loss by evapora-
tion could be effected. To render this possible, the current of
air sucked from the generator would have to be sufficiently cooled
off by a suitable arrangement for the greater portion of .the
vapors carried away by the current of air to condense to a fluid.

Schulze's Ventilating Apparatus.

The ventilation of the vinegar generators, according to the
above-described method, requires the presence of an uninterrupt-
edly acting power for working the air-pump, blower, etc. As is
well known, a current of air can, however, be also produced by
heating the air passing through an ascending pipe, by which it
becomes specifically lighter and ascends, while denser air enters
from below, etc. Schulze, as will be seen from Fig. 21, has
applied this method to the ventilation of vinegar generators.

Schulze's generator differs somewhat from the ordinary con-
struction, and is arranged as follows : The vat has a height of
about 8 feet, and a diameter of 2 feet 6 inches. In the upper part
it is terminated by a false bottom, fitting air-tight, and is further
provided with a cover, in the centre of which is an aperture about
2J inches in diameter, which serves for the entrance of air, while
another aperture on the side serves for pouring in the alcoholic
liquid. In the false bottom are inserted four glass-tubes, open
at both ends and about f inch in diameter, which afford a passage
to the air. The generator is filled with pieces of washed and
assorted charcoal, so that pieces of the size of a nut are placed
upon the lath-bottom, and upon this are poured smaller pieces,
gradually decreasing in size until those on the top are only that
of a pea. In the centre of the bottom is inserted a wooden tube,
open at both ends and provided -on top with a hood to prevent

76

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

the trickling in of vinegar (see Fig. 10). By a suitable inter-
mediate piece, this tube is connected with the draught-pipe (see
Fig. 21), in which the ascension of the air by heating is effected.

Fig. 21.

^^5^^^^^^^^^^^^^^§^5^5s>

1 '"1 i i I 1

Schulze's Ventilating Apparatus.

The draught-pipes are of cast iron, and are about J-inch thick
and about 4^ feet long, with a clear diameter of 2 inches. They
are placed, strongly inclined, over the flues of a heating appara-
tus and covered above by a double course of stone. The air in
the iron draught-pipes, being heated by the escaping gases of
combustion, ascends and effects the passage of a current of air
from above to below in the generators. For keeping up a con-
stant ventilation it is claimed to be sufficient to heat the furnace
only once a day. With this construction it is necessary to have
as many draught-pipes as there are generators; the same effect
might, however, also be attained by connecting the pipes leading
from several generators with a draught-pipe of a somewhat greater
diameter and length.

It is not difficult to prove that a uniform ventilation of the
generators cannot be obtained by the use of this construction.
As long as the draught-pipes are strongly heated, a very rapid
current of air will pass through them and the generators con-

ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION OF VINEGAR GENERATORS. 77

nected with them, which will, however, decrease in the same
degree as the pipes cool off. Hence, in the first case, a too rapid
current of air accompanied by a correspondingly strong evapora-
tion of alcohol would pass through the generators, and in the
latter, ventilation would be so sluggish that the process of the
formation of vinegar would not proceed in a normal manner.

Generators with constant Ventilation and Condensation.

The object to be attained by the use of special ventilating con-
trivances is a double one : to conduct a constant current of air
through the generators, and, further, not to allow the temperature
to rise above a certain limit, so as to decrease by these means the
loss by evaporation of alcohol and acetic acid. This object can,
however, be attained only by the use of an apparatus which
allows of the most accurate regulation of the current of air pass-
ing through the generator, and is connected with a contrivance
by which the vapors of alcohol and acetic acid carried along by
the current of air can be condensed as much as possible. The
following apparatus is well adapted for the purpose ; its principal
parts consist of the generator, the apparatus for condensing the
vapors, and the ventilator.

The construction of the lower part of the generator, Fig. 22,
is the same as of those previously described ; the cover fits tightly
upon the upper edge of the vat, the joint being made air-tight by
strips of paper pasted over it. In the centre of the cover is a
square aperture, from which rises a quadrangular pyramid, P,
constructed of boards, upon which sits a low prism, A. The
sparger D has its centre of motion upon the lath L, placed in
the uppermost portion of the generator, and is guided above in
the short lath Lv which carries the sharp-edged ring described
on p. 64. E is the glass tube through which the alcoholic liquid
flows into the funnel of the sparger. On the point where the
pyramid passes into the prism A, is a bottom provided with a
circular aperture, 0, 2J to 3 inches in diameter. Upon the top
of the prism A is placed a nut, in which runs a wooden screw,
provided on the lower end with a wooden disk, S, of a somewhat
greater diameter than the aperture 0. By raising or lowering

78 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

this screw, the aperture 0 can be closed more or less or entirely,
and thus the strength of the current of air regulated at will in
every generator. The prisms A of all the generators are con-
nected with each other by the conduit R, constructed of boards.

Fig. 22.

Fig. 23.

Ventilating Apparatus according to Bersch.

This conduit R is connected — best in the centre between an
equally large number of generators — with the condensing appa-
ratus, the chief feature of which is a worm similar to that used in
a still. Fig. 24 shows the apparatus in cross-section.

In a sheet-iron vessel of the same height as the generator is
placed another vessel, so that there is a distance of about 5f
inches between the walls. From a reservoir situated at a higher
level cold water runs into the apparatus through the pipe K, and
off through the short pipe W. In the space between the walls of
the two vessels lies a tin coil with very thin walls and a diameter
of at least 2J inches. On top this tin coil is connected with the
wooden tube R (Fig. 23) and below with the iron pipe Rr which
leads to the ventilating apparatus. C is a glass tube about 16
inches long and J to f inch in diameter, which reaches nearly to
the bottom of the flask half filled with water.

The ventilating apparatus consists of an ordinary Meidinger
self-regulating stove, but its jacket is closed below so that air can
only pass in between the heating cylinder and the jacket through
the pipe Rv coming from the condensing apparatus.

ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION OF VINEGAR GENERATORS. 79

The apparatus works as follows : According as combustion
in the stove proceeds slowly or quickly by the corresponding
position of the regulating register, the air between the heating
cylinder and the jacket becomes less or more heated and ascends

Fig. 24.

W

Condensing Apparatus — Cross Section.

with corresponding velocity. But as the further entrance of air
can take place only through the pipe Rly the tin coil, and the
wooden tube R, a uniform current of air from below to above
must pass through all the generators. To regulate the strength of
the current for each generator, it is only necessary to close the aper-
ture 0 (Fig. 22) more or less by raising or lowering the screw.

The current of air passing from the wooden tube R into
the tin coil carries with it the total amount of evaporated alcohol
or acetic acid. By passing through the tin coil, which is cooled
by the water, the air itself becomes cooled off, and the greater

80 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

portion of the vapors held by it condense to liquid and run off
through the tube C into the bottle. The fluid thus obtained con-
sists chiefly of alcohol, water, and acetic acid, and is again used
for the preparation of alcoholic liquid. On account of the pecu-
liar form of the cooling vessel but little water is required for
feeding it. As the quantity of vapor separated from the air
will, however, be the greater the more energetically the tin coil is
cooled off, it is recommended to reduce the temperature of the
water to nearly 32° F. by throwing in pieces of ice.

It has been proposed to regain the vapors by conducting the
air containing them into a large vessel in which water in the
form of a fine spray trickles down or is injected. It is, of course,
possible in this manner to condense the greater portion of vapors
of a higher temperature and tension, but with vapors of at the
utmost 95° F. little success would be attained. The greater
portion of the vapors remaining uncondensed a very large quan-
tity of fluid containing but little alcohol would be obtained in
the course of a day and this fluid could at the best be used only
instead of water for the preparation of alcoholic liquid. The
value of the material thus regained would not cover the working
expenses of the apparatus. By working, however, with the con-
densing apparatus described above, the condensed alcohol does
not even contain the total quantity of water evaporated with it,
and it need only be compounded with the corresponding quantity
of water and vinegar again to yield alcoholic liquid.

CHAPTER IX.

AUTOMATIC VINEGAR APPARATUS.

THE principal work to be performed in a vinegar factory con-
sists in pouring at stated intervals the alcoholic fluid into the
generators. In a large factory several workmen are constantly
engaged in this work and losses by spilling are unavoidable.
Further it is almost next to impossible always to pour in the
same quantity at exactly the same intervals, and sometimes a

AUTOMATIC VINEGAR APPARATUS. 81

generator may even be entirely overlooked and thus remain inac-
tive until the next supply of alcoholic liquid is poured in.

The greatest disadvantage is, however, the interruption for
several hours daily of the formation of vinegar in all the genera-
tors, so that, for instance, in a factory working 16 hours a day,
one-third of the time is lost. Independently of the small return
on the capital invested, these interruptions are accompanied by
many other conditions injurious to the regular running of the
factory.

The greatest of these evils is that with the cessation of the sup-
ply of alcoholic fluid the augmentation of the vinegar ferment
diminishes and finally ceases altogether. Further, the develop-
ment of heat in the interior of the apparatus at the same time
ceases and the temperature is reduced several degrees, this phenom-
enon appearing even in factories provided with the best heating
apparatus and keeping up a constant temperature in the workroom
during the night.

In the morning when work is resumed, it is in most cases
necessary to vigorously air the apparatus by opening all the draught
holes in order to gradually restore the temperature to the required
degree, and it requires some time before the apparatus again
works in a normal manner.

The vinegar ferment, however, is very sensitive to changes of
temperature as Avell as to the concentration of the nourishing
substance surrounding it, and there can be no doubt that its aug-
mentation is prejudiced by the continuous variations of tempera-
ture to which it is exposed during the interruptions of several
hours a day. That such is actually the case is shown by the fact
that the quantity of vinegar ferment formed in the generators is
small as compared with that which under conditions favorable to
the ferment forms in a short time upon alcoholic liquids.

Besides the debilitation of the vinegar ferment and the conse-
quent disturbance in the regular working of the factory, the
repeated reduction of the temperature in the generators has the
further disadvantage that besides the vinegar ferment other fer-
ments for whose development a low temperature is more favorable
may be formed, and these ferments may increase to such an extent
as to entirely suppress the vinegar ferment. There can scarcely
6

80 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

portion of the vapors held by it condense to liquid and run off
through the tube C into the bottle. The fluid thus obtained con-
sists chiefly of alcohol, water, and acetic acid, and is again used
for the preparation of alcoholic liquid. On account of the pecu-
liar form of the cooling vessel but little water is required for
feeding it. As the quantity of vapor separated from the air
will, however, be the greater the more energetically the tin coil is
cooled off, it is recommended to reduce the temperature of the
water to nearly 32° F. by throwing in pieces of ice.

It has been proposed to regain the vapors by conducting the
air containing them into a large vessel in Avhich water in the
form of a fine spray trickles down or is injected. It is, of course,
possible in this manner to condense the greater portion of vapors
of a higher temperature and tension, but with vapors of at the
utmost 95° F. little success would be attained. The greater
portion of the vapors remaining uncondensed a very large quan-
tity of fluid containing but little alcohol would be obtained in
the course of a day and this fluid could at the best be used only
instead of water for the preparation of alcoholic liquid. The
value of the material thus regained would not cover the working
expenses of the apparatus. By working, however, with the con-
densing apparatus described above, the condensed alcohol does
not even contain the total quantity of water evaporated with it,
and it need only be compounded with the corresponding quantity
of water and vinegar again to yield alcoholic liquid.

CHAPTER IX.

AUTOMATIC VINEGAR APPARATUS.

THE principal work to be performed in a vinegar factory con-
sists in pouring at stated intervals the alcoholic fluid into the
generators. In a large factory several workmen are constantly
engaged in this work and losses by spilling are unavoidable.
Further it is almost next to impossible always to pour in the
same quantity at exactly the same intervals, and sometimes a

AUTOMATIC VINEGAR APPARATUS. 81

generator may even be entirely overlooked and thus remain inac-
tive until the next supply of alcoholic liquid is poured in.

The greatest disadvantage is, however, the interruption for
several hours daily of the formation of vinegar in all the genera-
tors, so that, for instance, in a factory working 16- hours a day,
one-third of the time is lost. Independently of the small return
on the capital invested, these interruptions are accompanied by
many other conditions injurious to the regular running of the
factory.

The greatest of these evils is that with the cessation of the sup-
ply of alcoholic fluid the augmentation of the vinegar ferment
diminishes and finally ceases altogether. Further, the develop-
ment of heat in the interior of the apparatus at the same time
ceases and the temperature is reduced several degrees, this phenom-
enon appearing even in factories provided with the best heating
apparatus and keeping up a constant temperature in the workroom
during the night.

In the morning when work is resumed, it is in most cases
necessary to vigorously air the apparatus by opening all the draught
holes in order to gradually restore the temperature to the required
degree, and it requires some time before the apparatus again
works in a normal manner.

The vinegar ferment, however, is very sensitive to changes of
temperature as well as to the concentration of the nourishing
substance surrounding it, and there can be no doubt that its aug-
mentation is prejudiced by the continuous variations of tempera-
ture to which it is exposed during the interruptions of several
hours a day. That such is actually the case is shown by the fact
that the quantity of vinegar ferment formed in the generators is
small as compared with that which under conditions favorable to
the ferment forms in a short time upon alcoholic liquids.

Besides the debilitation of the vinegar ferment and the conse-
quent disturbance in the regular working of the factory, the
repeated reduction of the temperature in the generators has the
further disadvantage that besides the vinegar ferment other fer-
ments for whose development a low temperature is more favorable
may be formed, and these ferments may increase to such an extent
as to entirely suppress the vinegar ferment. There can scarcely

&4 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

liquid flows into each generator, rims above the uppermost row.
Another conduit, Ll common to all the generators, serves for the
reception of the fluid (finished vinegar) running off from the
lowest row, and conducts it to the collecting vessel, S. The
arrows indicate the course the alcoholic liquid has to traverse.

From all appearances the arrangement of a factory according
to the above-described system would be most advisable, there
being actually nothing to do but to raise the alcoholic liquid
once and to remove the finished vinegar from the collecting
vessel. In practice, however, this so-called terrace system pre-
sents many difficulties not easily overcome, the greatest un-
doubtedly being the solution of the heating problem. Experience
shows that the temperature in a generator must be the higher the
more acetic acid the alcoholic liquid contains. According to this,
the highest temperature should prevail in the lowest series of
generators (///, Fig. 25) and the lowest in the uppermost (J).

But in practice just the reverse is the case even with the use
of the best heating apparatus : the highest temperature prevails
in / and the lowest in JJJ, as, according to natural law, the
warm air being specifically lighter than the cold constantly strives
to ascend.

To overcome this evil nothing can be done but to place the
series J, //, and III of the generators in as many different stories
entirely separated from each other, or, in case there is a central
heating apparatus in the cellar, to correctly distribute the warm
air in the separate stories by suitably arranged registers. The
solution of this problem offers no insuperable difficulties, but re-
quires the arrangement of the entire factory to be carefully
planned in accordance with the laws of physics.

An unavoidable evil of the terrace system is the costliness of
the factory building, and, finally, that a disturbance occurring in
one of the generators must simultaneously affect two others of the
vertical series, which must necessarily remain idle until the dis-
turbance is removed. Considering all the disadvantages con-
nected with the terrace system, though it is seemingly so suita-
ble, it is but little adapted to practice, it being much preferable
to place all the generators on the same level and to divide them

AUTOMATIC VINEGAR APPARATUS. 85

into three groups, each of which is provided with a reservoir for
the alcoholic liquid and a collecting vessel.

The mode of working according to this system is as follows :
The alcoholic liquid is pumped into a reservoir, from which it
passes through group I of generators and collects in a vessel.
From the latter it is pumped into a second reservoir placed on
the same level with the first, and runs through group II of gene-
rators into another collecting vessel ; from there it is again pumped
into a third reservoir, and after passing through group III of
generators finally collects as finished vinegar in a third collecting
vessel.

Though the arrangement of all the generators on the same
level renders it necessary to raise the alcoholic liquid three times,
it would seem more suitable than the terrace system for the fol-
lowing reasons : 1. By a suitable regulation of the heating ap-
paratus the required temperature can be readily maintained in the
separate groups of generators. 2. In case of a disturbance in
one of the groups, the respective generator can be left out with-
out causing an interruption in the work of the other groups. 3.
The power required to pump the alcoholic liquid three times into
the reservoirs V v V 2, and F"3 is not much greater than that
which has to be used to raise it to the height of the reservoir in
factories arranged according to the terrace system. 4. Notwith-
standing the greater area required, the erection of a one-story
factory is less expensive than that of a three-story building with
complicated heating apparatus and very strong, solid floors,
which are required on account of the great weight of the gene-
rators.

The uniform distribution of the alcoholic liquid into each
generator is very simple in factories arranged according to the
terrace system, and can be effected in the following manner : —

The false bottoms are fitted water-tight in the generators ; they
are provided either with narrow holes alone, or with apertures
loosely filled with cotton-wick, pack-thread, etc. The pipes
ascending from the vinegar forming space, which is filled with
shavings, are inserted water-tight in the false bottoms. On the
reservoir containing the alcoholic liquid is a spigot which can be
accurately adjusted, and is securely connected with the conduit

86 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

leading to the separate generators. At the place on the conduit
where the alcoholic liquid is to be introduced into the generator
is a discharge-pipe also provided with a spigot.

When the factory is to be put in operation the reservoir is first
filled with alcoholic liquid, the spigots on the several generators
being entirely open, but the principal spigot closed. Now, by
suddenly opening the latter, the air in the conduit is expelled
by the alcoholic liquid flowing in, and the latter rushes in a full
stream from the spigots connecting the conduit with the genera-
tors. These spigots are then closed so far that only the quantity
of alcoholic liquid required for the regular process of the forma-
tion of vinegar can enter the generators. To prevent the force
of pressure from varying too much in the conduit by the lower-
ing of the level of the fluid in the reservoir, it is recommended
to give the latter only a slight height but a large bottom surface.

From the lower portion of the uppermost series of generators
the alcoholic fluid then gradually reaches through a pipe the false
bottoms of the next series, and from this the lowest series from
which it runs oif as finished vinegar into the collecting vessel.

It will readily be seen that some time for experimenting is
required before a factory arranged according to this system can
be brought into regular working order, it being necessary to test
the fluids running off from the different groups of generators as
to their contents of acetic acid in order to find out whether too
much or too little or just enough alcoholic liquid reaches the
generator so that the liquid running off from the lowest series
contains no alcohol and may be considered as finished vinegar.
Any fault in the working of the generators can in this case be
overcome by a corresponding adjustment of the spigots so as to
regulate the influx of alcoholic liquid.

Theoretically no more simple or convenient process for the
fabrication of vinegar than the terrace system could be devised.
Provided the spigots supplying the separate generators be once
correctly adjusted and the temperature of the different stories
suitably regulated, it is only necessary constantly to supply the
reservoir with alcoholic liquid and the heating apparatus with
fuel in order to carry on the work for any length of time desired.

AUTOMATIC VINEGAR APPARATUS. 87

The disadvantages connected with this system having already been
explained need not be further referred to.

Periodically working Apparatus. The Three-group System.

In the second system of automatic generators it has been
sought to imitate the ordinary working of a vinegar factory by
providing the apparatus with certain mechanical appliances which
allow of the distribution at certain stated intervals of any desired
quantity of alcoholic liquid into the generators. The term
"periodical" may be applied to this system of automatic appa-
ratus.

The mechanical appliances used for the purpose of admitting
at certain intervals a fixed quantity of alcoholic fluid into the
generator may be constructed in various ways, the tilting trough,
shown in Figs. 12 and 13, p. 62, being an example. By a modi-
fication, of the apparatus, as shown in Fig. 26, any desired quan-
tity of fluid can with its assistance be at certain intervals admitted
to the generator. The fluid may be either poured out upon the
false bottom, or, what is more suitable for its better distribution,
used for feeding a sparger.

As seen from the illustration a prismatic box, whose bottom is
formed of two slightly inclined surfaces, stands at a suitable
height over each generator. In the box a tilting trough is placed
so that its axis of revolution runs parallel with the line formed
by the two bottom surfaces of the box. On the point of contact
of the two surfaces a pipe is inserted which extends to the false
bottom or the funnel of the sparger. Above the box is a spigot
connected by a conduit with a reservoir for the alcoholic fluid
placed at a higher level. This reservoir serves for supplying a
large number of generators, and can be shut off by a carefully
adjusted spigot. From the latter a vertical pipe leads to the
conduit running in a horizontal direction over the generators.
The conduit is provided with small spigots which discharge the
fluid into the tilting troughs.

By giving each tilting trough such a size that, for instance,
each partition holds 5 quarts, and adjusting the spigot so that 30
minutes are required for filling one partition, the trough will, at

88

VIXEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

the expiration of this time, tilt over and empty the fluid upon
the inclined surfaces; from here it runs into the sparger and

Fig. 26.

Modification of the Tilting-Trougli.

setting the latter in motion is poured in the form of a fine spray
over the shavings. Since the other partition of the tilting trough
has the same capacity as the first and the quantity of alcoholic
fluid remains the same, the trough will, after the expiration of 30
minutes, again tilt over, and again empty 5 quarts of fluid, this
being continued as long as the reservoir contains any fluid.

In place of the tilting trough the so-called " siphon-barrel"
(Fig. 27) may be used for effecting the discharge of a certain
quantity of fluid at a stated interval. In a spherical vessel placed
at a higher level than the edge of the funnel of the sparger is a

AUTOMATIC VINEGAR APPARATUS.

89

siphon, the longer leg of which passes through the bottom of the
vessel and enters the funnel. On the edge of the vessel is a
spigot which is connected with the fluid-conduit and so adjusted
that within a previously determined space of time the vessel is
filled with fluid up to the height indicated by the dotted line. As
soon as the fluid reaches that height, the action of the siphon

Siphon-barrel.

commences and the content of the vessel runs through the longer
leg into the funnel of the sparger until its level is sunk to the
edge of the shorter leg. The action of the siphon then ceases
until the vessel is again filled up to the line when it recommences
and so on.

The siphon of bent glass tubes being very liable to breakage,
it is frequently replaced by the so-called bell-siphon the arrange-
ment of which is shown in Fig. 28. It consists of a glass tube
which forms the longer leg, of the siphon while a glass cylinder
secured to this tube by means of a perforated cork represents the
other leg. The action of this siphon is the same as the other.

In working with automatic apparatus fixed quantities of fluid
being at stated intervals introduced, provision for the reception of

90

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

the fluid must be made in the apparatus itself, or for its being
conducted to a special reservoir at the rate at which it trickles
from the shavings. In the first case the. space beneath the lath-
bottom must be of sufficient size to receive the fluid passed through

the apparatus in a certain time. This
Fi£. 28. time being suitably fixed for 12 hours

the apparatus can during this time
work without further assistance, so
that the required space beneath the
lath-bottom can be calculated by mul-
tiplying the number of affusions with
the quantity of fluid poured in at one
time.

Example : — The generator receives
at intervals of 30 minutes an affusion
of 5 quarts, hence in 12 hours 24 affu-
sions of 5 quarts each = 120 quarts.
The space beneath the lath-bottom
must, therefore, be of sufficient capa-
city to receive up to the height of the
Bell-siphon. draught-holes at least 120 quarts of

fluid.

As will be seen from the following general description of a
vinegar factory arranged according to the automatic principle, it
is decidedly preferable to arrange the generators so that the fluid
trickling from the shavings is at once conducted to a collecting
vessel.

Arrangement of a Vinegar Factory working according to the
Automatic Principle.

As previously stated, it is not possible to convert all the alcohol
contained in the liquid into acetic acid by one affusion ; only a
portion of the alcohol is converted and this semi-product is brought
into a second generator, and, if the liquid used is very rich in al-
cohol, into a third. In the second apparatus another portion of
the alcohol is converted into acetic acid and the process finished
in the third.

AUTOMATIC VINEGAR APPARATUS. 91

It being in all cases advisable to prepare vinegar with a high
percentage of acetic acid most manufacturers now pass the alco-
holic liquid successively through three generators. In practice
it is recommended to place the generators which are to receive
alcoholic liquid of the same content of acetic acid alongside each
other, which leads naturally to the division of the generators into
three groups. If, for instance, a factory contains 48 generators,
each group contains 16 ; group I is charged with freshly prepared
alcoholic liquid ; the generators of group II contain the alcoholic
liquid which has already passed through those of group I, and
group III is charged with the fluid yielded by group II.

Besides the easy control of the work, this arrangement into
groups has another advantage. The generators in which the last
remnants of the alcohol of a quite strong fluid are to be converted
into acetic acid are best kept at a somewhat higher temperature,
and with a suitably arranged heating apparatus and the eventual
use of curtains by which the workroom can be divided at will
into two or three partitions, it can be readily arranged to convey
somewhat more heat to the second group of generators and the
greatest quantity to the third.

The height of the actual workroom of the factory should not
be greater than required by that of the generators. The reservoir
is placed under the roof of the workroom, while the collecting
vessels are either sunk in the floor or placed in the cellar.

Below is given a description of a periodically working estab-
lishment with 24 generators. The generators are arranged in
three groups, I, II, and III, the following articles belonging to
each group : —

8 generators ;

1 reservoir;

1 collecting vessel ;

8 apparatuses for the distribution of the alcoholic liquid into
the generators ;

Conduits for the alcoholic liquid to be poured in ;

Conduits for the alcoholic liquid running off.

For the three groups in common : —

A pump to convey the alcoholic liquid from the collecting
vessels to the reservoirs.

92 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

A channel for the conveyance of the warm air from the heat-
ing apparatus in the cellar to and distribution in the workroom.

An apparatus for heating the alcoholic liquid.

The three reservoirs rest upon the joists of the ceiling of the
workroom, a small chamber inclosing them being constructed of
papered boards. In the floor of these chambers is a manhole by
which the reservoirs can be reached. This manhole should not
be provided with a door, it being of importance that the reser-
voirs should be constantly surrounded by warm air which as-
cends through the manhole. To prevent loss by evaporation the
reservoirs should be provided with well-fitting covers.

To retain solid bodies such as shavings, flakes of mother of
vinegar, etc., which might eventually obstruct the fine apertures
in the false bottom or sparger, a filter is placed on the end of the
pipe through which the alcoholic liquid passes into the reservoirs.
A suitable filter for the purpose is a horse-hair sieve containing a
linen bag, the latter being from time to time replaced by a new
one.

The conduits for the conveyance of the alcoholic liquid to the
distributing vessels and from there to the generators are best con-
structed of thick glass tubes, the connection of two pieces being
effected by pieces of rubber hose pushed over the ends and se-
cured with twine.

Each generator may be furnished with a vessel containing the
automatic arrangement, it being, however, in this case necessary
to provide for each a special conduit from the reservoir, which for
a factory containing a large number, of generators is rather ex-
pensive. Hence it is recommended to use for each group only
one or at the utmost two distributing vessels, and from them to
extend smaller conduits to the separate generators. Each of the
principal conduits is provided, at the place where it enters the dis-
tributing vessel, with a cock, which is adjusted for the discharge
of a certain quantity of alcoholic liquid. If, as above mentioned,
every generator is to receive an affusion of 5 quarts of alcoholic
liquid every 30 minutes, the distributing vessel serving for a
group of 8 generators must have a capacity of 40 quarts, and
the spigot has to be so adjusted that exactly this quantity passes
through it in 30 minutes.

AUTOMATIC VINEGAR APPARATUS. 93

The discharge-pipe of the automatic arrangement must enter a
space, in which are inserted eight pipes having the same diameter,
which conduct the alcoholic liquid to the separate generators. By
this arrangement all the generators receive simultaneously an
affusion of an equal quantity of fluid, which either sets the
sparger in motion or gradually trickles through the apertures in
the false bottom. The alcoholic liquid which has passed through
the generators collects either in the space under the lath-bottom
or runs directly through conduits to the collecting vessels.

The conduits placed before the discharge apertures of the
generators are intended to conduct the alcoholic liquid to the
reservoirs, and there being no pressure of fluid in them they
might be merely of open gutters. For the sake of cleanliness and
to avoid losses by evaporation it is, however, advisable to use
glass tubes for the purpose. At the places where the discharge-
pipes of the generators are located, the connection of two glass
tubes is effected by a wooden joint with an aperture on top in
which is placed a glass funnel. For collecting vessels for the
alcoholic fluid running off from the generators of one group, vats
provided with lids are used. They have to be placed so low that
some fall can be given to the conduits, and in each of them is
a pipe provided with a spigot, which serves as a suction-pipe for the
pump intended to raise the alcoholic fluid.

The manner of working in a factory thus arranged is as
follows :* The collecting vessel Sx serves for the preparation of the
alcoholic liquid, which is then pumped into the reservoir Vj,
from whence it runs through the first group of generators, EI? to
the collecting vessel Sn. From this it is pumped into Vn, and
runs through the second group of generators, En, into the collect-
ing vessel Sm. On being pumped up the third time it runs from
the reservoir Vm through the third group of generators, Em, and
passes as finished vinegar either into a fourth collecting vessel or
is at once conducted into storing barrels.

The distance the alcoholic liquid has to be raised from the
bottom of the collecting vessels to the reservoir amounting to not

* To avoid repetition the collecting vessels are designated: Si, n, and m ;
the reservoirs Vi, u, and m ; the groups of generators EI, u, in.

94 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

more than from 23 to 25 feet, an ordinary suction-pump may be
used for the purpose, though a forcing-pump is better, it doing
the work more rapidly. The pump must be constructed of
material entirely indifferent to acetic acid (wood, glass, hard
rubber, tin, or a strongly silvered metal).

Any metallic vessels used in the factory should be of pure tin,
i. e., unalloyed with other metals, it being the only metal entirely
indifferent towards acetic acid, but unfortunately it is too soft to
be suitable for the construction of pumps.

The pump is generally located in the immediate neighborhood
of the collecting vessels, its suction-pipe being divided into three
branches and fastened into the latter. If one of the collecting
vessels is to be emptied, the respective spigot is opened and the
spigots of the other suction-pipes closed.

Ordinary well or river water being used in the preparation .of
the alcoholic liquid, the temperature of the latter does not gene-
rally exceed 54° F., and if it were thus introduced into the gene-
rators acetification would be very sluggish until the temperature
rose above 68° F. Independently of the loss of time, there would
be the further danger of injuring the development of the vinegar
ferment; hence it is necessary to heat the alcoholic liquid to the
temperature required. This is best effected by passing it through
a coil surrounded by hot water. Fig. 29 shows an apparatus es-
pecially adapted for heating the alcoholic liquid. In a copper or
iron boiler filled with water, which can be heated from below, is
a coil, 8, of pure tin ; it enters the boiler above at a and leaves it
at b, so that the place of influx is at the same level with that of
discharge. With this form of construction the coil of course re-
mains always filled with liquid, which with the use of pure tin is,
however, of no consequence ; besides, this can be remedied by
placing on the lowest coil a narrow pipe, R, which projects above
the edge of the boiler and is bent like a siphon. By opening the
spigot h the fluid contained in the coil runs off through R.

The rising pipe of the forcing-pump is provided with an ar-
rangement by which the alcoholic liquid can be brought either
directly from the collecting vessels into the reservoirs or first
forced through the heating apparatus. It consists of a prismatic
wooden body provided with three spigots. By closing spigots 2

AUTOMATIC VINEGAR APPARATUS.

95

and 3 and opening 1, the alcoholic liquid is immediately conveyed
from the collecting vessel to the reservoir. By closing spigot 1
and opening 2 and 3, which are connected by short pieces of
rubber hose with the ends of the coil S, the alcoholic liquid
forced upward from the collecting vessels by the pump must pass
through the heating coil, and after being heated it returns to the

Fig. 29.

Apparatus for heating the Alcoholic Liquid.

rising pipe which conveys it to the reservoirs. The arrows in the
illustration indicate the course the alcoholic liquid has to traverse
when spigots 2 and 3 are open and 1 closed.

The diameter and length of the tin coil depend on the quantity
of fluid which is to pass through it, though one with a clear
diameter of 12 to 14 inches and a length of 23 to 26 feet will,
as a rule, suffice ; besides by slower or quicker pumping the fluid
can be forced with less or greater velocity through the coil and
correspondingly more or less heated. The walls of the coil
should be as thin as possible so as to yield heat rapidly.

96 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

The heating of the alcoholic liquid, of course, can also be
effected by heating one portion more strongly than necessary and
reducing it to the required temperature by mixing with cold fluid.
In working, however, with a fluid containing living vinegar fer-
ment — and such, as will be explained later on, is claimed to be
already contained in freshly prepared alcoholic fluid — care must
be had not to heat the fluid above 120° F., this temperature being
destructive to the ferment.

CHAPTER X.

OPERATIONS IN A VINEGAR FACTORY.

Acidulation of the Generators.

THE object of acidulation is to completely saturate the filling
of the generators with vinegar and to cause the development of
the vinegar ferment upon the filling material, shavings, char-
coal, etc. The generators are first filled with shavings, wooden
blocks, pieces of charcoal, etc. ; the false bottoms or spargers are
next placed in position and the temperature of the workroom
brought close up to 86° F. Acidulation, i. e., saturating the
shavings with alcoholic liquid, is then commenced, vinegar of the
same strength, i. e., with the same content of acetic acid, as that
which is to be manufactured in the generators being used for the
purpose. Every cubic meter (35.31 cubic feet) of the space filled
with shavings or charcoal requires for complete acidulation the
following quantities of vinegar : —

Shavings loosely poured in 230 to 270 liters ( 60.75 to 71.31 gallons).
Shavings piled up alongside

each other 340 to 400 " ( 89.8 to 105.65 "

Charcoal the size of a walnut 540 to 800 " (142.6 to 211.3 "

The value of this vinegar used for acidulation has to be con-
sidered as dead capital.

The first vinegar miming off from the generators is not only
considerably weaker than that used for acidulation, but, notwith-
standing the previous lixiviation of the wood, has a disagreeable

OPERATIONS IN A VINEGAR FACTORY. 97

taste so as to render it unfit for the preparation of table vinegar,
and can only be utilized, for instance, in the preparation of ace-
tate of lead, etc. When the vinegar running off has acquired a
pure taste, it is collected by itself and later converted into a
stronger product by mixing it with alcohol and passing again
through the generators. By this saturation of the shavings with
vinegar, the vinegar ferment locates in abundance upon the sur-
face of the shavings and the generators are fit for the formation
of vinegar.

The regular fabrication can, however, be commenced only
gradually, as may be illustrated by the following example : At
first, for instance, alcoholic liquid is introduced only once a day,
either early in the morning or in the evening. In about eight
days, or under certain conditions even later, the temperature in
the interior has risen to from 86° to 95° F., and alcoholic liquid
may now be introduced twice daily, for instance, early in the
morning and in the afternoon. That the generator works, is re-
cognized by the increased temperature and by the flame of a
candle held near a draught-hole being drawn inwards. After 8
to 14 days more the thermometer shows 96° to 98° F., and then
alcoholic liquid is introduced three times daily, for instance, early
in the morning, in the forenoon, and in the afternoon, whereby
the temperature rises to 102° to 104° F. If now the vinegar
running off shows the intended strength, the generators are in
good working order and subjected to the regular treatment.

Accelerated Acidulation.

By closely considering the processes which must take place in
acidification and the first stage of the operation, it will be plainly
seen that the above-described method cannot be called a rational
one, there being a waste of time as well as of material and the
commencement of regular working being largely dependent on
accident.

The object of acidulation is, as previously stated, first to thor-
oughly saturate the shavings with vinegar and next to develop the
vinegar ferment upon them. This can, however, be attained in a
more suitable and a quicker manner than by the above process.

(TJ1TIVBRSITY

98 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

Air-dried wood contains on an average 20 per cent, of water
and during acidulation this water must be gradually replaced by
vinegar ; hence the vinegar trickling from the generators will
remain poor in acetic acid and rich in water until the shavings
are entirely saturated with pure vinegar and the water is expelled.

The removal of the water from the shavings and its substitu-
tion by vinegar are effected by osmose, i. e., the cells of the wood
surrounded by vinegar yield a fluid consisting of water and ex-
tractive substances of the wood and absorb sufficient of the
exterior fluid until both liquids have the same composition. Now,
by pouring only a small quantity of vinegar at one time over the
shavings in the generators, as is done in the acidulation according
to the old method, the course of the process is very slow, 14 days
or more, as already mentioned, being required before the vinegar
running off shows no longer a change in its concentration.

In a generator in a stage of acidulation an uninterrupted
though slight current of air upwards takes place, since even
with the use of the best heating apparatus the air in the upper
layers is warmer than in the lower. This current of air- becomes
stronger with the development of larger quantities of vinegar
ferment and causes a large absolute loss of vinegar; the greater
portion of this loss must be set down as being due to evaporation,
which must be considerable on account of the great surface over
which the vinegar is distributed, and the smaller portion to con-
sumption by the vinegar ferment.

By placing the shavings in vinegar the above-described process
of substitution of vinegar for the fluid contained in the cells of
the wood takes place very quickly, and, theoretically, it would
therefore seem to be advisable to follow the same course on a large
scale, i. e., to saturate the shavings with vinegar before placing
them in the generators. By using artificially dried shavings
(see p. 67) the saturation is effected in the course of a few hours,
the dry woody tissue absorbing the fluid like a sponge.

The shavings, while still hot, are brought into a vat and covered
with the vinegar to be used for acidulation. In about 12 hours
they are thoroughly saturated ; the excess of vinegar is drawn off
through the tap-hole in the bottom of the vat, and having ab-
sorbed neither water nor extractive substances from the steamed

OPERATIONS IN A VINEGAR FACTORY. 99

and thoroughly dried shavings can be immediately re-used for the
saturation of another portion of shavings. The saturated shav-
ings are at once used for filling a generator, and the latter, which
may now be considered as completely acidulated, can at once be
used for the process of the formation of vinegar according to the
method described below.

Instead of in. a vat the shavings can also be saturated directly
in the generator. For this purpose the shavings, after having
been artificially dried, are immediately brought into the generator,
and vinegar is poured over them either by means of the false
bottom or the sparger until a considerable quantity has accumu-
lated in the space below the lath-bottom. This accumulation is
then drawn off and again poured over the shavings, this being
continued until they are thoroughly saturated, which is effected in
a comparatively short time.

Induction of the Operation with artificially raised Vinegar
Ferment.

In the accelerated acidulation of the generators no develop-
ment of vinegar ferment can of course take place, since by heating
the shavings to about 212° F. any fermenting organisms accident-
ally adhering to them are destroyed. The vinegar ferment
increases with astonishing rapidity provided it finds nourishment
suitable for its development. Vinegar is, however, a very poor
material for this purpose, and this is very likely the reason why
weeks are required before fabrication can be commenced in gen-
erators acidulated according to the old method. The ferment can,
however, be so rapidly augmented in the generators that fabri-
cation can be commenced almost immediately after acidulation
is complete.

For this purpose a method similar to that employed in the
manufacture of alcohol and yeast has to be pursued and vigorous
ferment obtained by cultivation. As previously mentioned the fer-
ment causing acetous fermentation is widely distributed through-
out nature and is most abundantly found in the air of thickly
populated regions.

The " pure cultivation" of the vinegar ferment, i. e., in which

100 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

no other than the desired ferment is developed, is not difficult, it
being only necessary to prepare a fluid especially adapted for its
nourishment and allow it to stand at a suitable temperature in order
to obtain in a few days a vigorous growth produced by a few
individual germs reaching the fluid from the air. The best fluid
for the purpose is one which contains, besides a large quantity of
water, about 85 to 90 per cent., a certain amount of alcohol and
acetic acid and very small quantities of nitrogenous substances
and mineral salts. Hence its preparation is not difficult, it being
only necessary to mix ordinary vinegar and alcohol in suitable
proportions and add a small quantity of a fluid containing nitro-
genous substances and mineral salts, such as wine, cider, beer or
malt extract. Numerous experiments have shown that a fluid
containing from 4 to 6 per cent, of acetic acid and the same
quantity of alcohol with the addition of a small quantity of one
of the above-mentioned fluids is best adapted for the vigorous
nourishment of the vinegar ferment. Ordinary table vinegar
contains as a rule from 4 to 6 per cent, of acetic acid ; the ave-
rage percentage of alcohol is in wine from 8 to 10 ; in cider from
4 to 6 ; and in beer from 3 to 5. Taking this statement as a
guide, the preparation of a fluid containing from 4 to 6 per cent,
of acetic acid, 4 to 6 per cent, of alcohol, and the required nitro-
genous combinations and salts will not be difficult.

Fluids of this composition are obtained by mixing, for in-
stance, equal parts of cider and vinegar, or one part of wine
with two of vinegar, or one part of beer with three of vinegar,
and adding 5 per cent, of 90 per cent, alcohol to the mixture.
Such mixtures possessing the power of vigorously nourishing the
vinegar ferment can at the same time be considered as types for
the preparation of alcoholic liquid of suitable composition.

To assure the exclusive development of vinegar ferment upon
any of the above-mentioned mixtures it is best to heat it to the
boiling point of water. Young wine as well as cider contains
considerable quantities of albuminous substances in solution, and
fluids of this nature being well adapted for the nourishment of
the mold ferment, the development of the latter 'might increase
to such an extent as entirely to suppress the vinegar ferment and
thus render its cultivation a failure. Beer is also very suitable

OPERATIONS IN A VINEGAR FACTORY. 101

for the nourishment of the mold ferment, though in a less degree
than young wine, and besides living yeast contains alcoholic
ferment.

By heating wine or beer only for a moment to about 158° F.,
a large portion of the albuminous substances in solution becomes
insoluble, and on cooling separates as a flaky precipitate, all fer-
ments present in the fluid being at the same time destroyed.
Hence for the preparation of a fluid especially adapted for the
cultivation of pure vinegar ferment, it is recommended quickly to
heat to the boiling point 1 quart of ordinary white wine in a
covered porcelain vessel, and, after cooling to the ordinary tem-
perature, to mix it with 2 quarts of vinegar. To remove the
separated insoluble albuminous substances it is filtered through
blotting paper.

To prepare a nourishing fluid from beer, heat 1 quart to the
boiling point, mix it after cooling with 3 quarts of vinegar, add
^ quart of 90 per cent, alcohol, and filter.

Distribute this fluid in a number of shallow porcelain vessels
and place the latter near a window in the heated workroom. To
prevent dust from falling into the fluid cover each dish with a
glass plate resting upon two small wooden sticks placed across
the dish. In two or three days, and sometimes in 24 hours, the
commencement of the development of the vinegar ferment will
be recognized by the stronger odor of vinegar than that possessed
by the original fluid and by the appearance of the surface of
the liquid. By observing the latter at a very acute angle, dull
patches resembling grease stains and consisting of a large number
of individuals of the vinegar ferment will be seen. In a few
hours these patches have increased considerably, until finally the
entire surface appears covered by a very delicate veil-like layer
of vinegar ferment.

By touching the surface with the point of a glass rod a certain
amount of the coating adheres to it, and by rinsing it off in a fluid
of similar composition not yet inoculated the ferment quickly de-
velops upon it. By placing a drop of the fluid under the micro-
scope a picture similar to that shown in Fig. 2, p. 29, presents
itself: the entire field of vision is covered with germs of vinegar
ferment.

102

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

By the development of mold ferment the cultivation of pure
vinegar ferment may sometimes result in failure even with the
use of the above-mentioned fluids. The development of this
ferment is recognized by the appearance of white dots upon the
fluid, which quickly increase to white opaque flakes, and if left
to themselves finally combine to a white skin of a peculiar
wrinkled appearance. Fig. 30 shows a microscopical picture

Abortive Cultivation of Vinegar Ferment. X 500.

of such abortive cultivation of vinegar ferment. By observing
at the commencement of this phenomenon the fluid with the
microscope, very small individuals of vinegar ferment, 6, will be
observed alongside of the much larger oval cells a, of the mold
ferment. Such fluid being not adapted for our purposes has to
be removed and the dish rinsed off with boiling water.

When the fluid in the dishes is entirely covered with pure
vinegar ferment, it is poured into a vessel containing the greater
portion of the alcoholic fluid intended for the first charge of the
generators, and in the course of 10 hours the entire surface of
this fluid is covered with vinegar ferment. This fluid being
poured into the sufficiently acidulated generators and trickling

OPERATIONS IN A VINEGAR FACTORY. 103

gradually through them, the greater portion of the ferment ad-
heres to the shavings, and increases with such rapidity that the
strong rise of temperature in the interior of the generators
shortly indicates the regular beginning of their activity, and the
effusion of alcoholic liquid can be commenced at once.

Vinegar ferment developed upon one of the above-mentioned
fluids is evidently so constituted that it can be thoroughly nour-
ished by it, and hence the generators might be continued to be
charged with alcoholic liquid of a corresponding composition. It
being, however, as a rule, desired to manfacture as strong a pro-
duct as possible, an alcoholic liquid much richer in alcohol than
the above-mentioned nourishing fluids has to be used.

By, however, suddenly changing the nourishing fluid of the
vinegar ferment, for instance, from a fluid containing only 4 to
6 per cent, of alcohol to one with 12 to 13 per cent., the action
of the ferment would very likely be sluggish before it became
accustomed to the new conditions. Further, its activity might
suffer serious disturbance and its augmentation decrease very
sensibly, so that notwithstanding strong heating of the workroom
and thorough ventilation of the generators, the temperature in
the latter would suddenly fall, and would only be restored to the
required degree after the ferment had become accustomed to the
new conditions and recommenced its vigorous augmentation.

To overcome such annoying disturbances it is only necessary to
gradually change the composition of the nourishing fluid to that
which the alcoholic liquid to be worked in the generators is to
have. Commencing, for instance, with an alcoholic liquid con-
taining 5 per cent, of alcohol, the next day one with 6 per cent,
is used, the succeeding day one with 7 per cent., and so on until
the maximum percentage of alcohol the liquid is to have is
reached.

104 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

CHAPTER XL

PREPARATION OF THE ALCOHOLIC LIQUID.

UNDER the term " alcoholic liquid" is to be understood every
fluid to be converted into vinegar which, besides water and small
quantities of nourishing salts and albuminous substances, does
not contain over 14 per cent, of alcohol. In the directions
generally given for the preparation of such liquids vinegar is
mentioned as an indispensable constituent. While it cannot be
denied that a content of vinegar in the alcoholic liquid exerts a
favorable effect upon the formation of vinegar, it must be ex-
plicitly stated that it is not the acetic acid in the vinegar, which
in this case becomes active, but the ferment contained in it.

In a vinegar factory vinegar just finished and entirely turbid
is always used for the preparation of alcoholic liquid, and a
microscopical examination shows such vinegar to contain in-
numerable germs of vinegar ferment. This ferment on coming
in contact with much air in the generators will evidently increase
rapidly and contribute to the quick acetification of the alcohol.
That it is actually the ferment in the vinegar used which exerts
a favorable effect can be shown by a simple experiment. By
adding vinegar previously heated to from 140° to 158° F. to the
alcoholic liquid the formation of vinegar in the generators pro-
ceeds more slowly, the ferment contained in the vinegar having
been killed.

The best proof, however, that the alcoholic liquid does not re-
quire any considerable quantity of acetic acid for its conversion
into vinegar is furnished by the behavior of wine. Correctly
prepared wine of a normal composition contains only a few ten
thousands of its weight of acetic acid, and this must very likely
be considered as a product of vinous fermentation. If such wine
be stored for years in a cool cellar, its content of acetic acid does
not change. By, however, exposing such wine in a shallow

PREPARATION OF THE ALCOHOLIC LIQUID. 105

vessel to the air at from 66° to 78° F., microscopical examina-
tion will show the development of vinegar ferment upon it and a
chemical analysis a constant increase, soon amounting to several
per cent, of acetic acid. A fluid composed of 5 to 6 per cent, of
alcohol, 94 to 95 per cent, of water, and a very small quantity of
malt extract acts in a similar manner. In many cases the vinegar
ferment is developed without the fluid containing acetic acid.

The alcoholic fluid to be used may from the start contain a
sufficiently large percentage of alcohol to correspond to the de-
sired strength of the vinegar to be made ; in this case the fluid
has to be poured several times into the generators, it being impos-
sible to convert a large quantity of alcohol into acetic acid by
passing it through but once. By another method an alcoholic
liquid is first prepared containing but little alcohol, which is
almost completely converted into acetic acid by one passage
through the generators. The fluid running off from the gene-
rators is then further mixed with a certain quantity of alcohol
and being poured into a generator, in which the vinegar ferment
is already accustomed to larger quantities of alcohol and vinegar,
is also converted into acetic acid. More alcohol can then be
added, and so on. The last method is evidently the best as re-
gards the conditions of life of the vinegar ferment, and actually
the only one by which the strongest vinegar (with from 12 to 13
per cent, of acetic acid) can be obtained in generators.

That it is advisable only gradually to increase the content of
alcohol in the alcoholic liquid is shown by the behavior of the
ferment towards alcohol and acetic acid. Both bodies, if present
in large quantities, are decidedly inimical to the augmentation of
the ferment, a fluid containing from 14 to 15 per cent, of alcohol,
or as much acetic acid, being capable of checking the augmenta-
tion of the ferment to such an extent as to disturb the process of
fabrication.

Another argument against the use of the total quantity of
alcohol in the preparation of the alcoholic liquid to be employed
for the first effusion, is the fact that evidently more alcohol will
be lost by evaporation than by commencing with a fluid contain-
ing less alcohol, arid adding a corresponding quantity of the
latter after the fluid has once passed through the generators.

106 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

The quantity of alcohol for the first effusion should be so chosen
that the fluid running off still contains a small quantity of un-
changed alcohol, this being an assurance that only alcohol and
not unfinished acetic acid has undergone an alteration. As long
as alcohol is present in the alcoholic liquid the vinegar ferment is
almost entirely indifferent towards acetic acid, but after the oxi-
dation of all the alcohol it attacks the acetic acid and decomposes
it to carbonic acid and water. This can be shown by a very
simple experiment. If finished vinegar, instead of alcoholic
liquid, be poured into a generator in full operation, the vinegar
running off shows a smaller percentage of acetic acid than that
poured in, the acetic acid wanting having been destroyed by the
ferment.

To what an extent even smaller quantities than 14 to 15 per
cent, of alcohol or acetic acid exert a restraining influence upon
the augmentation and activity of the vinegar ferment can be seen
in generators charged with alcoholic liquid of different strengths :
those containing less concentrated liquid can in the same time
form a much larger quantity of acetic acid than those ill which a
liquid is used which already contains certain quantities of acetic
acid. Hence the greater the quantity of acetic acid already con-
tained in the alcoholic liquid the slower the conversion of the
alcohol still present into acetic acid.

It may, therefore, be laid down as a rule that the manufacturer
should not strive to prepare vinegar with more than about 12
per cent, of acetic acid. Though in exceptional cases a product
with 13 per cent, can be obtained, it will also be observed that
the respective generators gradually yield a weaker product or that
their activity suddenly ceases to such an extent as to require them
to be placed out of operation..

The preparation of high-graded vinegar being undoubtedly
subject to greater difficulties than that of a weaker product,
the question might be raised whether the manufacture of weak
vinegar only would not be the most suitable. This must be
largely decided by local conditions. For a manufacturer whose
custom lies in the immediate neighborhood, for instance, in a
large city, the production of weak vinegar only would be advis-
able, but if he has to send his product a considerable distance,

PREPARATION OF THE ALCOHOLIC LIQUID. 107

the fact that the more freight has to be paid on what is of no
value, the weaker the vinegar is, and that the expense of trans-
porting a strong article is relatively less, deserves consideration.
The consumer can readily prepare vinegar of any desired strength
by diluting the strong product with water.

The quantity of beer required for the purpose of offering suit-
able nourishment to the vinegar ferment is very small, an addition
of 1 per cent, to the alcoholic liquid being ample. Sour or stale
beer can of course be used. The reason for the employment of
larger quantities of beer in mixing the alcoholic fluids is found
in the fact that the vinegar prepared from such mixtures sooner
acquires a pure taste than that made from fluids containing but
little beer. The addition of beer should, however, not exceed 15
per cent, of the total quantity of alcoholic liquid, as on account
of the comparatively high percentage of albuminous substances
and the maltose, dextrin, and extractive matters of hops it con-
tains, a larger quantity would be injurious to the process of acetous
fermentation, the generators being frequently rendered inactive by
the so-called " sliming of the shavings." The production of the
latter is due to the fact that by being partially excluded from
contact with the air by the comparatively thick fluid passing over
it, the vinegar ferment deposited upon the shavings assumes the
form of mother of vinegar which adheres to the shavings as a
slimy mass.

The quantity of finished vinegar added to the alcoholic liquid
varies between 10 and 33 per cent. The use of large quantities
is, however, decidedly inexpedient since. the only effect produced
by the vinegar is, as previously stated, due to the ferment con-
tained in it. Of freshly prepared, turbid vinegar 10 per cent, is
ample for the preparation of alcoholic liquid ; a greater quantity
can only be considered as useless ballast.

Theoretically a certain quantity of alcohol yields exactly a
certain quantity of acetic acid ; the following table shows the
proportions between the two bodies : —

108

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

Consists of kilo-

Aad yields—

In the whole.

A fluid with

grammes of —

per cent,
by volume
of alcohol.

Alcohol.

Acetic
Water. anhydride.

Water.

Vinegar.

With per cent,
of acetic
anhydride.

1

0.8

99.2

1.0

99.5

100.5

1.0

2

1.6

98.4

2.1

99.0

101.1

2.1

3

2.4

97.6

3.1

98.5

101.6

3 1

4

3.2

96.8

4.2

98.0

102.2

4.1

5

4.0

96.0

5.2

97-6

102.8

5.1

6

4.8

95.2

6.3

97.1

103.3

6.0

7

5.6

94.4

7.3

96.6 -

103.9

7.0

8

6.4

93.6

8.3

96.1

104.4

8.0

9

7.2

92.8

9.4

95.6

105.0

8.9

10

8.0

91.9

10.4

95.0

105.4

9.9

11

8.9

91.1

11.6

94.6

106.2

10.9

12

9.7

90.3

12.6

94.1

106.7

11.8

Practically less vinegar with a smaller percentage of acetic an-
hydride is, however, always obtained, this being due to losses- of
material caused partially by evaporation and partially by the
oxidation of the alcohol extending beyond the formation of acetic
acid. In preparing the alcoholic liquid these unavoidable losses
must be taken into consideration and more alcohol be used for the
production of vinegar with a determined percentage of acetic acid
than is theoretically required. How much more has to be taken
depends on the kind of apparatus used and on the strength the
vinegar to be prepared is to show. The higher the percentage of
acetic acid which is to be obtained, the greater the losses will be
and consequently the greater the content of alcohol in the alco-
holic liquid must be. Theoretically one per cent, of alcohol yields
one per cent, of acetic acid ; practically the proportions are, how-
ever, as follows : —

For the production of
vinegar with a content
of acetic acid of —

5 per cent.

6 "

9

10
11
12

Is required an alco-
holic liquid with a
content of alcohol of —

. 5.4 to 5.5 per cent.

. 6.5 " 6.6 "

7.7 "

8.8 "

9.9 "
11.0 "

7.6

8.7

9.8

10.9

11.9
13.0

12.1
13.2

PREPARATION OF THE ALCOHOLIC LIQUID. 109

The strength of commercial alcohol varying considerably it is
of importance to the manufacturer to be able to calculate in a
simple manner how many gallons of water have to be added to
alcohol of known strength in order to obtain an alcoholic liquid
with the desired percentage of alcohol. The calculation is exe-
cuted as follows : —

Suppose :

P = per cent, of alcohol in the spirits to be used.

E = per cent, of alcohol in the alcoholic liquid to be prepared,
the quotient obtained by dividing P by E gives the volume to
which the spirits have to be reduced by the addition of water in
order to obtain alcoholic liquid with the desired percentage of
alcohol.

Example : —

From spirits of 86 per cent. Tralles' alcoholic liquid with 11
per cent, of alcohol is to be prepared.

P
P= 86; E= 11 £ = 7.818.

Hence one volume of the spirits to be used has to be brought
to 7.818 volumes, or to 1 gallon of spirits 6.818 gallons of water
have to be added.

Examples of the composition of alcoholic liquid : —

A. Alcoholic liquid from alcohol, water, and vinegar :

For vinegar with about 7 per cent, of acetic acid. — Alcohol of
90 per cent. Tr. 10 parts by volume, water 107, vinegar with 7
per cent, of acetic acid 12.

For vinegar with about 12 per cent, of acetic acid. — Alcohol of
90 per cent. Tr. 10 parts by volume, water 65, vinegar with 12
per cent, of acetic acid 7.

It is advisable to add about 1 per cent, of the entire volume of
beer to the above alcoholic liquids.

B. Alcoholic liquid from alcohol, water, vinegar, and beer.
For vinegar with about 5 per cent, of acetic acid. — Alcohol of

90 per cent. Tr. 10 parts by volume, water 107, vinegar with
5 per cent, of acetic acid 13, beer 14.

C. For vinegar with about 8 per cent, of acetic acid. — Alcohol
of 90 per cent. Tr. 10 parts by volume, water 92, vinegar with
8 per cent, of acetic acid 10, beer 9.

110 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

In many factories it is customary not to determine the compo-
sition of the alcoholic liquid by calculation, but simply to work
according to certain receipts. Vinegar of a certain percentage is
obtained, but its strength cannot be predetermined with the same
nicety as by calculating the percentage of alcohol in the alcoholic
liquid by the above formula, The following may serve as ex-
amples of such receipts : —

D. Alcohol of 50 per cent. Tr. 100 quarts, water 600,
vinegar 900.

E. Alcohol of 90 per cent. Tr. 100 quarts, water 1200,
vinegar 300.

F. Alcohol of 90 per cent. Tr. 100 quarts, water 1350,
vinegar 175, beer 175.

G. Alcohol of 90 per cent. Tr. 100 quarts, water 1400,
vinegar 300, beer 100.

H. Alcohol of 80 per cent, Tr. 100 quarts, water 850,
beer 750.

I. Alcohol of 50 per cent, Tr. 100 quarts, water 100, beer
100.

The mixtures A, B, and C are only given as examples of how
alcoholic liquids which yield vinegar containing the desired per-
centage of acetic acid are prepared according to receipts. Though
it may be very convenient for the manufacturer to work according
to such receipts as are given under D to I, their use without a
previous examination cannot be recommended. It is far better
for the manufacturer to prepare the alcoholic liquid according to
a receipt of his own and not shrink from the slight labor it in-
volves ; he has then at least the assurance of obtaining vinegar
with exactly the percentage of acetic acid desired, and is in the
position to obtain an accurate view of the entire process of the
operation.

Spirits of wine being the initial point in the preparation of
alcoholic liquid, it is necessary to know exactly the per cent, by
weight of alcohol it contains. With the assistance of the tables
at the end of this volume, the content of alcohol in spirits of wine
can be readily determined by means of the alcoholometer and
thermometer.

With the temperature of the spirits of wine at exactly 59° F.,

PKEPAKATION OF THE ALCOHOLIC LIQUID. Ill

it suffices to determine its specific gravity by testing with an areo-
meter and to find the indicated figure in Table I. (Hehner's
alcohol table). The figure in the next horizontal column gives
the per cent, by weight and the next the per cent, by volume of
alcohol contained in the spirits of wine examined. Tables II.,
III., and IV. give data relating to the proportion between the
specific gravity, and per cent, by weight and volume of spirits of
wine of various concentration as well as the decrease in volume
by mixing with water. Table V. shows the relation between the
statements of Tralles's alcoholometer and a few others used in
different places.

The specific gravity as well as the volume of spirits of wine
varies with the temperature, and the statements of the areometer
for temperatures above the normal of 59° F. require a corre-
sponding correction, the execution of which is simplified by the
use of Tables VI. and VII. It being desirable, especially
during the cold season of the year, to raise the temperature of
the spirits of wine by mixing with water, Table VIII. shows
how much water has to be added in order to obtain from 100
liters (105.6 quarts) of spirits of wine of known strength
whiskey of any desired concentration.

In order to know exactly the yield of acetic acid which is ob-
tained from a given quantity of alcohol, the acetic acid con-
tained in the vinegar added must necessarily be taken into ac-
count as well as the alcohol in the beer, which is of course
converted into acetic acid. Ifc is best to make the content of
alcohol in the alcoholic liquid so that it produces vinegar whose
strength corresponds with that of the vinegar added. If, for in-
stance, vinegar with 7 per cent, of acetic acid is used, alcohol of
7.6 to 7.7 per cent, by weight would have to be employed accord-
ing to the table on p. 108. The following compilation shows the
manner of preparing alcoholic liquid according to rational prin-
ciples.

Suppose vinegar with 7 per cent, acetic acid is to be prepared.
There would be required —

Spirits of wine of 7.6 to 7.7 per cent, by weight 100 liters (105.6 quarts).
Vinegar with 7 per cent, of acetic acid . . 10 " ( 10.56 " )
Beer 30 " ( 10.56 " )

112 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

Suppose the beer contains, for instance, exactly 3 per cent, by
weight of alcohol, hence 300 grammes (10.58 ounces) in 10 liters
(10.56 quarts). According to this, a result of 120 liters (126.78
quarts) of vinegar with exactly 7 per cent, of acetic acid could
not be expected, since 10 liters (10.56 quarts) of the alcoholic
liquid do not contain, as should be the case, 760 to 770 grammes
(26.82 to 27.18 ounces) of alcohol, but only 300 grammes (10.58
ounces). Hence actually to obtain vinegar with 7 per cent, of
acetic acid a sufficient quantity of spirits of wine will have to be
added to the alcoholic liquid to increase the content of alcohol by
460 to 470 grammes (16.22 to 16.57 ounces), or spirit of wine
with more than 7.6 to 7.7 per cent, by weight will have to be
used from the start.

It will, of course, be understood, that the data given above
hold good only for the quality of the vinegar in reference to its
content of acetic acid, the factor of the qualitative yield being
left out of consideration. The material lost in the course of pro-
duction amounts, as previously stated, to at least 15 per cent.,
and in determining the quality of the vinegar to be produced
this circumstance has to be taken into consideration.

The content of acetic acid in vinegar can be determined with
great ease and accuracy (up to T^ per cent.) by volumetric
analysis, and from the result of such determination it can be
readily seen how near the correct proportion of alcohol in the
alcoholic liquid has been attained, and should the latter contain
too little of it, it can be readily brought up to the determined per-
centage by the addition of some strong spirit of wine, or, if too
much, by the addition of some water.

Constitution of the Fundamental Materials used in the Preparation
of Alcoholic Liquids.

Spirits of wine, water, vinegar, and in most cases beer, con-
stitute the fundamental materials for the preparation of alcoholic
liquids.

Any kind of wholesome drinking water is suitable for the
fabrication of vinegar ; water containing a large amount of or-
ganic substance or living organisms or which possesses a specific

PREPARATION OF THE ALCOHOLIC LIQUID. 113

taste from the admixture of salts should not be used under any
circumstances.

Many well-waters are very hard, i. e., they contain a compara-
tively large quantity of calcium carbonate in solution. If such
water be used in the preparation of alcoholic liquid, the calcium
carbonate is decomposed by the acetic acid and the vinegar con-
tains a corresponding quantity of calcium acetate in solution.
Other well-waters contain a large quantity of gypsum (calcium
sulphate) in solution ; which salt is not changed by acetic acid, but
remains partially dissolved in the finished vinegar.

When water very rich in gypsum is mixed with alcohol the
fluid at first entirely clear becomes in a short time opalescent and
finally perceptibly turbid. After long standing a very delicate
white sediment separates on the bottom of the vessel, the fluid
becoming again clear. This phenomenon is explained by the fact
that gypsum while soluble in water with comparative ease is next
to insoluble in a fluid containing alcohol, and hence gradually
separates in the form of minute crystals.

Water containing no gypsum but much calcium carbonate
shows after mixing with spirits of wine a similar behavior ; it at
first becomes turbid and again clear after separating a delicate
white precipitate. Calcium carbonate is soluble only in water
containing a corresponding quantity of carbonic acid ; on standing
in the air the carbonic acid escapes and the calcium carbonate
separates.

This behavior of wrater when mixed with alcohol and standing
in the air can be utilized for the almost complete separation of
the gypsum and calcium carbonate. Mixtures of water and alco-
hol, in the proportion the alcoholic liquids are to have, are first
prepared and the fluid stored in barrels in a warm apartment
near the workroom. The mixtures at first turbid become clear
after some time and are then drawn off from the sediment by
means of a rubber hose. A comparative examination of the
water and the mixtures shows that the latter contain only very
small quantities of gypsum and calcium carbonate in solution.

River water, though generally soft, i. e., poor in the above-men-
tioned salts, is seldom sufficiently clear to be used without previous
filtration. It is further very likely that the small worms, known
8

114 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

as vinegar eels, which frequently become very annoying in vine-
gar factories, reach the alcoholic liquid through the use of river
water, and, therefore, the use of well-water wherever possible is
recommended.

The constitution of the spirits of wine used in the preparation
of the alcoholic liquids is of great importance, the bouquet of
the vinegar to be prepared depending on it. Commercial spirits
of wine always contains certain foreign bodies known as " fusel
oils ;" they have a very intense odor and can only be removed by
careful rectification. For the vinegar manufacturer it is of great-
importance to know the behavior of spirits of wine containing
fusel oil when converted into acetic acid, and a number of experi-
ments with different varieties (from potatoes, grain, wine) have
shown the respective vinegar also possessed of a specific odor,
differing, however, from that of the original fusel oil and develop-
ing by storing into a bouquet of a peculiar but agreeable scent.
This phenomenon is explained by the fact that the energetic
oxidizing process which takes place in the generators extends not
only to the alcohol but also to the other bodies present, and the
greater portion of the fusel oils is thereby converted into odori-
ferous combinations or compound ethers.

By treating potato fusel oil (amyl alcohol) with sulphuric acid
and an acetate, amyl acetate is formed which in a diluted state
smells like jargonelle pears and is used by confectioners under the
name of " pear essence" for flavoring so-called fruit bonbons.
The same process would seem to take place by passing spirits of
wine containing potato fusel oil through the generators ; the vine-
gar prepared from such spirits of wine shows an agreeable scent
immediately when running off from the generators, while vinegar
prepared from entirely pure spirits of wine has at first a stupe-
fying smell and acquires a harmonious odor only by long storing.

It would, therefore, be advisable for the manufacturer who
works with potato alcohol not to use the highly rectified product,
but a mixture of it and of crude spirits containing fusel oil,
the vinegar prepared from such a mixture acquiring a more agree-
able odor than that obtained from the rectified product. How
much of the crude spirits has to be used can only be determined

WORK IN A VINEGAR FACTORY. 115

by experience, but, as a rule, only enough should be taken to assure
the conversion of the entire quantity of amyl alcohol present.

The fuse), oil contained in spirits of wine from grain consists
largely of a mixture of fatty acids and offers far greater resistance
to oxidation in the generators than amyl alcohol. The same may
be said of renanthic ether, the fusel oil of brandy. In working
with alcoholic liquid prepared with a large quantity of grain
spirits containing fusel oil, the smell of unchanged fusel oil is
perceptible in the vinegar besides the odors of the products of
its decomposition. With the use of small quantities of grain spirits
containing fusel oil, vinegar possessing a more agreeable odor than
that from entirely pure spirits is obtained.

CHAPTER XII.

EXECUTION OF THE WORK IN A VINEGAR FACTORY.

THE factory being once in a proper state of working, the fur-
ther execution of the operation is very simple; a previously
determined quantity of alcoholic liquid is at stated intervals
admitted to the generators and the vinegar running off collected,
\Vith the operation running a normal course, attention has only
to be paid to the maintenance of the correct temperature in the
workroom and in the generators ; the chemical process runs its
regular course without further assistance. In many cases, how-
ever, deviations from the regular order occur. They are due to
external influences, such as changes in the temperature in the
interior of the generators, variations in the composition of the
alcoholic liquid, etc., and will be discussed in a special chapter.

The capacity of a factory deperfds on the number of generators
in operation. A regularly working generator is supposed to be
capable of daily converting 3 liters (3.16 quarts) of absolute alcohol,
and this quantity will be taken as the basis for calculating the
execution of the operation. If, for instance, vinegar with 8 per
cent, of acetic acid is to be manufactured, alcohol of 8.8 per cent,
by weight has to be used, and to prepare this, 3 liters (3.10

116 VINEGAR, CIDER, AXD FRUIT- WINES.

quarts) of 100 per cent, alcohol have to be reduced with water,
so that, according to Table I., the fluid shows a specific gravity
of 0.9858 at 59° F. According to Table III., 8.98 liters (9.48
quarts) of water have to be added to every liter (1.05 quart) of
100 per cent, alcohol to obtain spirits of wine of 8.8 per cent,
by weight; hence 3 liters (3.16 quarts) have to be compounded
with 26.94 liters (28.46 quarts) of water (according to Table
III., alcohol with 90 per cent, by volume of alcohol contains
11.80 per cent, by volume of water, 80 per cent, alcohol 22.83,
etc., which has to be taken into consideration in making the
dilution).

According to Table III., the contraction in this case amounts
to 0.799 part by volume for every 100 parts by volume of the
fluid. Hence the 3 liters (3.16 quarts) of 100 per cent, alcohol
yield, when diluted to spirits of wine of 8.8 per cent, by weight,
26.94 + 3=29.94 liters (31.62 quarts) of fluid. Actually the
quantity is somewhat smaller, as in mixing alcohol with water a
decrease in volume takes place. If the alcoholic liquid is to con-
tain 10 per cent, each of vinegar and beer, the quantity of fluid is
as follows : —

Dilute spirits of wine . . . 29.94 liters (31.62 quarts)
Vinegar with 8 per cent, acetic acid 2.994 " ( 3. 162 " )
Beer 2.994 " ( 3.162 " )

35.928 " (37.944 " )

Hence the quantity to be worked in a generator in the course
of a day amounts to 35.928 liters (37.944 quarts), or taking into
account the alcohol (about 90 grammes or 3.17 ozs.) contained in
the beer, to about 36 liters (38 quarts). And this quantity has
in a corresponding manner to be divided among the separate
affusions, so that in a working time of 1 5 hours an affusion of
2.4 liters (2.53 quarts) would have to be made every hour. How-
ever, by this method, too much alcohol would be lost by evapora-
tion, on the one hand, and, on the other, the generators would work
comparatively slowly, since it is well known that the conversion into
acetic acid is effected with greater rapidity when the alcoholic
liquid contains less alcohol. Hence it is recommended to use in
the commencement a fluid which contains only about one-half or
two-thirds of the total quantity of alcohol and to add a corre-

WORK IN A VINEGAR FACTORY. 117

spending quantity of strong spirits of wine to every fresh affu-
sion.

As soon as all the alcohol is converted into acetic acid, the
vinegar ferment, as previously mentioned, commences with great
energy to oxidize the latter to carbonic acid and water, and hence
the amount of spirits of wine added to the alcoholic liquid must
be so large that the vinegar running off always contains a minute
quantity of it.

Much has been written about this gradual strengthening of the
alcoholic liquid with alcohol, and explicit directions are given
as to the original composition of the alcoholic liquid as well as to
how much, how often, and when the alcohol is to be added.
These directions may have proved useful in many cases, but local
conditions exert too great an influence upon the process of fabri-
cation for them to be of general value. Besides the content of
alcohol in the alcoholic liquid, the size of the generators, the
strength of the draught in them, the temperature prevailing in
the workroom and in the interior of the generators, are factors
which must be taken into consideration in determining on a plan
of operation actually adapted to existing conditions.

The size of the generators is, of course, fixed once for all ; in
a proper state of working the strength of the current of air must
be so regulated that the temperature in the interior of the gene-
rators is only about 45° F. higher than that of the workroom, which
is readily accomplished with a suitable central heating apparatus.
There still remains the determination of the most favorable pro-
portion of the content of alcohol in the alcoholic liquid to be first
used and its gradual strengthening by the addition of spirits of
wine, which can only be effected by a chemical examination of
the fluid running off from the generators.

This chemical examination is restricted to the accurate deter-
mination of the quantity of acetic acid in the fluid and to that of
the alcohol to 0.1 per cent. The determination of the acetic acid
is effected by volumetric analysis, and with some experience re-
quires four to five minutes for its execution ; for the determina-
tion of the alcohol an examination with the ebullioscope suffices,
which can also be accomplished in four to five minutes.* These

* The manner of executing these determinations will be described later on.

118 VINEGAR, CID1

two determinations, which every vinegar manufacturer should be
able to make, are the only means of obtaining an accurate con-
trol of the working of the factory, and also serve, of course, for
settling the exact plan of operation from the start.

If, with reference to the example given above, vinegar with 8
per cent, of acetic acid is to be prepared, the alcoholic liquid
must contain a total of 8.8 per cent, by weight of alcohol. Now
if the fabrication is commenced with an alcoholic liquid contain-
ing the total quantity of water, vinegar, and beer, but, for in-
stance, only 5 per cent, by weight of alcohol, the following
method will have to be pursued in order to accurately determine
when and how much alcohol has to be added.

The first portion of the alcoholic liquid being poured into the
generator, the fluid running off is tested as to its content of acetic
acid and alcohol, the test being repeated after the second and each
successive pouring. Each test must show an increase in the con-
tent of acetic acid and a decrease in that of alcohol, and the latter
must finally have diminished so far that a new addition of alcohol
seems to be in order. If the test after the third pouring shows
the fluid to contain only 0.3 to 0.4 per cent, of alcohol, this
quantity would be quickly and completely oxidized in the fourth
pouring, and a certain quantity of acetic acid be at the same time
destroyed. Hence it is necessary to add, for instance, 2 per cent,
by weight of alcohol to the alcoholic liquid before the fourth
pouring. When this 2 + 0.3 or 2-f 0.4 per cent, of alcohol, which
the alcoholic liquid now contains, is again reduced after the sixth
or seventh pouring to 0.3 or 0.4 per cent,, the last addition of
1.8 per cent, of alcohol is made, the total quantity of alcohol,
5 + 24-1.8 = 8.8 per cent, having now been used.

When, after a certain number of pourings, a test of the fluid
running off shows a content of 8 per cent, of acetic acid and only
0.1 or 0.2 per cent, of alcohol (a small remnant of alcohol should
always be present) the process is considered as finished, and a
further pouring into the generator would not only be useless labor,
but contrary to the end in view, since, after the complete oxida-
tion of the last remnants of alcohol, that of acetic acid would
immediately commence, and weaker vinegar would be obtained
after each pouring.

WORK IX A VINEGAR FACTORY. 119

If a generator works up the quantity of alcoholic liquid in-
tended for 12 or 15 hours in 10 or 12 hours, it is more proper,
on account of the diminished loss by evaporation, to induce slower
work by decreasing the draught of air in order to maintain the
rule that a generator has to work up 3 liters (3.16 quarts) of
absolute alcohol in the working time of a day.

After controlling for several days the work of a generator, by
examining the products as to their contents of acetic acid and
alcohol, the plan of operation resolves itself from the results of
these tests, since it is then accurately known after how many
pourings of an alcoholic liquid of known composition an addition
of alcohol is required ; further, after how many pourings a finished
product is present, so that directions for the progress of the opera-
tion can be given to the workmen according to time and quantities.
The normal working of the generators can always be controlled
by from time to time repeating the test of the products.

Now, suppose the work in a newly arranged factory, having
reached the point at which acidulation is complete, the actual
fabrication, according to the old method, will be gradually com-
menced by pouring in alcoholic liquid of corresponding concen-
tration.

The shavings in the generator having been saturated with
acidulating vinegar, the latter is partially replaced by the fluid
poured in, and as much as is expelled runs off. If the generator
should at once commence to work regularly the temperature in
its interior would be observed to rise, though it would at first be
impossible to establish a change in the composition of the fluid
running off. Slight variations in the content of acetic acid and
a small percentage of alcohol could be determined in the fluid
only after the acidulating vinegar originally present has been
entirely expelled by a series of pourings.

With the progress in the fabrication of vinegar, it became
customary to produce the strongest vinegar possible, the so-called
triple vinegar, with about 12 per cent, of acetic acid. On account
of its greater commercial value, this article could be sent great
distances, the consumer reducing it to a weaker product by the
addition of water.

To prepare directly vinegar with such a high percentage of

120 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

acetic acid, it would, however, be necessary to acidulate all the
generators with vinegar of the same strength, and to use alcoholic
liquid very rich in alcohol. By this method the losses of alcohol
by evaporation, and also of acetic acid, would, however, be so great
as to make the product too expensive. Furthermore, the work
would require most careful and constant attention on account of
the difficulty with which oxidation takes place in alcoholic liquid
containing much acetic acid, and it might only too readily happen
that the generators suddenly worked weaker, i. e., that the content
of acetic acid in the vinegar running off would decrease, and the
quantity of alcohol remaining unchanged correspondingly increase.

On account of these difficulties, it has become customary to
charge the greater number of generators with alcoholic liquid
yielding the so-called double vinegar with about 8 per cent, of
acetic acid, and to work this vinegar with the addition of the
required quantity of strong spirits of wine in a number of gen-
erators, which, of course, must be acidulated with 12 per cent,
vinegar.

It will be readily understood that the employment of this
method is not only advantageous for the production of vinegar
with the highest attainable content of acetic acid, but also for
general purposes. Passing the alcoholic liquid but once through
the generators does not suffice, even for vinegar with only 5 to
6 per cent, of acetic acid, an examination always showing a con-
siderable quantity, J per cent, and more, of unconverted alcohol
in the vinegar running off. The conversion of alcoholic liquid
with a small content of alcohol into vinegar by one pouring can,
to be sure, be accomplished, but it necessitates the use of very
tall generators and a constant struggle with difficulties on account
of the irregular draught of air, caused by the packing together of
the shavings.

Group-System.

Theoretically, as well as practically, the group-system may be
considered as the perfection of the quick process. The principle
of the operation consists in the division of the generators into
two or three groups, each group preparing vinegar of determined
strength. In factories which do not produce vinegar of the

WORK IN A VINEGAR FACTORY. 121

greatest attainable strength (12 per cent, vinegar), but only
double vinegar with about 8 per cent, of acetic acid, two groups
might suffice ; the manufacture of a product of the greatest at-
tainable strength being, however, advisable in most cases, it is
recommended to arrange the factory for continuous work with
three groups of generators.

For this purpose the number of generators must be divisible
by three; hence 3, 6, 9, 12, etc., generators have to be provided,
of which 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., form one group, so that, for instance, in
a factory working with 24 generators each group consists of 8.
By designating the generators belonging to one group with the
same number, we have groups I, II, and III, and in acidulating
and operating the generators belonging to one group are treated
in the same manner.

For the preparation of the strongest vinegar (12 per cent.) the
generators belonging to group I can, for instance, be acidulated
with vinegar of 6 per cent, acetic acid, those of group II with 9
per cent, vinegar, and those of group III with 12 per cent,
vinegar. The process of operation is then as follows : —

Group I. The generators belonging to this group are charged
Avith an alcoholic liquid which yields vinegar with a con-
tent of 6 per cent, acetic acid, and the fluid running off is
poured back into the generators until a test shows the
alcohol, with the exception of a small remnant, to have
been converted into acetic acid. To this vinegar is then
added sufficient strong alcohol to form an alcoholic liquid
which will yield 9 per cent, vinegar.

Group II. The alcoholic liquid for 9 per cent, vinegar is
poured into the generators belonging to group II, the
pourings being repeated until all but a very small quantity
of the alcohol is oxidized. The vinegar running off is
again compounded with sufficient alcohol to form alcoholic
liquid for 12 per cent, vinegar and is brought into
Group III. The pourings are here repeated until the oxidation
of the alcohol is nearly complete ; the finished product is
then subjected to storing or clarification.

As will be seen from the above, in operating according to the
group system the entire factory is, so to say, divided into three

122 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

factories, I, II, and III, of which I produces vinegar of 6 per
cent., II vinegar of 9 per cent., and III vinegar of 12 per cent. ;
the product of I, after having been converted by a suitable addi-
tion of alcohol into alcoholic liquid adapted for the preparation
of 9 per cent, vinegar, is directly used for charging the generators
of group II and that of II for charging III.

The generators belonging to one group having been acidulated
with vinegar of the same strength, the fluid running off from one
generator need not necessarily be returned to it. The work can,
therefore, be simplified by conducting the fluid running off from
all the generators by means of a suitable pipe-system into a
common receiver instead of allowing the fluid, which has passed
through a generator, to collect under a lath-bottom and then
drawing it off and returning it to the same generator. If, for
instance, 8 generators belong to one group and 3 liters (3.16
quarts) have at the same time been poured into each, the passage
of the liquid through all the generators will be shown by a
measuring scale placed in the common receiver, indicating that
the latter contains 3x8=24 liters (25.36 quarts).

The samples for determining the content of acetic acid and
alcohol are taken from the common receiver, and the latter also
serves for the conversion of the vinegar, after it has acquired the
percentage of acid attainable in that group, into stronger alcoholic
liquid by the addition of alcohol. In order to effect an intimate
mixture and at the same time prevent the vinegar ferment float-
ing in the fluid from suffering injury by coming in contact with
the highly concentrated spirits of wine, the required quantity of
the latter is introduced in a thin jet and with constant stirring.

In many factories it is customary from time to time to alter-
nate with the pourings in the groups or "to cross the generators.7'
By this " crossing" the alcoholic liquid, which, according to the
above method, would, for instance, pass from group II to group
III, is poured into group I, so that after some time the gene-
rators of this group are converted into generators of group III
(with 12 per cent, acid), and group III becomes group I, it now
containing the weakest alcoholic liquid (with 6 per cent. acid).
Crossing, however, cannot be recommended, because a sudden
change in the constitution of the nourishing fluid always exerts

WORK IN A VINEGAR FACTORY. 123

an injurious influence upon the augmentation of the vinegar
ferment.

Recourse to crossing is most frequently had for the purpose of
" strengthening'7 the vinegar ferment by working weaker alco-
holic liquid in the generators of one group — generally that which
yields the strongest vinegar — when their activity diminishes.
This strengthening of the ferment can, however, be effected in a
more simple and suitable manner by diminishing the quantity of
alcoholic liquid poured in at one time and by increasing the
draught of air, and the consequent change of temperature in the
generators, so that the principal reasons for " crossing the gene-
rators" (which many manufacturers consider indispensable) have
no force.

Group-System in Factories with Automatic Arrangements.

In a factory so arranged that the pourings are at stated inter-
vals effected by an automatic contrivance, the group system as
described on p. 93 et seq. should be used. The operation of
such a factory is very simple. As seen from the description of
the arrangement, the generators are divided into three groups,
I, II, and III. Besides the generators each group must be
provided with a reservoir, which may be designated V, and a
collecting vessel 8. (The other component parts, distributing
arrangements, and conduits can here be left out of consideration.)

For the production of 12 per cent, vinegar in such a factory it
is best so to prepare the alcoholic liquid for the several groups
that

Group I contains alcoholic

liquid with 6 p. c. acetic acid and 6.5 to 6.6 p. c. alcohol.

Group II contains alcoholic

liquid with .... 9 " " +3.2 to 3.3

Group III contains alco-
holic liquid with . . 12 " +3.2 to 3.3

Group I having been acidulated with 6 per cent, vinegar,
group II with 9 per cent, vinegar, and group III with 12 per
cent, vinegar, the fluid running off from group I, after being
compounded with 3.2 to 3.3 per cent, of alcohol, is used in group

124 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

II as alcoholic liquid for 9 per cent, vinegar and yields 9 per
cent, vinegar, which after being again compounded with 3.2 to
3.3 per cent, of alcohol yields 12 per cent, vinegar after having
passed through group III.

The uninterrupted working of the generators constituting one
of the principal advantages of the automatic system, it is advisable
to regulate the automatic contrivance so that but a small quantity
of alcoholic liquid be at one time poured out, and to fix the
intervals between two pourings so that the second pouring takes
pi aw after about one-half of the first has run off. Under these
conditions there will be in the lower half of the generator an alco-
holic liquid in which the alcohol is nearly as much oxidized as it
can be by one passage through the generator, while in the upper
half will be fresh alcoholic liquid in which oxidation is continued
without interruption. A further advantage obtained by this is
that a generator will yield quantitatively more than one working
only 15 to 16 hours; further, the conditions of temperature in
the interior of the generator remain always the same and the fer-
ment constantly finds nourishment.

The alcoholic liquid for group I is pumped into the reservoir
I7,, and passes through the generators of group I into the col-
lecting vessel $,. All the alcoholic liquid having run off from Vv
the fluid collected in 8V after having been tested as to its content
of acetic acid, is for the second time pumped into Vl and passes
again through the generators of group I. The automatic con-
trivance is so regulated that the alcoholic liquid, after being
twice poured in, contains but a very small remnant of alcohol.

To the vinegar of 6 per cent, collected in Sl is now added 3.2
to 3.3 per cent, by weight of alcohol, best in the form of 80 to 90
.per cent, spirits of wine. The resulting stronger alcoholic liquid
is at once pumped into Vv and passing through the generators of
group II reaches the collecting vessel 8r It is then tested,
pumpod back into Vv and again collected in S2. If it now
shows the required strength, it is mixed with the second portion
of 3.2 to 3.3 per cent, by weight of alcohol and is pumped into
Trs, and after passing twice through the generators collects as fin-
ished vinegar in $3.

It will be seen from the above description of the process that in

FABRICATION OF VINEGAR. 12o

making the tests the product of all the generators of one group
is treated as a whole. A disturbance may, however, occur in
either one of the generators, and it would take considerable time
before its existence would be detected by a change in the consti-
tution of the entire product. The thermometer with which each
generator is provided is, however, a reliable guide as to the ac-
tivity of the latter, and if it shows in one of them a temperature
varying 37° to 39° F. from that prevailing in the others, it is a
sure sign of the respective generator not working in the same
manner as the others, and the product running off' from it should
be tested by itself as to its content of acetic acid and alcohol.

Generally it will contain either no alcohol or very much of, it.
In the first case, the temperature of the respective generator is
higher than that prevailing in the others, and its activity has to be
moderated by decreasing the admission of air ; in the other case,
the generator works too sluggishly, and the difference is sought
to be equalized by increasing the current of air or giving a few
pourings of somewhat warmer alcoholic liquid. With a good
heating apparatus producing a uniform temperature in the work-
room such disturbances will, however, but seldom happen, and
by the use of the above means the normal working of the gene-
rators can be restored.

CHAPTER XIII.

DISTURBING INFLUENCES IN THE FABRICATION OF VINEGAR.

IN no other industry based upon the process of fermentation
are irregularities and disturbances of such frequent occurrence as
in the fabrication of vinegar. Besides the nourishing substances
dissolved in the fluid and free oxygen, the vinegar ferment re-
quires a certain temperature for its abundant augmentation, by
which alone large quantities of alcohol can in a short time be
converted into acetic acid. By exercising the necessary care for
the fulfilment of these conditions serious disturbances can be

126 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

entirely avoided and the slighter ones due to insufficient acetous
fermentation of the ferment readily removed.

As regards the nourishing substances of the ferment, irregu-
larities can actually occur only in working continuously with an
alcoholic liquid composed exclusively of water and alcohol. In
such alcoholic liquid the nitrogenous substances necessary for the
nourishment of the ferment are wanting, nor are the phosphates
present in sufficient quantity. The consequences are the same as
observed in every insufficiently nourished fermenting organism :
the fermenting activity suddenly diminishes, augmentation pro-
ceeds sluggishly and ceases entirely if abundant nourishment is
not introduced. Hence it may happen that from a generator
containing alcoholic liquid composed only of water, alcohol, and
vinegar, the greater portion of the alcohol suddenly runs off' un-
changed, the temperature in the interior of the generator at the
same time falling and the draught of air ceasing soon afterwards.
When these phenomena appear it should first be ascertained
whether the disturbance is not due to too slight a current of air.
For this purpose the draught-holes are entirely opened, and if
the temperature rises the generator gradually resumes its normal
working. If, however, no improvement is observed, the disturb-
ance is due to defective nourishment, and the composition of the
alcoholic liquid has to be changed, which is best effected by the
addition of a few per cent, of beer or of fermented alcoholic
mash, both containing a sufficient quantity of phosphates and
albuminous substances. The use of sweet beer wort or of malt
extract has also been highly recommended for "strengthening
weak-working generators." These substances also furnish albu-
minous bodies and phosphates to the alcoholic liquid ; they also
contain, however, maltose and dextrin, and as it has not yet been
ascertained whether the latter and the carbohydrates in general
can be consumed and digested by the ferment, they possibly may
pass unchanged into the vinegar. Honey and glucose are also
sometimes used for strengthening purposes, but while the former
might be useful on account of the abundance of salts and nitro-
genous substances it contains, no substances of any value to the
ferment are present in the latter. At any rate the addition of
beer, mash, or malt extract is to be preferred.

FABRICATION OF VINEGAR. 127

An addition of phosphates to the alcoholic liquid is also said to
produce a favorable effect upon the augmentation of the ferment.
Commercial solid phosphoric acid is dissolved in water and the
solution neutralized with potassium, a solution of potassium phos-
phate being obtained in this manner. The vinegar ferment being
very sensitive towards this salt a very small quantity of the
solution, about YTOIHJ of the weight of the alcoholic fluid, may be
added. The experiment must, however, be made very cautiously
and the effect upon the working of the generator carefully noted.

Disturbances referable to the Quantity of newly formed Acetic Acid.

With a proper state of working the alcoholic liquid brought
into the generators should be completely converted into vinegar,
and, theoretically, the product running off show the same strength
as the vinegar used for acidtilation. Actually, there are, however,
slight variations not exceeding a few tenths of one per cent.
Should greater differences appear a disturbance actually exists
and may show itself in various ways : the generator may work
too feebly or too vigorously. In the first case the content of acetic
acid in the fluid running off decreases considerably, while that of
alcohol increases. The process of the formation of vinegar is, so
to say, only half carried through, a great portion of the alcohol
being converted, not into acetic acid, but into aldehyde. The
greater portion of this combination is lost to the manufacturer on
account of its low boiling point (71.6° F.), it escaping in the form
of vapor, the stupefying odor of which when noticed in the air
of the workroom is accepted by all manufacturers as indicative of
a disturbance in the regular working of the generators. This
odor, however, becomes perceptible only after the disturbance has
continued for some time with the loss of a considerable quantity
of alcohol. Hence the control of the working of the generators
by a frequent determination of the acid becomes necessary. Re-
peated observations of the thermometer also furnish valuable
hints about the progress of the chemical process. The temperature
in this case remains only for a short time unchanged and soon
falls, far less heat being liberated in the mere conversion of alco-
hol into aldehyde than when oxidation progresses to the formation

128 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

of vinegar. These phenomena are indicative of the generator
not being able to master the alcoholic liquid introduced and may
be due to the pourings being too large, or the temperature of the
alcoholic liquid poured in being too low, or finally to an insuffi-
cient draught of air.

To restore the generator to a proper state of working, it is best
to try first the effect of smaller pourings and then an increased
draught of air. If the disturbance was due to an insufficient
draught of air, the temperature soon rises and the generator will
be able to work up the regular quantity of alcoholic liquid. By
the use of alcoholic liquid of a somewhat higher temperature the
restoration of the normal conditions can be accelerated.

A decrease in the content of acetic acid in the fluid running
off from the generators without the presence of alcohol being
shown indicates a too vigorous process of oxidation, the alcohol
being not only oxidized to acetic acid, but the latter further into
carbonic acid and water. The temperature in the interior of the
generators rises considerably, about 45° F. above that of the
workroom.

In this case the restoration of the respective generator to a
proper state of working is not difficult and can be effected in two
ways : either by considerably decreasing the ventilation of the
generator, or by pouring in a larger quantity of alcoholic liquid
than previously used.

The heating of the generators is generally due to faulty con-
struction. Generators of large dimensions, as a rule, become too
warm much easier than smaller ones, the phenomenon also appear-
ing more frequently in summer than in winter; and "too warm"
being just as injurious to the efficacy of the generators as " too
cool," they must, during the warm season of the year, be as
carefully protected against too high a temperature as against
cooling during the cold season. This is effected, on the one hand,
by a suitable ventilation of the workroom during the night, and,
on the other, by the use of alcoholic liquid of a somewhat lower
temperature during the hottest season of the year. Moreover,
disturbances from too high a temperature of the exterior air need
only be feared in countries with a very warm climate.

It has been frequently proposed to counteract a too vigorous

FABRICATION OF VINEGAR. 129

activity of the generators by the addition of a little oil of cloves
or salicylic acid which have the property of checking fermenta-
tion. Salicylic acid, especially, is an excellent corrective for the
faulty working of a generator ; it has to be used, however, with
great caution and only be added by the T-Q JTF or °f the weight of
the alcoholic liquid and just in sufficient quantity to attain the
desired result. A large amount is injurious to the ferment and
might kill it.

" Sliming" of the Generators.

The phenomenon to which this term is applied belongs to a
class of disturbances which sometimes occur in a vinegar factory,
and whose progress generally ends in throwing the entire operation
into complete disorder so that finally no more vinegar can be pro-
duced. After fruitless experiments nothing remains but to empty
the generators, wash the shavings with hot water, and, after drying
and steeping them in hot vinegar, as in the commencement of the
operation, return them to the generator.

The evil begins to show itself by the generators commencing
to work irregularly ; while formerly a certain quantity of alcohol
was after a fixed number of pourings converted into acetic acid,
a larger number of pourings are now required to attain the same
result. The generators work slower and the heat in their interior
decreases. By heating the workroom more strongly only a tem-
porary improvement is brought about, and the production of the
generators becomes less and less, and, finally, so low that work has
to be interrupted. When the disturbance has progressed thus far a
disagreeable musty, instead of the characteristic acid odor, is per-
ceived in the workroom. By allowing one of the faulty working
generators to stand for a few days without charging it with alco-
holic liquid, the temperature in the interior may rise considerably
and products of putrefaction be developed to such an extent as to
taint the air of the workroom.

Long before this phenomenon becomes apparent an alteration

takes place in the shavings. A shaving taken from a normally

working generator has the ordinary appearance of wet wood ; but

one taken from a generator working in the above-mentioned

9

130 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

faulty manner is coated with a slimy mass, which is somewhat
sticky and can be drawn into short threads. Viewed under the
microscope this slimy coating presents a structureless mass,
throughout which numerous germs of vinegar ferment are
distributed and sometimes also vinegar eels. Independently of
the presence of the latter, this slimy coating presents the same
appearance as the so-called mother of vinegar. By placing a
shaving coated with slime upright in a shallow dish and filling
the latter f the height of the shaving with alcoholic liquid, the
previously described delicate veil of vinegar ferment develops
upon the surface, while the portion of the shaving covered by
the fluid is surrounded by flakes distinguished by nothing from
mother of vinegar. Hence there can scarcely be a doubt that the
slimy coating actually consists of the same structure to which the
term mother of vinegar (see p. 34) has been applied, and in
searching for the cause of its formation, it will generally be
found to be due to conditions similar to those which give rise to
the formation of the latter. An alcoholic liquid overly rich in
young beer containing much albumen, or one to which much
malt extract or young fruit-wine has been added, is apt to give
rise to the formation of mother of vinegar in the generators.
The slimy coating thus formed upon the shavings envelops the
vinegar ferment and prevents its immediate contact with the air ;
consequently the alcoholic liquid does not encounter as much fer-
ment as is required for the complete oxidation of the alcohol, and
the generators become weaker. This decrease in the production
is, of course, followed by a lower temperature in the generators
and consequently by a decrease in the augmentation of the fer-
ment, these unfavorable conditions finally becoming so great as
to bring the activity of the generators to a standstill.

The settlement of vinegar eels upon the surface of the mother
of vinegar has no connection with sliming. Should, however,
large masses of these animalcules happen to die in the generators
for want of air, due to the constantly decreasing draught, they
quickly putrefy on account of the high temperature and give rise
to the most disagreeable smells.

A careful manufacturer will observe sliming at the commence-
ment of the evil, when it can be remedied without much diffi-

FABRICATION OF VINEGAR. 131

eulty. First of all, the composition of the alcoholic liquid must
be changed by discontinuing the use of fluids containing many
carbohydrates and albuminous substances, such as young beer,
malt extract, young fruit-wine, etc., it being best to use alcoholic
liquid of water, vinegar, and alcohol only until the generators are
entirely restored to a normal working. The activity of the ferment
is at the same time increased by a stronger draught of air in the
generators and by raising the temperature of the workroom. In a
few days the generators will be again in a proper state of work-
ing, which is' recognized by the normal conversion of alcohol
into acetic acid.

If, however, the evil has progressed to a certain extent nothing
can be done but to empty the generators. Though considerable
labor is connected with this operation, there is no further use of
experimenting, since such nonsensical additions as beer-yeast,
tartar, honey, etc., which have been proposed as remedies, only
accelerate the final catastrophe — the entire cessation of the forma-
tion of vinegar. Should a disturbance occur which cannot be
accounted for by defective nourishment of the ferment, want of
air, or an incorrect state of the temperature, the condition of the
shavings should be at once examined into, and if they show the
first stages of sliming the evil should, if possible, be remedied by
changing the composition of the alcoholic liquid. If the new
alcoholic liquid contains only water, vinegar, and alcohol sliming
cannot progress, and the layers of slime upon the shavings will in
a short time disappear, they being partially utilized in the nour-
ishment of the ferment and partially mechanically washed off by
the alcoholic liquid running down.

Disturbances due to Vinegar Eels.

In many factories filamentous structures scarcely visible to the
naked eye will frequently be observed in the vinegar. When
viewed under the microscope they will be recognized as animal-
cules, to which the term vinegar eel (Anguilla acdi) has been ap-
plied on account of their form slightly resembling that of an eel.
Fig. 31 shows a microscopical picture of a drop of vinegar

132 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

swarming with vinegar eels slightly magnified, and Fig. 32
vinegar eel strongly magnified.

Fig. 31.

Drop of vinegar gwarming with vinegar eels, slightly magnified.
Fig. 32.

Vinegar eel (female) strongly magnified.

The animalcule consists of a cylindrical body running to a
sharp point. The mouth-opening is covered with small knots ;
the throat is globular and passes directly into the long intestinal

FABRICATION OF VINEGAR. 133

tube. The eggs are placed at about the centre of the body in
two tubes which unite to a plainly perceptible aperture. The
average length of the female is 0.0682 Paris inch and that of
the male 0.0486, the former being larger than the latter in the
proportion of 1 : 1.3.

Vinegar eels can exist in dilute alcohol of the strength used
in the fabrication of vinegar as well as in dilute acetic acid. In
alcoholic liquid containing much alcohol and acetic acid they do
not thrive as well as in weak liquid. Their part in the fabrica-
tion of vinegar is under all conditions an injurious one. The
vinegar ferment can only carry on its function correctly when
vegetating upon the surface of the fluid and in contact with air.
The vinegar eel being an air-breathing animal always seeks the
surface and in an alcoholic liquid which contains it and upon
whose surface an abundance of ferment grows, actual contests
between animalcule and ferment can be observed, the former
striving to force the latter, which is inimical to its existence,
under the surface and thus render it harmless. (Submerged
vinegar ferment, as is well known, changes its conditions of ex-
istence and becomes mother of vinegar.) If the conditions are
favorable for the development of the animalcules, the latter over-
come the ferment and submerge it so that it can continue to exist
only as mother of vinegar, and consequently the process of the
formation of vinegar will be considerably retarded. Under con-
ditions favorable to the development of the ferment the reverse is
the case. The ferment floating upon the fluid consumes nearly
all the oxygen contained in the layer of air immediately above the
surface and thus deprives the animalcules of a condition necessary
for their existence ; a portion of them die and fall to the bottom
of the vessel, while another portion escape to the sides of the vessel
where they congregate immediately above the surface of the fluid
in such masses as to form a whitish ring. These conditions can
be readily induced by pouring vinegar containing a large number
of vinegar eels into a flat glass dish and adding a fluid upon
which vinegar ferment has been artificially cultivated. In a few
hours the ferment has spread over the entire surface and the
animalcules form the above-mentioned white ring on the sides of
the vessel. If by means of blotting paper the veil of ferment be

134 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

removed as fast as it augments, the animalcules soon spread over
the entire fluid.

From the above explanation it is evident that the appearance
of vinegar eels in large masses threatens danger to the regular
working. When the animalcules reach the shavings the struggle
for existence between them and the ferment commences, and their
struggling to dislodge the latter may be the first cause of the
formation of slimy masses of mother of vinegar upon the shavings.
Since the vinegar eels consume oxygen the air in the generators
becomes thereby less suitable for the nourishment of the ferment
and consequently the generators will work feebly. By accelera-
ting the draught of air in the generators, which is generally the
first remedy tried, the development of the ferment may again
become so vigorous that a large portion of the vinegar eels are
killed, their bodies being found in the vinegar running off. - The
dead vinegar eels remaining in the generator, however, finally
putrefy and give rise to the previously mentioned disagreeable
odor. The processes of putrefaction being also effected by bacteria
capable of decomposing nearly all known organic combinations
(even small quantities of such strongly antiseptic bodies as salicylic
and carbolic acids), it is evident that vinegar containing vinegar
eels cannot possess good keeping qualities and must be subjected
to a special treatment, which will be referred to later on.

Several remedies for the suppression of vinegar eels in the
generators have been proposed, one of them consisting of the
introduction of vapors of burning sulphur, i. e.9 sulphurous acid.
Sulphurous acid, it is true, kills the vinegar eels but, at the same
time, the vinegar ferment, and if small remnants remain, also the
newly introduced ferment. To restore a generator thus treated a
large quantity of air must be blown through it which will remove
the last traces of sulphurous acid. An alcoholic liquid containing
much living ferment is then poured in.

The vinegar ferment can for many hours stand the exclusion of
oxygen without being destroyed while the vinegar eels die in a
short time. This circumstance may be utilized for the destruction
of the animalcules without recourse to other remedies. The
generator having first been brought into the highest state of
activity by pouring in very warm alcoholic liquid and opening

FABRICATION OF VINEGAR.

135

all the draught-holes, is left to itself for 6 to 8 hours after closing
all the draught-holes. The ferment in a short time consumes all
the free oxygen in the generators and the vinegar eels die from
want of it. By opening the draught-holes and pouring in alco-
holic liquid the normal formation of vinegar soon recommences.

The killing of a large number of vinegar eels in the above
manner is, however, of considerable danger to the regular work-
ing of the factory, and the respective generators must be watched
with special care in order to meet at once any appearance of
putrefaction. It may sometimes succeed to keep up the work
undisturbed, the killed vinegar eels being gradually removed
from the generators by the vinegar running off. In such criti-
cal cases, when the generator may at any moment commence to
work irregularly, the use of a very small quantity of salicylic
acid as an addition to the alcoholic liquid would be advisable.
The acid by checking putrefaction would prevent the immediate
decomposition of the killed vinegar eels still present in the
generators.

Should, however, signs of putrefaction appear energetic, means
should at once be taken to arrest its progress, it being in this case

Fig. ;33.

Apparatus for the Development of Sulphurous Acid.

best to sulphur the generator. This is effected by closing all the
draught-holes except one, and introducing into the latter the
nozzle of the apparatus whose arrangement is shown in Fig. 33.
In a large clay vessel, best glazed inside, stands upon a tripod

136 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

a flat plate. The cover of the vessel luted air-tight with clay is
provided with three openings. The opening in the centre is
closed by a well-fitting clay stopper, while glass tubes bent at a
right angle and with a clear diameter of about J inch are
cemented in the openings at the side. The tube reaching nearly
down to the plate is connected by means of a rubber hose with a
double-acting bellows, while the second tube leading directly from
the cover is connected with a second clay vessel. From the cover
of this vessel a pipe leads to, and is fitted into, the open draught-
hole of the generator.

For use the apparatus is put together, as shown in the illustra-
tion, and small pieces of sulphur are thrown through the cen-
tral aperture upon the plate. The sulphur is ignited by throw-
ing in a lighted sulphur match, and after closing the aperture the
bellows is put in operation. The product of the combustion of
the sulphur passes through the tube into the generator, and as-
cending dissolves the fluid adhering to the shavings to sulphurous
acid. The addition of sulphur and blowing in of air are con-
tinued until the odor of burning sulphur is clearly perceptible in
the upper portion of the generator. The second vessel which
contains some water serves for the condensation of the portion of
the sulphur which is not consumed, but only volatilized.

The sulphurous acid kills every living organism in the gene-
rator, and consequently all the germs of the vinegar ferment are
also destroyed.

After allowing the sulphured generator to stand a few hours,
fresh air alone is forced through it by means of the bellows ; the
air-holes are then opened and the generator allowed to stand a
few days for the sulphurous acid to be converted into sulphuric
acid by the absorption of oxygen. To bring this generator again
into operation it is best to introduce at first a number of pourings
consisting only of vinegar, with a content of acetic acid corre-
sponding to that of the original acidulation. In consequence of
the absorption of sulphuric acid by the shavings this vinegar be-
comes of no value as a commercial article, but it can be used for
the preparation of alcoholic liquid.

The last traces of unchanged sulphurous acid having in this
manner been removed from the generators and the greater portion

FABRICATION OF VINEGAR. 137

of sulphuric acid adhering to the shavings washed out, the gene-
rator is again acidulated ; this being best effected by pouring in
alcoholic liquid just run off from normally working generators.

Disturbances due to Vinegar Lice ( Vinegar- Mites).

Unless the most scrupulous cleanliness prevails so-called vine-
gar lice will always be found in the factory ; they prefer places
kept constantly rnoist and to which the air has free access, for in-
stance, the draught-holes and the interior of the generators be-
neath the lath-bottom. As a rule manufacturers do not pay
much attention to their presence, as they apparently exert no
influence upon the regular working. That such, however, is not
the case will be seen from the following occurrence : In 1881, the
proprietor of a vinegar factory in Italy informed Dr. J. Bersch
that millions of small animals had appeared in the factory and
penetrated into the generators, the shavings up to a certain height
being covered with living and dead animals, and the latter putre-
fying, further working had become impossible. Every drop of

Fig. 34.

Vinegar-Mite, according to Bersch. X 120.

vinegar running off from the generators contained one or more
of the mites. A small bottle half full of vinegar and closed air-
tight by a cork accompanied the communication. Though the
bottle had been 60 hours on the way, on opening it a number of

138 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

living animals were found congregated especially in the fissures
of the cork. On examining them with the microscope two forms
(male and female?) could be clearly distinguished, many being
only one-quarter or one-half the size of others. Figs. 34 and 35

Fig. 35.

Vinegar-Mite (from the under side). X 120.

show the two characteristic forms of these animalcules. As far
as it was possible to determine their zoological position they be-
long to the family Sarcoptidce. No particulars as to their origin
seem to be known, the manufacturer simply stating that they
had come from the soil under the supports of the generators and
gradually rendered the latter ineffective. The generators were
sulphured in the above-described manner and again put into
operation.

To prevent the vinegar-mites from collecting in large masses
scrupulous cleanliness must prevail in the factory. Especially
should the draught-holes be from time to time examined, and, if
mites be found, thoroughly cleansed with hot water, which kills
them. The mites might also be prevented from penetrating into
the interior of the generators by rings of a sticky substance (tur-
pentine) around the draught-holes.

FABRICATION OF VINEGAR. 139

Vinegar-Flies.

Though, as far as known, the animals known as vinegar-flies
create no disturbance in the regular working of the factory, they
deserve mention because they appear wherever a fluid passes into
acetous fermentation. In wine cellars, not kept thoroughly clean,
these insects are frequently found on the bung-holes of the wine-
barrels, and in factories in which the manufacture of wine vinegar
is carried on according to the old system, they often occur in great
swarms.

The vinegar-fly (Drosophila funebris, Meig) is at the utmost
0.11 inch long; it is especially distinguished by large red eyes
sitting on both sides of the head and meeting in front. The
thorax and legs are red, the abdomen which is provided with six
rings, is black, with yellow stripes. The wings are longer than the
body. The larva is white, has twelve rings, on the mouth two
black hook-like structures, and on the back part of the body four
warts two of which are yellow. In eight days the larva is trans-
formed into a yellow chrysalis.

The collection of these flies in large masses can be readily pre-
vented by keeping the factory thoroughly clean and being espe-
cially careful not to spill any fluid.

CHAPTER XIV.

METHOD OF THE FABRICATION OF VINEGAR IN APPARATUS
OF SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION.

To overcome the frequent disturbances in the working of a
factory not provided with suitable heating and ventilating ar-
rangements, several kinds of apparatus and methods have been
proposed. Most of these inventions were protected by patent,
but the relinquishment of the latter in a short time is the best
proof of their non-success in practice. A few of them are here
described, not because they are considered an essential pro-
gress in the fabrication of vinegar, but simply as illustrations of

140

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

the manner in which the respective inventors sought to overcome
the difficulties arising from the use of badly constructed appa-
ratus.

Singer's Vinegar Generator.

Singer's apparatus consists of a number of shallow vats for the
reception of the alcoholic liquid. These vats are connected with
each other by a number of tubes so that the alcoholic liquid after
it has risen to a certain height in one vat reaches the next one
below and finally runs off as finished vinegar into a collecting
vessel.

Fig. 36.

Singer's Vinegar Generator (Cross Section).

Fig. 36 shows the apparatus in cross section. The five vats
are marked A, Av B, B19 and C. In the bottoms of A and Al
are placed thirty-seven tubes, and in the bottoms of B and B,

FABRICATION OF VINEGAR.

141

thirty-two. The entire apparatus is inclosed in a glass case pro-
vided below with several apertures, n, with regulators, and above
with a valve, m, by which the accurate regulation of the draught
of air in the apparatus is to be effected. The rubber hose g se-
cured to the reservoir E conducts at h the alcoholic liquid through
the lid covering the uppermost vat A. In this vat the liquid
rises to a certain height, runs through the apertures in the sides
of the tubes into the vat J5, from this in a similar manner into
Av Bv and finally into the collecting vessel D.

The process of the formation of vinegar is claimed to proceed
in the tubes connecting the vats with each other. Fig. 37 shows

Fig. 37.

Singer's Apparatus (Connection of two Vats with each other).

the arrangement of these tubes on an enlarged scale. The wooden
tubes are closed above and provided each with four apertures for
the influx of alcoholic liquid. Inside of each tube are six an-

142 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

iiular depressions, four above and two below. In the centre is a
slit for the access of air.

To be able to discharge at will the fluid in one vat of the appa-
ratus (Fig. 36) into the next below, the vats are connected by the
pipe i closed by spigots. The lowest vat, C, is provided with
discharge-pipes, I and k, I being directly above the bottom of
the vat and k about 1J inch higher up. The collecting vessel D
is at q connected by means of a rubber hose with the spigot <7
placed on C. The glass tube p, which is bent at a right angle
and can be turned, indicates, when in an upright position, the
height of the fluid in D, and with the mouth turned downwards
serves for discharging the contents of D.

The apparatus is operated as follows : By opening the spigot
E, alcoholic liquid is allowed to run from the reservoir into the
uppermost vat, A, until it stands about J to } inch above the
apertures in the tubes. The spigots on i remain closed during the
normal working of the apparatus. The alcoholic liquid passes
through the apertures, trickles through the tubes into the vessel,
and gradually reaches in the same manner the collecting vessel
D. By a suitable regulation of the influx of alcoholic liquid from
E completely finished vinegar is claimed to collect in D.

Michaelix's Rotatory Vinegar Generator.

The principal feature of this apparatus, which has been patented
in Germany, is a strong barrel placed horizontally and having a
diameter of 3.3 feet and the same height. The interior of this
barrel is divided into two chambers by a horizontal lath-bottom ;
the upper smaller chamber is filled with shavings or pieces of
charcoal. In the bottom below the lath-bottom a horizontal tube
serves for the influx of air and a spigot above in the side of the
barrel for its egress.

The alcoholic liquid is poured in close under the lath-bottom,
the air-spigot closed, and the barrel revolved so that the shavings
become saturated. In about fifteen minutes the barrel is returned
to its original position and the air-spigot opened. The commence-
ment of the formation of vinegar is soon indicated by the increased
temperature, and the apparatus is now in full working. To make

FABRICATION OF VINEGAR. 143

the- formation of vinegar a continuous one, it is only necessary to
turn the barrel several times a day in order to saturate the shav-
ings with alcoholic liquid. The progress in the formation of vine-
gar is indicated by a thermometer placed in the bottom of the upper
chamber. The end of the process is indicated by the falling of the
thermometer.

The apparatus is cleansed by rinsing the shavings, without re-
moving them from the barrel, with hot water, filling the barrel
with strong vinegar and drawing it off after 24 hours.

According to the statements of the inventor, the advantages of
his apparatus consist in its cheapness, simple operation, greater
yield, saving of alcohol, and better quality of the product.

It may, ho\vever, be remarked that the operation is not so
simple, since every generator has to be several times turned
daily, for which labor and space are required. How the appa-
ratus, which works exactly like a generator filled with shavings,
is to save alcohol and yield a greater product of a better quality
cannot be explained from a chemical standpoint. Just as little
can it be explained where the ferment indispensable for the
formation of vinegar is to come from if the apparatus is to be
cleansed with hot water, which kills all the ferment upon the
shavings, and only strong vinegar is to be poured in.

Fabrication of Vinegar with the Assistance of Platinum Black.

In considering the theory of the formation of vinegar it was
mentioned that finely divided platinum possesses the property of
converting alcohol into acetic acid. This property of platinum
black has been utilized for the purpose of manufacturing acetic
acid on a large scale. The apparatus used is composed of a
series of shelves about one foot apart, upon which rest a certain
number of shallow dishes of porcelain or stoneware. In the
centre of each of these and supported by stoneware or glass
tripods rest smaller dishes containing the platinum black. The
whole is covered with a glass case, if the apparatus is small, or a
frame of wood with glass windows and glass top for the produc-
tion of larger quantities of acetic acid. The air is made to cir-
culate slowly through the apparatus, and the temperature main-

146

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

upwards. In front of the bung-hole this tube is provided with
an expansion in which is fitted by means of a cork a tube, b, bent
at a right angle. While the vinegar is stored, this tube stands
upright as indicated by the dotted lines, and is secured to a rubber

Pis. 38.

hose reaching to the bung-hole. By turning the tube downward
the fluid runs out through the tube a until its level has sunk to
the dotted line.

Sometimes the vinegar is not rendered entirely clear by storing^
and filtering has to be resorted to. Before referring to this ope-
ration a few words will be said in regard to the storing of vinegar.

The vinegar brought into the storage barrels contains the fol-
lowing constituents : Water, acetic acid, alcohol (very little), alde-
hyde (very little), acetic ether, vinegar ferment (living and dead),
extractive substances (depending on the nature of the alcoholic
liquid used). Moreover, there arc frequently found alcoholic fer-
ment (from the beer) and vinegar eels and vinegar mites, if these
animals exist in the factory.

By filling the storage barrels to the bung-holes and closing
them air-tight, the vinegar eels and vinegar mites die in a short
time for want of air and fall to the bottom. The living vinegar
ferment present in the fluid must assume the form in which it can
for some time exist without free oxygen, i. e., of mother of vine-
gar. When in consequence of the shrinkage in the volume of the
vinegar by cooling the air penetrates through the pores of the
wood, it is first utilized for the conversion of the small quantity
of aldehyde into acetic acid, and later on enables the vinegar fer-

TREATMENT OF FRESHLY-PREPARED VINEGAR. 147

ment to continue to exist upon the surface and to slowly convert
the small quantity of alcohol still present into acetic -acid.

If the barrels are not closed absolutely air-tight, the vinegar
ferment will develop quite vigorously upon the surface, and when
all the alcohol is consumed attack the acetic acid, so that when
the vinegar is tested a decrease in the content of acetic acid is
plainly perceptible. If the finished vinegar still contains consid-
erable quantities of albuminous substances in solution (vinegar
from grain, malt, or fruit), or if it contains tartaric and malic acids
and at the same time only a small percentage of acetic acid, as
most fruit vinegars do (seldom more than 5 per cent.), the mold
ferment readily settles upon the vinegar and finally dislodges the
vinegar ferment from the surface. The acetic acid is, however,
very rapidly destroyed by the mold ferment, and through a luxu-
riant growth of the latter, which floats upon the surface as a
white, membranous coating, the vinegar may in a few weeks lose
one or more per cent, of it. This happens so frequently, for in-
stance with fruit-vinegar, that the opinion that such vinegar cannot
be made to keep, is quite general.

Vinegar which, besides a considerable quantity of extractive
substances, contains the salts of certain organic acids (malic and
tartaric acids), for instance, vinegar prepared from apples or
wine, must be frequently examined, as it readily spoils and may
suffer even if kept in barrels constantly filled up to the bung.
In fluids containing the salts of the above-mentioned organic
acids a ferment may frequently develop, even when the air is ex-
cluded, which first decomposes the1 tartaric and malic acids, and
though these acids are present only in a comparatively small
quantity, they influence, to a considerable extent, the flavor of the
vinegar on account of their agreeable acid taste. In vinegar in
which this ferment has long existed a diminution of acidity can
be readily detected by the taste, and by the direct determination
of the acid a decrease in its content can be shown which, if cal-
culated as acetic acid, may in some cases amount to one per cent.
Besides the loss of its former agreeable taste vinegar thus
changed acquires a harsh tang, due no doubt to the formation of
certain not yet known products formed by the ferment effecting
the destruction of the tartaric and malic acids. Moreover, wine

146

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

upwards. In front of the bung-hole this tube is provided with
an expansion in which is fitted by means of a cork a tube, 6, bent
at a right angle. While the vinegar is stored, this tube stands
upright as indicated by the dotted lines, and is secured to a rubber

>
Fig. 38.

I

hose reaching to the bung-hole. By turning the tube downward
the fluid runs out through the tube a until its level has sunk to
the dotted line.

Sometimes the vinegar is not rendered entirely clear by storing,
and filtering has to be resorted to. Before referring to this ope-
ration a few words will be said in regard to the storing of vinegar.

The vinegar brought into the storage barrels contains the fol-
lowing constituents : Water, acetic acid, alcohol (very little), alde-
hyde (very little), acetic ether, vinegar ferment (living and dead),
extractive substances (depending on the nature of the alcoholic
liquid used). Moreover, there arc frequently found alcoholic fer-
ment (from the beer) and vinegar eels and vinegar mites, if these
animals exist in the factory.

By filling the storage barrels to the bung-holes and closing
them air-tight, the vinegar eels and vinegar mites die in a short
time for want of air and fall to the bottom. The living vinegar
ferment present in the fluid must assume the form in which it can
for some time exist without free oxygen, i. e., of mother of vine-
gar. When in consequence of the shrinkage in the volume of the
vinegar by cooling the air penetrates through the pores of the
wood, it is first utilized for the conversion of the small quantity
of aldehyde into acetic acid, and later on enables the vinegar fer-

TREATMENT OF FRESHLY-PREPARED VINEGAR. 147

ment to continue to exist upon the surface and to slowly convert
the small quantity of alcohol still present into acetic -acid.

If the barrels are not closed absolutely air-tight, the vinegar
ferment will develop quite vigorously upon the surface, and when
all the alcohol is consumed attack the acetic acid, so that when
the vinegar is tested a decrease in the content of acetic acid is
plainly perceptible. If the finished vinegar still contains consid-
erable quantities of albuminous substances in solution (vinegar
from grain, malt, or fruit), or if it contains tartaric and malic acids
and at the same time only a small percentage of acetic acid, as
most fruit vinegars do (seldom more than 5 per cent.), the mold
ferment readily settles upon the vinegar and finally dislodges the
vinegar ferment from the surface. The acetic acid is, however,
very rapidly destroyed by the mold ferment, and through a luxu-
riant growth of the latter, which floats upon the surface as a
white, membranous coating, the vinegar may in a few weeks lose
one or more per cent, of it. This happens so frequently, for in-
stance with fruit-vinegar, that the opinion that such vinegar cannot
be made to keep, is quite general.

Vinegar which, besides a considerable quantity of extractive
substances, contains the salts of certain organic acids (malic and
tartaric acids), for instance, vinegar prepared from apples or
wine, must be frequently examined, as it readily spoils and may
suffer even if kept in barrels constantly filled up to the bung.
In fluids containing the salts of the above-mentioned organic
acids a ferment may frequently develop, even when the air is ex-
cluded, which first decomposes the" tartaric and malic acids, and
though these acids are present only in a comparatively small
quantity, they influence, to a considerable extent, the flavor of the
vinegar on account of their agreeable acid taste. In vinegar in
which this ferment has long existed a diminution of acidity can
be readily detected by the taste, and by the direct determination
of the acid a decrease in its content can be shown which, if cal-
culated as acetic acid, may in some cases amount to one per cent.
Besides the loss of its former agreeable taste vinegar thus
changed acquires a harsh tang, due no doubt to the formation of
certain not yet known products formed by the ferment effecting
the destruction of the tartaric and malic acids. Moreover, wine

148 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

or fruit-vinegars in which this ferment has for a considerable
time flourished, lose their characteristic agreeable bouquet which
may be considered the greatest damage.

In the presence of a large number of vinegar eels their bodies
may decay and impart to the vinegar a very disagreeable putrid
odor, even if stored in barrels closed air-tight.

The advisability of filtering the vinegar before bringing it into
the storage barrels will be readily understood from the above state-
ment. By filtration it is, however, only possible to remove the
vinegar eels and vinegar mites swimming in the fluid and larger
flakes of mother of vinegar. The ferments and bacteria inducing
putrefaction cannot be thus removed, so that even filtered vinegar
is liable to spoil when stored.

Heating the Vinegar.

In order to destroy all organisms which might cause the spoil-
ing of the vinegar, it is recommended to heat the latter to about
140° F. before running it into the storage barrels. A few
moments exposure at this temperature being sufficient for the
purpose, a large volume of vinegar can in a short time be heated
with the use of a suitable apparatus, such as is shown in Fig. 39.

In the head of the barrel b is secured a pipe of pure tin with
very thin walls and a clear diameter of about J inch. It is
coiled in a boiler filled with water, which it enters at e f and
leaves at h. It then passes into the barrel 6, in which it is also
coiled, and ends outside the barrel at g. At i it expands to a
capsule in which a thermometer, t, is placed. A vat, a, placed at
a certain height above the barrel is provided with a wooden stop-
cock, c, to which is secured a rubber hose, d, which enters the
barrel b above the bottom. The pipe k, which is secured on top
of the barrel 6, is open on both ends and of sufficient length to
project above the vat a.

The boiler is filled with water and placed in an ordinary
hearth. The vat a is filled with the vinegar to be heated and
kept constantly supplied. The water being heated to boiling the
stopcock c is opened. The vinegar now runs through d into the
barrel 6, and, after filling it, flows at e into the tin coil and passes

TREATMENT OF FRESHLY-PREPARED VINEGAR.

149

through it in the direction of the arrows, whereby it is heated.
The thermometer t dipping into the hot vinegar indicates the
temperature, and the influx of vinegar is accordingly regulated
by opening or closing the cock c. As shown in the illustration,

Fig. 39.

Apparatus for heating Vinegar.

the hot vinegar runs through the coil surrounded by cold vinegar
into the barrel 6, whereby it is cooled off and the vinegar in the
barrel preparatively heated. The pipe k, open on both ends,
allows the escape of the gases developed.

In consequence of the albuminous substances becoming insol-
uble by heating, the vinegar running off at g is, as a rule, more
turbid than before. It is brought into the storage barrels, which
need, however, not be closed air-tight, the further processes taking
place in the vinegar being of a purely chemical nature and not
caused by organisms. The latter have been killed by heating,
and, together with all other foreign bodies suspended in the
vinegar, gradually fall to the bottom of the barrel. If the
vinegar after heating is allowed to lie for a sufficiently long
time, it clarifies completely and can be drawn off entirely bright
from the sediment.

OF

150

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

Filtration of the Vinegar.

The bodies suspended in the vinegar and causing its turbidity
being very small, it takes some time before they settle on the
bottom and the fluid becomes entirely clear. To accelerate clari-
fication the vinegar is filtered.

Fig. 40 shows a filter suitable for the purpose. It consists of
a small, strong wooden vat provided with two perforated false-
bottoms, s and 6. Upon the lower false-bottom is spread a linen
cloth and upon it fine sand which is not attacked by acetic acid,
or small pieces of charcoal. Upon the smoothed surface of the

Fig. 40.

Filter for Vinegar.

sand is spread a layer of paper pulp f to 1 inch deep which is
covered with a linen cloth and then placed upon the false bottom
6, the latter being forced down by means of the screw k and the
pieces of wood r. The vinegar to be filtered is in the vat a which
is connected with the filtering vat by the stop-cock h and the
rubber hose s 8 to 10 feet long. By opening the stop-cock h the
filter stands under the pressure of a column of fluid 8 to 10 feet
high and the filtered vinegar runs off through an aperture in the
side of the filtering vat. By filling the filter below the paper

TREATMENT OF FRESHLY-PREPARED VINEGAR. 151

Fig. 41.

pulp with fine bar sand the latter retains the greater portion of
the solid bodies suspended in the vinegar, and it will be a consid-
erable time before the pores of the paper pulp become choked up
to such an extent as to require its renewal.

An arrangement suitable for filtering larger quantities of fluid
under an increased pressure is shown in Fig. 41.

It consists of a strong linen bag, S, about 16 inches in diameter,
and a jute or hemp hose, JR, open at both ends and about 6 inches
in diameter. The bag is tied by means of pack-thread to a
cylindrical piece of wood which is secured to a suitable support.
The bag is then connected by
means of the rubber hose K
with the reservoir By which con-
tains the vinegar to be filtered,
and is placed about 10 to 13
feet above the support carrying
the bag. The bag is folded so
that it can be inserted in the
hose R, the latter being also se-
cured to the cylindrical piece of
wood.

By slowly opening the stop-
cock on the reservoir the bag is
filled with vinegar, but being en-
veloped by the hose R cannot en-
tirely expand but only as far as
permitted by the diameter of ft,
so that though its entire surface
acts as a filter a large number
of folds are formed, .and it is
thus protected from bursting
even under the pressure of a
column of fluid of considerable
height. The fluid filtering
through the bag runs down on
the hose and collects in a vessel
placed under it.

At first this filter generally does not act entirely satisfactorily,

Bag Filter for Filtering Vinegar under
Pressure.

152 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

the fluid running off turbid ; and this continues until the pores of the
filter have become sufficiently contracted to retain the small bodies
suspended in the fluid. This can, however, be remedied by stir-
ring some charcoal powder into the first portion of vinegar to be
filtered ; the charcoal powder adheres to the sides of the bag and
contracts the pores of the tissue so that the fluid runs off entirely
clear.

By subjecting the freshly-prepared vinegar to heating and filter-
ing, a commercial article is obtained which is perfectly clear and
does not spoil by keeping. By storing it, however, for some time
in barrels it gains considerable in fineness of odor and taste.
AVine-vinegar, cider-vinegar and fruit-vinegars in general should
positively be stored for some time, the odoriferous bodies which
make these varieties so valuable developing only by that means.

Sulphuring of Vinegar.

Sulphuring has long been employed as the most convenient
method for the preservation of wine, and, if correctly applied, can
also be used for that of vinegar. But as sulphurous acid readily
dissolves in vinegar the latter must not be brought in direct con-
tact with the gases arising from the burning sulphur.

The sulphuring of vinegar is best executed as follows : The bar-
rel intended for the reception of the vinegar is thoroughly rinsed
and immediately placed in the store-room. Then place a sulphur
match consisting of a strip of linen about 6 inches long and f to
1 inch broad dipped in melted sulphur, into a perforated sheet
iron cylinder about 8 inches long and 1 inch in diameter, secure
this cylinder to a wire, and after igniting the sulphur match lower
it from the bnnghole to the centre of the barrel. The sulphurous
acid formed by the combustion of the sulphur is at once dissolved
by the water adhering to the interior of the barrel. A sulphur
match of the above size suffices for a barrel of 100 to 125 gallons.

Jf the sulphured barrel be now immediately filled with vinegar,
the sulphurous acid becomes distributed throughout the fluid and
kills the vinegar ferment as well as all other ferments present, so
that the vinegar cannot undergo any further change except it
come again in contact with living ferments.

TREATMENT OF FRESHLY-PREPARED VINEGAR. 153

The sulphurous acid dissolved in the vinegar is after some time
converted into sulphuric acid and its presence can be readily de-
tected. It may, however, be remarked that the quantity of sul-
phuric acid reaching the vinegar in the above manner is an exceed-
ingly small one, and, moreover, is partially fixed to the mineral
bases (lime and magnesia) contained in the water used in the
preparation of the alcoholic liquid. Hence a manufacturer who
sulphurs his barrels need not fear being accused of having adul-
terated his vinegar by the direct addition of sulphuric acid.
Sulphured vinegar must be stored at least several weeks before it
is salable, the odor of sulphurous acid adhering to it perceptibly,
and disappearing only at the rate at which the sulphurous acid is
converted into sulphuric acid.

Fining of Vinegar.

In a manner similar to that of wine, vinegar can be obtained
bright by " fining" with isinglass. This method offers no advan-
tages as compared with filtration, though it is employed by many
manufacturers. The isinglass to be used is prepared as follows :
One to two grammes (0.56 to 1.12 drachms) of isinglass per
hectoliter (22 imp. gallons) are cut into narrow strips with the
scissors and soaked in water in a porcelain dish for twenty-
four hours. The jelly-like, nearly colorless mass is pressed
through a linen cloth. A solution of 0.6 to 1.2 gramme (0.033
to 0.067 drachm) of tannin per hectoliter (22 imp. gallons) is
then added to the isinglass and the mass diluted with vinegar.
The whole is then thrown into the barrel and thoroughly mixed
with the contents. The clarified vinegar is finally drawn off
from the sediment.

Coloring Vinegar.

Vinegar prepared from alcohol is either clear as water or only
slightly colored. Before the general introduction of the quick
process consumers were accustomed to the dark yellow product
prepared from wine or beer, and many are still prejudiced against
slightly-colored vinegar, considering it weaker. Unfounded as

154 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

this prejudice is, the manufacturer is nevertheless obliged to re-
cognize it and color his vinegar by artificial means. This is best
effected by caramel or burnt sugar prepared from glucose, which
is entirely harmless. It is best prepared by melting the glucose
in a shallow iron vessel over a fire, stirring constantly with a
long-handled spoon. The melted mass soon browns and rises in
the vessel. The conversion of the sugar into caramel being much
hastened in the presence of an alkaline body, 1J to 2 per cent, of
the weight of the glucose used of pulverized ammonium carbonate
is added at this stage. The mass is now heated with constant
stirring until it becomes black, runs from the spoon in viscous,
dark brown threads, and a sample dropped upon a cold surface
congeals to a black mass impervious to light except on the edges.
The vessel is then lifted from the fire and the contents poured out
upon metal or stone plates. The taste of the congealed mass
should not be bitter or at least only slightly so. On exposure to
the air the caramel deliquesces to a thick black fluid, and, hence, it
should immediately after its preparation be converted with water
into a solution of the consistency of syrup, such concentrated solu-
tion keeping better than a dilute one which easily molds. Im-
mediately before use the solution is diluted with water, and enough
of it added to the vinegar to give it the desired coloration.

CHAPTER XVI.

PREPARATION OF VINEGAR FROM VARIOUS MATERIALS.

SINCE acetic acid is formed by the oxidation of alcohol, vine-
gar can, of course, be prepared from every fluid containing alco-
hol, such as beer, wine, cider, as well as from the juice of saccha-
riferous fruits which has passed into alcoholic fermentation. By
allowing grain to germinate, a body, to which the term diastase is
applied, is formed which possesses the property of converting starch
into fermentable sugar and dextrin when brought into contact
with it under certain conditions. Vinegar can, therefore, be pre-
pared from starch— though in a round-about way — by treating

VINEGAR FROM VARIOUS MATERIALS. 155

the latter with grain containing diastase (malt), whereby it is con-
verted into maltose and dextrin. This fluid (sweet mash) is
compounded with yeast, and the sugar (and with a correct execu-
tion of the process the dextrin also) converted into alcohol by
vinous fermentation. The resulting alcoholic liquid can then be
used for the fabrication of vinegar.

Alcohol or spirits of wine obtained in the above-described man-
ner from the starch contained in potatoes or grain being at present
the chief material used in the manufacture of vinegar, the greater
portion of the latter brought into commerce might actually be
designated potato or malt vinegar according to the elementary
material used. The great progress made in modern times in the
fabrication of malt, brewing of beer, and in the distilling industry
has been accompanied by a constantly extending division of labor.
While formerly every brewer and distiller prepared his own
malt, there are at present numerous establishments exclusively
engaged in this branch of the industry which sell their product
to the brewer and distiller. The manufacturer of vinegar who
did not use materials containing finished alcohol (beer or wine)
had to undertake the laborious work of fabricating the malt, and
preparing and fermenting the mash in order to obtain an alcoholic
liquid which he could finally convert into vinegar. With the
present improvements in the fabrication of malt and the distilling
of alcohol, the vinegar manufacturer can work more cheaply by
buying the alcohol, and the manufacture of so-called malt or
grain vinegar would pay only where heavy taxes prevent the
direct use of alcohol.

Formerly, when, in consequence of defective processes, many a
brewing or batch of malt spoiled it was used for the fabrication
of vinegar. But, as a rule, the vinegar obtained was not of a
fine taste and remained turbid, and besides the operation was fre-
quently interrupted by all sorts of incidents, which led to the
opinion of malt-vinegar not possessing keeping properties.

Beer- wort judged by its composition does not seem a suitable
material for the fabrication of vinegar. Besides a certain quantity
of fermentable sugar (maltose), it contains a considerable amount
of dextrin and other fermentable bodies. For the purpose of the
fabrication of vinegar the maltose alone can be considered, it

156 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

being the only fermentable constituent of beer-wort. Hence,
vinegar prepared from beer-wort always contains a considerable
quantity of dextrin and extractive substances, and, consequently,
is of a more thickly-fluid nature than belongs to vinegar, and
clarifies with difficulty. Moreover, this evil exerts a disturbing
influence upon the behavior of the vinegar when stored, it being
frequently changed by further processes of fermentation into a
slimy fluid, and acquires an insipid taste and loses a large portion
of its content of acetic acid.

Alcoholic mashes containing in consequence of faulty preparation
a considerable quantity of dextrin show, when used for the fabrica-
tion of vinegar, a behavior similar to that of beer-wort ; the vinegar
obtained clarifies with difficulty and does not keep well. Fer-
mented whiskey-mashes properly prepared contain, howrever, only
very small quantities of dextrin and extractive substances, and,
when freed by filtration from admixed husks, can be used as a
material for the manufacture of vinegar and yield an entirely
normal product.

According to experience, the process of the formation of vinegar
proceeds in the most uniform manner by preparing the alcoholic
liquid from dilute alcohol, and, consequently, in a vinegar factory
connected with a distillery it would be best to dilute non-rectified
spirits of wine with the required quantity of water and add from
10 to 20 per cent, of the weight of the alcoholic liquid of fer-
mented mash. The latter containing salts and nitrogenous sub-
stances suitable for the nourishment of the vinegar ferment serves,
in this case, as a substitute for the beer generally used in vinegar
factories for the preparation of alcoholic liquid.

Manufacture of Vinegar from Malt and Grain.

Under certain local conditions the manufacture of vinegar
from malt, with or without an addition of grain, can be profi-
tably carried on in connection with that of compressed yeast.
Such factories being for evident reasons not established on an
extensive scale, a description of the fabrication of vinegar in con-
nection with that of compressed yeast without the use of expen-
sive machinery will be given.

VINEGAR FROM VARIOUS MATERIALS. 157

The preparation of the fundamental material, malt, requiring
much labor and knowledge, it will be best for the manufacturer
to buy the article already prepared. Malt kiln-dried at as low a
temperature as possible and yielding a light-colored extract when
treated with warm water should be chosen. Many malt houses
prepare such malt especially for distilling purposes. Malt pre-
pared for brewing purposes is after the actual kiln-drying heated
to a temperature frequently exceeding 158° F. for the formation
of certain aromatic combinations and coloring substances which
arc to impart to the beer a specific taste and dark coloration.
Independently of the dark color of the vinegar prepared from such
malt, it contains a considerable quantity of dextrin and conse-
quently acquires an insipid by-taste, clarifies with difficulty, and
is readily subject to injurious alterations. Malt, as is well known,
contains diastase, which in mashing the malt with water effects
the conversion of the starch into maltose and dextrin. By kiln-
dry ing at a very high temperature a portion of the diastase is,
however, rendered ineffective, and in mashing comparatively little
maltose but a large quantity of dextrin is formed. Mashing, in
this case, would have to be continued for a long time in order to
obtain a larger quantity of maltose.

With the use of but slightly kiln-dried malt, in which the effi-
cacy of the diastase has not been injured by a high temperature,
the greatest directly obtainable quantity of maltose and the
smallest amount of dextrin are procured. The proportion of
maltose to dextrin is in this case as 4 : 1, or, in other words, the
finished mash contains about 80 per cent, of maltose and 20 per
cent, of dextrin. The dextrin cannot be directly converted into
acetic acid by the vinegar ferment and consequently would be
found in the finished product. It is, however, possible to treat
the finished mash in such a manner that the total quantity of dex-
trin contained in it can be converted into maltose and the latter
into alcohol. In this case the theoretically calculated yield of
vinegar from the malt will be nearly approached in practice, and
the product thus obtained contain only a small quantity of ex-
tractive substances of the malt which are not decomposed by
alcoholic or acetous fermentation.

Before entering upon a description of the mashing process,

158 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

the theoretical part in mashing will be briefly discussed. Malt
contains starch and diastase. By bringing the comminuted malt
in contact with water of about 131° to 133° F. the starch is
formed into paste and the diastase passes into solution. By the
action of the diastase upon the starch the latter is converted into
maltose and dextrin, the finished mash containing 80.9 per cent,
of maltose and 19.1 of dextrin. For reasons given later on the
finished mash is heated for a short time to 140° to 140.8° F.,
without, however, exceeding this temperature, and then cooled off
to the degree required for the induction of alcoholic fermenta-
tion.

Mash prepared in this manner contains, besides the stated quan-
tities of maltose and dextrin, effective diastase, i. e., such as
possesses the power of liquefying starch. (By heating to1 above
158° F. the diastase entirely loses this property.) By compound-
ing a mash of this nature with yeast, the diastase with the simul-
taneous action of the yeast is able to convert all the dextrin pres-
ent in the fluid into maltose, and, consequently, the total quantity
of starch originally present is converted into alcohol by this pecu-
liar process to which the term after-effect of the diastase has been
applied.

The yield of acetic acid which can be obtained from a given
quantity of malt can be calculated in a simple manner. Air-
dried malt contains in round numbers about 68 per cent, of
starch and dextrin. Theoretically 1 kilogramme of starch yields
71.612 liter per cent, of alcohol ; in practice, however, only about
55 liter per cent., and, after deducting a loss of 15 per cent,
during the conversion of alcohol into vinegar, the quantity of
acetic acid which can be actually obtained from a given quantity
of malt can be determined.

Example: What is the yield of 10 per cent, vinegar in working
500 kilogrammes of barley malt?

Five hundred kilogrammes of malt with 68 per cent, of starch
(and dextrin) contain 340 kilogrammes of starch (and dextrin).

Three hundred and forty kilogrammes of starch (and dextrin)
give (with a yield of 55 per cent.) 18.700 liters per cent, of alcohol.

One hundred and eighty seven liters of alcohol (specific gravity
at 59° F. mm 0.795) are equal to 148.665 kilogrammes of alcohol.

VINEGAR FROM VARIOUS MATERIALS. 159

One hundred kilogrammes yield, according to theory, 130.4 kilo-
grammes of acetic acid; in practice, after deducting a loss of 15
per cent, during the formation of vinegar, 110.84 kilogrammes.

148.665 kilogrammes of alcohol (15 per cent, of loss) yield
164.78 kilogrammes of 100 per cent, acetic acid.

164.78 kilogrammes of (100 per cent.) acetic acid yield in round
numbers 1647 liters of 10 per cent, vinegar.

The above calculation is, however, only approximately correct,
as all the losses occurring in practice cannot be determined with
complete accuracy.

Unmalted grain being cheaper than malt and the latter contain-
ing sufficient diastase to convert a very large quantity of starch
into maltose and dextrin, a mixture of malt and unmalted grain
(equal parts of both ; f grain and J malt, etc.) can be used instead
of malt alone. The latter is, however, preferable for the manu-
facture of vinegar, it yielding a product of a finer taste than un-
malted grain. The mode of preparing the mash is exactly the
same as for the distillation of alcohol, and as the necessary infor-
mation can be obtained from any treatise on that subject only a
brief sketch of the operation will be given here.

The malt carefully ground is mixed with cold water to a thin
paste which is stirred until all small lumps are dissolved. This
mixing of the ground malt with water, or dougliing in as it is
called, can be effected with the assistance of a crutch or rake, but
best in a vat provided with a mechanical stirring apparatus.

Doughing in being finished, water of 140° to 149° F. is per-
mitted to run in until the mash shows a temperature of about
131° to 133° F. During this operation the mash should be
constantly stirred. The at first thickly-fluid mass will soon be
observed to become thinly-fluid by the starch paste being con-
verted into soluble bodies. Mashing is finished in 2 to 2J hours,
and will be the more complete the more accurately the temperature
is maintained at 131° to 133° F. The completion of the process
is recognized by a filtered sample cooled to the ordinary tempera-
ture remaining colorless after the addition of iodine solution.

The mash having reached this state, sufficient hot water is added
with constant stirring to raise the temperature to 140° or 141.8° F.

160 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

The purpose of this operation is to render all ferments present in
the mash ineffective. Lactic acid ferment and frequently also
butyric acid ferment always adhere to the malt, and, if allowed to
develop in the mash, would form lactic and butyric acids during
fermentation which would be injurious to the process of alco-
holic fermentation as well as to the properties of the vinegar to
be manufactured. The mash is now reduced to a temperature of
about 57° or 59° F. by bringing it into the cooling-back or pass-
ing it through a system of refrigerating pipes. ' When working
on a small scale the mash can be suitably cooled by allowing cold
water to pass through a coil placed in the vat containing it.

The strength of the vinegar to be manufactured depends on
the concentration of the mash ; mashes showing a saccharometer
statement of 20 per cent, contain after fermentation about 9J per
cent, of alcohol which yields vinegar of about 8 per cent. ; mashes
showing 18 per cent, yield vinegar of about 7 per cent., so that 1
per cent, of acetic acid in the vinegar may be calculated on for
about every 2J degrees indicated by the saccharometer.

The mash is now set with yeast, though the latter may be added
when the mash still shows a temperature of 71.5° to 75° F., the
yeast having then time to vigorously augment. Mashes prepared
from malt alone are uncommonly rich in nourishing substances
for the yeast, the latter augmenting abundantly and inducing a
very vigorous process of fermentation. This can be profitably
utilized by combining the manufacture of vinegar and that of
compressed yeast, a valuable product being thus obtained without
any extra expense and with but little labor. At a certain stage
of the alcoholic fermentation the yeast comes to the surface of the
fluid and can be lifted off. By washing the yeast once or twice
with cold water and then freeing it from the excess of water by
pressing, compressed yeast is obtained which, with the exception
of the portion to be used for setting fresh mashes, can be sold.

Up to the completion of alcoholic fermentation the treatment
of the mash, as can be seen from tho preceding description, does
not essentially differ from that to which mashes for the manufac-
ture of alcohol are subjected. If, however, the completely fer-
mented "ripe" mash is to be used for the fabrication of vinegar,

VINEGAR FROM VARIOUS MATERIALS. 161

it should be subjected to a special treatment the object of which
is to prepare a fluid containing no living yeast.

By filtering the mash through a closely woven linen cloth the
particles of malt-husks, etc., are retained but not the cells of alco-
holic ferment which may be present and which, on account of
their minuteness, are difficult to separate from the fluid by filtra-
tion. It is, therefore, best to heat the mash before filtration to
about 140° F. whereby the ferment is killed and at the same time
a certain quantity of the albuminous substances dissolved in the
fluid rendered insoluble and separated. The heating of the mash
is best effected by passing it through a coil of tin-pipe placed in
a boiler filled with water kept constantly boiling. The tempera-
ture of the fluid can be readily regulated by increasing or decreas-
ing the velocity with which it passes through the coil. If the
fluid heated to 140° F. were allowed to cool in the air, a large
portion of the alcohol contained in it would be lost by evaporation,
and it is therefore allowed, after heating, to pass through a second
coil of pipe which is surrounded by cold water whereby it is
cooled to at least 86° F. This fluid is then filtered through a
linen bag, it being repeatedly poured back into the filter until it
runs off sufficiently clear. It will not, however, be obtained per-
fectly cldar in this manner, the yeast cells being too minute to be
retained by such a filter, but having been killed by heating, their
presence in the fluid is connected with no disadvantage.

By mixing the filtered fluid with from 10 to 15 per cent, of its
volume of vinegar, an alcoholic liquid is obtained which can be
worked in the usual manner in the quick-process generators, and
yields an agreeable aromatic vinegar which clarifies rapidly and
improves by storing.

According to the slow process, the fermented malt-wort is run
into casks placed in apartments called " stoves/7 since they are
heated by stoves or steam at a temperature ranging from 70° to
80° F. The casks are arranged in parallel rows, resting upon
long wooden beams elevated about 18 inches from the ground,
and having their bungs uppermost while a small hole on top of
the front head of each causes the circulation of air.

A large saving of labor will be effected by connecting elevated
tanks holding the fermented wort with pipes and movable flexible
11

162 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

hose which will allow of the rapid and easy filling of the casks.
The vinegar produced is siphoned off into inclined troughs, which
deliver it to a central underground tank, from which it is
pumped into the storing tanks.

Malt vinegar generally contains a great deal of mucilaginous
matter difficult to settle, preventing its keeping, while giving
nourishment to vinegar eels. It is therefore necessary to filter it,
and for this purpose it is pumped into the refining or rape ves-
sels. These vessels are often filled with wood shavings, straw, or
.spent tanner's wood, but nothing acts so well in producing by
filtration a clear bright vinegar as the stalks and skins of grapes
or raisins technically called " rape." Where there is power and
a large quantity of vinegar is manufactured, the filtering is effected
under a considerable hydrostatic pressure. The rape is placed in
a closed vessel between two false perforated bottoms. A circuit
of pipes is connected at the lower and upper part of the vessel,
and by means of a pump the vinegar is made to pass again and
again through the rape.

This mode of manufacture is frequently effected by " fielding."
In this case, as the term implies, the process is conducted in the
open air. The casks rest on strong frames 1J feet high, being
supported by firm pillars of brick-work or wood. The operation
generally begins in spring and continues during the summer.
The fermented liquor is run into the casks by the bung-holes,
the latter being left open in dry and loosely covered with a tile
in wet weather. Gradually the alcohol of the "gyle," as the fer-
mented liquor is called, becomes oxidated, and acetic acid is pro-
duced, of course simultaneously affording vinegar. The latter is
then drawn off and transferred to the refining or rape vessels
where it passes through the process of filtration already described.
In some factories large quantities of sour ale and beer are con-
verted by similar processes into vinegar, but the product is much
inferior to the vinegar made from malt-wort. The large amount
of nitrogenous and other extractive substances which those liquids
contain undergoes a second or putrid fermentation after the
alcohol has been oxidized into acetic acid, and in doing so reacts
upon the acid, leaving a liquid of a disagreeable odor slightly re-
sembling very stale beer. By the addition of sulphuric acid this

VINEGAR FROM VARIOUS MATERIALS. 163

second fermentation is postponed for some time, but the vinegar
has nevertheless a nauseous smell which renders it objection-
able.

Preparation of Vinegar from Sugar-Sects.

The juice of the sugar-beet contains a considerable quantity of
cane sugar and is readily brought into alcoholic fermentation, so
that seemingly this root would form a very suitable material for
the fabrication of vinegar. Sugar-beets contain on an average 12
per cent, of cane sugar, the latter yielding, when completely fer-
mented, a fluid containing about 6 J per cent, by weight of alcohol ;
a fluid with this percentage of alcohol yields vinegar with 6 per
cent, of acetic acid.

Besides sugar the juice of the beet-root contains, however, a
large number of other substances which exert an influence upon
the course of alcoholic fermentation, and, besides alcohol, a large
quantity of fusel oils is formed so that the alcohol has to be
thoroughly rectified before it is fit for use. The fermented beet-
root juice itself has, however, a disagreeable taste and odor, and
the vinegar prepared from it showing similar properties will not
be fit for household purposes until a remedy for these evils is
found. Numerous experiments made for the purpose of freeing
beet-root vinegar from the substances which impart to it the dis-
agreeable odor and taste have given no favorable results; filtering
through charcoal and even distilling the vinegar and treating the
distilled product with strongly oxidizing bodies do not produce the
desired effect. From these experiments it would seem impossible
to directly obtain from sugar-beets vinegar fit for household use.

Vinegar from Sugar, Fruits, and Berries.

By fermenting sugar solution with pure yeast and pouring off
the clear alcoholic fluid, the latter shows a slightly acid reaction
(from succinic acid), but is not converted into vinegar even if
standing for several weeks in the most suitable temperature, be-
cause the vinegar ferment is wanting. By adding, however, an
excess of yeast so that it remains partially suspended in the fluid,

164 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

which can be effected by the addition of solution of gum or starch
past.e, the nourishment for the spores of the vinegar ferment
reaching the fluid from the air is provided and acetification takes
place.

Cadet-Gassicourt advises the fermentation together of 124
parts of sugar, 868 of water, and 80 of yeast, and to filter after
one month. Or, according to another formula : sugar 245 parts,
gum 61, water 2145, yeast 20. Allow to ferment at 68° F.
Fermentation begins the same day and is completed in 1 5.

Doebereiner gives the following directions : Dissolve 10 Ibs. of
sugar in 180 quarts of hot water, add 6 Ibs. of pulverized crude
tartar (it dissolves only partially), and after cooling to 77° F.
induce fermentation by 4J quarts of beer yeast. In about 8
days, when fermentation is finished, add about 15 quarts of
spirits of wine of at least 50 per cent. Tr. or 8 quarts of alcohol
of 90 per cent, Tr., and bring the mixture into the acetifying
vessel. This fluid would also be suitable for the quick process.

For making vinegar on a small scale for domestic use, brown
sugar with water alone, or sugar with raisins, currants, and espe-
cially ripe gooseberries, may be used. These should be mixed in
the proportions which would give a strong wine, put into a small
barrel filled to about three-fourths of its capacity, with the bung-
hole very loosely stopped. Some yeast should be put in and the
barrel set in the sun in summer or a little way from the fire in
winter, and fermentation will soon begin. This should be kept
up constantly, but moderately, till the taste and smell indicate
that the vinegar is complete. It should then be poured off clear,
and bottled carefully. It will keep much better if it is boiled
for a minute, cooled, and strained before bottling.

With the exception of apples and pears, the different varieties
of fruit cannot be had in such abundance as that they could be
used for the manufacture of vinegar on a large scale, and hence
only a brief description of their utilization for that purpose will
be given.

It is characteristic of most of our varieties of fruits, and espe-
cially of berries, that in proportion to their content of sugar they
have a much greater content of free acids than grapes, and this
circumstance must be taken into consideration, as otherwise wine

VINEGAR FROM VARIOUS MATERIALS. 165

would be obtained which contains a considerable quantity of
unfermented sugar. The following table shows the average
content of sugar and free acid in the most common varieties
of fruits : —

Free acid calculated

Sugar. as malic acid.

Cherries

. 10.00

—

Apples ....

. 6.25 to 13.99

0.691

Pears ....

. 8.78

—

6.40

2.147

Strawberries .

. 5.09 to 11.31

1.363

Gooseberries .

. 6.93

1.603

Bilberries

. 5.78

1.341

4.02

1.484

Blackberries .

4.44

1.188

According to the above table, currants, gooseberries, raspber-
ries, etc., contain on an average scarcely 6 per cent, of sugar, and
consequently their juice, after complete fermentation, would give
a fluid with about 3 per cent, of alcohol, from which vinegar
with about 2J per cent, of acetic acid could be obtained. Such
vinegar being, however, too weak, those berries would not seem
suitable for the direct preparation of vinegar. Moreover, the
complete fermentation of the juice of most berries is very diffi-
cult, the free acids, among which malic acid preponderates, ex-
erting an injurious influence upon the progress of fermentation.

Vinous .fluids of an agreeable taste can, however, be prepared
from berries, and from them an aromatic and finely flavored
vinegar, by decreasing the content of acid in the juice and in-
creasing that of sugar. The juice of currants, as seen from the
above table, contains in round numbers 6 per cent, of sugar and
2 per cent, of malic acid. By diluting this juice with an equal
volume of water a fluid containing 3 per cent, of sugar and 1 per
cent, of acid is obtained, and the content of the former can be in-
creased at will by the direct addition of sugar.

By compounding, for instance, 100 quarts of currant juice with
100 quarts of water and adding 34 Ibs. of sugar, the resulting
fluid contains about 20 per cent, of sugar and after complete fer-
mentation gives a fluid with about 9.5 per cent, of alcohol, which
yields vinegar of nearly 9 per cent, strength. The taste of this

166 VINEGAR, CIDER, AXD FRUIT-WINES.

vinegar is, however, stronger and more agreeably acid than that
of vinegar from alcohol, it containing besides acetic acid about 1
per cent, of malic acid. Moreover, vinegar obtained from ber-
ries contains a certain quantity of extractive substances and odor-
iferous products of fermentation, so that it possesses an agreeable
bouquet and thus appears more valuable than the ordinary pro-
duct.

In many regions bilberries grow in abundance and can be
bought very cheap. Treated in the above manner they yield an
excellent vinegar, possessing, however, a somewhat harsh by-taste,
due to the tannin contained in the berries. The latter can be re-
moved from the fermented fluid before using it for the prepara-
tion of vinegar by compounding it when quite clear with gelatine
solution or fresh white of egg, both forming insoluble combina-
tions with the tannin, which separate in the form of flakes.

In regard to the preparation of vinegar from berries it remains
to be remarked that, after pressing the bruised berries, the juice
is compounded with water and sugar and at once brought into
fermentation by the addition of yeast (best fresh wine-yeast, or
if this be wanting, compressed yeast divided in water). Fermen-
tation should take place at quite a high temperature, 68° to 72°
F. The separated yeast is carefully removed from the fermented
liquid and the latter stored away in barrels kept constantly filled
up to the bung or at once used for the preparation of vinegar.
By converting fruit-wine into vinegar by means of the vinegar
ferment floating upon the fluid a much finer product is obtained
than by the quick process.

Cider Vinegar.

Cider, as is well known, is the sparkling liquid which is pre-
pared by fermenting the juice of apples ground in a mill. The
manufacture of cider will be described in another portion of this
work, and, hence, only its utilization for the preparation of vine-
gar will be given here.

The preparation of vinegar from good cider is not difficult, the
process of acetification by means of the vinegar ferment floating
upon the surface yielding an aromatic product of a fine flavor

VINEGAR FROM VARIOUS MATERIALS. 167

which is nearly of as good a quality as wine vinegar. On ac-
count of its content of malic acid, the vinegar is more acid than
ordinary vinegar with the same content of acetic acid. But in
order to produce cider vinegar of the first quality one must have
good cider ; vinegar made of watered cider will be thin and weak.
S. E. Todd* describes a simple contrivance for making cider
vinegar. A kind of cupboard is made of inch boards about 3J
feet high by seven feet long. Inside of this box fit shelves about
3J inches apart. On the upper side of these shelves gouge out
channels running nearly from one end to the other until the
upper side is covered with zigzag grooves running from end to
end. There should be cleats fastened to the under side of each
shelf to prevent it from warping ; and the cleats should be put
on with screws. The channel must be made slightly slanting.
The top shelf must slant so as to be about two inches lower than
the other side, and the shelf below it should slant about two
inches in the opposite direction. By this arrangement a long
zigzag channel is made for the liquid to flow in. At its end, in
the upper shelf, bore a hole through so that the vinegar may drop
to the next shelf and traverse the channel. Thus it continues to
flow from end to end until it has reached the end of the channel

•

in the lower shelf, when it falls into a receptacle. When com-
mencing to make vinegar in this manner, place the apparatus in
some small room and keep the temperature about 90° or 95° F.
Have a barrel, or tub, or hogshead placed a little higher than the
box and near the end where the first channel commences in the
top shelf. In this barrel have a faucet so that you can regulate
the amount of cider which it is designed to have flow in the
channel. The aim should be to keep a very small stream moving
gently through the apparatus, aifording every drop ample time
and opportunity to absorb the desired amount of oxygen before
the liquid reaches the end of the channel in the last shelf. A
few gallons, or a half barrel of good strong vinegar should be
run through first, so that the shelves will be well acidulated be-
fore letting other mixtures run through. It is a good idea to
add one-third or one-fourth of good vinegar to any mixture of

* " The Apple Guitarist." New York, 1871.

168 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

eider before allowing it to run through the apparatus. Open the
faueet so that a stream not larger than a straw shall fall into the
channel of the top shelf. As it falls through the last hole into
the barrel placed below the apparatus, the cider will have changed
to strong and pure vinegar. When once started the process must
continue night and day until the supply fails. In warm weather
no fire will be required in the vinegar apartment, which should be
well supplied with fresh air to facilitate oxidation. If the liquid
is allowed to flow too rapidly, it will not have time to oxidize.

Vinegar from apple-pomace. — After the cider has been ex-
tracted and the cheese removed from the press, the pomace may
be placed in a pile upon a suitably-constructed platform and al-
lowed to ferment. In the course of a few days considerable heat
will be evolved ; at this time a few pails of warm water (not boil-
ing) should be poured upon the pile and in the course of twenty-
four hours the pomace will be in a proper condition to grind. It
should then be run through a grater-mill and relaid upon the press
in a cheese in the same manner as originally laid in cider making,
when it may be subjected to heavy pressure until the liquid con-
tained in the cheese be extracted. This liquid may then be ex-
posed in shallow open casks in a warm room and in a short time
will be found good vinegar. Or, the liquid may be immediately
passed through a generator.

CHAPTER XVII.

PREPARATION OF VINEGAR SPECIALTIES.

THESE specialties may be divided into two groups : into those
with a specific odor, and those with a specific odor and taste. As
an example for both kinds we will take tarragon (dragon's-wort)
vinegar. If it is prepared by simply dissolving in the vinegar
the volatile oil of dragon's-wort (Artemisia dracunculus), obtained
by distillation with water, the product is simply perfumed vinegar,
the odor of the volatile oil being mixed with that of the acetic
acid, but the taste remains unchanged. If, however, the fresh

PREPARATION OF VINEGAR SPECIALTIES. 169

leaves of the plant are macerated with vinegar, not only the vola-
tile oil is dissolved but also certain extractive substances peculiar
to this plant, and the taste of the vinegar is also changed ; the
product in this case being aromatized vinegar.

By dissolving in vinegar oil of roses or rosewater (perfumed)
rose vinegar is obtained ; by treating raspberries with vinegar the
latter absorbs not only the odoriferous substances of the rasp-
berries, but also the non-odoriferous extractive substances, and the
product is aromatized vinegar.

By skillful manipulation every volatile oil can be dissolved in
vinegar, and consequently as many different varieties of perfumed
vinegar can be prepared as there are volatile oils. In fact per-
fumers prepare a number of such varieties which contain one or
more volatile oils whose odors harmonize and are sold as volatile
spirit of vinegar, fumigating vinegar, etc. Such vinegars can be
prepared in various ways, the finest odors being, however, ob-
tained by distilling the fresh parts of the plants with water and
mixing the distillate, which actually represents a solution of the
volatile oil in water, with strong vinegar. The finest rose vinegar,
orange blossom vinegar, etc., are prepared in this manner.

For this rather tedious process of preparing perfumed vinegar,
the one in which freshly prepared volatile oils are used may be
advantageously substituted. To be sure the volatile oils dissolve
only sparingly in vinegar, but sufficiently so to impart their char-
acteristic' odor to it. By using an excess of volatile oil it does
not dissolve, but distributes itself in fine drops throughout the
vinegar, rendering the latter opalescent, so that fining with tannin
and isinglass is necessary to make it bright again.

This evil can be avoided by a simple manipulation which is
based upon the fact that a body dissolving with difficulty dissolves
the more readily the greater the surface it offers to the solvent.

Prepare glass-powder as fine as the best wheat flour by heating
pieces of glass, throwing them into cold water, and pulverizing
and elutriating in a mortar. By the sudden cooling the glass
becomes so brittle that it can be readily converted into a fine
powder. Bring a suitable quantity of this powder into a porcelain
dish and drop volatile oil upon it with constant rubbing until it
is uniformly moistened. Pour the vinegar to be perfumed upon

170 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

this glass powder and stir gently with the pestle. The fluid is
then poured into the barrel intended for the reception of the per-
fumed vinegar and a fresh quantity of vinegar poured upon the
glass-powder, this being continued until all the glass-powder has
been brought into the barrel by stirring and pouring over fresh
vinegar. The barrel is then entirely filled with vinegar, and after
'being closed, rolled in order to effect a uniform mixture of its
contents. It is then allowed to rest for a few days for the glass-
powder to settle. The entirely clear perfumed vinegar is then
drawn off into bottles, which are to be kept in a dark cool room,
the odor of the volatile oil being injured by light and heat.

For the preparation of volatile fumigating or toilet vinegars it
is best to dissolve the volatile oils in uncolored vinegar prepared
from alcoholic liquid. Where the remaining of a small residue
after the volatilization of the perfumed vinegar is of no impoft-
tancc, pulverized sugar may be substituted for the glass powder,
as it acts in the same manner ; the only difference is that the
glass-powder being an insoluble body falls to the bottom of the
barrel, while the sugar dissolves together with the volatile oil in
the vinegar.

By the above-described process perfumed vinegars with the
odor of dragon's- wort, peppermint, anise, rose, etc. etc., may be pre-
pared, and by a suitable mixture of those whose odors harmonize
a great number of fumigating and toilet vinegars.

The preparation of aromatized vinegars by means of the extrac-
tive substances of plants is very simple. The parts of plants to
be extracted are placed in a suitable vessel, a barrel or large flask,
and after pouring vinegar over them and closing the vessel, are
allowed to rest for a few weeks in a moderately warm room. In
rase glass vessels are used they have to be kept in a dark room,
light exerting an injurious influence upon the odors. The vege-
table substances used for aromatizing vinegar containing, as a
rule, a large quantity of water, strong vinegar (with 10 to 11 per
cent, acetic acid) should be used.

In the following a few formulae for toilet and table vinegars
are given : —

PREPARATION OF VINEGAR SPECIALTIES. 171

Toilet Vinegars.

Mohr's volatile spirits of vinegar. Equal parts of acetic acid
and acetic ether perfumed with a few drops of oil of cloves.

Aromatic vinegar. Concentrated acetic acid 8 ounces, oil of
lavender 2 drachms, oils of rosemary and cloves each 1 drachm,
oil of camphor 1 ounce.

First dissolve the bruised camphor in the acetic acid, then add
the perfumes ; after standing for a few days with occasional agi-
tation it is strained and is then ready for use.

Henry's vinegar. Dried leaves of rosemary, rue, wormwood,
sage, mint, and lavender flowers each 1 ounce, bruised nutmeg,
cloves, angelica root and camphor, each J ounce, alcohol (rectified)
8 ounces, concentrated acetic acid 32 ounces.

Macerate the materials for a day in the alcohol ; then add the
acid and digest for a week longer at a temperature of about 59° F.
Finally press out the now aromatized vinegar and filter it.

Vinaigre des quatre voleurs. Fresh taps of common wormwood,
Roman wormwood, rosemary, sage, mint and rue each f ounce,
lavender flowers 1 ounce, garlic, calamus aromaticus, cinnamon,
cloves, and nutmeg each 1 drachm, camphor J ounce, alcohol or
brandy 1 ounce, strong vinegar 4 pints.

Digest all the materials, except the camphor and spirit, in a
closely covered vessel, for a fortnight, at summer heat ; then
express and filter the vinegar produced and add the camphor
previously dissolved in the brandy or alcohol.

Hygienic or preventive vinegar. Brandy 1 pint, oils of cloves
and lavender each 1 drachm, oil of marjoram J drachm, gum
benzoin 1 ounce.

Macerate these together for a few hours, then add 2 pints of
brown vinegar and strain or filter.

Cosmetic vinegar. Alcohol 1 quart, gum benzoin 3 ounces,
concentrated aromatic vinegar 1 ounce, balsam of Peru 1 ounce,
oil of neroli 1 drachm, oil of nutmeg J drachm.

172 VINEGAR, CIDER, AXD FRUIT- WINES.

Table Vinegars.

Anise vinegar. Convert into a coarse powder anise seed 5
parts, caraway seed §, fennel and coriander seed each J, pour 5
parts of alcohol and 45 parts of strong vinegar over the powders,
close the vessel air-tight and let the whole digest in a warm place
for 6 to 8 days, shaking frequently. Then strain the liquid off,
press out the residue, filter the vinegar, and put it up in bottles.

Anchovy vinegar. Reduce 1 pound of boned anchovies to a
pulp in a mortar and pass the mass through a hair-sieve. The
bones and parts which do not pass through the sieve are boiled
for 15 minutes in a pint of water and strained. To the strained
liquor add 2J ounces of salt and the same quantity of flour
together with the pulped anchovies, and allow the whole to sim-
mer for 3 or 4 minutes ; as soon as the mixture is cold add J pint
of strong vinegar.

Tarragon vinegar. Pick the young tender leaves of dragon's-
wort (Artemisia dracunculus) when the first flower-buds appear.
Bruise the leaves, place them in a suitable vessel, pour good wine-
vinegar over them, and let the whole stand for a few days. Then
strain the vinegar through a cloth, filter and bottle. The bottles
must be filled entirely full, as otherwise the vinegar will not keep.

Compound tarragon vinegar. — Comminute leaves of dragon's-
wort 100 parts, common bean leaves 25, leaves of basil and mar-
joram each 12J, bay leaves and orris root each 25, cloves 3J, cinna-
mon 6J, and shallots 25. Put all in a suitable vessel, pour 700
to 750 parts of pure, strong vinegar over it, let it stand in a warm
place and digest 5 or 6 days, frequently agitating it. Then strain
the vinegar through linen, press out the residue, add 25 parts of
alcohol, and filter. Keep the vinegar in well-corked bottles in
a cool, dark place.

Effervescing vinegar. — Dissolve 500 parts of loaf sugar in 5000
parts of water, add lemon juice and rind cut up in the proportion
of 1 lemon to 1 lb. of sugar, 1J parts of the best cinnamon, and
12 parts of beer yeast thoroughly washed. Place the whole in a
barrel, and after agitating it thoroughly let it ferment at a tem-
perature of 55° to 60° F. When fermentation has ceased the
vinous fluid is strained and mixed with 1000 parts of best wine-

PREPARATION OF VINEGAR SPECIALTIES. 173

vinegar, previously boiled up, and yeast in the proportion of 1
spoonful to 5 Ibs. of sugar. The fluid is then distributed in sev-
eral earthenware pots and exposed to a temperature of 77° to
88° F. until it has been converted into strong vinegar. This,
while remaining in the pots, is mixed with 200 parts of French
brandy and after two days bottled in small bottles. To each
pound of this vinegar are added 4 part of crystallized tartaric
acid, pulverized, and J part of bicarbonate of soda. The bottles,
as soon as the respective portion of the mixture has been added
to each, must be corked as quickly as possible and then stored
in a cool place.

Herb vinegar. — Chop fine the leaves of marjoram and thyme
each 13J parts, common bean leaves 6J, leaves of mint, basil, and
celery each 3J, and fresh shallots 1J. Pour 600 or 700 parts of
good vinegar over the herbs and treat in the same manner as given
for compound tarragon vinegar.

Pine-apple vinegar. — This excellent vinegar soon loses its
flavor, and it is therefore best to prepare a small quantity at
a time and keep in bottles closed air-tight.

Bruise the slices of pine-apple and pour over them a consider-
able quantity of vinegar. Close the vessel air-tight and let it
stand 12 hours ; then pour off the vinegar and filter.

Celery vinegar. — Celery seed 4J ozs., vinegar 1 pint. Digest
14 days; filter.

Clove vinegar. — Cloves 3J ozs., vinegar 1 pint. Digest 7 days
and strain.

Mustard vinegar. — Black mustard seeds 2 ozs., vinegar 1 pint.
Digest one week and filter.

Lovage vinegar. — Lovage root 2 ozs., lovage seed 1 oz., vinegar
10 ozs. Digest one week and filter.

Preparation of Acetic Ether.

Among the numerous combinations into which acetic acid
enters with other bodies, acetic ether is of special value for the
vinegar manufacturer, it being directly used in the fabrication of
vinegar. It is readily formed on alcohol coming in contact with
acetic acid, and it would seem with special ease when the latter

174 VIXKOAII, niJEii, AND FRUIT-WINKS.

in in a nawynt «fcitc. Hence a «*rnall quantity of it i« found in
nearly all red wine* not prepared by fermentation in closed vat*,
it* presence being din? to the formation of a small quantity of
o/ictie acid from the alcohol, which immediately combines with
the ethyl oxide or ether.

In vinegar containing a small quantity of unchanged alcohol
Home acetic either formal by the conversion of this alcohol into
acetic acid is alwayH present, and imparting a very delicate and
agreeable tjoiiqiict to the vinegar, it i- recommended to conduct
the fabrication of a fine article so that it contains a small quan-
tity of it.

It IH, however, not absolutely necessary to leave a small quan-
tity of alcohol in the vinegar, as either acetic c-ther or alcohol
can U; directly added to the finished product. But in both casen
the vinegar haw to be Htored for neveral weeks; in the first, 'for
the purpose of harnioni/inc the* cxlors of acetic ether and of acetic
acid, and in the latter, for the? formation of acetic ether.

A fluid quite rich in awtie ctlrcr and very suitable for impart-
ing bouquet to table vinegar can in a very simple manner be
prepnred by mixing in a flask one volume of highly concentrated
acetic acid with two volumes of 95 or !KJ per cent, alcohol, and after
cloning flic flask air-tight, allowing the fluid to stand in a warm
room for several months. The resulting fluid is us(*l as an addi-
tion to the vinegar whose odor is to be improved. Entirely pure
acetic ether is best prepared in the following mariner: To 9 parts
of concentrated sulphuric acid .*5.(J parts of commercial absolute
alcohol are added by means of a funnel tube which reaches to the
bottom of the vessel, at the same time keeping the liquid well
stirred. After standing for 24 hours this mixture is added to o*
parts of sodium acetate which has previously been fused and
broken into small fragments, and after 12 hours the mixture is
distilled, Thus (> parts of pure acetic ether are obtained, from
which, by rectifying over calcium chloride, all traces of water arc
removed.

Pure acetic ether or ethyl acetate has the composition ,?\ ,8M

^y2*V ' .)

and represents a fluid clear as water with an agreeable but stupe-
fying odor. Its specific gravity is ().!).'J2 and it boils at 105.2° F.

FABRICATION OF WINE-VINEGAR. 175

On account of its volatility it has to be kept in well-stoppered
bottles, best in a cool place.

About 3J to 7 ozs. of acetic ether suffice for the improvement
of the odor of 100 quarts of vinegar.

CHAPTER XVIII.

FABRICATION OF WINE-VINEGAR.

WINE being an alcoholic liquid with a content of alcohol vary-
ing between 6 and 14 per cent, evidently furnishes an excellent
material for the fabrication of vinegar. However, only in rare
cases wine still palatable is used, the chief supply for this pur-
pose being derived from wine, especially wines with from 8 to 9
per cent, of alcohol, which have deteriorated on account of incor-
rect treatment in the cellar and consequently have become unsal-
able as a beverage. Stronger wines are less difficult to keep in
the cellar, and in case they should spoil and become unfit for a
beverage can be more profitably utilized in the fabrication of
cognac.

Wine-vinegar differs from the ordinary varieties not only in
containing, besides peculiar extractive substances, tartaric acid,
tartrates, etc., but also in possessing a very agreeable odor due to
the change of the odoriferous substances contained in the wine.

In wine-growing countries large sums are annually lost on ac-
count of spoiled wine, the latter being generally sold at a very
low price to vinegar factories, where it is worked as alcoholic
liquid either by itself or in connection with other materials. On
account of the process used the quality of the resulting product
is not what it should be, the wine being worked into vinegar
either in quick -process generators or by a method to be described
later on, to which the term " vinegar boiling" may be applied.
Vinegar, to be sure, is obtained in both cases, but the product is
not especially fine, because wine-vinegar of an excellent quality
can only be prepared by not allowing the process of oxidation to

176 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

proceed too rapidly and preventing the appearance of other fer-
menting processes besides that of acetous fermentation.

Every vinegar, no matter from what kind of raw material it
may have been prepared, acquires a finer odor by storing ; and
this is especially the case with wine-vinegar, which, when freshly
made, has not an agreeable, but rather an unpleasant and stupe-
fying, odor. By storing such vinegar in an apartment in which
the ordinary temperature of a living room prevails, it acquires in
the course of a few weeks an agreeable bouquet, which, similar to
that of wine, increases in fineness for a certain time, and can be
preserved unchanged for a long time by excluding the air and
storing in a cool room ; finally, however, it decreases.

Drinkable wine can be profitably used for the manufacture of
vinegar only in countries where, in consequence of a very abun-
dant harvest, it can be bought at astonishingly low prices, as for
instance in Hungary, where a hectoliter (22 imp. gallons) of ordi-
nary wine can in some seasons be bought for a few dollars.
Otherwise only spoiled or " sick" wines, which are cheap enough,
are used for the purpose.

The term " sick" is generally applied to wines in which altera-
tions take place by the activity of a certain ferment, which when
progressed to a certain degree renders the wine unfit for a beve-
rage. "Turning sour" is, for instance, a sickness frequently
occurring in wines poor in alcohol ; it manifests itself by the
development of large masses of a certain ferment which quickly
destroys the tartaric acid contained in the wine. Another sickness
chiefly occurring in red wines is the so-called "turning bitter,"
the wine, as the term implies, acquiring in a short time by the
action of a peculiar ferment such a disagreeable bitter taste as to
render it absolutely unfit for drinking. Such wine cannot be
used even for vinegar, the latter showing the same disagreeable
bitter taste. Wine attacked by what is called "lactic acid de-
generation" can be used for the manufacture of vinegar, but
yields a" product of very inferior quality, because on the wine
being subjected to acetous fermentation the lactic acid contained
in it is readily converted into butyric acid, which possesses a dis-
agreeable rancid odor completely killing the pleasant aroma of
the bouquet substances. There only remains as a material

FABRICATION OF WIXE-VIXEGAR. 177

actually fit for the preparation of wine-vinegar, wine attacked by
" acetous degeneration ," i. e., wine already so much changed by
the vinegar ferment as to render it unfit for a beverage, and,
further, wine which though not sick is unsound, showing a taste
of mold, of the barrel, etc.

Wine no longer young and not overly rich in alcohol is espe-
cially adapted for the nourishment of the vinegar ferment. Such
wine need only be exposed to a somewhat higher temperature in
order to induce acetous fermentation, which, if not disturbed in its
progress, will finally convert all the alcohol in the wine to acetic
acid.

It may here be remarked that every normal wine always con-
tains, besides the bodies belonging to the series of fatty acids,
acetic acid, though only about a few ten-thousandths of its weight.
By storing the wine, the acetic acid does not increase, but becomes
rather less, it being consumed in the formation of compound
ethers. Hence, a rapid increase of the acetic acid is an indica-
tion of the wine being attacked by acetous degeneration, and if
examined with the microscope the ferment characteristic of
acetous fermentation will be found upon its surface. Many
remedies have been proposed for the cure of acetous degenera-
tion, but none of them is of any value except heating the wine to
about 140° F., whereby the vinegar ferment is killed and the
further progress of acetous fermentation checked. There is,
however, absolutely no remedy for the removal or neutralization
of the acetic acid already present in the wine. Heating the wine
can only be recommended when the evil has been in existence
but a short time and the increase of acetic acid can be de-
tected only by a very sensitive tongue. Mixing wine attacked by
acetous degeneration with sound wine in order to cover up the
acid taste is especially unadvisable ; nothing can be attained by
it except a short delay in the reappearance of the evil and the
transmission of the infection to the sound wine. There are but
two ways in which wine attacked by acetous degeneration can be
in anywise profitably utilized : by employing it for the preparation
of cognac or converting it into wine- vinegar. For the first a dis-
tilling apparatus is required, and, consequently, cannot be effected
12

178 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

by every wine-grower, while for the latter nothing is necessary
but a few vessels readily procured.

Young white wine if attacked by acetous degeneration is also
fit for nothing else than the preparation of vinegar. On account
of its large content of albuminous substances it is, however, more
suitable for the nourishment of the mold ferment than for that of
the vinegar ferment, and consequently many difficulties occur in
its conversion into vinegar. These difficulties can, however, be
prevented by mixing such wine with much air and storing it for
some time in barrels filled up to the bung, or heating it after
mixing with air to about 140° F., the separation of the albumi-
nous substances being effected by both means, though more
rapidly by the latter. Before being further worked the wine has
to be filtered to remove the now insoluble albuminous substances,
whose presence might otherwise give rise to other injurious com-
plications.

Before the appearance of the phylloxera in France and the
consequent decrease in the production of very ordinary wines and a .
better chance of disposing of slightly sick wines doctored by heat-
ing, the manufacture of wine vinegar was extensively carried on in
many communities, the sale of this product realizing very large
sums. A number of commercial travellers regularly visited the
wine-growing districts simply for the purpose of buying up sick
wines to be worked into vinegar by the factories represented by
them. And, notwithstanding the process of manufacture in general
use was rather incomplete, it furnished a highly valued article,
though only with a considerable loss of substance. Pasteur made
some experiments regarding the mode of manufacture and recom-
mended very valuable improvements.

The question, what constitutes the superiority of wine vinegar
over the ordinary product obtained from alcohol, is not difficult
for those who have an accurate knowledge of the constitution
of wine to answer. Wine, besides the ordinary alcohol (ethyl
alcohol), contains very small quantities of other alcohols, for in-
stance, amyl alcohol, which, in the same manner as ethyl alcohol
is converted into acetic acid, are changed into acids possessing a
peculiar odor. Moreover, wine very likely contains a series of
odoriferous substances which together produce the peculiar aroma

FABRICATION OF WIXE-VIXEGAR. 170

termed bouquet or flower, the cenanthic ether found in every wine
forming so to say the keynote in the harmony of the odoriferous
substances constituting the bouquet. In the conversion of wine
into vinegar these bouquet substances are also changed in such a
manner that bodies distinguished by a characteristic odor are
formed. Furthermore, wine contains glycerin, a series of non-
volatile organic acids ; tartaric, malic, succinic acids etc., and
finally the so-called extractive substances. What change these
bodies undergo is not accurately known, but all of them are very
likely subject to certain modifications because a smaller quantity
of extractive substances and of non-volatile acids is found in the
vinegar than in the original wine. The following table shows the
composition of wine and of the vinegar formed from it : —

Wine contains— Wine-vinegar contains—

Water, Water,

Ethyl alcohol, Ethyl alcohol (none or very little),

Other alcohols, Other alcohols (changed),

Glycerin, Glycerin (less ?),

Acetic acid (traces), Acetic acid (much newly formed),

Tartaric acid, Tartaric acid (less).

Tartar, Tartar (less),

Malic acid, Malic acid (less),

Succinic acid, Succinic acid (less),

Tannin, Tannin (changed), [changed),

(Enanthic ether, CEnanthic ether (changed and un-

Bouquet substances, Bouquet substances •»

Extractive substances, Extractive " >• changed,

Coloring substances. Coloring "

Acetic ether and other) newly
compound ethers / formed.

The above comparison shows the thorough modification wine
undergoes in being converted into vinegar, and that the resulting
product must have a bouquet or flower having a certain connec-
tion with that of the wine.

Before entering upon a description of the various methods of
fabricating wine-vinegar it may be mentioned that an actually
fine product can only be obtained by a slow process of acetifica-
tion, numerous experiments having shown that wine treated by
the quick process yields a product very poor in bouquet.

180 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WIXES.

Boiling of Wine- Vinegar.

The oldest method for the preparation of wine-vinegar is that
to which the term " boiling of wine-vinegar'7 (Weinessig-Siederei)
has been applied. A barrel was filled f full with wine to be
converted into vinegar ; a portion of the fluid was then heated
to boiling and poured back into the barrel. Upon the wine thus
heated to about 86° F. the development of the vinegar ferment
commenced, and in the course of a few months the greater portion
of the alcohol was converted into acetic acid. The greater portion
of the contents of the barrel was then drawn off as " ripe wine-
vinegar/' the barrel again filled J full with wine, and a portion of
this heated ; the operation was continued in this manner until so
much slimy sediment had accumulated in the barrel as to render
its complete emptying and cleansing necessary. This crude 'pro-
cess, which, as mentioned, was known in Germany as " vinegar
boiling/' was similar to the method formerly in general use in
France, and which, being still partially practised there in some
large wine-vinegar factories, for instance in Orleans, may be
designated as the

Old French Method of Manufacturing Wine-Vinegar.

The casks, called mothers, which are employed hold not more
than 22 gallons, each cask being filled i full. Immediately
above the level of the fluid a hole is bored in the surface of
the front end of each cask, this hole as well as the bung-hole re-
maining open ; a stop-cock for the discharge of the fluid is placed
in the lower part of the cask. The casks are placed in rows in
the open air, eight, ten, fifteen, or twenty such rows constituting
what is termed a vinegar field '. This so-called fielding, which is
carried on from spring to fall, may be suitable for the southern
part of France, but cannot be recommended for more northern
regions, as the temperature may fall very low during the night
and rise very high during the day. Experience has shown that
the augmentation and efficacy of the ferments are very much in-
jured by strong variations of temperature, and consequently it is
decidedly preferable to keep the casks in a room the temperature

FABRICATION OF WINE-VINEGAR. . 181

of which can be maintained at least at 68° F. The wine re-
mains in these casks until it is converted into vinegar ; the latter
is then drawn off by means of the above-mentioned stop-cock
and the casks are again filled with wine, etc. The hole in the
front end of the cask and the bung-hole permit the free access
of air to the surface of the wine. In other French factories the
work is carried on according to a method somewhat different
from the one just described. Casks having a capacity of up to
100 gallons are used, each cask having in the surface of the front
end a square aperture, which serves to charge the casks with
wine as well as for the influx of air. The casks are placed in three
rows one above another in a room which can be heated. In the
beginning of the operation a certain quantity of strong vinegar
is brought into the casks; about one-fourth of its volume of
wine is then added, and at intervals of eight days about 10
quarts more. When the cask is nearly filled up to the above-
mentioned aperture, the regular process of drawing off vinegar
and filling up again with wine is commenced. If, for instance,
10 quarts of finished vinegar are drawn off, the same quantity of
wine is replaced in the cask, and suppose that, according to the
manner of working, 7, 8, or 10 days are required for the con-
version of this quantity into vinegar, 10 quarts of vinegar are
again drawn off after the expiration of that time, this being con-
tinued until a disturbance occurs.

In the course of time large masses of slimy matter, consisting of
albuminous substances which have become insoluble, coloring
substances, vinegar ferment vegetating below the surface (the so-
called mother of vinegar), decayed vinegar ferment, etc., form a
deposit in the cask, and finally accumulate to such an extent as
to occupy half the volume of the cask, so that the latter has to
be. emptied and thoroughly cleansed. Sometimes the operation
has to be interrupted much sooner on account of the contents of
the cask acquiring a disagreeable, putrid odor. This appearance
of putrefaction is generally due to vinegar eels settling in the in-
terior of the cask — as a rule, immediately above the level of the
fluid — and developing to such an extent that they form a slimy
coating on the barrel and upon the fluid and suppress the devel-
opment of the vinegar ferment. These animalcules are destroyed

182 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

by being deprived of air, and, hence, when the vinegar ferment
is brought to vigorous development it withdraws so much of the
oxygen from the air in the cask that many of them die and their
bodies sink to the bottom, where they sooner or later putrefy. If
this putrefying process takes place before a cleansing of the casks
is considered necessary, it progresses to such an extent that the
entire contents of the cask are converted into a stinking mass
which has to be removed as quickly as possible. The casks in
which such disturbances take place must of course be carefully
cleansed by sulphuring and washing with boiling water before
they are again used.

Modern French Method of Preparing Wine- Vinegar. .

The description of the older French methods given aboye
shows that they are very crude ; their improvement is, however,
not difficult, the principal being to place the casks in a room sub-
ject to but slight variations of temperature, which can be best
effected by providing a good self-regulating stove. The temper-
ature near the ceiling being higher than that immediately above
the floor, the formation of vinegar will take place more rapidly
in the casks placed in the uppermost tier than in those in the
lowest, and consequently the wine in them will in a shorter time
be converted into vinegar.

The first thing in starting the operation according to the old
French method is to acidulate the casks by pouring 10 to 20
quarts of boiling hot vinegar into each and then adding 10 to
15 quarts of wine; after some time, when the wine is acidulated,
the cask is filled up to the previously mentioned aperture and
left to itself until the contents are sufficiently acetified, when a
portion of the vinegar is "drawn off and replaced by wine, this
drawing off of vinegar and refilling with wine being continued
until the cask on account of the accumulation of sediment has to
be cleansed.

This method, which is sometimes very minutely described in
books, could only develop at a time when nothing was known of
the chemico-physiological process of the formation of vinegar or
only erroneous opinions in regard to it prevailed. It is full of

FABRICATION OF WINE- VINEGAR. 183

defects from beginning to end. The acidulation of the casks with
boiling vinegar is simply preposterous, because by heating the
vinegar and pouring it boiling hot into the cask not only the
vinegar ferment contained in it is destroyed but also that present
in the cask or wine itself. That acetous fermentation takes place
notwithstanding is very likely due to the following causes : —

The hot fluid in the cask gradually cools off and is finally re-
duced to the degree of temperature most favorable to the develop-
ment of the vinegar ferment ; in the same proportion as cooling
off takes place the air contracts in the cask and air enters from
the outside. The latter, however, carries with it germs of vinegar
ferment which rapidly develop upon the fluid when reduced to the
proper temperature and cause its acetification. The air pene-
trating into the cask may, however, accidentally contain no vine-
gar ferment, or that contained in it may not reach the wine ; in
such case the wine may for weeks remain in the cask without any
perceptible acetification taking place until the latter finally ap-
pears by an accidental development of the vinegar ferment. This
uncertainty can, however, be readily avoided by the direct culti-
vation of the vinegar ferment- upon the wine to be acetified.
Milk, as is well known, turns sour on exposure to the air by the
milk sugar being converted into lactic acid by the action of a
ferment frequently occurring in the air, this souring taking place
in several hours or several days according to the temperature to
which the milk is exposed. It is further a well-known fact that the
addition of a few drops of sour to sweet milk suflices to imme-
diately induce the formation of lactic acid in the latter ; the fer-
ment of lactic acid fermentation being in the true sense of the word
sowed upon the milk. The ferment develops very rapidly, con-
verts the sugar into lactic acid, and in a short time turns the en-
tire quantity of milk sour.

Exactly the same course may be pursued as regards the vinegar
ferment, it being only necessary to mix the wine with a fluid
containing living vinegar ferment and place it in a sufficiently
warm room in order to immediately start the process of the
formation of acetic acid ; in this case the vinegar ferment is
sowed upon the wine, or, in other words, the wine is infected with
vinegar ferment and intentionally made " sick." This method of

184 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WIXES.

transmitting ferment to the fluid to be fermented has for a long
time been in use in the fabrication of beer and of alcohol. In the
brewery the wort, and, in the distillery, the mash, is brought into
fermentation by " setting" it with yeast, L e., alcohol ferment is
intentionally added. The "setting of wine" with vinegar fer-
ment is the only correct method for the preparation of vinegar
from wine.

Before entering upon a description of this process it will be
necessary to discuss a few undesirable phenomena which may ap-
pear in the conversion of wine into vinegar. A thick white skin
having the appearance of a ruffle may frequently form upon the
surface of the wine set for acetification, the wine in this case becom-
ing constantly poorer in alcohol, but not sour. Sometimes the pre-
viously steady increase in the content of acid in the wine to be aceti-
fied suddenly ceases and a very rapid decrease in the content of aeid
takes place, the development of the white skin upon the surface
being also in this case observed.

The formation of this white coating upon the surface is due to
the development of mold ferment whose cells in a short time
augment to such an extent as to form a thick membranous layer,
the folds being formed by the superposition of the cells. The
mold ferment has the property of converting alcohol as well as
acetic acid into carbonic acid and water, and consequently if it
settles upon wine the latter becomes poorer in alcohol, and if upon
wine containing already a certain quantity of acetic acid the
latter is also decomposed. The mold ferment requires, however,
considerable quantities of nitrogenous combinations for its vigor-
ous development, and, therefore, readily settles upon young wine
which contains a large quantity of albuminous bodies in solution.
This fact explains the reason why young wine is seldom attacked
by acetous generation, but it readily becomes moldy, and, conse-
quently, cannot be recommended as material for the fabrication of
vinegar except the albuminous substances be first separated by
heating the wine to 140° F., which is best effected by means of
the apparatus shown in Fig. 39, p. 149.

Another serious annoyance in the fabrication of wine-vinegar
is the appearance of vinegar eels, which, if not checked in time,
may lead to the interruption of the entire process. These ani-

FABRICATION OF WINE-VIXEGAR. 185

malcules are but seldom found in factories working with pump or
well water, but frequently in those using river water, and conse-
quently their introduction is likely due to such water. In case
of their appearance in large masses it is best to interrupt the
process in time in order to prevent the previously mentioned
phenomena of putrefaction. The fluid containing the vinegar-
eels should be drawn oif into a thoroughly sulphured barrel. The
sulphurous acid kills the vinegar eels as well as the vinegar fer-
ment, and the filtered fluid, after standing a few weeks, whereby
the sulphurous acid is converted into sulphuric acid, can again
be used as alcoholic liquid. The vessels in which the vinegar
eels have settled must also be thoroughly sulphured and then
repeatedly washed with water before being re-used for the fabri-
cation of vinegar.

In the apartment containing the vessels used for the fabrication
of wine-vinegar the greatest cleanliness should prevail ; in fact
one cannot be too scrupulous in this respect, as otherwise by-
fermentations readily take place, and another plague, the vinegar-
lice, or more correctly vinegar-mites (see p. 137), may appear.
Should any of these evils happen the apartment, fluids, and ves-
sels must be thoroughly disinfected by means of sulphurous acid.

Method of the Fabrication of Wine-Vinegar according to Berscli.

As previously mentioned, the fabrication of wine-vinegar by
the quick process cannot be recommended, the odoriferous sub-
stances which give the product its special value being almost
entirely lost thereby ; but neither can it be recommended to
WT>rk according to one of the French processes previously de-
scribed, as they require too much time, are accompanied by large
losses as regards yield, and render it difficult to maintain the
necessary cleanliness during the operation. All these evils can
be avoided by following the method first proposed, in 1876, by
Dr. Josef Bersch, and for some time practised on a manufac-
turing scale.

The essential part of the entire process is the infection of the
wine in suitable vessels with artificially cultivated vinegar fer-
ment under conditions in which the latter can rapidly augment.

186 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

The vessels are so arranged that the finished vinegar can be re-
moved and replaced by wine to be acetified without disturbing
the ferment, one being thus enabled to uninterruptedly continue
the process of the formation of vinegar for a long time, and pro-
ducing vinegar unsurpassed by any other product as regards deli-
cacy of taste and odor. According to the above statement, the
operation includes the cultivation of the vinegar ferment on a small
scale and on a large scale, the former for the production of- pure
ferment and the latter for obtaining wine-vinegar.

The cultivation of pure vinegar ferment on a small scale is
best effected by heating wine in a porcelain or glass dish to 140°
or 150° F., then mixing it with an equal volume of vinegar and
pouring the resulting fluid into shallow porcelain plates, which
are placed in a warm room. In a short time, generally in 24 to
30 hours, the veil-like layer of vinegar ferment previously de-
scribed is observed upon the surface of the fluid. If, besides the
dull spots which are characteristic of pure vinegar ferment, spots
of a pure white color are formed, it is an indication of the devel-
opment of mold ferment. The contents of the plates showing
this phenomenon have to be boiled and then again exposed to
the air.

The wine to be acetified is in large, shallow vats, and is
brought to fermentation by carefully submerging in it one of
the above-mentioned plates containing pure vinegar ferment, so
that the latter is distributed upon the surface; the plate is then
withdrawn. The ferment augments very rapidly, so that, in 24
hours, the surface of the wine in the vat is entirely covered with
a thin veil of it. By keeping the temperature of the room in
which the vats are placed at about 68° F., the acetification of
the wine proceeds rapidly, tests repeated at intervals of 24 hours
showing a constant increase in the content of acid, until in about
8 days all the wine is converted into vinegar and is drawn off.
To avoid the necessity of especially infecting the next quantity
of wine the finished vinegar is not entirely drawn off, a small
quantity (about J to 1 inch deep) upon the surface of which the
vinegar ferment floats being allowed to remain in the vat. By
now introducing a fresh lot of wine the vinegar ferment propa-
gates upon it and after some time converts it into vinegar.

FABRICATION OF WINE- VINEGAR. 187

With sufficient care the process of the formation of vinegar
could thus be uninterruptedly carried on for any length of time
by transferring the vinegar ferment from the finished vinegar to
the wine, if a cleansing of the vat were not from time to time re-
quired, on account of the accumulation on the bottom of the
vessel of decayed vinegar ferment and flakes of albumen which
have become insoluble. When the vat is to be cleansed the last
batch of vinegar is drawn off as long as it runs off clear, and the
turbid remainder in the bottom of the vat collected in a special
cask, where it is allowed to repose until clear. The vat is then
thoroughly cleansed with water, and after filling it again with
wine, the latter is mixed with pure vinegar ferment in the manner
already described.

If, as may happen in very rare cases, mold ferment in the form
of the above-mentioned white spots appears upon the surface be-
sides vinegar ferment, the vat must be at once emptied. The
process should also be interrupted in case of the development of
the so-called mother of vinegar. The latter appears generally in
the form of a soft mass of the consistency of jelly submerged in
the fluid, and consists of vinegar ferment, which, however, does
not, on account of not being in direct contact with the air, pro-
duce acetic acid. The fluid to be acetified can be readily separated
from the mother of vinegar by filtering through a close cloth ;
the mother of vinegar remaining upon the latter and finally drying
to a whitish mass resembling very thin tissue paper.

From the above it will be seen that the rational preparation of
wine-vinegar is a very simple matter ; but there are some diffi-
culties which can, however, be entirely prevented or readily re-
moved. The vinegar ferment is very sensitive towards sudden
changes in the composition of the fluid upon which it lives, as
well as towards quick changes in the temperature. The sudden
change in the composition of the fluid is prevented by not draw-
ing off all the finished vinegar, but allowing a small portion to
remain in the vat. The fresh supply of wine entering from be-
low then lifts up the remainder of vinegar, together with the fer-
ment floating upon it, and the mixture of both fluids is effected
so gradually that the change in the composition of the nourishing

188 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

fluid proceeds very slowly. A sudden change in the temperature
of the workroom can, of course, be readily prevented by proper
heating.

Execution of the Preceding Process on a Manufacturing Scale.

The manufacturer of wine-vinegar has but little choice in the
selection of his material ; he must take the spoiled wines as they
come. The only difference as regards the value of the material
is in the content of alcohol ; the greater the latter, the more
valuable the material. Wines with a content of alcohol not
much above 6 per cent, are best used as they are, as they yield
vinegar with about 5J per cent, of acetic acid. It is advisable,
however, to dilute stronger wines with a content of alcohol up to
10 per cent., so that they contain not more than about 6 per cent.
For the dilution of such wine either water or ordinary vinegar
can be used. The strength of the latter must be so chosen that
the wine-vinegar prepared from a mixture of wine and vinegar
contains 5J to 6 per cent, of acetic acid. The proportions in
which vinegar and wine are to be mixed for this purpose are
found by a simple calculation after accurately determining the
content of alcohol in the wine and that of acetic acid in the
vinegar.

The workroom should be so situated as to be protected against
sudden changes in the temperature and provided with a furnace
or self-regulating stove. The vessels for the formation of
vinegar are placed upon suitable supports, and a table for holding
the plates for the cultivation of the vinegar ferment should be
provided. If the size of the room permit, it is advisable to store
in it a few barrels of the material to be worked, the fluid thereby
gradually acquiring the proper temperature.

For the formation of the vinegar very shallow vats, best with a
diameter of 3J to 5 feet and a depth of 9 to 14 inches, are used.

The' iron hoops are protected from the action of the acetic
vapors by a coat of asphalt lacquer. The vats are placed in the
position they are to occupy in the workroom and filled with
water up to about If to 3} inches from the top, the height of the
level of the fluid being marked on the inside wall. At distances

FABRICATION OF WINE-VINEGAR. 189

of 3f inches apart, and 5f inches in larger vats, holes, I, Fig. 42,
of 0.39 inch diameter are then bored in the wall of the vat ; one
hole is, however, bored in a place about 0.39 inch deeper than /,
and in this hole is fitted a glass tube, g, bent at a right angle,

Fig. 42.

Vat for the Preparation of Wine- Vinegar.

under which is placed an ordinary tumbler. In the bottom of
the vat is a tap-hole, Z, closed by a stopper.

If the vat be filled during the operation with wine, the latter
can only rise until it begins to run off at g. The level of the fluid
being but little below the holes /, an uninterrupted change in the
layer of air above the fluid takes place. A wooden spigot, H, is
fitted in the vat about f to 1 inch above the bottom. In the
centre of the lid D, which lies loosely upon the vat, is an aper-
ture, 0; in a second aperture a thermometer, T, is inserted,
whose bulb dips into the fluid ; and in a third aperture is fitted a
glass funnel, R, reaching nearly to the bottom of the vat.

The operation in such a factory commences with the cultivation
of the vinegar ferment. For this purpose as many shallow por-
celain plates as there are vats are placed upon the table and wine
to the depth of | to j inch poured in each ; the room should be
heated and kept at a temperature of 86° F. The manner of the
development of the vinegar ferment upon the fluid in the plates
as well as the precautions which have to be taken has already
been described. In the commencement of the fabrication the
cultivation of the ferment requires great attention, it being fre-
quently disturbed by the development of mold ferment, but
when the factory is once in a proper state of working it is readily
effected because the air of the workroom - then contains a large

190 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

quantity of the ferment, which rapidly augments on coming in
contact with a fluid favorable for its development.

The vats are charged by allowing the fluid to be converted into
vinegar to flow in until it begins to run out through g. The
setting with ferment is then effected by carefully emptying the
contents of one of the plates upon the surface of the fluid, so that
the greater portion remains floating upon it. Finally the lid is
placed upon the vat and the latter left to itself.

The ferment soon covers the entire surface of the fluid in the
vat, and the commencement of the process of oxidation is in a
short time recognized by the rise of the thermometer dipping into
the fluid. As long as the quantity of alcohol in the fluid is com-
paratively large the process of the formation of acetic acid and
the augmentation of the ferment take place very rapidly and the
thermometer rises constantly ; but with an increase in the quan-
tity of acetic acid these processes become slower, which is indi-
cated by a fall in the temperature of the fluid. The energy of
the process must, however, not be allowed to sink below a certain
limit, care being had to keep it up by raising the temperature of
the workroom, but not higher than is absolutely necessary for the
correct working, as otherwise there would be a loss of acetic acid
or alcohol by evaporation.

The most convenient and business-like manner of operating a
factory arranged as above described is to simultaneously charge
all the vats with alcoholic liquid, it being then entirely in one's
power to regulate the heating of the workroom according to the
indications of the thermometer dipping into the fluid. If, for
instance, the operation commences at 77° F., the thermometer
will soon be observed to rise even if the temperature of the work-
room remains unchanged. By the oxidation of the alcohol suffi-
cient heat is liberated to increase the temperature of the fluid to
above 95° F. ; it is, however, advisable not to allow it to rise
above 86° or 90° F., as otherwise the losses by evaporation are
too great. Hence, if the fluid reaches this limit of temperature
the heating of the workroom is so regulated as to prevent a fur-
ther rise of the thermometer, and a constant temperature is
maintained for several days until it commences to fall almost
simultaneously in all the vats. This fall in the temperature, as

FABRICATION OF WINE- VINEGAR. 191

previously mentioned, is an indication of the fluid now containing
a comparatively large amount of acetic acid and of the slow oxi-
dation of the remaining alcohol. In order to maintain the most
favorable conditions for the efficacy of the vinegar ferment and
to smoothly and rapidly complete the process the workroom is
now so heated as to show a constant temperature of 86° F. as long
as the fluid remains in the vats.

Side by side with the observation of the statements of the
thermometer a chemical examination of the fluid has to be carried
on, this examination gaining in importance the further the forma-
tion of vinegar progresses. If the content of alcohol in the wine to
be worked is known, the test is up to a certain stage limited to the
determination of the acetic acid, but if the process has so far
advanced that to judge from the content of the fluid it contains
scarcely 1 per cent, of alcohol, the latter has also to be determined
by means of the ebullioscope. From this moment on the course
of the process must be very carefully controlled and interrupted
when still 0.15 or at the utmost 0.2 per cent, of alcohol is present ;
this small amount of unchanged alcohol exerts a favorable effect
upon the quality of the vinegar, acetic ether being formed from it
and a corresponding quantity of acetic acid during the time the
vinegar has to be stored.

The interruption of the process is best effected by separating
the fluid from the layer of ferment floating upon it. The stop-
cock H, Fig. 42, is opened and left open as long as fluid runs out.
A layer of vinegar about f to 1 inch deep upon which floats the
vinegar ferment, remains in the vat, and the stop-cock being closed
a fresh supply of alcoholic liquid is introduced through the funnel
R until it begins to run out through g. The process then com-
mences anew in the manner above described.

Theoretically unlimited quantities of wine could be converted
into vinegar by means of such an apparatus, as the vinegar fer-
ment which floats upon the fluid remaining in the vat, rapidly
augments upon the fresh supply of wine and converts it into
vinegar. In practice an occasional short interruption of the pro-
cess is, however, necessary. During the conversion of the wine
the greater portion of albuminous substances held in solution in
it separates as flakes, and, further, a portion of the vinegar ferment

192 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

sinks below the level of the fluid and assumes the form of the
flaky masses called mother of vinegar. The result after a number
of operations is a slimy sediment, which finally accumulates to
such an extent that it has to be removed ; this is effected, after
the finished vinegar is drawn off, by opening the tap-hole Z and
removing the slimy mass by means of a broom or crutch. The
vat is then thoroughly washed with water and can be immediately
recharged with wine. The slimy mass is best collected in a tall
vat and allowed to rest. In a few days it separates into two
layers, the upper one consisting of quite clear vinegar which can
be used for filling up storage-barrels, and the lower one of a
thickly-fluid mass from which a certain quantity of vinegar can
be obtained by filtration.

The vinegar drawn off from the vats is brought into storage
barrels which are filled up to the bung and closed air-tight. The
volume of the vinegar decreasing by cooling, the barrels must
from time to time be examined and kept filled up to the bung-
hole. While stored in the barrels the vinegar almost completely
clarifies, and by carefully siphoning off the clear portion it can be
at once brought into commerce without further treatment. When
a considerable quantity of slimy sediment has collected in the
storage-barrels it is drawn off and brought into the above-men-
tioned clarifying vat, or is clarified by filtration.

In case of disturbances in the fabrication by the appearance of
mold ferment or vinegar eels, the process once commenced must
be carried through as well as possible and then the entire opera-
tion interrupted for the purpose of thoroughly cleansing the vessels
by washing with boiling water or steaming. Under no circum-
stances should it be attempted to continue working with vats
infected with mold or vinegar eels, as it would only lead to a
considerable loss of material and the cleansing of the vessels,
which would have to be finally done, would be more difficult.

In conclusion it may be remarked that it is best to bottle the
vinegar after it has become refined and bright by storing, and close
the bottles with new corks ; by placing the bottles horizontally
in the cellar the vinegar acquires a finer odor without injury to its
content of acetic acid or to its taste.

Though vinegar prepared in the above-described manner and

FABRICATION OF WINE-VINEGAR. 193

racked when entirely bright into bottles remains, as a rule, un-
changed, it may happen to become turbid and form a sediment
which is shown by the microscope to consist of organisms. This
phenomenon is generally accompanied by a change in the odor of
the vinegar, and the acid taste loses sharpness and shows a pecu-
liar insipidity. From an accurate chemical examination the
cause of this alteration must be attributed to the decomposition
of the tartaric and malic acids in the fluid by a ferment. The
only sure remedy for this and all other alterations is to heat the
vinegar to 140° F. whereby all organisms are killed. For heat-
ing larger quantities it is recommended to pass the vinegar through
a coil of tin-pipe surrounded by boiling water and after rapidly
cooling the hot fluid to the ordinary temperature to store it for
some time in a barrel for the separation of the solid bodies.
Smaller quantities can be treated by bringing the vinegar into
glass bottles of 10 to 15 quarts7 capacity, placing the bottles in a
boiler filled with water and heating to the required temperature.
A favorable result from heating can, however, only be obtained
with vinegar which has already acquired a fine taste and odor by
several months' storing. Freshly-prepared wine-vinegar still
showing the previously mentioned stupefying odor, if heated,
does not acquire the fine bouquet it otherwise would by storing.

Preparation of Wine- Vinegar from Lees.

The lees left from the pressing of the wine consist of the stems,
husks, and seeds of the grapes and contain a not unimportant
quantity of must which in many regions is sought to be obtained
by pouring water over them and subjecting them again to pres-
sure. The must thus obtained, though poorer in sugar and ex-
tractive substances than that of the first pressing, yields a drinkable
wine which is generally used for household purposes. All the
valuable constituents are, however, not extracted even by this
treatment, and the remainder can be profitably used for the pre-
paration of vinegar. In countries yielding wine of ordinary
quality it might even be advisable to entirely omit this treatment
of the lees with water in order to obtain an inferior quality of
.must, and use them directly for the preparation of vinegar.
13

194 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

If the fresh lees are thrown in a pile and allowed to ferment,
considerable heat will be developed in the course of a few days,
in fact so much that the mass commences to steam. When fer-
mentation is finished, or shortly before, an agreeable odor of acetic
ether is evolved, which is due to the commencement of the devel-
opment of vinegar ferment upon the lees and the formation of
acetic acid, the latter combining with a certain quantity of the
alcohol formed by fermentation to acetic ether. (At this stage in
the change of the lees a small quantity of acetic ether can be ob-
tained from them by distillation.)

The odor of acetic ether is soon overcome by that of acetic
acid, the conversion of the newly-formed alcohol into acetic acid
now progressing rapidly on the surface of the lees. Later on the
sharp odor of acetic acid again decreases, the greater portion of it
being destroyed by mold and other ferments, the development
of which now progresses with great rapidity in the thoroughly
heated mass of lees ; lactic acid is formed, and later on the mass
acquires a rancid odor calling to mind that of old cheese, which
is due to butyric acid, valeriauic acid, etc. The lees gradually
acquire a darker color and finally putrefaction sets in.

If only the sugar still contained in the lees is to be obtained
and vinegar to be prepared in the most simple manner, the fol-
lowing process may lye used : The mass of lees as it comes from
the press is broken up and put in a pile, where it is left to itself
until it becomes warm and acquires the odor of alcohol and acetic
ether. The mass is then shovelled into a vat and gently pressed
together with a shovel. For every 220 Ibs. of lees us<$, about 10
quarts of water are now sprinkled over the mass by means of a
watering-pot. By the entrance of air while shovelling the pile of
lees into the vat the action of the vinegar ferment has been accele-
rated and a considerable quantity of alcohol converted into acetic
acid, which is indicated by the stronger vinegar odor. The
water permeating the lees almost completely displaces the fluid
containing the alcohol and acetic acid, the latter running oft
through an aperture in the bottom of the vat. It is collected
in a shallow vessel placed in an apartment having the ordinary
temperature of a living room, and is allowed to rest. The vine-
gar ferment present in abundance in the fluid rises to the surface,

FABRICATION OF WIXE-YIXEGAR. 195

where it quickly augments and converts the remainder of the
alcohol in the fluid into acetic acid. The only difficulty to be
overcome in preparing the vinegar according to this method is
the appearance of the mold ferment upon the surface of the fluid.
This can, however, be met by removing the growth of this fer-
ment, which is recognized by its pure white color, by means of
a spoon as soon as it has attained the thickness of a few milli-
meters. The vinegar ferment then soon commences to augment
and suppresses the further growth of the mold ferment.

If the grapes originally used contained from 18 to 20 per cent,
of sugar, the vinegar from the lees prepared according to this
method shows, if not too much water has been used, a content of
at least 4 or 5 per cent, of acetic acid, and consequently is imme-
diately fit for table use. By long storing in barrels kept filled
up to the bung-holes, it acquires a flavor resembling that of vine-
gar prepared from wine.

On account of the simplicity and the slight expense connected
with it the above-described process is especially adapted for the
preparation of vinegar for household purposes. But for commer-
cial purposes on a large scale it is advisable to obtain a stronger
and consequently more valuable product by a somewhat modified
process.

For the preparation of stronger vinegar from a fluid it is neces-
sary to give it a higher content of alcohol or sugar. As is \vell
known, 1 per cent, of sugar in a fluid yields after fermentation in
round numbers 0.5 per cent, of alcohol, and the latter about 0.4
per cent, of acetic acid. These figures, though not absolutely
correct, are sufficiently so for practical purposes. Hence, if the
content of acetic acid is to be increased 1 per cent., 1.2 per cent,
of alcohol or 2.4 per cent, of sugar has to be added to every hec-
toliter (22 imp. gallons) of the fluid to be worked into vinegar.

The substances which impart to wine-vinegar its greater value
as compared with ordinary vinegar are derived from the grape ;
they are found in abundance in the must as well as in the fresh
lees, and are yielded by the latter to water. Hence, excellent
wine-vinegar can be prepared from the lees by working accord-
ing to the following method : —

The lees are brought directly from the press into a vat and

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

twice or three times a day their weight of water is poured over
them. After standing 24 to 36 hours in not too cool a place, the
generally strongly fermenting fluid is drawn off and what is re-
tained by the lees gained by pressing. In this manner a fluid is
obtained differing from the must only in a smaller content of
sugar and tartaric acid, the so-called extractive substances con-
tained in the must which impart to the wine its characteristic
properties being present in abundance.

The must obtained from the lees is now examined as to its con-
tent of sugar. If, for instance, it shows 10 per cent, of sugar, it
will, when fermentation is finished, have a content of nearly 5
per cent, of alcohol and yield vinegar with about 4 per cent, of
acetic acid. By the addition of sugar or alcohol according to the
above-mentioned proportions a fluid can, however, be obtained
which contains 5 or 6 or more per cent, of acetic acid. For "the
final result of the process it is indifferent whether sugar or alcohol
is added to the fluid, the choice depending on the current value of
these articles.

If sugar is used, it is dissolved directly in the fluid obtained
from the lees and the latter allowed to ferment at about 68°
to 77° F. When working with alcohol it is advisable, in order
to avoid loss by evaporation, to ferment the fluid from the lees
by itself, and only add the alcohol when acetous fermentation
is to be induced.

During fermentation the must from the lees separates yeast
in abundance, and being consequently turbid, is allowed to cla-
rify in barrels kept full up to the bung. When clear, it is
siphoned off from the sediment of yeast.

The conversion of this wine from lees into vinegar is best
effected by the process of Rectification, by means of ferment
growing upon the fluid described on p. 185 et seq. The only
difficulty which can present itself is that the wine, being young
wine, contains a considerable quantity of albuminous substances,
and is consequently more inclined towards the nourishment of
mold ferment than towards that of vinegar ferment. This can,
however, be met by setting the fluid at a higher temperature,
about 86° F., with pure cultivated vinegar ferment, and carefully
watching the surface for the formation of white spots of mold

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF RAW MATERIALS. 197

ferment, and immediately removing them. By proceeding in
this manner, the entire surface will in a few hours be covered
with vinegar ferment, when there will be no further danger of
the dislodgment of the latter by mold ferment.

The process of acetification being finished, the vinegar is drawn
off into storage barrels, which must be kept full up to the bung,
and subjected to the same treatment as the product obtained from
wine.

CHAPTER XIX.

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE RAW MATERIALS AND CON-
TROL OF THE OPERATIONS IN A VINEGAR FACTORY.

Determination of Sugar.

THE sacchariferous materials used by the vinegar manufacturer
are either whiskey-mashes, malt-extracts, or must prepared from
wine-lees, apples, etc. The determination of sugar contained in
these fluids is effected by means of various instruments, which
are really hydrometers, with different names and graduations.
The instruments mostly used for the determination of sugar in
whiskey-mashes and malt-worts are known as saccharometers,
and directly indicate the content of sugar in the fluid in per cent:
A similar instrument, known as the must-aerometer, serves for
the determination of the content of sugar in grape-must. Ac-
cording to the arrangement of their scales, the must-aerometers
indicate either direct sugar per cent., or degrees ; in the latter
case the use of special tables accompanying the instrument is re-
quired for finding the per cent, of sugar corresponding to a cer-
tain number of degrees.

No special saccharometer for fruit-must having as yet been
constructed, the determination of the content of sugar has to be
effected either by a tedious method unsuitable for practice, or,
what can be more quickly done, by fermenting a sample of the
respective must, and after determining the quantity of alcohol,
ascertaining from it the content of sugar.

198 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

Iii place of special saccharometers or must -aerometers, an ordi-
nary aerometer indicating the specific gravity can also be used,
and the content of sugar corresponding to a certain specific grav-
ity found from a reducing table. Tables X. to XIII. at the end
of this volume give the content of sugar especially for wine-must,
but also with sufficient accuracy for apple- or pear-must, accord-
ing to the statements of the respective must-aerometers.

Determination of Alcohol.

In a factory using commercial spirits of wine as the fundamen-
tal material for the fabrication of vinegar, the percentage of ab-
solute alcohol contained in it has to be accurately determined in
order to enable one to correctly calculate, in the manner ex-
plained on p. 104, the quantity of water required for the prepa-
ration of alcoholic liquid of determined strength.

For the determination of the content of alcohol in pure spirits
of wine consisting only of water and alcohol, instruments called
alcoholometers are generally used ; they indicate the volumes of
alcohol contained in 100 volumes of the spirits of wine. They
are, however, not suited for this purpose when, as is frequently
the case in a vinegar factory, the spirit of wine contains other
bodies besides water and alcohol. In this case, either the alcohol
contained in a sample has to be distilled off, and after determin-
ing its strength by the alcoholometer, the content of alcohol in
the total quantity of fluid ascertained by calculation, or the de-
termination is effected in a short time and with sufficient accuracy
for practical purposes by the use of a special apparatus.

Determination of the Alcohol with the Alcoholometer.

For the vinegar manufacturer the alcoholometer is an import-
ant instrument in so far as it serves for quickly ascertaining the
degrees of the spirits of wine used. It is best to use an in-
strument which is combined with a thermometer, one being thus
enabled to ascertain the temperature of the fluid simultaneously
with reading off the statement of the alcoholometer. Tables I.
to VIII. appended to this work give the necessary assistance for

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF RAW MATERIALS. 199

the determination of the actual content of alcohol in a fluid whose
temperature is above or below the normal temperature (59° F.).
For the purpose of examining fluids with a very small content
of alcohol, alcoholometers have been constructed which accurately
indicate at least 0.1 per cent. For the demands of the fabrica-
tion of vinegar, four alcoholometers will, as a rule, suffice ; they
should be so selected that one is to be used for fluids with from
0 to 4 per cent, of alcohol, the second for indicating 4 to 8 per
cent., the third 8 to 12 per cent., and the fourth 12 to 16 percent.
The scale of such alcoholometers comprising only 4 per cent, each,
is sufficiently Targe to allow of the easy reading off of one-tenth
per cent. These instruments serve for the determination of the
content of alcohol in alcoholic liquid consisting only of spirits of
wine and water, and are used in examining the progress of the
formation of vinegar during fabrication.

Determination of the Alcohol by the Distilling Test.

The content of alcohol in a fluid containing other bodies be-
sides .alcohol and water cannot be directly determined by means
of the alcoholometer, as the statement of the latter would be in-
correct on account of the foreign bodies exerting a considerable
influence upon the specific gravity. Hence, the content of alcohol
in alcoholic liquid containing a certain quantity of acetic acid, or
of fermented whiskey-mash, beer, wine, etc., cannot be ascer-
tained by immersing the alcoholometer in the respective fluid. In
order to determine the content of alcohol in such a fluid a deter-
mined volume of it is subjected to distillation and the latter con-
tinued until it may be supposed that all the alcohol present is
volatilized and again condensed in a suitable cooling apparatus.
By diluting the fluid distilled over with sufficient water to restore
it to the volume of the fluid originally used and immersing the
alcoholometer the content of alcohol is determined.

A rapid and at the same time accurate execution of all exami-
nations being of great importance in practice, a suitable apparatus
should be used for the distilling test. Such an apparatus is
shown in Fig. 43. It consists of a glass boiling flask, K, having
a capacity of J liter in which sits by means of a perforated

erm

200

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

cork a glass tube, 7^, which is about f inch in diameter and 7}
inches in length. On top this tube is closed by a perforated
cork. From the latter a glass tube bent twice at a right angle
leads to a cooling coil, which is placed in a vessel, F, filled with
water, and ends over a graduated cylindrical glass vessel, G.

Distilliug Apparatus for the Determination of Alcohol.

The uppermost mark on G indicates the height to which the
vessel must be filled to contain J liter = 500 cubic centimeters.
Generally vessels are used which are so graduated that the dis-
tance between two marks is equal to •£-$ liter or 50 cubic centi-
meters. The boiling flask stands upon a plate of thin sheet-iron
(to prevent bursting from an immediate contact with the flame),
and together with the cooling vessel is screwed to a suitable sup-
port.

In distilling a fluid containing acetic acid the vapors of the
latter pass over together with those of alcohol and water, and,
consequently, the statement of the alcoholometer would be in-
correct. This evil is overcome by placing a few pieces of chalk
the size of a hazel nut in the tube R. By the vapors coming in
contact with the chalk the acetic acid is fixed to the lime con-
tained in it, not a trace reaching the cooling vessel.

The manner of executing the test with this apparatus is as fol-

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF RAW MATERIALS. 201

lows : Fill- the vessel G to the uppermost mark with the fluid
whose content of alcohol is to be examined, then pour it into the
boiling flask K, rinse out G with water, and after pouring the
rinsing water into K put the apparatus together as shown in the
illustration. The contents of K are then heated to boiling by a
spirit or gas flame under the sheet-iron plate upon which K rests,
the flame being so regulated that the distillate flows in drops into
G. By too strong heating the contents of K might foam up and
pass into G, which would necessitate a repetition of the experi-
ment with another quantity of fluid. Wine, beer, and whiskey-
mashes frequently foam up on heating, which can, however, be
almost completely overcome by the addition of a small quantity
of tannin solution to the contents in K.

The heating of the boiling flask is continued until sufficient
fluid is distilled over into G to fill it from J to J, this being a sure
indication of all the alcohol present in the fluid having passed
over. The flame is then removed, the vessel G filled to the
uppermost mark with distilled water, and the fluids intimately
mixed by shaking, the mouth of G being closed by the hand.
The fluid now contained in G consists only of water and
alcohol, and its volume is equal to that of the fluid originally
used. By testing the fluid with an alcoholometer the content
of alcohol found corresponds exactly to that possessed by the
fluid examined (alcoholic liquid, beer, fermented whiskey-mash,
etc.).

Determination of the Alcohol by Means of the EbulUoscope.

Many determinations of the content of alcohol in the alcoholic
fluid having to be made in a well-conducted vinegar factory, the
above-described distilling test is objectionable on account of the
time (about twenty minutes) required for its execution. Good
results are, however, obtained by the use of the ebullioscope, and
but a few minutes being required for the test with this apparatus
it can be frequently repeated, and thus even a more accurate idea
of the working of the generators obtained than is possible with a
single determination by the distilling test. The apparatus is very
simple, is easily managed, and allows of the direct reading off,

202

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

without the use of an aerometer or table, of the content of alcohol
in a fluid containing not much over 12 per cent. It is much
used in France for the examination of wine. The principle of
the apparatus is based upon the initial boiling point of the fluid
to be examined, an alcoholic fluid boiling at a lower temperature
the more alcohol it contains. For instance, wine with —

12 per cent, by volume of alcohol boils at 196.7° F.

10 " " " " " 198.3 "

8 " " " » " 201.0 "

5 « « it u « 203.3 "

Fig. 44 shows Vidal-Malligaud's ebullioscope. To a round
cast-iron stand is screwed a thick-walled brass cup which expands

Fig. 44.

Vidal-Malligaud's Ebullioscope.

somewhat towards the top ; a screw-thread is cut in the upper
edge. A hollow-brass ring is soldered into the cup near its base,

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF RAW MATERIALS. 203

one end of the ring entering it somewhat higher than the other.
On filling the cup with the fluid to be examined this hollow ring
also becomes filled. On the one side the ring carries -a small
sheet-iron chimney, and by placing a small spirit-lamp under this
the fluid in the cup is heated, this arrangement securing a quick
circulation of the fluid during heating. Upon the upper edge
of the cup, a lid is screwed, in which a thermometer is inserted
air-tight. The mercury bulb of the thermometer is on the lower
side of the lid, and in determining the boiling point dips into the
fluid. The tube of the thermometer is bent at a right angle out-
side the lid, the latter carrying the scale, which is divided not
into degrees but in per cent, by volume of alcohol. The scale
can be shifted upon a supporting plate so that it can be fixed at
any desired place, and, consequently, also so that the thermometer
when dipped into boiling water indicates 0. The scale is secured
by small screws. Into a second aperture in the lid is screwed the
cooling pipe which is surrounded by a wide-brass tube for the
reception of the cooling water. During the determination of the
alcohol, which requires about ten minutes, the cooling water need
not be renewed, the boiling point remaining constant during the
short time (one to two minutes) necessary for making the obser-
vation. In heating wine the gases and besides a few light
volatile varieties of ether, as acetic ether, aldehyde, ethylamine,
propylamine, and similar combinations escape through the cooling
pipe which is open on top, and in heating beer, carbonic acid.
For the determination of the alcohol in sacchariferous wines, the
ebullioscope is less adapted, nor does it give accurate results with
the use of dilute wines.

It has been ascertained by the French Academy that the state-
ments of the ebullioscope as regards the quantity of alcohol in
the wine differ on an average ^ per cent, from those found by
accurate distillation. The entire apparatus with the exception of
the thermometer being of metal, it is not liable to breakage.
The mercury bulb of the thermometer is comparatively large.
For the vinegar manufacturer the ebullioscope is a very valu-
able instrument, as it enables him to accurately determine to with-
in 1 per cent, the content of alcohol in a fluid in a shorter time
than is possible with any other instrument. Its use is especially

204 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

recommended when the working of one or more generators is to
be ascertained in a short time, perfectly reliable results being ob-
tained in connection with the determination of the acid by titra-
tiou.

Determination of the Content of Acetic Anhydride in Vinegar, or

Acetometry.

The content of acetic acid in vinegar is sometimes ascertained
by a species of hydrometer termed an acetometer. The statements
of these instruments are, however, very unreliable. Vinegar
made from dilute alcohol or ripe wines in which no great excess
of albuminous or other matter is present might to a certain limit
be tested with sufficient accuracy by the acetometer, but vinegars
made from malt, poor wines, and such liquids as contain au ex-
cess of organic matters, do not admit of being tested with the
required degree of accuracy by this method, since the apparent
quantity of real acetic acid is increased by the presence of foreign
bodies which add to the density of the liquid. In some cases the
vinegar is saturated with chalk or milk of lime, the solution fil-
tered, and the specific gravity of the acetate of lime liquor ascer-
tained, by which a nearer approximation is arrived at than by
the direct testing of the vinegar, yet implicit reliance cannot be
placed on either of these two methods.

The best method of ascertaining the percentage of acetic acid
in vinegar is by titration or volumetric analysis. For the execu-
cutiou of the test a few instruments are required, which shall be
briefly described as follows : For measuring off small quantities
of liquids, serve a burette and pipette, the latter a glass tube of
the form shown in Fig. 45. It is filled by dipping the lower
end into the liquid and sucking on the upper with the mouth
until the liquid has ascended nearly to the top. The upper end
is then quickly closed with the index finger of the right hand.
By slightly lifting the finger, the liquid is then allowed to flow
off by drops until its level has reached a mark above the convex
expansion, when it will contain exactly the number of cubic cen-
timeters indicated opposite to the mark.

The burette is a cylindrical glass tube open on the top, gradu-

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF RAW MATERIALS.

205

ated, commencing from the top, into whole, one-tenth, and one-
fifth cubic centimeters. The lower end of the tube is drawn out

Fig. 45.

Fig. 46.

to a somewhat distended point, so as to allow a rubber tube to be
drawn over it and securely fastened. In the lower end a glass

200

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

tube drawn out to a fine point is inserted. The rubber tube is
compressed in the centre by a pinch-cock or clip, whereby the

lower end is closed. Fig. 46
shows a burette secured in a
stand and Fig. 47 the lower
part, with the clip on a larger
scale. The burette is filled
with liquid from above by
means of a small funnel. By
a quick, strong pressure upon
the handle-joint of the clip,
some liquid is then allowed
to flow in a jet into a vessel.
By this the tube below the
clip is filled with liquid -and
the air contained in it ex-
pelled. By a slight or stronger
pressure the liquid can, after
some experience, be ejected in
drops or in a stronger jet.
The number of cubic centi-
meters which have been al-
lowed to flow out can be
readily read off by keeping
the surface of the fluid in the
tube on a level with the eye.
The test liquor generally used
is normal caustic soda solu-
tion, one cubic centimeter of it
corresponding to 0.06 gramme

of acetic anhydride, and for especially accurate determinations de-
cinormal solution, one cubic centimeter of it corresponding to
0.006 gramme of acetic anhydride and y1^ cubic centimeter to
0.0006 gramme.

For determining the acetic acid the burette is filled to the O
point with soda solution ; a corresponding quantity of vinegar is
then accurately measured off by means of the pipette, and after
bringing it into a beaker, colored red by the addition of one or

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF RAW MATERIALS. 207

two drops of litmus tincture and diluted with four to six times
its quantity of distilled water. The beaker is placed upon a
Avhite support under the burette and the soda solution in the
latter ejected in a strong jet by pressing with the right hand the
handle-joint of the clip, the fluid being constantly agitated by
gently swinging the beaker with the left. The influx of soda
solution is interrupted as soon as a blue coloration on the point
where it runs in is observed. After thoroughly stirring the fluid
with a glass rod, the soda solution is again allowed to run in, but
now drop by drop, the fluid being stirred after the addition of
each drop. This is continued until the fluid has acquired a violet
color with a strong reddish shade, and the addition of one drop
more of soda solution changes the color to blue. The appearance
of the violet coloration is called the neutralizing point, while the
change of color from violet to blue indicates that the fluid is now
neutral, i. e., contains neither free acetic acid nor an excess of
caustic soda. The determination is based upon the coloring sub-
stance of litmus appearing red in acid, violet in neutral, and blue
in alkaline solutions.

Instead of soda test liquor a solution of ammonia is sometimes
used to saturate the acid. The solution is prepared by adding
water to concentrated ammonia till the specific gravity is 0.992 ;
1000 grains of this dilute ammonia contain one equivalent of am-
monia, which is capable of saturating one equivalent of acetic
acid. The application of this test is similar to that already de-
scribed.

There is some difficulty in preserving the dilute ammonia of
the same strength, which is an objection to its use ; but a uni-
formity of concentration may be insured by introducing into the
bottle two glass hydrometer bulbs so adjusted that one remains
barely touching at the bottom, and the other floats just under the
surface of the liquid as long as the test liquor retains the proper
strength. If a part of the ammonia volatilizes, the specific
gravity of the liquor will become proportionally greater, and the
glass bulbs rise ; the lower one higher from the bottom, and the
upper one partly above the surface. When this happens, more
strong ammonia is added, till the hydrostatic drops are properly
readjusted.

208

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

Fig. 48.

Determinations of acetic acid by titration having to be fre-
quently executed in a vinegar factory it is advisable to use an
apparatus which will facilitate the operation. Such an ap-
paratus is shown in Fig. 48. Upon a table stands a two-liter
flask holding the normal soda solution. The
flask is closed air-tight by a cork provided
with three perforations. In one of these per-
forations is inserted a glass-tube, A, in the
lower end of which is a stopper of cotton upon
which are placed small pieces of burnt lime.
On top, the tube is closed by a glass-tube drawn
out to a fine point. Through another of these
perforations passes a glass-tube, jR, bent twice
at a right angle and reaching to the bottom of
the flask ; the portion of this tube outside of
the flask, as will be seen in the illustration, is
somewhat longer than that in the flask, and,
consequently, the tube forms a siphon. The
outside portion of this tube is connected by a
short rubber tube with the upper portion of
the burette B. The latter is secured in a ver-
tical position by two rods placed on the stand
holding the flask. Below the burette is con-
nected with a short rubber tube in which is in-
serted a glass-tube drawn out to a fine point.
On the side near the top of the burette is a small tube bent at a
right angle, which is connected by a short rubber tube with the
tube L, the latter reaching only to below the edge of the cork.
Above and below the burette is closed by the clips Q and QL.

For working with the apparatus the flask is filled with normal
soda solution and the cork inserted air-tight after removing from
it the tube A and substituting for it a small glass-tube. Now
open the upper clip Q and blow vigorously through the glass-
tube substituted for A, whereby the fluid is forced through the
tube R into the burette. This being done cease to press upon Q,
whereby the latter closes and stops a further discharge of the
fluid. The tube, A, is then placed in position. By now pressing
on the clip Q the fluid passes into the burette, the air contained

EXAMINATION OF VINEGAE. 209

in the latter entering the flask through the tube L. The burette
being emptied by the discharge of the fluid through Q19 it is re-
filled for another determination of acid by simply pressing on Q,
and this can be repeated as long as the flask contains soda solu-
tion.

In discharging the fluid from the burette by opening Qv air
from the outside passes into the apparatus through A. In doing
so it must, however, pass through the line which fixes the car-
bonic acid contained in it, so that the fluid in the flask remains
free from carbonic acid even after standing for months.

The calculation of the quantity of acetic acid present in
the vinegar examined is made as shown by the following ex-
ample : —

For 10 cubic centimetres of vinegar were consumed 70 cubic
centimetres of decinormal soda solution.

One cubic centimetre of decinormal soda solution being equal
to 0.006 gramme of acetic acid, hence 70 cubic centimetres
0.42 gramme.

Now, as 10 cubic centimetres contain 0.42 gramme of acetic
acid, 100 cubic centimetres contain 10 times 0.42 gramme — 4.2
grammes of acetic acid; or the vinegar examined contains 4.2 per
cent, by weight of acetic acid.

CHAPTER XX.

EXAMINATION OF VINEGAR AS TO THE PRESENCE OF FOR-
EIGN ACIDS AND OF METALS, AS WELL AS TO ITS DERIVA-
TION.

Detection of Acids.

SOME unscrupulous manufacturers, in order to pass off weak
or inferior vinegars, adulterate them with mineral acids. Such
adulteration is not only a fraud, but dangerous to health, and it
is necessary to indicate the means by which such additions can
be detected.
14

210 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

Sulphuric acid — Add to a sample of the vinegar a few drops
of a solution of barium chloride. If the vinegar becomes slightly
cloudy, the impurities are due to sulphates naturally present in
the water or in the substances from which the vinegar has been
made. A heavy white cloud slow in subsiding will indicate free
sulphuric acid in small proportion. If the quantity of sulphuric
acid is more than a thousandth, the sulphate of baryta produces a
precipitate and falls rapidly to the bottom of the test-glass.

The presence of free sulphuric acid in vinegar can also be de-
termined by coating a porcelain plate with strong sugar solution
and allowing the latter to dry up. By bringing a few drops of
vinegar to be examined upon the plate and placing the latter in
a moderately warm place, pure vinegar evaporates, leaving a
slightly brownish stain ; vinegar containing free sulphuric acid
leaves a dark-brown stain which on heating the plate turns
black.

The presence of free sulphuric acid in vinegar can be deter-
mined with still greater sharpness by the following test : Divide
a piece of starch the size of a grain of wheat in 50 cubic centi-
metres of vinegar and reduce the fluid one-half by boiling. To
the clear fluid cooled to the ordinary temperature add a drop of a
solution of iodine in spirits of wine. Vinegar containing no free
sulphuric acid at once acquires a blue coloration ; if free sulphuric-
acid be present, the fluid remains colorless. This test is based
upon the fact that starch by continued boiling with sulphuric acid
is converted into dextrin and finally into sugar. Neither of these
bodies reacts upon iodine, while a very small quantity of starch
gives with iodine the characteristic blue coloration.

Hydrochloric acid. Take about 100 cubic centimetres of the
vinegar to be tested and distill off one-half by means of the ap-
paratus Fig. 43, p. 200. Compound the fluid distilled off with a
few drops of solution of nitrate of silver. In the presence of
hydrochloric acid a white, caseous precipitate is immediately
formed which consists of chloride of silver and dissolves in liquid
ammonia added in excess.

Nitric acid is not a frequent adulteration. It is detected by
saturating with carbonate of sodium or of potassium several
ounces of vinegar and evaporating the whole to dryness. The

EXAMINATION OF VINEGAR. 211

addition of sulphuric acid and copper turnings will cause the
evolution of nitrous vapors if nitric acid be present.

Lactic acid. In many varieties of vinegar small quantities of
lactic acid occur, which can be detected by slowly evaporating
1 00 cubic centimetres of vinegar in a porcelain dish until but a
few drops remain. If these drops show a very strong pure acid
taste, the vinegar examined contains lactic acid. The presence of
lactic acid is, however, not due to an intentional addition, but to
the material used in the manufacture of the vinegar, that prepared
from grain^ malt, or beer always containing it.

Sulphurous acid. This acid occurs only in vinegar prepared
by fermentation when stored in freshly sulphured barrels. It
may, however, occur in vinegar whose content of acetic acid has
been increased by the addition of high graded acetic acid prepared
from wood-vinegar. The most simple method of detecting the
presence of sulphurous acid is by placing 100 cubic centimetres
of the vinegar to be examined in a glass-distilling apparatus, and
connecting the latter by a gas-tube with a vessel containing 50
cubic centimetres of pure water compounded with about 10 drops
of nitric acid. After distilling over ^ of the vinegar the acidu-
lated water is heated to boiling for a few minutes and solution of
barium chloride added. If the vinegar contains sulphurous acid,
a heavy white precipitate is formed.

Detection of Petals.

The occurrence of metals in vinegar is due to the vessels em-
ployed in the manufacture or the storage, and, hence, the use of
metallic utensils, such as stop-cocks, pumps, etc., should be avoided
as much as possible. Besides iron, copper, zinc, and tin are occa-
sionally found in vinegar.

Iron. The presence of this metal imparts a black color to the
vinegar, which is increased by a few drops of tincture of gall-nuts.
If the color of vinegar compounded wTith a few drops of solution
of tannin is not changed after standing a few hours, the vinegar
contains no iron, or only so small a quantity as to be of no im-
portance.

Copper. While the presence of a small quantity of iron is of

212 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

little importance in a hygienic respect, that of copper, zinc, or tin
is more serious, the combinations of these metals having a poison-
ous effect upon the organism. Copper can be detected in vinegar
by evaporating to dry ness about 1 quart of the vinegar to be
examined and dissolving the residue in a few drops of nitric acid.
By compounding a portion of this solution with ammonia in
excess the fluid acquires a perceptible blue coloration in the
presence of copper; the latter can be shown with still greater
sharpness by dipping polished iron into another portion of the
fluid. If the iron becomes coated with a perceptible red film
(consisting of actual copper), the presence of this metal is shown.
Tin. Evaporate to dryness at least 2 or 3 quarts of the vine-
gar ; dissolve the residue in hydrochloric acid, and conduct sul-
phuretted hydrogen through it until the fluid has acquired a
strong odor of the latter. If a precipitate is formed, it is filtered
off, dissolved in strong hydrochloric acid, and the solution divided
into several portions. Compound one of these portions with
dilute solution of chloride of gold ; if after some time it becomes
rod and precipitates red flakes, the vinegar contains tin. The
presence of tin is also indicated if another portion of the solution
of the precipitate in hydrochloric acid does not acquire a blue
color after the addition of potassium ferrocyanide. The behavior
of the fluid towards solution of potassium permanganate may
serve as a controlling test ; if the fluid contains tin, the solution
of potassium permanganate becomes discolored.

Determination of the Derivation of a Vinegar.

The examination of a vinegar as regards the materials used in
its preparation is generally effected by the senses of odor and taste ;
there are, however, many easily executed tests which assist the
judgment of the tongue and nose.

Vinegar prepared from dilute spirits of wine is colorless or only
colored slightly yellowish. If such vinegar has a dark yellow
color resembling that of wine, it is generally due to the addition
of sugar color, the addition being chiefly made on account of the
erroneous opinion prevailing among the public that vinegar clear
as water or only slightly colored lacks strength.

EXAMINATION OF VINEGAK. 213

Vinegar prepared from spirits of wine leaves, when carefully
evaporated in a porcelain dish, a very small residue of a whitish
or very slight yellow color, which chiefly consists of the salts
contained in the water used for the preparation of the alcoholic
liquid, an accurate examination showing it to consist of calcium
acetate, gypsum, and a very small quantity of sodium chloride.
If the residue is of a dark brown color, swells up when heated,
and leaves a lustrous black coal, the vinegar has been colored
with sugar color.

Beer and malt vinegars are dark yellow, generally with a red-
dish shade. On account of their content of dextrin they foam
when shaken, and, when carefully evaporated, leave a brown, gum-
like residue. The latter consists chiefly of dextrin, and contains,
besides, the other extractive substances occurring in beer and
malt vinegar, such as salts of ashes, especially much phosphoric
acid. On heating strongly an odor calling to mind that of
toasted bread is evolved. At a still higher temperature the resi-
due turns black and finally acts like caramel : it evolves pungent
vapors and leaves a lustrous coal.

The great content of phosphoric acid characteristic of malt or
beer- vinegar may also serve for the determination of the deriva-
tion of such vinegar. By compounding beer or malt- vinegar
with some nitric acid and a solution of ammonium molybdate
and heating, the fluid, after standing, separates a yellow precipi-
tate, which contains the phosphoric acid present in the fluid.

Wine-vinegar is best recognized by its characteristic odor, the
latter becoming especially perceptible by rinsing out a large tum-
bler with the vinegar, and after allowing it to stand for a few hours
examining the odor of the few drops remaining in the tumbler.
The greater portion of the acetic acid having then volatilized
the vinous odor becomes more prominent. Cider-vinegar, the
odor of which is somewhat similar to that of wine-vinegar, can
in this manner be plainly distinguished from the latter, the residue
in the tumbler having an entirely different odor.

The presence of potassium bitartrate is a characteristic sign
of wine-vinegar. By evaporating wine-vinegar to a brownish
syrupy mass, boiling the latter with some water, rapidly filter-
ing the boiling fluid into a test tube, and adding double its volume

214 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

of strong spirits of wine, a sand-like precipitate falls to the bottom
of the test-tube, which consists of very small crystals of tartar.
This, however, does not prove the sample to be genuine wine-
vinegar, tartar also being contained in imitations. With a suffi-
ciently sharp sense of smell this is, however, the surest means of
distinguishing genuine wine-vinegar from a spurious article.

In case the derivation of a vinegar is to be established with
absolute certainty it has to be subjected to an accurate chemical
analysis, and this being better made by an analytical chemist
onlv a few hints are here given which may serve as a guide for
such analyses.

In a vinegar prepared from a fermented fluid a certain quantity
of glycerin and succinic acid will, as a rule, be present, these bodies
being ahvavs formed bv the fermentation of a sacchariferous

*• «

fluid, and, consequently, when found, the respective vinegar can-
not have been prepared from an alcoholic liquid consisting only of
spirits of wine and water. If they are found only in very small
quantities, the alcoholic liquid used for the fabrication of the vine-
gar consisted very likely of spirits of wine and water with the
addition of beer or fermented whiskey-mash, and in this case
small quantities of dextrin and of phosphates will also be found.
The total absence of tartaric acid and the presence of malic acid
indicate the derivation of the vinegar under examination from
fruit, though not necessarily from apples or pears, other saccha-
riferous fruits also containing malic acid. A content of tartaric
acid is, however, no proof of genuine wine-vinegar, as its presence
may be due to an intentional addition, and it is very difficult to
arrive at a certain conclusion about the genuineness of a pre-
tended wine-vinegar, especially in the case of cider-vinegar to
which tartaric acid has been added.

Should pepper, chillies, etc., be added to vinegar for the pur-
pose of conferring more pungency, they may be detected by neu-
tralizing the acid with carbonate of soda and tasting the liquor;
if these bodies be present, the solution will still retain the sharp-
ness peculiar to such spices.

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD-VINEGAR. 215

CHAPTER XXI.

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD-VINEGAR.

AMONG the numerous organic substances which by distillation
in -closed vessels give rise to acid products, wood is employed in
the arts for the manufacture of acetic acid. "Wood-vinegar, or
acetic acid from wood, is also known when impure under the
name of pyroligneous acid.

Wood essentially consists of woody fibre, small quantities of
salts and sap, and a variable quantity of hygroscopic water.
Woody fibre or cellulose constitutes about 96 per cent, of dry
wood, and is composed of C6H10O5; in 100 parts, of carbon
44.45; hydrogen 6.17; oxygen 49.38. The vegetable sap con-
sists chiefly of water, but contains organic as well as inorganic
matters, partly in solution and partly suspended. The inorganic
constituents (the ash left after the incineration of the wood) arc
the same in all kinds of wood. The quantity of water contained
in wood is generally larger in soft than in hard woods. One
hundred parts of wood recently felled contain, according to
Schubler and Xeuffer, the following quantities of water : —

Beech .... 18.6
Birch . . . .30.8
Oak .... 34.7

Oak (quercus pedunculata) 35.4
White fir 37.1

Common fir . . .39.7
Red beech . . .39.7
Alder .... 41.6
Elm .... 44.5

Red fir , 45.2

The branches always contain more water than the trunk.

Wood is called air-dry when its weight no longer changes at
an ordinary temperature ; in this state it contains still 1 7 to 20
per cent, of water. The latter can be expelled by continued
heating at 212° F., but wood thus dried re-absorbs about 20 per
cent, of water from the air.

When felled nearly all kinds of wood are lighter than water ;
a few are, however, heavier, but these are the harder kinds in which

216 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

the cellulose is so closely packed that very little room is left for
the retention of air. The following table exhibits approximately
the specific gravity of various woods : —

T 1

0 47

Ash .

. 0.64

Fir and pine .
Beech
Birch

. 0.55
. 0.59
. 0.62

Oak
Hornbeam

. 0.70
. 0.76

The content of ash is not the same in all woods; it varies
considerably in different parts of the same tree and also with its
age. According to Violet, in the cherry tree the content of ash
is greatest in the leaves (about 7 per cent.), next in the lower
parts of the roots (5 per cent.) ; considerably greater in the bark
than in the Wood, in the former from 1.1 to 3.7 per cent., and in
the latter 0.1 to 0.3 per cent. Saussure found in the bark of the
oak 6 per cent., in the branches 0.4 per cent., and in the trunk
0.2 per cent, of ash. The ash consists chiefly of carbonates of
calcium, potassium, and sodium, further of magnesia and the
phosphates of different bases.

The average composition of 100 parts of air-dry wood is : car-
bon 39.6 parts, hydrogen 4.8, oxygen and nitrogen 34.8, ash 0.8,
hygroscopic water 20 ; and that of artificially dried wood : car-
bon 49.5, hydrogen 6, oxygen and nitrogen 43.5, ash 1.

Decomposition of u-ood. — Cellulose when carefully treated re-
mains unchanged for a long time, even thousands of years. Wood
is, however, subject to greater changes, though under especially
favorable circumstances it may last for several centuries. In the
presence of sufficient moisture and air the nitrogenous bodies of
the sap are, no doubt, first decomposed, and the decomposition
being next transferred to the woody fibre, the latter gradually
loses its coherence, becomes gray, then brown, and finally decays ;
hence, wood rich in water decays more rapidly than dry wood.

Wood to be preserved should, therefore, be as dry as possible,
and the nitrogenous bodies, which can be but incompletely re-
moved by lixiviatiou, be converted into insoluble combinations ;
tar and one of its most effective constituents — creasote — mercuric
chloride, blue vitriol, chloride of zinc, and many other substances
having been recommended for this purpose. Moreover, it has been
successfully attempted to produce certain insoluble bodies, such

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD- VINEGAR. 217

as aluminium and copper soaps, in the interior of the wood by
saturating it with soda soap and then with aluminium chloride or
blue vitriol, or such as barium phosphate by saturating with
sodium phosphate and then with barium chloride,, etc.

By heating to 212° F. the wood remains unchanged; it
yields up only sap constituents. If, however, the temperature be
increased, for instance to 392° F., a small quantity of sugar is,
according to Mulder, formed from cellulose in a closed vessel,
and from wood, according to G. Williams, an acid not yet
thoroughly known, methyl alcohol (see further on), an oil boiling
between 277° and 421° F. and a small quantity of furfurol.

In the presence of water, wood in a closed vessel is, however
already decomposed at about 293° F., if this temperature be
kept up for a long time, for instance, a month, the wood, accord-
ing to Sorby, being converted into a lustrous black mass with
the formation of acetic acid and gases.

According to Daubree, pine, when heated for some time with
water in an entirely closed vessel to 752° F., is converted into a
mass having the appearance of stone-coal and approaching an-
thracite in its behavior. Baroulier made similar observations,
masses resembling stone-coal being formed by pressing sawdust,
stems, and leaves together in moist clay and heating continuously
to from 392° to 572° F., so that the vapors and gases could
escape only very slowly.

By avoiding all heating concentrated sulphuric acid converts
cellulose into a gum-like body, dextrin, which by diluting with
water and long digesting is converted into sugar (starch sugar) ;
when heated the wood, however, turns black with development of
sulphurous acid and complete destruction. By dilute sulphuric
acid cellulose is converted into starch, or at least a starch-like
body colored blue by iodine and dextrin. Wood is, however, but
little affected by it at an ordinary temperature, while at a higher
temperature a certain quantity of sugar (starch sugar) is formed,
water being absorbed at the same time. This behavior has been
utilized for obtaining alcohol by fermenting the sugar with yeast
after neutralizing the acid by calcium carbonate, for instance,
chalk. The unattacked woody fibre can be used as material for
paper.

218 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

Concentrated hydrochloric acid colors wood rose color to violet
red and then rapidly destroys it. Dilute hydrochloric acid, on
heating, forms sugar ; but, according to Zetterlund, the quantity
of absolute alcohol obtainable in this manner is very small,
amounting to about 2.3 per cent, of the weight of the wood.*
By macerating wood with dilute hydrochloric acid at an ordinary
temperature, the cellulose is not changed, but the so-called lignin
seems to be dissolved. By forcing dilute hydrochloric acid by a
pressure of two atmospheres into trunks provided with the bark,
and subsequent washing out in the same manner with water, and
drying by means of a current of air at 98.6° F., wood acquires
great plasticity. In a moist state wood thus treated can be
pressed together to one-tenth of its original volume.

Hydriodic acid reduces the wood to several hydrocarbons,
water being formed and iodine liberated.

Concentrated nitric acid, or, still better, a mixture of it and
sulphuric acid, converts cellulose, for instance, cotton, into gun-
cotton ; wood is colored yellow and partially dissolved. Dilute
nitric acid, for instance, of 1.20 specific gravity, has no effect in
the cold, and but little when heated.

By bringing cellulose in contact with dilute aqueous solutions
of alkalies, it is colored blue by iodine, and consequently a starch-
like substance is formed, but no humus-like bodies ; from wood
only the lignin is extracted, the woody fibre remaining unchanged.
By heating with strong alkaline lyes, or, still better, by fusing
with solid caustic alkalies, acetic acid is, according to Braconnot,
first formed and then oxalic acid. The latter acid is frequently
obtained by this process.

On heating shavings with sodium sulphide an abundant quan-
tity of acetic acid (sodium acetate) is formed ; the addition of
sulphur to caustic soda seems to have the effect of preventing the
formation of oxalic acid.

<• According to prior experiments by Bachet, it is, however, claimed that
up to 23 per cent, of sugar can be obtained from wood by boiling 10 to 12
hours with water containing one-tenth of hydrochloric acid.

MANUFACTUKE OF WOOD- VINEGAR. 219

Decomposition of Wood at a Higher Temperature.

All organic bodies, except those which sublime without change,
are decomposed when exposed to heat in closed vessels, their con-
stituents interchanging with one another and forming new com-
pounds, which are of sufficient stability to resist the particular
temperature employed. Thus, the elementary components of
wood, after a certain amount of heat is applied, arrange them-
selves into combinations quite distinct from those in which they
originally were. Some of them are gaseous, but at moderate
temperatures by far the greater part are liquid, the quantity of
the latter depending entirely upon the greater or less degree of
heat applied in this distillation.

The main cause of decomposition of such an organic body as
wood by heat is that the strong affinity of its contained oxygen
for carbon and hydrogen and the comparatively greater stability
of the more simple compounds of these bodies, cause their for-
mation the moment there is a sufficient amount of commo-
tion amongst the atoms of the original body to allow them to
commingle freely. Heat sets up the necessary vibration, and
those compounds are at once formed which can resist without
rupture of their constituents from each other, the multitude or
amplitude of the vibrations corresponding to the temperature at
which they are evolved.

As a general rule, those bodies containing much oxygen are
decomposed at comparatively low temperatures. Acetic acid is
an exception ; a dull red heat does not cause its constituents to fly
sufficiently apart from each other to cause their total separation,
and the compound, therefore, remains unchanged. To this cir-
cumstance is due the large amount of acetic acid which is pro-
duced during the destructive distillation of wood. As previously
stated, the composition of cellulose is C6H10O5. The hydrogen
and oxygen being in the proportions to form water, the with-
drawal of carbon would form acetic acid thus : 2C6A10O3 — 2C
= 4C2H4O2. As might be anticipated, acetic acid is amongst
the earliest and most abundant products of the distillation of
wood, and, being volatile, escapes decomposition at the higher
temperatures employed later. As the distillation progresses,

220 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

marsh gas (CH4), olefiant gas (C2H4), tetrylene (C4H8), and
volatile oils, such as benzol (C6H6), toluol (C7H8), naphthalin
(C10H8), paraffin (C20H42), phenol (C6H6O), etc., are given off.
The actual facts which are observed in the distillation of wood
are as follows : 1. The water passes off which is extraneous to
the wood ; 2. The wood itself is decomposed and gives rise to
water and the crude acetic acid, which is next eliminated; 3.
Condensable matters containing an excess of carbon forming the
tar and oily substance pass over ; 4. Toward the close of the
operation, carbonic oxide and marsh gas are evolved, leaving in
the retort a charcoal similar in form to the wood introduced.

Distillation of Wood.

The distillation of wood is carried on in retorts made of cast-
iron or wrought-iron, and sometimes of clay. The latter have
the advantage of not burning through, but it is difficult to keep
them entirely tight, a number of small cracks being formed
through which a portion of the vapors escapes. Cast-iron re-
torts do not readily burn through, and are but little affected by
the vapors of the acid, but they frequently burst, and defective
places are difficult to repair. Wrought-iron retorts gradually
burn through on the bottom, where they come in contact with the
fire ; they can, however, be repaired by riveting strong boiler-
plate upon the defective place, and are less affected by the acetic
acid vapors than might be supposed, because some protection is
afforded to them by the deposition of a layer of coal from de-
composed tar vapors and gases upon their interior surface. Ex-
perience having shown that wrought-iron is more strongly
attacked on the less hot places than on the hottest, it is customary
to provide wrought-iron retorts with cast-iron doors and discharge
apertures. To retard burning through, the exterior of the re-
torts is coated with a thick layer of lime or clay, or with a mix-
ture of lime, iron-filings, and water glass. The riveting must
be carefully executed, and the joints luted with clay or trass-
mortar.

Form of the retorts. — Clay-retorts are mostly Q -shaped like
those for the manufacture of coal-gas.

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD-VINEGAR. 221

Cast-iron retorts are either cast in one piece, having in this case
a cylindrical form with a circular cross section, or flat pieces
are connected together by screws to parallelepiped boxes ; the lat-
ter form is preferable for the distillation of birch bark, which fills
up the room to the best advantage by placing it in flat, even pieces.

Dimensions of the retorts. — The size of the retorts varies greatly,
but the most suitable for horizontal cast-iron or wrought-iron re-
torts is a length of from 5J to 6 J feet with a diameter of from 2 J
to 3J feet. In England retorts of a still greater size are in use,
for instance, wrought-iron ones, which with a length of 6-J feet
have a diameter of 4J feet, and cast-iron ones with a length
of from 8f to 9J feet and a diameter of 3 feet. AVrought-iron
retorts are generally from 0.27 to 0.31 inch thick.

For vertical wrought-iron retorts Vincent recommends a height
of 6 feet and a diameter of 4 feet, and Gillot, as well as Rothe, a
diameter of from 4 to 5 feet and a height of 7 \ feet.

For rectangular wrought-iron boxes : length 4J feet, width
2.62 feet, height 3.28 feet. For rectangular cast-iron boxes :
length 8.85 to 9.18 feet, width 3.28 to 4 feet, height 4 to 4j-
feet.

Position of the retorts. — In France vertical wrought-iron cylin-
drical or rectangular boxes are most frequently used. This
arrangement allows of the vessel, when distillation is finished,
being lifted from its position by means of a crane and inserting a
new one in its place, so that the high temperature which the brick
work has acquired is utilized almost without loss. The disadvan-
tage is the inconvenient filling and emptying of such vessels, both
operations having to be executed from above. To facilitate the
emptying, an aperture is occasionally provided near the bottom,
but in this case it is difficult, on account of the high temperature,
to make the aperture tight by a clay luting. Further, the va-
pors escaping from the lower portion of the wood to be distilled,
especially those specifically heavier than tar, rise only with diffi-
culty to the discharge aperture, and having consequently to re-
main an unnecessarily long time in the hot space are partially
decomposed to permanent gases. Even with the best condensing
apparatus they carry along a certain quantity of acetic acid and
especially of wood spirit, and the non-condensing portion is then

222

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

only used as fuel. This evil could be overcome by providing a
discharge aperture for the heavier vapors on the lower half of
the retort ; but this has again the disadvantage that the exchange
of the hot vessels cannot be effected as rapidly.

In England and Germany horizontal retorts, which are uni-
formly surrounded by the flame, are in general use. To prevent
a disadvantage similar to the one mentioned above, the retorts,
however, must not be too long, as the vapors from the front have
to pass over the glowing back portion to reach the discharge
aperture.

Vertical retorts. — Fig. 49 shows Kestner's apparatus, which is in
extensive use in France. The retort a has a capacity of 3 cubic me-
ters (105.94 cubic feet). It is surrounded by flues which lead to the
chimney t. Large sticks are set upright in the retorts ; those too
thick should be split, and small wood packed close. The retort
is closed at the top by an iron cover secured by screws or clamps.

Fig. 49.

The products of distillation are condensed in the copper pipes b,
which are inclosed in wider cast-iron or copper pipes d. In the
latter a current of water passes from e through the connecting pipe
/ from below to above, and effects the cooling off of the vapors.
The non-condensed vapors and gases are conducted through c

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD-VINEGAR.

223

into the fire-place. The pipe conducting the wood-vinegar and
the tar into the vats h dips somewhat into the fluid. From the
vats the fluids are pumped into large reservoirs placed at a,
higher level, so that they can be readily discharged into the stills.

The apparatus is not movable, i. e., the retort remains fixed in
its place.

Movable retorts, as shown in Fig. 50, were first introduced in
France. They are entirely surrounded by the fire gases, the fire-
place being closed on the top by a brick cover held together by
means of iron hoops. The vapors and gases pass out through
the pipe a which is placed on the side immediately below the
cover. When no more volatile products appear the lid is removed,

Fig. 50.

and, after interrupting the connection with the condenser, and
closing the pipe a with clay, the glowing retort is lifted out by
means of a crane. A new retort already filled with wood is then
immediately placed in the hot furnace and distillation recom-
menced. The pipe b conducts the non-condensed vapors and
gases into the fire-place.

In modern times this apparatus has been modified, as shown in
Fig. 51, and in this form is in general use in France. The de-
veloping pipe for the volatile products has been transferred to the

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

lid. The fire-place has the form of a truncated cone, and the
retort is surrounded by it only to about five-sixths of its height,
while the upper end projects about one foot. The movable cover
being omitted the exchange of the retorts is facilitated. The
brick work of refractory material is held together at the top by
a strong iron ring. The bottom of the fire-place is formed by an
arch below which is the hearth whose flames surround the curved
surface as well as the bottom of the retort. At the top the fire-
Fig. 51.

place is terminated by an iron ring placed on the retort. To save
fuel the fire-place serves for two retorts, as shown in the illustra-
tion.

The fire burns constantly upon the hearth ; it is regulated by
means of two registers placed in the upper end of the fire-place
in the draught apertures. The four rectangular apertures below
the vault introduce the gases from the condenser.

When a retort, for instance, that at the left of the figure, is dis-
tilled off, the register and gas conducting channel belonging to
this retort are closed. The retort is then lifted out, placed upon
an iron wagon running upon a track, and taken away to cool.
Another retort filled with wood, and made tight by a clay luting,
is then inserted by means of a crane, and the register and gas

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD- VINEGAR.

225

conducting channel are reopened. When after about one hour
the water is expelled from the wood, and acid vapors appear, a
copper pipe is connected with the condenser, and the joints made
tight by a clay luting. The gases appearing in constantly in-
creasing abundance during distillation, are now conducted under
the second retort in order to heat it sufficiently towards the end
of the distillation, as otherwise the charcoal will show " brands, "
i. e.y pieces not entirely carbonized.

A retort holding 2 cubic meters (70.63 cubic feet) of wood is
distilled off in 8 hours.

Horizontal retorts. — Generally two wrought iron retorts are
placed in one fire-place, for instance, 6 retorts in three fire-places
with a common chimney, as shown in Fig. 52, one-third to two-
thirds of their circumference being, as a rule, bricked in. In front
and back they are closed by cast-iron disks, the front one being

Fig. 52.

movable so that, when an operation is finished, it can be readily
removed, and replaced. From the back disk a pipe leads to the
condensing apparatus. For the back disk is sometimes substi-
tuted a conical shoulder which ends in a pipe about 8 inches in
diameter to which the discharge pipe is secured (Fig. 54).

Each cast-iron retort has a special fire-place, and the cylindrical,
as well as the rectangular retorts, are bricked in only at the bot-
tom. The brickwork is held together by several iron clamps.
The retorts rest upon the arch above the fire-place in such a man-
ner that they are not directly struck below by the flame but only
surrounded by it from the side and above. It is also advisable
to expose, not only the cylindrical space holding the retorts to the
fire, but also the annexed conical one. The narrow pipe projects
about one foot above the wall.
15

226

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

In Figs. 53 and 54 a a a are the wrought-iron retorts, b the
hearth, cc the flues, d the chimney. Over the somewhat conical
neck of the retort is pushed an elbow pipe e which dips into the
receiver F. The latter is a cast-iron pipe 1 to 2 'feet in diameter

Fig. 53.

(according to the number of the retorts) and extending the
entire length of the oven. For the neck of each retort it carries
a tubnlure 5} to 7| inches long. The object of the receiver
is to receive the products of distillation from all the retorts

Fig. 54.

and at the same time to hydraulically close the elbow-pipe of
each receiver. Hence the vapors not precipitated in the receiver
can continue their way through g to the other condensing appa-

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD- VINEGAR. 227

ratus h, but cannot re-enter the retorts. This is of no slight im-
portance, for if there were no water joint and the vapors should
from any cause suddenly cool off, the external air might penetrate
into the retort and the latter being filled with inflammable gases
and vapors of a high temperature an explosion would necessarily
follow. For making the water-joint it suffices for the elbow-
pipes to dip f to 1 inch into the fluid in the receiver. But as the
fluid constantly increases provision must be made for its discharge
through a pipe, placed below or on the side, into a collecting vessel
located in another apartment. The charcoal is at the end of the
operation raked into sheet-iron boxes or square pits sunk in the
floor and lined with fire brick ; both chests and pits are fitted
with close fitting covers, since if air is not excluded the charcoal
from its power of condensing gases in its pores, becomes so much
heated as to take fire spontaneously. By shutting the charcoal
in, the absorption is so far retarded as to keep the heat below the
point of ignition.

In many factories the charcoal is abstracted from the carbon-
izing cylinders by means of the following apparatus : An iron
diaphragm about the size of the interior of the retort is placed
near the mouth of the latter, having a chain attached to it which
runs through the whole length of the carbouizer. The workman
by seizing this chain with a suitable instrument draws out nearly
the whole of the charcoal at once, and with less risk of breaking
it than when rakes are employed.

Condensers. — ^Yood? as will be shown later on, yields more
than half its weight of condensable fluids and among them some
with a low boiling point. The necessity for good condensation is,
therefore, evident, and the more so as the quantity of non-con-
densable gaseous bodies is very large and with incomplete cool-
ing would carry away a considerable portion of valuable bodies.
Kestner's apparatus, Fig. 55, answers all demands. In a long, nar-
row trough of wrought-iron or wood lies a series of straight, wide
copper pipes, with a gradually decreasing diameter. The pipes
are slightly inclined, so that the fluid running in at the highest
point flows out at the lowest. Outside the trough the pipes are
connected by movable elbow-joints. One end of each pipe is
firmly fixed to the wall of the trough, while the other, to permit

228

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

free expansion, sits loosely in a slightly conical socket. The
lower end of the last pipe divides into two branches, one of
them leading downward and dipping into the receiver, while the
other, as a rule, conducts the gases directly under the fire-place.
There should be but a small space between the collecting pipe «,

Fig. 55.

which conducts the vapors to the condenser, and the first conden-
sing pipe, as otherwise obstructions might readily be formed by
the deposit of tar dried by the hot vapors. A constant stream of
water is conducted through 6, along the bottom of the trough,
the heated water running off at c.

The development of gas from the wood being very irregular
and by no means in the proportion desirable for the heating of
the retorts, it is preferable to collect it in a gasometer and distrib-
ute it from there as may be necessary, instead of conducting it
directly into the fire. But little gas is developed in the beginning
of the operation, and much towards the end, while the reverse
proportion is desirable.

In case condensation is not very complete, the pipe leading to
the hearth or gasometer is more or less attacked by acetic acid
precipitated in it by the access of air. To prevent this evil it is
advisable to place on the pipe small receptacles provided with
cocks for the collection and discharge of any fluid deposited.
These receptacles may also be filled with quick lime, which at
least fixes the acetic acid, thus rendering it harmless for the pipe.
The lime is from time to time extracted with water to regain the
soluble calcium acetate.

To further cool off the current of gas and render the vapors of
acetic acid carried along with it harmless for the pipe, Vincent

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD-VINEGAR. 229

uses a cylindrical copper receptacle, d, Fig. 55, provided with a
false bottom, upon which is placed a layer of crystallized soda
from 2J to 2J feet deep. The vapors of water and acetic acid
dissolve the soda, and the temperature thereby being lowered, a
further portion of the volatile bodies, especially wood spirit, is
precipitated. By distilling the fluid thus obtained, the wood spirit
is regained, and the residue in the still used for the preparation
of sodium acetate.

For a condenser for four retorts of a capacity of 4 cubic me-
tres (141.26 cubic feet) each, Gillot gives the following approved
dimensions, provided the period of distillation is 72 hours : The
diameter of the pipe at its entrance into the water trough is 15|
inches, and at its exit 5f inches ; its total length is 164 to 180
feet, this length being divided between 6 straight pieces and their
elbow-joints. The vat is 26 J feet long with a depth of 5J feet.

The arrangements suitable for the carbonization of wood having
been described in the preceding pages, the most important products
will now be more closoly considered. Before doing this a few re-
marks as to the most suitable varieties of wood, and their con-
stitution, may be acceptable.

Oak, beech, hornbeam, ash, and birch give the largest yield of
wood vinegar, less being obtained from the conifers, poplar,
willow, and aspen. On the other hand, the conifers as well as
the bark of birch yield considerable quantities of volatile oils.

Woods about 20 years old seem to be especially suitable for the
purpose of distillation. The trees should be felled in the winter,
and the wood allowed to lie for six months and not over two years.
It should be protected from rain and snow. To facilitate drying,
it is best to free the wood from the bark, this being of special
importance in regard to birch, the bark of which yields about
40 per cent, of tar and empyreumatic oil, and the wood only 2
per cent., hence the removal of the bark essentially facilitates the
purification of the wood-vinegar. The removal of the bark is
best effected by the introduction of steam of about one atmospheric
pressure into a wooden vat covered with felt, and provided with
a perforated false bottom, upon which the pieces of wood rest.
After allowing the steam to act for about three hours, the bark can
be readily detached. By drying the air-dry wood in the semi-

230 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

cylindrical space above the retorts (Fig. 54) the content of water
can be reduced to 10 per cent., and consequently less water has
later on to be removed by evaporation ; besides, the distilling
time is shortened, and a larger yield of wood-vinegar obtained.

Charcoal.

The substance called charcoal is not pure carbon; it containing,
besides this element, hydrogen, oxygen (together with traces of
nitrogen), and ash. The composition of charcoal, and conse-
quently its properties, vary very much according to the degree
of temperature to which the retort has been exposed, the duration
of heating, and the variety of wood.

By heating the wood in the retorts the hygroscopic water
escapes first; then, at a temperature somewhat above 212° F.,
wood-vinegar makes its appearance and gradually increases in
strength until its maximum strength is reached at 424° F. ; it
then again becomes weaker. Next the formation of tar begins,
and inflammable gases now make their appearance. If the opera-
tion be continued to the end, the products are : .black charcoal,
wood-vinegar, tar, and gases. If distillation is, however, inter-
rupted when the greater portion of the wood-vinegar is separated
and the formation of tar would commence, charbon roux or torrified
charcoal, i. e., a product containing the greater portion of the
constituents of the tar and the gases, remains. Experience has
shown that torrified charcoal is as well adapted for use in the
blast-furnace as black charcoal. The yield is about forty per
cent, of the wood used, and being firmer and harder than black
charcoal it is better adapted for transport.

To a product intermediate between wood and torrified charcoal
the name red-wood (roasted wood, bois roux) has been given. It
is brown, can be worked like wood, is but slightly hygroscopic,
highly inflammable, and has nearly double the heating power of
wood. Its average composition is : carbon 52.6 per cent., hy-
drogen 5.8, oxygen (together with nitrogen) 36.6, ash 0.4, water
(moisture or constitutional) 4.5.

For technical purposes charcoals obtained at a temperature of
above 51 8° F. are only available, those obtained at a lower tempera-
ture containing the so-called brands with a content of carbon of,

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD-VINEGAR. 231

at the utmost, 68 per cent., of hydrogen about 5 per cent., and
of oxygen more than 26 per cent.

With a distilling temperature of 464° F. there remains, of 100
parts of wood dried at 302° F., a residue of 50.8 parts of brands,
and with a distilling temperature of 518° F. 37 parts.

With a temperature above 644° F. the result is black coal, the
quantity and composition of which vary according to the tempera-
ture. Between 644° F. and 810° F. remains 31.5 to 19 per cent,
of charcoal with a composition of from 75 to 81.6 per cent, of
carbon, 4.4 to 2 of hydrogen, and 20 to 15 of oxygen, and 0.5 to
1.1 of ash.

At still higher temperatures the quantity of charcoal decreases
but little ; it amounts, for instance, at the melting point of bar-
iron, to 17.3 per cent., and at that of platinum, to 15. per cent.
The content of carbon, however, constantly increases until at the
last-mentioned temperature it reaches 96.5 per cent.

Violette further confirmed the fact long known that the degree
of carbonization exerts a great influence upon the result, slow
carbonization yielding far more charcoal, than quick.

The variety of wood also exerts an influence upon the yield of
charcoal. At 572° F. there were, for instance, obtained from —

Oak .
Fir .

. 46 per cent.
. 40.7 "

Aspen
Beech, alder,
Ash .

birch ....

. 34.9 "
. 34.4 "
. 33.3 "

Linden

. 31.8 "

Later on Violette found that the elementary composition of
these charcoals varied. There are contained, for instance, in char-
coal from —

Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen Ash.

(and nitrogen).

Oak .... 67.4 4.1 28.5 0.2

Aspen .... 68.2 5.5 25.7 0.6

Birch .... 71.1 4.5 23.5 0.7

Ash .... 70.4 4.5 24.4 0.7

These figures are, however, only correct for charcoal kept air-
tight after its preparation and immediately analyzed. Ordinary
charcoal contains at least 5 per cent, of hygroscopic water.

232 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

The specific gravity of charcoal depends on the carbonizing
temperature. The specific gravity of charcoal from bird-cherry
carbonized at 590° F. is 1.42, at 810° F. 1.7.1, at 1873° F. 1.84,
at 2732° F. 1.87, and at the fusing point of platinum 2.0.

The power of charcoal of conducting heat and electricity also
increases to a remarkable extent with the increase in the carboni-
zing temperature.

The inflammability of charcoal is the greater the lower the
temperature at which it was prepared.

Charcoal possesses the property of absorbing gases and of
taking up liquid and solid bodies from fluids, for instance, fusel
oil, coloring substances, and alkaloids. Lead salts, for instance,
lead acetate and nitrate, are decomposed on boiling with charcoal,
the latter absorbing the lead oxide and liberating a corresponding
quantity of acid.

Charcoal also absorbs aqueous vapor from the air, and the
more the lower the temperature at which it was formed ; the
quantity varies from 4 to 20 per cent. Hence the charcoal ex-
posed to the air contains only about f of its weight of carbon.

Wood- Vinegar.

After standing for several days in the previously-mentioned
reservoir, the greater portions of the wood-vinegar and tar sepa-
rate and form two layers, less often three. In the latter case the
upper layer, which amounts to but little and may be entirely
wanting, consists of specifically light volatile oils holding tar and
acetic acid in solution. The second layer forms the principal
mass and is the actual wood-vinegar. The lowest layer is tar,
rich in specifically heavy volatile oils, especially phenol (creasote),
containing, however, also acetic acid ; it is of a yellow-brown to
black color, of a syrupy consistency, and specific gravity 1.07 to

The layers are drawn off separately by means of stop-cocks
placed at different heights on the reservoir.

Wood-vinegar is a strongly acid fluid, generally perfectly clear,
of a brown-yellow to red-brown color, and a strong odor (par-

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD-VINEGAR. 233

tially of smoke). Its specific gravity varies between 1.018 and
1.03. When mixed with water it frequently becomes turbid.

Wood-vinegar is a mixture of very dissimilar bodies. Besides
its principal constituent, acetic acid, it contains several other acids
belonging to the series of fatty acids with the general formula
CnH2nO2; further wood-spirit, acetone (see below), metacetone

C6H10O, methyl acetate CJ?f?lo, aldehyde, dimethyl acetal

^2X1S )

) Of^TT
C2H4 > oQjj3? furfurol, allyl alcohol C3HGO, small quantities of

ammonia and of methylamine CH3,H2!N", and finally plenols and
guaiacols ; besides empyreumatic resins.

To carbolic acid, one of the plenols, is due the property of
wood-vinegar to preserve meat and other organic substances.

On mixing wood-vinegar with soda-lye it becomes turbid, but
on a further addition of alkali soon clarifies again and acquires a
dark brown color, a brown body being separated. On mixing it
with 5 to 10 per cent, by volume of concentrated sulphuric acid
it becomes turbid and after 24 hours the greater portion of the
tar separates in fine drops. Potassium bichromate colors wood-
vinegar brown, and nitrate of silver is reduced at an ordinary
temperature, a silver mirror being produced (this reduction is due
to the content of aldehyde and creasote).

In the distillation the more volatile bodies, of course, pass over
first; they form a yellowish fluid which contains wood-spirit,
acetone, etc. Then follows a turbid slightly acid water of a
yellowish color ; it gradually becomes richer in acid, but remains
yellowish to the end. The wood-vinegar boiling in the retort
constantly becomes darker, and finally a clear dark brown fluid of
a syrupy consistency and of an acid, and at the same time bitter,
taste remains.

In order to understand what follows it will be necessary to give
the more important properties of the most valuable constituents —
wood-spirit and acetone — occurring, besides acetic acid, in crude
wood- vinegar.

234 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

Wood-Spirit (Methyl Alcohol), CH4O.

Wood-spirit is a colorless, very mobile liquid, of specific gravity
0.798 when chemically pure, and with a boiling point varying
between 150° and 160° F. The specific gravity of its vapor is
1.12. It is soluble in all proportions in water, ether, and alcohol
and is a solvent for resins and gums, especially when it contains
a small proportion of acetone. With calcium chloride and with
anhydrous barium it combines with cry stall! zable bodies, which
are, however, immediately decomposed by water. Potassium and
sodium dissolve in wood-spirit with the evolution of hydrogen.
On cooling the compounds CH3,OK, or CH3,OXa crystallize
out which are decomposed by water, wood-spirit and caustic alkali
being formed.

Pure wood-spirit does not become turbid on being mixed with
water ; in the crude article turbidity is however caused by the
presence of various hydrocarbons.

Wood-spirit is chiefly used for the preparation of methyl iodide
and methyl nitrate, both these combinations being employed in
the fabrication of aniline colors. It is further used for the
manufacture of varnishes, for laboratory lamps, etc., and, in
certain cases, in medicine.

Acetone or Dimethyl Kctone (C3H6O).

Acetone is formed when the vapor of acetic acid is passed
through a red-hot tube, and further by the destructive distillation
of sugar, tartaric, lactic and citric acids, etc. The best method,
however, to obtain it in large quantities will be given later on in
describing the acetates (see barium acetate).

Acetone is a very mobile, colorless liquid, boiling at 132.8° F.,
and having a peculiarly strong but pleasant odor; its specific
gravity is 0.814. It burns with a brilliant flame and is soluble
in all proportions in water, alcohol, and ether; it is a solvent for
fats, resins, camphor, and gun-cotton, and yields crystallizable
combinations with the hyposulphites ; it does not, however, com-
bine with calcium chloride. The combinations with the alkaline
hyposulphites, for instance sodium hyposulphite, are insoluble in

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD-VINEGAR. 235

the excess of the saturated solutions of hyposulphites, but soluble
in water and boiling alcohol. By boiling such a combination
with an alkaline carbonate, for instance, soda, it is decomposed.
If acetone is left standing over quicklime for some time, and
afterwards distilled, mesityle oxide C6H10O and phorone C9H14O
are formed ; the former is a colorless fluid smelling like pepper-
mint and boiling at 262° F., and the latter a crystallizable body
melting at 82.4° F. and boiling at 385° F. By heating acetone
with a little iodine and then adding alkaline solution until dis-
coloration takes place a lemon-color, crystalline precipitate of
iodoform soon forms. Methyl alcohol not showing this behavior,
this furnishes a means of recognizing a content of acetone in wood-
spirit.

Determination of the Strength of Wood- Vinegar.

C. Mohr gives the following method : Weigh off 10 grammes
of wood-vinegar, heat in a beaker with about 3 grammes of pure
barium carbonate until effervescence ceases, and filter. The solu-
tion of barium acetate is strongly colored, but the carbonate
remaining undissolved, very little. The residue after washing is
dried and weighed and the quantity of acetic acid present calcu-
lated ; each gramme of dissolved carbonate corresponding to 0.609
gramme of acetic anhydride or 10 grammes of wood- vinegar con-
tain 6.09 per cent.

The quantity of undissolved carbonate can, however, be deter-
mined in a more simple manner by titration with normal nitric acid.
The latter is prepared by diluting commercial, pure, colorless,
nitric acid until an equal volume of it exactly saturates normal
sodium. Bring, for instance, 5 cubic centimetres of the commer-
cial acid into a beaker, add a few drops of litmus tincture, and
then by means of a burette normal soda lye until the color just
turns blue. If, for instance, 4 cubic centimetres have been
consumed, the 5 cubic centimetres of acid must be diluted to 40
cubic centimetres or 125 cubic centimetres to 1 liter.

The undissolved residue of barium carbonate together with the
filter is now brought into a porcelain dish or beaker and a meas-
ured volume, for instance 20 cubic centimetres, together with

236 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

some litmus tincture, added ; the whole is then heated until the
precipitate is dissolved and effervescence has ceased, but the solu-
tion retains a slight red coloration. Now add drop by drop nor-
mal sodium until the color turns blue. If, for instance, 3 cubic
centimetres of normal sodium have been used, 20 — 3 = 17 cubic
centimeters of normal nitric acid have been required for the solu-
tion of the barium carbonate. Since 1 equivalent of barium car-
bonate saturates 1 liter of normal nitric acid, or 98.5 grammes
of the former 1000 cubic centimetres of the latter, each cubic cen-
timetre of normal nitric acid consumed indicates 0.0985 gramme
of barium carbonate ; hence in our example 1.674 gramme of car-
bonate has not been dissolved by the acid ; there was therefore
dissolved 3 — 1.674 = 1.326 gramme. And finally, as, according
to the above, each gramme of barium carbonate indicates 6.09
per cent, of acetic anhydride, this wood-vinegar contains 1.326.
6.09 =* 8 per cent.

L. Kieffer's method is based upon the following : Dissolve
sulphate of copper in water, and after taking a small portion
(about 3-l-g-) of it away, gradually add to the remainder ammonia
until the pale green precipitate at first formed is redissolved ;
then add the retained portion of the solution, and, after shaking
and corking the flask, allow it to stand for a few hours. The
dark blue fluid is only fit for use when the ammonia is thoroughly
saturated with oxide of copper, i. e., when some of the precipitate
remains undissolved. The solution is now filtered and standard-
ized to normal nitric acid.

By gradually adding this solution to an acid, for instance nor-
mal nitric acid, the oxide of copper as well as the ammonia is
fixed by the acid and two soluble salts are formed, in this case
nitrate of copper and of ammonia. If finally the acid is saturated
and a drop of the blue solution be added, a pale blue precipitate
is formed, because the ammonia contained in the drop combines
with an equivalent quantity of nitric acid in the nitrate of copper
so that not only the oxide of copper dissolved in the drop is pre-
cipitated (as hydrate), but also the quantity combined with the
nitric acid.

Thus take, for instance, 5 cubic centimetres of normal nitric
acid and add the blue solution drop by drop with shaking from a

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD-VINEGAR. 237

burette. If up to the appearance of the precipitate 3.5 cubic cen-
timetres have been used, 3.5 cubic centimetres of the copper solu-
tion must be diluted to 5 cubic centimetres or 700 cubic centi-
metres to 1 liter. This forms the ammoniacal copper solution
standardized to normal nitric acid.

To determine the strength of the wood-vinegar with this fluid,
dilute 10 grammes -of it with water, and add, with constant agita-
tion, copper solution until turbidity appears. The copper solution
being standardized to normal nitric acid and the latter to normal
sodium, the quantity of copper solution consumed is evidently just
as large as the quantity of normal sodium would have been if
used for titration.

Working up the Wood- Vinegar.

Only a small quantity of wood-vinegar is used for antiseptic
purposes and in medicine, the greater portion being manufactured
into wood-spirit, acetone, and acetic acid, as well as into acetates.

There are two methods by which this can be effected. By the
first the acetic acid of the wood vinegar is directly converted into
acetate by saturating with hydrate of lime (slaked lime) and the
wood-spirit distilled off. This can be effected in a cast-iron still,
distillation being continued as long as a fluid specifically lighter
than water passes over. The distillate is crude wood-spirit, and
the residue is the still impure calcium acetate.

By the second method, which is in general use, the more vola-
tile portion (about one-tenth) of the crude wood-vinegar is dis-
tilled off in order to obtain wood-spirit as the distillate.
This has to be effected in a copper still. If the crude wood-
vinegar is not entirely clear, it is best for either method to first
pass it through a sand or charcoal filter.

By the second method the wood-vinegar is subjected to distil-
lation in a copper still of about 106 cubic feet capacity, Fig. 56,
over a free fire, or less often by means of steam. What passes
over first contains, besides water, wood-spirit, methyl acetate, ace-
tone, and acetic acid. The vapors are, however, not allowed to
completely condense at once but are rectified on the way by being
conducted, as shown in the figure, through two or three rectifying
vessels arranged in the same manner as in Pistorius's alcohol

238

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES,

still. Fig. 57 shows the arrangement of the rectifying vessels.
The stop-cock introduces a certain quantity of water which passes

Fig. 56.

Fig. 57.

from the upper to the middle basin and then to the lower one
where it runs off. By its passage through the basins the more
condensable vapors, consequently also those of water and acetic
acid, are condensed, so that the non-con-
densed portion which is only condensed in
the cooling apparatus 6, Fig. 56, possesses a
certain strength, it generally showing a spe-
cific gravity of 0.965. At c, Fig. 56, imme-
diately at the end of the discharge-pipe, is
placed a small accurate aerometer, so that
the specific gravity of the distillate can at
any time be read off.

Distillation is continued until the specific
gravity is 1, all the distillable bodies having
then passed over. Before being brought into commerce the crude
wood-spirit thus obtained is generally subjected to purification,
which will be described later on.

If distilled wood-vinegar is to be obtained, for instance, for
the preparation of crude lead acetate, distillation is continued,
after changing the receiver, until oily drops appear at c,this being
an indication of portions of the tar now passing over. Firing is
then interrupted, and after allowing the apparatus to cool off
somewhat, the tar remaining in the still is drawn off into the vat
(1, Fig. 56.

The tar is then combined with the upper and lower layers of

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD-VINEGAR. 239

the crude product obtained by the distillation of the wood in the
retorts, and either brought into commerce as wood tar, or further
worked to obtain the substances occurring in it, such as illumina-
ting oils, carbolic acid, etc., or it is used in the manufacture of
wagon grease, lubricants, etc.

Wood-vinegar can, however, not be entirely purified by distil-
lation nor by passing it over freshly glowed charcoal. Although
seven-eighths of it passes over entirely colorless, the product has
a strong empyreumatic taste and odor, gradually turns brown in
the air, and gives brown salts with bases. Stoltze has proposed
several methods for the purification of the rectified acid, the most
simple and cheapest being to add 5 pounds of finely pulverized
pyrolusite to every 100 quarts of acid, keeping it at nearly a
boiling heat for 6 hours, then digesting it in the same manner
with 40 pounds of freshly glowed charcoal pulverized and sifted
while hot, and finally distilling off to dryness in a shallow cast-
iron still. But on account of its tediousness and the necessary
large consumption of fuel this process, though frequently modi-
fied, has been almost entirely abandoned.

According to Terreil and Chateau, the wood-vinegar is purified
by compounding it, according to its more or less dark color, with
10 or 5 per cent, of concentrated sulphuric acid, whereby the
greater portion of the tar separates in 24 hours. By distilling
the decanted acid it is obtained almost colorless, but it darkens
somewhat on exposure to the air, and by saturation with soda a
slightly colored salt is obtained which can, however, be discol-
ored with a small consumption of animal charcoal.

Rothe employs a peculiar method for the purification of wood-
vinegar. The greater portion of the tar being separated by stand-
ing, the wood-vinegar with an addition of charcoal is rectified from
a copper still The pale yellow watery wood-spirit is caught by
itself, and the succeeding clear, but strongly empyreumatic, distil-
late is pumped into a vat placed at a considerable height from which
it runs into a purifying apparatus. The latter consists of a cylin-
drical pipe of strong tin-plate ; it is about 26 feet high and 1J
feet in diameter, and is filled with pieces of coke about 0.122
cubic inch in size, which rest upon a strongly tinned iron grate
placed about 1J feet above the bottom of the pipe. Over this

240 VINEGAR, CIDERj

column of coke the wood-vinegar is poured in an uninterrupted
fine spray, while in the space between the bottom and the grate a
slow current of air heated to 104° F. is constantly blown in
through a nozzle. The empyreumatic oils mixed with the wood-
vinegar are oxidized by the oxygen of the warm air, and, in con-
sequence, the temperature in the interior of the column of coke rises
to 122° F., and more. (The pipe is protected from cooling oif by
a thick layer of felt.) The products of the oxidation of the
empyreumatic oils are partially of a resinous nature and adhere
to the coke, and partially volatile. The acetic acid running oif
through an S -shaped pipe on the bottom of the pipe is clear, of a
pure acid taste and suitable for the preparation of all the acetates
as well as of acetic acid. The very slight empyreumatic odor
completely disappears by forcing the product through a pipe filled
with pieces of animal charcoal freed from lime. The vinegar thus
obtained is used for the table. Though a quantity of acetic acid
is carried off in the form of vapor by the warm dry current of
air, this loss can be prevented by passing the air through another
pipe filled with calcined soda or lime.

For obtaining acetic acid for technical purposes, for instance,
for the preparation of aniline, acetate of lead, white lead, verdi-
gris, etc., where a slight empyreumatic odor and taste are of no
consequence, it is best to prepare calcium acetate and to decom-
pose the latter with crude hydrochloric acid.

By saturating crude wood-vinegar with slaked lime a dark-
brown turbid solution is obtained, and much tar is separated,
especially with the use of an excess of lime. By evaporating the
filtered solution dark-brown rust-like flakes are separated and a
nearly black non-crystalline salt of a strong odor remains behind
which cannot be freed of its color and odor even by re-dissolving
it several times. Purification succeeds better with the use of
calcined soda for saturating the crude wood-vinegar, because the
sodium salt crystallizes readily and the greater portion of the im-
purities remains in the mother-lye. But even here it is not pos-
sible to obtain the salt pure by frequently repeated re-crystalliza-
tion. The calcium salt as well as the sodium salt can, however,
be obtained entirely colorless by boiling the solution with animal
charcoal, though it will not be completely freed from odor.

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD-VINEGAR. 241

By saturating, however, at an ordinary temperature distilled
wood-vinegar with slaked lime, the filtered clear yellowish solu-
tion becomes turbid after standing for some time or by heating,
and a yellow-brown substance is separated by evaporation ; if the
salt solution is then sufficiently concentrated, a quite strongly col-
ored salt is again obtained.

By slightly acidulating the solution of the calcium salt during
evaporation with hydrochloric acid, a small quantity of a yellow-
brown substance is separated, the previously strongly-colored
fluid becoming pale yellow ; by evaporating to dryness a calcium
salt of a yellowish -gray color is obtained. By slightly roasting
this salt and then distilling with hydrochloric acid, acetic acid of 8°
B. = 1 .06 specific gravity, i. e., with about 48 per cent, of acetic
anhydride, is obtained.

Preparation of Crude Calcium Acetate.

When all bodies lighter than water have been distilled off from
the crude wood-vinegar, the retorts are allowed to cool off, and
after carefully opening the stop-cock, the tarry Deposit is first
drawn off; the wood-vinegar is then conducted into a large vat
in which the saturation is to be effected. When the point of
neutralization is reached, the solution is allowed to stand several
hours for the impurities of the lime to separate on the bottom and
the tarry substances dissolved in the wood-vinegar on the surface ;
the latter are then removed.

The fluid is now slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid (at
the utmost 4 pounds of crude hydrochloric acid to 22 imp. gallons)
and allowed to rest, whereby a deposit consisting chiefly of phenol
and other slightly acid substances is formed. The clear fluid is
then drawn off and evaporated in a cast-iron boiler over a free
fire. The tarry substances oxidized by the action of the air and
separating on the surface are constantly removed. When the
specific gravity (measured hot) has increased to 1.116, the separa-
tion of calcium salt in the form of crusts begins ; these crusts are
removed with an iron spatula. From this time on heating is
carefully continued until the contents of the boiler are converted
into a thick paste. The fire is then extinguished, the calcium
16

242 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

salt decomposing very readily at too high a temperature. As it
is, however, impossible, on the one hand, to properly observe the
temperature in the semi-cylindrical boiler, and, on the other, the
complete dryness of the salt is required so that as many of the
tarry substances as possible remain undissolved during the subse-
quent re-dissolving, the paste is removed in small portions and
spread out in flat cast-iron pans several of which are heated by
one fire-place. During the drying the salt must be thoroughly
stirred with iron shovels to prevent overheating. By careful
treatment a salt containing 75 to 78 per cent, of pure acetate is
obtained.

By heating the calcium acetate in small cast-iron cylinders pro-
vided with a good cooling apparatus crude acetone is obtained
which can be purified by rectifying in a water-bath, shaking the
distillate with saturated solution of sodium hyposulphite, and dis-
tilling the separated crystalline body with soda solution and
dephlegmated by rectifying over calcium chloride.

Calcium acetate is readily prepared, can be sent long distances
in a dry form from which the acetic acid can be readily separated
by a process to be described later on. Entirely pure acetic acid,
however, is not obtained from this salt, and it cannot be used for
household or medicinal purposes, nor in the fabrication of valuable
chemical products, for instance, certain aniline colors. Sodium
salt will have to be taken for the preparation of acid to be used
for these purposes.

Preparation of Crude and Pure Sodium Acetate.

a. The wood-vinegar freed from wood-spirit, acetone, etc., is
saturated in a vat with calcined soda (sodium carbonate), which is
gradually added, as otherwise the escaping carbonic acid causes
strong foaming up. The tarry substances appearing on the sur-
face are removed, and the brown fluid, after clarifying by standing,
is drawn off into flat cast-iron pans which are heated by the fire-
gases escaping from the carbonizing retorts. The concentration
of the fluid and skimming off of the tarry substances are continued
until the aerometer in the pan nearest the oven shows 27° B. =
1.23 specific gravity. The register is then closed so that the fire-

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD-VINEGAR. 243

gases escape directly into the chimney, and the first pan is
emptied into the crystallizing boxes. The latter are oblong sheet-
iron vessels placed alongside each other and slightly inclined
towards one of the narrow sides. The emptied pan being filled
from the next, and the latter Avith fresh solution, the register is
re-opened and evaporation commenced anew.

When crystallization is finished the mother-lye is drawn off
into a vat, and, after draining oif, the salt is freed from the still
adhering mother-lye by means of a centrifugal. The crystals are
then brought into an iron pan heated by steam and re-dissolved
with just sufficient water to at once yiejd a hot solution of 28°
B., which is again brought into the crystallizing boxes.

The crystals now obtained are larger and of a pale brown
color, and moist with mother-lye. After draining off they are
moistened with a saturated solution of pure acetate and separated
from the mother-lye by means of a centrifugal. The crystals
while in the centrifugal may be again moistened with a small
quantity of the pure acetate solution, and are then obtained suf-
ficiently pure to be at once distilled with sulphuric acid. The
acid thus obtained, though not entirely pure, is much better than
that from calcium salt.

To obtain entirely pure sodium acetate, the pale brown salt
obtained from the second crystallization is calcined, or, what is
more simple and better, its hot solution filtered through animal
charcoal. The salt is dissolved in water by means of steam, so
that a nearly boiling solution of 15° to 16° B. is obtained, which
is then slowly filtered through a layer of animal charcoal the size
of a pea in an iron cylinder, which is covered with thick felt in
order to retain the heat. When the charcoal ceases to act it is
washed with water and the washwater used for dissolving a fresh
quantity of salt. The charcoal is revived by drying and glowing
in closed cast-iron pots and re-used. The aqueous solution of
the pale brown acetate, together with 10 per cent, of its weight
of bone-black, can also be heated for a few hours with constant
stirring in an iron or copper boiler, and, after settling, decanted.
The solution is treated with animal charcoal, and after crystal-
lizing and passing through the centrifugal, yields an entirely pure
salt,

244

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

According to an older process, the pale brown salt is melted in
its water of crystallization, and then roasted in not too large
portions and with constant stirring in another boiler heated to
716° or 752° F., to destroy the remnants of tarry bodies. The
sodium salt will stand this temperature without being decom-
posed, but a few degrees above it, it will be decomposed and
charred so that only a mixture of sodium carbonate and coal re-
mains behind. The stirring which has to be kept up constantly
in order to prevent the temperature from getting too high in some
places, can be done by hand, but being laborious work it is better
to provide the boiler with a lid through the centre of which runs
a mechanical stirrer. When after roasting for 1 J hours the tar is
destroyed, the fused salt is thrown by means of an iron shovel
into water in a hemispherical iron boiler provided with a lid (Fig.
58). The salt is thrown into the gutter a, from which it runs
into the boiler b. The lid is necessary on account of explosions
which are unavoidable in throwing in the hot salt.

Fig. 58.

By dissolving the roasted acetate in water, the carbonaceous
portions remain undissolved ; the solution is, therefore, filtered
through linen bags c, and the filtrate collected in the pit d. If
necessary, the solution is further filtered through bone-black and
then evaporated to 24° B. By disturbing the crystallization
small crystals which are scarcely colored are obtained. This is
effected by the use of round copper crystallizing vessels with a
diameter of 5.72 feet, and a depth of about 10 inches (Fig. 59)
and the use of a mechanical stirrer. When crystallization is fin-
ished, the entire mass is brought into a copper boiler provided
with a large number of apertures about 0.11 inch in diameter,

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD-VINEGAR.

245

Fig. 59.

through which the mother-lye drains off. The crystals are finally
washed Avith a saturated solution of pure salt and passed through
a centrifugal. The salt thus obtained
is entirely pure ; but its preparation
requires very careful and skilled work-
men.

b. Since the reduction in the price
of soda the method of saturation de-
scribed under a has been generally
introduced. Formerly the sodium
acetate was prepared by means of
Glauber's salt (sodium sulphate) and
lime. Notwithstanding its many de-
fects, this method, which was introduced by Mollerat, is still in use
in some factories.

The wood-vinegar is saturated with slaked lime and the
calcium salt decomposed with Glauber's salt ; gypsum (calcium
sulphate) is precipitated while sodium acetate remains in solu-
tion. Or, a mixture of Glauber's salt and lime (for 5 parts
of crystallized Glauber's salt 1 part of burnt lime) is employed
for saturation and constantly stirred while the wood- vinegar is
added.

Crude wood- vinegar can be used instead of the product freed
from wood-spirit, the distilling off of the wood-spirit and acetone,
together with the saturation, being executed in one operation, as
follows : —

The crude wood-vinegar is distilled in a large copper boiler hold-
ing about 106 cubic feet over an open fire or by means of steam.
The vapors pass through a pipe into a similar boiler which is
heated by the heat escaping from the first. In this boiler the
mixture of Glauber's salt and milk of lime is kept in constant
agitation by a stirring apparatus making about 25 revolutions
per minute. The wood-spirit, etc., which is not fixed in the
second boiler, passes into the condensing apparatus.

In order to see whether the point of saturation is reached,
samples are from time to time taken by means of a stop-cock
on the bottom of the second boiler ; litmus paper being first col-
ored blue and finally red. When this is the case, the flue

246 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

under the second boiler is closed by a register, and the con-
tents of the boiler being emptied into a large iron trough,
the boiler is at once refilled with a new mixture of Glauber's
salt and milk of lime, while a fresh portion of wood-vinegar
is brought into the first boiler, etc.

In the trough an abundant precipitate is formed from which
the fluid is drawn off by means of several cocks placed at dif-
ferent heights. The wash-waters serve for mixing fresh quanti-
ties of Glauber's salt and lime. The solution of sodium acetate
is evaporated, and further worked, as given under a.

This method is, however, inferior to the one described under
«, because much fuel is required for the complete distilling over
of the wood-vinegar, which is not the case in a, and further be-
cause the substitution between Glauber's salt and calcium acetate
is not as smooth as above supposed for the sake of simplicity/ the
precipitate consisting not only of gypsum, but of a double salt of
gypsum and sodium sulphate which dissolves with difficulty.
The actual process is expressed by the equation : —

2(Xa2So4) + (C2H302)2Ca - 2(C2H3O2Xa) +
Na,Ca(S04)2,

which shows that only half of the sodium contained in the Glau-
ber's salt is converted into acetate, the other half being lost.
Moreover, there is a large quantity of insoluble precipitate which
has to be thoroughly washed in order to avoid considerable
loss ; and, finally, the solution of the acetate constantly deposits
gypsum during evaporation, necessitating cleansing of the pans.

The mother-lye from which the sodium acetate has crystallized
out contains a considerable quantity of the latter. It is therefore
again evaporated to 27° B. and on cooling yields crystals. By
repeating this concentrating and cooling finally nothing more crys-
tallizes out, the whole forming a crystalline mass, which, by absorp-
tion of water from the air, becomes semi-fluid, and consists of very
little sodium acetate mixed with the sodium salts of the other
fatty acids previously mentioned.

Barre, in 1869, showed that besides acetic acid the following
acids occur in wood-vinegar : formic acid, CH2O2, propionic acid,

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD-VINEGAR. 247

C3H6O2, butyric acid, C4H8O2, valerianic acid, C5H10O2, and caproic
acid, C6H]2O2.

By decomposing the above-mentioned salt-mass with concen-
trated sulphuric acid, a black oily layer consisting of a mixture of
the above acids separates on the surface. They are but incom-
pletely separated by fractional distillation, the separation, however,
succeeding better by converting them into compound ethers and
subjecting the mixture of these to fractional distillation.

According to Vincent, 100 parts of syrupy mother-lye are
mixed with 20 of 95 per cent, alcohol, and after gradually adding
70 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid, the whole is allowed to
cool. After some time a black layer separates on the surface,
which is taken off, and after shaking with weak soda solution
until it shows no acid reaction, and dephlegmating over calcium
chloride, is carefully distilled, the distillates passing over between
131° and 136.4° F., 165° and 170.6°, 203° and 208.4°, 237.2°
and 246.2°, 271.4° and 276.8°, and 323.6° and 329° being
collected by themselves. By decomposing these products with
barium-water alcohol is formed, which is removed by evaporation,
and the barium salts of the fatty acids. The latter are crystallized,
and then the acids separated by sulphuric acid. The first
distillate yields formic acid, the second propionic acid, etc.

Manner of Obtaining Wood Spirit (Methyl Alcohol).

Crude wood spirit is a mixture of methyl alcohol with methyl
acetate, dimethylacetal, acetone, inetacetone, aldehyde, various
hydrocarbons, acetates of ammonium and methylamiue, and free
acetic acid.

These substances cannot be separated by fractional distillation
alone, because the boiling point of some of them is nearly the
same (methyl alcohol 152.6° F., dimethylacetal 147.2°, acetone
132.8, methyl acetate 131°). The crude wood spirit is digested
in a still with slaked lime, whereby, with the development of
considerable heat, the free acetic acid always present combines
with the lime ; ammonia and methylamine are also evolved, and
the methyl acetate is gradually decomposed into calcium acetate
and methyl alcohol. (By the action of the

Ot

248 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES,

with a boiling point above 212° F. are gradually formed from the

acetone.)

After several hours' digestion the mixture is distilled by means
of steam. In Fig. 60, a represents the copper still, b an ellipsoidal

Fig. 60.

or egg-shaped vessel which serves as a receiver, and c the rectify-
ing apparatus, consisting of a series of Pistorius's basins (see Fig.
57, p. 238), into the uppermost of which a moderate current of
water is conducted ; d is the condenser.

The still a has a capacity of 1000 to 1200 quarts ; the steam
pipe placed in it is 2 inches in diameter and 32 feet long. The
vapors pass out through the wide pipe in the cover, and what is
condensed in b runs back through a narrower pipe into a. In
the rectifying vessel or rather dephlegmator, the rising vapors are
forced to pass around a copper disk placed in each basin and thus
to come in contact with the surface of the basin cooled by water.
From this it is evident that the less volatile bodies are condensed
in the basins and run back into b and from there into a, while
the more volatile vapors pass through the swan-neck and are con-
densed in d. Much, of course, depends on the quantity (and
temperature) of the water running into the rectifying vessel.

With a rectifying vessel consisting of seven basins, each 1.64

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD-VINEGAR. 249

feet in diameter, and with a correctly conducted influx of water,
a product of 0.816 specific gravity is obtained by one operation
from crude wood spirit of 0.965 specific gravity.

This product can be used for many purposes, for instance in the
preparation of varnishes. It is, however, not entirely pure, it
being rendered turbid by water which is due to a content of the
previously-mentioned hydrocarbons ; it further contains some
acetone, methyl acetate, aldehyde, ammonia, methylamine, and
is not fit for the fabrication of aniline colors.

For further purification this rectified wood-spirit is diluted
with water until it shows a specific gravity of 0.934 and is then
allowed to rest a few days, when the greater portion of the hydro-
carbons has separated as an oily layer on the top. The clear fluid
is now again rectified with an addition of 2 to 3 per cent, of lime,
whereby a distillate is obtained which does not become turbid
with water but turns yellow in time.

But neither this twice-rectified Avood-spirit is suitable for all
purposes, for instance, not for the preparation of methyl iodide.
To remove traces of ammonia and methylamine and to precipitate
the last particles of tarry substances, it is again rectified after
adding some sulphuric acid, this time, however, in a distilling
apparatus standing in a water-bath, whereby a temperature of
147.2° to 152.6° is sought to be maintained. One cubic metre
(35.31 cubic feet) of wood yields 2 to 3 quarts of methyl alcohol
which is not rendered turbid by water.

For the purification of wood-spirit on a small scale, the above-
mentioned property of methyl alcohol to form a solid crystalliz-
able combination with calcium chloride can be utilized. Mix
the wood-spirit once rectified over lime with dry powdered cal-
cium chloride, pour oif the oily layer of foreign substances, which
separates, after some standing, upon the surface of the solid com-
bination formed, aud heat the solid body in a water-bath to
212° F. It is not decomposed at this temperature, while the
still-adhering impurities at least partially volatilize. Mix the dry
residue with water, whereby the combination is broken np, and
distill in a water-bath ; the distillate is quite pure methyl alcohol.

The examination of commercial wood-spirit extends chiefly to
the presence or absence of the previously-mentioned hydro-

250 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

carbons, which can be readily ascertained by mixing the sample
with water ; further to the presence of acetone, methyl acetate,
and ordinary alcohol, the latter being sometimes found as an
adulteration. The presence of acetone is recognized by the
colorless crystalline precipitate formed on shaking with a satu-
rated solution of sodium hyposulphite. The presence of methyl
acetate is shown when, by boiling the wood-spirit with soda lye
and subsequent distilling off, a residue remains in which acetic
acid can be found. Ordinary alcohol can be detected by distill-
ing the wood-spirit with double to four times its volume of con-
centrated sulphuric acid. By the action of the latter upon the
wood spirit dimethyl ether (CH^O is formed ; but by the action of
the excess of sulphuric acid upon alcohol, cthene C2H4. The
first is readily soluble in water, 1 volume of the latter dissolving
37 volumes of the gas ; the latter, however, dissolves with diffi-
culty, 7 volumes of water absorbing only about 1 volume of it.
Hence, if alcohol be present in the wood-spirit, ethene will remain
by shaking the gas mixture with its equal volume of water. By
adding bromide ethene dibromide, C2H4Br2, a colorless oily liquid,
having a sweetish smell and taste, is formed.

Yield of Charcoal, Wood- Vinegar, and Wood-Spirit, as well as of

'Tar.

The statements as to the obtainable yield of products resulting
from the distillation of wood vary very much, which is but
natural, as the yield depends on many factors : on the variety of
the wood, its age, even on the soil upon which it is grown, the
time it has been stored, on the degree of dryness, the dimensions,
the position of the retorts, the degrees of temperature, and espe-
cially on the duration of carbonization.

Stoltze, in 1820, published experiments, made with the greatest
care, to show the amount and strength of the products obtained
from the distillation of several varieties of wood. The quantity of
each kind of wood submitted to destructive distillation was one
pound, a quantity suitable, in the generality of cases, to form a
precedent for the manufacturer on the large scale. The woods
were all collected at the same time of the year (towards the end

MANUFACTURE OF WOOD-VINEGAR. 251

of January) and only those of nearly the same growth were
chosen. From Stoltze's table the following figures for the most
important varieties of wood have been calculated : —

Wood
vinegar,

Therein
acetic Tar,

Char-

Gases,

anhydride,

coal,

cubic

pounds.

pounds. pounds.

pounds.

metres.

100 pounds of birch

44.9

O Q

further 8.6

24.4

9.8

" " beech

44

8.6

9.5

24.6

10.8

" " hornbeam 42.5

7.6

" 11.1

23.9

10

" " oak

43

7.7

9.1

26.1

10

" " fir

42.3

4.2

" 11.9

26.6

12.5

or,

1 cubic metre (35.31 cubic feet) = 750 pounds of birch, yields
333 pounds of wood- vinegar of 20 per cent. = 66.6 pounds of
acetic anhydride; further, 64 pounds of tar, 181 pounds of char-
coal, and 73 cubic metres (2578.06 cubic feet) of gases.

1 cubic metre (35.31 cubic feet) = 850 pounds of beech, yields
371 pounds of wood-vinegar of 19.6 per cent. = 72.7 pounds of
acetic anhydride, 80.7 pounds, 207.4 pounds of charcoal, and 85
cubic metres (3001.86 cubic feet) of gases.

1 cubic metre (35.31 cubic feet) = 950 pounds of hornbeam,
yields 402 pounds of wood-vinegar of 18 per cent. = 72.3 pounds
of acetic anhydride, 105 pounds of tar, 225 pounds of charcoal,
and 94 cubic metres (3311.8 cubic feet) of gases.

1 cubic metre (35.31 cubic feet) = 850 pounds of oak, yields
367 pounds of wood-vinegar of 18 per cent, = 66 pounds of
acetic anhydride, 77.8 pounds of tar, 223 pounds of charcoal, and
86 cubic metres (3037.17 cubic feet) of gases.

1 cubic metre (35.31 cubic feet) = 650 pounds of fir, yields 271
pounds of wood-vinegar of 10.1 per cent. = 27.4 pounds of acetic
anhydride, 72.6 pounds of tar, 138.5 pounds of charcoal, and 80
cubic metres (2825.28 cubic feet) of gases.

Gillot has confirmed Stoltze's statements in so far as he found
that, in manufacturing on a large scale, with slow and carefully-
conducted carbonization and a distilling period of 72 hours, 7 to
8 per cent, of the (hard) wood of acetic anhydride can be ob-
tained.

252

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

The results obtained by Assmus in manufacturing on a. large
scale are as follows : —

Which

Or

Yield

yield

acetic

Char-

Crude

Crude

100 pounds of—

wood
vinegar,

calcium
acetate,

an-
hvdride,

Tar,

coal,

light
oil,

heavy
oil,

pounds.

pounds.

pounds.

pounds.

pounds.

pounds.

pounds.

Birch 25 to 40 years old
Birch-bark, first extract

46
22

5.2
0.6

3.9

0.4

8
30

23.5
18.5

1.2
21.6

4.5
3.0

" second "

20

0.7

0.5

20

22

12

4.7

Oak

42

6.0

4.5

8.8

27.5(?)

0.8

3.3

Fir

42

3.2

2.4

10.5

22

1.3

5.7

Pine

44.5

3.0

2.3

9.5

22.6

0.6

3.5

According to Rothe's experience, the trunk-wood of birch
from 60 to 80 years old and grown upon a high dry soil with a
limestone sub-soil surpasses the best red beech in the yield of
acetic acid. He obtained from 100 pounds of this kind of wood
dried at 140° to 158° F., with heating for 48 hours, at a final
temperature not exceeding 750° F., 40 pounds of wood-vinegar
of 25 per cent, acetic anhydride, further 2 or 3 per cent, of tar,
and 30 per cent, of red charcoal suitable for the manufacture of
powder.

The yield of salable, though not entirely pure methyl alcohol,
is J Ib. and at the utmost 1J Ibs. from 110 Ibs. of wood ; accord-
ing to Vincent, 2 to 3 quarts from 35.31 cubic feet. This higher
yield is said to be obtained by moistening the wood with soda
solution and drying. In case this statement is correct, it would
be advisable to saturate saw-dust with soda solution, and after
drying distill in Halliday's apparatus.* It consists of a hori-
zontal, cast-iron cylinder. The saw-dust, spent dye-wood, etc.
are introduced through a hopper placed above the front end. In
the cylinder a vertical screw or worm revolves at such a speed as
to convey the material in the proper quantities to the cylinder
placed in a horizontal position and heated by means of a furnace.
Another revolving screw or worm keeps the saw-dust, etc., in-
troduced in the retort in constant motion and at the same time
moves it forward to the opposite end of the retort. During their

Muspratt's Chemistry, Vol. I. p. 23.

PREPARATION OF PURE CONCENTRATED ACETIC ACID. 253

progress through the retort the materials are completely carbon-
ized and all the volatile products disengaged. Two pipes branch
off from the extremity of the retort, one of which passes down-
wards and dips into an air-tight vessel of cast-iron or a cistern of
water into which the carbonized substance falls ; the other is an
ascending pipe and carries off' the volatile products of the distil-
lation into the condenser, which consists of copper or iron pipes
immersed in or surrounded by water.

According to statements by Hargreaves and others, saw-dust
from resinous woods gives as much wood-vinegar in 24 hours
with 8 or 10 retorts 14 inches in diameter, as with 16 retorts 3
feet in diameter.

In another comparison of the two systems, 8 Halliday retorts
consuming 22 tons of saw-dust weekly produce : —

Wood-vinegar of specific gravity 1.05 . . 2494 gallons.
Tar 240

While a ton of oak (2240 Ibs.) carbonized in large retorts
gives : —

Wood-vinegar of specific gravity 1.03 . . 1277 pounds.
Charcoal 600 "

To make the comparison more satisfactory it would have been
necessary to state the kind of gallon employed and the percentage
of real acid in the wood- vinegar, since hydrometers and specific
gravities give indications of very little value in this case.

CHAPTER XXII.

PREPARATION OF PURE CONCENTRATED ACETIC ACID.

THE strongest vinegar which can be prepared by the process
of fermentation contains somewhat above 13 per cent, of acetic
acid, and it is difficult, even with the greatest care, to continu-
ously obtain a product of this strength. The difficulties encoun-
tered are due to the fact that the vinegar ferment is incapable of
vigorous vegetation in a fluid containing, besides 10 per cent, of

254 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

acetic acid, a sufficient quantity of alcohol for the further forma-
tion of 3 per cent, of acetic acid, and it requires the greatest vigi-
lance and utmost care as regards the maintenance of the correct
temperature and ventilation in the factory to convert, under these
conditions, alcohol into acetic acid.

It has frequently been asked whether it is advisable to increase
the content of acetic acid in vinegar prepared from alcohol, which
contains only 7 or 8 per cent., to 12 or 14 per cent, by the addi-
tion of concentrated acetic acid obtained from wood. This ques-
tion may be answered in the affirmative, provided absolutely pure
acetic acid, free from all empyreumatic substances, be used, and it
is advisable in all cases to test the acetic acid as to a content of
these substances as well as to the presence of sulphurous acid and
of metals (copper, tin, etc.).

To establish the presence of empyreumatic substances, dilute
the concentrated acetic acid with twice or three times its volume
of distilled water, and add a few drops of a solution of potassium
permanganate. In the presence of empyreumatic substances or
sulphurous acid the red coloration of the fluid disappears at once.
The manner of detecting the presence of sulphurous acid and of
copper and other metals has already been given on p. 211.

Acetic acid which gives negative results with these tests may
be considered as chemically pure, and can without hesitation be
used for increasing the strength of vinegar prepared from alcohol ;
in fact, the employment of the so-called vinegar essence for this
purpose is constantly increasing. The fluid occurring in com-
merce under this name is highly concentrated acetic acid with a
content of acid varying between 60 and 80 per cent. By diluting
this fluid with water so that its content of acetic acid is equal to
that of ordinary table vinegar, a product is obtained which, as re-
gards taste, can be scarcely distinguished from ordinary vinegar
prepared from alcohol. Chemically there is also but little differ-
ence, the vinegar prepared from alcohol containing a small quan-
tity of acetic ether and of extractive substances which do not
occur in vinegar essence obtained by distillation.

For the preservation of fruit, cucumbers, and the so-called
mixed pickles, and, in fact, for all purposes where only a fluid
containing acetic acid and water is required, acetic acid obtained

PREPARATION OF PURE CONCENTRATED ACETIC ACID. 255

from wood can be advantageously used. For seasoning food,
vinegar prepared from malt, beer, or wine is, however, prefer-
able, it being more 'agreeable to the senses of taste and smell on
account of its content of other substances besides pure dilute
acetic acid.

From strong vinegar acetic acid is obtained by distillation, the
separation from the non-volatile substances being only possible
by these means. If the acid is to be entirely pure, the vinegar
is subjected to distillation in a copper still with a head and worm
of silver or silver-plated, though this costly apparatus is now
generally replaced by a head and worm of stone-ware. If abso-
lute purity is not required, the head and worm may be of copper,
or the head of copper and the worm of lead. Tin or tinned
copper is less suitable, since a trace of tin which may be dis-
solved causes opalescence in the distilled vinegar, and, besides,
imparts to it a peculiar disagreeable odor. By using pure cop-
per, distilling quickly and without interruption and cleaning the
apparatus immediately after finishing the operation, some traces
of copper will only be found in the first portion of the distillate.
With the use of a leaden worm a content of lead can be almost
entirely avoided by allowing the end of the worm to dip in water
or vinegar, or by inserting in the end of the worm a perforated
cork provided with a U-shaped tube, the latter preventing the
access of air. The first portion of the distillate only contains
lead ; it is removed and can be used, for instance, for acetate of
lead. The distillate is from time to time tested with solution of
sulphuretted hydrogen ; the distillate is free from lead when it
no longer acquires a brown coloration.

The distilled acid is, however, always weaker than the vinegar ;
the boiling point of acetic acid being higher than 212° F., an acid
rich in water will evidently at first pass over. Distillation, how-
ever, cannot be carried on to dryness, as, on account of the foreign
substances in the vinegar, the contents of the still would inevitably
burn and the distillate acquire a disagreeable odor. Hence distil-
lation must cease just at the time when the strongest acid would
pass over. Stein has, therefore, recommended to increase the
boiling point of the vinegar by the addition of one-third of its
weight of rock salt. Though all the acetic acid is not obtained

256 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

by these means, the amount is considerably larger than without
such an addition. The rock salt remaining unchanged, the resi-
due can be repeatedly used. Comparatively weak acetic acid
can, however, only be obtained by this method. For a stronger
product it is necessary to use an acetate and decompose it by a
mineral acid.

The cheapest way is to fix the acetic acid on lime and to distill
the calcium acetate with crude hydrochloric acid. After neutra-
lizing the vinegar with milk of lime and bringing the solution of
the acetate to dryness, 100 Ibs. of the salt are dissolved in 110 to
120 Ibs. of crude hydrochloric acid of 1.16 specific gravity and
the whole is subjected to distillation. The acetic acid obtained
by this method is not entirely free from hydrochloric acid, but
can be readily purified by rectification over acetate of sodium or
of calcium.

Preparation of Acetic Acid from Commercial Acetates and
from those obtained from Wood- Vinegar. -

The most highly concentrated acetic acid, known as glacial
acetic acid, was formerly exclusively obtained by the dry distilla-
tion of crystallized verdigris (normal cupric acetate). By drying
this salt at between 320° and 356° F. and heating, a mixture of
acetone and glacial acetic acid is obtained which only requires
rectification. The yield of acetic acid amounts to J of the verdi-
gris used (see Acetates). This process has, however, been almost
entirely abandoned, cheaper methods having been introduced.

The principal acetates now used for the purpose are those of
lead, barium, calcium, and sodium ; the latter two, being the
cheapest, are exclusively used for the manufacture on a large scale,
though the former are very suitable for the production on a small
scale.

By decomposing normal lead acetate, frequently called sugar of
lead, with one equivalent of sulphuric acid (4.9 Ibs. of sulphuric
acid to 1 9 Ibs. of the salt) sulphate of lead remains in the retort
while acetic acid distills over. The sulphate of lead adheres,
however, very tightly to the retort, and, being insoluble in water,
it can, as a rule, not be removed without injury to the retort,

PREPARATION OF PURE CONCENTRATED ACETIC ACID. 257

Hence it is better to use 2 parts of sodium bisulphate and 1 part
of crystallized lead acetate, a mixture of lead sulphate and neutral
sodium sulphate then remaining in the retort, which can be
softened with water and readily removed. Instead of bisulphate
any desired quantity of Glauber's salt may be added to the lead
acetate and the whole distilled with the above-mentioned quantity
of sulphuric acid. An excess of the latter is to be avoided, the
acetic acid being decomposed at a high temperature by concen-
trated sulphuric acid. Distillation is carried on in a sand-bath.
For very concentrated acetic acid lead acetate dephlegmated
by gentle heating is used instead of the crystallized acetate and
decomposed with one-third of its weight of concentrated sulphuric
acid.

The acetic acid is, however, not entirely pure in either case, as it
contains a small quantity of sulphurous acid formed by the action
of the sulphuric acid upon the acetic acid. This impurity can be
readily removed by rectification over brown lead oxide (Pbo2) or
finely powdered peroxide of manganese (MnO2), sulphate of lead
remaining in the retort in the first case, and in the latter a mix-
ture of manganous sulphate and hyposulphate.

Bucholz gives the following direction which saves rectification,
the required quantity of peroxide of manganese being at once added
to the mixture of lead acetate and sulphuric acid : 192 parts of
lead acetate, 24 of Glauber's salt, 6 of peroxide of manganese, 56
of sulphuric acid, and 72 of water; the yield is 178 parts of
entirely pure acetic acid of 1.045 specific gravity.

By decomposing solution of lead acetate or of barium acetate
with sulphuric acid, pure acetic acid which has, however, but
little strength, can be prepared without distillation, as it is only
necessary not to use an excess of the salts or of sulphuric acid.
Completely anhydrous barium acetate should be used, the crystal-
lized product being less suitable for the purpose as it readily loses
its water of crystallization. For 100 parts of barium acetate,
38.4 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid are required and for
100 parts of normal lead acetate 25.9 parts of sulphuric acid. The
solution of barium acetate should not be too concentrated, as other-
wise the barium sulphate does not appear in the ordinary form of
17

258 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

a fine dense powder, but as a gelatinous precipitate which settles
with difficulty and pertinaciously retains acetic acid.

Finally, the lead acetate can also be decomposed by nitric acid,
this method having the advantage of yielding a valuable by-pro-
duct, lead nitrate. Christ! obtained from 100 parts of lead
acetate and 53 of nitric acid of 1.38 specific gravity, 65 parts of
acetic acid of 1.06 specific gravity and 80 parts of crystallized
lead nitrate. A weaker acid, for instance of 1.04 specific gravity,
can be obtained by dissolving the lead acetate in hot water, adding
the above-mentioned quantity of nitric acid, and after allowing the
greater portion of the lead nitrate to crystallize out, distilling the
mother-lye. To see whether the acid thus obtained is free from
nitric acid, compound a sample with a drop of very dilute solu-
tion of indigo and boil for some time : discoloration proves the
presence of nitric acid.

Calcium acetate and sodium acetate form the basis for the
preparation of acetic acid on a large scale ; the former, if the
acid is to be used for ordinary technical purposes, where absolute
purity is not required, as, for instance, in the fabrication of lead
acetate, crystallized verdigris, aniline (from nitrobenzole and
metallic iron), etc., and the latter, if the acid is to be free from
empyreumatic odor and taste and suitable for use in the fabrica-
tion of aniline colors, for photographical, pharmaceutical, and
household purposes, etc.

According to VolckePs method, for 100 pounds of dry yel-
lowish gray calcium .acetate 90 to 95 pounds of crude hydrochlo-
ric acid of 1.16 specific gravity are used, the acid obtained show-
ing a specific gravity of 1.058 to 1.061. By adding to the above
mixture 25 pounds of water distillation proceeds with greater
ease. 95 to 100 pounds of acid of 1.050 specific gravity being ob-
tained. In order to ascertain the required quantity of hydrochlo-
ric acid more accurately than is possible from the above-men-
tioned approximate statements, it is necessary to distill two small
samples of the thoroughly mixed acetate, for instance, 100
grammes, with 95 or 90 grammes of hydrochloric acid, and* to
test the distillate for hydrochloric acid. This is readily effected
by adding a few drops of dilute solution of nitrate of silver, a
white precipitate or white turbidity indicating hydrochloric acid.

PREPARATION OF PURE CONCENTRATED ACETIC ACID. 259

The mixture of acetate and hydrochloric acid is not distilled at
once, but allowed to stand 12 hours for the substances to act upon
each other, and for the removal of the tarry bodies which sepa-
rate on the surface. It is then brought into a copper still and heated
over an open fire. , At first weak, and later on, stronger acid
passes over. What remains is calcium chloride contaminated by
tarry substances which have, however, become almost entirely
insoluble. The thin pasty mixture is drawn off through a pipe
on the bottom of the still, and, as a rule, thrown away. By evap-
orating it, however, to dryness and roasting it for some time with
access of air, or dissolving it in water, filtering and evaporating-
to dryness in an iron boiler, it may serve for the preparation of
glacial acetic acid (see below).

Cast-iron stills can also be used and are quite durable as far as
moistened by the acid mixture. The places exposed to the vapors
of acetic acid are, however, quickly attacked, and it is, therefore,
recommended to provide the upper portion of the still with a
lining of sheet-copper.

The acid thus obtained has a strong empyreumatic odor, is not
entirely colorless, and sometimes contains traces of hydrochloric
acid. By rectifying it over 1 to. 1 J per cent, of potassium bi-
chromate the odor, coloration, and content of hydrochloric acid
disappear, but a slight empyreumatic taste remains.

When, however, the empyreumatic odor is not objectionable
and only the hydrochloric acid is to be removed, the latter object
can be attained at less cost by rectification over some calcium
acetate or over burnt lime. A test on a small scale is also made
in this case to ascertain the required quantity of salt or lime.
Or the acid is titrated with solution of nitrate of silver and the
quantity of lime or calcium acetate found by calculation added.
The process with the use of decinormal solution of nitrate of
silver, i. e., such as contains in 1 liter 17 grammes of crystallized
nitrate of silver, is as follows : Mix 100 cubic centimetres of the
acetic acid in a beaker or porcelain dish with a drop of saturated
solution of bichromate, and add from a burette, with constant
stirring with a glass rod, drop by drop of the decinormal solution
of nitrate of silver until the white precipitate just commences to
acquire a red coloration. Now read off and multiply the nura-

260

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

her of cubic centimetres of nitrate of silver solution consumed
by 0.028, or, still better, as the lime is seldom pure, by 0.03.
The product gives the quantity of lime in grammes required for
1 liter of acetic acid. If calcium aetate is to be used, multiply
by 0.079, or by 0.08 if the calcium acetate is not absolutely pure.
' Rectification is executed with steam. In Fig. 61 the steam
enters through the vertical pipe near the bottom of the still and

Fig. 61.

circulates in a coil ; the condensed water can be discharged through
a pipe near the influx aperture.

The first and last portions are not entirely clear ; they are col-
lected by themselves, and, after mixing, allowed to clear by stand-
ing, when the greater portion can be siphoned off. The turbid
residue is added to a fresh mixture of acetate and hydrochloric
acid to be subjected to distillation.

Volckel has further found that it is not necessary to use the
roasted gray calcium acetate, but that, with a slight modification
of the process, the acetate prepared from crude wood-vinegar
answers nearly as well. The crude wood-vinegar is filtered
through charcoal and being freed from wood-spirit and acetone
by distillation, is saturated or even slightly supersaturated in an
iron boiler with slaked lime (litmus paper should be colored
slightly blue). The solution is boiled for some time, and, after
clarifying, is evaporated in an iron pan to about one-half its vol-
ume, the resinous and sooty impurities appearing upon the surface
being constantly removed.

PREPARATION OF PURE CONCENTRATED ACETIC ACID. 261

The purpose of the excess of lime is to expel the volatile basic
bodies, ammonia and methylamine, and to decompose the volatile
oils. The non-volatile bodies dissolved in the crude wood-vine-
gar separate partially in saturating with lime and partially in
boiling and evaporating. A portion of these foreign substances
remains, however, in solution, combined with the lime so that the
clear fluid obtained by decantation or filtration has a brown red
color.

It is now slightly acidulated with crude hydrochloric acid, 4
pounds of the latter being at the utmost required for 22 impe-
rial gallons of wood-vinegir. A considerable quantity of tarry
substances is separated and after their removal the solution ap-
pears less highly colored. By now evaporating to dryness and
roasting in the previously described manner, or sharply drying
upon heated iron plates, the salt is obtained as a dirty gray-
brown mass. The acetic acid separated from it is, however,
scarcely more impure than that obtained from gray salt, and by
using somewhat more potassium bichromate, about 2 or 3 per
cent., in the rectification, there is no difference in the quality of
the acid.

Reichenbach destroys the empyreumatic bodies in crude cal-
cium acetate by distilling with an excess of concentrated sulphuric
acid. According to his statements, a clear colorless acetic acid of
great strength and showing no empyreumatic odor is obtained.
The crude distillate, however, contains sulphurous acid, so that
it has to be rectified over pyrolusite and sulphuric acid or over
minium or potassium bichromate.

According to Schnedermann, the wood-vinegar freed from
wood-spirit is exposed with an excess of quicklime to the air for
24 hours, whereby the separation of the tarry substances is claimed
to be promoted. The clear dark-brown solution of the calcium
salt is drawn off and after heating to boiling mixed with calcium
chloride solution as long as the latter produces a discoloring effect.
The now yellowish brown solution is evaporated and finally
decomposed with sulphuric acid (or hydrochloric acid). The
acetic acid obtained by distillation is claimed to possess only a
slightly yellow color and to be suitable for many technical pur-

262 VINEGAR, CIDEK, AND FRUIT-WINES.

poses. The acid thus obtained, however, undoubtedly contains
hydrochloric acid and has to be rectified over sodium acetate.

Acetic acid of a pure taste suitable for household use as well as
for technical purposes is, as previously mentioned, exclusively
obtained from sodium acetate either by distillation or without it.

Sodium acetate is, to be sure, completely decomposed by 1
equivalent of sulphuric acid (36 Ibs. of acid to 100 Ibs. of crys-
tallized salt) and, on a small scale in glass retorts, it is effected
without difficulty, because a strong heat can finally be applied
without injury. On a large scale, however, where the distillation
is executed by means of steam* of two atmospheres, 1 equivalent
of sulphuric acid is not advantageous, because the remaining solid
neutral sodium sulphate retains much strong acetic acid. It is,
therefore, recommended to gradually pour 2 equivalents of sul-
phuric acid (72 Ibs. of acid to 100 Ibs. of the salt) upon the
crystallized salt in a copper still and introduce steam after allow-
ing the whole to rest several hours. The residue remaining in
this process is sodium bisulphate, which remains entirely fluid at
the distilling temperature and from which all the acetic acid can
be expelled. A further advantage of this method is that at first
very strong acetic acid passes over, which can be collected by
itself and worked into glacial acetic acid (see below). Later on
comes more dilute acid, because the water of crystallization of the
acetate, which was at first retained by the bisulphate, also passes
over.

The bisulphate while still hot is poured into slightly conical
shallow copper pans in which it congeals on cooling. It might
thus be brought into commerce, but as the manufacturer would
have to compete with large chemical works producing mineral
acids, it is more advantageous to utilize it by distilling it with
crude sodium acetate in the proportion of 3 : 2, whereby 2.5 parts
of neutral anhydrous sodium sulphate remain behind, which, as
previously mentioned, can be again used for the preparation of
sodium acetate, while 2 parts of acetic acid with about 40 per
cent, of acetic anhydride, which is pure enough for many pur-
poses, pass over.

* With the use of a free fire, the stills suffer very much.

PREPARATION OF PURJE CONCENTRATED ACETIC ACID. 263

From 100 Ibs. of crystallized sodium acetate 80 Ibs. of acetic
acid with 55 per cent, of acetic anhydride (1.065 specific gravity)
are obtained, or 100 Ibs. of acid with 44 per cent, of acetic
anhydride. Asa rule, the acid is, however, not entirely pure ;
it generally contains traces of hydrochloric acid, of sulphurous
acid and of copper. It is, therefore, again distilled in the same
apparatus, now provided, however, with a neck and worm of silver
or of stoneware, some sodium acetate, or, still better, minium or
potassium bichromate being added. In each case the hydrochloric
acid remains behind as metallic chloride (chloride of sodium,
lead, potassium and chromium). In the first case the first por-
tions passing over contain some sulphurous acid and may have a
slightly empyreumatic odor ; but the acid passing over later on is
pure. In the second and third case the sulphurous acid is con-
verted into sulphuric acid by the disposable oxygen of the
minium of the bichromate and retained as sulphate, the empy-
reumatic substances being also destroyed.

The portion of acid of a pure taste, which passes over first in
rectifying, being weakest, is used for household purposes ; later on
comes a stronger acid up to 10° B. = 1.075 specific gravity.

Although in thoroughly rectified acid no impurity can be
established by the most sensitive reagent, for instance, potassium
permanganate, its taste is not as pure as that of acid prepared with-
out distillation. This imperfection can, however, be concealed by
the addition of a small quantity of acetic ether or of alcohol
(about 1 quart to 22 imp. gallons), which is converted into acetic
ether.

Mollerat's method renders, however, even this resort unneces-
sary. According to it, pure sodium acetate obtained in small
crystals by disturbing crystallization is decomposed with 1 equiv-
alent of concentrated sulphuric acid (65 Ibs. of acid to 100 Ibs.
of salt) in a large vat provided with a false bottom. The sub-
stances being thoroughly mixed by means of a stirring apparatus,
Fig. 62, the mixture is allowed to stand till the next day. De-
composition is completely effected in this time at an ordinary
temperature, the acetic acid being liberated and the greater portion
of the neutral sodium sulphate, which dissolves but little in the
acid, crystallized out. To prevent the perforations of the false

264 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

bottom from being obstructed by the sulphate crystallizing out,
sufficient pure acetic acid is previously poured into the vat to
cover the perforated bottom. By opening the stop-cock the
acetic acid runs off, which, however, contains a small quantity of

Fig. 62.

sodium sulphate in solution. The remaining sulphate is washed
with water, and, after mixing the latter with the acid, the mixture
is brought into stoneware-pots which are placed in cold water for
about 8 days, whereby the greater portion of the sodium sulphate
is crystallized out. The very small quantity remaining imparts,
however, a laxative quality to the salt, and hence must be con-
verted into a salt which does not possess this medicinal property.
This is effected by mixing the acid siphoned off in a vat with
pure calcium acetate, the required quantity of which has to be
determined by a test on a small scale. The gypsum formed
gradually settles to the bottom, while a corresponding quantity
of newly-formed sodium acetate remains dissolved in the acid,
which is, however, not injurious.

The process may also be executed by bringing 100 pounds of
the salt in very small crystals or finely pulverized into a stone-
ware vessel, and adding at one time 35 or at the utmost 35.5
pounds of concentrated sulphuric acid in such a manner that it
lies on the bottom of the vessel below the salt. Mixing is then
gradually effected so as to avoid heating as much as possible.

PREPARATION OF PURE CONCENTRATED ACETIC ACID. 265

Decomposition is complete in a few hours and the sodium sul-
phate crystallized out on the bottom, the supernatant acetic acid
being partially in a fluid and partially in a crystallized state.
The acid is then siphoned off and pure calcium acetate added as
above. The sodium sulphate is then regained and can be again
used in the fabrication.

The acid thus obtained need only be reduced to the strength
desired by the consumer by diluting with water.

Glacial Acetie Acid.

Glacial acetic acid can be prepared by distilling 12 pounds ot
pure anhydrous sodium acetate with 11 pounds of concentrated
sulphuric acid. The last portion, which is frequently somewhat
empyreumatic, is collected by itself and the portion first passed
over rectified over sulphuric acid and pyrolusite to remove traces
of sulphurous acid.

A better method published by Melsens is based upon the prop-
erty of neutral calcium acetate to absorb 1 equivalent of hydrated
acetic acid and to form a solid acid salt which decomposes only,
at 392° F., into hydrated acetic acid, which passes over, and into
neutral acetate which remains behind. Hence, by decomposing
sodium acetate with 2 equivalents of sulphuric acid and collecting
the strong acid first passing over as long as it shows from 10° to
8° B., it is only necessary to pour it into a copper still upon
fused potassium acetate coarsely powdered after cooling, and after
standing for several hours to distill over a free fire, the still
being provided with a silver neck and a worm of the same
material. When the temperature exceeds 248° F. all the weaker
acid has passed over and the receiver is changed. At 392° F.
glacial acetic acid passes over which is again rectified over fused
potassium acetate and then exposed to a low temperature to
freeze.

Glacial acetic acid can also be prepared in the same manner
from acetic acid of 1.061 specific gravity obtained by VolckePs
method or by distilling it over anhydrous calcium chloride and
cooling the distillate, whereby one portion crystallizes. The por-
tion which remains liquid is poured off and again distilled over

266 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

calcium chloride. The glacial acetic acid thus obtained contains
considerable hydrochloric acid, but can be readily freed from this
impurity by distilling over anhydrous sodium acetate, or, still
better, over anhydrous potassium acetate. As by this method
calcium chloride is obtained as a by-product (see p. 259), and
can be freed from all organic substances by glowing with the ac-
cess of air, the preparation of glacial acetic acid in this manner is
just as readily executed as, though it has no advantage over,
Melsen's process.

Perfectly pure hydrated acetic acid dissolves oil of lemon in
every proportion, but if one drop of water be added a portion of
the oil immediately separates. This behavior may be utilized for
ascertaining at what moment the strongest acid is to be collected
at the last rectification. The pure but weaker acid obtained in
the fabrication is used in the preparation of pure acetates.

Below 59.9° F. glacial acetic acid forms large, colorless, trans-
parent crystals, which above that temperature fuse to a thin color-
less liquid, of exceedingly pungent and well-known odor; it
raises blisters on the skin. It is miscible in all proportions with
water, alcohol, and ether, and dissolves camphor and several
resins. In a liquid state glacial acetic acid has a density of 1.063
and boils at 248° F. ; its vapor is inflammable.

CHAPTER XXIII.

ACETATES AXD THEIR MANUFACTURE.

A CONSIDERABLE quantity of the vinegar obtained from alcohol
and wood (as well as the acetic acid prepared from it) is worked
into acetates, there being, for instance, factories which use their
entire product in the fabrication of lead acetate or sugar of lead.
Only the more important technical acetates (combinations of
acetic acid with metallic oxides, or, according to the view of
modern chemists, acetic acid in which 1 molecule of hydrogen is
replaced by a metal) will here be described.

Acetic acid is a monobasic acid, i. c., it contains 1 atom of

ACETATES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. 267

hydrogen which can be replaced by a metal : C2H4O2 = C2H3O21H.
If this hydrogen is replaced by a univalent metal (for instance, K
or Xa), a salt of the formula C2H3O2Xa or C2H3NaO2 is formed.
If, however, 2 atoms of hydrogen in 2 molecules of acetic acid
be replaced by a bivalent metal, (C2H.sO2)2Ba, etc., is formed, and
finally with a trivalent metal, (Al) (C2H3O2)3A1.

Most of the acetates are readily soluble in water; the acetates
of molybdenum are insoluble ; and those of argentic monoxide
and of mercurous oxide dissolve with great difficulty.

The preparation of the acetates is effected partially by dis-
solving the oxides or carbonates in acetic acid, which must, how-
ever, not be too concentrated for the barium and calcium salts,
and partially by double decomposition, generally by means of
the lead salt and a sulphate of another metal.

The acetates of potassium, sodium, and ammonium show a
slightly alkaline reaction and the readily soluble basic lead ace-
tates .a strong alkaline one ; the remaining lead acetates react neu-
tral or slightly acid.

The acetates of the fixed alkalies and alkaline earths, submit-
ted to dry distillation, yield water and acetone, while the oxide,
and sometimes the reduced metal, remain in the distilling appa-
ratus. The solutions of alkaline acetates become mouldy after a
time.

The acetic acid may be set free from its combinations by sul-
phuric acid, and is easily recognized by its characteristic odor ;
its salts, in common with those of organic acids, become black by
the action of heat.

Potassium neutral acetate, KC2H3O2. — Acetic acid is present
in the sap of many plants, and is generally combined with po-
tassium, forming neutral potassium acetate. When wood is cal-
cined the potassium acetate is decomposed, the acetic acid being
replaced by carbonic acid. It is by this interchange that the
carbonate of potassium found in wood ashes is formed.

It is prepared by dissolving pure carbonate of potassium in a
slight excess of acetic acid, evaporating and fusing. The excess
of acid is necessary to replace that which is lost during evapora-
tion ; without it the salt turns yellow or brown.

Another method of obtaining it is by decomposing normal

268 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

acetate of lead (sugar of lead) with pure carbonate or sulphate
of potassium. To detect the presence of lead it should be
tested with sulphuretted hydrogen, which in the presence of
this metal produces a slightly brown precipitate. To obtain a
pure product the decanted liquid is treated with sulphuretted
hydrogen, and, after separating from the precipitate and adding
a small quantity of acetic acid, is evaporated in a stone-ware
vessel.

Potassium acetate is readily soluble in water and ordinary
alcohol ; it is quite soluble in absolute alcohol, but insoluble in
ether. It is a very deliquescent salt and difficult to crystallize.
The entirely pure salt in dilute aqueous solution should not give
precipitates with potassium or with sulphuretted hydrogen, nor
with barium chloride or nitrate of silver.

At an ordinary temperature 100 parts of water dissolve 230
parts of the salt ; a saturated solution, which boils at 336.2° F.,
contains for 100 parts of water 800 of the salt. From the alco-
holic solution of the salt potassium carbonate is thrown down by
a stream of carbon dioxide.

Potassium acetate melts without decomposition at 482° F. to
an oily liquid, and on cooling forms a crystalline, foliated mass ;
at a red heat it is decomposed into acetone, hydrocarbons, empy-
reumatic products, and a residue of carbon and potassium car-
bonate.

By the decomposition of acetate of potassium by electrolysis
Kolbe first obtained free methyl.

Potassium acetate, when treated with potassium hydrate in ex-
cess, becomes converted into carbonate of potassium and marsh
gas. When heated with arsenious acid, cacodyl (Cadet's fuming
liquid) is produced. This reaction is so decided, and the allia-
ceous odor evolved so strongly marked, that it forms one of the
best tests for small quantities of acetic acid.

Potassium acetate is an important medicine; it is employed
as a diuretic; it is also recommended for the preservation of
microscopic objects, .and it is occasionally used for the prepara-
tion of pear ether (amyl acetate).

Potassium acid acetate or potassium diacetate, KC2H3O2C2H4O2,
is formed by evaporating a solution of the neutral salt in excess

ACETATES AXD THEIR MANUFACTURE. 269

of acetic acid ; it crystallizes by slow evaporation in long, flat-
tened prisms. It is very deliquescent and decomposes at 392° F.,
giving off crystallizable acetic acid.

Sodium acetate, NaC2H.,O2. — The manner of preparing this salt
in the fabrication of wood-vinegar has already been described. It-
can be obtained in a manner similar to that of the potassium salt
by dissolving carbonate of soda in acetic acid, evaporating the solu-
tion, and setting the liquor aside to crystallize. The crystals form
large, colorless, oblique rhombic prisms. Their composition is
NaC2H3O2 + 3H2O ; they are soluble in 3 parts of cold, in a less
quantity of boiling water, and in 5 of alcohol.

The taste of sodium acetate is cooling and saline. When ex-
posed to dry air it loses its three equivalents of water, but regains
them in a moist atmosphere. After being melted it is deliques-
cent and takes up 7 equivalents of water ; it then becomes a liquid,
supersaturated solution which crystallizes, with evolution of heat,
immediately after a fragment of dry or crystallized sodium ace-
tate is thrown into it.

Sodium acetate is used for the preparation of acetic acid, acetic
ether, and in medicine. Sacc recommends it for the preservation
of animal and vegetable substances. His method consists in the
use of powdered acetate of sodium instead of common salt. To
keep meat fresh it is placed in a barrel with layers of acetate of
sodium interposed between the layers of meat in the proportion
of one-fourth of the weight of the meat. In summer the action
of the salt is immediate ; in winter it is necessary to place the
barrel in a heated room. As the salt abstracts the water from
the meat, the barrel is turned about. The operation is complete
in about 48 hours, and the meat may then be packed with its
pickle or it may be dried in the air. If the barrels are not full,
they may be filled up with a fresh pickle made by dissolving 1
part of sodium acetate in 3 of water. When the pickle is drawn
off from the meat half the salt is deposited in crystals and may
be again used.

Meat which has been thus treated is prepared for cooking by
steeping for at least 12 and not more than 24 hours, according
to the size of the piece, in tepid water, to which a small quantity
of sal ammoniac has previously been added. This salt decom-

"270 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

poses the acetate of sodium which remains in the meat, forming-
sodium chloride or common salt, and ammonium acetate. The
meat swells and resumes the color and reactions of fresh meat.
Animals, particularly fish and poultry, may be preserved entire
for market purposes in a pickle of sodium acetate, the only pre-
caution necessary being the removal of the intestines. Under
the influence of the pickle the meat loses about one-fourth of its
weight and another quarter disappears when it is dried. The
process is also said to be very well adapted to the preservation
of vegetables. These generally lose thereby five-sixths of their
weight. When needed for use, it is only necessary to soak them
for twelve hours in water and then cook them as if entirely fresh.

A mixture of dephlegmated sodium acetate with saltpetre ex-
plodes with great violence on heating. According to Violette, a
mixture of saltpetre 75 parts, sulphur 12.5, and sodium acetate
25, acts more vigorously than gunpowder and can be granulated.

Ammonium acetate, neutral acetate of ammonia, XH,,C,HoO . —

*/ 4/ * o 2

This substance is obtained by neutralizing acetic acid with carbo-
nate of ammonia, or, better, by saturating glacial acetic acid with
dry ammonia gas. It is very difficult to obtain in the crystalline
form on account of its aqueous solution giving off ammonia when
evaporated, thus becoming converted into the acid salt. When
subjected to dry distillation ammonia gas escapes first ; above 320°
F. there is formed, besides water, chiefly acetamide (C2H51STO), a
white crystalline body which is also formed, besides alcohol, on
heating acetic ether with liquid ammonia in a closed vessel to
about 266° F.

In medicine ammonium acetate has long been used as a
diaphoretic.

Calcium acetate Ca(C2H3O2)2 is prepared from burnt lime or
calcium carbonate (marble, chalk) and dilute acetic acid. The
preparation of the crude calcium acetate (brown salt) has been
previously described under wood-vinegar. To obtain the pure
salt crystallized, add to a concentrated aqueous solution several
.times its volume of ordinary alcohol ; the salt deposits in the
course of 24 hours.

The crystals of the pure salt form white acicular prisms which
effloresce in the air and are soluble in water and in alcohol ; they

ACETATES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. 271

have a bitter, salty taste. They are decomposed by heat into
acetone and calcium carbonate. A mixture of this salt and of
potassium oxalate gives, on heating, propylene (C3H6), while a
mixture of carbonates remains behind. By the dry distillation
of equal equivalents of acetate and benzoate of calcium aceto-
phenone (C8H8O) is obtained, which by treatment with nitric acid
is converted into nitro-acephotenone (C8H7NO3). By heating the
latter with zinc-dust and soda-lime, Emmerling and Engler claim
to have obtained artificial indigo-blue. But the quantity of the
latter thus obtained is always very small, and it appears to be
very difficult to ascertain the precise condition under which the
transformation takes place.

With calcium chloride calcium acetate enters into a crystal-
lizable combination ; it also dissolves some sulphate of lead.

Barium acetate (C2H3O2)2Ba+lJH2O. — This substance is pre-
pared from barium carbonate or barium sulphide and dilute acetic
acid. Since barium carbonate, which is found native as witherite,
and barium sulphide, which is prepared by heating barium sul-
phate with bituminous coal, always contain iron and this iron
passes into solution, it is separated by adding some barium water
after the point of neutralization is reached. The solution is then
filtered and the filtrate again neutralized with acetic acid.

At a low temperature the solution yields colorless crystals
derived from a rhombic prism ; they are extremely deliquescent,
readily soluble in water, but with difficulty in ordinary alcohol
and almost insoluble in absolute alcohol. They show a slight
alkaline reaction, contain 3 equivalents (17.5 per cent.) of water,
and are isomorphous with normal acetate of lead (lead sugar), to
be described later on. By allowing the concentrated solution to
crystallize at a somewhat higher temperature the salt absorbs,
however, only 1 equivalent (6.5 per cent.) of water.

By mixing a concentrated solution of the salt with sulphuric
acid, the barium sulphate does not separate in the ordinary form
of a fine white powder, but as a semi-transparent, gelatinous mass
which retains acetic acid ; for this reason barium acetate is not
suitable for obtaining strong acetic acid.

When subjected to dry distillation barium acetate does not
yield acetic acid, but only acetone (and very little empyreumatic

272 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

oil) while barium carbonate remains behind. It is the best
material for the preparation of acetone. The decomposition is
best effected in a cast-iron vessel. With barium nitrate it gives a
well crystallizing double salt.

Strontium acetate. — This salt is prepared in a manner similar
to that of the preceding. The crystals obtained at 32° F. contain
5 equivalents of water and those at 59° F. 1 equivalent.

With strontium nitrate it gives a double salt forming beautiful
crystals which contain 3 equivalents of water. On heating they
first yield their water of crystallization and then detonate, a
beautiful purple flame being formed.

Magnesium acetate is prepared by dissolving magnesia alba or
usta in acetic acid. It crystallizes with difficulty and is readily
soluble in water and spirits of wine. Only a very small portion
of the solution is decomposed by ammonia. By dry distillation
it yields acetic acid, while magnesia remains behind.

Aluminium acetate. — The neutral salt A12(C2H3O2)6 has never
been obtained in the dry state, it being only known in solution.
The pure combination can be prepared by introducing freshly
precipitated and thoroughly washed aluminium hydrate into
heated acetic acid.

Aluminium acetate is of great importance in calico printing
and is used as a mordant under the name of red liquw. It is
manufactured for the use of the calico printer by adding to every
gallon of calcium acetate liquor 2{ Ibs. of alum, agitating the
mixture briskly and then leaving it to rest, in order that the
calcium sulphate may settle down. The decomposition of the
acetate is known by testing a small portion of the filtered liquid
in a tube with a concentrated solution of alum ; if a precipitate
of calcium sulphate falls, more alum must be added, till the acetate
of lime is completely decomposed. The liquor is next filtered
off, and the solution concentrated by evaporation till it acquires a
specific gravity of 1.087 to 1.1 ; it is then allowed to repose for
some time to deposit any sulphate of lime and finally drawn off
for use. The quality of this liquid as a mordant is inferior on
account of the imperfect decomposition of the lime-salt, and the
presence of a small portion of lime still retained in the red liquor

ACETATES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. 273

which impairs very much the beauty and gloss of the color given
to the cloth.

A better mordant is made by decomposing alum by lead acetate.
Since lead sulphate is insoluble the decomposition of the alum
solution is more perfect than when it is acted upon by acetate of
lime ; nevertheless, red liquor is not a true acetate, but a mixture
of aluminium acetate, sulphate and hydrate, with potassium sul-
phate, as will be seen from the receipts in general use for its
manufacture. In practice it is found advantageous to employ
equal parts of alum and sugar of lead, or even a rather less
quantity of the latter. The alum is dissolved in boiling water,
and the powdered lead acetate added to the solution. About
one-tenth of crystallized carbonate of soda, or a little carbonate
of lime, is added to the alum to combine with the free acid.
The three following receipts serve to indicate the proportions
employed : —

I. Dissolve 100 pounds of alum in 50 gallons of boiling water,
and add 10 pounds of acetate of lead in fine powder, stirring the
mixture well at first, and likewise several times during cooling.

II. Dissolve 100 pounds of alum in 50 gallons of boiling
water, add slowly 10 pounds of crystallized carbonate of soda,
and then stir in 50 pounds of acetate of lead in powder.

III. Dissolve 100 pounds of alum in 50 gallons of boiling
water, and add in small portions 6 pounds of crystallized carbon-
ate of soda, and then stir in 50 pounds of acetate of lead, in
powder, as before.

When used by the calico printer the red liquor is thickened
with gum or some other suitable material, and with it the design
is impressed upon the cloth by a wood block, or by any other
means; on subsequently submitting the goods to the drying-bath,
acetic acid is partly volatilized, and the aluminous basic compound
remains perfectly combined with the cloth.

Grace Calvert states, from practical observations, that a sulpli-
acetate of alumina is to be preferred as giving the most satisfac-
tory results. He considers that a mordant of such a composition
is best adapted for fixing the colors, on account of the excess of
alumina in such a solution above those which contain, besides the
.18

274 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

aluminous salts, salts of the alkalies, which are inert in the uses
for which red liquor is manufactured.

He recommends the following formulae : —

I. Ammonia alum, 453 pounds ; lead acetate, 379 ; water, 1132.

II. Aluminium sulphate, 383 pounds ; lead acetate, 379 ; water,
1132.

III. Alum, 453 pounds, and a quantity of solution of acetate of
lime, amounting to 158 pounds.

IV. Aluminium sulphate, 333 pounds, with the same amount of
acetate of lime solution.

On agitating the foregoing mixtures, decomposition takes place ;
sulphate of lead or of lime is thrown down and a sulphacetate
remains with an equivalent of ammonium sulphate from the am-
monia alum.

In 1872, Messrs. Storck & Co., of Asnieres, France, patented
a process for the manufacture of aluminium acetate from the
phosphate. Aluminium phosphate is converted into acid phos-
phate by dissolving it in phosphoric acid. Soluble aluminium
acetate and insoluble lead sulphate are thus formed. The alum-
inium acetate is then separated by filtration, and subsequently
treated in a manner similar to that obtained for industrial pur-
poses by the double decomposition with aluminium sulphate.
The phosphate of lead is either used to produce pure phosphoric
acid by decomposing it by sulphuric acid, or sulphuretted hydro-
gen, or an alkaline phosphate is formed thereof by treating it
with an alkaline sulphide. It may likewise be used for the pro-
duction of phosphorus ; in this case it is mixed with charcoal and
subjected to distillation.

Manganese acetate, Mn(C2H3O2)2. This substance is prepared
by dissolving freshly precipitated manganous carbonate (MnCO3)
in heated acetic acid, evaporating the solution and crystallizing.
The crystals are of the rhombic prism, and occasionally in plates
of an amethystine color; they are permanent in air, soluble in
alcohol, and in about three times their weight of water.

On a large scale this salt is manufactured by precipitating a
solution of manganous sulphate* by one of lime acetate and

* Manganous sulphate is prepared by mixing the dioxide (pyrolusite) with
half its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid and heating in a Hessian cru-

ACETATES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. 275

agitating the liquor to decompose the whole of the manganese
salt.

It sometimes happens that a portion of the manganese salt is
not acted upon by the acetate of lime ; in this case a concentrated
solution of acetate of lead is employed towards the end of the
process to effect the complete decomposition. The mixed precip-
itate of sulphate of lime and lead is filtered off, and the filtrate
evaporated and crystallized. The best acetate of manganese is
made by adding to 4 parts of manganous sulphate dissolved in
3 parts of water, 7 parts of crystallized acetate of lead dissolved
in 3 parts of water, agitating the solution, and drawing off the
clear liquor for use.

Acetate of manganese is used in dyeing and calico printing to
give a brown color to fabrics. Its principle of action depends
upon the further oxidation of the manganese.

Iron acetates. — Acetic acid combines with ferrous oxide (FeO)
as well as with ferric oxide (Fe2O3), but only the ferrous acetate
crystallizes in small greenish white needles, very prone to oxi-
dation ; ferric acetate is a dark, brownish red, uucrystallizable
liquid, of powerful and astringent taste. Both salts dissolve
freely in water, and are of importance for dyeing and calico
printing.

Ferrous acetate, Fe(C2H3O2)2. For dyeing purposes this salt is
prepared by dissolving wrought-iron turnings in wood-vinegar,
care being had that some iron remains undissolved, as otherwise
the salt, on exposure to the air, is gradually partly converted into
the ferric salt. This oxidation proceeds, however, but slowly,
the empyreumatic substances contained in the wood-vinegar ren-
dering the conversion rather difficult ; the pure salt oxidizes with
greater rapidity. For commercial purposes this compound is
manufactured as follows : Into a large wooden vat or into barrels
a quantity of iron turnings, hoops, or nails are introduced, and hot
crude wood-vinegar, freed by distillation from wood-spirit, is poured
upon them. During the solution of the iron much tarry matter
separates which is skimmed off, and the solution is frequently

cible until no more vapors escape. The residue is dissolved in water, filtered,
and allowed to crystallize at an ordinary temperature. The solution of the
salt when decomposed with crystallized soda gives a precipitate of manganous
carbonate.

276 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

agitated to free it as much as possible from the tar. After 24
hours the solution is drawn off. The iron being entirely coated
with tar so that it is not again attacked by the wood- vinegar, it
is taken from the vat and the tar ignited. The iron being freed
from the oxide formed by sifting can be again used. The solu-
tion thus obtained shows 13° or 14° B.

The pure salt is obtained by dissolving iron in acetic acid or by
double decomposition from ferrous sulphate (14 parts) and lead
acetate (19 parts); and cheaper, but less pure, from ferrous sul-
phate and calcium acetate.

If crude calcium acetate instead of wood- vinegar is to be used
in the preparation of this salt, a solution of the calcium acetate
of specific gravity 1.08 is mixed with half its weight of ferrous
sulphate dissolved in 2J times its weight of water. On agitating
the mixture the decomposition is rendered complete, the clear
liquor which is siphoned off after the subsidence of the sulphate
of lime showing 13° B. It is kept in a closed barrel in which is
hung a bag containing a quantity of iron turnings.

In some factories the ferrous acetate is manufactured by de-
composing the carbonate of iron (FeCO3) with lead acetate ; lead
carbonate precipitates, and the blackish supernatant liquor is the
acetate of iron in a very pure state. It is kept from oxidizing
by immersing in it some bright iron filings. The lead salt
formed repays the cost of the manufacture of the acetate.

Solution of ferrous acetate is used as a mordant by dyers, for
staining wood and leather and in the manufacture of ink. The
commercial article generally shows a specific gravity of 1.10
(12° B.).

On account of the avidity with which ferrous acetate absorbs
oxygen, it is of great value as a reducing agent. It is, for instance,
used in the preparation of aniline from nitrobenzole and for
similar reducing processes.

Neutral ferric acetate or sesquiacetate of iron, Fe(C2H3O2)3.—
For technical use this combination is obtained by dissolving
wrought-irou in wood-vinegar so that it has a chance to oxidize
in the air. For this purpose wood-vinegar is poured over iron
turnings in a vat, and after drawing off the solution, in a few days
the iron is for some time left to the action of the oxygen of the

ACETATES AND THEIK MANUFACTURE. 277

air. It quickly oxidizes and by pouring back the solution and
several times repeating the drawing off and pouring back, a quite
concentrated solution of a dark red brown, nearly black color is
in a short time obtained. Heat must not be employed in the
preparation of this salt, as in such case it readily decomposes.

Neutral ferric acetate may be obtained in the pure state by
decomposing a solution of lead acetate by addition of ferric sul-
phate in slight excess. In the course of 24 hours the excess of
ferric sulphate precipitates as a basic salt. It is also produced,
though more slowly, by dissolving ferric hydrate or ferric car-
bonate obtained by precipitation, in strong acetic acid. This
method occupies more time, but affords better guarantees for the
purity of the compound.

By dissolving one part of nitric acid or aqua regia, precipitating
the solution with ammonia and dissolving the washed ferric
hydrate in 10 parts of acetic acid of 1.042 specific gravity and
evaporating the solution at from 140° to 176° F. an amorphous
salt soluble in water and alcohol remains, which is, however, not
neutral, as it contains only 2 instead of 3 equivalents of acetic
acid for 1 equivalent of ferric oxide. By dissolving this amor-
phous salt in acetic acid and exposing the dark red solution to a
low temperature, the neutral salt crystallizes out in hydrated, lus-
trous, dark red laminae.

On heating the strongly diluted solution of this salt nearly to
the boiling point its color becomes more intense and it evolves
a distinct odor of acetic acid without, however, producing a precipi-
tate. The salt has nevertheless become more basic, and an addi-
tion of any soluble sulphate or even of free sulphuric acid immedi-
ately precipitates the whole of the iron as insoluble basic ferrous
sulphate. By heating, however, the dilute solution of the pure
acetate to boiling it disengages acetic acid and separates a basic
salt, which, if boiling be continued, also loses its acid so that ferric
hydrate remains behind. The properties of this hydrate differ,
however, from those of ordinary ferric hydrate, it being only
dissolved in concentrated hydrochloric acid by long-continued
digestion or boiling and scarcely attacked by boiling concentrated
sulphuric acid. In acetic acid or dilute nitric acid it dissolves,
however, to a red fluid, transparent to transmitted, but opaque to

278 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

reflected, light. By adding the slightest quantity of a sulphate or
of concentrated nitric or hydrochloric acid, a granular precipitate
is formed, which, however, redissolves on diluting the fluid with
water. If a solution of ferric acetate is heated in a closed vessel
to 212° F. for a few hours, the fluid seen by reflected light appears
opaque and opalescent ; it lias also lost its metallic taste and no
longer shows the other reactions of ferric salts, i. <?., addition of
ferrocyanide produces no precipitate nor does the sulphcyanide
augment its red color. A trace of sulphuric acid or any alkaline
salt suffices to precipitate the whole of the iron in solution as
ferric hydrate of red color, which is totally insoluble in all acids at
an ordinary temperature ; dilute mineral acids do not, however,
produce a similar precipitate. It is remarkable that this ferric
hydrate dissolves in water to a dark red fluid which can be again
precipitated by concentrated acids or alkaline salts (Pean de
St. Giles).

From the iron acetates the iron is precipitated as black ferrous
sulphide by sulphuretted hydrogen.

With ferric nitrate ferric acetate yields a crystallizable double
salt, Fe (C2H3O2)2NO3 + 3H2O, the solution of which decomposes
on boiling, nitric and acetic acids being disengaged. A similar
combination exists between the acetate and ferric chloride.

The acetates of iron are employed in woollen dyeing to produce
blue with potassium ferrocyanide and ferricyanidc ; in cotton
dyeing and printing, and in silk dyeing they are used for blacks,
russets, etc. Ferrous acetate is used with madder, for violet ; or
together with red liquor, for brown ; it is also used for dyeing
hats and furs black and for blackening leather, wood, etc. Some
dyers prefer the ferrous acetate, because, by the oxidation of the
iron subsequently to dyeing, the colors are more resistant ; but
greater uniformity of the ground is insured by the use of ferric
acetate. For the preparation of ink ferrous acetate is to be pre-
ferred.

A mixture of ferric acetate with alcohol and acetic ether forms
Klaproth's tincture of iron, which is used in medicine.

Chromium acetate*.— Acetic acid enters into combination with
chromous (CrO) as well as with chromic oxide (Cr2O3). The salts
are not used in the industries and are only of scientific interest.

ACETATES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. 279

•

Chromous acetate, (C2H3O2)2Cr -f H2O, is prepared by mixing a
solution of chromous chloride with sodium acetate. The salt-
separates out in small, lustrous red crystals which are sparingly
soluble in water and alcohol and quickly oxidize to a greater
degree on exposure to the air, the succeeding salt being formed.

Chromic acetate. — A neutral salt is known and there are very
likely several basic ones. The solution of the neutral salt, which
is obtained by dissolving chromic hydrate in heated acetic acid,
forms a red fluid, green in a reflected and red in a transmitted
light. It is not decomposed by boiling, but by ammonia. The
precipitate, however, redissolves, on adding ammonia in excess, to
a violet-red fluid because the hydrate is soluble in ammonium
acetate. Hence, a solution of the salt acidulated with acetic acid
is not precipitated by ammonia.

There are also known crystallized combinations of this salt
with chromic chloride and sulphate and nitrate of chromium.

If the solution of the neutral salt is for some time digested
with chromic hydrate, it acquires a darker color, the acid re-action
disappears, and on evaporating a green powder soluble in water
remains behind. Ordway has described a purple basic salt.

Nickel acetate forms small green crystals soluble in water, but
not in alcohol.

Cobalt acetate forms small red crystals, the concentrated solution
of which turns blue on heating but again red on cooling, and can,
therefore, be used as sympathetic ink.

Zinc acetate, Fn(C2H3O2)2. — This salt may be prepared by
dissolving metallic zinc, zinc oxide or zinc carbonate in acetic
acid, or by the decomposition of zinc sulphate by acetates of lime
or lead similar to the acetate of manganese. The acetate is
in the first three instances simply obtained by evaporation, and
in the latter, after agitating the mixture, filtering and evaporating
the filtrate. The salt crystallizes in flexible, opalescent, six-sided
tables which effloresce slightly in the air. Technically the best
receipt is to dissolve 4 parts of the sulphate of zinc and 7 J parts
of acetate of lead each in 3 parts of hot water, mixing the solutions,
agitating, and after the sulphate of lead has deposited, drawing
the clear liquid off to crystallize.

280 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

Acetates of copper. Cuprous acetate, Cu2(C2H3O2)2. — This salt
is produced by subjecting crystallized verdigris to dry distillation.
It is a white substance crystallizing in fine needles, which are
decomposed by water into yellow cuprous hydrate and cupric
acetate.

With cupric oxide acetic acid forms a normal and several basic
salts.

Neutral cupric acetate ; crystallized verdigris, Cu(C2H3O2)2. — The
normal cupric acetate may be prepared by dissolving pure cupric
oxide or cupric hydrate in pure acetic acid or by employing, instead
of the pure oxide, copper scales whose content of metallic copper
and of cuprous oxide is converted into cupric oxide by moistening
with nitric acid and gentle glowing ; the cupric oxide thus obtained
is washed to remove foreign substances. The conversion of the
cuprous oxide into cupric oxide is especially essential when the
acetic acid is not entirely free from hydrochloric acid, as other-
wise cuprous chloride is formed which dissolves with difficulty.

If copper scales cannot be obtained, hydrated basic carbonate
of copper can be prepared by precipitating sulphate of copper
with soda, and, after washing and pressing, dissolving in acetic
acid. Sulphate of soda remains dissolved in the water, and this
solution can eventually be utilized for the conversion of crude
calcium acetate into sodium salt. Instead of soda, milk of lime
can also be used for the decomposition of the sulphate of copper :
a mixture of calcium sulphate and cupric hydrate is precipitated.
By adding acetic acid the latter is redissolved while the calcium
sulphate remains suspended. When the latter has settled the
solution is drawn off and evaporated. The calcium sulphate is
repeatedly washed with small portions of water, and the wash-
waters used for dissolving fresh quantities of sulphate of copper.

In case the sulphate of copper contains iron the latter is re-
moved by digesting the solution for several days with basic car-
bonate of copper. The presence of iron is recognized by the sul-
phate not dissolving entirely in ammonia in excess, but leaving
behind a red-brown residue (ferric hydrate).

The neutral acetate can also be prepared by dissolving the
basic salt, verdigris (described below), in acetic acid. The solu-

ACETATES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. 281

tion is filtered and evaporated until a crystalline film is formed.
This method is, however, expensive.

The method by double decomposition may be recommended
for preparing the neutral acetate on a small scale, but not for
manufacturing purposes. Sulphate of copper (125 parts) and
sodium acetate (136 parts) decompose each other, neutral cupric
acetate crystallizing out while sodium sulphate remains in solution.
The yield is, however, somewhat smaller than theoretically might
be expected, because the sulphate of copper is not entirely insolu-
ble in sodium sulphate solution. By this process the object is
quickly accomplished and for this reason is decidedly to be pre-
ferred to the following : Sulphate of copper (125 parts) and nor-
mal lead acetate (190 parts) decompose completely only in dilute
but not in concentrated solutions. Hence strong evaporation is
required whereby acetic acid is lost. Further, with the use of
lead acetate some of the newly formed lead sulphate is obtained in
solution ; but the lead cannot be separated with sulphuretted
hydrogen because the latter would decompose also the copper salt.
The disadvantage of substituting calcium acetate for the lead
acetate is that it is not crystallized and hence furnishes no ex-
ternal criterion of purity ; in fact it always has a slightly varying
composition. If a small excess of calcium salt has been used, the
latter, after the calcium sulphate is filtered off and the solution
evaporated, does not remain in the mother lye, but crystallizes
out as double salt (see below), together with the copper salt.
Since these acetates create difficulties, and as each of them must
first be prepared by the manufacturer by means of acetic acid, it
would seem more rational to directly use this acetic acid for dis-
solving the cupric oxide, whereby no by-products of little value,
such as sulphate of lead, calcium and sodium, are formed.

The evaporation of the solution of cupric acetate obtained by
any of the above methods is effected in a copper boiler over an
open fire, or, still better, by steam. It is recommended to close
the boiler so that the escaping vapors of water and acetic acid
are condensed in a worm. Independently of the fact that by these
means the escaping acetic acid is regained and can be used for
other purposes, a great advantage is that the air of the workroom
is thereby not contaminated by flying particles of salt.

282 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

Crystallization is generally effected in stone-ware pots into
which dip a number of slender wooden rods. The pots are
placed in a warm room. Crystallization is finished in about 14
days. The crystals turn out especially beautiful when the acid
somewhat preponderates and the cooling of the solution is effected
very slowly.

The salt forms dark green* rhombic prisms of a nauseous
metallic taste, which dissolve in 14 parts of cold and 5 parts of
boiling water, and are also soluble in alcohol. Heated in the
air the crystals burn with a green flame.

Neutral cupric acetate contains in 100 parts, cupric oxide
39.8, anhydrous acetic acid 51.1, water 9.

On heating, the dilute solution of the neutral salt yields acetic

O/

acid and deposits a basic salt ; hence the use of strongly diluted
acetic acid or even distilled vinegar is not suitable for the prepa-
ration of crystallized verdigris. By long-continued digestion with
freshly glowed charcoal the dilute solution yields its entire con-
tent of copper to the latter ; hence vinegar containing copper can
be purified in this manner (2 or 3 per cent, of charcoal being suffi-
cient). The crystals of normal cupric acetate, after drying in
vacuo, lose no more water at 212° F., but give off 9 per cent, of
their water between 230° and 284° F. By destructive distilla-
tion cupric acetate yields strong acetic acid which contains acetone
and is contaminated with copper. Cuprous oxide (Cu2O) is obtained
111 red octahedral crystals when the neutral salt is heated with or-
ganic substances, such as sugar, honey, starch, etc. With the
acetates of potassium, sodium, and calcium, normal cupric acetate
gives double salts of a vivid blue color, which form fine crystals.
The chief use of normal cupric acetate in the arts is in making
pigments and for resisting the blue color which the indigo would
communicate in the indigo bath of the calico printer. In the
latter case its mode of action depends on the readiness with which
it parts with oxygen, whereby the indigo is oxidized before it
can exert any action on the cloth, being itself reduced to the

* There is also another salt of a beautiful blue color, which contains, how-
ever, 5 equivalents of water (Wohler). It is prepared by exposing a solu-
tion of the salt mixed with free acetic acid to a low temperature. At 95O F.
it passes into the ordinary green salt.

ACETATES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. 283

state of acetate of suboxide of copper. Crystallized verdigris is
occasionally employed as a transparent green water color or wash
for tinting maps. In medicine it is used for external application.
It is poisonous like all soluble copper salts.

Basic cupric acetates. Sesquibasic cupric acetate (Cu(C2H3O2)2)2
CuO + 6H2O. — This compound is obtained pure by gradually
adding ammonia to a boiling concentrated solution of the normal
acetate until the precipitate, which is at first formed, is redis-
solved. As the liquor cools the new salt then crystallizes out in
beautiful blue-green scales, which at 212° F. lose 10.8 per cent,
of their water. Their aqueous solution is decomposed by boiling,
acetic acid being given off and the black oxide of copper pre-
cipitated.

Dibasic cupric acetate, Cu(C2H3O2)2CuO 4- 6H2O, constitutes
the greater part of the blue variety of verdigris. It forms beau-
tiful, delicate, blue, crystalline needles and scales, which when
ground form a fine blue powder. When heated to 140° F. they
lose 23.45 per cent, of water and become transformed into a
beautiful green, a mixture composed of the neutral and tribasic
acetates. By repeated exhaustion with water the dibasic is re-
solved into the insoluble tribasic salt, and a solution of the nor-
mal and sesquibasic cupric acetates.

Tribasic cupric acetate, Cu(C2H3O2)22CuO -f 3H2O. — This
compound is the most stable of any of the acetates of copper. It
is prepared by boiling the aqueous solution of the neutral acetate,
by heating it with alcohol, by digesting its aqueous solution with
cupric hydrate, or by exhausting blue verdigris with water, as
mentioned above. The first methods yield the salt in the form
of a bluish powder composed of needles and scales, the last as a
bright green powder. This salt gives off all its water at 352°
F. ; at a higher temperature it decomposes and evolves acetic
acid. Boiling water decomposes the solid tribasic acetate into a
brown mixture of the same salt with cupric oxide.

Under the name of verdigris two varieties of basic cupric
acetate are found in commerce : French verdigris which occurs
in globular, bluish-green, crystalline masses, but also in amor-
phous masses, and English verdigris of a pure green color and

284 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

crystalline structure, which is, however, also manufactured in
Germany and Sweden.

The first variety is chiefly manufactured in the region around
Montpellier, France. The refuse of grapes, after the extraction
of the juice, is placed in casks until acetous fermentation takes
place. The casks or vessels are covered with matting to protect
them from dirt, At the end of two or three days the fermenting
materials are removed to other vessels in order to check the pro-
cess, to prevent putrefaction. The limit to which fermentation
should be carried is known by introducing a test-sheet of copper
into the mass for 24 hours ; if, on withdrawing it at the end of
that time, it is found covered with a uniform green coating, the
proper degree of fermentation is reached.

Sheets of copper are prepared by hammering bars of the metal
to the thickness of about -^ of an inch (the more compact the
copper sheets the better), and they are then cut into pieces of 6
or 8 inches long by 3 to 4 broad. Sometimes old ship-sheathing
is used and cut into pieces of the required size. The sheets are
immersed in a concentrated solution of verdigris and allowed to
dry. When the materials are all found to be in proper condition,
the copper sheets are laid on a horizontal wooden grating in the
middle of a vat, on the bottom of which is placed a pan of burn-
ing charcoal, which heats them to about 200° F. In this state
they are put into large stoneware jars with alternate layers of the
fermenting grape lees ; the vessels are covered with straw mats
and left at rest. At the end of 10 to 20 days they are opened to
ascertain if the operation is complete. If the upper layer of the
lees appears whitish and the whole has worked favorably, the
sheets will be covered with silky crystals of a green color. The
sheets are then taken from the jars and placed upright in a cellar,
one against the other. At the end of two or three days they are
moistened with water and again placed to dry. This moistening
with water is continued at regular intervals of a week for six or
eight times. This treatment causes the sheets to swell and
become incrusted with increased coatings of the copper salt,
which are detached from the remainder of the sheets by a copper
knife. The scraped plates are submitted to a fresh treatment till
the whole of the copper is converted into verdigris. The salt

ACETATES AND THEIK MANUFACTURE. 285

scraped off is made into a consistent paste by kneading with a
little water, and in this state is packed into leathern bags which
are placed in the sun to dry until the mass hardens and forms
the tough substance which constitutes the commercial article.

In England, Germany, and Sweden copper sheets are moistened
with a solution of verdigris in vinegar and placed in a warm
room, or woollen cloths moistened with the above solution are
used, which are placed alternately with the copper sheets in a
square wooden box.1 The woollen cloths are moistened with the
solution every three days for 12 or 15 days when small crystals
commence to form on the sheets. The sheets are then drawn
every six days through water and replaced in the box, but not in
direct contact with the woollen cloths, small disks of copper or
small pieces of wood being placed between each cloth and sheet.
The woollen cloths are now more thoroughly saturated than
before, but with a weaker solution. With a temperature of from
54° to 59° F., 6 to 8 weeks are required before the verdigris can
be scraped off. The product is not identical with that obtained
by the French method, it being somewhat poorer in acetic acid,
and hence its color is not bluish-green but almost pure green.

According to Philipps the composition of the two varieties of
verdigris is as follows : —

English

French crystallized

verdigris. verdigris.

Cupric oxide 43.5 43.25

Anhydrous acetic acid .... 29.3 28.3

Water . .' 25.2 28.45

Impurities ....... 2.

On account of having more body the globular verdigris is pre-
ferred by painters, notwithstanding its being more expensive and
less pure than the green article. It is frequently adulterated
with gypsum or chalk and also with heavy spar. If efferves-
cence is produced by pouring pure hydrochloric or nitric acid
over the verdigris and the filtrate precipitated by sulphuric acid,
chalk is present. If a white residue remains on digesting the
verdigris with an equal weight of acetic acid of 1.045 specific
gravity, gypsum or heavy spar has been added. In case this
residue, after washing with a mixture of acetic acid and spirits of

286 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

wine until a sample of the filtrate is no longer colored blue by
ammonia, and then treating with distilled water, yields a fluid
which produces precipitates with barium chloride as well as with
ammonium oxalate, it consists of or contains gypsum; in the
other case heavy spar is present.

Considerable quantities of the neutral as well as of the basic
cupric acetate arc used in calico printing, for painting in oil, and
for the manufacture of paints, especially of the so-called Schwein-
furth green, which is a crystalline combination of copper acetate
and arsenite.

By gradually adding through a fine brass sieve a thin paste of
5 parts of verdigris rubbed up in 5 parts of lukewarm water
to a boiling solution of 4 parts of arsenious acid in 50 parts of
water, an amorphous yellowish-green precipitate is formed which
consists of copper arsenite and is called Scheele's green. By con-
tinuing the heating and adding acetic acid to the boiling mixture
it gradually becomes crystalline and acquires a very beautiful
green color; it is then known as Schweinfurth green, and only
requires washing with a little water and drying. The same com-
bination can also be obtained from cupric sulphate and sodium
arsenate and acetate.

Schweinfurth green as found in commerce is a fine crystalline
powder of a lustrous green color, which, however, becomes paler
and loses some of its beauty by rubbing. It is insoluble in
water, but is decomposed by long-continued boiling in water and
then becomes brown. Like all copper salts it dissolves with a
blue color in ammonia and is decomposed by alkalies and alka-
line earths, pale-blue cupric hydrate being separated. By boiling
the mixture the cupric hydrate is first converted into black oxide
and then reduced by the arsenious acid to red oxide, the solution
now containing alkaline arsenate. Mineral acids and even glacial
acetic acid decompose the pigment by taking away the cupric
oxide and liberating the arsenious acid.

Schweinfurth green is much used, especially in the manufacture
of colored .paper, wall-paper, artificial flowers, and light fabrics.
It is, however, very poisonous, and the use of articles dyed with
it has frequently caused sickness and even death by the dust
reaching the respiratory organs.

ACETATES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. 287

Dibasic cupric acetate and mercuric chloride (corrosive subli-
mate) combine to a blue crystallizable combination which dis-
solves with difficulty in water • it is decomposed by boiling with
water.

Lead Acetates.

With plumbic oxide acetic acid gives a neutral as well as sev-
eral basic salts. The most important of these combinations are
the neutral salt, known in commerce as sugar of lead, and a basic
salt by means of which white lead is obtained.

Neutral acetate of lead (sugar of lead), Pb(C2H3O2)2 + 3 HO.—
According to VolckePs method, acetic acid prepared from wood-
vinegar and rectified over potassium bichromate is saturated with
litharge, filtered or decanted, and after a further addition of acetic
acid until a slightly acid reaction takes place, evaporated to the
crystallizing point.

By saturating acetic acid with litharge, a solution of basic salt
is obtained, which is later on converted into neutral salt by the
addition of acetic acid. This is more suitable than using only as
much litharge as the acetic acid requires for the formation of the
neutral salt, because the litharge dissolves with greater ease in
solution of sugar of lead than in acetic acid.

Solution of sugar of lead, like solution of neutral cupric acetate,
permits the evaporation of acetic acid in boiling ; and, hence, it is
best to use strong acetic acid, because less will have to be evapo-
rated and the loss of acetic acid be consequently smaller. By
taking, for instance, acetic acid of 1.057 specific gravity, for 100
Ibs. of it 82 Ibs. of litharge are required for the formation of the
neutral salt. A larger quantity is, however, taken (from 100 to
180 Ibs.), so that a basic salt is formed, or, with 100 Ibs., a mix-
ture of neutral and basic salts. To recognize the point of neu-
tralization in the subsequent addition of acetic acid, litmus paper
is used, or, still better, dilute solution of corrosive sublimate (1
part of corrosive sublimate in 100 of water), which does not
change the neutral salt, but produces turbidity' in the basic
(Biichner). Hence, by from time to time testing the lead solu-
tion with this reagent, the point of neutralization is reached the

288 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

moment turbidity ceases. This test is better than with litmus,
considerable experience being required to hit the right point with
the latter on account of solution of sugar of lead showing a slight,
but perceptible, acid reaction.

The solution of litharge in acetic acid is promoted by heat and
is effected either in a copper pan, the bottom and sides of which
are brought in contact with a few bright sheets of lead (to pre-
vent the copper from being attacked), or in a lead pan over an
open fire, or in a wooden vat into which steam is introduced.
The clear solution is evaporated. If this is to be done over an
open fire, it is recommended to have a preparatory heating pan for
each evaporating pan, as described in the preparation of calcium
acetate, the preparatory heating pan, which is heated by the es-
caping gases, being used for the solution of the litharge in acetic
acid. Lead pans, if used, should rest upon strong cast-iron plates.
The dimensions of the pans vary very much ; according to
Assmus, they are 6J feet long, 4 feet wide, and from 12 to 14 inches
deep, while the depth of the preparatory heating pans is from 24
to 28 inches. From the latter, which stand at a higher level,
the clear solution is discharged, through a stop-cock just above
the bottom, into the evaporating pans. Evaporation should be
effected at a moderate heat ; actual boiling must be strictly
avoided, as otherwise large losses of acetic acid are unavoidable
and the solution readily acquires a yellow coloration.

According to the degree of evaporation (to 36° B. or to 46° B.
or more) of the sugar of lead solution, distinct crystals are ob-
tained or only a radiated crystalline mass. With a perfectly
pure solution, the first method is the best, since crystals bring a
better price. The mother-lye, after being again acidulated, is
once more evaporated and acidulated, and yields more crystals.

Stein recommends the conducting of the vapors of acetic acid or
of vinegar into litharge mixed with a very small quantity of water.
This method is in general use in Germany. But as the extract
remaining in the still retains a considerable quantity of acetic
acid, especially if beer had been added to the liquid used in the
preparation of the vinegar, it is advisable to increase the boiling
point of the latter by the addition of one-third of its weight of
common or rock salt. At first the water condenses in the receiver

ACETATES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE.

289

and the volume of the fluid containing the litharge increases, but,
when the boiling point is reached, in the condensing vessels, only
the acetic acid is retained, while the litharge is first converted
into sexbasic and then into tribasic acetate. To obtain, however,
neutral salt, either the vapors must be somewhat expanded or
several condensing vessels placed one after the other.

Fig. 63 shows the distilling apparatus, consisting of a boiler, a,
of strong sheet-copper. The vapors pass through a copper-pi pe,
6, into the wooden vat c, lined with lead, and about 35 inches in
diameter and 67 inches deep. In this vat are four bottoms, <7,
of thick lead provided with fine perforations. Short lead pipes,
soldered into these bottoms and arranged as shown in the figure,
serve to conduct the vinegar vapors in the vat to and fro in the
interspaces between the lead bottoms. For each still at least
three of such vats are connected with each other. Upon the
lead bottoms is first placed a layer of linen or of flannel, and
next a layer of litharge 2 to 4 inches deep. To prevent the
litharge from packing, it is mixed with an equal volume of

Fig. 63.

pebbles about the size of a pea. The vats are provided with
lids of sheet-copper coated with lead. From the lid of the last
vat a pipe leads to a worm surrounded with cold water. The
stop-cocks on the bottoms of the vats permit the discharge of the
19

290 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

collected lead solution, which is effected (with the use of acetic
acid) when it shows a specific gravity of at least 36° B. The
solution being, however, basic, it is acidulated with strong acetic
acid and brought into the crystallizing vessels.

This method is decidedly the best, because the evaporation" of
the solution is entirely or almost entirely omitted and the air of
the workroom is not contaminated by particles of sugar of lead,
which is very injurious to the health of the workmen. Further-
more, this method does not require the use of pure acetic acid,
since the impurities remain in the still. This, however, holds
good only for non-volatile impurities. For the production of
colorless salt, the crude acetic acid from wood-vinegar must
necessarily be purified, as above mentioned, by potassium chro-
matc and sulphuric acid.

The crystallizing pans are either of stone- ware or of wood
lined with lead or thin copper, to which is soldered a strip of lead
down the sides and across the bottom, with the idea of rendering
the metal more electro-negative so as to prevent the acetic acid
from acting on it. The wooden crystallizing pans are about 4
feet long by 2 feet wide and from 6 to 8 inches deep, sloping
inwards at the edges. Shallow, slightly conical copper vessels 6
inches deep with a diameter of 29 J inches at the bottom and 31 J
inches at the top are also used. The stone- ware pans are placed
upon a slightly inclined level covered with lead. In these small
pans crystallization is complete in 24 hours, while from 48 to 72
hours are required with the use of the larger wooden vessels.
Crystallization being complete, the mother-lye is removed and
the vessels placed upon a wooden frame over a gutter of sheet-
lead to drain off, as. shown in Figs. 64 and 65.

If especially beautiful crystals are to be obtained, the first
crystals, which are not very distinct, are again dissolved in
the water obtained by the condensation of the vapors escaping
from the still. The solution being evaporated to the proper
density is again allowed to crystallize. The crystals after suffi-
cient draining are placed upon linen spread over wooden hurdles
and dried at a moderate heat, not exceeding 75° F. In some
factories the heated air of a stove, placed outside the drying
house, is conveyed through pipes passing round the interior ; at

ACETATES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE.

291

other places steam heat is employed for this purpose, which is
much to be preferred on account of its being more easily regu-
lated.

Fig. 64.

Fig. 65.

When working on a large scale a centrifugal is advantageously
employed for the separation of the niother-lye in the same manner
as recommended for the preparation of sodium acetate (p. 243).

Litharge being quite impure plumbic oxide never dissolves
entirely, and frequently contains over 10 per cent, of impurities,
consisting of sand, clay, red lead or minium (Pb3O4), metallic lead,
traces of silver, cupric, and ferric oxides. The cupric oxide
passes into the sugar of lead solution and colors it slightly blue.
To separate the copper bright sheets of lead are dipped into the
solution, the copper separating upon them in the form of a dark
slime. The sheets of lead must be frequently cleansed (scraped),
as otherwise they lose their effect. When there is a large accu-
mulation of litharge residue, it can be worked for silver.

Sugar of lead can also be prepared from metallic lead, the pro-
cess having been recommended first by Berard, and is said, by
Rtmge, to yield a good product with great economy. Granulated
lead, the tailings in the white lead manufacture, etc., are put in
several vessels, say eight, one above the other, upon steps, so
that the liquid may be run from one to the other. The upper
one is filled with acetic acid, and after half an hour let off into
the second, after another half an hour into the third, and so on
to the last or eighth vessel. The acid causes the lead to absorb
oxygen so rapidly from the air as to become hot. When the acid
runs off from the lowest, it is thrown on the uppermost vessel a
second time and carries off the acetate of lead formed ; after pass-

292 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

ing through the whole series the solution is so strong that it may
be evaporated at once so as to crystallize.

Apparently this method has a considerable advantage over that
with litharge, metallic lead being cheaper and producing more
sugar of lead (entirely free from copper) than litharge, because
103.5 Ibs. of pure lead yield 189.5 Ibs. of sugar of lead, while
the same quantity is only obtained from 111.5 Ibs. of pure litharge.
Furthermore, commercial lead is always purer than litharge. On
the other hand, this process has the disadvantage of a consider-
able quantity of acetic acid being lost by evaporation on account
of it having to pass through several vessels. The manufacture
of sugar of lead is most suitably combined with that of white
lead, it being thus possible to utilize the tailings, etc. to greater
advantage than, as is frequently done, by melting them together
and remelting, which always cause considerable loss.

Sugar of lead is further formed by boiling lead sulphate with
a very concentrated solution of barium acetate, barium sulphate
(permanent white) being thereby precipitated. For 100 parts of
lead sulphate 84 parts of anhydrous or 100 of crystallized barium
acetate are required, the yield being 125 parts of sugar of lead.
Sulphate of lead is obtained in large quantities as a by-product
in the preparation of aluminium acetate.

For many purposes of dyeing and printing the use of pure
sugar of lead is not necessary, the brown acetate of lead answer-
ing all requirements. For its preparation ground litharge is
introduced in small portions, and with constant stirring into dis-
tilled pyroligneous acid in a vat until red litmus paper is colored
blue, and, hence, a basic salt is formed. The impurities separat-
ing on the surface are removed and the clear fluid is then trans-
ferred to a copper pan provided with strips of lead, and evaporated
to about two-thirds its volume, the brown smeary substances
rising to the surface during evaporation being constantly removed.
By again diluting and slightly acidulating the concentrated fluid
a further portion of the foreign substances can be removed.
Finally evaporation is carried to the crystallizing point, i. e.,
until a few drops congeal when allowed to fall upon a cold
metal plate. An addition of animal charcoal for the purpose of
discoloration is of no advantage ; the coloration is not completely

ACETATES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. 293

removed,, and the little effect produced is attained by a considerable
loss of salt which is absorbed by the animal charcoal.

By disturbing crystallization by constant stirring during cooling
a nearly amorphous mass having the appearance of yellow wax is
obtained, which is much liked by many consumers. The product
thus obtained is not always a neutral salt, but sometimes a mix-
ture of neutral and basic salt (besides empyreumatic substances).
After cooling it must, therefore, be quickly and well packed in
order to protect it from the moisture and the carbonic acid of the
air. The sugar of lead solution may, however, also be evapo-
rated only so far that some mother-lye remains after cooling ; the
crystallized mass is then allowed to stand in a moderately warm
room for some time. In consequence of capillarity the impurities,
which occur chiefly in the inother-lye, gradually rise up between
the crystals, a slight coating of a yellow, or brown, smeary sub-
stance being finally formed upon the mass of crystals and can
be readily removed.

The linen upon which the crystals are dried must be carefully
protected from fire, as it ignites from the slightest spark and burns
like tinder.

If the hot solution be set aside to cool rapidly, the sugar of lead
crystallizes in clusters of fine needles ; but if the evaporation be
conducted slowly the crystals are truncated and flattened, quad-
rangular and hexahedral prisms derived from a right rhombic
prism. Acetate of lead has a sweet astringent taste, is soluble in
1J parts of water and in 8 parts of ordinary alcohol. The crys-
tals are permanent in the air, but are apt to effloresce and become
anhydrous if the temperature ranges between 70° and 100° F.

Acetate of lead consists of —

Plumbic oxide ........ 58.9

Anhydrous acetic acid . . . . . . ' 26.9

Water ......... 14.2

100.00

Aqueous solution of sugar of lead slightly reddens litmus
paper, but shows an alkaline reaction upon turmeric, browning
this coloring substance.

At 167° F. the crystals of acetate of lead melt, and but slowly
yield up their water ; by heating the entirely dephlegmated salt

OF TH2

7BR

V C'jt _ *>* ^ W« Ji

294 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

more strongly it fuses at 536° F. to a clear, oil-like, colorless
fluid and decomposes above this temperature, evolving all the
compounds usually obtained in the destructive distillation of the
acetates of the heavy metals, leaving a residue of metallic lead in
a very minute state of division with some charcoal. When this
distillation is conducted in a glass tube closed at one end and
having the other drawn out for convenience of sealing, at the end
of the operation, the well-known lead pyrophorus is made. The
particles of metallic lead are so small that, when thrown into the
air, oxygen molecules come into such intimate contact with them
that ignition is effected from the rapidity with which lead oxide
is formed.

A slight decomposition occurs when the neutral salt is exposed
to an atmosphere of carbonic acid, carbonate of lead being formed ;
the portion of acetic acid thus liberated protects the remainder
from further change.

Cold solution of sugar of lead is not immediately changed by
ammonia ; by adding, however, a strong excess, sexbasic acetate
of lead is gradually separated ; on boiling yellow-red crystalline
lead oxide is precipitated.

The introduction of chlorine gas into a solution of sugar of
lead produces in a short time a brown precipitate of plumbic di-
oxide ; bromine acts in a similar manner, but on account of its
insolubility iodine produces scarcely any effect.

Solution of calcium chloride at once produces a yellow pre-
cipitate, which gradually becomes brown.

Sugar of lead containing considerable copper has a bluish ap-
pearance ; if the content of copper is small, it is recognized by the
solution acquiring a blue coloration with ammonia, or, still better,
by mixing the solution of sugar of lead with an excess of solution
of Glauber's salt and testing the filtrate with potassium ferro-
cyanide ; a dark red precipitate indicates copper.

Sugar of lead, as well as the basic lead salts to be mentioned
further on, possesses poisonous properties.

Sugar of lead is chiefly used for the preparation of aluminium
acetate as well as of other acetates. Large quantities of it are
also consumed in the manufacture of colors, for instance, of neu-
tral and basic lead chromate, chrome yellow, chrome orange, and

ACETATES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. 295

chrome red. Upon the cloth-fibre (especially wool) chrome yel-
low and chrome orange are produced by means of sugar of lead,
especially with the brown variety ; the latter product being also
very suitable for the production of the so-called chrome green,
which is obtained by the joint precipitation of chrome yellow and
Berlin blue.

Xeutral lead acetate gives crystallizable double salts with
potassium acetate and sodium acetate as well as with lead nitrate,
lead chloride, lead bromide, etc.

Basic lead acetates. — Several of these compounds are known.
Those with 2 and 3 equivalents of plumbic oxide to 1 equivalent
of acetic acid are soluble in water, show a strong alkaline reac-
tion, and with carbonic acid the solutions yield at once and in
every degree of concentration abundant precipitates of white lead
(basic carbonate of lead), while, when the operation is at a suita-
ble moment interrupted, neutral salt remains in solution. In this
manner white lead is manufactured according to the so-called
French method (of Thenard and Hoard) at Clichy and other
places in France as well as in different German factories. If,
however, the introduction of carbonic acid be continued until no
more precipitate is formed, a part of the lead of the neutral salt
is also precipitated as carbonate, which, however, is neutral, and
an acid solution remains behind.

The soluble salt known as lead-vinegar or extract of lead is pre-
pared by digesting 2 parts of sugar of lead dissolved in 5 of
water with 1 of finely powdered litharge. The proportional
quantities of sugar of lead, litharge, and water prescribed by the
Pharmacopoeias of the different countries vary very much, and,
consequently, also, the compositions and specific gravities (from
1.20 to 1.36) of the solutions of lead prepared in accordance witli
them. The litharge dissolves very readily in the sugar of lead
solution, in fact with greater ease than in acetic acid, and espe-
cially with greater rapidity if the sugar of lead solution be heated
in a silver dish to the boiling point and the litharge gradually
introduced. For the manufacture on a large scale, the sugar of
lead solution and the litharge may be brought into a barrel revolv-
ing around its axis. If the operation is to be conducted at the
ordinary temperature, the barrel must be closed to prevent the

296 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

access of the carbonic acid of the air. Very remarkable is the
behavior of the tribasic acetate towards hydrogen dioxide; plum-
bic dioxide is first formed, but in a short time this exerts a de-
composing influence upon the hydrogen dioxide which may be
present in excess, so that both dioxides now lose one-half of their
oxygen, which evolves in the form of gas, and water and plumbic
oxide are formed.* Now, as freshly precipitated plumbic di-
oxide possesses the further property of decomposing solution of
potassium iodide, Schoenbein recommends tribasic acetate of lead
together with paper coated with paste prepared with potassium
iodide as the most sensitive re-agent for hydrogen dioxide.

Lead sesquibasic acetate, triphimbic tetracetate. — This salt is ob-
tained by heating the diacetate until it becomes a white, porous
mass; this is re-dissolved in water and set aside to crystallize.
Sesquibasic acetate is soluble in both water and alcohol ; its solu-
tions are alkaline.

Tribasic acetate of lead is prepared by digesting 189.5 Ibs. of
sugar of lead with 223 Ibs. of plumbic oxide (pure) or 3 Ibs. of
sugar of lead to 4 Ibs. of litharge ; or, according to Payen, into
100 volumes of boiling waiter are poured 100 volumes of aqueous
solution of sugar of lead saturated at 86° F., and afterwards a
mixture of pure water at 140° F., with 20 volumes of ammonia
liquor free from carbonate. The vessel is then immediately
closed, and in a short time an abundance of the tribasic acetate
crystallizes out. This salt presents itself under the form of long
needles. It is insoluble in alcohol, very soluble in water, its so-
lution being alkaline. Tribasic acetate is the most stable of all
the subacetates of lead. It takes a leading part in the manufac-
ture of white-lead by the Clichy process ; it is, in point of fact, a
solution of this salt which is decomposed by the carbonic acid,
and gives rise to the carbonate of lead, being itself at the same
time converted into lead diacetate. In the Dutch process the
formation of lead carbonate is, according to Pelouze, also due to
the formation of tribasic acetate on the surface of the sheets of
lead, which is, in its turn, decomposed by the carbonic acid.

Sexbasic acetate of lead. — This body is prepared by digesting

* Schoenbein in Wagner's Jahresbericht, 1862.

ACETATES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. 297

any of the preceding salts with lead oxide. It is a white powder
slightly soluble in boiling water, from which it crystallizes out in
silky needles which consist of 2 equivalents of the salt combined
with three equivalents of water.

Uranium acetate. — With uranous oxide acetic acid combines
to a dark green crystallizable salt, and with uranic oxide to a
yellow basic salt, which, combined with water, appears in two
different forms of crystals. It is remarkable for giving, with
many other acetates, well crystallizing salts, of a beautiful color
and partly showing magnificent dichroism (Wertheim and
Weselsky).

Tin acetate is prepared by dissolving stannous hydrate* in
heated strong acetic acid, or by mixing stannous chloride (SnCl2)
with acetate of sodium or calcium. It forms small colorless
needles which have a strong metallic taste and readily decompose
in the air. The salt is sometimes used as a mordant in calico
printing.

Bismuth acetate. — Bismuth nitrate prepared by gradually in-
troducing pulverized metallic bismuth into cold dilute nitric acid
is mixed with pure concentrated sugar of lead solution. The
salt separates in small, colorless needles.

Mercurous acetate can be prepared by dissolving pure mercu-
rous oxide or its carbonate in acetic acid, or by mingling hot solu-
tions of mercurous nitrate and acetate of sodium or of potas-
sium. The pure mercurons carbonate is heated to boiling with 8
parts of water, and concentrated acetic acid added until all is dis-
solved ; the hot, filtered liquid free from oxide being allowed to
cool. Or, acidulated nitrate is diluted with 6 to 8 parts of water,
heated and mixed with one equivalent of acetate of sodium or
potassium, dissolved in 8 parts of hot water containing a little
free acid and cooled. The salt, when separated, is washed with
a little cold water, dried in the dark at a gentle heat, and kept
from the light in covered bottles.

It crystallizes in fine, white, silvery scales, flexible and unctuous
to the touch, with a nauseous metallic taste, easily decomposed by

* The hydrate is obtained by precipitating stannous chloride with soda lye
and washing the precipitate.

298 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

light ; it is dissolved with difficulty in cold water, requiring 33
parts at the ordinary temperature. It is partially decomposed
by boiling water into acid and basic salts of both oxides and me-
tallic mercury. It is used in pharmacy.

Mercuric acetate. — Dissolve red oxide of mercury in concen-
trated acetic acid with a gentle heat and evaporate to dry ness, or
partially to crystallization, or by spontaneous evaporation. By
the first process, it is a white saline mass ; by the second, it forms
crystalline scales ; and by the third, four-sided plates, which are
partly transparent, partly pearly and translucent ; anhydrous, of
a nauseous metallic taste, fusible without decomposition, solidify-
ing to a granular mass, but its point of decomposition is near
that of fusion. It dissolves in 4 parts of water at 50° F., in 2.75
at 66.2° F., and in 1 at 212° F., but by boiling it is partly de-
composed, with separation of red oxide ; even in the air its solu-
tion suffers the latter change and contains a basic salt. With
free acetic acid it is not decomposed ; 1 00 parts of alcohol dis-
solve 5-| of this salt, and this solution behaves like the aqueous
one. It generally contains, except when carefully crystallized,
some mercurous oxide.

Silver acetate. — This salt is obtained by precipitating a concen-
trated solution of silver nitrate with a concentrated solution of
sodium acetate. It forms a white crystalline precipitate. It dis-
solves in about 100 parts of cold, but readily in hot water, and
only sparingly in alcohol. On exposure to light it acquires a
dark color, being partially reduced. On heating, it yields acetic
acid, metallic silver remaining behind.

If the salt be heated with bisulphide of carbon in a closed
glass tube to 329° F., silver sulphide, carbonic acid, and anhy-
drous acetic acid are formed (Broughton).

On treating the dry salt with iodine, lively decomposition takes
place, whereby silver iodide, some metallic silver, and coal re-
main behind, while methyl oxide, acetic acid, acetylene, and hy-
drogpn appear. With iodine a solution of this salt yields acetic
acid, silver iodide, and iodate of silver (Birnbaum).

PART II.

MANUFACTURE OF CIDERS, FRUIT-WINES, ETC.
CHAPTER XXIV.

INTRODUCTION.

THE term wine in general is applied to alcoholic fluids which
are formed by the fermentation of fruit juices and serve as beve-
rages. According to this definition, there may be actually as many
kinds of wine as there are fruits whose juices, in consequence of
their content of sugar, are capable of vinous fermentation ; and, in
fact, besides the apple and pear, there are many other fruits
which are likewise applicable to wine-making. Among these
may be named currants, gooseberries, mulberries, elderberries,
cherries, oranges, dates, pine-apples, raspberries, strawberries,
etc. But, in order to make the product from such fruits re-
semble the standard wine made from grapes, various ingredients
have to be added, as, for instance, an acid, spices, coloring, and
an astringent, to replace the extractive matter. The acid gene-
rally used is the tartaric, and elderberry and whortleberry juice are
used for the coloring, while the water used in the manufacture of
wine should in all cases be pure and soft.

Ripening of fruits. — In order to form a clear idea of the pro-
cesses which take place during the growth, ripening, and final
decomposition of a fruit, it is necessary to refer to the constitu-
ents which are already found in an unripe fruit at its first appear-
ance.

Besides water, the quantity of which varies between 90 and 45
per cent., fruits contain partly soluble and partly insoluble sub-
stances. The juice obtained by pressure contains the soluble con-
stituents, such as sugar, gum, tannin, acids, salts, etc., while the

300 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

remaining insoluble portion consists chiefly of cellulose, starch,
a gum-like body, a few inorganic substances, and, further, the
characteristic constituent of unripe fruits, to which the term pec-
to#e has been applied. It forms the initial point for the phe-
nomena observed during the growth and ripening of fruits, and,
therefore, requires a somewhat closer examination.

In regard to its behavior, pectose approaches cellulose and
starch ; it is chiefly found in the pulp of unripe fruits, but also
in certain roots, especially in carrots, beets, and others. It is
insoluble in water, spirits of wine, and ether, but during the
ripening of the fruit it undergoes a change, induced by the acids
and heat, and is converted into pectine, which is readily soluble
in water. To pectose are due the hardness of unripe fruits and
also the property of many fruits and roots of boiling hard in
water containing lime, the pectose combining with the lime. •

The formation of pectine commences as soon as the fruits are
exposed to the action of heat, and then depends on the influence
of the vegetable acid present upon he pectose. To be convinced
of this it suffices to express the pulp of an unripe apple. The
juice thus obtained contains scarcely a trace of pectine, but, by
boiling it for a few minutes with the pulp of the fruit, the fluid,
in consequence of the formation of pectine, acquires a viscous
quality, like the juice obtained from ripe fruits.

Pectine, nearly pure, is white, soluble in water, non-crystal-
lizable, and without effect upon vegetable colors. From its
dilute solution it is separated as a jelly by alcohol, and from its
more concentrated solution, in long threads. Brought into con-
tact with alkalies or alkaline earths, pectine is transformed into
pectic acid. Under the influence of a peculiar ferment called
pectase, which will be described later on, pectine is transformed
into pectosic acid, and by dilute acids into metapectic acid.

By boiling a solution of pectine in water for a few hours, it
partially loses its viscous condition and separates a substance
called parapectine, which shows the same behavior as pectine,
except that it is not precipitated by neutral lead acetate. When
treated with dilute acids the parapectine is transformed into meta-
pectine, which might be called metapectous acid, as it shows a
decidedly acid reaction and colors litmus paper strongly red.

RIPENING OF FRUITS. 301

Metapectine is soluble in water, non-crystallizable, and, like
pectine and parapectine, insoluble in alcohol, which precipitates
it from its solutions in the form of a jelly. On being brought
into contact with bases it is also transformed into pectic acid. It
differs from pectine and parapectine in that the solution is pre-
cipitated by barium chloride.

Pectase, the peculiar ferment previously referred to, is similar
in its mode of action to diastase and emulsin. It can be obtained
by precipitating the juice of young carrots with alcohol, whereby
the pectose, which was at first soluble in water, becomes insoluble,
without, however, losing its effect upon the pectous substances.

By adding pectase to a solution of pectine, the latter is imme-
diately converted into a jelly-like body, insoluble in water. This
phenomenon is the pectous fermentation, which may be compared
with lactic acid fermentation. It is not accompanied by an evo-
lution of gas, and may take place with the air excluded, a tem-
perature of 86° F. being most favorable for its progress.

Pectase is an amorphous substance ; by allowing it to stand in
contact with water for a few days, it decomposes, becomes cov-
ered with mold-formations, and loses its action as a ferment, the
latter being also destroyed by continued boiling. In the vege-
table organism it occurs in a soluble as well as insoluble state.

Roots such as carrots, beets, etc. contain soluble pectase, and
their juice added to a fluid containing pectine in solution imme-
diately induces pectous fermentation, while the juice of apples
and other acid fruits produces no effect upon pectine, the latter
being present in them in the modified insoluble form and accom-
panying the insoluble portion of the pulp. On adding the pulp
of unripe apples to a pectine solution it gelatinizes in a short
time in consequence of the formation of pectosic and pectine
acids.

Pectosic acid is the result of the first effect of the pectase upon
pectine ; it is, however, also formed by bringing dilute solutions of
potash, soda, ammonia, or alkaline carbonates in contact with
pectine. In all these cases salts are formed which, when treated
with acids, yield pectosic acid. The latter is jelly-like and dissolves
with difficulty in water ; in the presence of acids it is entirely

302 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

insoluble ; by long boiling in water, by pectase, or by an excess
of alcohol it is soon transformed into pectic acid.

By allowing pectase to act for some time upon pectine, pectic
acid is formed ; the same conversion taking place almost instan-
taneously by dilute solution of potash, soda, ammonia, alkaline
carbonates, as well as by barium, lime, and strontium water. Its
formation in the above-described manner is preceded by that of
pectosic acid, which, as previously mentioned, is converted by the
same agents into pectic acid.

Pectic acid is insoluble in cold, and scarcely soluble in hot,
water; by boiling it, however, for a certain time in water, and
constantly replacing the water lost by evaporation, it disappears
entirely, and is converted into a new acid soluble in water. By
nitric acid it is transformed into oxalic acid and muric acid ;
alkalies decompose it very rapidly, the final result being metapec-
tic acid, which is soluble in water, but non-crystallizable ; on
boiling in hot water, the solution forms a jelly after cooling.

Pectic acid further possesses the special property of dissolving
in a large number of alkaline salts and forming with them true
double salts which always show a decidedly acid reaction, dissolve
in water, and on cooling form consistent jellies.

By boiling for a few hours a solution of a pectous salt, the latter
is transformed into a parapectous salt which, when decomposed
by a dilute acid, yields parapectic acid. It is non-crystallizable,
shows a strong acid reaction, and forms soluble salts with alkalies ;
it is precipitated by barium water in excess.

Metapectic acid is formed in various ways, among others by
leaving an aqueous solution of parapectic acid to itself for some
time, but also by the action of the lime contained in the cell-tissue
of roots and fruits upon pectose. It is insoluble in water, does not
crystallize, and gives soluble salts with all bases. With an excess
of bases the salts acquire a yellow coloration ; they are precipi-
tated by basic lead acetate.

What has been said in the preceding may be briefly condensed
as follows : —

1. By the influence of heat upon pectose pectine is formed.

2. Pectine is transformed into parapectine by boiling its aque-
ous solution for several hours.

RIPENING OF FRUITS. 303

3. Parapecti rie/when treated at a boiling heat with dilute acids,
is converted into metapectine.

4. Pectase converts pectine into pectic acid.

5. By long-continued action of pectase upon pectine pectic
acid is formed.

6. Pectic acid is transformed by boiling water into parapectic
acid.

7. An aqueous solution of parapectic acid is quickly converted
into metapectic acid.

All these bodies are derived from pectose, which through all
these transformations has not even suffered a change in the pro-
portion of weight of its constituents (carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen ) ; hence all have the same qualitative and quantitative
composition. This may, perhaps, sound odd, but chemistry pre-
sents numerous analogies for such cases, and hence the term
isomeric has been applied to bodies which with the same quanti-
tative composition exhibit very different chemical properties.

The changes pectose undergoes by the influence of heat, a
peculiar ferment, acids and alkalies, and the resulting combina-
tions mentioned above, have of course been artificially effected by
chemical means. They resemble, however, so closely the state of
fruits in the course of their growth and ripening, and the influ-
ences and conditions to which fruits are exposed in nature are
sufficiently similar to those artificially induced, that their action
may be reasonably supposed to be the same. We know from
daily experience that heat promotes the development and ripening
of fruit ; fruits contain pectose and acids, and alkalies or bases are
conducted to them from the soil ; hence in fruit in a normal state
of development none of the chemical agents are wanting which the
chemist uses for the production of derivatives of pectose.

If the transformation of substances under the influence of others
be considered as dependent on chemical processes, the develop-
ment of a fruit from its first formation to complete ripeness, and
even to its decomposition, rotting, and putrefaction, is a chemical
process in the widest sense of the word. This is evident, not
only from what has been said in the preceding, but has also
been plainly shown by special chemical researches into the changes

304 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

fruits undergo during their development and perfection. The
results of these researches are briefly as follows : —

1. The quantity of water contained in the pulp of a fruit is con-
siderable ; it varies between 45 and 90 per cent. In many fruits
the content of water remains unchanged during the different
periods of ripening, but, as a rule, it is somewhat greater in the
commencement.

2. Fruits of the same kind examined at the same season of the
year alwavs contain the same quantity of water ; the same holding
good as regards the various parts of the pulp of a fruit.

3. The solid constituents in the pulp of fruits amount to be-
tween 10 and 25 per cent.; they consist of soluble substances,
which dissolved in the water form the juice of the fruits ; and of
insoluble bodies which compose the membranes of the cells.

4. The quantity of soluble substances always increases with
increasing ripeness, while the weight of the insoluble decreases ;
hence it may be said the soluble substances contained in the juice
of a fruit are formed at the expense of the insoluble portion of
the pulp. The bodies which become soluble are starch, pectose,
and a gum-like substance capable of being converted into gum.

On this modification of the solid portion of the pulp of a fruit
depend also the changes a fruit undergoes in regard to hard-
ness and transparency during ripening.

According to the mode of action of the pectase and acids upon
the pectose, all ripe fruits contain pectine.

5. Various acid fruits, such as plums, cherries etc., are fre-
quently observed to secrete a neutral juice which, in consequence
of the evaporation of the water, leaves a gum-like substance upon
the exterior of the fruit. This phenomenon throws some light
upon the separation of gum as it appears in many trees, and which,
when it occurs very abundantly, is an actual disease.

In fruits becoming thus covered with gum a transparent,
neutral substance insoluble in water occurs stored in the cells of
the pulp. Under the influence of nitrogenous substances, which
act as a ferment, and perhaps also of acids, this gum-like substance
is modified and transformed into actual gum, which is then con-
verted into sugar in the interior of the pulp of the fruit ; an ex-

RIPENING OF FRUITS. 305

cess of this gum-like substance is secreted and forms a firm
coating upon the exterior of the fruit.

6. The sugar occurring in ripe fruits is evidently derived from
various sources. The occurrence of a large quantity of starch in
many unripe fruits, especially in apples, and its complete disap-
pearance at the time of ripeness, allow of no other explanation
than that the sugar occurring in fruits is formed by the conversion
of the starch under the influence of the acids present ; other in-
different substances, such as gum, vegetable mucus, etc., undergo
similar transformations and yield in this manner a certain portion
of sugar. Even tannin, which occurs in all unripe, but not in
ripe fruits, can be changed by acids and ferments so as to form
sugar.

Thus far nothing justifies the supposition that the acids in
fruits, such as tartaric, citric, malic acids, are converted into
fruit-sugar. To entertain such an opinion it would have to be
supposed that the molecules of these acids, which are far more
simple than those of fruit-sugar, become more complex and are
converted into sugar ; in such natural transformations the reverse
is, however, generally the case, the molecules always endeavoring
to become the more simple the farther they withdraw from organ-
ized structures.

7. It has been attempted to explain in various ways the very
remarkable phenomenon of the gradual disappearance of the
acids in ripening fruits. It might not be impossible that the acid
of a fruit is neutralized by the bases conducted to it through the
juice ; or that it is covered by the sugar or the mucous substances
formed in the juice ; or, finally, that it disappears at the moment
of ripeness by suffering actual combustion. An examination of
these various opinions leads to the conclusion that the acid is
neither neutralized nor covered by the sugar or the mucous sub-
stances, but that it actually undergoes slow combustion.

During development and ripening a fruit passes through two
different stages sharply separated from each other by definite
chemical phenomena. In the first stage, which may be desig-
nated as that of growth, whilst the fruit remains green, its rela-
tion to the atmosphere appears the same as that of leaves, for it
absorbs carbonic acid and evolves oxygen. During this epoch it
20

306 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

increases rapidly in size, and receives through the stem the inor-
ganic substances indispensable for its development, and water. If,
at this stage, it is taken from the tree, it soon commences to
wither and decay. But in the second period, when it fairly
begins to ripen, its green color is, as a rule, replaced by a yellow,
brown-red, or red. Oxygen is now absorbed from the air and
carbonic acid is evolved, whilst the starch and cellulose are con-
verted into sugar under the influence of the vegetable acids, and
the fruit becomes sweet. When the sugar has reached the maxi-
mum the ripening is completed ; if the fruit be kept longer, the
oxidation takes the form of ordinary decay.

CHAPTER XXV.

FRUITS AND THEIR COMPOSITION.

FOR the preparation of fruit-wines, not only the fruits culti-
vated in our gardens and orchards on account of their fine flavor
are used, but sometimes also others which do not by any means
possess an agreeable taste, and whose juices after fermentation
yield a product which has at least only a very doubtful claim to
the name of " wine." The utilization of such material for wine-
making can only be explained by special fancy, and hence here
only such fruits will be considered as, on account of the nature
of their juices, will yield with rational treatment a beverage of
a sufficiently agreeable taste to be liked.

For the fabrication of fruit-wine, sugar not only by itself but
also in its proportion to the free acid present, is undoubtedly the
most important constituent of the fruit. The following compila-
tion from Fresenius gives the average percentage of sugar in
different varieties of fruit.

FRUITS AND THEIR COMPOSITION.

307

Peaches
Apricots
Plums .
Reine Claudes
Greengages .
Raspberries
Blackberries
Strawberries
Whortleberries

1.57 p. c.

Currants

. 6.10 p. c.

1.80' "

German prunes .

. 6.25 "

2.12 "

Gooseberries

. 7.15 "

3.12 "

7 45 "

3.58 "

Apples

. 8.37' "

4.00 "

Sour cherries

. 8.77 "

4.44 "

Mulberries .

. 9.19 <•

5.73 "

Sweet cherries

. 10.79 "

5.78 "

Grapes

. 14.93 "

II. Compilation according to average percentage of free acid
expressed in malic acid.

Pears .

Greengages .
Sweet cherries
Peaches
Grapes
Apples

German prunes
Reine Claudes
Apricots

0.07 p. c.

Blackberries

0.58 "

Sour cherries

0.62 "

Plums

0.67 "

Whortleberries

0.74 "

Strawberries

0.75 "

Gooseberries

0.89 "

Raspberries

0.91 "

Mulberries .

1.09 "

Currants

1.19 p. c.

1.28 "

1.30 "

1.34 "

1.37 "

1.45 "

1.48 "

1.86 "

2.04 "

III. Compilation according to the proportion between acid,
sugar, pectine, gum, etc.

Pectine,

Acid.

Sugar.

gum, etc

Plums

. I

1.63

3.14

Apricots

. 1

1.65

6.35

Peaches

. 1

2.34

11.94

Raspberries

. 1

2.70

0.96

Currants

. 1

3.00

0.07

Reine Claudes

. 1

3.43

11.83

Blackberries

. 1

3.73

1.21

Whortleberries .

. 1

4.31

0.41

Strawberries

. 1

4.37

0.08

Gooseberries

. 1

4.93

0.76

. 1

4.94

1.10

Greengages

. 1

6.20

9.92

Sour cherries

. 1

6.85

1.43

German prunes .

. 1

7.03

4.35

Sweet cherries

. 1

11.16

5.60

Grapes

. 1

20.18

2.03

Pears

1

94.60

44.40

TV. Compilation according to the proportion between water,
soluble and insoluble substances.

308

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WISES.

Raspberries

Blackberries

Strawberries

Plums

Currants

Whortleberries

Gooseberries

Greengages

Apricots

Pears .

Peaches

German prunes

Sour cherries

Mulberries .

Apples

Reine Claudes

Sweet cherries

Grapes

Composition of the juice,
in 100 parts, without the

insoluble substances.

Soluble

Insoluble

Soluble

Water.

substances.

substances.

Water.

substances.

100

9.12

6.88

91.64

8.36

100

9.26

6.46

91.53

8.47

100

3.39

5.15

91.42

8.58

100

9.94

0.87

91.13

8.87

100

11.00

6.62

90.09

9.91

100

12.05

16.91

89.25

10.75

100

1218

3.57

89.14

10.86'

100

13.04

1.53

88.46

11.54

100

13.31

2.07

88.25

11.75

100

14.25

5.54

87.52

12.48

100

14.64

2.10

87.23

12.77

100

15.32

3.15

86.71

13.29

100

16.48

1.31

85.85

14.15

100

16.57

1.47

85.79

14.21

100

16.89

3.61

85.46

14.54

100

18.52

1.22

84.37

15.63

100

18.61

1.53

84.30

15.70

100

22.81

5.81

81.42

18.58

V. Composition of the juice according to its content of sugar,
peetine, etc., in 100 parts.

Peetine,

Peetine

Sugar,

etc.,

Sugar,

etc.,

p. c.

p. c. v

p. c.

p. c.

Peaches

. 1.99

10.05

German prunes

. 7.56

4.70

Reine Claudes

. 2.04

6.98

Gooseberries

. 8.00

1.24

Apricots

. 2.13

8.19

Whortleberries

. 8.12

0.77

Plums .

. 2.80

5.40

Pears .

. 8.43

4.02

Greengages .

. 4.18

6.45

Apples

. 9.14

4.59

Raspberries

. 4.84

1.73

Mulberries .

. 10.00

2.22

Blackberries

. 5.32

1.72

Sour cherries

. 10.44

2.17

Strawberries

. 6.89

0.13

Sweet cherries

. 15.30

2.43

Currants

. 7.30

0.16

Grapes

. 16.15

2.07

VI. Content of free acid in 100 parts of juice.

Pears .
Reine Claudes
Greengages .
Grapes
Apples
Peaches
Sweet cherries
German prunes
Apricots

0.09 p. c.

Blackberries

0.59 "

Sour cherries

0.67 "

Strawberries

0.80 "

Gooseberries

0.82 "

Plums

0.85 "

Raspberries .

0.88 "

Whortleberries

1.08 "

Mulberries .

1.29 "

Currants

1.42 p. c.
1.52 "
1.57 "
1.63 "
1.72 "
1.80 "
1.88 "
2.02 "

2.43 "

FRUITS AND THEIR COMPOSITION. 309

Tables V. and VI. represent the proportion in which the solu-
ble constituents of the fruits are found in the juice or must ob-
tained from them ; in the practical execution of the fabrication of
fruit wines we will have occasion to refer to these tables.

For the preparation of wine only the soluble substances, which
pass into the must and from which the wine is formed, are chiefly
of interest, and it will be necessary to consider them somewhat
more closely.

Grape-sugar or glucose. — This sugar is widely diffused through-
out the vegetable kingdom, occurring in most kinds of sweet fruits,
in honey, etc. Artificially it can be readily obtained by heating a
solution of cane sugar with a dilute acid ; it is also formed by
dissolving cane sugar in wine. On a large scale it is prepared
by boiling starch with very dilute sulphuric acid for several
hours, neutralizing the liquid with chalk and evaporating the
solution.

Grape-sugar is much less sweet than cane-sugar ; in alcohol of
90 per Tr. it is sparingly soluble ; in hot water it dissolves in
every proportion; of cold water it requires, however, about 1J
parts for solution. It crystallizes from an aqueous solution with
one molecule of water in cauliflower-like masses and from hot
alcohol in warty, anhydrous needles. A solution of crystallized
grape-sugar turns the plane of polarization to the right, but one
of anhydrous grape-sugar to the left.

Acids. — The acid reaction of fruit juices is partly due to
malic acid and partly to citric acid, and also, as in the case of
grapes, to tartaric acid. As a rule all these acids are present ; in
currants citric acid predominates; in apples, etc., malic acid.

The presence of potassium in grape-must gives rise to the for-
mation of potassium bitartrate or crude tartar. Tartar requires
for its solution 240 parts of cold water; in alcoholic fluids it is less
soluble, and hence it is found as a crystalline deposit in wine
casks. Fruit-musts contain no tartaric acid, and, consequently,
the wines prepared from them cannot deposit tartar. The salts
formed by malic and citric acids with potassium being readily
soluble and even deliquescent form no deposit in the wine.

Albuminous substances. — By this general term are designated
several nitrogenous vegetable substances which have the same

310 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

composition ; they are vegetable albumen, fibrin, and glue. The
quantities of these substances in the different musts are, on the
one hand, too small, and the difficulty of accurately distinguishing
them from each other is, on the other, so great that it is scarcely
possible to definitely determine the kind present in the fruit juice ;
most likely all three are present at the same time.

For the preparation of wine these bodies are of importance ;
they furnish the material for the development of the yeast-fungus
during fermentation.

Pedous substances. — In the paragraph " ripening of fruits," the
pectous substances have been sufficiently discussed; they are
scarcely ever wanting in a fruit juice, but being insoluble in alco-
holic fluids they are entirely separated with the yeast, and hence
are not present in fruit-wines.

Gum and vegetable mucilage. — Our knowledge as regards gum
is still limited. Gum-arabic, which may be studied as a repre-
sentative of this class, is an exudation from certain species of
acacia and consists essentially of arabin. It is generally supposed
to be soluble in water, but on endeavoring to filter a somewhat
concentrated solution not a drop will be found to run off, and the
little which possibly may pass through the filter is by no means
clear.

Closely related to gum-arabic is bassorine, the gum which
exudes from the cherry, plum, almond, and apricot trees. It
does not give a slime with water, but merely swells up to a
gelatinous mass.

Wine brought in contact with the smallest quantity of gum-
arabic remains permanently turbid and cannot be clarified by
filtering or long standing. From this behavior of gum it may
be concluded that, though it may occur dissolved in the must, it is
not present in the wine.

The various kinds of vegetable mucilage have also not yet
been accurately examined; it is only known that there are
quite a number of them. It is, however, likely that only a
few of them are actually soluble in water. Though the muci-
lage ^df certain seeds, such as linseed and quince-seed, may be
considered as readily soluble in water as gum-arabic, and perhaps
more so, because it is a perfectly clear fluid drawing threads,

FRUITS AND THEIR COMPOSITION. 311

yet on filtering it will be found that what passes through above
contains scarcely a trace of a mucilaginous substance. Hence,
it is doubtful whether mucilages exist which are actually solu-
ble in water, and whether they occur in wine. Artificial dex-
trin is, however, an exception, as it forms with water a perfectly
clear fluid, which can be filtered. We will here call attention to
an easy method of distinguishing between solution of gum-
arabic and of dextrin ; the first cannot be heated, even for a
minute, over an open fire without scorching, while the latter can
be completely boiled down without fear of burning.

Tannin. — Several kinds of tannin occur in plants, which can; how-
ever, be finally reduced to two modifications, viz : pathological and
physiological tannin. The first occurs in large quantity in nut-
galls, especially in the Chinese variety, also in sumach (the twigs
of Rhus Coraria) and in many other plants. Pathological tan-
nin is characterized by splitting under the influence of dilute
acids as well as by fermentation into gallic acid and grape-sugar.
Furthermore, it completely precipitates glue from its solutions, but
is not suitable for the conversion of the animal skin into techni-
cally serviceable leather which will withstand putrefaction. Be-
sides, only the gallic acid obtained from pathological tannin
yields pyrogallic acid by dry distillation.

Physiological tannin is chiefly found in materials used for tan-
ning ; it cannot be split by dilute acids or fermentation, does not
yield gallic acid, and the product of dry distillation is not pyro-
gallic acid, but pyrocatechin or oxyphenic acid ; it converts the
animal skin into perfect leather.

There can be but little doubt that physiological tannin is the
variety found in fruits or fruit-juices. Generally speaking, a
content of tannin in wine is not exactly a desirable feature, as
it is readily decomposed. It can only have an advantageous
effect when the wine contains an excess of albuminous substances
which the tannin removes by entering into insoluble combinations
with them. This may be the reason why wine containing tannin
is considered more durable, because if it contained albuminous sub-
stances in large quantity it would be still more readily subjected
to changes. Under such circumstances a small addition of tan-
nin to the wine may be of advantage, though instead of tannin it

312 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

is advisable to use an alcoholic extract of grape-stones, which are
uncommonly rich in tannin.

Inorganic constituents. — The inorganic constituents of the dif-
ferent varieties of fruit are very likely the same, namely, potash,
lime, magnesia, sulphuric and phosphoric acids; they vary only
in the proportions towards one another and in the total quantity
of all the substances. Moreover, their quantity is too small to
exert an influence upon the quantity of the wine to be produced,
being of interest only in regard to the exhaustion of the soil.
Though lime and sulphuric acid in sufficient quantity occur
almost everywhere in the soil, this cannot be said of potash and
phosphoric acid. Unfortunately there are no accurate statements
regarding the amount of these substances which is withdrawn
from the soil by the crop of one year, but there can be no doubt
that it is very large, and that consequently fruit-trees from time to
time require a certain amount of manure in order to return to the
soil what has been taken from it.

Fermentation. — Fermentation is a chemical process which is
always caused by the presence of a ferment or a substance in a
peculiar state of decomposition. Although to induce fermentation
the presence of a ferment is necessary, it does not take part in the
decomposition of the fermenting substance. The products of fer-
mentation vary according to the nature of the fermenting body,
as well as according to the nature of the ferment. Each peculiar
kind of fermentation requires a certain temperature, and it is
nearly always accompanied by the development of certain living
bodies (infusoria or fungi).

When yeast is added to a dilute solution of dextrose or another
glucose, vinous fermentation speedily sets in; whilst a solution of
cane-sugar undergoes fermentation but slowly, the cause being
that this sugar must first be converted into inverted sugar before
fermentation can commence. Vinous fermentation proceeds most
rapidly at 77° to 86° F., and does not take place below 32° or
above 95° F. The presence of a large quantity of acids or alkalies
prevents fermentation, while if the liquid has a faint acid reaction,
fermentation proceeds best.

The yeast which is formed in the fermentation of the juice of
grape and other kinds of fruit is produced from soluble albuminous

FRUITS AND THEIR COMPOSITION. 313

bodies contained in fruit. It consists of one of the lowest members
of the vegetable kingdom (Torula cerevisice), and under the micro-
scope is seen to be made up of little oval transparent globules,
having a diameter of not more than 0.1 millimetre and often
adhering in clusters and strings. They are propagated by bud-
ding, and die as soon as they have reached their highest state
of development. In contact with air and water yeast soon un-
dergoes putrefaction.

The chief products of vinous fermentation are alcohol and car-
bon dioxide ; a small quantity of sugar is at the same time con-
verted into other products, about 2.5 per cent, being transformed
into glycerin and 0.6 to 0.7 per cent, into succinic acid. A
further portion of the sugar, about one per cent., is assimilated in
the form of cellulose by the yeast and separated. By the simul-
taneous formation of these different secondary products about
5.5 to 6.5 per cent, of sugar is lost in the formation of alcohol.
As they are not always formed in equally large quantity no con-
clusion can be arrived at from the content of sugar in the must as
to the quantity of alcohol corresponding to theory in the finished
wine ; it is, as a rule, supposed that the sugar yields one:half its
weight of alcohol, which is sufficiently correct for all practical pur-
poses.

Absolute alcohol, L e., alcohol entirely free from water, is a very
mobile fluid, clear as water and almost odorless ; it boils at 173° F.,
and when it is cooled down to 148° F. it becomes viscid, but
does not solidify. Its specific gravity at 32° F. is 0.80625, and
at 59° F. 0.79367. It is very inflammable, and burns with a
blue, non-luminous flame. It absorbs moisture with great avidity,
and is miscible with water in all proportions, the mixture evolv-
ing heat and undergoing contraction.

The methods for determining the content of alcohol in a fluid
have already been given on p. 198.

Succinic acid. — No accurate researches have as yet been made
in regard to the quantity of this acid in wine, its influence upon
the quality of the wine, and the conditions under which more or
less of it is formed during fermentation. According to Pasteur,
the more succinic acid is formed the slower fermentation pro-
gresses; the weaker the development of yeast and the less nour-

314 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

ishment offered to the latter. In acid fluid more succinic acid is
formed than in neutral.

Succinic acid is quite readily soluble in a mixture of alcohol
and water, and consequently also in wine ; its taste is not very sour,
but disagreeable, and adheres for some time to the tongue ; hence
its presence can scarcely be expected to give an agreeable taste to
the wine.

Glycerin. — Glycerin being found in grape-wines, in which it is
formed from the sugar by fermentation, there can scarcely be any
doubt of its formation under the same conditions in fruit-wines.
According to Pasteur, the quantity of glycerin in wine is in a
definite proportion to the succinic acid formed, and, hence, more
glycerin would be produced with slow fermentation and in an acid
fluid. In red wines Pasteur found 4 to 7 per cent, of glycerin.

Pure glycerin is a colorless, very viscid liquid having a specific
gravity of 1.27. It can be mixed with water and alcohol in all
proportions and possesses a very sweet taste. It is very likely
that the mild sweet taste of many ripe wines is due to a certain
content of glycerin.

A solution of 7 parts of glycerin in 1000 of water (the pro-
portion in which Pasteur found glycerin in wine) does not possess
a sweet taste and differs from water only in being more insipid.
By adding to such a solution 100 parts of alcohol the mixture
shows a taste different from that of alcohol alone diluted in the
same proportion, the predominant taste of the latter being de-
creased by the glycerin and that of the mixture becoming milder.
Hence a certain importance has to be ascribed to the glycerin.

Carbonic acid. — The greater portion of the carbonic acid formed
by fermentation escapes as a gaseous body during the process, but
a certain portion remains dissolved in the wine as long as the tem-
perature of the latter is not raised. The temperature of cellars
generally increases, however, towards the end of spring, which
causes anew a slight development of carbonic acid in consequence
of which the wine again becomes turbid. The presence of car-
bonic acid is of advantage only in young wine, as it protects it
from the direct action of the air by forming a layer upon the
surface; in old wines it conceals, however, the fine aroma and
taste, making them appear younger than they actually are.

FRUITS AND THEIR COMPOSITION. 315

Though it cannot be said that carbonic acid plays an essential
part in the preparation of wine, it deserves attention on account
of its deleterious influence upon the workmen. To avoid all
injurious consequences provision should be made for a thorough
ventilation of the cellar by means of windows and doors. If
fermentation is carried on in barrels, the carbonic acid developed
in a number of them should be conducted by means of tubes
secured air-tight in the bungs to a zinc-pipe which passes through
a suitable aperture into the open air.

How large the quantity of carbonic acid is which is developed
during the fermentation of a barrel holding 1200 liters of must
at 10 per cent. = 240 kilogrammes of sugar is shown by the
following calculation : 180 grammes of grape-sugar yield 88
grammes of carbonic acid at 32° F. 1 gramme of carbonic acid
occupies a volume of 0.50848 liter, which, with a cellar tempera-
ture of 50° F., corresponds to 0.527294 liter. Hence we have
for the calculation of the total quantity of carbonic acid developed
88 x 0.527294 X 4000* or ^ much ag

o

the contents of 52 barrels containing each 1200 liters.

Alkaloid in wine. — It has been frequently asserted that an alka-
loid exists in young wine, which not being contained in the must
or the yeast must have been formed from the nitrogenous consti-
tuents of the yeast or of the fluid during fermentation. It has
not been found in old wine, and it is therefore concluded that it
in time decomposes. Should this observation be confirmed, it
would explain the difference in the effects of the very intoxicating
young wines and of old wines.

reduced

316 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

CHAPTER XXVI.

PRACTICE OF THE PREPARATION OF CIDER AND FRUIT-
WINES.

THE first step in the preparation of fruit-wines is the gaining
of the juice or must from the fruit. Stamping or grinding and
subsequent expressing of the paste thus formed by means of strong
pressure suffice in most cases for berries and other small fruits.
With apples, etc., this manner of reduction is not only difficult,
but also connected with considerable loss caused by larger and
smaller pieces jumping from the trough.

The earliest appliance known was simply a trough in which
the apples were reduced to an imperfect pomace by rolling them
with a heavy cylindrical stone or by pounding them as in a
mortar. An improvement was the production of the English
cider-mill. This consisted of a pair of coarsely corrugated iron
cylinders from which the apples fell to a second pair close together
and finer in their surfaces and passed through finely mashed to
the pomace vessel underneath. In 1852, Mr. W. O. Hickock, of
Harrisburg, Pa., invented a portable cider-mill which consisted of
a pair of small horizontal cylinders armed with small spirally
arranged teeth or spikes revolving close together, one at a higher
velocity than the other. The apples were first broken by the
action of a coarsely-fluted roller which revolved against a table
under the hopper, and after passing between the cylinders the
apples were not only bruised but also grated into the required
pomace. This machine was capable of grinding 100 bushels of
apples per day. Numerous modifications have been made in the
plan of Mr. Hickock's mill, some being simply spiked cylinders
against which the apples were carried and held till grated by
reciprocating plungers.

Our limits will not permit us to notice all the various styles
of portable mills before the public or the multitude of graters or

PREPARATION OF CIDER AND FRUIT-WINES.

317

apple-grinders, many of which possess excellent points and are
worthy of commendation. An excellent apparatus for crushing
apples is the crushing-mill shown in Figs. 66 and 67, B C (Fig.
67) representing the cylinders provided with teeth. A hopper, A,
receives the apples, which pass between the cylinders, where they
are crushed and fall into the receiver F placed underneath. Two

Fig. 66.

Fig. 67.

men operate this mill by means of cranks. Larger and stronger
mills are used when the quality of apples seems to require them,
and in that case horse-power is applied.

Fig. 68 shows Davis's star apple-grinder, several sizes of which
are manufactured by the G. H. Bushnell Co., of Thompsonville,
Conn. The grinder shown in the illustration is a heavy machine
weighing 340 Ibs. The cylinder is 12 inches in diameter and 12
inches long, is turned and carefully balanced, has grooves planed
in to receive the knives, six in number, which are finely made
and tempered. Each knife furnished is made of steel-plated iron,
the steel being very thin and having a back of iron ; there is no
danger of breaking, although made very hard. The end of the
cylinder is banded with wrought-iron bands and the knives are
set with set-screws. The shaft is of steel and runs in anti-friction
metal. The concaves are hung at top, so they can swing back at the
bottom to allow stone, pieces of iron, etc. to pass through without
injuring the knives. The concaves are held to their place by a

318 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

holt which allows the concave to be set as close as desired to the
cylinder, and is held to its place by coil-springs which will give
enough to allow stones to pass and yet hold rigid in grinding
even frozen apples. The frame is one casting, and as the concaves
are fast to the frame they cannot get out of line or be displaced, as
is the case when the concave is fast to the hopper. The hopper

Fig. 68.

can be readily removed to adjust knives and all parts are adjust-
able and easy to get at. This machine can be gauged to grind
from 200 to 400 bushels per hour. Power required to grind six
bushels per minute about six horse-power or about as many horse-
power as desired to grind bushels per minute.

Presses. — For obtaining the juice from berries, etc. a press is
generally not required, or at least only a slight pressure ; the
greater portion of it runs out from the must by placing the latter
upon a cloth spread over a perforated bottom in a vat. The juice
retained by the lees, which is, as a rule, very sour and has to be
diluted with water, can be extracted with the latter more completely
than is possible with the strongest press.

For obtaining the juice from apple pomace, etc. a good press
is, however, an important auxiliary. Before the introduction of
screws the method of extracting the juice of the apple was by
the use of heavy weights, wedges, and leverage. Until within a
late period a large wooden screw was used and is even nowT
employed in some sections of the country. Of these screws two

PREPARATION OF CIDER AND FRUIT-WINES.

319

Fig. 69.

and frequently three and four, set in a strong frame-work of
double timbers, were found no more than sufficient to separate the
cider from the pomace. In order to operate these screws a long
heavy wooden lever became necessary, which required the united
services, of four or five men to handle, and not ^infrequently the
strength of a yoke of oxen was called into requisition before the
work could be accomplished. An improvement upon the wooden
screw was made by the substitution of the iron screw and iron
nut. But the objectionable feature
of having to handle heavy and
cumbersome levers still remained,
making labor irksome and ex-
pensive. In modern presses this
difficulty has been entirely over-
come, and the juice is extracted
from the pomace with great ease
and completeness.

Of the many presses before the
public we illustrate a hand-press
and a power-press manufactured
by the G. H. Bushnell Co., of
Thompsonville, Conn., the same
concern furnishing presses of all
sizes between these two. Fig. 69

shows the " Farmer's cider-press." It is 7 feet 1 inch high with
a width between the rods of 3 feet If inches. It will hold 15 to
16 bushels of apples at a pressing and is especially designed for
individual use. It is also admirably adapted for squeezing the
juice from small fruits, berries, etc.

Fig. 70 shows the " Extra power cider-press," with revolving
platform. It is 13 feet 4 inches high, 6 feet 4 inches wide be-
tween the rods, and has a platform 13 feet 3 inches long. It
gives a pressure of 250 tons. The press is always loaded in one
place, and consequently the grater can be located immediately
over the middle of the cheese, avoiding the necessity of convey-
ing the pomace from one end of the press to the other. This
press can easily make a pressing of 12 barrels of cider each hour.

320 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

Fig. 71 shows the revolving platform belonging to the above
press, for which the manufacturers claim the following ad van-
Fig. 70.

tages : 1. Both ends of the platform are loaded and unloaded in
the same place. 2. It is so geared that one man can easily and
quickly revolve it. 3. The grinder can be directly over the
centre of the cheese, thus avoiding all the labor of shovelling the
pomace. 4. The pomace being dropped in the centre of the
cheese, it is an easy matter to spread it with equal density over
the entire surface, thus building a cheese that is not liable to tilt
or slide. The cider runs into a copper basin in the centre of the
platform between the two cheeses. The basin is so arranged that
it receives the cider while the platform is being revolved as well
as while the press is working.

PREPARATION OF CIDER AND FRUIT-WINES. 321

A is the copper basin to receive the cider from platforms, and
has an outlet through the bottom, about 6 inches in diameter,
for the cider to pass off into the tank below. B is a copper tube

encasing the rods. (7, (7, C, C are four posts fastened to the plat-
form to hold guide-pieces for racks. D, D are rack guides.

Ferguson's improved racks. — The single racks are made of some
light and tough wood — bass-wood or spruce seems best — cut into
strips about \ x J inch and placed about \ inch apart, with four?
five, or more elm strips, 2 inches wide and about f inch thick,
placed across and nailed to the narrow slats. The 2-inch slats
extend beyond the narrow ones on each side about 4 inches.
This is to support the wings, which are fastened to the rack by
3 or more bronze hinges. These wings, with the aid of 2 re-
taining bars, make the box to form the pomace in. The slats
are rounded on the edges so as not to injure the press-cloth.
Steel wire nails or wire staples are used of sufficient length to
clinch.

Double racks are made by using slats j^-x-J- inch. The slats
on one side are laid directly across the slats on the other side.
.Four wide slats are put at the outer edges, then these are all fast-
ened together by steel wire nails or staples. These racks have
the advantage of having an even surface on each side. The
press-cloth will last much longer than when used on single racks,
where it is strained over 4 to 9 elm slats.

To lay up a cheese with the Ferguson improved rack, com-
mence on the platform of the press and lay a rack ; then turn up
21

322 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

the wings on each side of the rack and place the retaining bars
on each end, with the hooks on the outside of the wings, so as to
hold them up. Over this box spread the cloth, fill the box evenly
full of pomace, then turn in the sides and ends of the cloth over
the pomace, the cloth being of sufficient size to cover it. The re-
taining bars are then removed, allowing the wings to fall in
place. Another rack is placed on the cheese just made, the re-
taining bars placed in position to hold up the wings, another
cloth placed on the box, etc., and this operation is continued
until there is the right number of layers in the press. A rack
should be placed on the top of the last layer. A guide should be
used in laying up the cheese, so as to bring each rack directly
above the other.

Plain racks. — These are made, either single or double, of slats
of the same description and dimensions as are used in the Fer-
guson racks, but in the place of wings and retaining bars, a form
square in size and 4 inches deep is used to form the sides of a
box for the pomace. In laying up a cheese commence by placing
a rack on the platform, and upon this place the form, spread a
cloth over the form and fill even up with pomace ; then fold the
ends and sides of the cloth over on to the pomace, as described
with the other style of rack, and remove the form. Place an-
other rack on the layer just formed, and put the form on that
and proceed as before until the cheese is complete. It will re-
quire one cloth less than the number of racks used for a cheese.
Care must be exercised in laying a cheese to have the racks come
evenly, as they are liable to tilt if they overhang. The best way
to avoid the liability to slide or tilt is to lay the racks alternately
the length and breadth of the press.

Fig. 72 shows Willson's telegraph wine and cider mill. The
upper roller is furnished with sharp projecting ribs, which cut
the apples into pieces sufficiently small to be readily received be-
tween the lower rollers. The two lower crushing rollers are cast
with ribs and grooves, and these draw in the pieces prepared
by the upper roller, and by this means the fruit is thoroughly
mashed between the smooth segments, which breaks all the cells
of the apples and makes the subsequent labor of pressing much

PREPARATION OF CIDER AND FRUIT-WINES. 323

easier ; and should the pomace be allowed to stand a short time a
large portion of the cider will run off without pressing. Both
the upper and lower rollers are adjustable, and can be set to mash
grapes for wine without breaking the seeds. It is peculiarly
adapted to grinding the wine plant, mashing it without sepa-

Fig. 72.

rating the fibre. The hopper is adjustable, and can be removed
in an instant for cleaning the mill. The follower is brought up
out of the tub by simply raising the screw. Several sizes of this
mill are manufactured.

In the equipment of a first-class modern cider mill nothing gives
better satisfaction for the money expended than an apple ele-
vator. The expense is a small matter compared with the con-
venience of having the mill so arranged that apples may be
brought from any part by a perfect working elevator and carrier.
Fig. 73 shows a section of an elevator manufactured by the G.
H. Bushnell Company, of Thompsonville, Connecticut. The
chain runs over and is operated by a sprocket gear at the head
with fast and loose pulleys. The scrapers are of wood, 3 inches

324 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

wide and 11 J inches long, bolted to lugs or projections on the
chain. When run at from 50 to 70 revolutions per minute it

Fig. 73.

will elevate from 5 to 10 bushels per minute. It works at an
inclination or carries on a level.

Testing the Must as to its Content of Acid and Sugar.

With the exception of the grape but few varieties of fruit con-
tain acid and sugar in such proportion and in such quantity
(generally too much acid and too little sugar) as that the must
obtained from them will yield, when subjected to fermentation, a
drinkable and durable wine. Wine whose content of acid ex-
ceeds 1 per cent, is too sour to the taste, and one containing less
than 5 per cent, of alcohol cannot be kept for a long time. Now
as all fruit wines may be called artificial wines, and a natural
product has consequently to be improved in order to make it
more agreeable and wholesome, it is necessary to find ways and
means by which the object can be accomplished in a manner
most conformable to nature. For this purpose a knowledge of
the content of acid and sugar in the fruit-must is required.

To find the quantity of acid, compound a determined quantity,
about 50 cubic centimetres, of must with about 5 grammes of

PREPARATION OF CIDER AND FRUIT-WINES. 325

purified animal charcoal,* boil the mixture about five minutes,
and after cooling replace the exact quantity of water lost by
evaporation. After shaking bring the whole upon a coarse
paper, filter in a glass funnel, and let it run off. Of the clear
and generally colorless filtrate bring 6.7 cubic centimetres into a
small beaker, add sufficient distilled water to form a layer of
fluid 2 to 3 centimetres deep, and color red with 5 to 10 drops of
litmus tincture. While holding the beaker in the left hand and
constantly moving it slowly in a horizontal direction alloAV to
run or drop in from a pipette graduated in ^ cubic centimetres
and filled to the O mark, decinormal liquid ammonia until
the last drop no longer changes the color of the fluid and the
place where the drop falls appears as if made clear by a drop of
water. Now prevent a further flow of the ammonia by closing
the pipette with the index finger of the right hand, and read off
the quantity of ammonia consumed. The must examined con-
tains as many thousandths of malic acid as cubic centimetres of
liquid ammonia were required to color the fluid blue.

Now if the examination shows that a must contains more than
8 parts of acid per thousand, it is evidently too sour for the
preparation of a palatable and wholesome fruit wine, and hence
must be diluted to such degree as to reduce the content of acid to
6 or at the utmost to 8 parts per thousand. The calculation for
this dilution is very simple, and consists in multiplying the acid
per thousand parts present by 100 and dividing with the content
of acid the wine is to have, the entire volume containing the de-
sired acid per thousand being thus obtained. If, for instance, 18
parts per thousand of acid have been found in currant-must and

-j rj/"i vIS

the wine is only to show 6J parts per thousand, then

= 276.923, in round numbers == 277, i. e., 277 parts by measure
of water have to be added to every 100 parts by measure of
must.

The content of acid in the must thus forms the initial point
for the dilution in order to obtain, after fermentation, wine with

* Bone-black which is first boiled with solution of sodium carbonate for
some time, and then after washing and extracting with hydrochloric acid is
again washed and dried.

326 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

a determined quantity of acid. To be sure the content of acid is
sometimes increased by fermentation, some succinic acid, as pre-
viously mentioned, being formed and perhaps also some acetic
acid ; sometimes, however, the content of acid decreases, which is
very likely partially due to the water used for the dilution of the
must containing earthy carbonates (lime, magnesia). It is, there-
fore, best not to have too much acid in the must, since, if the
finished wine should be lacking in acid, it can be readily reme-
died by a suitable addition of tartaric acid, which is, however,
not the case when it contains too much free acid.

The determination of the sugar in must is less difficult and has
already been fully described on p. 197, hence there remains only
the question how much sugar has to be added to the must in
order to obtain a durable wine.

Numerous analyses have shown that there is scarcely any
grape-wine which contains less than 7 per cent, by weight of
alcohol, while in more generous wines the content rises to 12 per
cent, and more. Fruit-wines in order to possess good keeping
properties should never show less than 7 per cent, by weight of
alcohol, but there is no reason why they should not contain as
much as 10 per cent. The advantage of the latter content is
evident, the wines being thereby almost absolutely protected from
spoiling while they improve in aroma and taste, the various kinds
of ether being only formed in wine rich in alcohol.

The manner of calculating the quantity of sugar which has to
be added to the must to give the wine the desired content of
alcohol will be best shown by the following example : Suppose
135 liters of must which contains 4 per cent, of sugar are to be
changed into must with 15 per cent, of sugar.

For this purpose deduct from the weight of the must (which
for the sake of simplicity we will consider equal to its volume) the
weight of the sugar contained therein, multiply by the difference
the per cent, of sugar the must is to contain, divide the product
by 100 less the per cent, of sugar and deduct from the quotient
the per cent, of sugar already present in the must. For instance :
135 liters of must with 4 per cent, of sugar are to be changed
into must with 15 per cent, of sugar. In 135 liters are contained
5.4 kilogrammes of sugar, 135—5.4 = 129.6, which multiplied by

PREPARATION OF CIDER AND FRUIT-WIXES. 327

15 «• 1944 ; this number divided by 100 — 15 = 85 gives 22.87.
Deduct from this 5.4, and there remain 17.47 kilogrammes of
sugar which have to be added to the must to give it 15 per cent,
of sugar.

For 325 liters of must with 3J per cent, of sugar to be changed
into must with 20 per cent, of sugar the calculation Avould be as
follows : —

(325 — 11.375)20 ^ 313.625 x 20 _
100—20 80

o-| q #9 re

±p 1 = 78.406 — 11.375 = 67.03 kilogrammes of sugar to

be added.

600 liters of must with 6 per cent, of sugar are to be changed

into must with 22 per cent, of sugar : —: X U — 36 = 117.4

O\J

kilogrammes of sugar.

The above examples will suffice to enable any one to execute
the calculations as required.

The above calculations are based upon pure, anhydrous grape
sugar, an article which does not exist in commerce, and hence has
to be replaced either by commercial grape-sugar (glucose) or cane-
sugar. Glucose, however, containing as a rule only 67 per cent,
of anhydrous grape-sugar, 1J times the quantity calculated above
must be used, thus in the last example 176 kilogrammes instead of
117.4. With cane-sugar the proportion is the reverse, 171 parts
by weight of cane-sugar being equal to 180 parts by weight of
anhydrous grape-sugar ; hence the per cent, of anhydrous grape-
sugar calculated according to the above method must be multi-
plied by the fraction -j-|-T or the factor 0.95. According to this,
instead of the 117.4 kilogrammes of grape-sugar in the last
example, 111.73 kilogrammes of cane-sugar will have to be used.

Glucose. — Pure glucose being identical with the sugar in sweet
fruits its use for sweetening fruit-juices intended for the prepara-
tion of wine is perfectly justifiable. With the dispute still carried
on with honest weapons, whether it is permissible to assist nature
with glucose when it fails to succeed in its labor of forming sugar
in abundance, we have here nothing to do, since we know that
the principal product — alcohol or spirits of wine — and almost the

328 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

only one which passes into the wine by the fermentation of sugar,
possesses the same properties whether it is formed from fruit-sugar
or from glucose, and that neither one nor the other can be injurious
to health in the state of dilution in which it presents itself in the
wine, provided the latter be used in moderation. The must might
be sweetened, as is frequently done, with cane-sugar which occurs
in sugar-cane, in beet-root, in sugar-maple, etc. But with the use
of glucose we are one step in advance, since cane-sugar before
fermenting is first resolved into a mixture of dextrose (glucose)
and levulose.

Commercial glucose is never pure, as it contains, besides about
15 per cent, of water, of which about 6 per cent, is water of
crystallization, about 1 8 per cent, of dextrin or similar substances,
and some gypsum. It has a white color and is found in commerce
packed in boxes into which it is poured while in a fluid state
and gradually congeals to a hard mass. It is odorless and has a
faint sweet taste. On heating it becomes smeary and finally
melts to a yellowish syrup. Its content of anhydrous fruit-
sugar varies between 62 and 67 per cent. Inferior qualities con-
tain either less sugar or have a more or less dark color and a
disagreeable odor and taste. Independently of the content of
sugar, glucose to be suitable for the preparation of wine should
show no odor or by-taste.

The accurate determination of the content of pure sugar in
glucose is connected with some difficulty. But few manufacturers
are provided with the necessary materials for making the analysis
with Fehling's solution, and besides a certain amount of skill is
required for obtaining accurate results by chemical tests. In
consideration of this, Anthon of Prague has devised tables which
are^ based upon the varying specific gravity of different saturated
solutions of glucose, or rather upon its solubility in water. While
1 part of anhydrous grape-sugar requires for its solution 1.224
parts of water at 53.6° F., the foreign admixtures accompanying
it dissolve in every proportion in water. Hence a saturated
solution of glucose will show a greater specific gravity the more
foreign substances it contains. In Authon's tables is found the
specific gravity and from this the content of anhydrous grape-
sugar or glucose in the solution. In preparing a solution of

CIDER FROM APPLES AND PEARS.

329

starch-sugar for examination care must be had that it is completely
saturated. Heat must not be used for eifecting the solution, but
a certain quantity of the glucose to be examined is rubbed in a
mortar with one-half its weight of water at 53.6° F., and after
pouring the thickish, turbid fluid into a tall beaker it is allowed
to stand until clear. Anthon's table is as follows : —

Specific gravity

Specific gravity

of the solution

of the solution

saturated at

Contains of foreign

saturated at

Contains of foreign

53.6° F.

substances.

53.6° F.

substances.

1.2066

0 per cent.

1.2522

25 per cent.

1.2115

2.5 "

1.2555

27.5 ' "

1.2169

5.0 "

1.2587

30.0 "

1.2218

7.5 "

1.2631

32.5 "

1.2267

10.0 "

1.2665

35.0 "

1.2309

12.5 "

1.2703

37.5 "

1.2350

15.0 "

1.2740

40.0 "

1.2395

17.5 "

1.2778

42.5 "

1.2439

20.0 "

1.2815

45.0 "

1.2461

22.5 "

CHAPTER XXVII.

CIDER FROM APPLES AND PEARS.

Cider from apples. — The expressed juice of well-selected apples,
properly prepared, forms a lively, sparkling liquor far superior to
many wines. It is quite a favorite article of home production,
nearly every farmer in regions where apples are grown making
his barrel of cider for use through the winter, but a large amount
finds its way into the city markets. A considerable quantity is
also consumed in the shape of bottled cider, " champagne cider,"
" sparkling cider," and similar substances for, or imitations of,
champagne wines; large quantities of this clarified cider being
produced in some parts of the country, notably New Jersey.
Most of the cheaper kinds of champagne (American champagne)
are made in this way.

In England and France considerable quantities of cider find

330

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

their way into the markets, though it is there, as here, largely an
article of home consumption. Certain parts of those countries
are famous for the quality of their ciders, notably Normandy, in
France, and Herefordshire and Devonshire, in England. France
produced in 1883, 23,493,000 hectoliters (620,211,200 gallons) of
cider, or one-half of the quantity of wine produced or three times
as much as the total quantity of malt liquors.

Rousseau has published the mean of twenty analyses of Brit-
tany cider, but his results are so low that it is thought by French
authorities that his samples had been watered : —

Alcohol, per cent, by volume
Extract grammes per liter .
Sugar ....

Total ash ....
Ash soluble in water

2.5
19.3
2.5
1.52
1.17

The following are analyses of pure ciders from different parts
of France made in the Paris municipal laboratory ; the figures
are in grammes per liter : —

- £

® 0

«T

0)

1

o

c» 3

^ **

t--

be .

cc

SB •

r- *

c >

PH

- o

06

i %

c5

^>H

u-

u'0>

d

*3

,00 •

»- r-i 'A

o a

0> -

2C

'3 *

13

2 o

O>

•5 <B"

o
fe

*.

'£. S^ ?

0-3

•- a

2

s'S

13

2

|1»

^

PH

o

PH

PH

5

5

DH

Alcohol, in weight, per

liter .... 47.40

41.08

37.92

34.76

23.70

7.90

25.30

19.75

Extract dried at 212° F. ; 57.60

30.90

20.90

61.30

53.20

69.70

81.20

'63.80

Extract dried in vacua

60.10

37.60

27.00

72.70

60.80

82.00

92.60 75.00

Total ash

3.50

2.50

2.50

3.00

2.60

2.54

2.30

2.80

Analysis of the Ash.

Phosphates insoluble in

water ....
Carbonate of potash
Other alkaline salts

0.38
2.23
0.89

—

0.25
1.40
0.85

0.30
2.00
0.70

0.45
1.80
0.35

0.62
1.51
0.41

0.17

20.55

Reducing sugar
Acidity expressed as

20.00

7.50

4.40

3.70

16.50

36.00

39.00

25.00

H2S04
Acidity of the cider dried

3.60

4.07

5.36

4.54

3.23

2.68

—

2.08

in vacua . . .

2.50

2.40

2.59

2.31

2.68

1.11

—

1.48

CIDER FROM APPLES AND PEARS. 331

Of these samples the first four had undergone a good fermen-
tation. They furnish the following average composition for the
principal constituents : —

Alcohol, per cent, by volume ..... 5.2

Extract, per liter, at 212° F 41.18

Sugar 8.90

Asli 2.87

The other four samples were partially unferrnented, or sweet,
ciders. Their average composition was as follows : —

Alcohol, per cent, by volume ..... 1.70

Extract, per liter, at 212° F 66.98

Ash 2.56

From these means the municipal laboratory deduces the fol-
lowing as a type of composition for pure ciders : —

Alcohol, per cent, by volume
Extract, per liter, at 212° F.

A ~1.

. 5.66
. 30.00
Ash . 2.80

Recent analyses of pure ciders, from different parts of France,
published by M. G. Lechtartier, have shown great variations
from this type, and show the necessity for the examination of
large numbers of samples from various parts of the country for
the establishment of a proper standard of analysis.

Analyses of ciders by the United States Agricultural Department.
— The samples for the investigation were purchased in the city in
the same manner as samples of wine and beer : —

332

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

1

"7.

'>

9J

$

OD

2

gS

eg

Designation. j ^

a

A

g

•31

if =

a

-3
&•-

8* .

fl

'a

te -r. .

I 5*

0

'3

y> oj

si O

.

3

£

S2 g

i «

O

a,

— ^

f 5

^

g

"Q 0 CO

85

co

<

*"

H

ta

03

*

<

u

—

Well fermented ciders.
Draft cider ("extra dry") 4S30

1

1.0132

p.ct.
4. IS

p.ct.
5.23

p.ct.
3.31

p.ct.

.602

p ,ct

p.ct.
.396

p.ct.
.038

p.ct.

O

—195

Bottled cider, known to 4852

2

1.0003

8 09 10 05

1.88

.456

—

.279

.063 trace

—7 0

be pure
Bottled cider . . . 4S33

3

1.0007

6.28 7. S3

1.80

.376

—

.340

.044J _

—6.1

Bottled "extra dry rus- 4S34

4

1.0264

4.48 5.61

5 52

.339

—

.393

.031

—

—35.2

set" cider

"Champagne cider," bot- 48 >5

5

1.0223

4.08 5.10

502

.567

—

.310

.050

.161

—23.4

tied
'• Champagne cider," bot- 4836 | 6

1.0143

545 6.79

3.69

.361

.415

.038

.120

—20.4

tl'>d

"Sparkling cider," bot- 4927

7

1.0306

3.63 454

5.92

.113

—

.506

—

(2)

—33.8

tied

Average ... —

-

1.0154

5.17

6.45

3.88

.402

-

.377

.Oi4

-

-

"Sweet" or incompletely

fermented ciders.

Draft cider . . . 4829 1

1.0537

! 0.65 O.S1

9.34

.565

-

.315

.069

—

—41.6

"Sweet" cider . . 4S31 2

1.0516

0.61 0 77

9.59

.302

.270

.063 —

— 3i.2

I

"Sweet" cider (draft) .4837 3

1.0567

0.20' 0 25

9.53J .375

— .283

.075

—

— 18.4

Do 4838 4
Do 4839| 5

1.0203
1.0552

343 4.33 3.84
0.55! 0.67 9.75

.302
.409

—

.374
.336

014
.031

—

—24.2
— 4S.5

Do i 4841

6 1.0355

! 2.96| 3.71

1

6.98

.478

-'

.348

.069 —

—39.1

Average ... —

-

1.0455

1.40 1.76 8.17

.405

-

.321

.059 —

1

-

1 A circumstance arising after the samples had been thrown away seemed to throw con-
siderable doubt upon the determinations of sugar, which were made by an assistant, and
the entire set had to be thrown out.

2 Determinations of the carbonic acid in three different bottles gave the following
results: .728, .634, .482.

The choice of the varieties of apples is of great importance in
the manufacture of cider. All apple juice will not make equally
good cider, even if it is equally well handled. It is not always
the best flavored apple or the best tasting juice that will make
the best cider. Indeed, as a rule, the best cider is made from
apples which are inferior for table use, such as the crab-apple
and the russet. But it is a pretty general rule that the most as-
tringent apple will make the best cider. This astringeucy is due
to an excess of tannin. While a portion of this tannin is changed

CIDER FROM APPLES AND PEARS. 333

to sweetness a considerable portion remains, which serves to render
the cider more easily and thoroughly clarified and to make it keep
better. The tongue alone being, however, not sufficient to detect
the tannin in apples, the following will serve as a reliable test :
Express the juice of a few apples and add a few drops of isinglass,
which combines with the tannin and forms a precipitate. From
the greater or smaller quantity of this precipitate a conclusion
can be drawn as to the quantity of tannin present. The specific
gravity of the juice, which may vary between 1.05 and 1.08,
should be determined. The greater the specific gravity of the
juice the better the respective variety of apple is for the fabri-
cation of cider. According to these directions, the raw material
should be selected, though in most cases it will be necessary to
use a mixture of different varieties. In France, for a quality of
cider wrhich will keep well, the apples are mixed in the following
proportions : f bitter-sweet and J sweet apples. If a sweet cider
is wanted not intended to be kept for a long while, J bitter-sweet
and f sweet apples are used.

The most noted varieties of apples said to possess peculiar and
natural properties for the manufacture of refined cider or apple-
wine are the " Harrison" and " Canfield" of New Jersey, from
which the celebrated New Jersey cider is almost exclusively
manufactured. Of the Harrison 600 Ibs. suffice for the manu-
facture of 30 gallons of cider. Another variety is the " Hagloe
crab,'7 which is also excellent for cooking. Other varieties re-
commended by P. Barry* are the Dartmouth, Hyslop, and
Hewe's Virginia crab. The Siberian crab (Pyrus baccate.) is
also highly recommended for the fabrication of cider as well as
for jelly.

The following is a select list of apples recommended by P.
Barry for cultivation in the Eastern and Middle States.f

Summer. — Early Harvest, Early Strawberry, Golden Sweet,
Large yellow Bough, Primate, Red Astrachan, Williams's Favo-
rite.

* Barry's Fruit Garden, New York, 1883.

t The name given to each fruit is the recognized name of the American
Pomological Society as far as recorded in their catalogue.

334 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

Autumn. — Chenango Strawberry, Duchess of Oldenburgh, Fall
Pippin, Gravenstein, Hawthoruden, Jefferis, Jersey Sweet, Kes-
wick Cadlin, Lowell, Lyman's Pumpkin Sweet, Porter, St. Law-
rence, Stump.

Winter. — Baldwin, Esopus, Spitzenburgh, Fameuse, Golden
Russet of Western New York, Hubbardston, Nonsuch, Jonathan,
King of Tompkins County, Lady Apple, Monmouth Pippin,
Mother, Northern Spy, Peck's Pleasant, Pomme Grise, Red
Canada, Rhode Island Greening, Roxbury Russet, Sutton Beauty,
Talman's Sweet, Twenty-ounce, Wagener, Yellow Bellflower.

For the West and South. — Nearly all the summer and fall
varieties succeed well at the West and South. In California and
Oregon our best northern sorts generally succeed, but the winter
varieties of the South will be better adapted to the warmer dis-
tricts of California than our Northern winter sorts.

The apples intended for the preparation of cider should be
allowed to attain complete maturity, which is recognized by their
color, the dark hue of the pips, little specks covering the skin,
and by the sharp and agreeable ethereal odor emanating from
them. In fact they should be allowed to remain on the trees as
long as vegetation is active or until frosts are apprehended, for
thus the conversion of the starch into sugar is best effected and
their keeping better secured than by storing. They should be
gathered by the hand to prevent bruising and coming in contact
with dirt. They are then placed in piles and allowed to sweat.
This sweating process has a tendency to ripen the fruit and make
it uniform, thereby improving the flavor as well as the quality
and strength of the cider in consequence of the apples having
parted with six or eight per cent, of wrater. The strongest cider
is made from apples containing the smallest percentage of juice,
and, in its aqueous solution, the largest proportion of saccharine
matter. If the weather be fine, the piles may be exposed in the
open air upon clean sod or where this is wanting upon boards or
linen cloths, but under no circumstances should the apples be
placed upon the bare ground or upon straw, as they contract an
earthy or musty taste which is afterwards found in the cider.

After sweating and before being ground the apples should be
wiped with a cloth to free them from exudations and adhering

CIDER FROM APPLES AND PEARS. 335

particles of dirt, and if any are found bruised or rotten they
should be thrown out. Ripe, sound fruit is the only basis for a
good article of cider, and the practice of mixing rotten apples
with the sound, as is frequently done and even advocated by
some, cannot be too strongly condemned. Mellow or decaying
apples have lost almost all their perfume, a certain quantity of
water by evaporation, and a large portion of their sugar. Rotten
apples yield a watery liquid of an abominable taste, which pre-
vents the cider from clarifying and accelerates its acetification.

The apples being wiped, sorted, and, if necessary, mixed in the
desired proportions, are now brought into the grinder and reduced
to an impalpable pulp. By this operation the numerous infini-
tesimal cells of the apple should be thoroughly broken up so as
to permit the free escape of the juice when under pressure, and
the machine which accomplishes this most effectually is the best
for the purpose. If the cells are not thoroughly torn asunder,
their tendency is to restrain and hold, as it were, in a sack much
that otherwise would escape. As regards the crushing of the
seeds there is a diversity of opinion, some holding that they
communicate to the cider a disagreeable bitterness and acidity,
while others consider them as rendering the cider more alcoholic
and making it keep better.

According to M. Bergot, for cider of superior quality it is pre-
ferable not to crush the seeds, because the diffused odor of the
essential oil would undoubtedly injure the fine taste of certain
notable products. For ordinary cider the crushing of the seeds
will, on the other hand, be of advantage, because their essential
oil helps to give to the cider the bouquet which it otherwise
lacks. For cider intended to be converted into brandy the seeds
must, however, be crushed. The grinder should be cleansed with
hot water every evening or at least every third day.

The treatment to which the pulp obtained by grinding is sub-
jected varies according to the color the cider is to have. Where
the consumer prefers a pale-yellow color the pulp must at once
be pressed, while for a darker color it is allowed to stand 1 2 to
18 hours.

The next step in the operation is pressing. The various kinds
of presses, racks, and manner of laying up the cheese have

336 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

already been described. The primitive custom of laying the
cheese was to lay upon the platform of the press a quantity of
straw, upon which a quantity of pomace was placed, and the
edges secured by laps of straw, thus alternating straw and
pomace until the pile was complete. The object of using the
straw was to hold the mass together while it was being submitted
to pressure, and also to serve as a means of exit for the cider.
An improvement was in the substitution of hair-cloths, and
within the past few years the adoption of the cotton press-cloth
and racks to hold the pomace in laying up the cheese for the
press. The racks have already been described ; the press-cloth is
woven from yarn made expressly for the purpose and is of equal
strength in warp and filling. The G. H. Bushnell Company, of
Thompson ville, Connecticut, furnishes several grades of cotton
press-cloth, medium, heavy, and extra heavy. The use of straw
in laying up the cheese should be entirely discarded, as the
slightest mustiness imparts an unpleasant odor to the cider.

The pressure applied to the cheese should be slow at starting
and then gradually increased until finally the full force is applied.
The juice as it comes from the press runs through a fine hair-sieve
into a receiver. With a good press about 65 to 75 per cent, of
the juice will be obtained.

After the cider has been extracted and the cheese removed from
the press the pomace may be utilized for the manufacture of vine-
gar, as described on p. 168. In France it is, however, used for
the manufacture of the small cider. The method is as follows : —
After the extraction of the pure cider by the first pressing, the
pomace is taken from the press, and after adding 15 liters of
water for every hectoliter of apples used, the mass is allowed to
macerate 15 to 20 hours, care being had to stir every two or
three hours. Then this pulp is put a second time under pressure
and a quantity of juice extracted equivalent to the amount of
water added.

Extraction of the juice by diffusion. — Diffusion, which gives such
excellent results in the extraction of sugar-beets, has also been
applied to extract the soluble constituents of the apple, but in
Huch a primitive manner that the juice thus obtained produces

CIDER FROM APPLES AND PEARS.

337

after fermentation a beverage very deficient in alcohol and diffi-
cult to keep.

M. Jules Nanot, of Paris, France, proposes the following im-
proved method : —

Suppose we take 150 kilogrammes of apples reduced to pulp,
divide them in 3 lots of 50 kilogrammes each and put each lot
in a vat or tub. These tubs are then placed on steps one above
the other as shown in Fig. 74. They communicate with each
other by means of spigots provided in the interior with small
convex screens. Care must be had to keep the tubs covered not

Fig. 74.

Nol

only to prevent the pulp from floating but also to prevent oxida-
tion, as otherwise, on account of the mass remaining exposed to
the air for a long time (3 times 24 hours), would yield cider
which afterwards would turn black.

First manipulation. — Pour 50 liters of water into tub No. 1,
and macerate 24 hours.

Second manipulation. — Draw off the liquid in No. 1, by opening
the spigot into No. 2, and pour again 50 liters of water into
No. 1, and macerate for 24 hours.

Third manipulation. — Draw off the liquid from No. 2 into No.
3 and the liquid from No. 1 into No. 2. Pour 50 liters of water
into No. 1 and macerate for 24 hours.

Fourth manipulation. — Draw off the liquid from No. 3. Then
draw off the liquid from No. 2 into No. 3, and from No. 1 into
No. 2. Now remove No. 1 and replace its exhausted pulp with
22

338 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

freshly ground apples ; then instead of putting it in the highest
place, place it at the bottom and shift Xos. 2 and 3 one step
higher up, so that No. 2 becomes 1, Xo. 3, 2, and Xo. 1, 3. Then
draw off the liquid in Xo. 2 into Xo. 3 and that of Xo. 1 into
Xo. 2.

Xow pour 50 liters of water into the upper tub X"o. 1 and repeat
this every 24 hours. The liquid which is drawn off every 24
hours from the lowest tub is poured into the barrel in which it is
to ferment.

At first this fourth manipulation seems complicated, but after
having done it once there will be found no difficulty in its
execution. What seems to complicate it somewhat is the indis-
pensable placing of the tub with the freshly crushed apples on
the base of the steps in order to have the richest juice discharged
into it. To briefly recapitulate : the most exhausted apples are
always placed at the top of the steps and the less dense liquid
added to them and the freshest apples on the bottom to receive
the richest juices.

By this disposition the apples are thoroughly exhausted, and
after having passed through the operation the liquid obtained
will show an alcoholic strength equal to f of the alcohol contained
in the pure juice, and is at all events greatly superior to the juice
obtained by the old methods of diffusion.

The use of this method Avould be suitable for persons having
no cider press and only a small quantity of apples to manipulate-

The quantity of cider is nearly equal to that obtained by three
pressures and the juice obtained by diffusion is almost as rich as
jthe juice yielded by the press.

After one or two manipulations it is quite easy to operate sue-
eessfnlly without weighing the apples and also the water to be
used. It is sufficient for that purpose to mark on the inner side
of the tub the height to which a certain quantity of crushed
apples come, and measure the water in the same manner. In
•order to pass the liquid into the next lower tub and draw it off
finally from the last tub, it is sufficient to open the spigots and
allow the liquid to run off naturally. The quantity of liquid
thus drawn off is less by about T\ the amount poured in at the

CIDER FROM APPLES AXD PEARS. 339

commencement of the operation. It is impossible to extract all as
that would require the use of a press.

Unfortunately this process of diffusion is very slow on account
of the necessarily small size of the tubs, and their capacity can
scarcely be increased as in that case two men would have consid-
erable difficulty in raising them from one step to the other.

In order to accelerate this method and apply it to the produc-
tion of large quantities of cider large tubs would be required, and
instead of disposing them on steps they would have to be placed
on the floor of the room and the passage of the liquids from one
tub to the other be effected by a system of pumps. The number
of tubs might then be increased to five or six ; and by the appli-
cation of heat a more complete exhaustion of the apples could be
reached.

Recent successful experiments in expressing the juice of the
grape by means of the centrifugal would indicate that the same
method might also be applied to apples.

The juice of the apples obtained by either of the preceding
methods is now tested with the must areometer as to its saccharine
content. If it is too low it will be useless to try to make cider
of it unless that quality is strengthened. Generally good juice
will range from 10 to 14 per cent. If it is any less than 10 per
cent, it will not make a cider which will keep, though, if the
flavor in other respects is all right, a very light cider for immedi-
ate use may be produced from it.

The juice having been tested and, if found wanting in saccharine
strength, corrected by the method given on p. 326, the next step in
the operation is fermentation. For this purpose the juice is brought
into clean, sound barrels or into large vats. After a few hours
an active fermentation will commence, which is usually permitted
to continue, with the bung loose, until the hissing sound, so readily
discernible when carbonic acid gas is escaping, shall cease. The
cider is then drawn off into clean barrels, separating it from the
sediment. The barrels are placed in a cellar or a cool room
having a uniform temperature, one of 57° to 64° F. being most
suitable. Abrupt variations in temperature should be carefully
avoided and provided against. The barrels must be carefully
watched, and as soon as white bubbles are perceived rising at the

340 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

bung-hole, the cider is again racked off into other barrels whereby
fermentation is, of coarse, interrupted. The distinguishing char-
acteristic between the fermentation of wine and cider may here be
referred to. Wine is allowed to completely ferment without
interruption, but the fermentation of cider must be checked at a
certain time as otherwise acetic acid commences to form, the pro-
gressive development of which would in a year render the cider
unfit to drink. For the preparation of cider on a large scale
skill in handling the must areometer is absolutely necessary, and
care should be had not to allow the entire content of sugar to be
converted into alcohol. Generally speaking cider must be racked
three times, but each time only when the previously mentioned
white bubbles appear at the bung-hole. Where the barrels can
be placed in a cellar having a temperature of 32° F., or not much
above it, fermentation can be readily checked. Such cellars
being, however, rare, recourse must be had to artificial means to
effectually prevent any further fermentation. Various methods
have been practised with a view to accomplish that object, one of
which was to thrust a lighted sulphur match into the bung-hole
of the barrel. This method is, however, but little used at the
present time. Another plan which can be recommended is to
submerge in the barrel ground brown mustard-seed tied in a bag.
But the most effectual method, and which is generally used by
professional cider makers, is to add from J to J oz. of sulphite of
lime to each gallon of cider in the barrel, first mixing the powder
in about a quart of the cider, then pouring it back into the barrel
and giving it a thorough shaking or rolling. The sulphite of
lime must be used, and not the sulphate. It will preserve the
sweetness of cider for many years, but care must be had not to
use too much, as otherwise it will impart a taste of sulphur to the
cider.

For the preparation of very fine cider throw J Ib. of white
sugar into the barrel and suspend a bag of raisins in it by
squeezing one corner between the bung and bung-hole.

The oiling process is another method of checking fermenta-
tion. It consists in pouring into the bung-hole of a barrel about
half a pint of sweet oil. The oil should be warm when poured
in to enable it to spread in a thin coat over the surface and keep

CIDER FROM APPLES AND PEARS. 341

spreading as the cider is drawn down, thereby preventing the air
from coming in contact with the surface of the cider and con-
verting it into acetic acid.

We will here call attention to salicylic acid, which as an agent
for checking fermentation might be even more effective than sul-
phite of lime or powdered mustard-seed. The " salicylic acid
question," as it is called, has received a great deal of attention
for several years in Europe, and much has been written pro and
con on the question of the propriety of its use as a preserving
agent in articles of food and drink. In France its use as a pre-
servative in any form of food or drink was forbidden by minis-
terial decree on the 7th of February, 1881. This decree was
based upon the decision of the consulting committee of hygiene
that its constant use was dangerous to health.

In Germany its use is prohibited except in beers intended for
export to other countries where its use is allowed.

Its prohibition in France called forth a great deal of opposition,
and experiments were made and published indicating that its con-
stant use in small doses exerted no injurious influence upon the sys-
tem. In this country but little attention seems to have been given
to the use of salicylic acid as a preservative, and, as far as we know,
no experiments have been made with it in checking fermentation
in cider. Whether its use for many years and without regard to
age, sex, or personal idiosyncrasy is harmless or not, is at least
still an open question. Moreover, the quantity used is so ex-
ceedingly small that its injurious effect upon the health of
moderate drinkers of beer, wine or cider would seem rather
doubtful. For wine the limits of its addition lie between 0.02
and 0.1 gramme per liter. For use dissolve the salicylic acid to
a concentrated solution best in pure spirits of wine free from fusel
oil or in the wine itself and add the determined quantity. To
find the latter dissolve 5 grammes of crystallized salicylic acid in
100 cubic centimetres of spirits of wine or of wine and add a
series of quantities of this solution, commencing with 1 cubic
centimetre and gradually increasing to 2 cubic centimetres, to the
wine. These quantities represent 0.5 to 0.1 gramme of salicylic
acid per liter. A larger content of sugar in proportion to the
content of alcohol requires somewhat more salicylic acid.

342 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

The cider being protected from further fermentation by either
one of the above-mentioned methods is allowed to lay undisturbed
until April, when it can be bottled or for quick consumption
tapped from the barrel. But before being offered for sale it has
to be clarified like other wine. According to the old method
this was done with isinglass, 30 grammes of which were allowed
for each barrel. This quantity was dissolved in J liter of cider
over a moderate fire and the solution when cold poured with con-
stant agitation into the barrel. Drawing off can be commenced
after eight days.

A better mode of clarification, Avhich at the same time increases
the purity of the taste of the cider, is as follows : For each barrel
of 30 gallons take 4 Ibs. of fresh wheat bran, and after washing
it twice in hot water to remove all soluble substances, press out
thoroughly. Now dissolve about 2 drachms of alum in a bucket-
ful of hot water and pour the solution upon the bran. After 6
to 8 hours take the latter from the alum water and press as be-
fore. The bran is best used before the cider is racked off for the
third and last time. Stir it into the cider and then draw off the
latter through a fine strainer into the actual storage barrel. The
cider first passing through the strainer is generally somewhat
turbid, and must be poured back until it runs off clear.

In France the cider is generally clarified by dissolving 60
grammes of catechu in 1 liter of cider and adding the solution to
1 hectoliter of cider, with constant stirring. The tannin thus
added precipitates the albuminous matters, the result being a
clear cider which will not blacken in the air.

Cider intended for export must be made somewhat richer in
alcohol, which is generally done by adding sufficient French
brandy to increase its content of alcohol 2 per cent. Sometimes,
also, i Ib. of sugar for every 2 quarts of juice is added during
fermentation. For shipping to tropical countries experiments
might be made with salicylic acid, adding it in the same propor-
tion as to beer, which is for beer sent in barrels 20 grammes per
hectoliter, and for bottled beer 15 grammes.

There are several methods of improving the taste of cider, but
they are rather questionable, because tastes differ, and what
might be considered an improvement by one would be declared

CIDER FROM APPLES AND PEARS. 343

a defect by another. , A favorite means of improvement is as'
follows : For 45 gallons of cider measure oif 3 quarts of French
brandy and mix it with the following substances, all finely pow-
dered : 0.7 drachm of bitter almonds, 0.7 drachm of mace, and
7J drachms of mustard-seed, and finally 3J drachms of catechu,
previously dissolved in water. Pour this mixture into the cider
and shake the barrel frequently during the next 14 days. Then
allow it to rest three or four months, and should it then not run
oif clear, when tapped, clarify it with 1J oz. of isinglass or the
whites of a dozen eggs. If the color of the cider is to remain
pale yellow, catechu cannot be used, and instead of isinglass or
white of egg, skimmed milk is to be used for clarification. For
a reddish color which is sometimes desired use If drachms of
powdered cochineal in place of the catechu.

Sometimes cider is prepared in the same manner as other -fruit-
wines. In this case J Ib. of sugar is added to every liter of juice,
and the latter is allowed to completely ferment in the same man-
ner as grape-wine. According to another direction, add to every
2 quarts of juice 2 Ibs. of white sugar and boil as long as scum
is formed; then strain through a fine hair-sieve and allow to cool.
Now add a small quantity of yeast, stir thoroughly, let the whole
ferment three weeks, and after clarifying rack oif into bottles.

Red apple-wine, or, as it is frequently called, red wine from
cider, is prepared as follows : Boil for 2 hours 50 quarts of apple
juice, 27 Ibs. of honey, 1 oz. of tartar, 6 Ibs. of comminuted red
beets, and 3 Ibs. of brown sugar. Let the fluid completely fer-
ment, and if no apple juice is on hand to fill up the barrel during
this process use solution of sugar. When fermentation is fin-
ished pour a mixture of 1 quart of French brandy and about 1
drachm each of pulverized cinnamon and ginger into the barrel.
After three months clarify the wine and rack oif.

Sweet dder can be prepared in the following simple manner :
Boil the juice as soon as it comes from the press for two hours,
removing the scum which arises. Then pour the hot fluid into
bottles previously placed in warm water, cork and seal with a
mixture of resin and tallow, in the proportion of 1 Ib. to 4
drachms, kept in a fluid state. After sealing hold the neck of

344 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

the bottle in cold water for one minute. Thus treated the sweet
cider will keep seven or eight months.

In his treatise on Cider, Dr. Denis-Dumont gives the following
directions for bottling cider. The cider is to be bottled at three
distinct periods. It should never be bottled before the tumul-
tuous stage of fermentation is entirely completed and the liquid
clarified.

First period. — At the termination of the tumultuous fermenta-
tion the cider still contains considerable sugar; fermentation con-
tinues in the bottle and produces in a few weeks a large quantity
of carbonic acid. In order to prevent the bottles from being
broken by the pressure, champagne bottles should be selected
and care taken to have them stand upright until about the
month of July, i. <?., until the development is considerably re-
duced. The bottles are then laid on their side, as otherwise the
cider would cease to be sparkling. This cider has to be kept for
a number of years, it being good to drink only when old.

Second period, when fermentation is more advanced, about six
weeks or two months after the first period. Mineral water
bottles are strong enough to hold this cider, it liberating less car-
bonic acid than the preceding. The bottles are left in an upright
position for a few weeks only.

This cider has a good flavor and is fit to drink much sooner
than the preceding. It keeps for a long time.

Third period, when fermentation is complete or almost so, any
quality of bottles may be used, a great deal less of carbonic acid
being developed than in the preceding cases. The bottles should
be laid down immediately after filling, in order to retain the car-
bonic acid which will still be developed.

This cider is not sparkling ; it is, however, lively, strong, and
lias a fine flavor.

The bottles should in every instance be well corked and the
corks,^for the sake of safety, tied. The cider is very good when
kept in small bottles, better in quart bottles, and best in jars
holding two quarts. A few moments before opening a bottle of
sparkling cider it is advisable to provide a minute opening for
the escape of the gas by piercing the cork with a fine punch. As
soon as the tension of the gas has become sufficiently weak the

CIDER FROM APPLES AND PEARS. 345

cork is allowed to blow out in the same manner as with cham-
pagne. Without this precaution most of the cider might be
thrown up to the ceiling.

In the Island of Jersey, where the manufacture of cider is car-
ried on in a very rational manner, the juice as it comes from the
press is allowed to ferment in large open vats placed in a cellar
having a uniform temperature of from 53° to 59° F. On ac-
count of the large surface presented to the air tumultuous fer-
mentation soon sets in and in about four or five days, or at the
utmost a week, fermentation is over. The liquid is then drawn
off in barrels, thoroughly cleansed and sulphured, in which fer-
mentation continues slowly. These barrels are not entirely
filled, and when the development of carbonic gas has proceeded
so far that the flame of a lighted candle introduced by the bung-
hole is extinguished, the liquid is drawn off into other barrels
sulphured like the first. This transfer from one set of barrels to
another is continued until no escape of gas is perceptible, i. e.,
until fermentation is quite complete.

Prepared in this manner the cider will keep perfectly good for
several years, and stand transportation by sea without any diffi-
culty.

Devonshire-cider is made from a mixture of one-third of bitter-
sweet apples with a mild sour. These being gathered when thor-
oughly ripe are allowed to undergo the sweating process before
grinding ; the cider is then pressed in the usual manner and strained
through a hair-sieve into hogsheads, where it remains for two or
three days previous to fermenting. It is then drawn off into clean
casks to stop the fermentation, but if this is very strong only two or
three gallons are first put in, and, after burning cotton or linen rags
saturated with sulphur in the cask, thoroughly agitated. This com-
pletely stops fermentation in that quantity and usually checks it in
the other portion with which the cask is then filled up. In a few
weeks the cider becomes very fine. If this be not satisfactorily
accomplished by the first operation it is repeated until fermenta-
tion is completely checked and the cider is in a quiet state and in
a proper condition for drinking and bottling.

Heating of cider. — G. Lechartier has made numerous experi-
ments to preserve cider by heating in bottles or in barrels holding
from 25 to 230 quarts. The experiments showed that a tempera-

346 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

ttire of 140° F. suffices to suppress every kind of fermentation in
cider which contained only 3 to 6 per cent, of alcohol. But in all
cases the cider thus treated acquired a peculiar taste calling to mind
that of dried fruit. The following experiments show how this evil
can be removed : On April 16, 1888, barrels holding from 25 to 50
quarts were filled with cider previously heated to from 140° to
149° F. ; on June 14, of the same year, the peculiar taste, re-
ferred to above, was noticed, though no change in the composi-
tion by alcoholic or acetous fermentation had taken place. To
the content of every barrel was now added a bottle of the same
cider not previously heated, whereupon regular alcoholic fermen-
tation set in anew. On July 9, of the same year, the cider had
lost the taste of dried fruit and re-acquired its original taste. On
July 11, of the same year, it was drawn off into bottles, was spark-
ling in September, and retained its normal taste. The process hav-
ing been tested by experts, the Congress of the "Association pomolo-
gique de 1'Ouest," held at Havre, expressed a favorable opinion of
it and declared the problem of keeping cider sweet as solved.

Freezing of cider. — G. Lech artier also made experiments in
this direction, his object being to answer the following questions:

1. Are the aroma, taste, and clearness of cider changed by cold?

2. Of what nature are the products obtained by freezing, and
does the latter take place without sensible loss of substance? 3.
Are the ferments killed by sufficiently long cooling, and is cider
thus treated protected from external influences?

For all the experiments the cider was subjected to a tempera-
ture of from — 0.4° to — 4° F. A portion of the fluid congeals,
and the temperature rises to from 26.6° to 24.8° F. As soon as
a sufficient quantity has become solid the fluid portion is poured
off, which has a higher specific gravity than the original cider.
The ice crystals melt to a nearly colorless fluid, which has a
specific gravity of 1 and contains only 0.3 per cent, of alcohol.
From ciders with 4 to 5 per cent, of alcohol were obtained by
freezing concentrated ciders with 7 to 8 per cent, of alcohol, and
60 to 80 grammes of dry extract per liter, which corresponds
with the composition of the richest Normandy cider. These
ciders, after remaining for several months in bottles, differed but
little as regards color, content, and taste from the best products

CIDER FROM APPLES AND PEARS. 347

of Normandy as certified to by the Congresses of the "Associa-
tion pomologique de 1'Ouest," held in Versailles and Havre.
The results thus obtained are entirely different from those by an
addition of sugar to the must. While the addition of sugar only
increases the content of alcohol, by freezing all the constituents
derived from the apple are concentrated, and the same time also
the taste and aroma. For this reason, ciders having a slight
by-taste cannot be improved by freezing. The value of light
ciders of a pure and agreeable taste is, however, greatly enhanced
by the treatment. As regards the third question, G. Lechartier
arrives at the conclusion that must and cider in various stages of
fermentation are not sterilized even by cooling for 212 hours,
the process of fermentation only being retarded during the time of
cooling.

Champagne-cider. — The manufacture of this beverage has
recently become quite important — it resembling the ordinary but
more expensive champagne-wine, and being frequently sold as
such. Since the devastation of the vineyards by the phylloxera,
a large trade in this spurious champagne-wine is carried on in
France. Champagne-cider, manufactured in New Jersey, is
exported to France, where it is repacked and provided with
genuine champagne labels. It is then re-shipped to New York
as genuine champagne. This champagne-cider if sold under its
right name is an excellent beverage. It is prepared as follows:
To 50 gallons of apple-juice add 12 quarts of brandy and 14
Ibs. of sugar or honey. Mix the whole thoroughly, and allow
it to ferment for one month in a cool place. Then add about 4
drachms of orange-blossom water, and clarify with 2 quarts of
skimmed milk. The champagne is now ready and is racked off
into bottles, into which a small piece of white sugar is thrown,
and the corks of which are wired. The duration of fermentation
has been stated as one month ; it may, however, last a few days
more or less, it being entirely a matter of observation when the
most suitable time for racking off has arrived. No more rising
of bubbles of gas should be observed, but fermentation must not
be completely finished.

According to another direction, 40 quarts of fermented apple-
juice are mixed with 2 quarts of solution of sugar, J quart of

348 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

rectified alcohol, and 2 ounces and 4 drachms of pulverized
tartar. The mixture is allowed to stand 24 hours and then
racked off into bottles, each bottle receiving a drachm of bicar-
bonate of soda. Cork and wire.

Another process consists in bringing into a vat of 40 quarts
of apple-juice, 5 pounds of white sugar, J pound of tartar, 1
pint of rectified alcohol, J pint of yeast, and 1 ounce, 2J drachms
of 'acetic ether. The mixture shortly before fermentation is
finished is drawn off into bottles, each of which has been pre-
viously provided with a small piece of sugar. Clarification with
isinglass, white of egg, or skimmed milk must, of course, precede
the drawing off into bottles. The bottles must be thoroughly
corked and wired in the same manner as genuine champagne,
and laid in a cool cellar.

Cider serves frequently as a basis for artificial wines, genuine
Burgundy, sherry, or port- wine, prepared from cider mixed with
suitable substances, being frequently served even in first-class
hotels. Nothing could be said against these beverages if they
were sold under their proper names, because they consist of harm-
less substances, which cannot always be said of the genuine wines,
they being only too frequently adulterated with substances injuri-
ous to health.

Burgundy. — Bring into a barrel 40 quarts of apple-juice, 5
pounds of bruised raisins, \ pound of tartar, 1 quart of bilberry
juice, and 3 pounds of sugar. Allow the whole to ferment, fill-
ing constantly up with cider. Then clarify with isinglass, add
about 1 ounce of essence of bitter almonds, and after a few weeks
draw off into bottles.

Malaga-wine. — Apple-juice, 40 quarts; crushed raisins, 10
pounds; rectified alcohol, 2 quarts; sugar solution, 2 quarts;
elderberry flowers, 1 quart; acetic ether, 1 ounce, 2 drachms.
The desired coloration is effected by the addition of bilberry or
elderberry -juice; otherwise, the process is the same as given for
Burgundy.

Sherry-mne. — Apple-juice, 50 quarts; orange flower water,
about 2 drachms; tartar, 2 ounces, 4 drachms; rectified alcohol,
3 quarts; crushed raisins, 10 pounds; acetic ether, 1 ounce, 2
drachms. The process is the same as for Burgundy.

CIDER FROM APPLES AND PEARS. 349

Claret-wine. — Apple-juice, 50 quarts ; rectified alcohol, 4 quarts ;
black currant-juice, 2 quarts ; tartar, 2 ounces, 4 drachms. Color
with bilberry-juice. The further process is the same as for
Burgundy.

Diseases of cider. — Ciders are subject to diseases which may be
due to the bad quality of the apples used, a faulty method of
fabrication, or bad management in the cellar.

Badly fermented cider, especially such as has merely passed
through the stage of tumultuous fermentation, or has been acidi-
fied by contact with the air, is liable to produce serious disorders.
The first, says Dr. E. Decaisne, being heavy and indigestible,
inflates the intestines and produces diarrhoea ; the second, though
of a sweet taste and a piquant and agreeable flavor, does not
quench the thirst, but excites the nervous system and produces
flatulency ; the third, which is really spoiled cider, causes inflam-
mation of the intestines by the large amount of malic and acetic
acids it contains. When in the fabrication of cider, water con-
taining organic matter has been used, putrid fermentation is
produced in the mass, the products of which impart some very
deleterious properties to the cider.

Acidity in cider may be due either to an excess of malic acid
or of acetic acid.

Some ciders contain too much malic acid when manufactured
from apples not sufficiently ripe, or when, in mixing the apples,
too large a proportion of sour apples has been taken. In both
these cases the acidity may be neutralized by adding to the apple-
juice 3 ounces, 8 drachms of potassium tartrate per 22 gallons.
Sometimes there is an excess of acetic acid, due to the oxidation
of the alcohol by long contact with the air. This defect is diffi-
cult to remedy; it might have been prevented by means of a thin
coat of olive oil, as previously mentioned, or by hermetically
closing the bungs. The acidity will, however, disappear by
putting in the bottles a pinch of bicarbonate of soda. It must,
however, be done immediately on detecting the defect.

Viscosity or greasy appearance of cider is recognized by the
cider becoming stringy, viscous, and greasy, and is due to too
great an abundance of gummy substances in the fruit, a lack of
tannin, and, finally, to defective fermentation. In order to check

350 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

this malady from its first appearance, add to every 228 quarts 1
pint of alcohol or 2 grammes of catechu dissolved in 3 quarts
of water. Cider may also be prevented from turning viscous by
the addition of sugar to the juice when it comes from the press,
which promotes fermentation.

The cause of cider turning black is an excess of oxide of iron
which, on coming in contact with air, becomes a peroxide and
gives the beverage a brown color. The oxide of iron has been
introduced into the cider either by the water used in its fabrica-
tion, or by fruit grown on ferruginous soil. By mixing such
cider with 12 drachms of powdered oak-bark per 22 gallons, a
quantity of tannin is introduced which combines with the iron
salt to an insoluble product that settles on the bottom of the
barrel. Tartaric acid may also be used.

Turbidity or lack of clarification of cider is caused by too small
a quantity of sugar in the juice, or by imperfect fermentation.

In rainy seasons the apples ripen imperfectly and contain but
little sugar. Cider prepared from such fruit generally remains
turbid. During seasons in which abrupt changes of temperature
take place, and also when cold weather sets in very early, fer-
mentation does not progress well, and clarification is imperfect.
When the cider remains turbid after the first racking off, add a
solution of 2 pounds of sugar in 1 gallon of water to every 132
gallons of the liquid ; this sugar becomes converted into alcohol
and renders the cider limpid. The use of lead salt, formerly much
employed in Normandy, is very dangerous; persons drinking the
cider thus adulterated feel sharp pains in the abdominal region,
which present all the symptoms of lead colic, and may prove fatal.

An admixture of lead salt is readily recognized. Add to the
cider a solution of potassium iodide, if lead salt be present a yel-
low precipitate of iodide of lead will be formed.

Adulteration of cider.— Cider is but little subject to adultera-
tion according to most of the authorities on food. Even Hassall,
who generally enumerates under each article of food a list of
every conceivable adulteration that has ever been found or sup-
posed to have been used in such food, only speaks of the addition
of water, of burnt sugar as a coloring matter, and of the use of
antacids for the correction of the acidity of spoiled cider. On the

CIDER FROM APPLES AND PEARS. 351

other hand, in France, where, as previously mentioned, the con-
sumption of cider is very large, its adulteration is by no means
uncommon. Dr. Bremont, in his address at the inauguration
banquet of the cider exhibition, at Paris, in 1888 said : " People
in Paris who have never travelled do not know what good cider
is. The stuff sold as such at the bars and wine-shops here is
simply abominable. A few years ago, it is true, it was possible
•to obtain good cider in Paris, because the demand for it was very
small. Since, however, the wine sold became, in consequence of
the phylloxera and the greed of the wine dealers, both very dear
and very bad, the poorer classes took to drinking cider instead of
wine, because it was much cheaper and, at that time, pure. The
demand set the adulterators at work and increased the price of
the drink. Cider now costs 12 cents a quart in every wine-shop,
and in one case out of twenty it is pure and unadulterated. In
most cases it is a filthy effusion of water poured on apples, sweet-
ened with glucose and strengthened with vile alcohol."

The above statement is fully confirmed by the report of the
Paris municipal laboratory. Besides the washings of the dregs
or residue, and watering, which is almost generally practised, some
coloring matters are added ; salicylic acid and sulphites are also
used to insure its keeping while in course of transportation, and
an excess of acidity is covered by means of lime or of carbonate
of soda. Brandies of inferior quality are added in order to cor-
rect the flavor, and, as already stated, \vhite lead has been used
to overcome an excess of acidity. Finally a frequent falsification
is the fabrication of cider from apples crushed and dried by heat
and starch-syrup. Of 63 samples examined in 1881, in the
municipal laboratory, 39 were pronounced " bad," among which
were 26 artificially colored; in 1882, 59 samples were examined
of which 30 were declared "bad," of which 7 samples were arti-
ficially colored ; 2 samples contained salicylic acid. The follow-
ing is considered in the municipal laboratory as a minimum limit
for the composition of a pure cider and any sample which falls
below it in any constituent is considered as watered : —

Alcohol, per cent, by volume ..... 3.00
Extracts, in grammes per liter .... 18.00

Ash . .1.7

352 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

This is for 11 completely fermented cider ; in sweet eiders the
content of sugar should exceed the limit sufficiently to make up
for the deficiency of alcohol, to which it should be calculated.

Tn the samples of American ciders investigated by the United
States Agricultural Department (sec p. W2) it was fully expected
to find a considerable number preserved with antiseptics. This
supposition failed to be confirmed, however, for no salicylic acid
was found, and in but one case was any test obtained for sul-
phites. None of the samples fell below the standard proposed
by the French chemists, given above, and no metallic or other
adulteration was discovered.

There was, however, a single exception, No. 4927 in the table
of analyses (p. :i°>2), which was an embodiment in itself of nearly
all the adulterations which have been enumerated as possible in
cider. It was handsomely put up in neatly capped bottles, and
was of a clear, bright color. Its tremendous "head" of gas when
uncorked gave rise at once to the suspicion that it had received
some addition to produce an artificial pressure of gas. The low
content of free acid, together with the large amount of ash and a
very variable content of carbonic acid in different bottles, estab-
lished the fact that bicarbonate of soda had been added, probably
a varying quantity to each bottle, while the dose of sulphites
added was so large that a bottle has stood open in the laboratory
all through the summer without souring.

Manufacture of brandy from, elder. — Brandy is a mixture of
water and alcohol produced by the distillation of a fermented
liquor ; it owes its aroma to the essential oil peculiar to the sub-
stances subjected to distillation.

In Normandy the heavy ciders only are distilled, ?'. <?., those
containing the most alcohol.

In years when there is an abundant crop of apples, it will gen-
erally be found of advantage to distill the eider made from fallen
fruit and also from early apples. The cider yielded by them does
not keep well and brings a very low price, especially when there
is a large product from late apples.

Sour ciders should not be distilled, they being better utilized
for the manufacture of vinegar. Spoiled cider, as a rule, makes
bad brandy.

Different qualities of cider should be distilled separately ; a

CIDER FROM APPLES AND PEARS. 353

skilful distiller can classify them by the taste and separates them
in order to obtain brandy of first and second qualities.

The cider is distilled when it is completely fermented, •/. e.,
when the largest possible quantity of sugar has been converted
into alcohol. Cider from early apples generally ferments faster
than that from late apples and can be distilled towards the end of
December, i. e., from six weeks to two months after its fabrication.
Cider from late apples, made during December and January, is
ready for distillation three or four months later, i. e.t in March or
April.

Preparation of the juice for distillation. — When there is an
abundant crop of apples and barrels are scarce, the juice as it
comes from the press is brought into large open vats in which
fermentation progresses rapidly, but in this case some beer yeast
previously mixed with a small quantity of cider is added to each
vat and the temperature must be maintained between 59° and
68° F. Under these conditions the juice ferments very promptly
and may be distilled eight or ten days later.

Sometimes the whole of the pulpy mass obtained by grinding
the apples is submitted to distillation. In order to accelerate
fermentation a small quantity of hot water containing some sugar
in solution is added to the mass, also one or two thousandths of
sulphuric acid, the latter regulating the progress of fermentation.

Fermentation being finished the mass is subjected to distillation.
In order to prevent the mass from adhering to the still and
burning, distillation must be conducted as slowly as possible and
a small quantity of straw placed upon the bottom of the still, or,
better, a piece of cloth to prevent direct contact of the mass with
the heating surface.

Plums, damsons, etc., are also subjected to distillation and pro-
duce good brandy ; they ferment more slowly than wild cherries
which produce the well-known cherry-bounce. Attention may
here be called to the distillation of wild plums, which should be
gathered in the fall when the leaves begin to drop. Some con-
noisseurs consider brandy made from plums equal to that from
cherries. On a farm no fruit containing sugar should go to waste
as it can be converted either into brandy or vinegar.

Distillation. — For distilling cider on a small scale no expensive

^ V , li

354 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

apparatus is necessary, an ordinary still answering all require-
ments. Cider is distilled like wine. The still is filled about j full
and after placing the head in position the joints are carefully luted
by pasting strips of cloth or even paper over them. The tub hold-
ing the worm is filled with cold water and the fire started. The
vapors escaping from the boiling liquid condense in the worm and
run into the receiver. Heating should be done slowly in order to
vaporize as little water as possible and especially to avoid sudden
ebullition as the boiling liquid, getting into the head, would pass
through the worm and become mixed with the liquor already
distilled ; in such an event it would be necessary to begin distilla-
tion anew. The operation is continued until the liquid produced
contains hardly any alcohol which can be ascertained by the use
of the alcoholometer or by the taste. It is unnecessary to say
that care must be had to constantly renew and keep cold the
water in the tub holding the worm.

Distillation being finished the boiler is emptied and after
thorough cleansing is refilled for a second operation.

The liquid produced by successive distillations is mixed together
and brought into the still a second time, whereby a liquor richer in
alcohol and of a better taste is produced. It would be desirable
if this second distillation or rectification could be effected by
means of steam. This would prevent the empyreumatic taste
which is often noticed in apple-brandy. The first and last runs
of the still being of inferior quality are collected separately and
poured back into the still when refilling for the next operation.

Calculations have been made to establish by means of figures
the immense advantage offered in a financial point of view by
the distillation of cider. These theoretical calculations are, how-
ever, frequently very deceptive. If, on the one hand, the producer
knows the content of alcohol of his cider and, on the other, the
market value of the alcohol and of the cider, it will be easy for
him to decide which product will pay him best.

Pear-cider. — The manufacture of pear-cider is very limited
and no great future can be promised for it, as even when most
carefully prepared, it is far inferior to cider and other fruit-wines.
Its fabrication is best understood in England, and how7 little it is
appreciated there is shown by the fact that three-fourths of the

CIDER FROM APPLES AND PEARS. 355

quantity manufactured is consumed by the farm-laborers. But
any one who has large pear crops at his disposal and wishes to
use a portion of them for the manufacture of a beverage should
add to the pear-must one-quarter its quantity of must of bitter-
sweet apples or a few quarts of black currant juice, which will
improve the taste of the cider and its keeping qualities. The
mode of preparation is the same as for apple-cider, though still
greater care must be exercised in the choice of the raw material.
The pears must have a sufficient content of sugar as otherwise
the cider would not be sufficiently rich in alcohol and at the same
time they must contain a bitter substance to prevent the cider
from turning sour as soon as the conversion of the sugar is
effected. Hence the use of fine table pears for the preparation
of cider would be simply a waste of material. The only varie-
ties suitable for the purpose are those which when eaten from the
tree produce a long continued sharp heat in the throat and lie
half a day undigested in the stomach which, however, become
sweet by long storing and lose enough of their acerbity to be no
longer disagreeable to the palate. In England the wild pear
grown in hedges is generally used for the purpose. They must
be ripe but not soft or mellow.

In the northern part of France pear-must is sometimes used
for the preparation of " port-wine," the taste of which is very
much praised. The process consists in heating 50 Ibs. of must to
176° or 185° F. and adding 5 Ibs. of raisins. At this degree of
heat must and raisins are brought into a barrel which is tightly
bunged and placed in a cool place. When in the course of a day
the must is cooled to 59° or 68° F., the raisins, which are gene-
rally put in a bag, are taken from the barrel and after bruising
returned (but not inclosed in the bag) to the must, which is then
allowed to ferment for 14 days. The wine is then drawn off into
stone jugs which are well corked and sealed.

Quince-wine. — A very spicy wine can be prepared from quinces
in the following simple manner: Place the quinces for a few
moments in hot water and then rub them with a cloth to remove
the down. Next 'remove the cores by means of a knife or in
any suitable manner. Now pour hot water over the quinces
thus prepared and boil them slowly over a moderate fire until

356 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

soft. Then press out the juice and add white sugar in the pro-
portion of 1J Ibs. to every 20 Ibs. of fruit. Allow the whole to
ferment in a cool room and from time to time add some sugar-
water during the process. Clarification and racking off is effected
in the same manner as with cider.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

FRUIT-WINES.

a. From small fruits.

ONE of the principal objections to wine from small fruits is
that it easily turns; this can, however, be overcome by adding,
after fermentation is finished, 5.64 drachms of salicylic acid to
every 100 quarts. By increasing the dose to 8.46 drachms less
sugar can be added to the must which, of course, makes the
beverage poorer in alcohol. A saving of sugar can be further
effected without injury to the keeping quality of the wine by a
suitable mixing of juices. By working, for instance, the juices of
currants, or of raspberries by themselves, a considerable addition
of sugar, about 1 pound per quart, has to be made, which can,
however, be reduced one-half by mixing with a juice containing
some bitter principle, and later on treating the wine with salicylic
acid. Thus a large field for experimenting is opened to all, and
only a few hints will here be given. Raspberry -juice should be
mixed with one-quarter its volume of blackberry-juice; and in
the preparation of currant-wine it is especially recommended to
use four-fifths of red to one-fifth of black currants, the wTine
obtained being far more spicy and possessing better keeping
qualities. Moreover, black currants used within limits are an ex-
cellent material for improving the flavor of almost all fruit-wines.
The flavor and keeping qualities of fruit-wine are also improved
by throwing a couple of handfuls of crushed hazel-nuts or walnuts
into the barrel, and also by the addition of 2 ounces, 3 drachms
of bitter almonds, the peels of 10 lemons, 3 ounces, 5 drachms

FRUIT-WINES. 357

of cassia, and a few handfuls of bruised wild plums. By these
means wine with a moderate content of alcohol acquires a strong
taste, while its keeping quality is at the same time improved ;
the latter can also be effected by bringing 2 ounces, 3 drachms of
tartar into the barrel during fermentation. A few other mixtures
of juices may be mentioned. Black berry-j nice is better adapted
to ferment by itself than any other juice from small fruits, but
by the addition of J- to J- its weight or its volume of strawberry-
juice the aroma of the wine is greatly improved. Strawberry-
juice is least suitable for fermentation by itself, and should be
mixed with must containing a bitter principle; the addition of
^ of the volume of the juice of the Siberian crab-apple (Pyrus
baccata) can be highly recommended for the purpose, it being
especially suitable for improving the keeping quality of fruit-
wine. The juice of rhubarb stems may be added to that of
elderberries, while the juice of gooseberries is suitable for mixing
with that of mulberries. Moreover, a combination of several
juices may also be used, an excellent wine being, for instance,
prepared from equal parts of blackberry, raspberry, currant, and
strawberry-juice, with an addition of walnuts as given above.
In the receipts for the different varieties given below, the cus-
tomary addition of sugar for unmixed fermentation and the
omission of salicylic acid is retained ; it may, however, be repeated
that with the assistance of these means the cost may be reduced
one-half. In order to avoid repetition the following general rules
are here given which hold good not only for the preparation of
wine from small fruits, but also from stone-fruits.

The fruit to be used should be sound and ripe, though not
over-ripe, and must be freed from adhering dirt by washing in
warm water. Large quantities are best expressed by means of
a press while for small quantities a bag of coarse linen is sufficient
which is kneaded and squeezed until no more juice runs out.
Over the residue pour as much hot water as juice is obtained and
after allowing it to stand for two hours press again and mix the
juice obtained with the first. Now add sugar in the proportion
of one pound to a quart of juice and bring the whole into a
thoroughly cleansed barrel previously rinsed out with salicylated
water. Fermentation should take place in a room having a uni-

358 VINEGAR, CIDER, AXD FRUIT-WINES.

form temperature of from 59° to 64° F. During this process
lav a piece of gauze upon the open bunghole and secure it by
means of a stone, piece of iron, etc. ; this prevents the access of
foreign substances to the must. Every other day the barrel is
filled up to the bung-hole with sugar-water prepared in the pro-
portion of J Ib. of sugar to 1 quart of water. As soon as the
" hissing'7 in the barrel ceases bung the barrel tightly and after
14 days draw off the contents into another barrel placed in the
same room. After 6 months the wine can be drawn off into
bottles, being, however, 8 days previously clarified with the whites
of a dozen eggs or 1 oz. of isinglass slowly dissolved over a
moderate fire in 1 pint of wine. Whatever fining is used add it
to the wine with constant stirring. If salicylic acid is to be used
it is best done in the manner described for cider when the wine
has acquired the desired degree of ripeness. The bottles should
be rinsed with salicylated water and closed with corks previously
soaked for a few hours in hot salicylated water. Sealing the
bottles is not necessary but in order to be sure that the corks fit
closely shake each bottle, with the neck downwards, with the right
hand holding the left under the cork. If the slightest moisture is
observed, the bottles must be recorked, as carelessness in this
respect may cause a portion of the supply of wine to spoil. The
corked bottles are laid in the cellar.

This general method, according to which all kinds of wine from
small fruits can be prepared, may be supplemented by the follow-
ing receipts: —

Currant-wine. — Among all varieties of berries the currant
contains the largest quantity of free acid, about 2 per cent., and
comparatively little sugar, about 6 per cent. The proportion
between these two principal constituents -is very unfavorable for
the manufacture of wine, and currant juice fermented by itself
would yield a product which does not deserve that name.

Free the thoroughly ripe currant from the stems and after
crushing press out the juice. To the residue add twice or three
times as much water as juice obtained and after again pressing
add the juice obtained to the first. Now examine the juice as
to its content of acid and if necessary dilute further with water.
Then calculate the sugar in the manner given on p. 326. Sugar

FRUIT- WINES. 359

and acid having been brought to the right proportion, the juice is
allowed to ferment.

Currant-wine is frequently prepared as a sweet liqueur-wine,
the following directions being much used for the purpose : Juice
100 parts, water 200, sugar 100. According to an analysis by
Fresenius, the wine thus prepared showed after two years the
following composition : —

Alcohol .......

Free acid .......

Sugar .......

Water

100.00

According to another receipt, 17^ Ibs. of thoroughly ripe cur-
rants freed from the stems are bruised in a wooden vessel Avith
the addition of 3J quarts of water. The paste thus obtained is
gradually brought into a bag of coarse linen, which is laid upon
an oblique board, and pressed out by means of a rolling-pin.
The press-residues are returned to the wooden vessel and, after
adding 7 quarts of water, thoroughly worked with a pestle, and
then again pressed in the above manner. The juice thus ob-
tained is brought into a barrel having a capacity of 34J quarts,
a solution of 12 Ibs. of sugar in 14 quarts of water is then added,
and finally sufficient water to fill up the barrel to within 3 inches
of the bung. After covering the bung-hole with a piece of
gauze, the whole is allowed to ferment in a room having a tem-
perature of from 59° to 64° F. When the principal fermenta-
tion is over the barrel is entirely filled with water and closed
with a cotton bung. The wine is then allowed to further fer-
ment for 6 months in a cellar having a temperature of from 54°
to 59° F., when it is drawn off into another barrel or into bottles.
By adding to the fermenting juice ^ Ib. of comminuted raisin
stems a product closely resembling Tokay-wine is obtained.

A very strong beverage is obtained by adding to the expressed
juice of currants twice the quantity of water and stirring in 2
tablespoonfuls of yeast. Allow the juice to ferment for 2 days,
then strain it through a hair-sieve, and after adding 1 Ib. of sugar
for every quart, allow it to ferment. When fermentation is nearly
finished add French brandy in the proportion of 1 quart to 40

3t>0 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

quarts of the juice, and bung up the barrel two days later. The
wine is ripe in four months.

According to another receipt the currants, separated from the
stems, are pressed and the juice mixed with an equal quantity of
water. Then add to each gallon of liquid 2 J Ibs. of sugar, 2 ozs.
of cream of tartar, and 1 oz. of pulverized nutmegs, with 1 quart
of alcohol. Allow the whole to ferment, then fine with isinglass,
draw off and bottle.

Another method is to express all the juice possible, then take
an equal amount of boiling water, and pour on the pressed fruit ;
let it stand for 2 hours, squeeze out as much as there is of juice
and mix ; then add 4 Ibs. of brown sugar to each gallon of the
mixture ; let it stand for 3 or 4 weeks, until fairly worked, with
the bung out, and when it is done working, bung it up, then
place it in a cool cellar.

Strawberry-wine. — For the preparation of wine very fragrant
strawberries should be selected. The aroma of the strawberry is
so delicate that it readily undergoes a change and soon disappears
entirely. Hence to secure it and transfer it into the juice the
strawberry requires special treatment, whereby neither the con-
tent of acid nor that of sugar is taken into consideration. This
treatment consists in mixing the sound, ripe berries, without pre-
vious crushing or bruising, with the same weight of pulverized
sugar and allowing the mixture to stand in a glass or stoneware
vessel in a cool place until all the sugar is dissolved to a clear
syrup in which the shrunk and tasteless berries float. To sepa-
rate the latter, strain the juice through a woollen cloth previously
rinsed with some lemon-juice or tartaric acid, dilute with the
same quantity of water, bring the acid to 0.5 per cent., and sub-
ject the whole to fermentation in the usual manner at a tempera-
ture of from 50° to 59° F.

Some allow the berries to ferment with the juice, but the wine
obtained is somewhat harsh and not as delicate.

By finally adding to the finished wine from 4 to 5 per cent, of
rock-candy, a liqueur- wine is obtained which, as regards aroma,
cannot be surpassed and is especially liked by ladies.

Excellent strawberry-wine is also obtained according to the
following directions : Press out 10 Ibs. of different varieties of

FRUIT-WINES. 361

small and large cultivated strawberries, which give about 2^-
quarts of juice. Pour water over the residue and press again, so
as to obtain about 3 quarts more of juice or a total of 5J quarts.
Xext dissolve 4 pounds of rock-candy in 5 quarts of cold water,
bring the solution, together with the 5J quarts of juice, into a
small cask, and allow the whole to ferment in a cellar having a
temperature of 61° F. In four weeks the wine is ready for draw-
ing off into bottles. It is of a beautiful pale yellow color and
possesses an excellent bouquet, and if made sparkling furnishes
an excellent beverage.

According to a receipt in the " Weinzeituug," 40 quarts of
strawberries and 41 quarts of water, with an addition of 12 Ibs.
of sugar, 3 J ozs. of tartar, and a gallon of whiskey free from fusel
oil are allowed to ferment and the resulting wine is treated in the
usual manner.

Another method is to pour 1 quart of hot water upon 1 quart
of crushed strawberries and pressing out after allowing the mass
to stand for 2 days. Then add to every quart of juice 1 Ib. of
sugar, and to every 40 quarts of juice the grated peel and juice
of 2 lemons and 2 oranges and 4 quarts of French brandy.
Allow the whole to ferment, and treat the resulting wine in the
usual manner.

Gooseberry-wine. — The proportion between sugar and acid is
somewhat more favorable in the gooseberry than in the currant,
but not sufficiently so as that the pure juice would yield a good
wine by fermentation. Hence the juice must be converted into
suitable must, as regards sugar and acid, in accordance with the
rules given on p. 325. The yellow varieties are preferable, they
alone having a distinctly vinous taste ; the wine obtained from
the red and green varieties is somewhat insipid. The juice is ob-
tained in the same manner as from currants, the berries being
bruised, the juice allowed to run off and the residue washed sev-
eral times with water, so that each volume of juice receives an
addition of 1 volume of water, though as the mixed juice has to
be tested as to its content of acid, the direction in regard to the
addition of water need not be accurately followed. The must
may contain as much as 30 per cent., because the fermentation
of gooseberry-must is generally carried on in the warmer season

362 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

of the year, so that all or the greater portion of the sugar fer-
ments and the wine, on account of the quantity of alcohol formed,
Avill keep for an almost indefinite time. Gooseberry-wine made
from must rich in sugar generally acquires by age an odor of
Madeira-wine, which frequently deceives even connoisseurs.

Gooseberry-wine like currant-wine being liked sweet, a larger
quantity of sugar may be added to the must from the start though
for a quicker progress of fermentation it is better to add the
desired quantity of sugar to the fermented wine; if the must has
been made quite sweet so that a wine rich in alcohol is formed no
fear need be had of the wine fermenting anew on account of the
addition of sugar.

There are a number of receipts for the preparation of gooseberry-
wine, but when more closely examined the products prepared
according to them will be found either more or less rich in alcohol
or to contain more or less free acid and be either sweet or not
sweet, so that the proportion can evidently be changed in any
manner desired. It is further evident that nothing is gained
thereby as regards quality, because the type for all artificial wines
is grape-wine obtained in a good season. In such wines the pro-
portions between alcohol and free acid are well known and within
such narrow limits that they cannot be essentially exceeded on
either side, and they alone can serve as a basis for the rational prepa-
ration of gooseberry-wine as well as of all artificial wines. With
the aroma or bouquet which is to be imparted to such wine it
is, of course, different, but no special directions are required as
every one manages it according to his own taste or according
to that of those who buy and drink the wine. Thus, it is also
with the addition of sugar; one likes a sweet wine, the other one
less sweet and the third one without any sugar. The principle
aim is to prepare a wine which contains the necessary quantity of
alcohol to insure its keeping properly, and the power of resistance
against decomposing influences and from which the greater por-
tion of the fermenting substances is removed by fermentation.
In most cases the natural conditions are of great use in this respect,
for in order to decrease the content of free acid it becomes neces-
sary to dilute the fruit juices whereby the quantity of fermenting
substances is also relatively decreased, and sometimes even to such

FRUIT-WINES. 363

an extent that they do not suffice for the complete fermentation of
the sugar. Such wine, if not wanting in alcohol, will keep for an
almost indefinite time and may be exposed to the access of air and
a high temperature without the appearance of the formation of
acetic acid.

Gooseberry-champagne. — The taste of this beverage closely
resembles that of genuine champagne. There are several modes
of its fabrication. In France a light wine which does not contain
too many fermenting substances is used. Somewhat less than 2
per cent, of sugar, or about 15 grammes to a bottle of 800 cubic
centimetres7 capacity, is dissolved in the wine and the latter drawn
off into strong champagne bottles which are then hermetically
corked and tied with twine. The wine is then allowed to fer-
ment in a room having a temperature of from 77° to 99° F.
When fermentation is finished, the bottles are brought into a cool
cellar and placed first horizontally and then gradually bottom
uppermost so that the yeast may collect on the cork and the wine
become clear. When all the yeast is precipitated to the neck of the
bottle, the sediment is carefully removed — degorgie as it is termed
—by first raising the string securing the cork and then the latter,
the bottle being held in a horizontal position. The cork being no
longer held by the string is forced out together with the deposit
of yeast while the clear wine impregnated with carbonic acid
remains behind. To prevent the unavoidable loss of wine, the
cork together with the yeast and wine forced out is collected in
an upright barrel with a large aperture towards which the mouth
of the bottle is held during the operation.

The wine thus impregnated with carbonic acid, however, is not
yet champagne ; it only becomes so after the addition of a solution
of fine rock candy in brandy with which the bottle is filled up.
Each bottle after receiving the necessary quantity of the solution,
or liqueur as it is termed, is at once closed with a cork which is
secured with twine or wire. Removing the deposit of yeast is the
most difficult portion of this operation, long experience being
required before the workman possesses the necessary skill.

According to another method, which is also called the impreg-
nating method, the sugar required for sweetening is dissolved in
the wine, and after clarifying the solution by filtering through

364 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

paper pulp in a bag, or, if necessary, with some isinglass, it is
taken to the impregnating apparatus, one similar to that used for
mineral water answering the purpose. The wine is then saturated
under a pressure of 4J to 5 atmospheres with the desired quantity
of carbonic acid and at once drawn off into bottles, which are
corked and wired as above.

The advantage of this method consists in the rapidity with
which champagne can be made, 30 to 36 months being required
for the first method before the champagne is ready for transporta-
tion.

The following method is the most simple of all, but does not
yield as fine a product. Each bottle is finished by itself and no
special apparatus is required. The wine is sweetened and clari-
fied in the same manner as in the impregnating method and then
drawn off into bottles. In case the wine is not rich enough in
alcohol, the content of the latter may be increased by 10 per
cent.

After having filled the bottles about 1.52 cubic inches less
than generally, add first to each bottle 11 drachms of pure crys-
tallized bicarbonate of potash and immediately afterwards 1 oz.
of pure crystallized tartaric acid in pieces. Then close the bottle
with the cork and secure the latter by tying or wiring it cross-
wise. The potash and acid are now brought to solution by gently
swinging the bottle to and fro, the contents becoming at the same
time turbid by the separation of bitartrate of potash. By
placing the bottle bottom upwards the separated tartar is collected
as much as possible upon the lower surface of the cork and after
the wine is clear removed in the same manner as described in the
first method. It is not absolutely necessary to remove all the tar-
tar as it settles on the bottom and the champagne will pour out
clear.

According to any of these methods all fruit-wines can be con-
verted into champagne or sparkling wines.

Semler gives the following directions for the preparation of
gooseberry-champagne. Pour 20 quarts of warm water over 20
quarts of crushed gooseberries and add 6 Ibs. of sugar, 4J Ibs. of
honey, 1 oz. of pulverized tartar, J oz. of dried lemon peel, and J
oz. of dried orange peel. After standing for two days strain the

FRUIT-WINES. 365

mixture through a hair-sieve into a barrel and add 2 quarts of
French brandy. When the " hissing" in the barrel ceases clarify
the wine and after a few days draw it oif into bottles securing the
corks with wire. Before filling the bottles throw a piece of sugar
and J drachm of bicarbonate of soda into each.

Raspberry-wine. — Raspberries have such an agreeable and re-
freshing taste and odor that while they are not very sweet and
the proportion of acid to sugar is not very favorable they are
great favorites. Their aroma passes into the wine and would be
even too predominant if for the preparation of wine the juice had
not to be strongly diluted with water in order to decrease the
acid.

As in all other fruit, the quality of the raspberry depends on
the weather, and when this is favorable during the time of the de-
velopment and maturing of the fruit, the latter is sweet and pala-
table, but in cold and wet seasons sour and harsh. No other
fruit suffers as much from such conditions as the raspberry.

We have the wild and cultivated raspberry. The wild rasp-
berry is smaller than the cultivated but possesses a stronger aroma ;
unfortunately it is too frequently infested with the larva of many
insects to render it always palatable. The cultivated raspberry
is considerably larger, and is less attacked by worms, but pos-
sesses less aroma and is frequently even watery.

To obtain the juice for the preparation of wine the thoroughly
ripe raspberries are crushed to a paste in a wooden tub by means
of a wooden pestle. To separate the grains the paste is forced
through a fine wire sieve, which, in order to protect it from the acid,
is best provided with a coat of asphalt or shellac varnish. It is,
however, no disadvantage to allow the grains to ferment with the
pulp, some tannin being thereby introduced into the wine which
under certain circumstances may be even desirable.

The content of acid in the raspberry varying considerably in
different years, a test of the juice in this respect becomes abso-
lutely necessary in order to enable one to dilute it in the correct
proportion with water. For this purpose press out a small
quantity of the crushed raspberries and determine the acid in the
manner given on p. 325. The sugar contained in the raspberry
need not be taken into consideration, since by dilution it is

366 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

reduced to 1 per cent, and still less. The must is simply brought
up to 25 per cent, of fruit-sugar and allowed to ferment in the
usual manner. The treatment of the wine after fermentation is
the same as for other fruit-wines.

Blackberry-wine is prepared in the same manner as raspberry-
wine. Of the numerous directions for its preparation we give the
following : Gather the berries on a dry day, crush them with the
hand into a kettle, and add just enough hot water to cover the
mass. Then add a handful of bruised raisins and a handful of
strawberry leaves, from the heart of the mother plant, or, still
better, from the suckers, and allow the mass to stand for four days,
when a crust of yeast will have formed on the surface. The mass
is now pressed out and sugar in the proportion of 1 pound to every
4 quarts added. Fermentation is allowed to go on for two weeks ;
the barrel is then bunged up and the wine drawn off after six
months. During fermentation, and especially in the beginning
of it, care must be had to fill up the barrel.

To make from blackberries a beverage resembling port-wine
the following method is recommended : Press out the juice and
allow it to stand for 36 hours. While fermenting during this
time remove all scum from the surface. Now add one-fourth the
quantity of juice, of water, and 3 pounds of brown sugar to
every 4 quarts of fluid and filter after 12 hours. Fermentation,
which requires but a few days, being finished, bung up the barrel
tightly and after six months draw off the wine. The latter im-
proves by age.

Mulberry-wine. — Press the juice from the fruit, dilute with the
same quantity of water, add 1 pound of sugar for every quart of
liquid, and boil the whole J hour. Then add for every 100
quarts 3 quarts of alcohol, 6 J ounces of tartar, 1 ounce of cassia,
and \ ounce of bruised bitter almonds, and allow the whole to
ferment. The further treatment of the wine is the same as for
other fruit-wines.

Elderberry-wine. — Boil equal quantities of berries and water
one-half hour, pour the whole into a hair-sieve, press the pulpy
portion of the berries gently through with the hand and remove
the residue. Compound the strained juice with sugar in the pro-
portion of J pound to 1 quart and boil 20 minutes. As soon as

FRUIT- WINES. 3G7

cool bring it into a barrel to ferment. Fermentation being
finished paste stiff brown paper over the bung-hole, and after
eight weeks draw off the wine into bottles.

Another method is to boil 50 quarts of water, 10 quarts of
elderberries, 40 pounds of sugar, 5 ounces of pulverized ginger,

and 2^ ounces of cloves for 1 hour, with constant skimming".

- &

Then bring the liquid together with 4 pounds of crushed raisins
into a barrel and allow it to ferment. At the termination of the
fermentation it will yield a wine similar to the Cypria or Greek-
wine.

Juniperberry-wine. — 70 quarts of water, 35 pounds of crushed
raisins, 10 quarts of juniperberries, 4 ounces of tartar, 1 quart of
French brandy, and a handful of fresh marjoram leaves are
brought into a barrel and the mixture is allowed to ferment for
12 hours.

Rhubarb-wine. — Add to every 5 pounds of the thinly-sliced
stalks 2| quarts of soft water and bring the whole into a clean
wooden vessel. Cover the latter and stir the contents with a
wooden stick three times daily for one week. Then pass the fluid
through a wide-meshed sieve and add to every 3 quarts 4 pounds
of white sugar, the juice of 2 lemons, and the peel of 1 lemon
rubbed upon sugar. Allow the mixture to ferment in a barrel,
and after clarifying draw the wine off into bottles in March.

The variety of rhubarb, known as Victoria, is best adapted
for the preparation of wine which can also be effected according
to the following directions : Cut up the stalks and express the
juice. To every gallon of juice add 1 gallon of soft water and 7
pounds of brown sugar. Bring the mixture into a barrel and
allow it to ferment until clear with the bung out, keeping the
barrel filled with sweetened water as it works over, then bung
the barrel tightly or draw the wine off into bottles. It makes an
agreeable and healthful wine, affording a good profit, as nearly
1800 gallons of wine may be obtained from each acre of well-
cultivated plants. The stalks will furnish about three-fourths
their weight in juice.

Tomato-wine. — Press out the juice from ripe tomatoes, add to
each quart of it 1 pound of brown sugar, and allow the whole to

368 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

ferment. After three months the wine can be drawn off into
bottles.

Parsnip-wine. — Cut 12 pounds of parsnips into thin pieces, add
15 quarts of water and boil until soft. Then press out the juice
and after straining through a hair-sieve sweeten with f pound of
sugar per quart. After again boiling for j hour it is brought,
when cold, into a barrel and a tablespoonful of yeast is added.
Stir the juice daily for 10 days then bung up the barrel tightly
and after six months draw off the wine into bottles.

In the same manner wine may be prepared from carrots, clover-
heads, corn-stalks, etc. It is, however, recommended to add to the
juice some aromatic substance such as a handful of marjoram,
almonds, plum-kernels, currants, walnuts, ginger, or still better a
few quarts of black currant juice.

^
b. From Stone-Fruits.

Cherry-wine. — Stone sweet cherries and after crushing the pulp
to a paste allow it to ferment in stoneware pots for 12 hours.
Then press out the juice which is returned to the pots and allowed
to stand until yeast fungi rise to the surface. Now add 1 pound
of sugar to every 3 quarts of must, bring the latter into a barrel
and allow it to ferment 8 days. Then rack the wine into bottles
and keep in a cool place. The preceding is the method followed
in England where pure cherry-wine is made. It may, however,
be remarked that it is somewhat insipid. A mixture of the juice
of cherries with that of the raspberry or currant can, however,
be highly recommended, it yielding a beverage similar to port-
wine. It is an American receipt and much preferable to the
English. Press the freshly gathered cherries, black or red, but
selecting those with the softest pulp, without crushing the stones.
To the juice obtained add one-eighth of its quantity each of rasp-
berry and black currant juice and sweeten with lump sugar in
the proportion of 1 pound to 2J quarts of juice. The whole is
then brought into a barrel to ferment. When fermentation is
finished close the barrel tight and allow it to rest for three months.
Then clarify the wine and draw it off into bottles. It is fit to
drink in six weeks.

FRUIT-WINES. 369

Morello-wine. — Press 60 pounds of morellos so as to crush the
stones, mix the juice obtained with 20 quarts of sherry-wine and
the same quantity of warm water, and bring the whole into a
barrel to ferment. Suspend in the barrel a bag containing 1J
ounce each of cinnamon, powdered nutmeg, and mace, allowing
it to remain until drawing off the wine. The latter is very pala-
table in two months after fermentation is finished.

Plum-ivine. — Not all varieties of plums are suitable for the
preparation of wine, but the Reine Claude and Mirabelle can be
highly recommended, the latter especially making as spicy and
agreeable wine as any variety of fruit. With the almost innu-
merable varieties of plums it is not possible to say which are suita-
ble for the preparation of wine, and which are not. It can only
be determined by experiment, though right sweet varieties only
should be chosen. In this country the small sweet variety known
as the wheat-plum, etc., is frequently used for the purpose. The
process is as follows : Stone the plums, then bruise the pulp, and
add to every 8 pounds of the latter 3 quarts of hot water. After
2 days press out the juice and add to every 2 quarts of it one
pound of sugar. Now bring the juice into a barrel in a cool room
and add the crushed kernels of ^ of the stones. Allow the whole
to ferment completely. After 12 months the wine is clarified and
drawn oif into bottles, each of which receives a small piece of
sugar, which improves the keeping quality of the wine.

Apricot and peach-wines. — Both these varieties are used when
nearly ripe. Remove the stones and crush the pulp to a paste.
For every 8 pounds of the latter add 1 quart of fresh soft water,
and let the mass stand 24 hours. Then press out the juice, add
for every 2 quarts of it 1 pound of sugar, and allow it to ferment.
During fermentation it is recommended to throw a handful of the
crushed stones into the barrel, which gives to the product a more
spicy flavor.

Sloe or wild plum-wine. — This beverage is not to be despised if
prepared in the manner given for plum-wine. The sloes must,
however, remain on the bushes until after the first frost, which
sweetens them.
24

PART III.

CANNING AND EVAPORATING OF FRUIT, MANUFAC-
TURE OF CATCHUPS, FRUIT-BUTTERS, MARMA-
LADES, JELLIES, PICKLES, AND MUSTARDS.

CHAPTER XXIX.

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT.

THE use of hermetically closed tin cans is the only method for
preserving fruit which has become of commercial importance.
Before discussing it, the various ways which have proved more
or less satisfactory for household purposes will be briefly men-
tioned. The following rules apply, however, to all methods : —

1. The fruit must be gathered in dry weather and when free
from dew ; it is to be kept as free from dust as possible.

2. Absolutely sound fruit, not over-ripe, should only be se-
lected.

3. The fruit should be preserved immediately after gathering.

4. The utensils used must be kept scrupulously clean.

5. The preserving vessels should not be placed directly upon
the fire.

6. A good quality of white sugar only should be used ; brown
sugar injures the taste and color of the fruit.

7. Copper or brass kettles alone should be used for boiling, if
the latter is not effected in glass ; the spoons should be of wood or
of bone.

8. The jars or cans should be thoroughly rinsed best with sali-
cylated water, and if corks are to be used they should be perfectly
sound and scalded in hot water to which some salicylic acid has
been added.

9. Small jars or cans are preferable to large ones, and they
should be kept in a dark, cool, dry place.

372 VLNEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

We will first mention the old French method, known as au
Baine-Marie, which, on account of its simplicity, is still much
used. Berries require no preparation, but peaches, apricots, and
plums must be stoned and halved, and cherries and small plums
stoned. Apples and pears are peeled and quartered and imme-
diately thrown into boiling water for 4 minutes to bleach. They
are then laid a few minutes upon a sieve to dry, and brought, like
other fruit by means of a spoon into wide-necked glass jars which
are filled to within 2 inches of the edge. In placing the fruit in
the jar press it well together. The empty space is then filled up
with hot syrup composed of 2 parts of sugar and 1 part of water,
and the jars, after heating them somewhat upon a stove, are placed
in boiling water for 8 minutes for kernel fruit and for 10 minutes
for stone fruit or berries. The jars are then immediately corked
and sealed.

According to another French method, the flesh of the fruit is
preserved without boiling. Stone-fruits and berries only can be
used. The fruit is pressed through a hair-sieve and the pulp
mixed with an equal weight of pulverized sugar. The mixture
is then brought into glass bottles which are corked and sealed.
This fruit-pulp keeps, however, only through the winter, or if
kept in a cold place or in a refrigerator.

The following method gives better satisfaction : The fruit, such
as cherries, berries, plums, peaches, apricots, etc., is, without the
addition of water, brought into wide-necked glass jars in such a
manner that a layer of fruit alternates with a layer of sugar, the
top layer being sugar. The jars are then tied up with salicylated
parchment paper, placed in a water-bath, and the water kept
boiling for 15 to 30 minutes, according to the variety of fruit,
small fruit requiring less time than large, and berries only about
15 minutes. The jars are then stored in a cool, dark place.
For closing jars with narrow mouths corks are preferable. They
are soaked in hot salicylated water and sealed.

Fruit thus preserved retains its fresh, natural appearance and
keeps for a considerable time. If appearance is, however, of
secondary consideration, it is better to boil the fruit, as is done
with kernel-fruit, melons, and all large varieties. The prepara-
tion for this method varies according to the nature of the fruit.

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT. 373

Apples and pears must be peeled, and, if not too large, only cored,
otherwise they have to be halved or quartered. Melons are
peeled and cut into strips. Quinces are steamed until soft, then
peeled as clean as possible, quartered, and the cores removed.
After this preparation the fruit is brought into the preserving
kettle and as much water as is necessary for boiling added.
Boiling should be done very slowly and continued until the fruit
commences to get soft. It should not be boiled too soft, but only
sufficiently to enable it to absorb the sugar-liquor. When this is
the case the fruit is taken from the fire and strained ; with the
liquor a syrup of the following composition is prepared : For
each pound of fruit take one pound of sugar and soak it in ^
pint of the liquor. It is then placed upon the fire and the re-
sulting syrup skimmed. When it boils the fruit is introduced
and slowly boiled, or rather simmered, because it must not fall to
pieces, for five to ten minutes, according to its softer or harder
nature. The fruit while still warm is then brought into the jars
in which no vacuum must remain. Hence they must be filled up
to the cork, or, if bladder or parchment paper is used, for closing
them up to the rim. In the latter case it is advisable to place
upon the surface a close-fitting piece of paper, previously satu-
rated with a concentrated solution of salicylic acid in rum. Cur-
rants, barberries, and grapes are sometimes preserved in their
natural clusters. They are first washed in fresh water, then
slowly boiled soft, and strained. With the liquor a syrup of the
previously mentioned composition is prepared, which is boiled
and skimmed and poured upon the fruit in the jars.

Fine table pears are sometimes preserved in the following
manner : 8 large pears are placed in a syrup prepared from 6
ounces of sugar, 3 ounces each of cloves and allspice, J pint of
water, and J pint of port-wine or other sweet red wine. In this
syrup they are boiled very slowly — as much as 3 hours — until
soft, and, while still warm, are brought together with the syrup
into jars, which are treated in the manner previously described.
By taking equal parts of pears and of fine plums a very beautiful
product is obtained.

The boiling down of fruit in large stoneware pots is frequently
accompanied by mishaps, and is more and more superseded by

374 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES. '

other methods. It consists in dissolving J to J pound of sugar
in water and boiling the resulting syrup together with the fruit
until the whole forms a jelly-like mass. While still warm the
pots, which must be full, are tied up with bladder. A piece of
salicylated paper should be placed upon the surface of the fruit
before tying up the pots.

Preserving in Air- Tight Cans.

This method, as previously mentioned, is the only one which
has become of commercial importance ; for the United States
and England it has even become of the same national import-
ance as the fabrication of beet-sugar for France and Germany.
The number of factories, briefly termed canneries, in both the
countries named, has largely increased during the last few years,
and not a few of them employ 1000 hands during the fall. Of
course these factories do not limit themselves to the canning of
fruit, as otherwise they would have to cease operations during
the winter months, but that branch of the business preponderates
over all others. The search after other suitable material is con-
stantly more extended, and it is difficult to tell what may not be
canned in the future. The trade-list of a large English factory
now contains 200 different articles ; it includes, however, all
Southern fruits, a portion of which is, singularly enough, returned
in this state to the tropics. The American trade-lists embrace,
as a rule, three groups, viz : —

1. Apples, pears, peaches, apricots, plums, strawberries, rasp-
berries, blackberries, currants, cranberries, whortleberries, necta-
rines, grapes, cherries, quinces, cocoanuts, pineapples, marmalade,
jelly, green walnuts.

2. Peas, beans, beans with pork, corn, tomatoes, asparagus,
carrots, onions, pickles, cauliflower, horseradish, mushrooms,
catchups, succotash, plum-pudding, sweet potatoes.

3. All kinds of poultry, venison, salmon, lobster, crawfish,
oysters, crabs, beef, mutton, pork, eels, salt-water fish, ham, pig's
feet, beef tongue, lamb's tongue, frog legs, mussels, etc.

All the varieties of fruit named in the first group being not
equally well adapted for canning, the less suitable kinds are only

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT. 375

used in small quantities. Plums and cherries have up to the
present time caused the greatest difficulty, because for economy's
sake they were canned without removing the stones, in which the
germ had to be destroyed by the application of a high degree of
heat. When this was omitted the contents of the cans would
spoil as soon as shipped to warm countries, in consequence of the
germination of the stones. If, on the other hand, the cans were
sufficiently heated, the plums or cherries would fall to pieces, and
in this pasty condition were unsaleable in many markets, for in-
stance in England. To overcome this evil the manufacturers
have recently commenced to stone these varieties of fruit as well
as peaches and apricots. It may here be remarked that both
plums and cherries are comparatively dear in the United States,
the cause of their not thriving well being partially due to the
climate and partially to numerous enemies. Heart-cherries,
black raspberries, and whortleberries are the worst varieties of
fruit for canning, as they lose their agreeable taste by steaming.
Strawberries also become somewhat insipid, but red raspberries
are excellent provided they are canned as soon as possible after
being gathered. Blackberries are not quite so good, though, if
brought into the can immediately when plucked, they furnish an
agreeable dish. Currants have too many seeds, and are better
used for jelly. Black currants are well suited for canning, and
in this state are much used by bakers for tarts. Gooseberries
canned before entirely ripe are very good. Among the smaller
stone fruit the Mazard cherry has few superiors ; if carefully
canned, it retains its shape, color, and aroma as on the tree.
Most. plums are suitable for canning, provided they are stoned.
Among the kernel fruits the quince occupies the first rank, as
it is the only variety of fruit which gains by steaming. Pears
are very suitable for canning, as even the inferior qualities can
be used for the purpose. Apples, however, must be carefully
selected, and only sweet varieties with firm flesh should be used ;
the Siberian crab-apples can be highly recommended for the pur-
pose.

As a general rule, fruit for canning should have a firm flesh
and fine aroma. We find these conditions in all the varieties
preferred by the North American factories, whose canned goods
can be found in every large city of the world. The peaches are

376 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

of the early and late Crawford* varieties, and the apricots Moor-
parks. Among plums we find the following varieties : Washing-
ton, Columbia, Reine Claude, Coe's golden drop, yellow gage.
Royal Ann is the favorite variety of cherries, though the differ-
ent varieties of Bigareans and the black Tartarian heart-cherry
are also used. Muscat, Muscat Alexandria, and Malaga are the
favorite varieties of grapes. Among apples the Newtown pippin
is pre-eminent ; it is considered one of the finest apples in this
country. Several varieties of pears are highly esteemed in the
Eastern States for canning purposes, but in California the Bart-
lett pear is almost exclusively used. With this pear the Califor-
nian packers say they have conquered the foreign markets, and
they will not risk their reputation by abandoning it.

Next to the variety of fruit the cans are of the greatest import-
ance. Much has been said and written in regard to them, and
the discussion pro and con will very likely be continued until a
new and important improvement is discovered. And it is actu-
ally necessary that the inventors should set their wits to work
for the production of a can which would overcome all complaints,
as thereby they could create a beneficial revolution in the fruit
industry. The well-known patent cans are excluded from use on
a large scale on account of their high price. Glass jars have some
advantages : they are comparatively cheap, allow of an inspection
of their contents, and the ready recognition of a leak, and are not
attacked by the vegetable acid. But, nevertheless, they have not
been introduced into general use because they are liable to break,
and, being heavy, increase the cost of transportation, and, finally,
it is difficult to close them air-tight. The sealing of a bottle with
a narrow mouth is quite a different thing from sealing one with an
aperture three inches in diameter. It may do for pickles, marma-
lade, or jelly, but for preserved fruits which are to be transported
long distances it cannot be depended on. The same objections
may be made to stoneware jars, which possess the further disad-
vantage that their contents cannot be inspected and a leak is dif-
ficult to discover. Nevertheless, they are used by some large
English factories for the reason, it is claimed, of keeping their

* The name given to each fruit is the recognized name of the American
Pomological Society as far as recorded in their catalogue.

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT. 377

products free from influences deleterious to health. To facilitate
sealing the jars are generally small — of about one pound capacity.
Tin cans have many defects, but their use is very extensive, and
in the United States they are almost exclusively employed. In
California they are manufactured of a size that, when filled, they
weigh 2J Ibs., while in the Eastern States, as well as in England,
they weigh, filled, only 2 Ibs. Complaint has been frequently
made that the use of tin cans is deleterious to health because they
contain lead, which is dissolved by the vegetable acid and trans-
ferred to the fruit-syrup. In reply it has been said that only the
inferior qualities of tin contain lead, and that only in an infini-
tesimal quantity ; but it cannot be denied that the solder may
readily become injurious to health, and in cases of poisoning ex-
amined in the United States and in England, it could every time
be shown that the respective cans were soldered on the inside.
In England, if we are correctly informed, soldering the cans in-
side is now prohibited, and the passage of a similar law in the
United States is agitated. At any rate the time is very likely
not very distant when such soldering will be entirely done away
wTith, if only for competitive reasons. To completely overcome
all complaints against solder, as well as against a content of lead
in the tin, cans are now manufactured in England which are pro-
vided inside with a thin coating whereby the contents are pro-
tected from contact with the metal. The insoluble constituent of"
this coating consists of silicate of lime or glass-powder previously
treated with hydrofluoric acid, while the soluble constituent is
silicate of soda or of potash. Any silicate of earthy bases or
metals may be used, or a precipitated gelatinous silicate. The
alkali is fixed or removed by means of a bath containing a dilute
solution of hydrofluosilicic acid, or a dilute solution with any other
suitable acid. For preparing the composition mix the soluble
with the insoluble silicate. The tin plates are coated with this
mixture by means of a brush, or dipped in a bath of it and then
dried by heat. The plates thus acquire a glass-like coating,
which remains fixed no matter IIOAV the plates may be handled
and worked.*

* In this country some packers of lobsters, shrimps, etc., line the cans with
parchment paper.

378 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

In the canneries in the United States the cans are manufacured
in a special department, and the division of labor is carried so far
that every can passes through eight hands before it is finished ;
but only with such a system is it possible to turn out large quan-
tities in an incredibly short time. This far-reaching division of
labor is, however, not limited to this department alone, but is the
supreme law in the entire establishment. In the same department
the solder is cut by a machine into small three-cornered pieces.
Each workman receives a certain quantity by weight of solder
and of charcoal with which he is expected to solder a certain
number of cans. The workmen are paid by the piece, and each
solderer has a number which is stamped in every can he solders,
so that those which prove leaky may be returned to him for repair.
By this system there is no waste of material, and the leaky cans
do not exceed 5 in 1000.

In another department the fruit is carefully inspected on long
tables ; the unsound is thrown out, and the sound turned over to
the peelers and stoners, who of course work with the most im-
proved machines. There are carriers bringing uninterruptedly
fresh fruit and off-bearers removing and sorting the waste.
^Nothing is thrown away, the waste being used partially in the
manufacture of jelly and partially in distilling ; even the stones
are utilized, as they are sold either to nurserymen or to chemical
factories. Other workmen are occupied in placing the peeled and
stoned fruit in the cans, which are handed over to boys, who place
them upon small trucks running upon rails and transport them
to the department where the filling in takes place. In the same
department the syrup of sugar and water is prepared, but if the
proportion of composition were asked a different answer would
be received in every cannery. In regard to this point every
manufacturer has his own ideas, which also extend to modifications
for the different varieties of fruit. One factory we know of did
not use any syrup whatever. The fruit was simply pressed quite
tight into the can, and had to depend on its own juice. The fruit
retained its natural color, taste, and aroma better than with the
use of syrup, but the important question whether its keeping
quality was equally good we are unfortunately not able to answer.
All manufacturers agree, however, that the best quality of white

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT. 379

sugar should be used for light-colored fruits, and light brown
sugar for dark-colored, and that the syrup must be perfectly clear,
and, hence, very carefully skimmed in boiling. In most factories
the syrup used consists of 1 Ib. of sugar dissolved in 1 pint of
water. The filling of the cans with the fruit and syrup, the latter
being generally kept warm, is effected with the assistance of a
scale, so that each can has exactly the weight upon which the
selling price is based. The caps previously provided with a hole
the size of a small pea are then soldered upon the cans. The hole
in the cap serves for the escape of the air during the succeeding
process.

Different kinds of apparatus are used for the expulsion of the
air by heating the cans. In large factories a steam retort is used
which resembles in shape a ship's steam boiler. It is provided
with a door closing air-tight, and is divided in the centre so that
it can be filled either half or entirely with steam, as may be
required. The cans to the number of from 400 to 600 are placed
upon trucks which run upon rails leading into the retort. Eight
such trucks can be introduced at one time, so that it is possible to
steam from 30,000 to 40,000 cans per day. The retort being filled
the door is closed and the pipe communicating with the steam
boiler opened. The cans remain in the retort from 15 to 30
minutes, according to the variety of the fruit : berries 1 5 minutes,
stone-fruits 20, apples and pears 25, quinces and tomatoes 30.
The door is then opened, and after the steam has some what dispersed
the trucks are quickly pushed to the tin-shop, where the cap-holes
are soldered up. To cleanse the cans and make them shiny they
are next put in a bath of soda water and then rinsed off with
cold fresh water. They are then transferred to the store room,
where they remain standing quietly for one week, when they are
tested by striking the cap of each a short sharp blow with a
wooden hammer. If everything is in order, the cap sinks slowly
down, but if it is elastic and jumps back the can is what is called
a " swellhead," and is returned to the tin-shop for repairs and is
then again steamed. The perfect cans are labelled and packed
and are now ready for market.

Another apparatus which can be highly recommended for small
factories consists of a round iron plate resting upon a brick basis

380 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

about one foot high. Two round iron rods run up opposite to
each other from the edge of this plate and serve as a support for a
movable iron cylinder open at the bottom and closed on top.
Upon the iron plate the cans are placed in the form of a pyramid,
and the cylinder is then drawn down and screwed air-tight to the
plate. A pipe communicating with the steam-boiler enters the
cylinder, and as soon as the latter is connected with the plate steam
is admitted. After a certain time, which corresponds with that
previously given, the steam is shut off, the cylinder pushed up,
and the cans removed, the further treatment of which is the same
as given above.

In many factories the cans are still heated, according to the old
method, in boiling water. For this purpose the cans — 100 at a
time — are placed upon an iron plate attached to a steam-crane and
submerged for 15 to 20 minutes in boiling water in a large shal-
low kettle. In this case the caps are not perforated, but soldered
down air-tight. A workman watches the cans while they remain
in the water and by means of a tool removes those from which
small bubbles arise ; such cans being not air-tight are returned to
the tin-shop for repairs. The rest after being heated are also
brought to the tinshop, where the caps are perforated with a hole
the size of a small pea, which is again soldered up after the escape
of the heated air.

The canning of tomatoes, asparagus, and other vegetables is
effected in a similar manner except that no syrup is used. For
the following description of tomato canning, which may serve as
a type for all the rest, we are indebted to Mr. Richard T. Starr,
of Salem, N. J.

The tomato was for many years found only in hot-houses and
conservatories of the rich. It was known as the love-apple and
considered a curiosity. Our ancestors had no idea that this small
red berry, for such was about its size, would ever, even under
careful cultivation, become of mammoth size and form one of
our most important articles of food. But such is actually the
case to-day. The exact time when the now great industry of can-
ning this vegetable commenced cannot be established with any
certainty. The taste for it seems to be an acquired one, and for
years the industry struggled in its infancy until the breaking

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT. 381

out of the War of the Rebellion caused a demand that rapidly
grew into gigantic proportions, and to-day finds the tomato-canning
industry employing an army of men, women, and children, while
millions of dollars are invested in the payment of labor and the
erection of plants.

In order that our readers may have a clear idea of the business
we will commence with the beginning. Having made up his mind
to engage in the business on an average scale, the packer will
first find a suitable plot of ground, on a navigable stream, if pos-
sible. Having secured this, the next thing is the erection of the
buildings ; these are generally one story in height and as large and
roomy as the capital will warrant. The next step is to secure the
requisite supply of fruit, and for this purpose the farmers are
drawn on and contracts entered into with them in which the
packer agrees to take the entire marketable product of a certain
number of acres or else to take so many tons. These contracts
are generally made about the first of the year, and as soon as the
sun drives the frost from the ground the farmer prepares his beds
and sows his seed. While the latter is growing the land which
is to be planted is heavily manured and plowed and carefully
worked until it becomes mellow, and then hills about four feet
apart are made, and into each one is put a small quantity of com-
post or phosphates. The tomato plants, having by this time
grown to the height of 6 or 8 inches, are taken from the beds, and
on a cloudy day or the latter part of a bright day transplanted
and tended about as other growing crops. With a favorable sea-
son the farmer should commence delivering to the factory about
the middle of August.

The arrangement of a canning factory is, of course, a matter
of taste, but the most complete, in our opinion, is one where every-
thing moves in a straight line, and in which none of the help is
obliged to interfere with one another. The first thing to be done
with a load of tomatoes is, of course, to weigh them, and for this
purpose platform scales are built at an end door and the wagons
driven on them. After being weighed the tomatoes are handed
over to the scalder. Tomatoes arriving in all kinds of weather
and conditions must, of course, not only be washed but scalded,
so as to thoroughly loosen the skin from the pulp, and to do this

382 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

quickly and properly, a heavy box of white pine is fitted with
both steam and water pipes and attached to it is an iron cradle
swinging on hinges and raised and lowered by a wheel and pulley
suspended above. On the back of this is placed a box, and as the
farmer hands off his baskets they are emptied into this box, and
at the command of the man at the rope, who is called the
" scalder/' they are dumped into the boiling water beneath. A
few seconds suffice to clean and scald them ; the cradle is then
raised and the tomatoes are poured into kettles set in front of the
scalder to receive them.

While this has been going on a group of women and girls have
been filing into the factory and seating themselves along the trays
that are to receive the tomatoes from the scalder. These trays are
of different construction, but are similar as regards length, breadth,-
and depth, the only difference being in the various ways of get-
ting rid of the water and juice. This is generally done by mak-
ing a slat frame fit in the bottom and over a trough fastened under
the tray. This leads to a drain, which carries it to the creek or
wherever else it is to go. At each tray are from ten to twelve
women, each of them furnished by the packer with a bowl and
knife, and provided at their own expense with a neat water-proof
apron. The tomatoes are dumped from the kettles in front of
them, and they remove rapidly the already loosened skins and
cores and deposit the prepared fruit in a bucket sitting beside
them. They become so efficient that a smart active woman will
frequently skin from 40 to 60 buckets a day, and as they receive
4 cents per bucket it Avill be seen they make fair wages. Standing
just beyond the women are the machines which fill the cans. To
describe them would be impossible, there being so many shapes
and many makes. Some are very good, some very poor, every
man thinks his the best, and so it goes, but in one respect they all
agree : they have a hopper into which the fruit is poured from the
buckets, and all have the plunger which forces the fruit into the
cans ; the treadles of some of them are moved by hand and some
by steam. The machines rapidly fill can after can, which are then
set on the " filling table" and receive " top them off/7 or in other
words the fruit is cleared away from the top of the can so that the
solder used in capping them will not become chilled. They are

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT. 383

then placed in trays each holding either 10 or 12 cans and re-
moved to the " wiping table," where everything is cleared from
the top, wiped dry with sponges, and the cap placed over the
opening. The " cappers" stand directly in front of the wiping
table, and each one has his own fire pot, irons, files, and everything
he uses before him. Taking the tray, he rapidly applies by means
of a small brush the acid or flux necessary to make the solder
flow freely around the cap, and then with the iron melts the solder
and puts it in the groove. The can is then vented and is ready
for the " bath." The baths except in size are constructed simi-
larly to the scalder and a thin cedar cover fits over each one. The
cans are placed in wire or iron crates, lowered into the boiling
water, and allowed to remain as long as necessary to cook them.
The time of working varies in the different factories, but all the
way from 30 to 50 minutes is required. They are then taken
from the bath and placed on a slat-floor, where the air can pass
through them, and when they are cold are "tested" generally by
striking them with an awl. The testers become so expert that
they can instantly detect by the sound an imperfect or leaking
can ; these are thrown out, mended, re-pressed, and put back in
the pile. The cans are now ready for the next thing, which is
labelling.

Labelling is done in different ways, and some canuers with an
idea of saving labor employ devices which are not only hard on
the young girls who do the work, but which often result in much
confusion and poor work. The best method is to divide the help
into parties of five, one girl sitting on one side of the table with
paste-pan, brush, and labels and the other four opposite her.
The one girl, if quick and active, will paste the ends of the labels
as fast as the other four can put them on the cans. The table is
of course alongside the pile of cans, and two smart boys will
place the cans on the table. As a girl labels a can she pushes it
from her, when it is taken by the boxer, put in the box, and
nailed up. This mode is simple and effective, and as the gang
will label from 700 to 900 cases in a day the work progresses
rapidly.

In many of the larger factories patent processing kettles, cap-
ping irons, and improved machinery are used, but as the result

384 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

is, of course, the same, and they do not affect the mode of pack-
ing, it is not thought necessary to enter into any description of
them.

In the foregoing an outline of the packing process has been
given, but nothing has been said of the many trials and vexa-
tions of a canner's life. If everything went always smoothly, it
would be as pleasant as any other business, but it does not. The
canner will early in the season employ his hands and commence
in a small way. He may start and run only two or three hours,
and for that length of time boilers will have to be fired up, help
got together, and at the close the factory cleansed the same as if
he had run the day out. Then, as the crop rapidly matures, work
becomes heavier, and at last the inevitable " glut" commences,
and he finds the products of 400 or 500 acres of perishable fruit
at his doors, may be 50 wagons, each owned by an impatient
farmer standing in the street waiting his turn to unload. That
is the time he has need of nerve ; help must be secured, every-
thing and everybody pushed to their utmost endurance, and from
early morning until way into the night, day after day, the work
goes on, help succumbs, and machinery breaks, but the factory
must move in storm and in sunshine. The work must go on, and
at last the agony is over, and the crop coming in again gradually
gives a little relief to the overworked people. And now the crop
is in, the farmer has brought his "good-bye" load, the force
places everything in winter-quarters, and with farewells and
thoughts of the future they separate for their homes and the
season in a tomato-canning factory is over.

The taste for tomatoes being, as previously mentioned, an ac-
quired one, and the people of European countries being slow to
take hold of them, the principal market the canner has is in this
country and the demands made by sea-going vessels. The min-
ing regions of Pennsylvania and of other States use large quan-
tities, and they have now become a necessity in many households,
some of the working classes using them largely in place of meat.
That they are a nutritious, healthy article of food has been
clearly proved, and the low prices of the past few years have
placed them within the reach of all. It would be an impossi-
bility to correctly state the amount of capital invested or the

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT. 385

number of persons employed in the industry. The States of
New Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware pack a large proportion of
the goods, the late falls and the nature *6f the soil being particu-
larly well adapted for raising tomatoes, and in every little village
in these States factories have sprung up like mushrooms within
the past few years. The business has been brought to a solid
basis, and with careful handling and the opening of a prosperous
business future it seems as if it ought to become one of the sub-
stantial enterprises of this country.

In connection with the canning of tomatoes it may be of
interest to our readers to give the preparation of

Catchups.

Under the name of catchup or catsup a thickly-fluid sauce
comes into commerce, which is used as a condiment with meat
and the fabrication of which has become of some importance.
Everywhere where Anglo-Saxons reside catchup is found, though
it has also been introduced on the continent of Europe and in the
tropics. The varieties most liked are tomato and walnut catch-
ups, and immense quantities of them are manufactured in the
American canning establishments. The mode of preparation is
so simple that it can be introduced into every kitchen.

Tomato catchup. — The receipts for making this favorite catchup
are innumerable, and should we take those of every packer and
housewife in the land and put them together they would make a
good-sized volume. We must therefore limit ourselves to giving
a few approved receipts.

Some factories will accumulate the skins and refuse of a
tomato -canning season, storing the same in vaults and vats until
the season is over, then cook the mass up and trust to a liberal
supply of oils and condiments to impose it on an unsuspecting
public as " fresh tomato catchup," but it is not fresh and should
not be called so. The proper way to make a good sweet article is
to place each day in vats or hogsheads the skins, etc., of the day.
These will by the next morning have become slightly fermented,
and the skin and pulp can be readily separated by rubbing them
either with a steam rubber or by hand in a fine copper sieve. In

25

386 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

this marmer all seeds, etc. are removed, and the pure, sweet juice
of the tomato alone remains. Take this, and, having your
kettles perfectly clean, place it in them and bring it sloicly to
a boil, carefully skimming off the scum that will rise to the
top. When it has cooked down about one-half put in your
cloves and allspice, which should be in bags, and let them remain
boiling with the rest. Shortly afterwards put in your other
spices, salt, pepper, etc. ; a small dash of ground cinnamon will
add much to the flavor, although the person making it must be
guided by his taste. From a third to half as much vinegar as
(there is juice should be put in when it is about half cooked, and
tthe mustard must be thoroughly mixed with vinegar before being
rput in. Let all now boil until it gets thoroughly done, and if too
thick, thin it while hot with vinegar and bottle or barrel as
desired. There can be no receipt given that will suit all
in regard to the amount of the different condiments to be used,
•as each person has ideas of his own, but all catchup should be
'made liotter than desired, as it will undoubtedly lose some of its
strength when it becomes cold. The best of spices and vinegar
sliould always be used, and every vessel into which it is put
should be perfectly clean and free from any mold or dust. Seal
the bottles carefully, and if you have them thoroughly air-tight
it will like wine improve with age.

The following receipts can be recommended : —

I. 'Take 15 quarts of thoroughly ripe tomatoes, 4 tablespoon-
fuls each of black pepper, salt, and allspice, 8 red peppers, and 3
'teaspoonfuls of mustard. The pepper and allspice must be ground
fine and the whole boiled slowly 3 to 4 hours; then pass all
•through .-a fine sieve and when cold put it in bottles, which must
be immediately sealed.

II. Boil 4 quarts of tomatoes together with 2 quarts of vine-
gar, 2 tablespoonfuls of red pepper, 4 tablespoon fuls of black
pepper, 1 tablespoonful of cloves, 1 teaspoonful of salt, and 1
ground nutmeg to a thick paste. Strain through a coarse-meshed
«ieve and sweeten the sauce obtained with J Ib. of sugar. Fill
in bottles and shake once every day for a week.

III. Cut up perfectly ripe tomatoes and place them upon the
fire until they commence to bubble. Then take them from the

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT. 387

fire, and when cool rub them with the hand through a hair-sieve
and season according to the following proportions: For each
quart of sauce add 1 teaspoonful of ground allspice, 1 teaspoonful
of ground cloves, 1 tablespoonful of salt, and 1 quart of wine-
vinegar. Stir the whole thoroughly together, replace it upon the
fire, and boil for one hour, with constant stirring. When cool
put the catchup in bottles and seal immediately.

Walnut catchup. — I. In June, when the walnuts are still soft,
take 10 dozen of them, and after crushing pour over them 2
quarts of wine-vinegar, add the following spices, all ground : 2
tablespoonfuls of black pepper, 1J oz. of nutmeg, 40 cloves, J oz.
of ginger, and J oz. of mace, and boil the whole J hour, stirring
constantly. When cold strain through a hair-sieve and put the
catchup in bottles.

II. Crush about 10 dozen of young, soft walnuts, sprinkle
f Ib. of salt over them, and then add 1 quart of vinegar. Let
the whole stand six weeks, stirring frequently. Then strain
through a bag, with constant pressing with the hand. Pour 1
pint of vinegar over the residue, let it stand over night, and
strain again through the bag. Combine the fluid with that pre-
viously obtained and season with the following spices, all ground :
1J oz. of black pepper, J oz. of nutmeg, J oz. of ginger, J oz. of
mace, and 40 cloves. Then boil J hour, strain through a hair-
sieve, and bottle.

Cucumber catchup. — Thoroughly ripe cucumbers, before turning
yellow, are peeled and grated upon a coarse grater. This paste is
brought into a colander to allow the juice to run off, then pressed
through a coarse hair-sieve to remove the seeds, and finally brought
into small, wide-mouthed bottles, which are filled f full. The re-
maining space is filled up with good wine-vinegar. This catchup
has the taste and odor of fresh cucumber, and is used as a condi-
ment with meat. Before bringing it to the table it is seasoned
to taste with salt and pepper.

Horseradish catchup.— The mode of preparation is the same as
for the preceding, putting the grated mass in a colander and
straining through a hair-sieve being, however, not necessary.
Both varieties of catchup must be immediately corked, sealed,
and kept in a cool place. Within the last few years both have

388 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

been prepared on a large scale in the United States and in Eng-
land, and have become an article of export. They are packed in
small, wide-mouthed bottles, sealed, and provided with gayly-
colored labels. Some English factories use small earthenware
pots of a cream color, closed with corks over which is tied strong
colored paper. The pots are very good, but the manner of
closing them is not ; the corks should be sealed.

Currant catchup. — Heat nearly to the boiling point, with con-
stant stirring, 4 Ibs. of thoroughly ripe currants together with 1 J
Ib. of sugar. Then add 1 tablespoonful each of cinnamon, salt,
cloves, and pepper — all finely pulverized — and 1 quart of vine-
gar. Boil the mixture one hour and then treat in the same man-
ner as tomato catchup.

Gooseberry catchup. — This product also comes into commerce
under the name of "spiced gooseberries;" it is an excellent con-
diment with roast fowl. Take 6 quarts of gooseberries, ripe or
unripe as may be desired, and carefully remove the stems and
pistils. Then bring them into a kettle, and after pouring some
water and scattering 5 Ibs. of pulverized sugar over them, boil
for 1J hour. After boiling for 1J hour add 4 Ibs. more of
sugar and 1 tablespoonful each of allspice, cloves, and cinnamon.
The catchup is not strained, but brought at once and while warm
into wide-mouthed bottles or pots, which are immediately corked
and sealed. It is advisable, before closing the bottles, to lay a
closely-fitting piece of salicylated paper upon the surface of the
catchup. The bottles should be kept in a cool place.

It is scarcely necessary to remark that catchup can be prepared
not only from the above, but from all varieties of fruit, as it is
only necessary to take one of the above receipts as a type. But,
with few exceptions, those given are the only catchups prepared
on a large scale and brought into commerce.

Another subject which may be referred to in connection with
the preservation of fruit is the preparation of

Fruit-butter , Marmalade, and Jelly.

Fruit-butter. — The manufacture of apple-butter, which may
serve as a type of that of all other fruit-butters, is effected as

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT. 389

follows : Fill the boiler two-thirds full with the juice of sweet
and bitter-sweet apples in about the same proportion as given
for the manufacture of cider. The other third of the boiler is
filled up with slices of ripe, juicy apples, and the mixture boiled,
with frequent stirring. When the slices of apples are so soft that
they commence to fall to pieces, they are carefully removed from
the boiler by means of a skimmer, care being had to allow the
juice to run oif. The same quantity of fresh slices of apples is
then brought into the juice and boiled in the same manner as the
preceding. When these have acquired the necessary degree of
softness, the entire contents of the kettle, together with the slices
of apples previously boiled, are brought into a stoneware pot and
allowed to stand covered for 12 hours. The mass is then re-
placed upon the fire and boiled, with constant stirring, until it
has acquired the consistency of soft soap. If desired, it can at
the same time be seasoned with cinnamon, nutmeg, etc. To pre-
vent scorching the second boiling is effected in vessels standing
in boiling water.

In the same manner fruit-butter can be prepared from all
varieties of fruit, pear or apple juice forming, however, always
the boiling liquor. Apple and peach butters are commercially of
the greatest importance, though butter of quinces, pears, black-
berries, cherries, plums, and cranberries is also manufactured on
a large scale. Whortleberries, which grow in enormous quantities
in some parts of the country, might also form an excellent material
for this product. In the foregoing only the varieties are mentioned
which are manufactured on a large scale by American and English
factories that chiefly control the trade in fruit-butters, but these do
not by any means exhaust the list ; green gages can, for instance,
be highly recommended for the purpose.

The excellent product brought from France into commerce
under the name of raisine is prepared in the above manner by
slowly boiling sliced apples and pears in unfermented grape-juice.

Fruit-butter is packed in wooden buckets of 5 or 10 Ibs. capa-
city. Tin cans holding 2 Ibs. jire also sometimes used, but they are
not liked. The buckets are slightly conical towards the top and
are provided with a wire handle. Resinous wood should not be
used in their construction, as it would impart an odor to the fruit-

390 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

butter. The buckets are filled up to the edge, and a closely fitting
round piece of paper previously saturated with concentrated
solution of salicylic acid in whiskey is laid on top of the butter.
The tight-fitting lid is placed upon the bucket without being
sealed or otherwise closed. A large label occupying the space
between the lower and upper hoops finishes the packing.

Marmalade. — The same product is sometimes called marmalade
and sometimes jam. The French prepare only marmalade, while
the Englishman brings the same product into commerce as jam
or as marmalade, just as it may suit him best, and the German is
not much better. The manufacturers, to be sure, would some-
times like the public to believe that marmalade is a finer product
containing more sugar and spices than jam, but such is not the
case, because the raw material and the mode of preparation are
the same. The term marmalade was originally applied to a jam
prepared from quinces, it being derived from marmdo, the Portu-
guese word for quince. The term was gradually given to all
jams in order to give them a more distinguished character, and this
has led to a confusion of terms which sometimes extends even to
jelly. There is, however, a wide distinction : marmalade or jam
is prepared from the pulp of fruit and jelly from the juice, while
fruit-butter, as above indicated, is a blending of both with the
omission of sugar.

For the manufacture of marmalade on a large scale all the rules
and receipts can be condensed as follows : The fruit must be of
excellent quality, entirely free from blemishes and washed per-
fectly clean. Kernel fruit is peeled, quartered, and freed from the
cores ; peaches are also peeled, halved, and stoned ; other stone-
fruit is only stoned and halved, while berries are carefully freed
from the stems. Melons and pumpkins are peeled and cut into
small pieces. Rhubarb should not be washed but rubbed with a
moist cloth and be then cut into small pieces. Tomatoes are to be
peeled, which is facilitated by previously placing them for one
minute in hot water. Being thus prepared the fruit is brought
into a copper kettle and as much water as is required for boiling
added. While the fruit is boiling, weigh off as many pounds of
white sugar as there is fruit, soak it in water, boil and skim care-
fully. The fruit should be boiled quickly, and when perfectly

PKESERVATION OF FRUIT. 391

«oft is allowed to cool off somewhat and then rubbed through a
wide-meshed hair-sieve. The mass passing through the sieve is
combined with the sugar and replaced upon the fire. The whole
is then boiled, with constant stirring, to the required consistency.
The latter is tested by taking a small sample with a wooden or
bone spoon — nothing else should be used — and if it draws threads
between the fingers the boiler is removed from the fire. The
marmalade is then brought into straight jars, and after laying a
piece of salicylated paper on top, the jars are tied up with white
parchment paper or sometimes covered with a glass cover and
labelled. It may be remarked that in the last stage of boiling
the marmalade is sometimes flavored, which is generally effected
by stirring in lemon juice, cinnamon, and nutmeg according to
taste. The liquor obtained by boiling crushed kernels of plums
or peaches is also frequently at the same time added as flavoring.
Frequently the sugar is not treated as stated above, but added in
the form of powder.

The quantity of sugar has above been given in the proportion
of 1 Ib. to 1 Ib. of fruit. Though this is the customary rule, many
manufacturers use only J Ib. of sugar, a method which can be
highly recommended. In fact there is frequently a perfect waste
as regards the addition of sugar, some adding even 1J Ib. of it to
the pound, whereby the taste of fruit is entirely lost and the pro-
duct, on account of its sweetness, becomes repugnant to many.
It may be laid down as a rule that in all fruit boiling no more
sugar than is absolutely necessary should be used. The secret of
the great reputation the products of the principal American fac-
tories enjoy in all portions of the world is simply due to the fact
that they use as little sugar as possible, whereby the products are
rendered not only cheaper but they retain their natural fruit taste,
and that is what the consumer desires and not a sugary paste
having only the color of the preserved fruit. The durability of
the product need not necessarily suffer if due care is exercised in
its preparation. Marmalade should not be made, as it is only too
frequently done, from fruit which has been gathered for several
days and shows signs of decay. Fruit not over-ripe and freshly
gathered should be used and the boiling finished as quickly as
possible. By then rinsing the jars with salicylated water and

392 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

covering the marmalade with a piece of paper saturated with con-
centrated solution of salicylic acid or with alcohol, } Ib. of sugar
to 1 Ib. of fruit will be ample, and even J ib. with sweet fruits
such as pears, raspberries, etc. Independently of the saving of
sugar, such marmalade will give better satisfaction than an article
twice as sweet, and will keep well in a dark cool place.

From France a very fine perfumed apple marmalade is brought
into commerce. It is prepared from equal parts of Calvilles and
Pippins, and after boiling is sprinkled with rose-water or violet
essence.

The term tutti-frutti is applied to marmalade prepared from a
mixture of different kinds of fruit. As the name implies it is
of Italian origin. The composition is made according to taste
and the fruits at disposal.

Jelly. — This product is, unfortunately, often made expensive
and at the same time spoiled by too large an addition of sugar.
Many housekeepers do not like to prepare jellies under the pre-
text that it requires too much sugar; but this is an error, because
in France, in factories as well as in households, they use only J
pound, or at the utmost f pound, of sugar to the pound of fruit,
instead of 1 pound or even 1 J pound, as is customary in Eng-
land, Germany, and parts of the United States. Moreover, the
apple-jelly which is made in the United States and sent to all
parts of the world is made without any addition of sugar. In-
stead of apples, as the raw material, apple-juice is used, which
must be perfectly sweet and treated immediately after it comes
from the press. A moderate temperature is absolutely necessary
for success, for, if the juice commences to ferment — and it does
very rapidly in warm weather — the keeping quality of the jelly
is injured, except it be mixed with a considerable quantity of
sugar. A temperature of 41° F. is considered the most suitable,
and if it rises to above 66° F. the manufacture is at once stopped.
The juice runs directly from the press into the boiler, under
which a strong fire is kept because the starchy matters contained
in the juice are only converted into sugar if the boiling down is
quickly effected. For this reason shallow pans offering a large
surface to the fire are used. When the juice commences to boil
it is clarified, and the acid it contains neutralized by the addition

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT. 393

of one teaspoonful of elutriated chalk to each quart of juice.
The chalk weighed off in this proportion is mixed with the juice,
and appears in a few minutes as a thick scum upon the surface
from which it is carefully removed with a skimmer. By this
operation the jelly is clarified, and all the albuminous substances
contained in it being removed by the chalk, filtering is not re-
quired. The process is similar to the defecation of the juice of
sugar-cane and beets by lime. The juice is now boiled to the
consistency of 30° or 32° B., which is found on cooling to be the
proper point for perfect jelly. It is then filled direct from the
pan into tumblers, which are treated in the same manner as mar-
malade jars.

Successful jelly boiling on a large scale is impossible without
the use of the saccharometer. It is the only reliable guide for
the addition of sugar, for if the product is to be protected from
spoiling it must show from 30° to 32°. If this result can be
reached without the addition of sugar, it is so much the better.

Pear and mulberry jellies are prepared in exactly the same
manner as above. Other fruits containing more acid require an
addition of sugar, especially currants, which next to apples and
pears are most used for jelly, but in no case is the same weight of
juice and sugar required.

To prepare jelly from berries and other small fruit, pour hot
water over the fruit in order to free it from adhering dirt and to
facilitate the separation of the juice. When the water is cool
take the berries out, express the juice, and bring the latter im-
mediately into a copper or brass kettle over a lively fire. Then
stir in pulverized sugar, the quantity of which varies according
to the variety of fruit. For raspberries, strawberries, and black-
berries J pound of sugar to the pound of juice will be sufficient,
and § pound or at the utmost f pound for currants, barberries,
elderberries, and whortleberries. The sugar being added stir in
the chalk in the proportion previously given, and after allowing
the Juice to boil not longer than 15 minutes, take it from the fire
and strain it at once into the glasses. In this manner a clear,
beautiful jelly of an agreeable taste will be obtained. If, on the
other hand, the juice is boiled slowly over a weak fire, the result
will be a turbid product which has lost its fruity taste.

394 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

Stone-fruit is boiled, and after boiling it with a small quantity
of water until soft the juice is pressed out and f pound of sugar
added for every pound. It should be boiled quickly, and not, as
some receipts have, for f hour. Quinces are peeled and then
treated like stone-fruit. Rhubarb is cut into small pieces and
then treated in the same manner. A quite good jelly can also be
prepared from the medlar, provided it is allowed to become com-
pletely ripe, and is then slowly steamed with a very small quan-
tity of water. When thoroughly soft the juice is pressed out
and f pound of sugar added to each quart. The mass is sharply
boiled for 20 minutes, when the result will be a clear jelly.

In France, as previously mentioned, perfumed marmalade is
prepared from equal parts of Calvilles and Pippins. From the
same material, which is considered best for the purpose, a per-
fumed jelly is also prepared. The apples are not peeled, but cut
into slices, and boiled with a small quantity of water until soft
enough to be pressed in a filter-bag. To every pound of juice
J pound of sugar is added, and five minutes before the saccharo-
meter indicates 30° B., J or J pound of violet blossoms is stirred
into the juice, a few drops of cochineal being generally added to
improve the color. The jelly, when finished, is strained through
a hair-sieve into wide-mouthed bottles which are corked and
sealed.

A jelly is made from raspberries, and sometimes also from
strawberries and blackberries, in which the berries remain intact.
The process consists in dissolving 2 pounds of white sugar in
water and boiling until thickly fluid. Two pounds of berries are
then brought into the kettle and carefully mixed with the sugar
so as to avoid crushing. The kettle is then taken from the fire
and allowed to stand covered for 15 minutes, when it is replaced
and the sugar boiled up once more. The product is kept in jars
well corked and sealed.

In conclusion we give the process of manufacturing apple-jelly
in the largest factory in Oswego County, New York, as described
by Mr. Dewitt C. Peck. There are some features peculiar to this
establishment which may be new and interesting.

The factory is located on the Salmon Creek, which affords the
necessary power. A portion of the main floor, first story, is occu-

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT. 395

pied as a saw-mill, the slabs furnishing fuel for the boiler furnace
connected with the evaporating department. Just above the mill,
along the bank of the pond and with one end projecting over the
water, are arranged eight large bins holding from 500 to 1000
bushels each, into which the apples are delivered from the teams.
The floor in each of these has a sharp pitch or inclination towards
the water, and at the lower end is a gate through which the fruit
is discharged, when wanted, into a large trough half submerged
in the pond.

Upon hoisting a gate in the lower end of this trough consider-
able current is caused, and the water carries the fruit a distance
of from 30 to 100 feet, and passes into the basement of the mill,
where, tumbling down a four-foot perpendicular fall into a tank,
tight , in its lower half and slatted, so as to permit the escape of
water and impurities, in the upper half, the apples are thoroughly
cleansed from all earthy or extraneous matter. Such is the fric-
tion caused by the concussion of the fall, the rolling and rubbing
of the apples together, and the pouring of the water, that decayed
sections of the fruit are ground off and the rotten pulp passes
away with other impurities. From this tank the apples are
hoisted upon an endless chain elevator, with buckets in the form
of a rake-head with iron teeth, permitting drainage and escape of
water, to an upper story of the mill, whence by gravity they de-
scend to the grater. The press is wholly of iron ; all its motion,
even to the turning of the screws, being actuated by the water-
power.

The cheese is built up with layers inclosed in strong cotton
cloth, which displaces the straw used in olden times and serves
also to strain the juice. As it is expressed from the press tank
the juice passes to a storage tank and thence to the defecator.
This defecator is a copper pan 11 feet long and about 3 feet wide.
At each end of this pan is placed a copper tube 3 inches in diam-
eter and closed at both ends. Lying between and connecting
these two are twelve tubes also of copper, 1J inch in diameter,
penetrating the larger tubes at equal distances from their upper
and under .surfaces ; the smaller being parallel with each other,
and 1J inch apart. When placed in position the larger tubes,
which act as manifolds, supplying the smaller with steam, rest

396 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

upon the bottom of the pan, and thus the smaller pipes have a
space of } inch underneath their outer surfaces.

The apple-juice conies from the storage tank in a continuous
stream about f inch in diameter. Steam is introduced to the
large or manifold tubes, and from them distributed through the
smaller ones at a pressure of from 25 to 30 Ibs. per inch. Trap-
valves are provided for the escape of water formed by condensa-
tion within the pipes.

The primary object of the defecator is to remove all impurities
and perfectly clarify the liquid passing through it.

All portions of pomace and other minute particles of foreign
matter, when heated, expand and float in the form of scum upon
the surface of the juice. An ingeniously contrived floating rake
drags off this scum and delivers it over the side of the pan. To
facilitate this removal, one side of the pan, commencing at a point
just below the surface of the juice, is curved gently outward and
upward, terminating in a slightly inclined plane, over the edge
of which the scum is pushed by the rake into a trough and car-
ried away.

A secondary purpose served by the defecator is that of reducing
the juice by evaporation to a partial syrup of the specific gravity
of about 20° B. When of this consistency the liquid is drawn
from the bottom and the less agitated portion of the defecator by
a syphon and thence carried to the evaporator, which is located
upon the same framework and just below the defecator.

The evaporator consists of a separate system of six copper tubes,
each 12 feet long and 3 inches in diameter. These are jacketed,
or inclosed in an iron pipe of 4 inches internal diameter, fitted
with steam-tight collars so as to leave half an inch space sur-
rounding the copper tubes. The latter are open at both ends,
permitting the admission and egress of the syrup and the escape
of the steam caused by evaporation therefrom, and are arranged
upon the frame so as to have a very slight inclination downward
in the direction of the current, and each nearly underneath its
predecessor in regular succession. Each is connected by an iron
supply-pipe, having a steam-gauge or indicator attached, with a
large manifold, and that by other pipes with a steam boiler of 30
horse-power capacity.

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT. 397

Steam being let on at from 25 to 30 Ibs. pressure, the stream
of syrup is received from the defecator through a strainer, which
removes any impurity possibly remaining, into the upper evapo-
rator tube ; passing in a gentle flow through that, it is delivered
into a funnel connected with the next tube below, and so back
and forth through the whole system. The syrup enters the
evaporator at a consistency of from 20° to 23° B. and emerges
from the last tube, some three minutes later, at a consistency of
from 30° to 32° B., which is found on cooling to be the proper
point for perfect jelly. This point is found to vary one or two
degrees, according to the fermentation consequent upon bruises in
handling the fruit, decay of the same, or any little delay in ex-
pressing the juice from the cheese. The least fermentation occa-
sions the necessity for a lower reduction. To guard against this,
no cheese is allowed to stand over night, no pomace left in the
grater or vat, no juice in the tank; and further to provide against
fermentation a large water-tank is located upon the roof and filled
by a force-pump, and by means of hose connected with this, each
grater, press, vat, tank, pipe, trough, or other article of machinery
used can be thoroughly washed and cleansed. Hot water instead
of juice is sometimes sent through the defecator, evaporator, etc.,
until all are thoroughly scalded and purified.

If the saccharometer shows too great or too little reduction, the
matter is easily regulated by varying the steam pressure in the
evaporator by means of a valve in the supply pipe.

If boiled cider instead of jelly is wanted for making pies,
sauces, etc., it is drawn off from one of the upper evaporator tubes,
according to the consistency desired ; or it can be procured at the
end of the process by simply reducing the steam pressure.

As the jelly emerges from the evaporator it is transferred to a
tub holding some 50 gallons, and by mixing a little therein any
slight variations in reduction or in the sweetness or sourness of
the fruit used are equalized. From this it is drawn through fau-
cets, while hot, into the various packages in which it is shipped
to market.

A favorite form of package for family use is a nicely turned
little wooden bucket with cover and bail, of two sizes, holding 5

398 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

and 10 pounds respectively. The smaller packages are shipped
in cases for convenience in handling.

The present product of this factory is from 1500 to 1800 pounds
of jelly each day of 10 hours. It is calculated that improvements
now in progress will increase this to something more than a ton
per day. Each bushel of fruit will produce from 4 to 5 pounds
of jelly, fruit ripening late in the season being more productive
than other varieties. Crab-apples produce the finest jelly, sour
crabbed natural fruit makes the best-looking article, and a mixture
of all varieties gives most satisfactory results as to flavor and gen-
eral quality.

Saving of the apple-seeds. — As the pomace is shovelled from the
finished cheese it is again ground under a toothed cylinder, and
thence drops into large troughs th rough a succession of which a
considerable stream of water is flowing. Here it is occasionally
agitated by raking from the lower to the upper end of the trough,
as the current carries it downward, and the apple-seeds becoming
disengaged drop to the bottom into still water while the pulp
floats away upon the stream. A succession of troughs serves to
remove nearly all the seeds.

The value of the apple-seeds thus saved is sufficient to pay the
daily wages of all the hands employed in the establishment.

The apples are measured in the wagon-box, one-and-a-half
cubic feet being accounted a bushel.

The establishment is owned by George B. Bloomer, of Xew
York, who is also the inventor of the defecator, evaporator, and
much of the other machinery in use. It was erected late in the
season of 1880, and manfactured that year about 45 tons of jelly,
besides considerable cider exchanged to the farmers for apples,
and some boiled cider.

The price paid for apples in 1880, when the crop was super-
abundant, was 6 to 8 cents per bushel ; in 1881, 15 cents.

Such institutions are important to the farmer in that they use
much fruit, not otherwise valuable and very perishable. Fruit so
crabbed and gnarled as to have no market value, and even frozen
apples, if delivered while yet solid, can be used. Such apples
are placed in the water while frozen, the water draws the frost
sufficiently to allow of their being grated, and passing through

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT.

399

the press and evaporator before there is time for chemical change,
they are found to make very good jelly. These establishments
are valuable to the consumer by converting the perishable, cheap,
almost worthless crop of abundant years into such enduring form
that its consumption may be carried over to the years of scarcity,
and furnish healthful food in cheap and pleasant form to many
who would otherwise be deprived, and lastly they are of great
interest to society in that they give to the juice of the apple twice
the value for purposes of food which it has or can have, even to
the manufacturer, for use as a beverage.

We will finally devote some space to the description of the
most important apparatus required in the preservation of fruit, viz :

The Kettle.

Without entering into a discussion of the various kettles used
in other countries, we give in Fig. 75 an illustration of a very
practical apparatus much used in American preserving establish-
ments. A few words will suffice for explanation. A, B, C iudi-

Fig. 75.

cate a washing apparatus for washing the fruit, and which can be
lifted out. When this is done a lid similar to D is hung near the
chimney. The basket or crate E, as here shown, is of wire, in
which form it serves for fruit to be dipped into hot water for a
few moments only, as, for instance, peaches which are to be pared.

400 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

For boiling down in a water bath a copper basket is used. The
fire-place is of double sheet iron, the doors and grate of cast-iron.
The kettle is of copper and jacketed on the four sides with two
inch boards. In the centre it is divided by a movable copper
partition. It is 10 inches deep, 48 inches wide, and 60 inches
long. The entire apparatus weighs 1 50 pounds. It is, of course,
scarcely necessary to mention that this kettle is manufactured in
all sizes according to the requirements of the manufacturer. As
seen in the illustration, the fire-place extends beneath the entire
width and length of the kettle whereby the contents are quickly
heated with a comparatively small consumption of fuel. The
apparatus being transportable it can be placed wherever most
convenient, and being accessible from all sides its use is very con-
venient and saves time.

CHAPTER XXX.

EVAPORATION OF FRUIT.

OF all the methods employed for preserving fruit for any length
of time none has a greater future before it than the one to be dis-
cussed in this chapter. The reason for this can be readily given :
the process does not require great technical skill; it excels in
cheapness because neither vessels, sugar, nor other auxiliaries are
required, the product possesses excellent keeping qualities, retains
its natural flavor, and being healthier and more agreeable than
fruit preserved by any other method, is especially suitable for food
for the masses.

Evaporated fruit of to-day is entirely different from the dried
fruit of a dozen years ago. Who does not remember the shrivelled,
dark-colored, wedge-shaped pieces of apple and peach that were
sold by the family grocer ? They possessed the tenacity of sole-
leather and were uninviting to look and smell. Before they could
be used in the home-made pies they required to be boiled and
stewed for hours at a time. The preparation of dried fruits of
those days was primitive. Farmers' wives and daughters pared

EVAPORATION OF FRUIT. 401

and sliced the apples by hand and placed them on wooden trays,
which were set out in the sun. It took days to dry the fruit,
and exposure to showers and the night air had to be avoided or
the lot would be spoiled. The advent of steam evaporators and
scientific methods has wrought a great change in the business.
Large evaporating establishments have been put up, thousands of
men given employment, and a prosperous industry created. The
superiority of the evaporated fruits to the sun-dried article has
caused an immense demand for them, and aside from the con-
sumption in this country large amounts are shipped abroad. The
new processes now in use produce fruit that retains much of its
original color, and that is as palatable as though it were in its fresh
and natural condition.

The following statement may suffice to show to what proportions
the business has grown: Within a radius of 40 miles of Roches-
ter, New York, there are 1 500 evaporators, from the small farm-
house apparatus, with a capacity of 25 bushels per day, to the
large steam evaporators drying from 800 to 1000 bushels of apples
every 24 hours. These evaporators employ over 30,000 hands
during the fall and early winter months. Large quantities of
apples of a quality that was formerly wasted are utilized, and the
profits of fruit raising largely increased. The annual product
of evaporated fruit in the State of New York alone is now esti-
mated at 30,000,000 pounds worth at first cost about $2,000,000.
In order to produce this quantity of dried fruit no less than
5,000,000 bushels of apples are required and 15,000 tons of coal
consumed. A constant attendance, night and day, of an army of
men, women, and children, numbering 30,000, is necessary. The
process of evaporation eliminates 225,000 tons of water, reducing
the green fruit to about one-eighth of its original weight, each
100 Ibs. yielding when properly evaporated 12 Ibs. of fruit.

Aside from the fact that evaporated fruit can be transported to
any clime without deterioration, the advantage in the cost of
freight is great. A case of concentrated product costs 30 cents for
transportation to Liverpool ; in the green state the 8J bushels
required to produce the 50 Ibs. contained in each case, would cost
$2.25, and in the canned state the cost would be $2.10. The
total exports of evaporated and dried apples for the fiscal year

26

THF.

402 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

ending June 30, 1888, were 1,803,161 Ibs., of the value of
$812,682. Some idea may be gathered of the enormous increase
of the fruit-growing industry from the fact that in 1850 the fruit
crop of the United States was valued only at $8,000,000, while
in 1886 it was estimated at $137,000,000.

The process of evaporating fruit is a comparatively recent one,
it being not more than fifteen years since the granting of the Aldeu
patent. Like all other new inventions some years were required
before its merits became thoroughly understood, though at the
Paris Exhibition of 1878 the first prize was unanimously awarded
to the fruit dried by that process. Since then it has spread from
California, where it was first introduced, throughout the entire
country, and has created a complete revolution in the fruit industry.
A number of other apparatuses have been invented, but they are
all based upon the same principle. At first only kernel and stone-
fruits were evaporated, but at the present time the list comprises
the following articles : apples, pears, peaches, apricots, plums,
nectarines, figs, cherries, blackberries, grapes, green corn, peas,
potatoes, sweet potatoes, onions, tomatoes, pumpkins, rhubarb,
asparagus, hops, tobacco, meat, oysters, fish, and eggs. This list
is not by any means complete, because what has been said of the
canning industry also holds good as regards the evaporating
establishments : they every year include within the sphere of their
activity new suitable articles. And it is no wonder, because their
products bring double the price of those dried in the sun or in the
oven. A great advantage of evaporated fruit is that it, even after
years, regains its natural form and freshness when placed a few
hours in fresh water and then boiled up with an abundant addition
of water. No leathery skin nor unnatural taste of sugar is ob-
served. To all who desire the natural taste of the fruit there can
be no question that evaporated fruit is preferable to that preserved
with sugar in cans, which at the present time is its principal com-
petitor. And this result is obtained by less expensive means and
with greater certainty. The tin cans cost sometimes four times
as much as the fruit they contain, and the loss by leakage amounts
on an average to 10 per cent., though occasionally to the entire
value of the shipment. Complaints have been made by nearly
every expedition to the North Pole that a considerable portion of
their canned goods had to be thrown overboard, making retrench-

EVAPORATION OF FRUIT. 403

ment necessary, which sometimes amounted to actual want. When,
in 1881, the steamer " Rodgers" was ready to sail from San Fran-
cisco in search of the " Jeanette" it was detained for eight days by
the discovery that of the stock of canned goods on board 4000
cans were leaky, and contained provisions already in a state of
decay. Every sea-captain can tell of the same kind of experience.
The blame rests partially upon the manufacturers who permit the
work to be done carelessly, and do not take into consideration that
the slighest access of air spoils the contents of the can, but par-
tially also upon the mode of preservation itself, because even
faultlessly closed cans have the disadvantage that when once
opened their contents must be immediately used, while the packages
containing evaporated fruit may remain open for years in every
climate. Moreover, in eating the latter, lead poisoning need not
be feared, and, as previously stated, it has the further advantage
of a great reduction in the cost of freight. Green peas, of which,
as is well known, immense quantities are canned, may serve as
another example. In the canned state seven boxes of them weigh
350 Ibs., while one box of evaporated peas, which contains the
same quantity of substance, but deprived of its content of water,
weighs only 43 Ibs., though when placed upon the table there is
not the slighest difference as regards quality between the two
articles. Taking into account all these advantages, and considering
at the same time that by a good method of drying the hazards
and annoyances connected with the preservation of fruit in a fresh
state can be largely overcome, it must be concluded that the
evaporating process is destined to play in the future a still greater
part in the preservation of fruit than it does already at the
present time.

Before entering upon a description of the apparatus and its use,
it will be necessary to explain the principle upon which it is based
and the theory of evaporating fruit.

The object to be attained is not only to make the fruit keep,
but also to retain the properties for which it is valued. This can
only be reached by withdrawing the content of water, and at the
same time converting a portion of the starch into sugar in as short
a time as possible without boiling the fruit. The latter would
injure the taste of the fruit, and slow drying gives a flavor calling
to mind decay. The quicker the watery portions are removed

404 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

from thoroughly ripe fruit the richer and more durable its taste
will be; and the more completely the oxygen of the air is ex-
cluded during this process the more perfectly will it retain its
color. Rapidity of the drying process sometimes increases the
content of sugar by 25 per cent., and this increase is in an exact
proportion to a slower or quicker evaporation of the content of
water, always provided, however, the fruit does not suffer injury
from the heat.

Any one who has boiled down the juice of the maple, sorghum,
sugar-cane, or sugar-beet knows that with slow evaporation sugar is
not formed, the content of sugar being then converted into acid.
Now, the change of substance must be constantly kept in view :
starch is converted into sugar (in this case very largely already in
the plant), sugar into alcohol, and alcohol into vinegar. This ex-
perience must also hold good in drying fruit. The chemical pro-
cess by which the content of starch of the fruit, when brought into
a high temperature, is converted into sugar is similar to that during
the ripening process on the tree, only it takes place more rapidly.

A few days of warm sunshine produce sufficient sugar in goose-
berries and grapes to change the sour unpalatable fruits to a re-
freshing article of food. A few hours in an evaporating appa-
ratus, in which the proper degree of heat is maintained, can produce
a still greater change, provided the fruit be not placed in it before
it has reached perfection in a natural manner. It must be re-
membered that 212° F. is the boiling point, and that subsequent
treatment, no matter how careful, cannot restore the taste lost in
such a temperature. Of no.less importance is another point : the
surface of the fruit to be dried must be kept moist and soft, so
that the internal moisture may find a way by which it can readily
and quickly escape, and a strong hot current of air must uninter-
ruptedly pass over the fruit to carry off the escaping moisture.
Hence, cold air must under no circumstances have access to drying
fruit, and above the latter an aperture must be provided for the
escape of the air saturated with moisture.

The apprehension that fruit cannot be dried in a hot moist ap-
paratus is refuted by the well-known scientific fact, that air of the
temperature of the freezing point absorbs TJV part of its weight
of moisture, and that its capacity for absorption doubles with
every 15° C. (59° F.) of higher temperature. Thus, if the tern-

EVAPORATION OF FRUIT. 405

perature is 59° F. it absorbs J^ part of its weight of water, 86°
F. J-o Part, 113° F- TO Part, 140° F. ^ part, 167° F. J part,
194° F. f part, and 221° F. its own weight, which is nearly
equal to one pound of wrater to every J cubic foot of air.

The fruit would evidently never become dry if the air loaded
with such moisture remained stationary, but set it in motion with
a velocity of 880 feet per minute, which is equal to 20 miles per
hour, and the cause of the rapid drying, or, in other words, of
the withdrawal of water, becomes apparent. Xow if we figure
to ourselves an apparatus of 225 cubic feet content, the air heated
to 212° F. in it contains, according to the above statement, 60
pounds of water, 50 pounds of which have been withdrawn from
the fruit, while the remaining 10 pounds were contained in the
air prior to its entrance into the apparatus, because its tempera-
ture is supposed to be 62.5° F. With sufficient circulation to
empty the apparatus every 20 minutes, 150 pounds of water will
each hour be carried from a quantity of fruit supposed to amount
to 800 pounds. Hence, in 5 hours, the time generally required,
for apples, 750 pounds of moisture could be removed if present.

Moreover, reference to a drying apparatus is not required to
prove that heat alone does not suffice for drying. Is it not the
wind which dries up the puddles after a rain more quickly than
the hottest rays of the sun? The sun alone would effect nothing
else but envelop the moist earth in a dense mantle of vapor de-
structive to both men and animals. Thus in the drying appa-
ratus also it is rather the current of air which dries than the heat,
but, of course, both must work in conjunction. The rapidity of
the process prevents decay, and causes the color and aroma of
the fresh fruit to be retained. The greater advantage of this
rapidity consists, however, in the conversion of a considerable
quantity of starch into sugar, which in sweet fruits, such as
peaches, is sometimes formed in such abundance as to appear in
small congealed drops upon the surface.

From the preceding it will also be readily understood why
drying in the sun or in the oven must yield unsatisfactory re-
sults. Even with favorable weather the process lasts about 14
days ; during this long time a fermentation sets in which par-
tially destroys the content of sugar, and essentially changes the
color and taste in an unfavorable direction. Such fruit when

406* VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

boiled tastes as if it had been preserved after the appearance of
decay. Besides, during this process, the fruit is frequently
selected as a breeding place by insects, in consequence of which it
soon spoils, and when shipped to a distance resembles on arrival
at its place of destination a heap of maggots. Such cases are not
rare, especially if the dried fruit is shipped to tropical countries.

Drying in the oven has the disadvantage that the dry heat imme-
diately closes the pores of the fruit, thereby rendering the escape
of the internal moisture very difficult. If the heat is not very
strong the fruit remains moist in the interior, which causes it to
spoil, and with a strong heat the surface carbonizes more or less.
A portion of the sweetness is lost by being converted into cara-
mel, the appearance of the fruit suffers by the tough shrivelling of
the surface, and the taste is injured by carbonization.

All these disadvantages are avoided by the modern evapo-
rating process, which may be called a preservation of the fruit
in its own juice with the assistance of steam.

A chemical analysis of a parcel of Baldwin apples shows best
the changes effected in the composition of fruit by drying in the
oven and by evaporation, and how the results with these two
methods compare with each other. The first column gives the
composition of 500 parts of fresh Baldwin apples. The second
column gives the composition of the same parcel of apples after
being reduced to 100 parts (loss of 400 parts of water) by drying
in the oven, and the third column the result of 100 parts of the
same parcel reduced by evaporation.

Water (free and fixed) .

Fresh.

. 411.15
9 60

Dried in
the oven.
12.42

10 54

Evapo-
rated.
16.62
10 22

Starch ....
Protein ....
Pectine ....
Gum ....

. 32.95
. 0.75
. 12.35
. 6.75
6.70

30.95
0.80
11.35

7.22
4.88

29.75
0.76
10.88
4.33
3.43

Mineral constituents
Chlorophyl
Dextrin ....

. 0.85
. 0.15

0.87
0.12
2.10

0.78
0.15

Grape sugar .
Volatile oils, traces

. 18.75

18.75

23.08

500.00 100.00 100.00

EVAPORATION OF FRUIT.

407

Fig. 76.

Attention must especially be drawn to the fact that dextrin,
the formation of which is due to dry heat, is only found in the
second column, and must be considered
as an essential disadvantage of drying
in the oven. The absence of this sub-
stance in evaporated fruit, as well as
the presence of a larger quantity of
water (chemically fixed), is to be as-
cribed to the influence of moisture dur-
ing evaporation.

A presentation of the process of evapo-
rating fruit must be preceded by a de-
scription of the apparatus used. Fig.
76 shows the Alden apparatus as re-
cently perfected. A is the air-furnace,
which is formed by the fire-box Z>, the
ash-box Dv and the doubled horizontal
pipes G, of which, according to the size
of the apparatus, there are from 3 to 6,
each 4 inches in diameter, and running
parallel to each other ; the products of
combustion pass through them in the
direction of the arrows, and escape
through the smoke-pipe 0 at the back
of the apparatus. The fire-box is sur-
rounded with an air-space provided at Mwith apertures. Similar
apertures to permit the entrance of cold air are provided on the
side near the foot of the brick casing. The cold air comes first
in contact with the lower, only moderately heated, pipes, then
rises to the second, and finally to the third and hottest series of
pipes. It is thus gradually heated, and the pipes lying close to-
gether, each atom of air comes in contact with them, which is con-
sidered a better mode of heating than by radiation, formerly used.
The pipes are of cast-iron, and an escape of smoke into the dry-
ing-tower is impossible. By always keeping the pipes clean,
which -can be conveniently done, the heat passes rapidly through
their walls, and ascends immediately into the drying-tower with-
out the possibility of super-heating.

408 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

The draught-pipe d connects the exit of the drying-tower with
the fire-box of the furnace. The importance of this ventilation is
sufficiently shown by the statement that for combustion 25,000
cubic feet of air per hour are required, which are introduced from
the neighborhood of the opening of the tower through the pipe d
into the fire-box. The removal of such a considerable quantity
of air produces a vacuum in the upper portion of the tower, and
consequently a very quick current of air over the trays of fruit
in the tower — an absolute requirement for attaining great perfec-
tion in the art of drying fruit by evaporation. Besides, a saving
of fuel is effected by the introduction of air already heated into
the fire-box. The smoke-pipe 0 is surrounded by a wooden
jacket leaving a small intermediate space in which the heat radi-
ating from the pipe collects, and is forced to enter the tower be-
low the discharge-door. This also accelerates the current of air
in the tower and prevents the condensation of the moisture, so
that the fruit completely dries off in a short time. The branch-
pipe / connects the opening of the tower with the smoke-pipe,
which by its power of absorption also increases the current of air.
The <Jraught-pipe c is provided, as will be readily seen, for the
purpose of uniformly distributing the heat in the tower.

The bulb of the thermometer, with which the apparatus is pro-
vided, is placed in the interior of the tower and the scale on the
outside, so that the temperature can be read off without opening
a door, whereby cold air would enter, which must be avoided.
The air-furnace is constructed of brick, and the tower, as well as
the draught-pipes d and c and the jacket of the smoke-pipe 0, of
double boards.

The hurdles or trays for the fruit consist of wooden frames
with galvanized iron wire bottoms. They hold from 20 to 60
Ibs. of fruit each, and when charged are pushed through the door
over the air-furnace into the tower, where they rest upon pins of
an endless chain set in motion by a wheel, as seen in the illustra-
tion. The trays sit close to the walls on two sides of the tower,
while in the other direction there is an interspace of two inches.
The first tray is pushed tight against the back wall, the men-
tioned interspace thus remaining in front of the door.

After six to ten minutes, according to the variety of fruit, the

EVAPORATION OF FRUIT. 409

tray is raised five inches by means of the endless chain ; the second
tray is then placed in position, but so that the above-mentioned
intermediate space is at the back wall. At regular intervals the
trays, when placed in position, are raised by the endless chain
and the fresh trays pushed in, so that they touch alternately the
front and back wall, the current of hot air being thus forced
to ascend in a zigzag. When the tower is filled with trays it
contains — taking apples as an example — from 1200 to 3000 Ibs.
of fruit, every 50 Ibs. of each yield from 40 to 45 Ibs. of water,
which ascends as vapor, which by surrounding the fruit with a
moist mantle prevents its burning and keeps the pores open.
When the tray first placed in position arrives at the discharge-
door it has been in the tower for about five hours, and its contents
have been converted into evaporated fruit which will keep for
many years. Thus fruit can be gathered, evaporated, and sold
all in one day.

By considering the construction of the tower it will be seen
that the fruit during its ascent remains in a uniform moisture and
heat, so that up to the moment it is taken from the apparatus, its
content of water can escape through the opened pores and, on the
other hand, the heat can act to its very centre. A uniform, per-
fect product can be obtained only by these means. When the
fruit arrives at the discharge-door it is cool and as soft as fresh
fruit.

We will here call attention to a sun-drying apparatus, shown
in Fig. 77, which may be recommended to those who do not
wish to employ artificial heat, and are forced to give the prefer-
ence to as cheap an apparatus as possible. The apparatus is con-
structed of boards and window-glass. The board walls, which
are somewhat inclined outwardly, project above the panes of
glass and serve, as is readily seen, for catching the rays of the
sun. .They are lined inside with tin, thus becoming reflectors.
The side door serves as an entrance to the apparatus when the
panes of glass are to be cleansed or repairs are to be made in the
interior. The trays containing the fruit are pushed in from the
back, the entrance of each tray being covered by a wooden flap.
According to the size of the apparatus two or three rows, each
consisting of twelve trays, are placed alongside each other. Above

410 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

the uppermost entrances for the trays are slides, which can be
opened or closed according to whether the heat in the interior is
to be increased or moderated.

Fig. 77.

The apparatus stands upon a turn-table, so that the front can
from morning to evening be exposed to the full rays of the sun.
When the latter no longer reach the apparatus the reflectors,
which are hinged, are laid over the panes of glass, which pre-
vents the radiation of heat and protects the fruit from dew.

The time required for drying fruit in this apparatus cannot, of
course, be definitely stated, but on an unclouded hot summer day
apples pared by a machine can be dried in eight hours. The
product obtained is not of as good a quality as evaporated fruit,
but it is incomparably superior to that produced by the primitive
method of drying in the open air or in the oven.

Referring back to the Alden apparatus previously described, it
remains to be said that there are a number of other evaporators
based upon the same principle but with various modifications and
improvements.

Fig. 78 shows the improved Williams evaporator manufactured
by S. E. Sprout, of Muncy, Pa. The apparatus is heated by
steam radiators located at the base of the vertical tower, and has
vertical radiating pipes up the centre of the vertical tower, around
which the trays of fruit revolve, with deflectors at intervals of
two feet projecting from each side of said pipes to direct the heat

EVAPORATION OF FRUIT.

Fig. 78.

411

under the trays of fruit as they revolve around the pipes. (The
trays and hanger are left out in the illustration to show the in-

412

AND FRUIT-WINES.

terior arrangement of the pipes.) These pipes or radiators ex-
tending up the tower from bottom to top produce a uniform heat
the entire length of the tower, and increase the draught by increas-
ing the heat at the top, which produces a more rapid circulation
than when the heat is all at the bottom, as with the hot-air fur-
nace ; and the capacity of the apparatus is also increased in pro-
portion to the increase of the heat and the draught through the
tower. The trays of fruit in passing up the tower are exposed
from one side to the pipes, and on descending are exposed
from the other, which causes the fruit to dry uniformly. The
tower being vertical the heat is utilized until it reaches the
top. In this apparatus a very strong heat can be had through-
out the entire length of the tower, without incurring any risk of

Fig. 79.

fire from sittings from the trays, when drying cores and skins,
falling on the hot-air furnace, which is always placed directly
under the tower. Several sizes of this evaporator are manufac-
tured.

Fig. 79 shows the American fruit evaporator, several sizes of

EVAPORATION OF FRUIT. 413

which are manufactured by the American Manufacturing Com-
pany, of Waynesboro, Pa. It differs from the preceding in
having an inclined trunk. The advantages claimed for it by the
manufacturers are that separate currents of pure, dry air, auto-
matically created, pass underneath and diagonally through the
trays and then off over them, carrying the moisture out of the
evaporator without coming into contact with the contents of the
trays previously entered. The greatest heat is concentrated upon
each tray or group when first entered, these in turn being moved
forward into a lower temperature by those entered in sequence,
hence no steaming or cooking becomes possible. The evaporator
shown in the illustration is 9 \ feet long and 28 inches wide ; it
has 22 trays of galvanized iron cloth, and a capacity of 10 to 12
bushels of apples per day. It consumes about 80 pounds of coal
or its equivalent in wood or coke. The furnace supplies strong
currents of dry, hot air, which pass through the two chambers of
the evaporator-trunk and carry off the moisture or vapor dis-
charged from the fruit over and above the line of trays in each
chamber. jSTo steaming, cooking, or retrograde or diffusive
features attend the operation. The trays in groups of two at a
time are entered in front in the upper (hotter) chamber and
moved forward by insertion of the next group, and finished in
the lower chamber and at a lower temperature. Thus the process
is continuous, and each tray receives the same treatment and con-
ditions, viz., greatest heat when first inserted, and finishing at a
gradually lowering temperature and safety from scorching. The
evaporators are manufactured in several sizes ranging in price
from $25 to $450, and for extensive commercial plants with
sundry modifications and mechanism for coffee, tea, etc., of great
capacity costing $1000 and upwards.

The manner of operating the Alden apparatus is as follows :
The maintenance of a uniform temperature in the tower being
essential, the thermometer should indicate 194° to 212° F. ; ber-
ries and stone fruit are to be kept somewhat cooler. The intro-
duction of too much cold air into the air-furnace must be avoided.
As a rule an aperture two feet square suffices.

The upward motion of the trays must be effected at regular in-
tervals. How long these intervals are to be cannot be definitely

414

VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

stated, it depending on the content of water in the fruit and on
the temperature of the tower. The following table may, how-
ever, serve as a guide : —

interval 6 to 10 minutes.

8

12

12

20

15

20

8

15

10

20

10

20

6

8

5

7

12

20

20

25

Apples

Pears

Peaches

Stoned plums

Apricots

Stoned cherries .

Berries

Potatoes

Green corn

Onions

Tomatoes

It is supposed that the temperature directly above the air-fur-
nace is 212° F., and it is best to keep it that degree except for
berries and stoned fruit, for which it may be from 41° to 50° less.
As previously stated, it is an essential condition that the fruit
should not boil. This will, however, not be the case at the tem-
perature mentioned because the fruit remains too short a time in
it, and in rising upwards meets a somewhat more moderate heat.
As a rule it may be said that as high a temperature as possible is
most advantageous provided boiling be avoided.

The evaporated fruit when taken from the tower is spread out
in an airy room, where it remains for a few hours to dry off.
Care must be had that during this time it does not come in contact
with insects, and to prevent this the windows and air-holes must
be provided with screens or the fruit covered with musquito
netting. The fruit when ready for packing is put up in boxes as
follows : Line the box with colored paper with the ends pro-
jecting above the edge. Then fill the box with fruit; kernel
fruit is piled up about one inch above the edge of the box while
stone fruit is not piled so high, it being subsequently not subjected
to pressure. To press down the contents even with the edge of
the box a weight, or, still better, a press is used. After pressing
fold the ends of the paper over the fruit, nail down the lid, and
put on the label.

Sliced evaporated apples are packed as follows : Line the box
with white paper, one piece on the bottom and four pieces on the

EVAPORATION OF FRUIT. 415

sides long enough to fold over. Then nail down the lid, take off
the bottom, and commence packing by placing one layer of slices
in the manner of roof-tiles. Sufficient fruit to make up the re-
quired weight is then piled in, and after pressing down the box is
nailed up and labelled. A general rule as regards weight has not
been introduced, though in California all varieties of evaporated
fruit are packed in boxes holding 50 pounds net.

Now a few words in regard to the varieties of fruit to be used. To
be sure every kind of fruit can be evaporated, but poor qualities
remain bad after evaporation. No one who wishes to be success-
ful in the business should for one moment entertain the idea that
fruit unpalatable in a fresh state is good enough for evaporating.
For commercial purposes the selection of varieties must be made
as carefully as for fresh fruit, or, briefly stated, only table fruit
should be evaporated, this referring especially to apples and pears,
of which the mellow and luscious varieties alone should be se-
lected. The intelligently conducted evaporating establishments in
this country are very careful in this respect, they having like the
canning establishments certain favorites, for instance, of apples,
the Gravenstein, Red Astrachan, Autumn Pippin, Newtown Pip-
pin, Bellflower, Baldwin, Northern Spy ; of pears, the Bartlett,
Autumn Butler Pear, Clapp's Favorite ; of plums, Reine Claude,
Coe's Golden Drop, Columbia, Washington ; of cherries, Royal
Ann and Elton. No discrimination is made in regard to berries,
peaches, and apricots, all varieties being used.

Apples should be pared with a machine and sliced. So many
different styles of apple parers are in the market that it is diffi-
cult to say which is the best. One which pares, cores, and slices
the apple at one operation should be selected. Pears are better
pared by hand, and peaches with a rotary knife parer.

Stone-fruit is sometimes stoned, which is effected with the well
known stoning machine, but as the different kinds of machines in
the market are by no means perfect, it is best for prime ware to
remove the stones by hand until some ingenious head invents a
machine which will bruise the fruit as little as the human hand.

Apples and pears when pared acquire a brown coloration, which
is not lost by drying no matter by what method. Now how is it
that many apples and pears of a white yellow or pale yellow

416 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

color are brought into the market ? The color has nothing to do
with the quality of the product, but its sale depending on its ap-
pearance the apples and pears are bleached before^ evaporating.
The process is very simple : a number of trays are placed on top
of each other, and a bundle of sulphur matches ignited under
them. Sometimes lime is slacked under such a pile of trays, the
fruit being in both cases bleached by the ascending vapors. Others
again place the fruit for some time in a water-bath impregnated
with sulphur. These methods are mentioned, not to recommend
them, but rather to warn against them, and, besides, because it is
frequently believed that the pale color of the fruit is due to a
more perfect method of drying. The use of sulphur for this
purpose deserves censure, it being injurious to health, and the con-
sumer should prefer naturally colored evaporated fruit to the
bleached article, which is readily recognized by its pale color.
There is but one method leading to the same result which can be
unhesitatingly used, that is, to throw the fruit when pared into
salt water, where it is allowed to remain until placed in the trays.
The color is not as pale as that obtained by bleaching, but it is
more natural which, in our opinion, is an advantage. Decay set-
ting in immediately after the fruit is cut, it should be brought
into the evaporating tower as soon as possible. A warm salt-
water bath is also frequently used for stone fruit which is to be
evaporated without removing the stones, in order to better retain
its natural appearance. The same purpose can, however, be
better attained by the use of a bath of lukewarm or cold alum
water, which can also be advantageously employed in preserving
the fruit in jars and cans. Plums after evaporating are generally
brought into a bath of sugar-water in order to give them the lus-
trous and uniformly dark appearance observed in French prunes.
For this purpose brown sugar is dissolved in an equal quantity
of hot water, and the prunes in a wire basket submerged in the
bath for half a minute. They are then spread out upon hurdles
and packed when perfectly dry.

The trays which are to be placed in the evaporating tower
must not be loaded too heavily with fruit. Stone-fruit not freed
from the stones js placed close together with the stem end upwards,
but only in one layer. Quartered or halved stoned-fruit, as well

EVAPORATION OF FRUIT. 417

as sliced apples, are placed close together edge upward until the
bottom of the tray is covered. Sliced pears are arranged in a
similar manner. Of berries several layers an inch deep may be
made, but they must be covered with tissue-paper. Grapes are
but seldom converted into raisins in the evaporating apparatus,
because the process would require 40 hours, it being impossible to
use a temperature exceeding 176° F. Hence it is considered more
advantageous to dry grapes in the sun. For the northern limits
of grape-culture the evaporating process for raisins may, however,
prove of great importance if only for supplying the home market,
especially when experience shows, as it has during the last
few years in California, that the production pays on an average
better than that of wine. It need only be remembered that the
principal producers of raisins, the Spaniards and Greeks, are
entirely dependent on the weather, which frequently causes them
heavy losses. The evaporating apparatus, however, makes the
manufacturer independent of the weather, and no Spanish or Greek
sun is required for the production of excellent raisins.

Tomatoes are peeled but not sliced, and placed close together
in one layer in the trays. Pumpkins are peeled and cut in pieces
two or three inches thick. For several years a flour has been made
from the dried pieces which serves as a substitute for rice flour.
Sweet potatoes are treated in a similar manner, their flour serving
as a substitute for chicory.

Green corn is first steamed on the ear for not more than five
minutes. The grains are then picked off, placed in two-inch deep
layers in the trays and thoroughly evaporated, but not at too high
a temperature, 185° to 194° F. being sufficient. When dry it
is rubbed and passed through a fanning-mill to remove the hulls
loosened by rubbing. It is packed in boxes holding 10, 20, and
50 Ibs. each, and brings wholesale from 10 to 12 cents per pound.

The following must also be steamed before evaporating : green
peas and beans, asparagus, beets, carrots, lettuce, cabbage, and
parsnips. Vegetables are cut up with a cabbage-cutter, and roots
in slices like apples.

Onions are first freed from their external red or yellow peel and
then cut into slices one-fourth inch thick with a cabbage-cutter. The
slices are steamed for five minutes, which, with a suitable steaming
27

418 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT- WINES.

apparatus, is best effected by spreading the slices in a two-inch deep
layer in the trays, placing the latter in the steaming apparatus, and
immediately after the above mentioned time in the evaporator.
They are packed in tin boxes holding 50 Ibs. each, which are
placed in a wooden box. By evaporation, 100 Ibs. of onions are
reduced to 12 ibs. The average wholesale price is about 30
cents per pound.

Potatoes must be thoroughly washed. This is best effected in
a cradle, the bottom of which is provided with wide perforations
so that the water constantly pouring in can run off quickly. The
potatoes are then placed in trays, and from four to six of the latter,
according to the size of the steaming apparatus, brought into the
boiler. Steam is then admitted, and after 35 minutes the potatoes
are taken out, care being had, however, not to steam them much,
as otherwise they become of no value for the evaporating process.
The loosened peels are then rubbed off with the hand, and the
peeled potatoes brought into a press, the bottom of which consists
of a perforated wooden plate or of woven wire. The lid must fit
tight to the interior walls of the press, so that the entire mass of
potatoes falls coarsely crushed through the bottom. The crushed
potatoes are placed in layers two or three inches deep in the trays
and levelled with an instrument made by driving small nails into a
board so that their points project one-half inch. They are then
evaporated at not too high a temperature — 185° F. is sufficient —
to prevent scorching; taking care, however, to dry them through.
The evaporated mass is coarsely ground in a suitable mill, and the
resulting flour packed in zinc canisters, holding 28 and 56 Ibs.
each. Two such canisters are placed in a wooden box, and are
then ready for shipment.

It is of the utmost importance to select only perfectly sound
potatoes and remove all which sour or are injured in any other
way during the process. Success depends on the rapidity and
regularity from the commencement to the end of the process. All
potatoes which become cold before being brought into the evapo-
rating apparatus are worthless, and the same may be said of those
which have been steamed too long ; they are converted into paste.

From a statement by an English commission house, in reference
to a shipment of evaporated potatoes from the Pacific coast, it was

EVAPORATION OF FRUIT. 419

learned that the price obtained was 40 shillings for 110 Ibs. The
commission, freight, etc., of the entire shipment of 20 boxes, each
containing 108 Ibs. net, amounted to £5 1/w. Id. Annexed to
the statement was the following suggestion : The potatoes should
be packed in canisters holding 5(j Ibs. and made of black sheet-
iron painted red on the outside. In the top should be a round
hole large enough to admit the hand, and closed by a slide. A
large label with the words " Preserved Vegetables" should be
pasted on the side of the canisters.

The bushel of potatoes in an evaporated state and ready for
shipment costs about 50 cents.

In conclusion it remains to say a few words about drying fruit
in the oven, and we describe the French method, which is decidedly
the best, as proved by the prunes brought into market from that
country. The prunes having been sorted by a machine into three
qualities are placed upon trays and exposed to the sun until the
skin commences to shrivel. They are then placed in a bake-oven
previously used for baking bread. If no bread is to be baked,
the oven is very moderately heated to prevent the rapid (dosing of
the pores and the formation of a crust upon the surface. They are
allowed to remain in the oven for 12 hours when they are taken
out, and when perfectly cold, moistened with alum water and re-
placed in the oven, which must now be somewhat hotter. After
12 hours they are again taken out, moistened with alum water,
and replaced for the third and last time, together with a dish full
of water, in the oven which must now be still hotter than before.
The prunes when taken from the oven are submerged fora short
time in a bath of sugar-water, and are then packed in boxes. It
will be seen that this process is quite tedious, and the product as
shown at the Paris Exhibition is not as good as that obtained by
evaporation.

Besides prunes the French bring into market dried pears, which
have also become celebrated. The process is as follows : Fine
table-pears are pared, quartered, and boiled in sugar syrup ior
five minutes. They are then placed in a moderately warm oven,
where they remain for 12 hours ; they are then taken out, allowed
to cool off, and replaced in the oven, which must now be hotter
than the first time, until sufficiently dried.

420 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

The French method can be recommended, but it would be still
better if it were executed in the improved manner practised here
and there in central England and in the New England States.
This improvement consists in the previous boiling of the fruit,
which must, however, not be continued longer than five minutes.
The fruit is not gradually heated but submerged in boiling water
for five minutes, and, without being allowed to cool, brought at
once into a moderately hot oven. Steaming instead of boiling
the fruit is still better. It should be exposed to the steam for
not longer than five minutes, and must then as quickly as possible
be brought into a moderately hot oven.

CHAPTER XXXI.

PREPARATION OF PICKLES AND MUSTARD.

Pickles. — Enormous quantities of pickles are brought into com-
merce, especially by American and English factories. The most
remarkable varieties are piccalilli or Indian pickles, mixed pickles,
and walnut pickles. The packing is always the same ; some of
the oldest and largest English factories still adhere to stoneware
pots, which have the advantage of entirely excluding the light
from the product, thus contributing to its keeping quality. Both
the French and Americans use glass bottles, the chief 'difference
being in the diameter of the mouth, which is smaller in the
American bottles. The latter style is to be preferred, because in
the former the pickles, when frequently opened, are more exposed
to the air than is good for them. Stone pots, which are no doubt
best for family use, are too expensive for commercial purposes, not
only as regards the first cost, but also on account of their weight,
which increases the cost of transportation. The bottles are always
provided with neat labels, and the corks generally covered with
tin-foil.

The following general rules apply to the preparation of pickles :
The best quality of fruit must be gathered at the right time,
washed in fresh cold well-water, and placed for some time in

PREPARATION OF PICKLES AND MUSTARD. 421

strong brine. They are then laid upon fruit hurdles to com-
pletely dry in the air, and finally brought into the bottles which
must be nearly filled. The interspaces are then filled up with
hot-spiced vinegar, and the bottles immediately corked, and, when
cold, sealed. Strong vinegar must be used, the manufacturers gen-
erally employing wine-vinegar, known in commerce as No. 24.
Fruit-vinegar, clarified and spiced and evaporated to three-
fourths its volume, also answers very well. Pickles for immediate
use are soaked in hot brine, but as a commercial article they must
be treated with cold brine only. Moreover, hot brine must not be
used for fruits of a soft and juicy nature such as cabbage and cauli-
flower ; and besides cold or only slightly heated vinegar should be
poured over such articles. Soft and delicate fruits must, as a rule,
not remain as long in the brine as hard and coarse-fibred ones ; and
the softest are most advantageously pickled by pouring cold spiced
vinegar over them. The same may be said of red beets and other
roots which are cut into strips. Sometimes the spice is put whole
into the bottle, but it is better and more economical to bring it
powdered into the vinegar while heating the latter, or if the
vinegar is to be used cold, to previously boil the powdered spice
in a small portion of the vinegar, and when cold add it to the
rest. The spiced vinegar is prepared as follows : —

To 1 quart of vinegar add 2-J ounces of salt, J ounce of black
pepper, and 2J ounces of ginger. Let the mixture boil up once
or twice in an enamelled iron pot, filter through a flannel cloth,
and pour the liquid, hot or cold, over the fruits.

For a more strongly spiced vinegar reduce in a mortar 2 ounces
of black pepper, 1 ounce of ginger, and J drachm of cayenne
pepper, and for walnuts, 1 ounce of eschalots, and add to the mix-
ture in a stoneware pot 1 pint of vinegar, and tie up the pot with
a bladder. Place the pot for three days near the fire, shaking it
several times, and then pour the contents upon the fruits by al-
lowing it to run through a filtering cloth.

In the preparation of pickles the use of metallic vessels must be
avoided, the vinegar as well as the brine dissolving copper, brass,
and zinc, and becoming thereby poisonous. Ordinary earthen
pots should also be mistrusted. Stoneware pots, which can be
heated in a water-bath or upon a stove, are best for the purpose.

422 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

Moreover, air and light must be kepi away from the pickles as
much as possible, and they should be touched only with wooden
or bone spoons. An essential condition for success is to treat the
fruits immediately after being gathered. The method of some
manufacturers, who add verdigris to the pickles or boil the vine-
gar in a copper boiler until it is sufficiently " greenish" to com-
municate its green color to the product, cannot be too strongly
condemned. That this crime against the health of the consumer
is unfortunately committed to a considerable extent, is conclusively
proved by numerous chemical examinations recently made in the
large cities of Europe and the United States, and undertaken with
the laudable purpose of bringing the adulterators of food to jus-
tice. Many of the pickles in the market, and most of the im-
ported canned peas, contain copper, and this notwithstanding the
fact that there are very innocent means for coloring pickles green,
it being only necessary to put a handful of spinach or wine leaves
in the boiling vinegar which acquires thereby a green coloration
and communicates it later on to the pickles.

The following list comprises the fruits which are chiefly used
for the preparation of pickles in factories : —

Barberries. — The berries are gathered before they are ripe and
washed with salt water. The vinegar is added cold.

Beans. — Cold vinegar is poured over the young pods, previously
soaked in cold water.

Cabbage , red and white. — The heads are cut up into fine strips
which are placed in a strong brine for two days, then dried upon
hurdles for 12 hours, next brought into bottles, and after pouring
cold vinegar upon them, at once sealed up.

Cauliflower. — The heads are broken up into small pieces which
are placed in brine, and finally treated with hot vinegar.

Cucumbers. — Young cucumbers are placed in salt water for one
week. The brine is then poured of! and after being made boiling
hot is poured back over the cucumbers. The next day the cu-
cumbers are dried upon a sieve, slightly rubbed off with cloth, and
then boiling vinegar is poured over them.

Elderberry flowers. — The umbels are gathered just before the
flowers open, and treated in the same manner as cauliflower. These
pickles are much liked in England.

PREPARATION OF PICKLES AND MUSTARD. 423

English bamboo. — Young elder shoots are freed from the bark,
placed in a brine for 12 hours, and after drying brought into bot-
tles, and hot vinegar is poured over them. They are highly es-
teemed as an addition to boiled mutton.

Gooseberries. — The unripe fruits are treated like cauliflower.

Mixed pickles. — Components : White cabbage, cauliflower, bean
pods, cucumber, onions. They are prepared like cucumbers.

Mushrooms. — Wash young mushrooms the size of coat buttons
in cold water, and carefully dry them with a cloth. Then put
them into a bottle, and pour boiling vinegar over them.

Onions. — Small onions are peeled, and hot vinegar is poured
over them ; sometimes the onions are previously placed in brine
for one day.

Peaches. — The fruits, not entirely ripe, are treated like cucum-
bers.

Peas are treated like beans and cauliflower.

PicaliUy. — Take one head of white cabbage cut up into fine
strips, 2 heads of cauliflower broken into small pieces, some bean
pods, 1 root of horseradish cut into strips, 2 dozen of small white
onions, and 1 dozen small cucumbers ; pour boiling brine over
them, and dry them the next day upon a sieve. Then put the
mixture into a pot and add garlic, ginger, mustard-seed, all
comminuted, of each 1 ounce, capers J ounce, red pepper \ ounce,
and pour boiling vinegar over it. Tie up the pot with a bladder,
let it stand for 4 weeks, shaking it occasionally, and then distrib-
ute the contents into bottles.

Tomatoes must not be entirely ripe ; they may be even green
and half grown. They are pickled in the same manner as
cucumbers.

Walnuts. — Place the young, soft nuts in strong brine for one
week, then dry upon a sieve and pour hot vinegar over them. A
better method is to expose the walnuts, after they have been in
the brine for nine days, upon a cloth to the sun until they are black,
and then put them into bottles, which are filled up with hot
vinegar. These pickles are much liked with fish, and when well
sealed and stored in a dark place keep for ten years. If they are
to be used in the first three months after being made, the brine
must be heated for one hour.

424 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

Mustard. — Mustard of commerce is the seed, whole or ground,
of several species of the genus Brassica, cruciferous plants which
grow wild and are cultivated under very various conditions. The
two common varieties are the black or brown mustard, which has
a very small seed, and furnishes the most aroma, and the white,
which is two or three times as large, often used in the whole
condition in pickles and ground, either by itself or oftener in
mixture with the brown seed, for the purpose of obtaining the
desirable qualities of both.

The most rational manner of preparing mustard for table use
has been introduced into the English factories. The seed is freed
from the husk, ground to flour, and the fat oil, which can be used
as an illuminating oil, pressed out. Generally speaking, the
preparation of mustard consists in several times grinding in a
mill a mixture of white and brown mustard with an addition of
wine-must, either fresh or strongly boiled down, or of wine vine-
gar until it forms a moderately fine or very fine pasty mass, and
adding different substances as a seasoning. In the Diisseldorf
mustard the seasoning consists of cinnamon, cloves, and sugar, in
the Frankfort mustard of cloves, allspice, and sugar, in the Eng-
lish mustard of wheat flour, common salt, and pepper, and in the
French mustard of tarragon, ginger, cinnamon, thyme, marjoram,
onions, garlic, cloves, etc. An addition of flour is almost gener-
ally made, as it modifies the sharpness of the mustard and holds
the mass better together. The quantity of the constituents vary ;
the usual proportions being from 20 to 30 per cent, of white, and
5 to 10 per cent, of brown ground mustard, 1 to 2 per cent, of
common salt, J to J per cent, of pulverized spices, and 40 to 50
per cent, of must or vinegar. According to the English method
the use of mustard-seed freed from oil is only recommended. In
the following a few special receipts are given : —

Gumpoldskirchner must-mustard. — Evaporate 30 quarts of
freshly pressed wine-must to one-half its volume over a moderate
fire, dissolve in it 5 Ibs. of sugar, and strain the whole over 2 or
3 roots of horseradish cut in thin slices. Then add in the form
of fine powder, cardamoms 0.35 oz., nutmeg 0.35 oz., cloves
0.63 oz., cinnamon 1 oz., ginger 1 oz., mustard-seed, ground

PREPARATION OF PICKLES AND MUSTARD. 425

and freed from oil, brown 6 Ibs. and white 11 Ibs. Grind the
whole several times in a mill and strain.

Moutard des Jesuites. — Make a paste of 12 sardines and 280
capers, and stir it into 53 ozs. of boiling vinegar, and mix with it
ground mustard-seed freed from oil, brown 5J ozs. and white
14J ozs.

French mustard. — Ground mustard 2 Ibs., and J oz. each of fresh
parsley and tarragon, both cut up fine are thoroughly mixed
together; further 1 clove of garlic, also cut up very fine, and 12
salted anchovies. Grind the mixture very fine, add the required
must, and 1 oz. of pulverized common salt, and for further grind-
ing dilute with water. To evaporate the water after grinding the
mustard, heat an iron red hot and cool it off in the mixture, and
then add wine vinegar of the best quality.

Ordinary mustard. — I. Stir gradually 1 pint of good white
wine into 8 ozs. of ground mustard-seed, add a pinch of pulve-
rized cloves, and let the whole boil over a moderate fire. Then
add a small lump of white sugar, and let the mixture boil up
once more.

II. Pour J pint of boiling wine vinegar over 8 ozs. of ground
mustard-seed in an earthen pot, stir the mixture thoroughly, then
add some cold vinegar, and let the pot stand over night in a warm
place. The next morning add J Ib. of sugar, f drachm of pul-
verized cinnamon, f drachm of pulverized cloves, 1J drachm
of pepper, some cardamom and nutmeg, half the rind of a lemon
and the necessary quantity of vinegar. The mustard is now
ready, and is kept in pots tied up with bladder.

III. Pound in a mortar the flesh of a salt herring, and 2 ozs.
of capers to a paste, and mix this with 2 ozs. of pulverized white
sugar and 13 ozs. of ground mustard seed ; then pour If pint of
boiling wine vinegar over it, stir, and let the whole stand near a
fire for several hours. Finally add f pint of boiling vinegar,
stir thoroughly and pour the mustard into glass bottles.

Frankfort mustard — Mix 1 Ib. of white mustard-seed, ground,
a like quantity of brown mustard-seed, 8 ozs. of pulverized sugar,
1 oz. of pulverized cloves, 2 ozs. of allspice, and compound the
mixture with white-wine or wine-vinegar,

Wine mustard. — Ground mustard-seed, white, 23 ozs., brown

426 VINEGAR, CIDER, AND FRUIT-WINES.

12 ozs., common salt 2f ozs., wine-vinegar 8J ozs., a like quantity
of white-wine, and water 16 ozs.

Aromatic, or hygienic mustard. — Ground mustard-seed, white 23
ozs., brown 12 ozs., wine-vinegar 17 J ozs. Extract allspice 0.35
oz., cassia, white pepper, and ginger of each 0.17 oz., with alcohol
1J oz., and water 8J ozs., add 3J ozs. of common salt and a like
quantity of sugar, filter the whole and add it to the mustard.

Diisseldorf mustard. — Ground mustard-seed freed from oil,
brown 3 ozs., white 8J ozs., boiling water 26J ozs., wine-vine-
gar 18 ozs., cinnammon 0.17 oz., cloves 0.1 oz., sugar 11 ozs.,
white-wine 18 ozs.

Sour Dusseldorf mustard. — Fill 2 casks with vinegar, steep in
one of the casks 2 Ibs. of origan leaves, and in the other an ordi-
nary bucket full of onions cut up, and let them digest for 2 days.
Then braise 44 Ibs. of white mustard-seed and 66 Ibs. of brown ;
put this in a vat and add 1 Ib. of pulverized cloves, 1J Ib. of
pulverized coriander-seeds, and 4J gallons of each of the pre-
pared vinegars. Stir the whole thoroughly and grind it twice
in a mill. To every gallon of this add and mix thoroughly with
it 1 Ib. of salt dissolved in 1 quart of the onion vinegar.

Sweet Kremser must-mustard. — Ground mustard-seed, brown 10
Ibs., white 5 Ibs., is intimately mixed with 3 Ibs. of freshly
pressed must, and boiled down to the desired consistency.

Sour Kremser must-mustard. — Boil to a stiff paste 15 Ibs. of
brown mustard ground, and 5 Ibs. of white mustard ground,
together with 4 Ibs. of must, and after cooling stir in 4 Ibs. of
vinegar.

Moutarde de maille. — Cut up 8 ozs. of fresh tarragon leaves
without the stems, 2J ozs. of basil, 2 ozs. of bay leaves and 4 ozs.
of rocambole (a species of garlic). Place these ingredients in a
glass alembic, pour 2J quarts of strong wine-vinegar over them,
and, to allow the vapors to escape, tie up the mouth of the
alembic with a piece of perforated moist bladder. Place the
alembic upon hot sand for 4 days, then filter the fluid first through
linen and then through blotting paper. Add to this aromatic
vinegar, 1 oz. of common salt, then stir it into a thick paste with
ground brown mustard-seed, and keep the mustard in earthenware
jars tied up with bladder.

PREPARATION OF PICKLES AND MUSTARD. 427

Moutarde aux epices is prepared by extracting 18 ozs. of tarra-
gon leaves, 7 ozs. of basil, 1J oz. of bay leaves, 3J ozs. of white
pepper, If oz. of cloves, and 0.35 oz. of mace with vinegar and
mixing the extract with mustard prepared in the ordinary manner
from ground mustard-seed, brown 44 Ibs., white 11 Ibs., and
vinegar 8J Ibs.

Moutarde aromatisee. — Boil ground mustard-seed, brown 22
Ibs., white 44 Ibs. with 9 Ibs. of vinegar, and add oil of tarragon
1 oz., oil of thyme J oz., oil of mace 0.35 oz., and oil of cloves
0.17 oz., all previously dissolved in very strong vinegar.

English mustard. — Ground mustard-seed 9 Ibs., wheat flour
9 ozs., common salt If lb., cayenne pepper 2f ozs.} and as much
vinegar and water as required.

APPENDIX.

X<A OF THE

APPENDIX.

431

TABLE I. — Hehner's alcohol table.

£,

L

«J O

1-

GO

Per cent, by weight
of absolute alcohol.

Per cent, by volume
of absolute alcohol.

£>

">
as

tip*
" *J

O.54

02

Per cent, by weight
of absolute alcohol.

Per cent, by volume
of absolute alcohol.

>>

I-*
II

a*

DO

Per cent, by weight
of absolute alcohol.

Per cent, by volume
of absolute alcohol.

Specific gravity
at 60° F.

Per cent, by weight
of absolute alcohol.

Per cent, by volume
of absolute alcohol.

1.0000

0.00

0.00

0.9957

2.45

3.07

9.9913

5.06

6.32

0.9869

8.00 9.95

6

2.51

3.14

2

5.12

6.40

8

8.07 10.03

0.9999

0.05

0.07

5! 2.57

3.21

1

5.19

6.48

7

8.14 10.12

8

0.11

0.13

4 2.61

3.28

0

5.25

6.55

6

8. 21 ' 10.21

7

0.16

0.20

3

2.65

3.35

5

8.29 10.30

6

0.21

0.26

2

2.71

3.42

0.9909

5.31

6.63

4

8.36 ! 10.38

5

0.26

0.33

1

2.78

3.49

8

5.37

6.71

3

8.43 ; 10.47

4

0.32

0.40

0

2.84

3.55

7

5.44

6.78

2

8.50 ; 10.56

3

0.37

0.46

6

5.50

6.86

1

8.57

10.65

2

0.42

0.53

0.9949

2.89

3.62

5

5.56

6.94

0

8.64

10.73

1

0.47

0.60

8

2.94

3.69

4

5.62

7.01

0

0.53

0.66

7

3.00

3.76

3

5.69

7.09

0.9859

8.71

10.82

6

3.06

3.83

2

5.75

7.17

8

8.79

10.91

0.9989

'0.58

0.73

5

3.12

3.90

1

5.81

7.25

7

8.86

11.00

8

0.63

0.79

4

3.18

3.98

0

5.87

7.32

6

8.93

11.08

7

0.68

0.86

3

3.24

4.05

5

9.00

11.17

6

0.74

0.93

2

3.29

4.12

0.9899

5.94

7.40

4

9.07

11.26

5

0.79

0.99

1

3.35

4.20

8

6.00

7.48

3

9.14

11.35

4

0.84

1.06

0

3.41

4.27

7

6.07

7.57

2

9.21

11.44

3

0.89

1.13

6

6.14

7.66

. 1

9.29

11.52

2

0.95

1.19

0.9939

3.47

4.34

5

6.21

7.74

0

9.36

11.61

1

1.00

1.26

8

3.53

4.42

4

6.28

7.83

0

1.06

1.34

7

3.59

4.49

3

6.36

7.92

0.9849

9.43

11.70

6 3.65

4.56

2

6.43

8.01

8

9.50

11.79

0.9979

1.12

1.42

5

3.71

4.63

1

6.50

8.10

7

9.57

11.87

8

1.19

1.49

4

3.76

4.71

0

6.57

8.18

6

9.64

11.96

7

1.25

1.57

3

3.82

4.78

5

9.71

12.05

6

1.31

1.65

2 3.88

4.85

0.9889

6.64

8.27

4

9.79

12.13

5

1.37

1.73

1

3.94

4.93

8

6.71

8.36

3

9.86

12.22

4

1.44

1.81

0

4.00

5.00

7

6.78

8.45

2

9.93

12.31

3

1.50

1.88

6

6.86

8.54

1

10.00

12.40

2

1.56

1.96

0.9929

4.06

5.08

5

6.93

8.63

0

10.08

12.49

1

1.62

2.04

8

4.12

5.16

4

7.00

8.72

0

1.69

2.12

7

4.19

5.24

3

7.06

8.80

0.9839

10.15

12.58

6

4.25

5.32

2

7.13

8.88

8

10.23

12.68

0.9969

1.75

2.20

5

4.31

5.39

1

7.19

8.96

7

10.31

12.77

8

1.81

2.27

4

4.37

5.47

0

7.27

9.04

6

10.38

12.87

7

1.871 2.35

3

4.44

5.55

5

10.46 i 12.96

6

1.94

2.43

2

4.50

5.63

0.9879

7.33

9.13

4

10.54 13.05

5

2.00

2.51

1

4.56

5.71

8

7.40

9.21

3

10.62 13. If)

4

2.06

2.58

0

4.62

5.78

7

7.47

9 29

2

10.69

13.24

3

2.11

2.65

6

7.53

9.37

1

10.77

13.34

2

2.17

2.72

0.9919

4.69

5.86

5

7.60

9.45

0

10.85

13.43

1

2.22

2.79

8

4.75

5.94

4

7.67

9.54

0

2.28

2.8b

7

4.81

6.02

2

7.73

9.62

0.9829

10.92

13.52

6

4.87

6.10

2

7.80

9.70

8

11.00

13.62

.9959

2.33

2.93

5

4.94

6.17

1

7.87

9.78

7

11.08

13.71

8

2.39

3.00

4

5.00

6.24

0

7.93

9.86

6

11.15

13.81

432

APPENDIX.

TABLE I. — (continued.)

*."3

« "o

-w ~

« 0*

+* o

<D 0

*>"o

o> "3

2~

rC —

0 g

.^S

ll

tt o

3 g

leg

Sg

s

1|

?**

1?

£"3

£

1;

>"*

*?

|*

£*

oJ

j^3

.a* "»

o3

£=5

^3

«

^3

^3

8

>"'"

.a* 3

li

i|

Si

ttpsj

||

|J

tt.E£<

||

ll

02

*•

PL,

O2

£•

PL,

02

1

*

02

PH

PH

0.9825 11.23 13.90

0.9781 14.73

18.14

0.9739

18.15

22 27

0.9695

21.69

26.49

4111.31

13.99

0 14.82

18.25

8

18.23

22! 3b

4

21.77

26.58

3

11.38

14.09

7

J8.31

22.4b

3

21.85

26.67

2

11.46

14.18

0.9779

14.91

18.36

6(18.38

22.55

2

21.92

26.77

1

11.54

14.27

8 ,15.00

18.48

5

18.46

22.64

]

22.00

26.86

0

11.62

14.37

715.08

18.58

4

18.54

22.73

0

22.08

26.95

6 15.17

18.68

3

18.62

22.82

0.9819

11.69

14.46

5 15.25

18.78

2

18.69

22.92

0.9689

22.15

27.04

8

11.77

14.56

4

15.33

18.88

1

18.77

23.01

8

22.23

27.13

7jll.85

14.65

3

15.42

18.98

0

18.85

23.10

7

22.31

27.22

6H1.92 14.74

2

15.50

19.08

6

22.38

27.31

5(12.00 14.84

1

15.58

19.18

0.9729

18.92

23.19

5

22.46

27.40

4 12.08

14.93

0

15.67

19.28

8

19.00

23.28

4

22.54

27.49

3 12.15

15.02

7 19.08

23.38

3

22.62

27.59

2(12.23(15.12

0.9769 15.75

19.39

6 19.17

23.48

2

22.69

27.68

1

12.31 15.21

8 15.83

19.49

5

19.25

23.58

1

22.77

27.77

0

12.38

15.30

7 15.92

19.59

4

19.33

23.68

0

22.85

27.86

o

16.00

19.68

3

19.42

23.78

0.9809

12.46 35.40

5 16.08 19.78

2

19.50

23.88

0.9679

22.92

27.95

8

12.54

L5.49

4 16.15

19.87

1

19.58

23.98

8

23.00

28.04

7

12.62

15.58

3

16.23

19.96

0

19.67

24.08

7

23.08

28.13

6 12.69

15.68

2

16.31

20.06

6

23.15

28.22

5J12.77

15.77

1 16. 38 (20.15

0.9719

19.75

24.18

5

23.23

28.31

412.85 15.86

0

16.46 20.24

8

19.83

24.28

4

23.31

28.41

312.92 15.96

7

19.92

24.38

3

23.38

28.50

2

13.0016.05

0.9759 16.54

20.33

6 20.00

24.48

2

23.46

28.59

1

13.08 16.15

8 16.62 120.43

5120.08

24.58

1

23.54

28.68

0

13.15 16.24

7

16.69 20.52

4

20.17

24.68

0

23.62

28.77

6 16.77

20.61

3 20.25

24.78

0.9799

13.23 16.33

5 16.85 20.71

2 20.33

24.88

0.9669

23.69

28.86

13.31 16.43

4 16.92 20.80

1 20.42

24.98

8

23.77

28.85

7

13.38 16.52

3 17.00 20.89

0(20.50

25.07

7

23.85

29.04

6

13.46(16.61

o

17.08 20.99

6

23.92

29.13

5

13.54 16.70

1

17.17

21.09

0.9709 20.58

25.17

5

24.00

29.22

4

13.62 16.80

0

17.25

21.19

8(20.67

25.27

4

24.08

29.31

3

13.69 16.89

7 20.75

25.37

3

24.15

29.40

2

13.77 16.98

0.9749 17.33

21.29

6 20.83

25.47

2

24.23

29.49

-i

13.85 117.08

8(17.42 21.39

5 20.92

25.57

1

24.31

29.58

0

13.9217.17

7 17.50

21.49

4 21.00

25.67

0

24.38

29.67

0.9789

14.00 i 17.26

6 17.58(21.59
6 17.67 21.69

3J21.08
2(21.15

25.76
25.86

.9659

24.46

29.76

8 14.09 17.37

417.75

21.79

1 21.23

25.95

8

24.54

29.86

7 14.18

17.48

3 17.83

21.89

0:21.31

26.04

7

24.62

29.95

6 14.27 17.59

2 17.92

21.99

6

24.69

30.04

5 14.36 17.70

1 18.00

22.09

0.9699 21.38

26.13

5

24.77

30.13

4 14.45 17.81

0

18.08

22.18

8 21.46

26.22

4

24.85

30.22

3 14.55 17.92

7:21.54

26.31

3

24.92

30.31

2

14.64

18.03

6 21.62

26.40

2

25.00

30.40

APPENDIX.

433

TABLE II. — Which indicates the specific gravity of mixtures

of alcohol and water.

The figures in the column to the left show the per cent, by volume of alcohol ;
the figures in the column to the right give the specific gravities which
correspond to the content of alcohol at 60° F.

•

s

<c

S

<v

s

*

j2

a

a

a

"o

'o

"o

"o

>

£"3

Specific

>

£1

Specific

£J

Specific

>

£•3

Specific

•^.fl

^B

gravity at

JH

a'!

gravity at

a'§

gravity at

«'§

gravity at

§"3

60° F.

§ *

60° F.

g*

60° F.

s*

60° F.

go

®"o

So

£o

PH

<s

h

PH

1

0.9985

26

0.9698

51

0.9323

76

0:8747

2

0.9970

27

0.9688

52

0.9303

77

0.8720

3

0.9956

28

0.9677

53

0.9283

78

0.8693

4

0.9942

29

0.9666

54

0.9263

79

0.8665

5

0.9928

30

0.9655

55

0.9242

80

0.8639

6

0.9915

31

0.9643

56

0.9221

81

0.8611

7

0.9902

32

0.9631

57

0.9200

82

0.8583

8

0.9880

33

0.9618

58

0.9178

83

0.8555

9

0.9878

34

0.9605

59

0.9156

84

0.8526

10

0.9866

35

0.9592

60

0.9134

85

0.8496

11

0.9854

36

0.9579

61

0.9112

86

0.8466

12

0.9843

37

0.9565

62

0.9090

87

0.8436

13

0.9832

38

0.9550

63

0.9067

88

0.8405

14

0.9821

39

0.9535

64

0.9044

89

0.8373

15

0.9812

40

0.9519

65

0.9021

90

0.8339

16

0.9800

41

0.9503

66

0.8997

91

0.8306

17

0.9790

42

0.9487

67

0.8973

92

0.8272

18

0.9780

43

0.9470

68

0.8949

93

0.8237

19

0.9770

44

0.9452

69

0.8925

94

0.8201

20

0.9760

45

0.9435

70

0.8900

95

0.8164

21

0.9750

46

0.9417

71

0.8875

96

0.8125

22

0.9740

47

0.9399

72

0.8850

97

0.8084

23

0.9729

48

0.9381

73

0.8825

98

0.8041

24

0.9719

49

0.9362

74

0.8799

99

0.7995

25

0.9709

50

0.9343

75

0.8773

100

0.7946

28

434 APPENDIX.

TABLE III. — Proportion between per cent, by weight and, by

volume of alcoholic fluids at 59° F.

(According to Starapfer.)

100 liters of
the alcoholic
liquid
contain —

Density or
specific gravity
of the fluid.

00

rC

1||(

0 o

In 100
kilgr.

In

1 hi.

100 liters of
he alcoholic
liquid
contain —

cfi ~

ft * °

Ji-

In 100
kilgr.

In
1 hi.

3f the alcoholic
liquid
are contained
alcohol, kilogr.

^J T3 S

"o '5 2 Of the alcoholic
liqiid
JsJ-^ ' are contained
rH^'" alcohol, kilogr.

Alco-
hol,
liters.

Water,
liters.

Alco-
hol,

iters

Water,
liters.

100

0.00

.7951

79.51 100.00

79.51

49

54.70

.9366

93.66

41.59

38.96

99

1.28

.8000

80.00

98.38

78.71

48

55.68

9385

93.85

40.66

38.16

98

2.54

8046

80.46

96.83

77.92

47

56.66

9403

94.03

39.74

37.37

97

3.77

8089

80.89

95.35

77.12

46

57.64

9421

94.21

38.82

36.57

96

4.97

8130

81.30

93.89

76.33

45

58.61

9439

94.39

37.90

35.78

95

6.16

8169

81.69

92.45

75.53

44

59.58

9456

9456

37.—

34.98

94

7.32

8206

82.06

91.08

74.74

43

60.54

9473

94.73

36.09

34.19

93

8.48

8242

82.42

89.72

73.94

42

61.50

9490

94.90

35.18

33.39

92

9.62

8277

82.77

88.37

73.15

41

62.46

9506

95.06

34.30

32.60

91

10.76

8311

83.11

87.04

72.35

40

63.42

).9522

95.22

33.40

31.80

90

11.88

.8344

83.44

85.74

71.56

39

64.37

9538

95.38

32.52

31.01

89

13.01

8377

83.77

84.74

70.76

38

65.32

9553

95.53

31.63

30.21

88

14.12

8409

84.09

83.22

69.97

37

66.26

95(58

95.68 \

30.75

29.42

87

15.23

8440

84.40

81.96

69.17

36

67.20

9582

95.82

29.88

28.62

86

16.32

8470

84.70

80.72

68.38

35

68.12

9595

95.95

29.01

27.83

85

17.42

8500

85.00

79.51

67.58

34

69.04

9607

96.07

28.14

27.03

84

18.52

8530

85.30

78.29

66.78

33

69.96

9620

96.20

27.27

26.24

83

19.61

8559

85.59

77.09

65.99

32

70.89

9633

96.33

26.41

25.44

82

20.68

8588

85.88

75.91

65.10

31

71.80

9645

96.45

25.56

24.65

81

21.76

8616

86.16

74.75

64.40

30

72.72

0.9657

96.57

24.70

23.85

80

22.83

0.8644

86.44

73.59

63.67

29

73.62

9668

96.68

23.85

23.06

79

23.90

8671

86.71

72.43

62.81

28

74.53

9679

96.79

23.—

22.26

78

24.96

8698

86.98

71.30

62.02

27

75.43

9690

96.90

22.16

21.47

77

26.03

8725

87.25

70.16

61.22

26

76.33

9701

97.01

21.31

20.67

76

27.09

8752

87.52

69.04

60.43

25

77.23

9711

97.11

20.47

19.88

75

28.15

8778

87.78

67.93

59.63

24

78.13

9721

97.21

19.63

19.08

74

29.20

8804

88.04

66.82

58.84

23

79.02

9731

97.31

18.79

18.29

73

30.26

8830

88.30

65.72

58.04

22

79.9:

9741

97.41

17.96

17.49

72

31.30

8855

88.55

64.64

57.25

21

80.81

9751

97.51

17.12

16.70

71

32.35

8880

88.80

63.68

56.45

20

81.71

0.9761

97.61

16.29

15.90

70

33.39

0.8905

89.05

62.50

55.66

19

82.60

9771

97.71

15.46

15.11

69

34.44

8930

89.30

61.43

54.86

18

83.50

9781

97.81

14.63

14.31

68

35.47

8954

89.54

60.38

54.07

17

84.39

9791

97.91

13.80

13.52

67

36.51

8978

89.78

59.33

53.27

16

85.29

9801

98.01

12.98

12.72

66

37.54

9002

90.02

58.29 52.48

15

86.19

9812

98.12

12.15

11.93

65

38.58

9026

90.26

57.25

51.68

14

87.09

9822

98.22

11.33

11.13

64

39.60

9049

90.49

56.23

50.89

13

88.—

9833

98.33

10.51

10.34

63

40.63

9072

90.72

55.21

50.09

12

88.90

9844

98.44

9.69

9.54

62

41.65

9095

90.95

54.20

49.30

11

89.80

9855

98.55

8.78

8.75

61

42.67

9117

91.17

53.19

48.50

10

90.7

0.9867

98.67

8.06

7.95

60

43.68

0.9139

91.39

52.20

47.71

9

91.62

9878

98.78

7.24

7.16

59

44.70

9161

91.61

51 .20

46.92

8

92.54

9890

98.90

6.43

6.36

58

45.72

9183

91.83

50.21

46.12

7

93.4

9902

99.02

5.62

5.57

57

46.73

9205

92.05

49.24

45.32

6

94.3

9915

99.15

4.81

4.77

56

47.73

9226

92.26

48.26

44.53

5

95.3

9928

99.28

4.—

3.98

55

48.74

9247

92.47

47.40

43.73

4

96.2

9942

99.42

3.20

3.18

54

49.74

9267

92.67

46.33

42.94

3

97.7

9956

99.56

2.40

2.39

53

50.74

9288

92.88

45.37

42.14

2

98.1

9970

99.70

1.60

1.59

52

51.74

9308

93.08

44.41

41.35

1

99.0

9985

99.85

0.80

0.80

51

52.73

9328

93.28

43.47

40.55

0

100.0

1.0000

100.00

0.00

0.00'

50

53.72

0.9348

93.48

42.53

39.76

APPENDIX.

435

TABLE IV. — The actual content of alcohol and water in mixtures
of both fluids, and the contraction which takes place in mixing.

Specific
gravity.

100 volumes contain
volumes —

Contrac-
tion.

Specific
gravity.

100 volumes contain
volumes —

Contrac-
tion.

Alcohol.

Water.

Alcohol. Water.

1.0000

0

100.000

0.000

0.9323

51

52.705

0.705

0.9985

1

99.055

055

03

52

51.711

711

70

2

98.111

111

0.9283

53

50.716

716

56

3

97.176

176

63

54

49.722

722

42

4

96.242

242

42

55

48.717

717

28

5

95.307

307

21

56

47.712

712

15

6

94.382

382

0.9200

57

46.708

708

02

7

93.458

458

0.9178

58

45.693

693

0.9890

8

92.543

543

56

59

44.678

678

78

9

91.629

629

34

60

43.664

664

66

10

90.714

714

12

61

42.649

649

54

11

89.799

799

0.9090

62

41.635

635

83

12

88.895

895

67

63

40.610

610

32

13

87.990

990

44

64

39.586

586

21

14

87.086

1.086

21

65

38.561

561

11

15

86.191

191

0.8997

66

37.526

526

0.9SOO

16

85.286

286

73

67

36.492

492

0.9790

17

84.392

392

49

68

35.457

457

80

18

83.497

497

25

69

34.423

423

70

19

82.603

603

0.8900

70

33.378

378

60

20

81.708

708

75

71

32.333

333

50

21

80.813

813

50

72

31.289

289

40

22

79.919

919

25

73

30.244

244

29

23

79.014

2.014

0.8799

74

29.190

190

19

24

78.119

119

73

75

28.135

135

09

25

77.225

225

47

76

27.080

080

0.9698

26

76.320

320

20

•77

26.016

016

88

27

75.426

426

0.8693

78

24.951

2.951

77

28

74.521

521

65

79

23.877

877

66

29

73.617

617

39

80

22.822

822

55

30

72.712

712

11

81

21.747

747

43

31

71.797

797

0.8583

82

20.673

673

31

32

70.883

883

55

83

19.598

598

18

33

69.958

958

26

84

18.514

514

05

34

69.034

3.034

0.8496

85

17.419

419

0.9592

35

68.109

109

66

86

16.324

324

79

36

67.184

184

36

87

15.230

230

65

37

66.250

250

05

88

14.125

125

50

38

65.305

305

0.8373

• 89

13.011

Oil

35

39

64.361

361

39

90

11.876

1.876

19

40

63.406

406

06

91

10.751

751

03

41

62.451

451

0.8272

92

9.617

617

0.9487

42

61.497

497

37

93

8.472

472

70

43

60.532

532

01

94

7.318

318

52

44

59.558

558

0.8764

95

6.153

153

35

45

58.593

593

25

96

4.968

0.968

17

46

57.618

618

0.8084

97

3.764

764

0.9399

47

56.644

644

41

98

2.539

539

81

48

55.669

669

0.7995

99

1.285

285

62

49

54.685

685

46

100

0.000

000

43

50

53.700

700

436

APPENDIX.

TABLE Y. — For comparing the different areometers with

Tralles's alcoholometer.

The statements of figures of the other areometers corresponding to the per
cent, by volume according to Tralles's alcoholometer stand in the same
horizontal line.

Per cent, by
volume accord-
ing to Tralles.

Per cent, by
weight.

Areometer of —

Per cent, by
volume accord-
ing to Tralles.

Per cent, by
weight.

Areometer of —

Richter.

i

<s
PQ

Beaume.

Cartier.

Richter.

M

V
<D

PQ

Beaume.

Cartier.

o

0.

0.0

0.0

10

11

51

43.47

12.3

I

0.80

—

52

44.42

—

12.7

—

—

2

1.60

53

45.36

13.1

21

3

2.40

54

46.32

13.5

21

4.

3.20

1.0

—

55

47.29

41.00

13.9

—

—

5

4.10

4.00

1.2

11

12

56

48.26

14.3

22

—

6

4.81

1.4

57

49.23

—

14.8

—

22

7

5.62

1.6

58

50.21

15.2

23

8

6.43

1.9

59

51.20

15.6

—

9

7.24

2.1

—

60

52.20

45.95

16.1

—

23

10

8.05

7.50

2.3

12

61

53.20

16.5

24

—

11

8.87

2.5

62

54.21

—

17.0

—

—

12

9.69

2^7

13

63

55.21

17.5

25

24

13

10.51

2.9

64

56.22

18.0

—

14

11.38

3.1

—

65

57.24

51.40

18.4

—

25

15

12.15

10.58

3.3

66

58.27

18.9

26

—

16

12.98

3.5

13

67

59.32

19.4

—

—

17

13.80

3.6

68

60.38

20.0

27

26

18

14.63

3.8

69

61.42

20.5

—

19

15.46

4.0

14

70

62.50

57.12

21.0

28

27

20

16.28

13.55

4.2

•

71

63.58

21.5

—

21

17.11

4^4

_^

72

64.66

22.1

—

—

22

17.95

4.6

73

65.74

22.6

29

28

23

18.78

4.8

14

74

66.83

23.2

—

24

19.62

4.9

75

67.93

62.97

23.8

30

29

25

20.46

16.60

5.1

76

69.05

24.4

—

26

21.30

5.3

15

77

70.18

25.0

31

30

27

22.14

5.6

—

78

71.31

—

25.6

—

—

28

22.96

5.7

79

72.45

26.2

32

—

29

23.84

59

15

80

73.59

69.20

26.8

—

31

30

24.69

19.78

6.1

—

81

74.74

—

27.4

33

—

31

25.55

6.4

82

75.91

28.0

34

32

32

26.41

6.6

83

77.09

—

28.7

—

—

33

27.27

6.8

16

84

78.29

29.4

35

33

34

28.13

7.0

16

85

79.50

75.35

30.1

—

—

35

28.99

23.50

7.2

86

80.71

30.8

36

34

36

29.86

7.5

87

81.94

31.5

37

35

37

30.74

25.50

7.7

—

88

83.19

—

32.2

—

—

38

31.62

8.0

17

89

84.46

33.0

38

36

39

32.50

8.3

17

90

85.75

81.86

33.8

—

—

40

33.39

27.95

8.6

91

87.05

34.7

39

37

41

34.28

8.9

92

88.37

35.5

40

38

42

35.18

—

9.2

—

18

93

89.71

—

36.4

41

—

43

36.08

9.5

18

94

91.07

37.3

—

39

44

36.99

9.8

—

95

92.46

89.34

38.2

42

40

45

37.90

28.30

10.2

—

—

96

93.89

—

39.2

43

—

46

38.82

10.5

19

19

97

95.34

40.3

44

41

47

39.74

—

10.9

—

—

98

96.84

—

41.5

45

42

48

40.61

11.2

—

99

98.39

42.7

46

43

49

41.59

—

11.6

—

—

100

100.00

100.00

43.9

47

—

50

42.52

36.46

11.9

20

20

APPENDIX. 437

Determination of the true strengths of spirit for the normal
temperature of 59° F.

When for the determination of the strength of a spirit of wine
the stand of the alcoholometer and of the thermometer has been
read off, we possess two figures, by means of which the true
strength of spirit of the spirits of wine to be examined, i. e., the
number of liters of absolute alcohol contained in 100 liters of the
fluid to be examined, when the latter possesses a normal temperature
of 59° F., is found as follows: If the observed temperature of the
fluid is = 59° F., which is indicated on the scale of the thermo-
meter with a red mark, the figure read off on the scale of the
alcoholometer indicates at once the " true" strength of spirit. If,
however, the thermometer shows a different temperature, in which
case the figure read off on the scale of the alcoholometer is termed
the "apparent" strength of spirit, the true strength of spirit is
found from the figure read off on the scale of the alcoholometer
and the temperature with the assistance of the following table : —

Table VI. has two entries ; one in the uppermost horizontal line
for the observed statements of the alcoholometer, hence the appa-
rent strengths from 31 to 44 per cent. ; the other in the first vertical
column for the statements of Fahrenheit's thermometer from — 13
to +99.5. On the place where a vertical and horizontal column
cross, the strength corresponding to the normal temperature of
59° F., i. e., the true strength of spirit is found.

If, for instance, the alcoholometer immersed into a sample of
spirits of wine, indicates an apparent strength of 77 per cent., and
the thermometer the temperature of the fluid as 25.5° F., the figure
77 has to be found in the uppermost horizontal column, and then
the vertical column belonging to it is followed downward until the
horizontal line is reached in which stands the figure 25.5 in the
column containing the degrees of temperature. Here the statement
82.4 will be found as the true strength of spirit, and this figure
indicates that at the normal temperature of 59° F. 100 liters of the
spirit of wine examined contain 82.4 liters of absolute alcohol.

When the apparent strength read off on the alcoholometer con-
sists of a whole number and a fraction, the true strength corre-
sponding to the whole number is determined in the above manner,
and the surplus fraction added to the number found.

438 APPENDIX.

If, for instance, the temperature read off is 74.75°, and the appa-
rent strength 81 f per cent., the true strength belonging to 81 per
cent, and 74.75°, which is = 78.4, is first found in the table and to
this is added the fraction f = 0.75 or sufficiently accurate = 0.7.
This gives 78.4 + 0.7 = 79.1 per cent, as the nearest accurate true
strength.

APPENDIX.

439

TABLE YI. — Determination of the true strengths of spirit for the
normal temperature of 59° F. (15° C.).

Tempera-
ture,
degrees C.

Tempera-
ture,
degrees F.

31

32

33

34

35 36

37

38

30

40

41

True strengths of spirit for the above apparent strengths.

—25

—13

47.9

48.7

49.5

50.3

51.1 51.9

52.7

53.6

54.4 55.2

56.0

—23.75

—10.75

47.4

48.2

49.0

49.8

50.6 ' 51.5

52.3

53.1

53.9 54.7

55.5

—22.5

—8.5

46.9

47.7

48.5

49.3

50.1 i 51.0

51.8

52.6

53.4 54.3

55.1

—21.25

—6.25

46.4

47.2

48.0

48.8

49.6 50.5

51.3

52.1

53.0 53.8

54.6

—20 —4

45.8

46.7

47.5!

48.3

49.2

50.0

50.8

51.7

52.5 53.3

54.2

—18.75

—1.75

45.3

46.1

47.0

47.8

48.7

49.5

50.3

51.2

52.0 52.9

53.7

—17.5

+0.5

44.8

45.6

46.5

47.3

48.2

49.0

49.9

50.7

51.6 52.4

53.3

—16.25

+2.75

44.2

45.1

46.0

46.8

47.7

48.5

49.4

50.2

51.1 51.9

52.8

—15

+ 5

43.7

44.6

45.4

46.3

47.2

48.0

48.9

49.7

50.6 i 51.5

52.3

—13.75

+ 7.25

43.2

44.1

44.9

45.8

46.7 S47.5

48.4

49.3

50.1 i 51.0

51.9

—12.5

+ 9.5

42.7

43.5

44.4

45.3

46.2 47.1

47.9

48.8

49.7 50.6

51.4

—11.25

+ 11.75

42.1

43.0

43.9

44.8

45.7 I 46.6

47.5

48.3

49.2 50.1

51.0

—10

+ 14

41.6

42.5

43.4

44.3

45.2 ! 46.1

47 0

47.9

48.8 49.7

50.6

—8.75 j +16.25

41.1

42.0

42.9

43.8

44.7 ! 45.6

46.5

47.4

48.3 49.2

50.1

—7.5

+ 18.5

40.6

41.5

42.4

43.3

44.2 45.1

46.0

46.9

47.9 48.8

49.7

—6

+ 20.75

40.1

41.0

41.9

42.8

43.7 44.6

45.6

46.5

47.4 48.3

49.2

—5

+23

39.5

40.5

41.4

42.3

43.2 44 2

45.1

46.0

46.9 47.8

48.8

—3.75

+25.25

39.0

39.9

40.9

41.8

42.7 43.7

44.6

45.5

46.4 47.4

48.3

—2.5

+27.5

38.4

39.4

40.3

41.3

42.2 43.2

44.1

45.0

45.9 46.9

47.8

—1.25

+29.75

37.9

38.9

39.8

40.8

41.7 42.7

43.6

44.5

45.5 46.4

47.3

0

+32

37.4

38.3

39.3

40.3

41.2

42.2

43.1

44.0

45.0

45.9

46.9

+1.25

+ 34.25

36.8

37.8

38.8

39.7

40.7

41.7

42.6

43.5

44.5

45.4

46.4

4-2.5 1+36.5

36.3

37.3

38.2

39.2

40.2

41.1

42.1

43.0

44.0

45.0

45.9

+3.75+38.75

35.7

36.7

37.7

i 38.7

39.7

40.6

41.6

42.5

43.5

44.5

45.4

+ 5 ] +41

35.2

36.2

37.2

i 38.2

39.1

40.1

41.1

42.0

43.0

44.0

44.9

+6.25 +43

34.7

35.7

36.7

37.6

38.6

39.6

40.6

41.5

42.5

43.5

44.5

+ 7.5 i +45.5

34.1

35.1

36.1

37.1

38.1

39.1

40.1

41.0

42.0

43.0

44.0

+8.75 +47.75

33.6

34.6

35.6

36.6

37.6

38.6

39.6

40.5

41.5

42.5

43.5

+10 +50

33.1

34.1

35.1

36.1

37.1

38.1

39.0

40.0

41.0

42.0

43.0

+11.25 +52.25

32.5

33.6

34.6

35.6

36.6

37.5

38.5

39.5

40.5

41.5

42.5

+12.5

+54.5

32.0

33.0

34.0

35.0

36.0

37.0

38.0

39.0

40.0

41.0

42.0

+13.75

+ 56.75

31.5

32.5 I 33.5

34.5

35.5

36.5

37.5

38.5

39.5

40.5 41.5

+ 15

+59

31.0

32.0 33.0

34.0

35.0

36.0

37.0

38.0

39.0

40.0 41.0

+16.25

+ 61.25

30.5

31.5

32.5

33.5

34.5

35.5

36.5

37.5

38.5

39.5 40.5

+ 17.5

+ 63.5

30.0

31.0

32.0

33.0

34.0

35.0

36.0

37.0

38.0

39.0 40.0

+ 18.75

+ 65.75

29.5

30.5

31.5

32.5

33.5

34.5

35.5

36.5

37.5

38.5 39.5

+20

+ 68

29.0

30.0

31.0

31.9

32.9

33.9

35.0

36.0

37.0

38.0 39.0

+21.25

+ 70.25

28.5

29.5

30.4

31.4

32.4

33.4

34.4

35.5

36.5

37.5 38.5

+22.5

+ 72.5

28.0

29.0

29.9

i 30.9

31.9

32.9

33.9

34.9

36.0

37.0 38.0

+23.75

+ 74.75

27.5

28.5

29.4

30.4

31.4

32.4

33.4

34.5

35.5

36.5 : 37.5

+25

+77

27.0

28.0

28.9

29.9

30.9

31.9

32.9

33.9

84.9

36.0 i 37.0

+26.25

+ 79.25

26.5

27.5

28.4

29.4

30.4

31.4

32.4

33.4

34.4

35.5 i 36.5

+27.5

+ 81.5

26.0

27.0

28.0

i28.9

29.9

30.9

31.9

32.9

33.9

35.0 36.0

+28.75

+ 83.75

25.6

26.5

27.5

28.4

29.4

30.4

31.4

32.4

33.4

34.4 35.5

+30

+86

25.1

26.0

27.0

27.9

28.9

29.9

30.9

31.9

32 9

33.9 i 35.0

+31.25

+ 88.25

24.6

25.5

26.5

J27.4

28.4

29.4

30.4

31.4

32.4

33.4 i 34.5

+32.5

+90.5

24.1

25.0

26.0

26.9

27.9

28.9

29.9

30.9

31.9

32.9 34.0

+33.75

+92.75

23.6

24.5

25.5

26.4

27.4

28.4

29.4

30.4

31.4

32.4 33.5

+ 35

+95

23.1

24.1

25.0

25.9

26.9

27.9

28.9

29.9

30.9

31.9 | 32.9

+36.25

+97.25

22.7

23.6

24.5

25.4

26.4

27.4

28.4

29.4

30.4

31.4 32.4

+37.5

+99.5

22.2

23.1

24.0 , 24.9

25.9

26.9

27.9

28.9

29.9

30.9 31.9

440

APPENDIX. •

TABLE VI. — (continued.)

Tempera-
ture,
degrees C.

Tempera-
ture,
degrees F.

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

True strengths of spirit for the above apparent strengths.

—25

—13

56.8

57.6

58.4

59.3

60.1

61.0

61.8

62.7

63.6

64.5

65.4

—23.75

—10.75

56.3

57.2

58.0

58.8

59.7

60.6

61.4

62.3

63.2

64.1

65.0

—22.5

-8.5

55.9

56.7

57.6

58.4

59.3

60.1

61.0

61.9

62.8

63.7

64.6

—21.25

—6.25

55.4

56.3

57.1

58.0

58.8

59.7

60.6

61.5

62.4

63.3

64.2

—20

_

-4

55.0

55.8

56.7

57.6

58.4

59.3

60.2

61.1

61.9

62.9

63.8

—18.75

—1.75

54.6

55.4

56.3

57.1

58.0

58.9

59.7

60.6

61.5

62.5

63.4

—17.5

-0.5

54.1

55.0

55.8

56.7

57.6

58.4

59.3

60.2

61.1

62.1

63.0

—16.25

-2.75

53.7

54.5

55.4

56.3

57.1

58.0

58.9

59.8

60.7

61.7

62.6

—15

-5

53.2

54.1

55.0

55.8

56.7

57.6

58.5

59.4

60.3

61.2

62.2

—13.75

-7.25

52.8

53.6

54.5

55.4

56.3

57.2

58.1

59.0

59.9

60.8

61.8

—12.5

-9.5

52.3

53.2

54.1

55.0

55.9

56.8 57.7

58.6

59.5

60.4

61.4

—11.25

+11.75

51.9

52.8

53.7

54.5

55.4

56.3

57.2

58.2

59.1

60.0

61.0

—10

+ 14

51.4

52.3

53.2

54.1

55.0

55.9

56.8

57.8

58.7

59.6

60.6

—8.75

+16.25

51.0

51,9

52.8

53.7

54.6

55.5

56.4

57.3

58.3

59.2

60.2

—7.5

+18.5

50.6

51.5

52.4

53.3

54.2

55.1

56.0

56.9

57.9

58.8

59.8

—6

+20.75

50.1

51.0

51.9

52.9

53.8

54.7

55.6

56.5

57.5

58.4

59.3

—5

+ 23

49.7

50.6

51.5

52.4

53.3

54.3

55.2

56.1

57.0

58.0

58.9

—3.75

+ 25.25

49.2 50.1

51.1

52.0

52.9

53.8

54.8

55.7

56.6

57.6

58.5

—2.5

+27.5

48.8,49.7

50.6

51.6

52.5

53.4

54.3

55.3

56.2

57.2

58.1

—1.25

+29.75

48.3 49.2

50.2

51.1

52.0

53.0

53.9

54.9

55.8

56.8

57.7

0

+32

47.8

48.8

49.7

50.7

51.6

52.5

53.5

54.4

55.4

56.3

57.3

+1.25

+34.25

47.4

48.3

49.3

50.2

51.2

52.1

53.0

54.0

54.9

55.9

56.9

+ 2.5

+36.5

46.9

47.8

48.8

49.8

50.7

51.6

52.6

53.5

54.5

55.5

56.4

4-3.75

+38.75

46.4

47.4

48.3

49.3

50.2

51.2

52.1

53.1

54.1

55.0

56.0

+ 5

4-41

45.9

46.9

47.9

48.8

49.8

50.7

51.7

52.7

53.6

54.6

55.6

+6.25

+43

45.4

46.4

47.4

48.3

49.3

50.3

51.2

52.2

53.2

54.2

55.1

4-7.5

+45.5

44.9

45.9

46.9

47.9

48.8

49.8

50.8

51.8

52.7

53.7

54.7

+ 8.75

+47.75

44.5

45.4

46.4

47.4

48.4

49.4

50.3

51.3

52.3

53.3

54.2

+10

+ 50

44.0

44.9

45.9

46.9

47.9

48.9

49.9

50.9

51.8

52.8

53.8

+ 11.25

+ 52.25

43.5

44.5

45.5

46.4

47.4

48.4

49.4

50.4

51.4

52.4

53.4

+ 12.5

+ 54.5

43.0

44.0

45.0

46.0

47.0

48.0

48.9

49.9

50.9

51.9

52.9

+ 13.75

+ 56.75

42.5

43.5

44.5

45.5

46.5

47.5

48.5

49.5

50.5

51.5

52.5

+15

+59

42.0

43.0

44.0

45.0

46.0

47.0

48.0

49.0

50.0

51.0

52.0

+ 16.25

+61.25

41.5

42.5

43.5

44.5

45.5

46.4

47.5

48.5

49.5

50.5

51.5

+17.5

+ 63.5

41.0

42.0

43.0

44.0

45.0

46.0

47.1

48.1

49.1

50.1

51.1

+18.75

+ 65.75

40.5

41.5

42.5

43.5

44.5

45.6

46.6

47.6

48.6

49.6

50.6

+20

+ 68

40.0

41.0

42.0

43.1

44.1

45.1

46.1

47.1

48.1

49.1

50.2

+21.25

+ 70.25

39.5

40.5

41.6

42.6

43.6

44.6

45.6

46.6

47.6

48.7

49.7

+22.5

+72.5

39.0

40.0

41.1

42.1

43.1

44.1

45.1

46.1

47.2

48.2

49.2

+23.75

+ 74.75

38.5

39.5

40.6

41.6

42.6

43.6

44.6

45.7

46.7

47.7

48.7

+25

+77

38.0

39.0

40.1

41.1

42.1

43.1

44.2

45.2

46.2

47.2

48.3

+26.25

+ 79.25

37.5

38.5

39.6

40.6

41.6

42.6

43.7

44.7

45.7

46.8

47.8

+27.5

+ 81.5

37.0

38.0

39.1

40.1

41.1

42.2

43.2

44.2

45.2

46.3

47.3

+28.75

+ 83.75

36.5

37.5

38.6

39.6

40.6

41.7

42.7

43.7

44.8

45.8

46.8

+ 30

+ 86

36.0

37.0

38.1

39.1

40.1

41.2

42.2

43.2

44.3

45.3

46.4

+31.25

+ 88.25

35.5

36.5

37.6

38.6

39.6

40.7

41.7

42.7

43.8

44.8

45.9

+32.5

+90.5

35.0

36.0

37.1

38.1

39.1

40.2

41.2

42.3

43.3

44.4

45.4

+33.75

+92.75

34.5

35.5

36.6

37.6

38.6

39.7

40.7

41.8

42.8

43.9

44.9

+35

+95

34.0

35.0

36.1

37.1

38.1

39.2

40.2

41.3

42.3

43.4

44.4

+36.25

+ 97.25

33.5

34.5

35.6

36.6

37.6

38.7

39.7

40.8

41.8

42.9

43.9

+37.5

+99.5

33.0

34.0

35.1

36.1

37.1

38.2

39.2

40.3

41.3

42.4

43.4

APPENDIX.

441

TABLE VI. — (continued.)

ture,
degrees C.

Tempera-
ture,
degrees F.

53

54:

55

56 57

58

59

60

61

62

63

True strengths of spirit for the ahove apparent strengths.

25

—13

66.3

67.2 68.1

69.1

70.0

70.9

71.8

72.7 7:',.i;

74.4

75.3

23.75

—10.75

65.9

66 8 67.7

68.7

69.6

70.5

71.4

72.3

73.2

74.1

75.0

22.5

—8.5

65.5

66.4 67.3

68.3

69.2 70.1

71.0

71.9 72.8 73.7

74.6

21.25

—6.25

65.1

66.0

67.0

67.9

68.8

69.7

70.6

71.5

72.4 73.3

74.2

20

—4

64.7

65.6

66.6

67.5

68.4

69.3

70.2

71.1 72.0 72.9

73.9

18.75

—1.75

64.3

65.2

66.2

67.1

68.0

68.9

69.8

70.8 71.7 72.6

73.5

17.5

4-0.5

63.9

64.8

65.8

66.7

67.6

68.5

69.5

70.4 1 71.3 72.2

73.1

16.25

4-2.75

63.5

64.4

65.4

66.3

67.2

68.1

69.1

70.0 70.9

71.8

72.7

15

+5

63.1

64.0

65.0

65.9

66.8

67.8

68.7

89.6

70.5

71.4

72.4

13.75

4-7.25

62.7

63.6

64.6

65.5

66.4

67.4

68.3

69.2 70.2

71.1

72.0

12.5

+ 9.5

62.3

63.2

64.2

65.1 66.0

67.0

67.9

68.9 ! 69.8

70.7

71.6

11.25

+11.75

61.9

62.8

63.8

64.7 65.7

66.6

67.6

68.5 69.4

70.3 71.3

10

+ 14

61.5

62.4

63.4

64.3 65.3

66.2

67.2

68.1 69.0

70.0 70.9

-8.75

+ 16.25

61.1

62.0

63.0

63.9 64.9

65.9

66.8

67.7 ! 68.7

69.6 70.5

-7.5

+ 18.5

60.7

61.6 62.6

63.6 ! 64.5

65.5

66.4

67.4 1 68.3

69.2

70.2

-6

+20.75

60.3

61.2 j 62.2

63.2

64.1

65.1

66.0

67.0 67.9 68.9

69.8

-5

+ 23

59.9

60.8 61.8

62.8

63.7

64.7

65.6

66.6 67.5 68.5

69.4

-3.75

+25.25

59.5

60.4

61.4

62.4

63.3

64.3

65.3

66.2

67.2 68.1

69.1

-2.5

+27.5

59.1

60.0

61.0

62.0

62.9

63.9 64.9

65.8

66.8 67.7

68.7

-1.25

4-29.75

58.7

59.6

60.6

61.6

62.5

63.5

64.5

65.4

66.4

67.3

68.3

0

+32

58.3

59.2

60.2

61.2

62.1

63.1

64.1

65.0

66.0

67.0

67.9

-1.25

+ 34.25

57.8

58.8

59.8

60.7

61.7

62.7

63.7

64.6

65.6 66.6

67.5

-2.5 +36.5

57.4

58.4

59.3

60.3

61.3

62.3

63.3

64.2

65.2! 66.2

67.1

-3.75 4-38.75

57.0

57.9

58.9

59.9

60.9

61.9

62.8

63.8

64.8 65.8

66.7

-5 4-41

56.5

57.5

58.5

59.5

60.5

61.4

62.4

63.4

64.4 65.4

66.3

-6.25 4-43

56.1

57.1

58.1

59.0

60.0

61.0

62.0

63.0

64.0 64.9

65.9

-7.5 4-45.5

55.7

56.6

57.6

58.6

59.6

60.6

61.6

62.6

63.5 64.5

65.5

-8.75 4-47.75

55.2

56.2

57.2

58.2

59.2

60.2

61.2

62.1

63.1 64.1

65.1

10 4-50

54.8

55.8

56.8

57.8

58.7

59.7

60.7

61.7

62.7 63.7

64.7

11.25 -f-52.25

54.3

55.3

56.3

57.3

58.3

59.3

60.3

61.3

62.3 63.3

64.3

12.5 1 4-54.5

53.9

54.9

55.9

56.9

57.9

58.9

59.9

60.9

61. 9 ! 62.9

63.9

13.75 -4-56.75

53.5

54.4

55.4

56.4

57.4

58.4

'59.4

60.4

61.4 ! 62.4

63.4

15

+ 59

53.0

54.0

55.0

56.0

57.0

58.0

59.0

60.0

61.0 62.0

63.0

16.25

+61.25

52.5

53.5

54.6

55.6

56.6

57.6

58.6

59.6

60.6

61.6

62.6

17.5

+ 63.5

52.1

53.1

54.1

55.1

56.1

57.1

58.1

59.1

60.1

61.1

62.1

18.75

+ 65.75

51.6

52.6

53.7

54.7

55.7

56.7

57.7

58.7

59.7

60.7

61.7

20

+68

51.2

52.2

53.2

54.2

55.2

56.2

57.2

58.3

59.3

60.3

61.3

21.25

+ 70.25

50.7

51.7

52.7

53.8

54.8

55.8

56.8

57.8

58.8

59.8

60.8

22.5

+ 72.5

50.2

51.3

52.3

53.3

54.3

55.3

56.3

57.4

58.4

59.4

60.4

23.75

+74.75

49.8

50.8

51.8

52.8

53.9

54.9

55.9

56.9

57.9

58.9

60.0

25

+77

49.3

50.3

51.4

52.4

53.4

54.4

55.5

56.5

57.5

58.5

59.5

26.25

+ 79.25

48.8

49.9

50.9

51.9

53.0

54.0 55.0

56.0

57.0

58.1

59.1

27.5

+ 81.5

48.4

49.4

50.4

51.5

52.5

53.5

54.5

55.6

56.6

57.6

58.6

28.75

+ 83.75

47.9

48.9

50.0

51.0

52.0

53.1

54.1

55.1

56.1

57.2

58.2

30

+ 86

47.4

48.4

49.5

50.5

51.6

52.6

53.6

54.7

55.7

56.7

57.7

31.25

+ 88.25

46.9

48.0

49.0

50.1

51.1

52.1

53.2

54.2

55.2

56.2

57.3

32.5

+ 90.5

46.4

47.5

48.5

49.6

50.6

51.7

52.7

53.7

54.8

55.8

56.8

33.75

+92.75

46.0

47.0

48.1

49.1

50.2

51.2

52.2

53.3

54.3

55.3

56.4

35

+95

45.5

46.5

47.6

48.6

49.7

50.7

51.8

52.8

53.8

f>4.9

55.9

36.25

4-97.25

45.0

46.0

47.1

48.2

49.2

50.3

51.3

52.4

53.4

54.4

55.4

37.5

+99.5

44.5

45.6

46.6

47.7

48.7

49.8

50.8

51.9

52.9

53.9

55.0

442

APPENDIX.

TABLE VI. — (continued.)

Tempera-
ture,
degrees C.

Tempera-
ture,
degrees F.

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

True strengths of spirit for the above apparent strengths.

-25

—13

76.2 77.1 ! 78.0 79.0

79.9

80.8

81.7

82.6

83.5

84.4

85.3

-23.75

—10.75

75.9 76.8 77.7 78.6

79.5

80.4

81.3

82.2

83.2

84.1

85.0

-22.5

-8.5

75.5 76.4 77.3 78.2

79.1

80.1

81.0

81.9

82.8

83.7

84.6

-21.25

-6.25

75.1 ! 76.0 i 77.0 77.9

78.8

79.7

80.6

81.6

82.5

83.4

84.3

-20

-

-4

74.8 i 75.7 76.6 77.5

78.4

79.3

80.3

81.2

82.1

83.0

84.0

-18.75

—1.75

74.4 i 75.3 76.2 77.2

78.1

79.0

79.9

80.9

81.8

82.7

83.6

-17.5

+0.5

74.0 74.9 75.9 76.8

77.7

78.6

79.6

80.5

81.4

82.4

83.3

-16.25

f275

73.7 74.6 75.5 76.4

77.4

78.3

79.2

80.2

81.1

82.0

82.9

-15

+ 5

73.3 74.2 75.1 76.1

77.0

77.9

78.9

79.8

80.7

81.7

82.6

-13.75

+ 7.25

72.9 73.9 74.8 75.7

76.7

77.6

78.5

79.5

80.4

81.3

82.3

-12.5

+ 9.5

72.6 I 73.5 74.4 75.4

76.3

77.2

78.2

79.1

80.1

81.0

81.9

-11.25

+11.75

72.2 i 73.1 74.1 75.0

75.9

76.9

77.8

78.8

79.7

80.7

81.6

-10

+ 14

71.8 72.8 73.7 : 74.6

75.6

76.5

77.5

78.4

79.4

80.3

81.3

—8.75

+ 16.25

71.5 ! 72.4 73.4 74.3

75.2

76.2

77.1

78.1

79.0

80.0

80.9

-7.5

+ 18.5

71.1 i 72.1 ; 73.0| 73.9

74.9

75.8

76.8

77.7

78.7

79.6

80.6

— 6

+20.75

70.7 i 71.7 72.6 | 73.6

74.5

75.5

76.4

77.4

78.4

79.3

80.3

5

+23

70.4 71.3 72.3 73.2

74.2

75.1

76.1

77.0

78.0

79.0

79.9

—3.75

+ 25.25

70.0 71.0 71.9 72.9

73.8

74.8

75.7

76.7

77.7

78.6

79.6

—2.5

+ 27.5

69.6 70.6 , 71.5

72.5

73.5

74.4

75.4

76.3

77.3

78.3

79.2

—1.25

+29.75

69.3

70.2 71.2

72.1

73.1

74.0

75.0

76.0

77.0

77.9

78.9

0

+32

68.9

69.8

70.8

71.8

72.7

73.7

74.7

75.6

76.7

77.6

78.5

+1.25

+34.25

68.5

69.5

70.4

71.4

72.3

73.3

74.3

75.3

76.2

77.2

78.2

+2.5

+36.5

68.1

69.1 70.0

71.0

72.0

72.9

73.9

74.9

75.9

76.8

77.8

+3.75

+38.75

67.7 ' 68.7 69.6

70.6

71.6

72.6

73.5

74.5

75.5

76.5

77.4

+ 5

+41

67.3 68.3 69.9

70.2

71.2

72.2

73.1

74.1

75.1

76.1

77.1

+ 6.25

+43

66.9 67.9 I 69.3

69.8

70.8

71.8

72.8 73.7

74.7

75.7

76.7

+ 7.5

+45.5

66.5

67.5 68.5

69.4

70.4

71.4

72.4

73.4

74.3

75.3

76.3

+ 8.75

+47.75

66.1 67.1 68.1

69.0

70.0

71.0

72.0

73.0

74.0

74.9

75.9

hio

+ 50

65.7 66.7 : 67.6

68.6

69.6

70.6

71.6

72.6

73.6

74.6

75.5

-11.25

+ 52.25

65.3 66.3 67.2

68.2

69.2 70.2

71.2

72.2

73.2

74.2

75.2

-12.5

+ 54.5

64.8 65.8 66.8

67.8

68.8

69.8

70.8

71.8

72.8

73.8 74.8

-13.75

+ 56.75

64.4 65.4 66.4

67.4

68.4

69.4

70.4

71.4

72.4

73.4

74.4

-15

+ 59

64.0 65.0 66.0

67.0

68.0

69.0

70.0

71.0

72.0

73.0

74.0

-16.25

+ 61.25

63.6 64.6 65.6

66.6

67.6

68.6

69.6

70.6

71.6

72.6

73.6

-17.5

+ 63.5

63.2 64.2

65.2

66.2

67.2

68.2

69.2

70.2

71.2

72.2

73.2

-18.75

+ 65.75

62.7 63.7

64.7

65.8

66.8

67.8

68.8

69.8

70.8

71.8

72.8

-20

+ 68

62.3

63.3

64.3

65.3

66.3

67.4

68.4

69.4

70.4

71.4

72.4

-21.25

+ 70.25

61.9

62.9

63.9

64.9

65.9

66.9

68.0

69.0

70.0

71.0

72.0

-22.5

+72.5

61.4

62.4

63.5

64.5 65.6

66.5

67 5

68.6

69.6

70.6

71.6

-23.75

+74.75

61.0

62.0

63.0

64.1 65.1

66.1

67.1

68.1

69.2

70.2

71.2

-25

•4-77

60.5

61.6

62.6

63.6

64.6

65.7

66.7

67.7

68.7

69.8

70.8

-26-25

-79.25

60.1

61.1

62.1

63.2

64.2

65.2

66.3

67.3

68.3

69.4

70.4

-27.5

-81.5

59.6

60.7

61.7

62.7

63.8

64.8

65.8

66.9

67.9

68.9

70.0

-28.75

-83.75

59.2

60.2

61.3

62.3

63.3

64.4

65.4

66.4

67.5

68.5

69.5

-30

-86

58.7

59.8

60.8

61.9

62.9

63.9

65.0

66.0

67.1

68.1

69.1

[-31.25

+ 88.25

58.3

59.3

60.4

61.4

62.5

63.5

64.5

65.6

66.6

67.7

68.7

h32.5

+90.5

57.8

58.9

59.9

61.0 62.0

63.1

64.1

65.1

66.2

67.2

68.3

r33.75

+92.75

57.4

58.4

59.5

60.5 , 61.6

62.6

63.7

64.7

65.8

66.8

67.9

r35

+95

56.9

58.0

59.0

60.1 ! 61.1

62.2

63.2

64.3

65.3

66.4

67.4

[-36.25

+97.25

56.5

57.5

58.6

59. 6 : 60.7

61.7

62.8

63.8

64.9

65.9

67.0

[-37.5

+99.5

56.0

57.1

58.1

59.2 60.2

61.3

62.3

63.4

64.4

65.5

66.6

APPENDIX.

443

TABLE VI. — (concluded.)

? »
ill

IH*

£ •*

j
\

1

Cb

•si

s to

** <O

•a

75

76 77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84 85 86

True strengths of spirit for the above apparent strengths.

—25

—13

86.2

87.1

88.0 88.9

89.7

90.6

91.4

92.3

93.1

93.9 94.7 95.5

-^23.75

—10.75

85.9

86.8

87.7 88.5

89.4

90.3

91.1

92.0

92.8

93.6 94.4 95.3

—22.5

-8.5

85.5

86.4

87.3 88.2

89.1

90.0

90.8

91.7

92.5

93.3 94.2 95.0

—21.25

_

-6.25

85.2

86.1

87.0 i 87.9

88.8

89.6

90.5

91.4

92.2

93.0 93.9 94.7

—20

_

-4

84.9

85.8

86.7 87.6

88.5

89.3

90.2

91.1

91.9

92.8 93.6 94.4

—18.75

—1.75

84.5

85.4

86.3: 87.2

88.1

89.0

89.9 90.8

91.6

92.5 93.3 94.1

—17.5

+0.5

84.2

85.1

86.0 86.9

87.8

88.7 89.6 90.4

91.3

92.2 93.0 93.8

—16.25

-2.75

83.9

84.8

85.7 j 86.6

87.5

88.4

89.3

90.1

91.0

91.9 92.7 93.6

—15

-5

83.5

84.4

85.4 86.3

87.2

88.1

88.9

89.8

90.7

91.6 92.4 93.3

—13.75

-7.25

83.2

84.1

85.0 85.9

86.8

87.7

88.6

89.5

90.4

91.3 92.1 93.0

—12.5

-9.5

82.9

83.8

84.7

85.6

86.5

87.4

88.3

89.2

90.1

91.0 91.9 92.7

—11.25

+11.75

82.5

83.5

84.4 85.3

86.2

87.1

88.0

88.9

89.8

90.7 91.6 92.5

—10

+14

82.2

83.1

84.1 85.0

85.9 86.8

87.7

88.6

89.5

90.4 91.3 92.2

—8.75

+ 16.25

81.9

82.8

83.7 : 84.7

85.6 86.5

87.4

88.3

89.2

90.1 91.0 91.9

—7.5

+18.5

81.5

82.5

83.4 84.3

85.3 86.2

87.1

88.0

88.9

89.8 90.7 91.6

—6

+20.75

81.2

82.1

83.1 ' 84.0

85.0 85.9

86.8

87.7

88.6

89.5 90.5 91.4

—5

+23

80.9

81.9

82.8 , 83.7

84.6 85.6

86.5

87.4

88.3

89.2 90.2 91.1

—3.75

+25.25

80.5

81.5

82.4 83.4

84.3 l 85.2

86.2

S7.1

88.0

88.9 89.9 90.8

—2.5

+27.5

80.2

81.1

82.1 83.0

84.0

84.9

85.9

86.8

87.7

88.6 89.6 90.5

—1.25

+29.75

79.8

80.8

81.8

82.7

83.7

84.6

85.5

86.5

87.4

88.3 89.3 90.2

0

+32

79.5

80.4

81.4

82.4

83.3

84.3

85.2

86.2

87.1

88.0 89.0 1 89.9

4-1.25

+34.25

79.1

80.1

81.1

82.0

83.0

83.9

84.9

85.8

86.8

87.7 88.6 i 89.6

+2.5

+36.5

78.8

79.7

80.7

81.7

82.6 J 83.6

84.5

85.5

86.4

87.4 88.3 89.3

+3.75

+38.75

78.4

79.4

80.3 81.3

82.3 i 83.2

84.2

85.2

86.1

87.1 i 88.0 89.0

4-5

+41

78.0

79.0

80.0 81.0

81.9 i 82.9

83.9

84.8

85.8

86.7 : 87.7 ; 88.6

+ 6.25

+43

77.7

78.6

79.6 ! 80.6

81.6 i 82.5

83.5 84.5

85.4

86.4 87.4 88.3

+7.5

+45.5

77.3

78.3

79.3 80.2 81.2 82.2

83.2

84.1

85.1

86.1 87.0 88.0

+8.75

+47.75

76.9

77.9

78.9 79.9

80.8 81.8

82.8

83.8

84.8

85.7 86.7 87.7

+10

+50

76.5

77.5

78.5 79.5

80.5 81.5

82.4

83.4

84.4

85.4 86.4 87.3

+11.25

+ 52.25

76.2

77.1

78.1 79.1

80.1 81.1

82.1

83.1

84.1

85.0 86.0 87.0

+ 12.5

+54.5

75.8

76.8

77.8 78.8

79.7 80.7

81.7

82.7

83.7

84.7 85.7 86.7

+13.75

+ 56.75

75.4

76.4

77.4

78.4

79.4

80.4

81.4

82.4

83.4

84.3 85.3

86.3

+ 15

+ 59

75.0

76.0

77.0

78.0

79.0

80.0

81.0

82.0

83.0

84.0 85.0

86.0

+ 16.25

+ 61.25

74.6

75.6

76.6

77.6 78.6

79.6

80.6

81.6

82.6

83.6 84.6

85.6

+17.5

+ 63.5

74.2

75.2

76.2

77.2 j 78.2

79.2

80.3

81.3

82.3

83.3 84.3

85.3

+18.75

+ 65.75

73.8

74.8

75.8

76.8 77.9

78.7

79.9

80.9

81.9

82.9 83.9

85 9

+20

+ 68

73.4

74.4

75.1

76.5

77.5

78.5

79.5 80.5

81.5

82.6 83.6

84.6

+21.25

+ 70.25

73.0

74.0

75.7

76.1

77.1

78.1

79.1

80.1

81.2

82.2 83.2

84.2

+22.5

+ 72.5

72.6

73.6

74.4

75.7

76.7

77.7

78.7

79.8

80.8

81.8 82.9

83.9

+23.75

+74.75

72.2

73.2

74.3

75.3

76.3

77.3

78.4

79.4

80.4

81.5 82.5

83.5

+25

+77

71.8

72.8

73.9

74.9

75.9

76.9

78.0

79.0

80.0

81.1 82.1

83.2

+26.25

+79.25

71.4

72.4

73.5

74.5

75.5

76.5

77.6

78.6

79.6

80.7 ' 81.7

82.8'

+27.5

+ 81.5

71.0

72.0

73.0

74.1

75.1

76.1

77.2

78.2

79.3

80.3 81.4

82.4

+28.75

+ 83.75

70.6

71.6

72.6

73.7

74.7

75.7

76.8

77.8

78.9

79.9 81.0

82.0

+30

+ 86

70.2

71.2

72.2

73.3

74.3

75.3

76.4

77.4

78.5

79.5 80.6

81.7

+31.25

+ 88.25

69.7

70.8

71.8

72.9 1 73.9

74.9

76.0

77.0

78.1

79.1 80.2

81.3

+32.5

+90.5

69.3

70.4

71.4

72.4 73.5

74.5

75.6

76.6

77.7

78.7 79.8

80.9

+33.75

+92.75

68.9

69.9

71.0

72.0 73.1

74.1

75.2

76.2

77.3

78.3 79.4

80.5

+35

+ 95

68.5

69.5

70.6

71.6 1 72.7

73.7

74.8

75.8

76.9

77.9 79.0

80.1

+36.25

+97.25

68.1

69.1

70.1

71.2 72.2

73.3

74.3

75.4

76.5

77.5 78.6

79.7

+37.5

+99.5

67.6

68.7

69.7

70.8 71.8

72.9

73.9

75.0

76.1

77.1 j 78.2

79.3

444

APPENDIX.

TABLE VII. — Determination of the true volume of alcoholic fluids

from the apparent volume at different temperatures.

(According to A. F. W. Brix.)

Degrees C.

Degrees F.

55-57

58-6o' 61-64

65-69

70-74 75-79 80-84

85-89

90-94

Reducing factors for the above strengths of spirits of wine.

—10

+ 14

1.0198 1.0203J1.0207 1.0213

1.0220

1.0227

1.0233

1.0238

1.0246

—8.75

— 16.25

0189

0193

0197; 0203

0210

0217

0222

0227

0235

—7.5

--18.5

0180

0183

0187 0193

0200

0206

0211

0216

0223

—6

--20.75

0170

0173

01771 0183

0189

0195

0200

0205

0211

—5

+23

0161

0164

0168: 0173

0179

0185

0190

0194

0200

—3.75

+ 25.25

0152

0155

0158! 0163

0169

0175

0179

0183

0189

—2.5

+ 27.5

0143

0146

0148

0153

0159

0164

0168

0172

0178

—1.25

+29.75

0133

0136

0138

0143

0148

0153

0157

0161

0166

0

+32

0123

0126

0128 0132

0138

0142

0146

0150

0154

+1.25

+34.25

0114

0117

0118 0122

0127

0131

0135

0139

0142

+2.5

4-36.5

0105

0107

0108

0112

0116

0120

0124

0128

0130

+ 3.75

+ 38.75

0095

0097

0098

0102

0105

0109

0113

0116

0118

+ 5

+41

0085

0087

0088

0091

0094

0098

0101

0104

0106

+ 6.25

+43.25

0075

0077

0078

0080

0083

0086

0089

0092

0094

+ 7.5

+45.5

0066

0067

0068

0070

0072

0075

0078

0080

0082

+ 8.75

+47.75

0056

0057

0058

0060

0061

0064

0066

0068

0070

+10

+ 50

• 0046

0047

0048

0050

0050

0053

0054

0056

0058

+ 11.25

+ 52.25

0036

0037

0038

0039

0039

0041

0042

0044

0045

+ 12.5

-j-54.5

0026

0027

0027

0028

0028

0029

0030

0031

0032

+ 13.75

+56.75

0015

0016

0016

0017

0017

0017

0018

0019

0019

+15

+ 59

1.0005

1.0005ll.0005

1.0006

1.0006

1.0006 1.0006

1.0006

1.0006

4-16.25

+ 61.25

0.9995

0.9995 0.9995

0.9995

0.9994

0.99940.9994

0.9994

0.9993

+ 17.5 1 + 63.5

9985

99851 9984

9984

9983

9983| 9982

9982

9981

+ 18.75

+65.75

9975

9975

9974

9973

9972

9971 9970

9969

9968

+20

+68

9965

9965

9963

9962

9861

9960 9958

9957

9955

+-21.25

+ 70.25

9955

9955

9952

9951

9950

9949

9946

9945

9942

+22.5

+72.5

9945

9944

9941

9940

9939

9937

9934

9932

9929

+23.75

+74.75

9934

9933

9930

9929

9927

9925

9922

9919

9916

+25

+77

9923

9922[ 9919

9917

9915

9912

9909

9906

9903

+26.25

+79.25

9912

9911

9908

9906

9903

9901

9897

9893

9890

+ 27.5 1 + 81.5

9901

9900

9897

9894

9891

9889

9885

9880

9877

+ 28.75

+83.75

9890

9889

9886

9882

9879

9876

9872

9867

9864

+ 30

+86

98791 9877

9874

9870

9866

9883

9859

9854

9851

+ 31.25 +88.25

0.9868

0.98650.9862

0.9858

0.9854

0.9850

0.9846

0.9841

0.9837

Explanation of Table VII.

Alcohol, or alcohol and water, heated above or cooled below the
normal temperature expands or contracts. Now, for instance, what
is the volume of 10,000 liters of a mixture of 82 per cent, by volume
at +5° C. (41° F.) at the normal temperature.* — In the horizontal
column below 80-84 and in the vertical column at +5° C. (41° F.)

The table is calculated for a normal temperature of 15.5° C. (60° F.).

APPENDIX. 445

is the reducing factor 1.0101 ; hence 1 0,000 liters are 10,000 X 1.0101
= 10,101 liters. 82 being exactly the means of 80-84, the reduc-
tion is accurate. At 83° the factor would have to be increased by 1 ;
at 84 by f, and consequently the factor for 83° would be 1.0101 +
(1.0104 — 1.0101) J = 1.01016. For the practice the above factors
suffice without change. — The measuring of the temperature and
reading off of the percentage of spirit should be done in the storage-
cellar, and not in a warmer room, for instance, the office, as is
frequently the custom to the disadvantage of the seller.

446

APPENDIX.

s

O O OS Cfe OS QO GO Jt« J

i— lO(N(lDCOi— l

01 C O CO O CN t iO

K

3
tx>

B

c- co "* k« i> o « «o c co co <M

OOiODt—yD^C

r-i!— (i— lOOOlOi

2 >,i

APPENDIX.

447

TABLE IX. — For the reduction of specific gravities to

saccharometer per cent.
(According to Balling). — Temperature 63.5° F.

2

2

o

2

i

i

i

* a

5 a

* n

Ja

o '•"

8-

0 «

g'H

8~

^

«l

^

y* 3

^

* §

^

5 1

K ~

£' °° =

^

* ®

g

11

1

s" 2

I

sS

>

g

S £ •

">
2

cl

^ «

6C

2 .-§

|c§

!•-§

S.c"

Sto

f"l

bo

= K-l

'5

|I&

1

'Z £ a

05

Ill

<D
O.

fell.

1

11!

0)

02

u

X

0

an

u

W2

6

03

6

oT

6

1.0000

0.000

1.0040

1.000

1.0080

2.000

1.0120

3.000

1.0160 4.000

1.0200

5.000

1.0001

0.025

41

025

81

025

121

025

161

025

201

025

2

0.050

42

050

82

050

122

050

162j 050

202

050

3

075

43

075

83

075

123

075

163! 075

203

075

4

100

44

100

84 100

124

100

164i 100

204

100

5

125

45

125

85

125

125

125

165 125

205

125

6

150

46

150

86

150

126

150

166 150

206

150

7

175

47

175

87

175

127

175

167 175

207

175

8

200

48

200

88

200

128

200

168 200

208

200

9

225

49

225

89

225

129

225

169 225

209

225

1.0010

250

1.0050

250

1.0090

250

1.0130

250

1.0170

250

1.0210

250

11 275

51

275

91

275

131

275

171

275

211

275

12

300

52

300

92

300

132

300

172

300

212

300

13

3 OK
M«

53

325

93

325

133

325

173 325

213

325

14

350

54

350

94

350

134

350

1741 350

214

350

15

375

55

375

95

375

135

375

175 375

215

375

16

400

56

400

96

400

136

400

176

401

216

400

17

425

57

425

97

425

137

425

177 425

217

425

18

450

58

450

98

450

138

450

178 450

218

450

19

475

59

475

99 475

139

475

1791 475

219

475

1.0020

500

1.0061

50C

1.01 00 j 500

1.0140

500

1.0180 500

1.0220

500

21

525

61

525

1011 525

141

525

181 525

221 525

22

550

62

55C

102| 55(

142

550

182

551

222

550

23

575

63

575

103 575

143

575

183

575

223

575

24

600

64

600

104 600

144

600

184

600

224

600

25

625

65

625

105

625

145

625

185

625

225

625

26

650

66

650

106

650

146

650

186

650

226

650

27

675

67

675

107

675

147

675

187

675

227

675

28

70C

68

700

108

70(

148

700

188

701

228

700

29

725

69

725

109

725

149

725

189

725

229

725

1.0030

750

1.0070

750

1.0110

751

1.0150

751

1.0190

751

1.0230

750

31

775

71

775

111

775

151

775

191

775

231

775

32

800

72

800

112

800

152

800

192 801

232

800

33

825

73

825

113

825

153

825

193

82f

233

825

34

850

74

850

114

850

154

85C

194

85(

234

850

35

875

75

875

115

875

155

875

195

875

235

875

36

900

7b

900

lib

900

156

90C

196

900

236

900

37

92

7*3

925

117

925

157

925

197

925

237

925

38

95(

78

950

118

950

158

950

198 95(

238

950

39

97

79

975

119

975

159

975

199 975

239

975

448

APPENDIX.

TABLE IX. — (continued.)

Specific gravity.

Corresponding saccharo-
meter, statement in
per cent.

.

ng saccharo-
;ement in

2

00 a

^s

.

2

— d

i|

Specific gravity.

Corresponding saccharo-
meter, statement in
per cent.

bo

o

5
o,

02

Corresponding saccharo-
meter, statement in
per cent.

• \atn ,.\, mil

Specific gra\

Correspondi:
meter, stal
per cent.

Specific gra\

If «
O

Specific grav

£ ^ £
I3'

.0240

6.000

1.0290

7.219

1.0340

8.438

1.0390

9.657

1.0440 10.857

1.0490

12.047

241

024

291

244

341

463

391

681

441

881

491

071

242

048

292

268

342

488

392

706

442

904

492

095

243

073

293 292

343

512

393

731

443

928

493

119

244

097

294

316

344

536

394

756

444

952

494

142

245

122

295

341

345

560

395

780

445

976

495

166

246

146

296

365

346

584

396

804

44611.000

496

190

247

170

297

389

347

609

397

828

447

023

497

214

248

195

298

413

348

633

398

853

448

047

498

238

249

219

299

438

349

657

399

877

449

081

499

261

1.0250

244

1.0300

463

1.0350

681

1.0400

901

1.0450

095

1.0500

285

251

268

301

488

351

706

401

925

451

119

501

309

252

292

302

512

352

731

402

950

452

142

502

333

253

316

303

536

353

756

403

975

453

166

503

357

254

341

304

560

354

780

404

10.000

454

190

504

381

255

365

305

584

355

804

405

023

455 213

505

404

256

389

306

609

356

828

406

047

456 238

506

428

257

413

307

633

357

853

407

071

457 261

507

452

258

438

308

667

358

877

408

095

458 285

508

476

259

463

309

681

359

901

409

119

459 309

509

500

1.0260

488

1.0310

706

1.0360

925

1.0410

142

1.0460

333

1.0510

523

261

512

311

731

361

950

411

166

461

359

511

547

262

536

312

756

362

975

412

190

462 381

512

571

263

560

313

780

363

9.000

413

214

463 404

513

595

264

584

314

804

364

024

414

238

464

428

514

619

265

609

315

828

365

048

415

261

465

452

515 642

266

633

316

853

366

073

416

285

466

476

516

666

267

657

317

877

367

097

417

309

467

500

517

690

268

681

318

901

368

122

418

333

468

523

518

714

269

706

319

925

369

146

419

357

469

547

519

738

1.0270

731

1.0320

950

1.0370

170

1.0420

381

1.0470 571

.0520

761

271

756

321

975

371

195

421

404

471 595

521

785

272

780

322

8.000

372

219

422

428

472

619

522

809

273

804

323

024

373

244

423

452

473

642

523

833

274

828

324

048

374

268

424

476

474

676

524

857

275

853

325

073

375

292

425

500

475

690

525

881

276

877

326

097

376

316

426

523

476

714

526

904

277

901

327

122

377

341

427

547

477

738

527

928

278

925

328

.146

378

365

428

571

478

761

528

952

279

950

329

170

379

389

429

595

479

785

529

976

1.0280

975

1.0330

195

1.0380

413

1.0430

619

1.0480

809

1.0530

13.000

281

7.000

331

219

381

438

431

642

481

833

531

023

282

024

332

244

382

463

432

666

482

857

532

047

283

048

333

268

383

488

433

690

483

881

533

071

284

073

334

292

384

512

434

714

484

904

534

095

285

097

335

316

385

536

435

738

485

928

535

119

286

122

336

341

386

560

436

761

486

952

536

142

287

146

337

365

387

584

437

785

487

976

537

166

288

170

338

389

388

609

438

809

488

12.000

538

190

289

195

339

413

389

633

439

833

489

023

539

214

APPENDIX.

449

TABLE IX. — (concluded.)

2

A

2

6

2

o

JI.S

|.2

5 d

1.2

£ 2

~ a

.

ii

.

Is

,

li

li

c '£

00 «

.-t?

a5!

a

g>l

s

ll

25

si

.-*?

«*!

.t?

»J

1

p "tc *»

o ^ ^

cS
bo

° .- §

be

111

be

Mi

CC

be

ll-

">

bo

!**

(9

£<® 0

u

0

id

p- *- g

«

Isi

0

ted

h's

"S

£ ^ 0}

*o

2^0}

°o

S "^ CD

'3

£* "^ fD

•g

? ® £

£ » S

p.
to

I8'

Pi

CO

gap,

P.
CO

JSP.

0>

PI
co

gap,

«

CO

Is*

p.

CO

gsS,

0

1.0540

13.238

1.057714.119

1.0614

15.000

1.0651 15.860

1.068816.721

1.0730

17.681

541

261

578

142

615

024

652

883

689

744

732

725

542

285

579

166

616

046

653

907

1.0690

767

734

772

543

309

1.0580

190

617

070

654

930

691

790

7361 818

544

333

581

214

618

093

655

953

692

814

7381 863

545

357

582

238

619

116

656

976

693

837

1.0740

909

546

381

583

261

1.0620

139

657

16.000

694

860

742

954

547

404

584

285

621

162

658

023

695

883

744 18.000

548

428

585

309

622

186

659

046

696

907

746

045

549

452

586

333

623

209

1.0660

070

697

930

748

090

1.0550

476

587

357

624

232

661

093

698

953

1.0750

137

551

500

588

381

625

255

662

116

699

976

752

181

552

523

589

404

626

278

663

139

1.0700

17.000

754

227

553

547

1.0590

428

627

302

664

162

701

022

756

272

554

571

591

452

628

325

665

186

702

045

758

318

555

595

592

476

629

348

666

209

703

067

1.0760

363

556

619

593

500

1.0630

371

667 232

704

090

762

409

557

642

594

523

631

395

668 255

705

113

764

454

558

666

595

547

632

418

669; 278

706

136

766

500

559

690

596

571

633

441

1.0670 302

707

158

768

545

1.0560

714

597

595

634

464

671

325

708

181

1.0770

590

561

738

598

619

635

488

672

348

709

204

772

636

562

761

599

642

636

511

673

371

1.0710

227

774

681

563

785

1.0600

665

637

534

674

395

711

250

776

727

564

809

601

690

638

557

675

418

712

272

778

772

565

833

602

714

639

581

676 441

713

295

1.0780

818

566

857

603

738

1.0640

604

677

464

714

318

782

863

567

881

604

761

641

627

678

480

715

340

784

909

568

904

605

785

642

650

679 511

716

363

786

954

569

928

606

809

643

674

1.0680 534

717

386

788

19.000

1.0570

952

607

833

644

697

681 557

718

409

1.0790

045

571

976

608

857

645

721

682: 581

719

431

792

090

572 14.00C

609

881

646

744

683| 604

1.0720

454

794

136

573

023

1.0610

14.904

647

767

684i 627

722

500

796

181

574

047

611

928

648

790

685

650

724

545

798

227

575

071

612

952

649

814

686

674

726

590

1.080019.272

576

095

613

976

1.0650

837

687 697

728

636

2!)

450

APPENDIX.

TABLE X. — Comparative synopsis of the areometers for
• must generally used.

Specific gravity,
degrees (Oechsle).

Extract, per cent,
by weight
(Balling).

Sugar, per cent,
by weight.

Degrees (Wagner).

Specific gravity,
degrees (Oechsle).

Extract, per cent,
by weight
(Balling).

Sugar, per cent,
by weight.

Degrees (Wagner).

Babo.

Pillitz.

Babo.

Pillitz.

1.051

12.5

10.5

8.2

7

91

21.8

18.3

17.5

_

52

12.8

10.7

8.5

—

92

22.1

18.5

17.8

—

53

13.0

10.9

8.7

—

93

22.3

18.6

18.0

—

54

13.2

11.1

8.9

—

94

22.5

18.8

18.2

—

55

13.5

11.3

9.1

—

95

22.7

18.9

18.4

—

56

13.7

11.5

9.4

—

96

22.9

19.0

18.6

—

57

14.0

11.7

9.7

—

97

23.1

19.2

18.8

—

58

14.2

12.0

9.9

8

98

23.3

19.3

19.0

—

59

14.4

12.2

10.1

—

99

23.5

19.5

19.2

13

60

14.7

12.4

10.4

—

1.00

23.7

19.7

19.4

—

61

14.9

12.6

10.6

—

01

23.9

19.9

19.6

—

62

15.1

12.8

10.8

—

02

24.2

20.1

19. 9^

—

63

15.4

13.0

11.1

—

03

24.4

20.3

20.1

—

64

15.6

13.3

11.3

—

04

24.6

20.5

20.3

—

65

15.8

13.5

11.5

—

05

24.8

20.8

20.5

—

66

16.1

13.7

11.8

9

06

25.0

21.0

20.7

—

67

16.3

13.9

12.0

—

07

25.2

21,2

20.9

14

68

16.5

14.1

12.2

—

08

25.4

21.4

21.1

—

69

16.8

14.3

12.5

—

09

25.7

21.6

21.4

— '

70

17.0

14.4

12.7

—

10

25.9

21.8

21.6

—

71

17.2

14.6

12.9

—

11

26.1

22.0

21.8

—

72

17.5

14.8

13.2

—

12

26.3

22.2

22.0

—

73

17.7

15.0

13.4

—

13

26.5

22.4

22.2

—

74

17.9

15.2

13.6

10

14

26.7

22.6

22.4

—

75

18.1

15.4

13.8

—

15

26.9

22.8

22.' 6

—

76

18.4

15.6

14.1

—

16

27.1

23.0

22.8

15

77

18.6

15.8

14.3

—

17

27-4

23.2

23.1

—

78

18.8

15.9

14.5

—

18

27-6

23.5

23.3

—

79

19.0

16.1

14.7

—

19

27.8

23.8

23.5

—

80

19.3

16.3

15.0

—

20

28.0

24.1

23.7

—

81

19.5

16.5

15.2

—

21

28.2

24.3

23.9

—

82

19.7

16.7

15.4

11

22

28.4

24.6

24.1

83

20.0

16.9

15.7

—

23

28.6

24.9

24.3

—

84

20.2

17.1

15.9

24

28.9

25.2

24.6

85

20.4

17.3

16.1

—

25

29.1

25.5

24.8

16

86

20.7

17.4

16.4

—

26

29.3

25.0

87

20.9

17.6

16.6

—

27

29.5

25.2

88

21.1

17.8

16.8

—

28

29.7

25.4

89

21.4

18.0

17.1

—

29

29.9

25.6

90

21.6

18.2

17.3

12

30

30.1

—

25.8

—

APPENDIX.

451

TABLE XI. — Table to Oechsle's areometer for must

£

1

bO

8 Of

sle's areo-
r for must.

•-!_, r— i-'

0 « 03

*.2 *

^^ s

£.

'>

£o

8 Of

sle's areo-
r for must.

'olS'

D N io

S?5S

£,

">

o3

So

*of
ile's areo-
• for must.

118,

£5?

gravity.

I0f

le's areo-
for must.!

"SIS

&*

d

•3

0.

£•§2

x » 2
£03

Its

£« t*

<»
p.

Ill

H«

a3 S U)

0)

S-g£
rr® »
£oS

8&2

S a 6c

<§

1

»•§ 2

*SI

III

; « to

to

«

PH

02

p

PH

02

a

£

ft

1041

41

8.0

1059

59

13.0

1076

76

17.2

1093

93

21.7

1042

42

8.3

1060

60

13.2

1077

77

17.5

1094

94

21.9

1043

43

8.6

1061

61

13.4

1078

78

17.8

1095

95

22.2

1044

44

8.9

1062

62

13.6

1079

79

18.0

1096

96

22.5

1045

45

9.2

1063

63

13.9

1080

80

18.3

1097

97

22.7

1046

46

9.4

1064

64

14.0

1081

81

18.5

1098

98

23.0

1047

47

9.7

1065

65

14.2

1082

82

18.8

1099

99

23.2

1048

48

9.9

1066

66

14.4

1083

83

19.1

1100

100

23.4

1049

49

10.2

1067

67

14.7

1084

84

19.4

1101

101

23.7

1050

50

10.5

1068

68

15.0

1085

85

19.7

1102

102

23.9

1051

51

10.8

1069

69

15.2

1086

86

20.0

1103

103

24.2

1052

52

11.1

1070

70

15.5

1087

87

20.2

1104

104

24.5

1053

53

11.4

1071

71

15.8

1088

88

20.4

1105

105

24.8

1054

54

11.7

1072

72

16.1

1089

89

20.7

1106

106

25.0

1055

55

11.9

1073

73

16.3

1090

90

20.9

1107

107

25 2

1056

56

12.2

1074

74

16.5

1091

91

21.2

1108

108

25A

1057

57

12.5

1075

75

16.9

1092

92

21.4

1109

109

25.7

1058

58

12.7

TABLE XII. — To Massonfour's areometer.

Degrees,

Weight of a

Degrees,

Weight of a

Degrees,

Weight of a

according to
Massonfour.

liter,
grammes.

according to
Massoufour.

liter,
grammes.

according to
Massoufour.

liter,
grammes.

1

1008

8

1059

15

1116

2

1015

9

1067

16

1125

3

1022

10

1075

17

1134

4

1029

11

1083

18

1143

5

1036

12

1091

19

1152

6

1043

13

1099

20

1161

7

1051

14

1107

TABLE XIII. — For comparing per cent, of sugar with per cent.
of extract and the specific gravity. By PiUitz.

*> — -

j*r

*8"-^

«"?

^^

- ci

%

B .Ni
- * •"

tfl .5

ojj>

1-2

"1 5

0 ^

~s*?

tf||

<a t?

&•£

Ig^

o ^

Ss|

* ""3

0; u

c« ^ ~
bfid,^

- «1

ll

0 P.C-

p s^C'

ft so

s p,C-

M* ^

QQ

CS

cc

02

w

cc

W2

w

0

4.3

1.0172

9

13.3

.0543

18

22.3

1.0930

1

5.3

1.0212

10

14.3

.0585

19

23.3

1.0975

2

6.3

1.0253

11

15.3

.0627

20

24.3

1.1017

3

7.3

1.0294

12

16.3

.0670

21

25.3

1.1060

4

8.3

1.0335

13

17.3

.0713

22

26.3

1.1103

5

9.3

1.0376

14

18.3

.0757

23

27.3

1.1146

6

10.3

1.0417

15

19.3

.0800

24

28.3

1.1189

7

11.3

1.0459

16

20.3

.0844

25

29.3

1.1232

8

12.3

1.0501

17

21.3

.0887

452

APPENDIX.

TABLE XIV. — For determining the content of per cent, of acetic
acid contained in a vinegar of — specific gravity. Tempera-
ture 15° C. (59° F.)

(According to A. C. Oudemans.)

Anhydrous
acetic acid,
per cent.

Specific
gravity.

Anhydrous
acetic acid,
per cent.

Specific
gravity.

Anhydrous
acetic acid,
per cent.

Specific
gravity.

100

1.0553

66

1.0717

32

1.0436

99

1.0580

65

1.0712

31

1.0424

98

1.0604

64

1.0707

30

1.0412

97

1.0625

63

1.0702

29

1.0400

96

1.0644

62

1.0697

28

1.0388

95

1.0660

61

1.0691

27

1.0375

94

1.0674

60

1.0685

26

1.0363

93

1.0686

59

1.0679

25

1.0350

92

1.0696

58

1.0673

24

1.0337

91

1.0705

57

1.0666

23

1.0324

90

1.0713

56

1.0660

22

1.0311

89

1.0720

55

1.0653

21

1.0298

88

1.0726

54

1.0646

20

1.0284

87

1.0731

53

1.0638

19

1.0270

86

1.0736

52

1.0631

18

1.0256

85

1.0739

51

1.0623

17

1.0242

84

. 1.0742

50

1.0615

16

1.0228

83

1.0744

49

1.0607

15

1.0214

82

1.0746

48

1.0598

14

1.0200

81

1.0747

47

1.0589

13

1.0185

80

1.0748

46

1.0580

12

1.0171

79

1.0748

45

1.0571

11

1.0157

78

1.0748

44

1.0562

10

1.0142

77

1.0748

43

1.0552

9

1.0127

76

1.0747

42

1.0543

8

1.0113

75

1.0746

41

1.0533

7

1.0098

74

1.0744

40

1.0523

6

1.0083

73

1.0742

39

1.0513

5

1.0067

72

1.0740

38

1.0502

4

1.0052

71

1.0737

37

1.0492

3

1.0037

70

1.0733

36

1.0481

2

1.0022

69

1.0729

35

1.0470

1

1.0007

68

1.0725

34

1.0459

0

0.9992

67

1.0721

33

1.0447

APPENDIX.

453

TABLE XY. — For determining the content of per cent, of acetic

acid contained in a vinegar of — specific gravity.

(According to Mohr.)

Anhydrous
acetic acid,
per cent.

Specific
gravity.

Anhydrous
acetic acid,
per cent.

Specific
gravity.

Anhydrous
acetic acid,
per cent.

Specific
gravity.

100

1.0635

66

1.0690

33

1.0440

99

1.0655

65

1.0680

32

1.0420

98

1.0670

64

1.0680

31

1.0410

97

1.0680

63

1.0680

30

1.0400

96

1.0690

62

1.0670

29

1.0390

95

1.0700

61

1.0670

28

1.0380

94

1.0706

60

1.0670

27

1.0360

93

1.0708

59

1.0660

26

1.0350

92

1.0716

58

1.0660

25

1.0340

91

1.0721

57

1.0650

24

1.0330

90

1.0730

56

1.0640

23

1.0320

89

1.0730

55

1.0640

22

1.0310

88

1.0730

54

1.0630

21

1.0290

87

1.0730

53

1.0630

20

1.0270

86

1.0730

52

1.0620

19

1.0260

85

1.0730

51

1.0610

18

1.0250

84

1.0730

50

1.0600

17

1.0240

83

1.0730

49

1.0590

16

1.0230

82

1.0730

48

1.0580

15

1.0220

81

1.0732

47

1.0560

14

1.0200

80

1.0735

46

1.0550

13

1.0180

79

1.0735

45

1.0550

12

1.0170

78

1.0733

44

1.0540

11

1.0160

77

1.0732

43

1.0530

10

1.0150

76

1.0730

42

1.0520

9

1.0130

75

1.0720

41

1.0510

8

1.0120

74

1.0720

40

1.0510

7

1.0100

73

1.0720

39

1.0500

6

1.0080

72

1.0710

38

1.0490

5

1.0070

7]

1.0710

37

1.0480

4

1.0050

70

1.0700

36

1.0470

3

1.0040

69

1.0700

35

1.0460

2

1.0020

68

1.0700

34

1.0450

1

1.0010

67

1.0690

454

APPENDIX.

TABLE XVI. — Comparison of the scales of Eeaumur's, Celsius's,
and Fahrenheit's thermometers.

Reaumur.

Celsius.

Fahrenheit.

Reaumur.

Celsius.

Fahrenheit.

—15

—18.75

_

33

41.25

106.25

14

17.50

0.50

34

42.50

108.50

13

16,25

2.75

35

43.75

110.75

12

15.00

5.00

36

45.00

113.00

11

13.75

7.25

37

46.25

115.25

10

12.50

9.50

38

47.50

117.50

9

11.25

11.75

39

48.75

119.75

8

10.00

14.00

40

50.00

122.00

7

8.75

16.25

41

51.25

124.25

6

7.50

18.50

42

52.50

126.50

5

6.25

20.75

43

53.75

128.75

4

5.00

23.00

44

55.00

131.00

3

3.75

25.25

45

56.25

133.25

2

2.50

27.50

46

57.50

135.50

+1

1.25

29.75

47

58.75

137.75

0

0

32.00

48

60.00

140.00

1

1.25

34.25

49

61.25

142.25

2

2.50

36.50

50

62.50

144.50

3

3.75

38.75

51

63.75

146.75

4

5.00

41.00

52

65.00

149.00 '

5

6.25

43.25

53

66.25

151.25

6

7.50

45.50

54

67.50

153.50

7

8.75

47.75

55

68.75

155.75

8

10

50.00

56

70.00

158.00

9

11.25

52.25

57

71.25

160.25

10

12.50

54.50

58

72.50

162.50

11

13.75

56.75

59

73.75

164.75

12

35.00

59.00

60

75.00

167.00

13

16.25

61.25

61

76.25

169.25

14

17.50

63.50

62

77.50

171.50

15

18.75

65.75

63

78.75

173.75

16

20.00

68.00

64

80.00

176.00

17

21,25

70.25

65

81.25

178.25

18

22.50 .

72.50

66

82.50

180.50

19

23.75

74.75

67

83.75

182.75

20

25.00

77.00

68

85.00

185.00

21

26.25

79.25

69

86.25

187.25

22

27.50

81.50

70

87.50

189.50

23

28.75

83.75

71

88.75

191.75

24

30.00

86.00

72

90.00

194.00

25

31.25

88.25

73

91.25

196.25

26

32.50

90.50

74

92.50

198.50

27

33.75

92.75

75

93.75

200.75

28

35.00

95.00

76

95.00

203.00

29

36.25

97.25

77

96.25

205.25

30

37.50

99.50

78

97.50

207.50

31

38.75

101.75

79

98.75

209.75

32

40.00

104.00

80

100.00

212.00

INDEX

ACCELEKATED acidulation, 97,
99
Acetal, 40, 41

composition of pure, 41
different views of the constitu-
tion of, 41
preparation of, 40
properties of, 41
Acetaldehyde or acetic aldehyde, 39,

40

Acetate, aluminium, 272-274
ammonium, 270
barium, 271, 272
bismuth, 297
calcium, 270, 271
chromic, 279
chromous, 279
cobalt, 279
dibasic cupric, 283
ferrous, 275
lead, neutral, 287-295
magnesium, 272
manganese, 274, 275
mercuric, 298
mercurous, 297, 298
neutral cupric, 280-283
ferric, 276-278
formation of, 43
nickel, 279

of ammonia, neutral, 270
of lead, composition, properties,

and uses of, 293-295
potassium acid, 268, 269

neutral, 267, 268
sesquibasic cupric, 283
silver, 298
sodium, 269, 270
strontium, 272
tin, 297

tribasic cupric, 283
uranium, 297
zinc, 279

Acetates and their manufacture, 266-
298

Acetates —

basic cupric, 283-287

lead, 295-297
chromium, 278, 279
commercial, preparation of acetic

acid from, 256-265
iron, 275-278
lead, 287-297

obtained from wood-vinegar, pre-
paration of acetic acid from,
256-265

of copper, 280-287
preparation of, 267
solubility of, 267
used for the preparation of acetic

acid, 256
Acetic acid, 42-44

and water, specific gravity of

mixtures of, 42, 43
application of, 43
calculation for finding quan-
tity of, in vinegar,
209

of the heat liberated by
the conversion of al-
cohol into, 46
of the theoretical yield
of, from alcohol, 44,
45
of the yield of, from

malt, 158, 159
cause of the large amount
of, produced during the
destructive distillation of
wood, 219
destruction of, by the vinegar

ferment, 106
determination of, 117

by titration, with illus-
tration, 208, 209
of empyreumatic sub-
stances in, 254
of the content of, in
vinegar, 112

456

INDEX.

Acetic acid —

disturbances referable to the
quantity of newly-formed,
127-129

formation of, by the action
of platinum black, illus-
trated, 24, 25
for technical purposes, 240
free, in the water of a river

of Brazil, 24
from calcium acetate, Volck-

el's method, 258-261
from lead acetate, 256, 257
from sodium acetate, 262-

265

from strong vinegar, 255
glacial, first obtained by

Loewitz, 18

influence of, upon the vine-
gar ferment, 106
in the mineral water of

Briickenau, 24
in wine, 177
limit in vinegar of, 106
method of fixing it on lime,

256

mode of obtaining, 42
Mollerat's method of prepar-
ing, illustrated, 263-265
most suitable varieties of

wood for, 229
oil of lemon as a test of pure,

266

origination of, 23, 24
preparation of, from com-
mercial acetates and
from those obtained
from wood - vinegar,
256-265

of vinegar with a high
percentage of, 119,
120
of, without distillation,

257, 258
principal acetates used for

the preparation of, 256
properties of, 42, 266
pure concentrated, prepara-
tion of, 253-266
quantity of air required to
convert alcohol into,
45, 46
of oxygen required for

the formation of, 45
replacement of hydrogen by
a metal in, 266, 267

Acetic acid —

samples for the determina-
tion of, 122
Schnedermann's method of

preparing, 261, 262
still for the rectification of,

260
strong, from copper acetate

(verdigris), 18
summary of the formation

of, 37

table of content of alcohol
required in a liquid
for the production of
vinegar with a cer-
tain content of, 108
of theoretical yield of,
from alcohol, 107, 108
tables for determining the
content of per cent, of, in
vinegar of — specific grav-
ity, 452, 453

theoretical yields of, 44-48
theory of the formation of,
established by Doberei-
ner, 21
variations in the specific

gravity of, 42

yields of, obtained in prac-
tice, 48, 49

aldehyde or acetaldehyde, 39, 40
anhydride, determination of, in
vinegar, or acetometry, 204-
209
ether, 40

addition to vinegar of, 145
composition and properties

of, 174, 175

preparation of, 173-175
Acetometry or determination of acetic

anhydride in vinegar, 204-209
Acetone, crude, how obtained, 242
or dimethyl ketone, 234, 235
preparation of, from barium ace-
tate, 271, 272
properties of, 234, 235
Acetous degeneration of wine, 177

remedies for, 177
fermentation, change of fusel oils

in, 39

induction of, 37
products of, 38-49
summary of the processes

taking place in, 38
Acid, acetic, 42, 44

application of, 43

INDEX.

457

Acid, acetic —

determination of chemical

constitution of, 18
discovery of the generation

of, 18

from verdigris, 18
formation of, by the action
of platinum black, illus-
trated, 24, 25
in the mineral water of

Brttckenau, 24
in the water of a river of

Brazil, 24

mode of obtaining, 42
origination of, 23, 24
properties of, 42
summary of the formation

of, 37

theoretical yields of, 44-48
theory of the formation of,
established by Doberei-

mer, 21, 22
variations in the specific

gravity of, 42
and sugar, testing the must as to

its content of, 324-327
body, formation of, in the dry dis-
tillation of wood, 18
carbonic, 314, 315
free, percentage of, in different

varieties of fruit, 307
glacial acetic, 18
malic, decomposition of, 193
succinic, 39

formation and properties of,

313, 314

sulphurous, apparatus for the de-
velopment of, illustrated,

135, 136

for the suppression of vine-
gar eels, 134

tartaric, decomposition of, 193
to find the quantity of, in must,

324, 325

Acidity in cider, 349
Acids, action of various, upon cel-
lulose, 218

of various, upon woods, 218
detection of, in vinegar, 209-211
disappearance of, in ripening

fruits, 305
in fruits, 309
occurring in wood-vinegar, 246,

247

Acidulation, accelerated, 97-99
object of, 96

Acidulation —

of the generators, 96, 97
Adulteration of cider, 350, 352
Aerometer for must, Oechsle's, table

to, 451

Massonfour's, table to, 451
Aerometers for must, table of com-
parative synopsis of, 450
table for comparing the clif.
ferent, with Tralles's alco-
holometer, 436
Air, absorption of moisture by, 404,

405

difficulty in conveying the requi-
site amount of, to the genera-
tor, 53

quantity of, required to convert

alcohol into acetic acid, 45, 46

quantity of, which must daily

pass through each generator,

46

reciprocal action between the,

and the vinegar, 144, 145
Albucases, discovery of, how to obtain

vinegar colorless, by, 18
Albuminous substances in fruits, 309,

310

Alcohol, absolute, definition of, 313
addition of. to the alcoholic

liquid, 118

and water, table showing the
actual content of, in mixtures
of both tin-ids, and the contrac-
tion which takes places in mix-
ing, 435
calculation for the dilution of,

109

of the heat liberated by its
conversion into acetic acid,
46
of the theoretical yield of

acetic acid, from, 44, 45
contraction of, in mixing with

water, 116
conversion of, into acetic acid

and water, 38
determination of, 110, 111, 117,

198
by means of the ebullioscope,

201-204
by the distilling test, 199-

201
of chemical constitution of,

18

with the alcoholmeter, 198,
199

458

INDEX.

Alcohol—

from wood, 217

heat liberated by the oxidation

of, 190
influence of, upon the vinegar

ferment, 106

quantity of air required for the
conversion of, into acetic acid,
45, 46

reduction of, with water, 116
samples for the determination of,

122
table, Hehner's, 431, 432

indicating the specific gravity
of mixtures of water and,
433
of theoretical yield of acetic

acid from, 107, 108
the ultimate material for the fab-
rication of vinegar, 51
yield of acetic acid from, 195

from sugar, 195
Alcoholic ferment, 23

fluid, arrangements for the distri-
bution of the, in the gen-
erator, illustrated, 61-65
quantity of, to be daily
worked in a generator, 116
fluids, table for the determination
of the true volume of,
from the apparent vol-
ume, 444, 445
of proportion between
per cent, by weight
and by volume, 434
liquid, addition of alcohol to the,

118

of beer, sweet beer- wort,
malt extract, etc., to,
126

of phosphates to, 127
apparatus for heating the,
illustrated and described,
94-96

constitution of the funda-
mental materials used in
the preparation of, 112-
115

definition of, 104
disadvantages of pouring the,
at stated intervals, 80-82
examples of the composition

of, 109

gradual strengthening of, 11 7
methods of preparing, 105

Alcoholic liquid —

preparation of, 104-115

of, according to rational

principles, 111, 112
of, for 1 2 per cent, vin-
egar, 123

quantities of beer and vine-
gar for, 107
receipts for, 109
the role of vinegar in, 104
use of simple automatic con-
trivances for the effusion
of the, 82
mashes as material for vinegar,

156
Alcoholometer determination of the

alcohol with the, 198, 199
Alcoholometers, 198

for use in a vinegar factory, 199
Aldehyde and its composition, 22
derivation of the term of, 39
formation of, 39
preparation of pure, 40
properties of pure, 40
Alden apparatus, illustrated and de-
scribed, 407-409
manner of operating the,

413, 414

process, prize awarded at the
Paris exhibition to fruit dried
by the, 402

Ale, sour, as material for vinegar, 162
Alkaloid in wine, 315
Aluminium acetate, 272-274
American canning factories, secret of
the great reputation of the
products of, 391
champagne, 329
ciders, adulteration of, 352
fruit evaporator, illustrated and

described, 412, 413
Manufacturing Co., fruit evapo-
rator manufactured by, illus-
trated and described, 412, 413
preserving establishments, kettle
used in, illustrated and de-
scribed, 399, 400
Ammonia solution of, 207
Ammonium acetate, 270
Amyl acetate, 114

addition to vinegar of, 145
Analyses of ciders by the U. S. Agri-
cultural Department, 331, 332
Anchovy vinegar, 172
Anise vinegar, 172

INDEX.

459

Anthon's tables for finding the content
of anhydrous grape-sugar in a solu-
tion of glucose, 328, 329
Apparatus, continuously acting ; the

terrace system, 82-87
periodically working ; the three-
group system, 87-90
Apple-butter, manufacture of, 388,

389

elevator, illustrated and de-
scribed, 323, 324
grinder, Davis' s, illustrated and

described, 317, 318
jelly, favorite package for, 397,

398
manufacture of, in Oswego

Co., N. Y., 394-399
proper consistency of, 397
without sugar as made in the

U. S., 392, 393
marmalade, perfumed, 392
pomace, expression of, 335, 336

vinegar from, 168
seeds, diversity of opinion as re-
gards the crushing of, 335
value of, 398

wine, red, preparation of, 343
Apples and pears, cider from, 329-356
bleaching of, 415, 416
choice of varieties of, in the man-
ufacture of cider, 332
cider from, 329-354
crushing mill for, illustrated and

described, 317

evaporated and dried, export of
from the U. S., in 1888,
401, 402

packing of, 414, 415
extraction of the juice of, by dif-
fusion, 336-339
fermentation of the juice of, 339,

340

grinding of, 335
most noted varieties of, for the

manufacture of cider, 333
preparation of the juice of, for

distillation, 353
prices paid in 1880 and 1881 for,

. 39®
ripening, gathering, and sweating

of, 334
select list of, for the Eastern and

Middle States, 333, 334
table of changes effected in the

composition of, by drying and

evaporating, 406

Apples and pears —

test for tannin in the juice of,

333

testing the juice of, 339
Apricot and peach wines, preparation

of, 369
Aromatic or hygienic mustard, 426

vinegar, 171

Aromatized vinegar, 169
Arrangement of a vinegar factory, 68-

72

according to the
automatic princi-
ple, 90-96

of the generators, 54-65
Artificial ventilation of the vinegar

generators, 73-80
Assmus, products obtained from wood

by, 252

Au Baine-Marie, method of pre-
serving, 372
Automatic contrivance, regulation of

the, 124
vinegar apparatus, 80-96

BACHET, experiments by, 218
Bacteria, 26, 27
Bag-filter for vinegar, illustrated and

described, 151, 152
Barberries, pickling of, 422
Barium acetate, .271, 272
Baroulier, observations on wood, by,

217

Barrels, filling of, 144
Barry, P., apples for cider, recom-
mended by, 333
select list of apples for the
Eastern and Middle States,
recommended by, 333, 334
Basic cupric acetates, 283-287

lead acetates, 295-297
Beans, pickling of, 422
Beech, products obtained from the dis-
tillation of, 251
shavings, active surface of, 66
drying of, 67

manner of filling the genera-
tor with, 68
number of, required for a

generator, 66
size of, for generators, 66
steaming of, 66, 67
swelling of, 67

Beechwood shavings for filling gene-
rators, 65

460

INDEX.

Beer, determination of vinegar from,

213

nourishing fluid from, 101
quantity of, for alcoholic liquid,

107

sour, as material for vinegar, 162
wort as material for vinegar, 155,

156
Bell-siphon, described and illustrated,

89

Benzol, 220
Berard, method of preparing sugar of

lead recommended by, 291, 292
Bergot, M., on the crushing of apple-
seeds, 335

Berries, bouquet of vinegar from, 166
difficulty in the complete fermen-
tation of the juice of, 165
fruits and sugar, vinegar from,

163-166
jelly from, 393
manner of obtaining juice from,

318

Bersch, Dr. J., condensing apparatus
according to, illustrated,
78-80

description of vinegar-mite
by, with illustrations, 137,
138

execution of his process of
manufacturing wine-vine-
gar on a commercial scale,
188-193

method of the fabrication of
wine-vinegar, according to,

185-188

ventilating apparatus, ac-
cording to, illustrated, 77,
78

Berzelius, determination of the chemi-
cal constitution of acetic acid by,
18
Bilberries, use of, for the preparation

of vinegar, 166
Birch, products obtained by Rothe

from, 252

products obtained from the dis-
tillation of, 251
Bismuth acetate, 297
Blackberry wine, preparation of, 366
Boerhaave, method for the fabrication
of vinegar from wine made known
by, 19

Boiling of wine-vinegar, 180
Bois-roux, 230
Bottling cider, directions for, 344, 345

Bouquet bodies, 20

Braconnot, experiments on cellulose

by, 218

Brandy from plums and damsons, 353 <
manufacture of, from cider, 352-

354
Brazil, free acetic acid in the water

of a river of, 24
Bremont, Dr., on the adulteration of

cider, 351

Brewing, division of labor in, 155
Brittany cider, analyses of, 330
Briickenau, acetic acid in the mineral

water of, 24

Bucholz, direction for the preparation
of acetic acid from lead acetate by,
257
Burette, the, illustrated and described,

204-206

Burgundy from cider, 348
Burnt sugar, preparation of, 154
Bushnell Company, apple elevator
manufactured by, illustrated and
described, 323, 324
Bushnell Company. Da vis's star apple
grinder manufactured by,
illustrated and described,
317, 318

extra power cider press, il-
lustrated and described,
319, 320

farmer's cider press manu-
factured by, illustrated and
described, 319

CABBAGE, pickling of, 422

\J Cadet-Gassicourt, receipts for

vinegar by, 164
Calcium acetate, 270, 271

acetic acid from, 258

crude preparation of, 241,

242
destruction of empyreumatic

bodies in crude, 261
chloride, 265
Calico-printing, mordants for, 272-

274
California, evaporation of fruit in,

402

size of tin-cans in, 377
Canned articles, groups of, embraced

in American trade lists, 374
goods, unreliability of, 402, 403
Canner, life trials and vexations of a,
384

INDEX.

461

Canneries, division of labor in the

American, 379
manufacture of tin cans in the

American, 379
preparation of sugar- syrup in,

379, 380

Canning and evaporating of fruit,
manufacture of catchups, fruit-
butters, marmalades, jellies,
pickles, and mustard, 371-
427
factory, arrangement of a, 381,

382

fruits, national importance of,
for the United States and Eng-
land, 374
fruits, suitable and unsuitable for,

375

varieties of fruits preferred by the
North American factories for,
375, 376
Cans, apparatus for the expulsion of

air from, 379, 380
bath for, 383
importance of, 376
labelling of, 383
method of heating in boiling

water, 380

preserving in air-tight, 374-385
steaming of, 379
testing of, 383

"Cappers" and their work, 383
Caramel, preparation of, 154
Carbonate of lead by the Clichy and

the Dutch processes, 296
Carbonic acid, 314, 315

quantity of, developed dur-
ing fermentation, 315
Casks, acidulation of, 182
Catchups, 385-388
Cauliflower, pickling of, 422
Celery vinegar, 173
Cellulose, action of alkaline solutions

upon, 218

action of various acids upon, 218
composition of, 215
conversion of, into dextrin and

starch, 217
conversion of, into gun-cotton, 218
Champagne cider, 329

manufacture of, 347, 348
gooseberry, 363-365
Charbon roux, 230
Charcoal, 230-232

apparatus for the abstraction of,
227

harcoal —

composition of, 230
for filling generators, 65
influence of the degree of carbon-
ization and of the variety of
wood upon the yield of, 231
properties of, 232
quantity of, obtained at various

temperatures, 231
torrified, 230
wood-vinegar, wood-spirit, and

tar, yield of, 250-253
Charcoals, difference in the elemen-
tary composition of, 231
for technical purposes, 230, 2.31
Chemical examination of the raw ma-
terials and control of the operations
in a vinegar factory, 197-209
Cherries, difficulties in canning, 375
Cherry-wine, preparation of, 368
Chillies in vinegar, determination of,

214
Christl, acetic acid obtained from lead

acetate by, 258
Chromic acetate, 279
Chromium acetates, 278, 279
Chromous acetate, 279
Cider, acidity in, 349

adulteration of, 350-352

and fruit-wines, practice of the

preparation of, 316-329
artificial wines from, 348, 349
clarification of, 342
Devonshire, 345
directions for bottling, 344, 345
diseases of, 349, 350
distillation of, 353, 354
for export, treatment of, 342
freezing of, 346, 347
from apples, 329-354
from apples and pears, 329-356
heating of, 345, 346
manufacture of brandy from,

352-354
manufacture of, in the Island of

Jersey, 345
mill, English, 316

portable, invented by \> . (J.

Hickock, 316

Willson's telegraph, illus-
trated and described, 322,
323

minimum limit for the composi-
tion of pure, 351
modes of improving the taste of,
342, 343

462

INDEX.

Cider-
preparation of, in the same
manner as other fruit-wines,
343
press, "extra power," illustrated

and described, 319, 320
" Farmer's," illustrated and

described, 319

sweet, preparation of, 343, 344
turbidity of, 350
turning black of, 350
vinegar, 16G-168
viscosity or greasy appearance of,

349, 350
'what it is, 166

Ciders, analyses of, by the U. S.
Agricultural Depart-
ment, 331, 332
of, from different parts of

France, 330
fruit-wines, etc., manufacture of,

299-369

type of composition for pure, 331
Claret-wine from cider, 349
Cleopatra, solution of large pearls in

vinegar by, 1 7
Clove-vinegar, 1 73
Cobalt acetate, 279
Coloring vinegar, 153, 154
Compound ethers, conversion of fusel

oils into, 114
formation of, 43, 44
tarragon vinegar, 172
Compressed yeast, manufacture of, in
connection with that of
vinegar, 156
preparation of, 160
Condensation and ventilation, gene-
rators with constant. 77-80
of vapors, 80
Condenser for four retorts, dimensions

of, 229

Condensers, 227-229
Condensing apparatus according to

Bersch, illustrated, 78-80
Constitution of the fundamental ma-
terials used in the preparation of
alcoholic liquids, 1 1 2-1 1 5
Continuously acting apparatus ; the

terrace system, 82-87
Copper, acetates of, 280-287

detection of, in vinegar, 211, 212
Cork for filling generators, 65
Cosmetic vinegar, 171
Crace-Calvert, formulaB for a mor-
dant by, 273, 274

"Crossing" the generators, 122, 123
Crushing-mill for apples, illustrated

and described, 317
Cucumber catchup, 387
Cucumbers, pickling of, 422

vinegar for the preservation of,

254, 255

Cultivation, abortive, of vinegar fer-
ment, with illustration, 102
pure, of vinegar ferment, 99-101
Currant catchup, 388

wine, methods of preparing, 358-

360

Currants, preparation of vinegar from
the juice of, 165, 166

DAMSONS, brandy from, 353
Daubre"e, experiments on wood

by, 217
Davis' s star apple-grinder, illustrated

and described, 317, 318
Davy, Dr. J., discovery of the gene-
ration of acetic acid by, 18
Decomposition of wood, 216-218

at a higher temperature, 219,

220

Defecator, 395
Denis-Dumont, Dr., directions for

bottling cider by, 344, 345
Detection of acids in vinegar, 209-

211

of metals in vinegar, 211, 212
Determination of acetic anhydride in
vinegar or acetometry, 204-
209

of alcohol, 198
of sugar, 197, 198
of the alcohol by means of the
ebullioscope, 201-204
by the distilling test,

199-201
with the alcoholometer,

198, 199
of the derivation of a vinegar,

212-214
of the strength of wood-vinegar,

235-237

of the true strengths of spirit for
the normal temperature of 59°
F., 437, 438
Deviations from the regular order of

working, causes of, 115
Devonshire-cider, 345
Devonshire, England, reputation of
the cider of, 330

INDEX.

463

Dextrin and maltose, proportion of,

in malt, 157

conversion of cellulose into, 217
Diacetate, potassium, 268, 269
Diastase, after-effect of, 158
effective, 158
property of, 50
what it is, 154
Dibasic cupric acetate, 283
Diffusion, extraction of the juice by,

336-339

Dimethyl ether, formation of, 250
Discovery of vinegar, 17
Disease, bacteria, causing, 26, 27
Diseases of cider, 349, 350
Disk of the generator, with illustra-
tions, 59, 60
with wooden tubes, described and

illustrated, 61
Distillation of cider, 353, 354

of wood, 220-230

Distilling apparatus for the determi-
nation of alcohol, illustrated
and described, 199-201
industry, division of labor in the,

155
test, determination of the alcohol

by the, 199-201
Disturbances, causes of, and remedy

for, 125

due to a want of nourishing sub-
stances of the ferment, 1 26
to vinegar eels, 131-137
to vinegar lice (vinegar

mites), 137, 138
frequent occurrence of, 125
referable to the quantity of newly-
formed acetic acid, 127-129
Disturbing influences in the fabrica-
tion of vinegar, 125-139
Dobereiner, directions for the prepa-
ration of vinegar, by, 164
study of acetic acid by, 18
theory of the formation of acetic

acid, established by, 21
Doughing in, 159

Drosophila funebris, Meig, descrip-
tion of, 139
Drying, theory of, 405
Dusseldorf mustard, 426
sour mustard, 426

E

BULLTOSCOPE, determination
of the alcohol by means of the,
with illustration, 201-204

Eel, vinegar, 114

appearance of, in the manu-
facture of wine-vinegar,
184, 185
description and illustrations

of, 131-133
disturbances due to, 131-

137
remedies for the suppression

of, 134-136

Effervescing vinegar, 172
Elderberry flowers, picklin<r of,

422
-wine, preparation of, 366,

367

Empyreumatic substances, determina-
tion of, in acetic acid, 254
England, dimensions of retorts used

in, 221
fabrication of pear cider in, 354,

355

law against soldering tin cans in-
side in, 377
manufacture of mustard in, 424

of verdigris in, 285
method of drying fruit in, 420
national importance of canning

fruits, for, 374

retorts in general use in., 222
size of tin cans in, 377
j English bamboo, pickling of, 423
cider mill, 316
method of ventilating generators,

with illustration, 73-75
mustard, 427

verdigris, composition of, 285
Ethene, formation of, 250
Ether, acetic, 40

preparation of, 173, 175
formic, 40

light oxygenated, 22
oeanthic, 115
Ethers, compound, conversion of fusel

oils, into, 1 14

formation of, 43, 44

Evaporating and canning of fruits,

etc., 371-427
Evaporation of fruit, 400-420

theory of, 403-405
Evaporator, 396

Alden's, illustrated and described,

407_409

American, illustrated and de-
scribed, 412, 413
improved Williams, illustrated
and described, 410-412

464

INDEX.

Examination of vinegar as to the
presence of foreign acids and of
metals, as "well as to its derivation,
209-214

Execution of Bersch's process of manu-
facturing wine-vinegar on a
commercial scale, 188-193
of the work in a vinegar factory,

115-125
Extraction of the juice by diffusion,

336-339
Extract of lead, manufacture of, 295,

296

Extra-power cider press, illustrated
and described,
319, 320

platform of, illus-
trated and de-
scribed, 320, 321

TIABRICATION of vinegar with
J] the assistance of platinum black,

143, 144

of wine- vinegar, 175-197
Factories, vinegar, with automatic
arrangements, group-system in,
123-125
Factory, capacity of a, 115

vinegar, arrangement of a, 68-72
according to the
automatic prin-
ciple, 90-96

control of the operations in
a, and chemical examina-
tion of the raw materials,
197-209

description and manner of
operating a periodically
working, with 24 gene-
rators, 91-94
execution of the work in a,

1 1 5-1 25

operations in a, 96-103
Farmer's cider press, illustrated and

described, 319

Ferguson's improved racks, 321, 322
Fermentation, 312, 313

acetous, induction of, 37

summary of the processes

taking place in, 38
of fruit juices, 357, 358
of the juice of apples, 339, 340
pectous, 301

various means for checking, 340,
341

Fermentation —

vinous, processes taking place in,

38, 39
Ferment, vinegar, 27-30

abortive cultivation of, il-
lustrated, 102
and its conditions of life, 27-

38

and the temperature, 33, 34
composition of the nourish-
ing substances for, 31, 32
conditions most favorable for
the development of, 30,
31
constituents of the body of,

38
contest between vinegar eels

and, 133

cultivation of, 186, 189, 190
development upon wine of,

illustrated, 28, 29
fluids for the pure cultivation

of, 100, 101

how it appears under the
microscope, • illustrated,
28, 29

induction of the operation
with artificially raised, 99-
103

infection of wine with, 186
influence of acetic acid on,

106

of alcohol on, 106
nourishing conditions of, 30-

34
process of nourishment of,

32, 33

pure cultivation of, 99-101
sensitiveness of the, to
changes of temperature,
81

sowing of, 183
summary of the requirements

of the, 38

supply of air for the, 33
transfer of cultivated, to the

generators, 102, 103
Ferments, nomenclature of, 23
Ferrous acetate, 275
Fielding, 180
"Fielding," manufacture of vinegar

by, 162

Filling of the generators, 65-68
"Filling table," 382
Filter for vinegar, illustrated and de-
scribed, 150, 151

INDEX.

465

Filtering vinegar, advisability of,

148

Filtration of the vinegar, 150-152
Fining of vinegar, 153
Fir, products obtained from the dis-
tillation of, 251
Flies, vinegar, 139
Fluid, nourishing, from beer, 101
Fluids for the cultivation of pure

vinegar ferment, 100, 101
Food, vinegar for seasoning, 255
Formic ether, 40
Fourcroy and Vauquelin, discovery

by, 18

France, adulteration of cider in, 351
analysis of ciders from different

parts of, 330

clarification of cider in, 342
fielding in, 180
manufacture of perfumed jelly in,

394

of small cider in, 336
of verdigris in, 284, 285
of wine-vinegar in, 178
method of drying fruit in, 419
production of cider in 1883, in,

330
retorts most frequently used in,

221, 222
use of salycilic acid prohibited in,

341

Frankfort mustard, 425
Freezing of cider, 346, 347
French method of preserving fruit
known as au Baine-Marie,
372

methods of preparing wine- vine-
gar, 180-185
mustard, 425

verdigris, composition of, 285
Fruit and other articles which are

now evaporated, list of, 402
arrangement of, in the evapora-
tor, 416, 417
boiling down of, in stoneware

pots, 373, 374
butter, 388-390

marmalade, and jelly, 388-

399

packing of, 389, 390
composition of the juice of dif-
ferent varieties of, 308
constituents in an unripe, 299,

300

content of free acid in different
varieties of, 308
30

Fruit-
disadvantages of drying in the

sun or in the oven, 405, 406
drying of, in the oven, 419, 420
evaporated, advantages of, 402,

403

evaporation of, 400-420
growing and ripening stages of a,

305, 306
manner of gaining the juice from,

316

object of evaporating, 403
percentage of free acid in dif-
ferent varieties of, 307
of sugar in different varieties

of, 306, 307

preservation of, 371-400
preserved, cost of transport of,

401

proportion between acid, sugar,
pectine, etc., in
different varieties
of, 307

water, soluble and in-
soluble substances,
in different varie-
ties of, 307, 308
quantity of water in the pulp of

a, 304
rules applicable to all methods of

preserving, 371

selection of, for marmalade, 391
sugar, conversion of acids into,

305

sun drying apparatus for, illus-
trated and described, 409, 410
the development, ripening, etc.,

of a, chemical process, 303
theory of evaporating, 403-405
United States statistics of, 401,

402

varieties of, for evaporating, 415
vinegar, destruction of acetic

acid in, 147
for the preservation of, 254,

255
vinegars, loss of the bouquet of,

148

wine, advantages of a mixture of
various juices for, 356, 357
improvement of flavor and
keeping qualities of, 356.
357
wines, 356-369

and cider, practice of the
preparation of, 316-329

466

INDEX.

Fruit-wines —

bottling of, 358

ciders, etc., manufacture of,

299-369

clarification of, 358
from small fruits, 356-368
percentage of alcohol of,

326
Fruits and their composition, 306-

315

applicable to wine making, 299
berries, and sugar, vinegar from,

163-166

boiling of, for preserving, 373
fermentation of the juices of, 357,

358

inorganic constituents of, 312
pectine in, 304
preparation of, for evaporating,

417, 418

of, for preserving, 372, 373
•results of the chemical re-
searches into the changes of,
304-306

ripening of, 299-306
secretion of a gum-like substance

upon the exterior of, 304
selection and expressing the juice

of, for wine, 357
solid constituents in the pulp of,

304
soluble substances in the pulp of,

304

suitable and unsuitable for can-
ning, 375
table of content of sugar and free

acid in, 165
used for the preparation of fruit

wines, 306

varieties of, preferred by the
North American factories for
canning, 375, 376
Further treatment of freshly prepared

vinegar, 144-154
Fusel oil in spirits of wine from grain,

constitution of, 115
of brandy, 115
of potato alcohol, 114
oils, 114

change of, in acetous fer-
mentation, 39
conversion of, into compound

ethers, 114

formation of in vinous fer-
mentation, 39

GAS, Vincent's apparatus for cool-
ing, illustrated, 228, 229
Generator, arrangements for the dis-
tribution of the alcoholic fluid
in the, with illustrations, 61-65

capacity of a, 46, 115

comparison of a, to a furnace, 49,
53

cover of, illustrated and de-
scribed, 56, 57

difficulty of conveying the requi-
site amount of air to the, 53

disadvantages of a number of
apertures below the false
bottom of a, illustrated, 57, 58

disk of the, with illustrations, 59,
60

illustrated and described, 54-56

induction of slower work in a,
119

manner of filling the, with shav-
ings, 68

Michaelis's rotatory, 142, 143

mode of calculating the space re-
quired beneath the lath- bottom,
for the reception of the fluid
passing through the, 90

number of beech shavings re-
quired for a, 66

quantity of air, which must daily
pass through each, 46

of alcoholic fluid to be daily
worked in a, 116

Singer's, illustrated and de-
scribed, 140-142

suitable construction of, 49

with air tube in the lower por-
tion, illustrated, 60, 61
self-acting discharge arrange-
ment, with illustration, 58,
59

working of the, how recognized,

97
Generators, acidulation of the, 96, 97

arrangement of, in groups, 91
of the, 54-65

artificial ventilation of, 73-80

control of the normal working of
the, 119

crossing of the, 122, 123

deficiency of the present, 47

dimensions of the most suitable,
56

disadvantage of small and of
large, 55, 56

INDEX.

467

Generators —

disadvantages of pouring at stated
intervals the alcoholic liquid
into the, 80-82
division of in the group-system,

121

filling of the, 65-68
heating of the, 128
materials for filling the, 65
remedies for strengthening weak

working, 126
for the too vigorous activity

of, 129

sliming of the, 129-131
sulphuring of, 135, 136
temperature in the interior of,

117

transfer of cultivated vinegar fer-
ment to the, 102, 103
variations in the dimensions of, 55
with constant condensation and

ventilation, 77-80
working too feebly of the, 127,

128
too vigorously of the, 127,

128

Gerber, the alchemist, discovery re-
garding vinegar, by, 18
Germany, manufacture of verdigris,

in, 285

method of preparing neutral ace-
tate of lead in, with illustra-
tions, 288-291

retorts in general use in, 222
use of salicylic acid in, 341
Gillot, dimensions of a condenser for
four retorts, approved by,
229
of retorts recommended by,

221

percentage of acetic anhydride
obtained from hard wood by,
251
Glacial acetic acid, 265, 266

first obtained by Loe-

witz, 18
former method of the

preparation of, 256
Glass-jars, objections to, 376
Glucose, 327-329

Anthon's tables for finding the
content of anhydrous grape-
sugar in a solution of, 328, 329
commercial, constitution of, 328
determination of pure sugar in,
328

Glucose —

or grape sugar, preparation and

properties of, 309
use of, for sweetening fruit-juices,

327, 328

Glycerin, formation of, in vinous fer-
mentation, 39
occurrence and properties of,

314

Gooseberries, pickling of, 423
Gooseberry catchup, 388

champagne, methods of prepar-
ing, 363-365
wine, methods of preparing, 361-

363

Graduator, comparison of a, to a fur-
nace, 53
Grain and malt vinegar, manufacture

of, 156-163
vinegar, 50

Grapes, content of sugar of, 1 95
Grape-stalks for filling generators,

65

stones, extract of, 312
sugar or glucose, preparation and

properties of, 309
wine, percentage of alcohol in,

326
Group-system, 120-123

in factories with automatic

arrangements, 123-125
Gum and vegetable mucilage in fruits,

310, 311

separation of, in trees, 304
Gumpoldskirchner must-mustard, 424,

425
Gun-cotton, conversion of cellulose

into, 218
"Gyle," definition of, 162

HALLIDAY'S apparatus, 252, 253
Ham, process of manufacturing

vinegar by, 52
Hannibal, solution of rocks by means

of vinegar, by, 18

Heating apparatus for large factories,
described and illustrated,
69-71

for the alcoholic Tumid, de-
scribed and illustrated, 94-
96

of cider, 345, 346
of the work-room, 69-72
the vinegar, with illustration, 148,
149

468

INDEX.

Heat liberated by the conversion of
alcohol into acetic acid,
calculation of, 46
by the oxidation of alcohol,

190

Hehner's alcohol table, 431, 432
Henry's vinegar, 171
Herb vinegar, 173
Herefordshire, England, reputation of

the cider of, 330
Hickock, W. O., portable cider mill

invented by, 316

Hippocrates, use of vinegar as a medi-
cine by, 1 7
Historical data regarding vinegar, 18,

19

Honey, use of, for vinegar, 50
Hornbeam, products obtained from

the distillation of, 251
Horseradish catchup, 387, 388
Hungary, astonishingly low prices of

wine in, 176
Hydrochloric acid, detection of, in

vinegar, 210
Hygienic or preventive vinegar, 171

TNDUCTION of the operation with

J_ artificially raised vinegar ferment,
99-103

Inorganic constituents in fruits, 312

Iron acetates, 275-278

detection of, in vinegar, 21 1
Klaproth's tincture of, 278

Isinglass, preparation of, for fining
vinegar, 153

Isomeric, definition of, 303

JARS, objection to, 376
Jelly, 392-399

clarification of, 393
fruit-butter and marmalade,

388-399
perfumed, 394
Jersey, Island of, manufacture of cider

in, 345
Juice, calculation for the dilution of,

325

Juniperberry-wine, preparation of,
367

T7ESTNER'S apparatus, illustrated
1\ and described, 222, 223

condenser, illustrated and de-
scribed, 227, 228

Kettle used in American preserving
establishments, illustrated and de-
scribed, 399, 400

Kieff'er, L., method of determining
the strength of wood-vinegar by,
236, 237

Klaproth's tincture of iron, 278

Kremser sour must-mustard, 426
sweet must-mustard, 426

LACTIC acid degeneration of wine,
170
detection of, in vinegar,

211

Lauranguais, discovery by, 18
Lead acetate, acetic acid from, 256,

257
decomposition of, by nitric

acid, 258
acetates, 287-297
carbonate by the Clichy and

Dutch processes, 296
extract of, manufacture of, 295,

296

sesquibasic acetate, 296
sugar of, 287-295
vinegar, or extract of lead, manu-
facture of, 295, 296
Lechartier, G., analyses of pure ciders

by, 331

experiments on heating and freez-
ing cider, by, 345-347
Lees, preparation of wine-vinegar

from, 193-197
Lice, vinegar, disturbances due to,

137, 138
Liebig, theory of the formation of

vinegar of, 22

Life, the vinegar ferment and its con-
ditions of, 27-38
Light oxygenated ether, 22
Loewitz, glacial acetic acid first ob-
tained by, 18

Losses in vinegar factories, 48
Loss, reduction of, 47, 48
Lovage vinegar, 173

MAGNESIUM acetate, 272
Maidinger self-regulating stove,

78

Malaga-wine from cider, 348
Malic acid, decomposition of, 193

in vinegar, destruction of
147

INDEX.

469

Malt and grain vinegar, manufacture

of, 156-163
and unmalted grain, mixture of,

159
calculation of the yield of acetic

acid from, 158, 159
determination of vinegar from,

213

for brewing purposes, 157
for distilling purposes, 157
proportion of maltose and dextrin

in, 157
-vinegar, 50

-wort, conversion into vinegar of
. the fermented, 161-163
Maltose and dextrin, proportion of,

in malt, 157

Manganese acetate, 274, 275
Manganous sulphate, preparation of,

274, 275
Manner of obtaining wood spirit

(methyl alcohol), 247-250
Manufacture of brandy from cider,

352-354
of ciders, fruit- wines, etc., 299-

369
of vinegar, 1 7-298

from malt and grain, 156-163
of wood- vinegar, 215-253
Marmalade, confusion in the applica-
tion of the term, 390
derivation of the term, 390
flavoring of, 391
fruit-butter and jelly, 388-399
manufacture of, 390-392
pat-king of, 392
Marsh gas, 220

Mash, preparation of the. 159, 160
special treatment of the ripe,

160, 161

Mashing, theoretical part in, 158, 159
Massonfour's aerometer, table to, 451
Maximum electrical thermometer, de-
scribed and illustrated, 71, 72
Meat, preservation of, by sodium ace-
tate, 269, 270 '
Melsen's method of preparing glacial

acetic acid, 265
Mercuric acetate, 298
Mercurous acetate, 297, 298
Metallic vessels, material for, 94
Metals, detection of in vinegar, 211,

212
Metapectic acid, 300

formation and properties of,
302

Metapectine, formation and constitu-
tion of, 300, 301

Method of the fabrication of vinegar
in apparatus of spe-
cial construction, 139-
144

of wine-vinegar, accord-
ing to Bersch, 185-
188
Methods of fabrication of vinegar, 50-

52
Methyl alcohol, manner of obtaining,

247-250

yield of salable, 252
iodide, 234
nitrate, 234
Michaelis's rotatory vinegar generator,

142, 143

Microscope, how the vinegar ferment
appears under the, with illustration,
28, 29
Milk, cause of the turning sour of,

183

Minimum electrical thermometer, 72
Mites, vinegar, 185

disturbances due to, 137, 138
Mixed pickles, 423
Modern French method of preparing

wine-vinegar, 182-185
Mohr, determinations of the specific

gravity of acetic acid, by, 42
method of determining the
strength of wood-vinegar, by,
235, 236

Mohr's volatile spirits of vinegar, 171
Mold, indication of the formation of,

37

Mollerat's method of preparing acetic
acid, illustrated, 263-
265
sodium acetate, of, 245,

246

Morello-wine, preparation of, 369
Moses, mention of vinegar by, 17
Mother-lye, utilization of, 246, 247
Mother of vinegar, 34-37

appearance of, in the manu-
facture of wine-vinegar,
187

composition of, 35, 36
development of, 25, 26
difference in opinion as to

the nature of, 35
erroneous opinion as to its
part in tne formation of
vinegar, 37

470

INDEX.

Mother of vinegar —

occurrence of, 35
substances which participate
in the formation of, illus-
trated by an experiment,
36

Mothers, definition of, 180
Moutarde aromatisee, 427
aux epices, 427
de maille, 426
des Jesuites, 425
Mulberry-jelly, 393

-wine, preparation of, 366
Mulder, analysis of mother of vinegar

by, 36

experiments on wood by, 217
Mushrooms, pickling of, 423
Must- aerometer, 197
Must, calculation of the sugar which
has to be added to the, 326,
327

examination of, 196
table of comparative synopsis of

the aerometers for, 450
to Oechsle's aerometer for,

451
testing the, as to its content of

sugar and acid, 324-327
to find the quantity of acid in,

324, 325
Mustard, 424-427

and pickles, preparation of, 420-

427
seasoning for different varieties

of, 424

-seed, use of, for checking fer-
mentation, 340
-vinegar, 173
Mycoderma aceti, 26

NAGELI'S view of the role of the
vinegar ferment, 23
Nanot, M. Jules, method of extract-
ing the juice of apples by diffusion,
proposed by, with illustration, 337-
339

Naphthalin, 220

Neuffer and Schlibler, table of quan-
tities of water contained in wood,
by, 215
Neutral acetate, formation of, 43

of lead (sugar of lead), 287-

295

cupric acetate ; crystallized ver-
digris, 280-283

Neutral-
ferric acetate or sesquiacetate of

iron, 276-278
New England, method of drying fruit

in, 420
Jersey, principal varieties of

apples used for cider in, 333
York, annual product of evapo-
rated fruit in, 401
Nickel acetate, 279
Nitric acid, detection of, in vinegar.

210, 211

Normal caustic soda solution, 206
Normandy, ciders used for distillation

in, 352
I^rance, reputation of the cider

of, 330
Nourishing conditions of the vinegar

ferment, 30-34
fluid for the vinegar ferment,

composition of, 31, 32
substances, irregularities due to a
want of, 126

OAK, products obtained from the .
distillation of, 251
wood for filling generators, 66
Oechsle's aerometer for must, table

to, 451

Oenanthic ether, 115
Oiling process for checking fermenta-
tion, 340, 341
Oil of cloves, use of, 129
Oils, volatile, solution of, in vinegar

169, 170
Old French method of manufacturing

wine vinegar, 180-182
Oleiiantgas, 220
Onions, pickling of, 423
Operations in a vinegar factory, 96-

103
Optimum of the formation of vinegar,

47

the, definition of, 47
Ordinary mustard, 425
Osmose, removal of the water from
the shavings and its substitution by
vinegar effected by, 98
Oswego Co., N. Y., manufacture of

apple jelly in, 394-399
Oxygen, quantity of, consumed in the
formation of vinegar,

45

of, required to form acetic
acid, 45

INDEX.

471

PARAFFIN, 220
Parapecticacid, properties of, 302
Parapectine, 300

Parsnip-wine, preparation of, 368
Pasteur and his researches on the for-
mation of wine- vinegar, etc.,
26

theory of the formation of vine-
gar of, 23

Pathological tannin, 31 1
Payen, preparation of tribasic acetate

of lead, according to, 296
Peach and apricot- wines, preparation

of, 369

Peaches, pickling of, 423
Pear cider, 354, 355
" Pear essence," 114
Pear jelly, 393

must, port-wine from, 355
Pears and apples, cider from, 329-356
bleaching of, 415, 416
manner of preserving, 373
pickling of, 423
suitable for cider, 355
Peck, Dewitt C., on the manufacture
of apple jelly in Oswego Co., N.
Y., 394-399
Pectase, 300

formation and constitution of, 301
Pectic acid, formation and proper-
ties of, 300, 302
Pectine, formation and constitution

of, 300

Pectose, what it is, 300
Pectosic acid, 300

formation and constitution

of, 301, 302
Pectous fermentation, 301

substances in fruits, 310
Pepper in vinegar, determination of,

214

Perfumed vinegar, 168
Periodically working apparatus ; the

three-group system, 87-90
Phenol, 220

Phillips, composition of verdigris, ac-
cording to, 285
Phosphates, addition to the alcoholic

liquid of, 127
Physiological tannin, 311
Picalilly, preparation of, 423
Pickles, 420-423

and mustard, preparation of, 420-

427

general rules applicable to the
preparation of, 420-422

Pickles-
greening of, 422
list of fruits chiefly used for. 422

423

manner of packing 420
mixed, vinegar for the preserva-
tion of, 254, 255
Pineapple vinegar, 173
Pipette, the, illustrated and described,

204

Plain racks, 322

Platinum black, fabrication of vinegar
with the assistance of, 143,

144

formation of acetic acid by
the action of, illustrated, 21,

25
Plums, brandy from, 353

difficulties in canning, 375
evaporated bath fort 4J6
Plum-wine, preparation of, 369
Port-wine from pear must, 355
Potassium acid acetate or potassium

diacetate, 268, 269
diacetate, 268, 269
neutral acetate, 267, 268
Potatoes, evaporated, value of, 419

manner of evaporating, 4 1 8
Practical yield, definition of, 44
Practice of the preparation of cider

and fruit- wines, 316-329
Preparation of acetic acid .from com-
mercial acetates and from those
obtained from wood-vinegar,
256-265
of apple-juice for distillation,

353
of crude and pure sodium acetate,

242-247
of crude calcium acetate, 241,

242

of pickles and mustard, 420-427
of pure, concentrated acetic acid,

253-266

of the alcoholic liquid, 104-115
of vinegar from sugar-beets, 163
from various materials, 154—

168

specialties, 168-175
of wine- vinegar from lees, 193-

197

Preservation of fruit, 371-400
Preserving establishments, importance

of, 398, 399

in air-tight cans, 374-385
Press-cloths, 336

472

INDEX.

Presses, 318-321

Preventive or hygienic vinegar, 171

Products of acetous fermentation, 38-

49

Pumice stone for filling generators, 65
Pump, location of, 94
Pyroligneous acid, 215

QUICK process, 51
appropriateness of the term

of, 53
of fabrication of vinegar,

52-68

perfection of, 120
principle involved in, 52, 53
the weak point of the, 21
Quince wine, preparation of, 355, 356

RACKS, Ferguson's improved, 321,
322

plain, 322
Radical vinegar, 18
Raisin^, preparation of, 389
"Rape," what it is, 162
Raspberry-wine, preparation of, 365,

366

Raw materials, chemical examination
. of, and control of the operations in

a vinegar factory, 197-209
Red-apple wine, preparation of, 343
liquor, manufacture of, and re-
ceipts for, 272-274
wood, 230

Reichenbach's method of destroying
the empyreumatic bodies in crude
calcium acetate, 261
Reservoirs, location of, 72
Resinous woods for filling generators,

65, 66

Retorts, dimensions of, 221
form of the, 220, 221
horizontal, illustrated and de-
scribed, 225-227
materials for, 220
movable, illustrated and de-
scribed, 223
modification of, illustrated

and described, 223-225
position of, 221, 222
vertical, 222-225

Rhubarb-wine, preparation of, 367
yield of wine from one acre of,

367
Ripening of fruits, 299-306

River- water, 113, 114

Rochester, N. Y., evaporating busi

ness in the neighborhood of, 401
Rothe, dimensions of retorts recom-
mended by, 221

method for the purification of
wood-vinegar employed by,
239, 240
products obtained from birch by,

252

Rousseau, analyses of Brittany ciders
by, 330

SACC, method of, for preserving
animal and vegetable substances,
269, 270

Saccharometer percent., table for the
reduction of specific gravities to,
447-449

Saccharometers, 197
Saccharomyces mesembryanthemum,

27

Salicylic acid as a corrective for the
faulty working of a gene-
rator, 129

as an agent for checking fer-
mentation, 341
use of, in France and Ger-
many, 341

Saussure, determination of the chemi-
cal constitution of alcohol by,
18
determination of the content of

ash in the oak by, 216
Saving of the apple seeds, 398
Saw-dust, wood-vinegar from, 252,

253

"Scalder," the, 382
Scheele's green, 286
Schizomycetes, 26, 27
Schnedermann's method of preparing

acetic acid, 261, 262
Sehtibler and Neuflf'er, table of quan-
tities of water contained in wood
by, 215

Schulze's ventilating apparatus, illus-
trated and described, 75-77
Schiitzenbach, introduction of the
quick process of manufacturing
vinegar by, 19
the quick process invented by,

52

Schweinfurth green, 286
Sesquiacetate of iron, 276-278
Sesquibasic cupric acetate, 283

INDEX.

473

Sexbasic acetate of lead, 296, 297
Shavings, acetic acid from, 218
for generators, 65-68
nature of the slimy coating upon

the, 130

removal of the water from, and
its substitution by vinegar, 98
saturation with vinegar of, artifi-
cially dried, 98, 99
use of, artificially dried, 98
Sherry-wine from cider, 348
" Sick" wine, what it is, 176
Silver acetate, 298
Singer's vinegar generator, illustrated

and described, 140-142
" Siphon-barrel," described and illus-
trated, 88, 89
" Sliming" of the generators, 129-

131

Sliming, remedies for, 131
Sloe or wild-plum wine, 369
Slow process, 51

modifications of, 51
Small fruits, wine from, 356-368
Soda solution, normal caustic, 206
Sodium acetate, 269, 270

acetic acid from 258, 262-

265

apparatus for roasting, illus-
trated, 244
crude, preparation of, 242-

247

crystallizing vessels for, il-
lustrated, 244, 245
explosive mixture prepared

with the use of, 270
preservation of animal and
vegetable substances by,
269, 270
pure, preparation of, 242-

247

Sorby, experiments on wood by, 217
Sour Dusseldorf mustard, 426

Kremser must-mustard, 426
Sparger, described and illustrated,

62-65

Sparkling cider, 329
Specific gravities, table for the reduc-
tion of, to saccharometer per
cent., 447-449

gravity, table for comparing the
per cent, of sugar with the per
cent, of extract and the, 451
Spirits of wine, constitution of, 114

determination of vinegar
from dilute, 212, 213

Spirits —

table for the determination of the
true strengths of, for the normal
temperature of 59° F., 439-
443
Spiritus aeruginis, 18

Veneris, 18

Sprout, S. E., improved Williams
evaporator, manufactured by, illus-
trated and described, 410-4*12
Stahl and Westendorf, 18
Starch, conversion of cellulose into,

217
preparation of vinegar from, 154,

155

Starr, Richard T., on canning toma-
toes, 380-385
Statistics of fruit in the U. S., 401,

402

Stein, method of, for preparing neutral
acetate of lead, illustrated,
288-291
mode of increasing the boiling

point of vinegar, by. 255
Still for the distillation of wood-vine-
gar, illustrated and described,
237, 238
for the rectification of acetic acid,

with illustration, 260
for wood-spirit, illustrated and

described, 248, 249
Stoltze, experiments on the amount
and strength of the products
obtained from the distillation
of several varieties of wood, by,
250, 251

methods for the purification of
rectified wood vinegar, recom-
mended by, 239
Stone-fruits, jelly from, 394

wines from, 368, 369
Stoneware jars, objections to, 376
Strontium acetate, 272
Storck & Co., of Asnieres, France,
process for the manufacture of alu-
minium acetate, patented by, 274
Storing of vinegar, 146-148
Stoves, location of, in the workroom,

69

" Stoves," what is meant by, 161
Strawberry-wine, methods of prepar-
ing, 360, 361
Straw, objection to the use of, in

laying up the cheese, 336
"Strengthening weak-working gen-
erators," remedies for, 126

474

INDEX.

Succinic acid, formation and proper-
ties of, 313, 314
of, in vinous fermenta-
tion, 39
Sugar and acid, testing the must, as

to its content of, 324-327
beets, preparation of vinegar

from, 163

calculation of the quantity of,
which has to be added to the
must, 326, 327
determination of, 197, 198
from wood, 217
fruits and berries, vinegar from,

163-166

in fruits, derivation of, 305
of lead, 287-295
percentage of, in different varie-
ties of fruit, 306, 307
proportion of, to fruit, 391
quantity of, for jelly, 392
syrup, preparation of, in can-
neries, 379, 380

table for comparing the per cent,
of, with per cent, of extract
and the specific gravity, 451
yield of alcohol from, 1 95
Sulphite of lime for checking fermen-
tation, 340

Sulphuric acid, detection of, in vine-
gar, 210

Sulphuring of vinegar, 152. 153
Sulphurous acid, apparatus for the de-
velopment of, illustrated
and described, 135, 136
detection of, in vinegar, 2 1 1
for the suppression of vine-
gar eels, 134

Summary of the theoretical condi-
tions of the formation of vinegar,
37, 38
Sun-drying apparatus, illustrated and

described, 409, 410
Sweden, manufacture of verdigris in, !

285

Sweet cider, preparation of, 343, 344 j
Kremser must-mustard, 426

IABLE for comparing per cent, of
sugar with per cent, of
extract and the specific
gravity, 451

the different aerometers
with Tralles's alcoholo-
meter, 436

Table—

for comparison of the scales of
Reaumur's, Celsius's and Far-
enheit's thermometers, 454
for the determination of the true
strengths of spirit for the nor-
mal temperature of 59° F.,

439-443

of the true volume of al-
cholic fluids from the ap-
parent volume at different
temperatures, 444, 445
for the preparation of whiskey of
various strengths from spirits
of wine, 446

for the reduction of specific gravi-
ties to saccharometer percent.,
447-449

indicating the specific gravity of
mixtures of alcohol and water,
443

of comparative synopsis of the
aerometers for must generally
used, 450

of content of alcohol required in

a liquid for the production

of vinegar with a certain

content of acetic acid, 108

of sugar and free acid in

fruits, 165

of proportion between per cent.

by weight and by volume of

alcoholic fluids at 59° F., 434

of the theoretical yield of acetic

acid from alcohol, 107, 108
showing the actual content of al-
cohol and water in mixtures of
both fluids and the contraction
which takes place in mixing,
435

to Massonfour's aerometer, 451
to Oechsle's aerometer for must,

451

vinegars, 172, 173

Tables for determining the content of
per cent, of acetic acid in a vine-
gar of — specific gravity, 452, 453
Tannin in plants and fruits, 311, 312
test for in the juice of apples, 333
Tar, charcoal, wood-vinegar, and

wood-spirit, yield of, 250-253
Tarragon vinegar, 172

compound, 172

Tartaric acid, decomposition of, 193
in vinegar, destruction of,
147

INDEX.

475

Temperature and the development of

the vinegar ferment, 33, 34
best for the formation of vinegar,

34, 47
in the interior of the generators,

117

of the workroom, 47
Terrace system, the, described and il-
lustrated, 82-87
Terreil and Chateau, purification of 1

wood-vinegar, according to, 239
Testing the must as to its content of

sugar and acid, 324-327
Tetrylene, 220
Theoretical explanations, what may

be learned from, 46, 47
yield, definition of, 44

of acetic acid from alcohol,

table of, 107, 108
yields of acetic acid, 44-48
Theory of the formation of vinegar,

21-27

Thermometer, maximum electrical,
described and illustrated, 71, 72
minimum electrical, 72
necessity of, for the generator, 65
Thermometers, table for comparison
of the scales of Reaumur's, Cel-
sius's, and Fahrenheit's, 454
Thomson, R. D., analysis of mother

of vinegar by, 36
Three-group system, 87-90
Tilting-trough, described and illus-
trated. 61, 62

modification of, with illus-
tration, 87, 88
Tin acetate, 297

cans, linings for, 377

manufacture of in the United

States canneries, 378
objection to soldering inside

of, 377
size of, 377

detection of, in vinegar, 212
Titration, determination of acetic
acid by, with illustration, 208, 209
Todd, S. E., description of a con-
trivance for making cider vinegar
by, 167, 168
Toilet vinegars, 171
Tomato catchup, various modes of

preparing, 385-387
wine, preparation of, 367, 368
Tomatoes, canned, market for, 384
canning, extent of the business of,
385

Tomatoes —

canning of, 380-385

cultivation of, 381

pickling of, 423

scalding of, 382

skinning and packing of, 382
"Top them off," the 'meaning of,

382

Torula cerevisiae, 313
Tralles's alcoholometer, table for com-
paring the different aerometers
with, 436
Tribasic acetate of lead, 296

cupric acetate, 283
Triplumbic tetracetate, 296
Turbidity of cider, 350
" Turning bitter" of wine, 176
Turning black of cider, 350
"Turning sour" of wine, 176
Tutti-frutti, what it is, 392

UNITED STATES Agricultural
Department, analyses of
cider by, 331, 332

apple-jelly without sugar as
mafle in the, 392, 39-3

division of labor in the can-
neries of the, 379

export of evaporated and
dried apples, in 1888, from,
401, 402

manufacture of tin-cans in
the canneries of the, 379

national importance of can-
ning fruits, for the, 374

size of tin cans in the, 377
Uranium acetate, 297

VALP:NTINUS, BASILIUS, and
the distillation of vim-gar, 18
Vapors, condensation of, 80
Vauquelin and Fourcroy, discovery

by, 18
Vegetable mucilage and gum in fruits,

310, 311

sap, composition of, 215
Vegetables, preparation ofr for evapo-
rating, 417, 418

preservation of, by sodium ace-
tate, 270

Ventilating apparatus according to
Bt-rsch, illustrated, 77, 78
Schulze's, illustrated and de-
scribed, 75-77

476

INDEX.

Ventilating —

contrivances, special, object of,

77

Ventilation and condensation, gene-
rators with constant, 77-80
artificial, of the vinegar gene-
rators, 73-80

of the generators from above to
below, objections to, with illus-
tration, 73-75
Venus' s vinegar, 18
Verdigris, acetic acid from, 18
adulterations of, 285, 286
crystallized, 280-283

glacial acetic acid from, 256
manufacture of in France, Eng-
land, Germany, and Sweden,
284, 285
varieties of, 283

Vidal-Malligaud's ebullioscopc, illus-
trated and described, 202, 203
Vinaigre des quatre voleurs, 171
Vincent, apparatus for cooling gas,
by, with illustration, 228, 229
dimensions of retorts, recom-
mended by, 221

utilization of the mother lye, ac-
cording to, 247
yield of salable methyl alcohol,

according to, 252

Vinegar, actual fabrication of, accord-
ing to the old method, 1 1 9
apparatus, automatic, 80-96
bacteria, fluids especially suitable
for the nourishment of,
27
origin and distribution of,

27

rapid augmentation of, 29
best temperature for the forma-
tion of, 34

" Vinegar boiling," 1 75
Vinegar, coloring of, 153, 154

conditions on which the fabrica-
tion of high-graded or weak,
depends, 106, 107
determination of the derivation

of a, 212-214
difference in the properties of,

51, 52

disturbing influences in the fabri-
cation of, 125-139
eels, smells caused by, 130
essence, the manufacture of, a

well-paying industry, 20
what it is, 20~ 254

Vinegar —

examination of, as to the pres-
ejice of foreign acids and of
metals, as well as to its deri-
vation, 209-214

fabrication of, from various ma-
terials, 154-168
of, with the assistance of pla-
tinum black, 143, 144
factories, losses in, 48
factory, arrangement of a, 68-72
principal work to be per-
formed in, 80

ferment, or vinegar- veast, 23
the, 27-30
the, and its conditions of

life, 27-38
the need of free oxygen of,

29, 30

-field, what constitutes a, 180
filtration of the, 150-152
fining of, 153
for domestic use, 164
for seasoning food, 255
for the preservation of fruit, etc.,

254, 255

from apple-pomace, 168
from sugar, fruits, and berries,

163-166

further treatment of. freshly- pre-
pared, 144-154
heating the, with illustration, 148,

149
how drawn off, with illustration,

145, 146

improvement in the odor of, 145
increase of the boiling point of,

255
of the content of acetic acid

in, 254

limit of acetic acid in, 106
manufacture of, from malt and

grain, 156-163

method of the fabrication of, in
apparatus of special construc-
tion, 139-144

methods of fabrication of, 50-52
necessity of progress in the manu-
facture of, 19

odor of freshly- prepared, 144
of — specific gravity, tables for
determining the content of per
cent, of acetic acid in, 452, 453
ordinary, what it is, 1 7
part taken by the vinegar eels in
the fabrication of, 133

INDEX.

477

Vinegar —

preparation of, according to the

group-system, 121, 122
of, according to the group-
system, in factories with
automatic arrangements,
123-125
of, with a high percentage

of acetic acid, 119, 120
production of very strong, 56
quantities of, required for com-
plete acidulation, 96
quantity of, for alcoholic liquid,

107
quick process of fabrication of,

52-68

reasons why the manufacture of,
from alcohol, becomes con-
stantly more difficult, 19, 20
receipts by Cadet-Gassicourt, for,

164

role of, in alcoholic liquid, 104
specialties, preparation of, 168-

175

spiced, preparation of, 421
storing of, 146-148
sulphuring of, 152, 153
summary of the fluids suitable for

the preparation of, 37
of the theoretical conditions
of the formation of, 37,
38

theory of the formation of, 21-27
Vinous fermentation, chief products

of, 313
processes taking place in, 38,

39
Violet, determination of the content

of ash in the cherry tree, by, 216
Viscosity or greasy appearance of

cider, 349, 350

Volckel, ' method of, for preparing
neutral acetate of lead,
287

of obtaining acetic acid
from calcium acetate,
of, 258-261
Volumetric analyses, 204

WAGMANN, process of manufac-
turing vinegar, by, 52
Walnut catchup, 387
Walnuts, pickling of, 423
Water and acetic acid, specific gravity
of mixtures of, 42, 43

Water—

and alcohol, table showing the
actual content of, in mixtures
of both fluids, and the contrac-
tion which takes place in mix-
ing, 435

quantity of, eliminated from
evaporated fruit, 401

separation of gypsum and calcium
carbonate from, 113

suitable and unsuitable for the
fabrication of vinegar, 113, 114

table indicating the specific grav-
ity of mixtures of alcohol and,
433

Weinessig-Siederei, 180
Well-water, 113
Westendorf and Stahl, 18
Whiskey-mashes, fermented, as ma-
terial for vinegar, 156

table for the preparation of, from

spirits of wine, 446
White lead, French method of manu-
facturing, 295

wood shavings for filling genera-
tors, 65

Williams, experiments on wood by,
217

improved evaporator, illustrated

and described, 410-412
Willson's telegraph wine and cider
mill, illustrated and described, 322,
323
Wine, acetic acid in, 177

acetous degeneration of, 177

alkaloid in, 315

apricot, 369

attacked by acetous degeneration,
uses of, 177, 1 78

behavior of, 104, 105

blackberry, 366

change of the bouquet substances
of," 179

cherry, 368

composition of, 179

currant, 358-360

definition of, 299

drinkable, profitable use of, for
vinegar, 176

elderberry, 366, 367

formation of vinegar ferment
upon, with illustration, 28, 29

glycerin in, 314

gooseberry, 361-363

infection of, with vinegar ferment,
186

478

INDEX.

Wine—

juniperberry, 367
lactic acid degeneration of, 176
mill, Willson's telegraph, illus-
trated and described, 322, 323
morello, 369
mulberry, 366
mustard, 425, 426
parsnip, 368

Pasteur's researches on the dis-
eased alteration of, 26
peach, 369

phenomena appearing in the con-
version of, into vinegar, 184
plum, 369
quince, 355, 356
raspberry, 365, 366
red, from cider, preparation of,

343

remedies for acetous degenera-
tion of, 177
rhubarb, 367

"setting off," with vinegar fer-
ment, 184
"sick," 176
sloe, 369

strawberry, 360, 361
tannin in," 311, 312
tomato, 367, 368
turning bitter of, 176

sour of, 176

vinegar, apparatus for, described
and illustrated, 188, 189
appearance of mother of
vinegar in the manufacture
of, 187

boiling of, 180
bottling of, 192
composition of, 179
constituents of, 175
control of the process of fab-
rication of, 191
determination of, 213, 214
difficulties in the preparation

of, 187, 188

execution of Bersch's process
on a commercial scale,
188-193

fabrication of, 175-197
heating of, 193
method of the fabrication of,
according to Bersch, 185-
188

modern French method o
preparing, 182-185

Wine- vinegar —

old French method of manu-
facturing, 180-182
Pasteur's researches on the

formation of, 26
preparation of, for household
purposes, 194, 195

from lees, 193-197
storing of, 1 92
what constitutes the supe-
riority of, 178, 179
wines best adapted for, 188
young, heating of, 1 84

treatment of, for the prepa-
ration of vinegar, 178
Wines, best adapted for vinegar, 188

from stone-fruits, 368, 369
" Wiping table," 383
Wood, action of various acids upon,

218

air-dry, composition of, 216
definition of, 215
drying of, 229, 230
artificially dried, composition of,

216

changes of, by heating, 217
composition of, 215
content of ash in, 216
decomposition of, 216-218

at a higher temperature,

219, 220

distillation of, 220-230
facts observed in the distillation

of, 220
formation of an acid body in the

dry distillation of, 18
hard, percentage of acetic anhy-
dride obtained by Gillot from,
251

inorganic constituents of, 215
main cause of decomposition of,

219
most suitable varieties for acetic

acid, 229
percentage of water in air-dried,

98

preservation of, 216, 217
products from, by heating in re-
torts, 230

products given off during the dis-
tillation of, 220
products obtained by Assmus

from, 252

quantity of water contained in,
215

INDEX.

479

Wood-
red, 230

removal of bark from, 229
roasted, 230
spirit (methyl alcohol) 234

charcoal, wood-vinegar, and

tar, yield of, 250-253
crude, composition of, 247
examination of commercial,

249, 250
manner of obtaining, 247-

250

rectified, purification of, 249
still for, illustrated and de-
scribed, 248, 249
uses of, 249

Stoltze's experiments on the
amount and strength of the
products obtained from the dis-
tillation of several varieties of,
250, 251

sugar and alcohol from, 217
vinegar, 232, 233

acids occurring in, 246, 247
determination of the strength

of, 235-237

from sawdust, 252, 253
manufacture of, 215-253
properties and constituents

of, 232, 233

still for the distillation of,
illustrated and described,
237, 238
wood-spirit, charcoal, and

tar, yield of, 250-253
working up the, 237-241

Wood-
yield of charcoal from different

varieties of, 231
Woods, table of specific gravity of,

216

Woody fibre, composition of, 215
Working, causes of deviations from

the regular order of, 1 1 5
up the wood- vinegar, 237-241
Workroom, construction of the floor

of the, 69

heating of the, 69-72
maintenance of a uniform tem-
perature in the, 68, 69
temperature of the, 47, 191
ventilation in the, 68, 69

YEAST, compressed, preparation
of, 160

setting the mash with, 160
what it is, 312, 313
Yield, calculation of the theoretical,
of acetic acid from alcohol, 44,

45

of charcoal, wood-vinegar, and
wood-spirit, as well as of tar,
250-253

Yields of acetic acid obtained in prac-
tice. 48, 49

theoretical and practical, defini-
tion of, 44

acetate, 279

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draulics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Steam-Engines, Mill and other
Gearing, Presses, Horology and Miscellaneous Machinery; and in
eluding many movements never before published, and several of
which have only recently come into use. By HENRY T. BROWN
I2mo . . . $I.OG

BUCKMASTER.— The Elements of Mechanical Physics :
By J. C. BUCKMASTER. Illustrated with numerous engravings.
I2mo. .......... $1.00

BULLOCK.— The American Cottage Builder :

A Series of Designs, Plans and Specifications, from $200 to $20,000,
for Homes for the People ; together with Warming, Ventilation,
Drainage, Painting and Landscape Gardening. By JOHN BULLOCK,
Architect and Editor of " The Rudiments of Architecture and
Building," etc., etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. 8vo. $3-5Q

BULLOCK. — The Rudiments of Architecture and Building :
For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machinists, En-
gineers and Mechanics. Edited by JOHN BULLOCK, author of " The
American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by 250 En Cravings. 8vo. $3.50

BURGH. — Practical Rules for the Proportions of Modern

Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine Purposes.
By N. P. BURGH, Engineer. I2mo. .... £1.50

BYLES. — Sophisms of Free Trade and Popular Political

Economy Examined.

By a BARRISTER (SiR JOHN BARNARD BYLES, Judge of Common
Pleas). From the Ninth English Edition, as published by ihe
Manchester Reciprocity Association. I2mo. . . . $1.25

BOWMAN.— The Structure of the Wool Fibre in its Relation

to the Use of Wool for Technical Purposes :
Being the substance, with additions, of Five Lectures, delivered at
the request of the Council, to the members of the Bradford Technical
College, and the Society of Dyers and Colorists. By F. H. Bow
MAN, D. Sc., F. R. S. E., F. L. S. Illustrated by 32 engravinrs.
8vo |6.SO

BYRNE.— Hand-Book for the Artisan, Mechanic, and Engi-
neer:

Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abis- ^e
Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem and Glass Engraving, Varnishing
and Lackering, Apparatus, Materials and Processes for Grinding and

HENRY CAREY BA1RD & CO.'S

Polishing, etc. By OLIVER BYRNE. Illustrated by 185 wood en-
gravings. 8vo. $5 Oo

BYRNE.— Pocket-Book for Railroad and Civil Engineers:
Containing New, Exact and Concise Methods for Laying out Railroad
Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings; the Staking out of
work ; Levelling ; the Calculation of Cuttings ; Embankments ; Earth-
work, etc. By OLIVER BYRNE. i8mo., full bound, pocket-book
form $1-75

BYRNE.— Tne Practical Metal- Worker's Assistant: *

Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry ; the Arts of Working all Metai»
and Alloys ; Forging of Iron and Steel ; Hardening and Tempering;
Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding ; Works in Sheet Metal;
the Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Soldering;
and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed by Metal-
Workers. With the Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to
Manufacturing Processes; collected from Original Sources, and from
the works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Piumier, Napier,
Scoffern, Clay, Fairbairn and others. By OLIVER BYRNE. A new,
revised and improved edition, to which is added an Appendix, con-
taining The Manufacture of Russian Sheet- Iron. By JOHX PERCY,
M. D., F. R. S. The Manufacture of Malleable Iron Castings, and
Improvements in Bessemer Steel. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and •
Engineer. With over Six Hundred Engravings, Illustrating every
Branch of the Subject. 8vo $S-°°

BYRNE.— The Practical Model Calculator:

For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Navai
Architect, Miner and Millwright. By OLIVER BYRNE. 8 vo., nearly
600 pages £3.00

CABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE;

Comprising a Collection of Designs for various Styles of Furniture.
Illustrated by Forty-eight Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates.
Oblong, 8vo. ........ £2.00

CALLINGHAM.— Sign Writing and Glass Embossing:

A Complete Practical Illustrated Manual of the Art. By JAMES
CALLINGHAM. 121110 $i 50

CAMPIN. — A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engineering:
Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Work,
shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of Steam-
Engines, etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron
Ores. By FP ANCIS CAMPIN, C. E. To which are added, Observations
on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces
used for Smoke Prevention ; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R.
ARMSTRONG, C. E., and JOHN BOURNE. Rules for Calculating th«
Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a \Vheel«j
cutting Machine. By J. LA NICCA. Management of Steel, Includ-
ing Forging. Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking and
Expansion ; and the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. EOF. 8vo.
Illustrated with twenty- nine plate- and 100 wood engraving.^ $5-OO

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.

CAREY.— A Memoir of Henry C. Carey.
By DR. W'M. ELDER, With a portrait. 8vo., cloth . . 75

CAREY.— The Works of Henry C. Carey :

Harmony of Interests : Agricultural, Manufacturing and Commer-
cial. 8vo. ... . #1.25
Manual of Social Science. Condensed from Carey's " Principles
of Social Science." By KATE McKEAN. I vol. I2mo. . $2.00
Miscellaneous Works. With a Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo. $10.00

Past, Present and Future. 8vo $2.50

Principles of Social Science. 3 volumes, 8vo. . . $7.50
The Slave-Trade, Domestic and Foreign; Why it Exists, and
How it may be Extinguished (1853). 8vo. . . , $2.00
The Unity of Law : As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical,
Social, Mental and Moral Science (1872). 8vo. . . $2.50

CLARK. — Tramways, their Construction and Working :

Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System. With an ex-
haustive analysis of the various modes of traction, including horse-
power, steam, heated water and compressed air; a description of the
varieties of Rolling stock, and ample details of cost and working ex-
penses. By D. KINNEAR CLARK. Illustrated by over 200 wood
engravings, and thirteen folding plntes. 2 vols. 8vo. . $12.50
'COLBURN. — The Locomotive Engine:

Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its
Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Man-
agement. By ZERAH COLBURN. Illustrated. 121110. . $1.00

COLLENS. — The Eden of Labor; or, the Christian Utopia.
By T. WHARTON COLLENS, author of " Humanics," "The Historj
of Charity," etc. I2mo. Paper cover, $1.00; Cloth . $1.25

COOLEY. — A Complete Practical Treatise on Perfumery :

Being a Hand-book of Perfumes, Cosmetics and other Toilet Articles,
With a Comprehensive Collection of Formulae. By ARNOLD J
COOLEY. i2mo. ........ $i-5&

COOPER.— A Treatise on the use of Belting for rtie Trans^

mission of Power.

With numerous illustrations of approved and actual methods of ar-
ranging Main Driving and Quarter Twist Belts, and of Relt Fasten
ings. Examples and Rules in great number for exhibiting and cal-
culating the size and driving power of Belts. Plain, Particular and
Practical Directions for the Treatment, Care and Management of
Belts. Descriptions of many varieties of Beltings, together witn
chapters on the Transmission of Power by Ropes ; by Iron and
Wood Frictional Gearing; on the Strength of Belting Leather; and
on the Experimental Investigations of Morin, Briggs, and others. By
JOHN H. COOPER, M. E. 8vo #3.50

CRAIK.— The Practical American Millwright and M^ler.

By DAVID CRAIK, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en-
gravings and two folding plates. 8vo. . $3-5O

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.

CREW.— A Practical Treatise on Petroleum :

Comprising its Origin, Geology, Geographical Distribution, History,
Chemistry, Mining, Technology, Uses and Transportation. Together
with a Description of Gas Wells, the Application of Gas as Fuel, etc.
By BENJAMIN J. CREW. With an Appendix on the Product 'and
Exhaustion of the Oil Regions, and the Geology of Natural Gas in
Pennsylvania and New York. By CHARLES A. ASHBURNER, M. S
Geologist in Charge Pennsylvania Survey, Philadelphia. Illustrated
by 70 engravings. 8vo. 508 pages ....

vCROSS.— The Cotton Yarn Spinner :

Showing how the Preparation should be arranged for Different
Counts of Yarns by a System more uniform than has hitherto been
practiced; by having a Standard Schedule from which we make all
our Changes. By RICHARD CROSS. 122 pp. i2mo. . 75

CRISTIANI. — A Technical Treatise on Soap and Candles:
With a Glance at the Industry of Fats and Oils. By R. S. CRIS
TIANI, Chemist. Author of "Perfumery and Kindred Arts." Illu>-
trated by 176 engravings. 581 pages, 8vo. . . . $15.00

CRISTIANI. — Perfumery and Kindred Arts :

A Comprehensive Treatise on Perfumery, containing a History of
Perfumes from the remotest ages to the present time. A complete de-
tailed description of the various Materials and Apparatus used in the
Perfumer's Art, with thorough Practical Instruction and careful For-
mulae, and advice for the fabrication of all known preparations of
the day. By R. S. CRISTIANI, Consulting Chemist and Perfumer,
Philadelphia. 8vo. . ...... $10.00

COAL AND METAL MINERS' POCKET BOOK:

Of Principles, Rules, Formulae, and Tables, Specially Compiled
and Prepared for the Convenient Use of Mine Officials, Mining En-
gineers, and Students preparing themselves for Certificates of Compe*
tency as Mine Inspectors or Mine Foremen. Revised and Enlarged
edition. Illustrated, 565 pages, small I2mo., cloth . $2.00
Pocket book form, flexible leather with flap . . $2.75

DAVIDSON. — A Practical Manual of House Painting, Grain-

ing, Marbling, and Sign- Writing:

Containing full information on the processes of House Painting in
Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Letters and Practice of Sign-
Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary
Drawing for House Painters, Writers, etc., and a Collection of Useful
Receipts. With nine. colored illustrations of Woods and Marblesi
and numerous wood engravings. By ELLIS A. DAVIDSON. I2mo.

#3-00

DAVIES. — A Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and

Mining :

By D. C. DAVIES, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, etc. Illustrated bj
76 Engravings. I2mo. .....-•

io HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.

DAVIBS. — A Treatise on Metalliferous Minerals and Mining?
By D. C. DAVIES, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, Examiner of Mines,
Quarries and Collieries. Illustrated by 148 engravings of Geological
Formations, Mining Operations and Machinery, drawn from the
practice of all parts of the world. 2d Edition, I2mo., 450 pages $5.00

DAVIES. — A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying:

Scientific, Practical and Commercial. By D. C. DAVIES, F. G. S.,
Mining Engineer, etc. With numerous illustrations and folding
plate*. larao $2.00

DAVIS. — A Treatise on Steam-Boiler Incrustation and Meth-
ods for Preventing Corrosion and the Formation of Scale :
By CHARLES T. DAVIS. Illustrated by 65 engravings. 8vo. $1.50

DAVIS. — The Manufacture of Paper :

Being a Description of the various Processes for the Fabrication,
Coloring and Finishing of every kind of Paper, Including the Dif-
ferent Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their Values,
the Tools, Machines and Practical Details connected with an intelli-
gent and a profitable prosecution of the art, with special reference to
the best American Practice. To which are added a History of Pa-
per, complete Lists of Paper-Making Materials, List of American
Machines, Tools and Processes used in treating the Raw Materials,
and in Making, Coloring and Finishing Paper. By CHARLES T.
DAVIS. Illustrated by 156 engravings. 608 pages, 8vo. $6.00

DAVIS.— The Manufacture of Leather:

Being a description of all of tl Processes for the Tanning, Tawing,
Currying, Finishing and Dyeing of every kind of Leather ; including
the various Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their
Values; the Tools, Machines, and all Details of Importance con-
nected with an Intelligent an-d Profitable Prosecution of the Art, with
Special Reference to the Best American Practice. To which are
added Complete Lists of all American Patents for Materials, Pro-
cesses, Tools, and Machines for Tanning, Currying, etc. By CHARLES
THOMAS DAVIS. Illustrated by 302 engravings and 12 Samples of
Dyed Leathers. One vol., 8vo., 824 pages . . . $10.00

DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the
Raw Materials and Fabrication of Glue, Gelatine, Gelatine
Veneers and Foils, Isinglass, Cements, Pastes, Mucilages,
etc.:

Based upon Actual Experience. By F. DAWIDOWSKY, Technical
Chemist. Translated from the German, with extensive additions,
including a description of the most Recent American Processe>, by
WILLIAM T. BRANNT, Graduate of the Royal Agricultural College
of Eldena, Prussia. 35 Engravings. I2mo. . . . $2.50

DE GRAFF.— The Geometrical Stair-Builders' Guide :

Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all its
necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by twenty-two Steel
Engravings ; together with the use of the most approved principle*
of Practical Geometry. By SIMON DE GRAFF, Architect. +to.

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. n

DE KONINCK— DIETZ.— A Practical Manual of Chemical
Analysis and Assaying :

As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iron,
Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. L. De
KONINCK, Dr. Sc., and E. DIETZ, Engineer. Edited with Notes, by
ROBERT MALLET, F. R. S., F. S. G., M. I. C. E., etc. American
Edition, Edited with Notes and an Appendix on Iron Ores, by A. A.
FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. I2mo. . . . $1.50

DUNCAN.— Practical Surveyor's Guide:

Containing the necessary information to make any person of corm
mon capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a tencher
By ANDREW DUNCAN. Revised. 72 engravings, 214 pp. I2mo. $1.50

DUPLAIS. — A Treatise on the Manufacture and Distillation

of Alcoholic Liquors :

Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol
from Wine, Molasses, Beets, Grain, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Aspho
del, Fruits, etc.; with the Distillation and Rectification of Brandy.
Whiskey, Rum, Gin, Swiss Absinthe, etc., the Preparation of Aro-
matic Waters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugars, Syrups, Aromatic
Tinctures, Liqueurs, Cordial Wines, Effervescing Wines, etc., the
Ageing of Brandy and the improvement of Spirits, with Copious
Directions and Tables for Testing and Reducing Spirituous Liquors,
etc., etc. Translated and Edited from the French of MM. DuPl.AiS,
Aine et Jeune. By M. McKENNiE, M. D. To which are added the
United States Internal Revenue Regulations for the Assessment and
Collection of Taxes on Distilled Spirits. Illustrated by fourteen
folding plates and several wood engravings. 743 pp. 8vo. $10 oo
tJSSAUCE. — Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of Matches,

Gun Cotton, and Fulminating Powder.
By Professor H. DUSSAUCE. I2mo. . . . . $3 oo

r.YER AND COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION:

Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Colors, on
the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now
in existence; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for
Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods. I2mo. $1.00

EDWARDS. — A Catechism of the Marine Steam-Engine,

* For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Mechanics. A Practical
Work for Practical Men. By EMORY EDWARDS, Mechanical Engi-
neer. Illustrated by sixty-three Engravings, including examples of
the most modern Engines. Third edition, thoroughly revised, with
much additional matter. 12 mo. 414 pages . . . $2 oo

EDWARDS. — Modern American Locomotive Engines,
Their Design, Construction and Management. By EMORY EDWARD*.
Illustrated I2mo .........

EDWARDS.— The American Steam Engineer:

Theoretical and Practical, with examples of the latest and most ap-
proved American practice in the design and construction of Steam
Engines and Boilers. For the use of engineers, machinists, boiler-
pikers, and engineering students. By EMORY EDWARDS. Fully
illustrated, 419 pages. 121110. • . . • •

12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.

EDWARDS. — Modern American Marine Engines, Boilers, aitt
Screw Propellers,

Their Design and Construction. Showing the Present Practice of
the most Eminent Engineers and Marine Engine Builders in the
United States. Illustrated by 30 large and elaborate plates. 4*0. $5.00
EDWARDS. — The Practical Steam Engineer's Guide
In the Design, Construction, and Management of American Stationary,
Portable, and Steam Fire- Engines, Steam Pumps, Boilers, Injector^
Governors, Indicators, Pistons and Rings, Safety Valves and Steam
Gauges. For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Steam Users. By
EMORY EDWARDS. Illustrated by 119 engravings. 420 pages.

t 1 21110 $2 50

EISSLER:— The Metallurgy of Gold :

A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-Bear-
ing Ores, including the Processes of Concentration and Chlorination,
and the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. EISSLER.
With 132 Illustrations. I2ino. . . . . . $3.50

EISSLER. — The Metallurgy of Silver :

A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation
of Silver Ores, including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of
Silver Bullion. By M. EISSLER. 124 Illustrations. 336 pp.
I2mo $4.25

ELDER. — Conversations on the Principal Subjects of Political

Economy.
By DR. WILLIAM ELDER. 8vo. ..... $2.50

ELDER. — Questions of the Day,

Economic and Social. By DR. WILLIAM ELDER. 8vo. . $3.00

ERNI. — Mineralogy Simplified.

Easy Methods of Determining and Classifying Minerals, including
Ores, by means of the Blowpipe, and by Humid Chemical Analysis,
based on Professor von Kobell's Tables for the Determination of
Minerals, with an Introduction to Modern Chemistry. By HENRY
ERNI, A.M., M.D., Professor of Chemistry. Second Edition, rewritten,
enlarged and improved. I2mo. $3-°°

FAIRBAIRN.— The Principles of Mechanism and Machinery

of Transmission •

Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pullevs,
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Coupling of Shafts, and Engag-
ing and Disengaging Gear. By SIR WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Bait
C. E. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one
volume. I2mo $2.50

FLEMING. — Narrow Gauge Railways in America.

A Sketch of their Rise, Progress, and Success. Valuable Statistics
as to Grades, Curves, Weight of Rail, Locomotives, Cars, efc. By
HOWARD FLEMING. Illustrated, 8vo $i oo

FORSYTH.— Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, and

other Monuments :

Containing 78 Designs. By JAMES FORSYTH. With an Introduction
by CHARLES BGUTELL, M. A. 4 to., cloth . $& oo

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE '3

FRANKEL— HOTTER.— A Practical Treatise on the Manu*

facture of Starch, Glucose, Starch-Sugar, and Dextrine:
Based on the German of LADISLAUS VON WAGNER, Professor in the
Royal Technical High School, Buda-Pest, Hungary, and other
authorities. By JULIUS FRANKEL, Graduate of the Polytechnic
School of Hanover. Edited by ROBERT HUTTER, Chemist, Practical
Manufacturer of Starch-Sugar. Illustrated by 58 engravings, cover-
ing every branch of the subject, including examples of the most
Recent and Best American Machinery. 8vo., 344 pp. . $3.50

GARDNER.— The Painter's Encyclopaedia:
Containing Definitions of all Important Words in the Art of Plain
and Artistic Painting, with Details of Practice in Coach, Carriage,
Railway Car, House, Sign, and Ornamental Painting, including
Graining, Marbling, Staining, Varnishing, Polishing, Lettering,
Stenciling, Gilding, Bronzing, etc. By FRANKLIN B. GARDNER.
158 Illustrations. I2ino. 427 pp #2.00

GARDNER. — Everybody's Paint Book:

A Complete Guide to the Art of Outdoor and Indoor Painting, De-
signed for the Special Use of those who wish to do their own work,
and consisting of Practical Lessons in Plain Painting, Varnishing,
Polishing, Staining, P?orr Hanging, Kalsomining, etc., as well as
Directions for Renovatin j Furniture, and Hints on Artistic Work for
Home Decoration. 38 Illustrations. I2mc., 183 pp. . £1.00

SEE. — The Goldsmith's Handbook :

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Gold,
including the Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Coloring, Col
lecting, and Refining; the Processes of Manipulation, Recovery of
Waste; Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold; with a New
System of Mixing its Alloys ; Solders, Enamels, and other Useful
Rules and Recipes. By GEORGE E. GEE. I2mo. „ . Jpi-75

GEE. — The Silversmith's Handbook :

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Silver,
including the different modes of Refining and Melting the Metal ; its
Solders; the Preparation of Imitation Alloys; Methods of Manipula-
tion; Prevention of Waste ; Instructions for Improving and Finishing
the Surface of the Work ; together with other Useful Information and
Memoranda. By GEORGE E. GEE. Illustrated. i2mo. $1.75

GOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET-MAKERS:

Designs for Gothic Furniture. Twenty-three plates. Oblong $2.00

GRANT.— A Handbook on the Teeth of Gears :
Their Curves, Properties, and Practical Construction. By GEOR<.
B. GRANT. Illustrated. Third Edition, enlarged. 8vo.

GREENWOOD.— Steel and Iron:

Comprising the Practice and Theory of the Several Methods Pur-
sued in their Manufacture, and of their Treatment in the Rolling-
Mills, the Forge, and the Foundry. By WILLIAM HENRY GREEN-
WOOD, F. C. S. With 97 Diagrams, 536 pages. I2mo. $2.00

J4 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.

GREGORY.— Mathematics for Practical Men :

Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and
Civil Engineers. By OLINTHUS GREGORY. 8vo., plates $3.00

GRISWOLD. — Railroad Engineer's Pocket Companion for th<

Field :

Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles,
Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for En
gineers; also the Art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the"
Construction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young En-
gineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By
W. GRISWOLD. I2mo., tucks ..... $1-75

GRUNER. — Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena:

By M. L. GRUNER, President of the General Council of Mines o$
France, and lately Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines.
Translated, with the author's sanction, with an Appendix, by L. I).
B. GORDON, F. R. S. E., F. G. S. 8vo. . . . $2.50

Hand-Book of Useful Tables for the Lumberman, Farmer and

Mechanic :

Containing Accurate Tables of Logs Reduced to Inch Board Meas^
ure, Plank, Scantling and Timber Measure; Wages and Rent, by
Week or Month; Capacity of Granaries, Bins and Cisterns; Land
Measure, Interest Tables, with Directions for Finding the Interest on
any sum at 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 per cent., and many other Useful Tables.
32 mo., boards. 186 pages ...... .25

HASERICK.— The Secrets of the Art of Dyeing Wool, Cotton,

and Linen,

Including Bleaching and Coloring Wool and Cotton Hosiery and
Random Yarns. A Treatise based on Economy and Practice. By
E. C. HASERICK. Ilhistrated by 323 Dyed Patterns of the Yami
or Fabrics. 8vo $7-lo

HATS AND FELTING:

A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hatter.
Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. . . $1.25

HOFFER. — A Practical Treatise on Caoutchouc and Guita

Percha,

Comprising the Properties of the Raw Materials, and the manner or
Mixing and Working them ; with the Fabrication of Vulcanized and
Hard Rubbers, Caoutchouc and Gutta Petcha Compositions> Water-
proof Substances, Elastic Tissues, the Utilization of Waste, etc., etc,
From the German of RAIMUND HOFFER. By W. T. BRANNT.
Illustrated I2mo. . $2.50

HAUPT.— Street Railway Motors:

With Descriptions and Cost of Plants and Operation of the Various
Systems now in Use. 121110. ..... $1-75

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 15

HAUPT— RHAWN.— A Move for Better Roads:

Essays on Road-making and Maintenance and Road Laws, for
which Prizes or Honorable Mention were Awarded through the
University of Pennsylvania by a Committee of Citizens of Philadel-
phia, with a Synopsis of other Contributions and a Review by the
Secretary, LEWIS M. HAUPT, A. M., C. E.; also an Introduction by
WILLIAM H. RHAWN, Chairman of the Committee. 319 pages.
8vo. $2.00

HUGHES. — American Miller and Millwright's Assistant:
By WILLIAM CARTER HUGHES. I2mo $1.50

HULME. — Worked Examination Questions in Plane Gecmet

rical Drawing :

For the Use of Candidates for the Royal Military Academy, Wool-
wich; the Royal Military College, Sandhurst ; the Indian Civil En-
gineering College, Cooper's Hill ; Indian Public Works and Tele-
graph Departments ; Royal Marine Light Infantry ; the Oxford and
Cambridge Local Examinations, etc. By F. EDWARD HULME, F. L.
S., F. S. A., Art-Master Marlborough College. Illustrated by 300
examples. Small quartc $2.50

JERVIS.— Railroad Property:

A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways;
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the
holders of this class of property ; as well as Railway Managers, Offi-
cers, and Agents. By JOHN B. JERVIS, late Civil Engineer of the
Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, etc. i2mo., cloth $2.oc

KEENE.— A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging:

For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Distilla
tion, describing the process in operation at the Custom-House for
ascertaining the Strength of Wines. By JAMES B. KEENE, of H. M.
Customs. 8vo. .....••• Si. 25

KELLEY.— Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on Industrial and

Financial Questions :
By HON. WILLIAM D. KELLEY, M. C. 544 pages, 8vo. . £2.50

KELLOGG.— A New Monetary System :

The only means of Securing the respective Rights of Labor ^ and
Property, and of Protecting the Public from Financial Revulsions.
By EDWARD KELLOGG. Revised from his work on "Labor anc
other Capital." With numerous additions from his mnni^cript.
Edited by MARY KELLOGG PUTNAM. Fifth edition. To which v
added a Biographical Sketch of the Author. One volume, I2mo.

Paper cover !'^

Bound in cloth

KEMLO.— Watch-Repairer's Hand-Book :
Beina a Complete Guide to the Young Beginner, in Taking Apart
Putting Together, and Thoroughly Cleaning the English Lever and
other Foreign Watches, and all American Watches. By F. K.EML<
Practical Watchmaker. With Illustrations. I2ma

1 6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.

KENTISH. — A Treatise on a Box of Instruments,

And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Log*
rithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Tim-
ber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. By THOMAS
KENTISH. In one volume. I2mo. .... $1.2

KERL.— The Assayer's Manual:

An Abridged Treatise on the Docimastic Examination of Ores, and
Furnace and other Artificial Products. By BRUNO KERL, Professor
in the Royal School of Mines. Translated from the German by
WILLIAM T. BRANNT. Second American edition, edited with Ex-
tensive Additions by F. LYNWOOD GARRISON, Member of the
American Institute of Mining Engineers, etc. Illustrated by 87 en-
gravings. 8vo &3-OC

KICK.— Flour Manufacture.

A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By FREDERICK KICK
Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in tht
imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from
the second enlarged and revised edition with supplement by H. H.
P. POWLES, Assoc. Memb. Institution of Civil Engineers. Illustrated
with 28 Plates, and 167 Wood-cuts. 367 pages. 8vo. . $10.00
KINGZETT. — The History, Products, and Processes of the

Alkali Trade :

Including the most Recent Improvements. By CHARLES THOMAS
KINGZETT, Consulting Chemist. With 23 illustrations. 8vo. $2.50
KIRK.— The Founding of Metals :

A Practical Treatise on the Melting of Iron, with a Description of the
Founding of Alloys; also, of all the Metals and Mineral Substances
used in the Art of Founding. Collected from original sources. B>
EDWARD KIRK, Practical Foundryman and Chemist. Illustrated.

Third edition. 8vo. . $2.50

LANDRIN.— A Treatise on Steel :

Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working,
and Use. By M. H. C. LANDRIN, JR., Civil Engineer. Translated
from the French, with Notes, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and En
gineer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer and the Martin Pro-
reuses for Manufacturing Steel, from the Report of Abram S. Hewitt^
United States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867*

I2mo $3-00

LANGBEIN.— A Complete Treatise on the Electro-Deposition

of Metals :

Translated from the German, with Additions, by WM. T. BRANNT.
125 illustrations. 8vo $4.00

LARDNER.— The Steam-Engine :

For the Use of Beginners. Illustrated. I2mo. ... 75

LEHNER.— The Manufacture of Ink:

Comprising the Raw Materials, and the Preparation of Waiting,
Copying and Hektograph Inks, Safety Inks, Ink Extracts and Pow-
ders, etc. Translated from the German of SIGMUND LEHNER, with
additions by WILLIAM T. BRANNT. Illustrated. I2mo. #2.00

HENRY CARE\ BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 17

LARKIN. — The Practical Brass and Iron Founder's Guide?
A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and
their Alloys, etc.; to wnich are added Recent Improvements in the
Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. Ily
JAMES LARKIN, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department is
Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, Philadelphia. New edition,
revised, with extensive additions. I2mo. . . . $2.50

LEROUX.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of

Worsteds and Carded Yarns :

Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied
to Spinning; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools; the English
and French Methods of Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Worsteds,
and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of
CHARLES LEROUX, Mechanical Engineer and Superintendent of a
Spinning-Mill, by HORATIO PAINE, M. D., and A. A. FESQUET,
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by twelve large Plates. To which
is added an Appendix, containing Extracts from the Reports of the
International Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee
appointed by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woolen
and Worsted Machinery and Fabrics, as exhibited in the Paris UnU
versal Exposition, 1867. 8vo. $5.00

LEFFEL. — The Construction of Mill-Dams :
Comprising also the Building of Race and Reservoir Embankments
and Head-Gates, the Measurement of Streams, Gauging of Water
Supply, etc. By JAMES LEFFEL & Co. Illustrated by 58 engravings.
8vo. $2.50

LESLIE.— Complete Cookery:

Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss LESI.IK.
Sixtieth thousand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New
Receipts. I2mo. . . 5i-5°

LE VAN. — The Steam Engine and the Indicator :

Their Origin and Progressive Development ; including the Most
Recent Examples of Steam and Gas Motors, together with the Indi-
cator, its Principles, its Utility, and its Application. By WILLIAM
BARNET LE VAN. Illustrated by 205 Engravings, chiefly of Indi-
cator-Cards. 469 pp. 8vo $4.00

LIEBER.— Assayer's Guide :

Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the
Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of al!
the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and Alloys, and of
Coal, etc. By OSCAR M. LIEBER. Revised. 283 pp. 12111... 51.50

JLockwood's Dictionary of Terms : .

Used in the Practice of Mechanical Engineering, erfibraring thosi
Current in the Drawing Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turn-
'na, Smith's and Boiler Shops, etc., etc., comprising upwards of Six
Thousand Definitions. Edited by a Foreman Pattern Maker, author
i4 « Pattern Making." 41? PP- I2mo- • ' ' *3'°°

iS HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE-

LUKiN.— Amongst Machines:

Embracing Descriptions of the various Mechanical Appliances used
in the Manufacture of Wood, Metal, and other Substances. *2mo.

n-w

LUKIN. — The Boy Engineers:

What They Did, and How They Did It. With 30 plates. l8mo.

$1-75

LUKIN.— The Young Mechanic :

Practical Carpentry. Containing Directions for the Use of all kinds
of Tools, and for Construction of Steam- Engines and Mechanical
Models, including the Art of Turning in Wood and Metal. By JOHN
LUKIN, Author of "The Lathe and Its Uses," etc. Illustrated.

•I2IP.O. #1-75

MAIN and BROWN. — Questions on Subjects Connected with

the Marine Steam-Engine :

And Examination Papers; with Hints for their Solution. By
THOMAS J. MAIN, Professor of Mathematics, Royal ""Maval College,
and THOMAS BROWN, Chief Engineer, R. N. I2mo., cloth . $1.00

MAIN and BROWN. — The Indicator and Dynamometer:
With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By THOMAS
J. MAIN, M. A. F. R., Ass't S. Professor Royal Naval College,
Portsmouth, and THOMAS BROWN, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer
R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. 8vo. . $1.00

MAIN and BROWN.— The Marine Steam-Engine.

By THOMAS J. MAIN, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at the
Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and THOMAS BROWN, Assoc.
Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval
College. With numerous illustrations. 8vo.

MAKINS.— A Manual of Metallurgy:

By GEORGE HOGARTH MAKINS. 100 engravings. Second edition
rewritten and much enlarged. I2mo., 592 pages . . $3-OG

MARTIN.— Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Mechanical

Engineers :

Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads
of Screws of any Required Pitch; with a Table for Making the Uni-
versal Gas- Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. MARTIN, Engineer.
8vo. . 50

MICHELL.— Mine Drainage :

Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Under
ground Steam Pumping Machinery. With a Description of a large
number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and the
Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and
their Merits compared with other Pumping Machinery. By STEPHEN
MICHELL. Illustrated by 137 engravings. 8vo., 277 pages . $6.00

MOLES WORTH. —Pocket- Book of Useful Formulae and

Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engineers.
By GUILFORD L. MOLESWORTH, Member of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Full-
bounrl in Pocket-book form . . . • - $l,Gt

rtENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.-W CATALOGUE. J9

MOORE.— The Universal Assistant and the Complete Me-
chanic :

Containing over one million Industrial Facts, Calculations, Receipts,
Processes, Trades Secrets, Rules, Business Forms, Legal Items, Ktc.,
in every occupation, from the Household to the Manufactory. Bf
R. MOORE. Illustrated by 500 Engravings. I2mo. . $2.50

MORRIS. — Easy Rules for the Measurement of Earthworks :
By means of the Prismoidal Formula. Illustrated with Numerous
Wood-Cuts, Problems, and Examples, and concluded by an Exten-
sive Table for finding the Solidity in cubic yards from Mean Areas.
The whole being adapted for convenient use by Engineers, Surveyors,
Contractors, and others needing Correct Measurements of Earthwork.
By ELWOOD MORRIS, C. E. 8vo $1.50

MAUCHLINE.— The Mine Foreman's Hand-Book

Of Practical and Theoretical Information on the Opening, Venti-
lating, and Working of Collieries. Questions and Answers on Prac-
tical and Theoretical Coal Mining. Designed to Assist Students and
Others in Parsing Examinations for Mine Foremanships. By
ROBERT MAUCHLINE, Ex-Inspector of Mines. A New, Revised and
Enlarged Edition. Illustrated by 114 engravings. 8vo. 337
pages $3-75

NAPIER. — A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing.

By JAMES NAPIER, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edi-
tion. Completely brought up to the present state of the Science,
including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. FESQUET,
Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Illus-
trated. 8vo. 422 pages $3-5°

NEVILLE.— Hydraulic Tables, Coefficients, and Formula, for
finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches,
Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers :

Third Edition, with Additions, consisting of New Formulae for the
Discharge from Tidal and Flood Sluices and Siphons; general infor-
mation on Rainfall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water
Supply for Towns and Mill Power. By JOHN NEVILLE, C. L. M R
I. A. ; Fellow of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Thick
I2ino 15-5°

NEWBERY.— Gleanings from Ornamental Art of every

style :

Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian,
Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and
1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In. a series of 100
exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred examples. By
ROBERT NEWBERY. 410. .... • #12.50

NICHOLLS. —The Theoretical and Practical Boiler-Maker and

Engineer's Reference Book:

Containing a variety of Useful Information for Employers of Laboc
Foremen and Working Boiler-Makers. Iron, Copper, and Tinsmith*

20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.

Draughtsmen, Engineers, the General Steam-using Public, and for th«
Use of Science Schools and Classes. By SAMUEL NICHOLLS. Illus.
trated by sixteen plates, I2mo. ..... $2.50

NICHOLSON.— A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding :

Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding,
Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book-edges and
Paper. By JAMES B. NICHOLSON. Illustrated. I2mo., cloth $2.25

NICOLLS.— The Railway Builder:

A Hand-Book for Estimating the Probable Cost of American Rail*
way Construction and Equipment. By WILLIAM J. NICOLLS, Civil
Engineer. Illustrated, full bound, pocket-book form . $2.00

NORMANDY. — The Commercial Handbook of Chemical An-
alysis :

Or Practical Instructions for the Determination of the Intrinsic 01
Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades,
and in the Arts. By A. NORMANDY. New Edition, Enlarged, and
to a great extent rewritten. By HENRY M. NOAD, Ph.D., F.R.S.,
thick I2mo $5.00

NORRIS. — A Handbook for Locomotive Engineers and Ma-
chinists :

Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco-
motives; Manner of Setting Valves; Tables cf Squares, Cubes, Areas,
etc., etc. By SEPTIMUS NORRIS, M. E. New edition. Illustrated,

12010. $1.50

NYSTRGM. — A New Treatise on Elements of Mechanics :

Establishing Strict Precision in the Meaning of Dynamical Terms :
accompanied with an Appendix on Duodenal Arithmetic and Me-
trology. By JOHN W. NYSTROM, C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. $2.00

NYSTROM. — On Technological Education and the Construc-
tion of Ships and Screw Propellers :

For Naval and Marine Engineers. By JOHN W. NYSTROM, late
Acting Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second edition, revised, with addi-
tional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. I2mo. . $1.50

O'NEILL. — A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing:

Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in
use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practical
Receipts and Scientific Information. By CHARLES O'NEILL, Analy-
tical Chemist. To which is added an Essay on Coal Tar Colors and
their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. FESQUET;
Chemist and Engineer. With an appendix on Dyeing and Calico
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867- 8vo.
491 pages • . $3.50

ORTON. — Underground Treasures-.

How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination
of ail the Useful Minerals within the United States. By JAMES
ORTON, A.M., Late" Professor of Natural History in Vassar College,
>J. Y.; Cor. Mem. of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,
and of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York ; author of the
" Andes and the Amazon," etc. A New Edition, with Additions.
Illustrated . r l.»

HENRY CAREY BAlRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 21

OSBORN.— The Prospector's Field Book and Guide :

In the Search for and the Easy Determination of Ores and Other
Useful Minerals. By Prof. H. S. OSBORN, LL. D., Author of
"The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel;" "A Practical Manual of
Minerals, Mines, and Mining." Illustrated by 44 Engravings.
I2mo #1.50

OSBORN. — A Practical Manual of Minerals, Mines and Min-
ing:

Comprising the Physical Properties, Geologic Positions, Local Occur-
rence and Associations of the Useful Minerals; their Methods of
Chemical Analysis and Assay : together with Various Systems of
Excavating and Timbering, Brick and Masonry Work, during Driv-
ing, Lining, Bracing and other Operations, etc. By Prof. II. S.
OSBORN, LL. D., Author of the " Metallurgy of Iron and Steel.'1
Illustrated by 171 engravings from original drawings. 8vo. $4.50

O VERM AN.— Thu Manufacture of Steel :

Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel.
A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workers in Steel and Iron, Wagon
Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard-
ware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art. By
FREDERICK OVERMAN, Mining Engineer, Author of the " Manu-
facture of I*on," etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By
A. A. FESQL^T, Chemist and Engineer. I2mo. . . $1.50

OVERMAN.— The Moulder's and Founder's Pocket Guide :
A Treatise or* Moulding and Founding in Green-sand, Dry-sand, Loam,
and Cement; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow-
ware, Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues; Description of Moulds
for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur,
Wax, etc. ; the Construction of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and
Founding of Metals ; the Composition of Alloys and their Nature,
etc., etc. By FREDERICK OVERMAN, M. E. A new Edition, to
which is added a Supplement on Statuary and Ornamental Moulding,
Ordnance, Malleable Iron Castings, etc. By A. A. FESQUET, Chem-
ist and Engineer. Illustrated by 44 engravings. I2mo. . $2.OO[

PAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION:'
Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the AriJ
of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, Glass-Staining, Graining, Marbling,
Sign-Writing, Gilding on Glass, and Coach Painting and Varnishing;
Tests for the Detection of Adulterations in Oils, Colors, etc.; and a
Statement of the Diseases to which Painters are peculiarly liable, with
the Simplest and Best Remedies. Sixteenth Edition. Revised, willi
an Appendix. Containing Colors and Coloring— Theoretical ano
Practical. Comprising descriptions of a great variety of Additional
Pigments, their Qualities and Uses, to which are added, Dryers, and
Modes and Operations of Painting, etc. Together with Chevreul'f
Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors. I2mo. Cloth $1.5*

*>ALXETT.— The Miller's, Millwright's, and Engineer's Guide.
By HENRY PALLETT. Illustrated. i2mo. . . •

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.

PERCY. — The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron.

By JOHN PERCY, M. D., F. R. S., Lecturer on Metallurgy at the
Royal School of Mines, and to The Advance Class of Artillery
Officers at the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich; Author of
"Metallurgy." With Illustrations. 8vo., paper . . 50 cts.

PERKINS.— Gas and Ventilation :

Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation
to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientiric
Helps to Engineer-students and others. With Illustrated Diagrams,
By E. E. PERKINS. i2mo., cloth #1.25

PERKINS AND STOWE.— A New Guide to the Sheet-iron

and Boiler Plate Roller :

Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles
to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of
Bars to produce Sheet-iron ; the Thickness of the Bar Gauga
in decimals ; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or
Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the Weight per
sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various
dimensions to weigh 112 Ibs. per bundle; and the conversion of
Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short.
Estimated and collected by G. H. PERKINS and J. G. STOWE. $2.501

POWELI — CHANCE— HARRISC— The Principles of Glass

Making.

By HARRY J. POWELL, B. A. Together with Treatises on Crown and
Sheet Glass; by HENRY CHANCE, M. A. And Plate Glass, by H.
G. HARRIS, Asso. M. Inst. C. E. Illustrated i8mo. . $1.50

PROCTOR. — A Pocket-Book of Useful Tables and Formulae

for Marine Engineers :

By FRANK PROCTOR. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged.
Full -bound pocket-book form ...... $1.50

REGNAULT. — Elements of Chemistry:

By M. V. REGNAULT. Translated from the French by T. FORREST
BETTON, M. D., and edited, with Notes, by JAMES C. BOOTH, Melter
and Refiner U. S. Mint, and WILLIAM L. FABER, Metallurgist and
Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood-engravings. Com-
prising nearly 1,500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth . $7.50

RICHARDS. — Aluminium :

Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applications,
including its Alloys. By JOSEPH W. RICHARDS, A. C., Chemist and
Practical Metallurgist, Member of the Deutsche Chemische Gesell-
schaft. Illustrated . $5.00

RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.— A Practical

Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors for Painting :
Comprising the Origin, Definition, and Classification of Colors; the
Treatment of the Raw Materials ; the best Formulae and the Newest
Processes for the Preparation of every description of Pigment, and
the Necessary Apparatus and Directions for its Use; Dryers; th»
Testing, Application, and Qualities of Paints, etc., etc. By MM.
RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT. Revised and Edited by M.

HENRY CAREY BAiRD & CO. S CATALOG'?!*;.

F. MALEPEYRK. Translated from the French, by A. A.
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by Eighty engravings. !
vol., 8vo., 659 pages . . . . . . . $•/ 50

ROPER.— A Catechism of High- Pressure, or Non-Condensing
Steam-Engines :

Including the Modelling, Constructing, and Management of Steam-
Engines and Steam Boilers. With valuable illustrations. By STE-
PHEN ROPER. Engineer. Sixteenth edition, revised and enlarged.
i8mo., tucks, gilt edge $2.00

ROPER. — Engineer's Handy-Book:

Containing a full Explanation of the Steam-Engine Indicator, and its
Use and Advantages to Engineers and Steam Users. With Formula
for Estimating the Power of all Classes of Steam-Engines ; als^.
Facts, Figures, Questions, and Tables for Engineers who wish to
qualify themselves for the United States Navy, the Revenue Service,
the Mercantile Marine, or to take charge of the Better Class of Sta-
tionary Steam-Engines. Sixth edition. i6mo.. 690 pages, tucks,,
gilt edge . $3.50

ROPER. — Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines :
Including the Modelling, Construction, Running, and Management
of Lanr1 and Marine Engines and Boilers. With illustrations. By
STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. Sixth edition. i2mo.,trcWs, gilt edge.

#3-5°
ROPER.— Hand-Book of the Locomotive :

Including the Construction of Engines and Boilers, and the Construc-
tion, Management, and Running of Locomotives. By STEPHEN
ROPER. Eleventh edition. i8mo., tucks, gilt edge . £2.50

ROPER. — Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fi-e- Engines.

With illustrations. By STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. Fourth edition,
I2mo., tucks, gilt edge #3-5°

ROPER. — Questions and Answers for Engineers.

This little book contains all the Questions that Engineers will l>e
asked when undergoing an Examination for the purpose of procuring
Licenses, and they are so plain that any Engineer or Fireman of or
dinary intelligence may commit them to memory in a short time. l>y
STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. Third edition . . £j oo

ROPER. — Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler.

By STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. Eighth edition, with frustrations.
l8mo., tucks, gilt edge #2.00

ROSE. — The Complete Practical Machinist :

Embracing Lathe Work, Vise Work, Drills and Drilling, Taps :md
Dies, Hardening and Tempering, the Making and Use of 'i\»ol%
Tool Grinding, Marking out Work, etc. By JOSHUA ROSE. IIlusJ
trated by 356 engravings. Thirteenth edition, thoroughly reviseT
and in great part rewritten. In one vol., I2mo., 439 pages $2.$<?

ROSE.— Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught:
Comprising Instructions in the Selection and Preparation of Drawing
Instruments, Elementary Instruction in Practical Mechanical Draw

24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.

ing, together with Examples in Simple Geometry and Elementary
Mechanism, including Screw Threads, Gear Wheels, Mechanical
Motions, Engines and Boilers. By JOSHUA ROSE, M. E. Illustrated
by 330 engravings. 8vo , 313 pages .... $4.00

ROSE.— The Slide- Valve Practically Explained:

Embracing simple and complete Practical Demonstrations of th,
operation of each element in a Slide-valve Movement, and illustrat-
ing the effects of Variations in their Proportions by examples care,
fully selected from the most recent and successful practice. By
JOSHUA ROSE, M. E. Illustrated by 35 engravings . $1.00

ROSS. — The Blowpipe in Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology:
Containing all Known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Work-
ing Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By LiEUT.-
COLONEL W. A. Ross, R. A., F. G. S. With 120 Illustrations.
I2mo $2.0O

SHAW.— Civil Architecture :

Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, con.
tnining the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By EDWARD SHAW,
Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Architecture, etc.
By THOMAS W. SILI.OWAY and GEORGE M. HARDING, Architects.
The whole illustrated by 102 quarto plates finely engraved on copper.
Eleventh edition. 410. ....... $10.00

SHUNK.— A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves and Loca-
tion, for Young Engineers.

By W. F. SHUNK, C. E. 121110. Full bound pocket-book form $2.00
SLATER.— The Manual of Colors and Dye Wares.

By J. W. SLATER. i2mo. ...... $3.00

SLOAN. — American Houses :

A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by
26 colored engravings, with descriptive references. By SAMUEL
SLOAN, Architect. 8vo. . . . . . . $1.50

SLOAN. — Homestead Architecture :

Containing Forty Designs for Villas, Cottages, and Farm-houses, with
Essays on Stylw, Construction, Landscape Gardening, Furniture, etc.,
etc. Illustrated by upwards of 200 engravings. By SAMEKEL SLOAN,
Architect. 8vo. ... .... $3.50

BLOANE.— Ho.r«e Experiments m Science.

By T. O'CoNOR SLC\NE, E. M., A.M., Ph.D. Illustrated by 91
engravings. I2mo. ....... $1.50

SMEATON.— Builder's Pockt^Companion :

Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture;
with Practical Rules and Instructions corrected with the subject.
By A. C. SMEATON, Civil Engineer, etc. I2mo. . . $1.50

SMITH. — A Manual of Political Economy.

By E. PESHINE SMITH. A New Edition, to which is added a full
Index. I2mo $i 25

HENRY CAREY BAlRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 25

SMITH. — Parks and Pleasure - Grounds :

Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, And
Gardens. By CHARLES H. J. SMITH, Landscape Gardener' and
Garden Architect, etc., etc. I2mo. .... $2.00

SMITH. — The Dyer's Instructor :

Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton,
Wool, and Worsted, and Woolen Goods ; containing nearly 800
Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; and
the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and the
various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work.
By DAVID SMITH, Pattern Dyer. i2mo. . . . $2.00

SMYTH. — A Rudimentary Treatise on Coal and Coal-Mining.
By WARRINGTON W. SMYTH, M. A., F. R. G., President R. G. S.
of Cornwall. Fifth edition, revised and corrected. With numer-
ous illustrations. I2mo. ...... $1-75

SNIVELY. — Tables for Systematic Qualitative Chemical AnaK

ysis.
By JOHN H. SNIVELY, Phr. D. 8vo. .... $1.00

SNIVELY.— The Elements of Systematic Qualitative chemical

Analysis :

A Hand-book for Beginners. By JOHN H. SNIVELY, Phr. D. i6mo.

$2.00

STOKES.— The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's Companion:
Comprising the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet Work;
Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl-Work ; the Art of Dyeing and Stain
ing Wood, Ivory, Bone, Tortoise-Shell, etc. Directions for Lacker-
ing, Japanning, and Varnishing; to make French Polish, Glues,
Cements, and Compos:..i<-ns; with numerous Receipts, useful to work
men generally. Bv STOKES. Illustrated. A New Edition, with
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etc., etc. I2mo ....... $1.25

STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS;
Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of
Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Testing
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SULLIVAN. — Protection to Native Industry.
By Sir EDWARD SULLIVAN, Baronet, author of " Ten Chapters on
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SULZ. — A Treatise on Beverages :

Or the Complete Practical Bottler. Full instructions for Laboratory
Work, with Original Practical Recipes for all kinds of Carbonated
Drinks, Mineral Waters, Flavorings. Extracts, Syrups, etc. By
CHAS HERMAN SULZ. Technical Chemist and Practical Bottler
Illustrated by 428 Engr&vkn&s. 8t# 'pp. *vo . Jio.oo

26 HENRY CAREY BAIRto & CO.'S CATALOGUE. %

SYME. — Outlines of an Industrial Science.

By DAVID SYME. I2mo. . ... $2.ots

TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND,
SQUARE, AND FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC.,

By Measurement. Cloth • 63

TAYLOR.— Statistics of Coal :

Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and
Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial
Distribution and Amount of Production and Consumption on the
American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manu-
facture. By R. C. TAYLOR. Second edition, revised by S. S. HALDE-
MAN. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engravings. 8vo.,
cloth . #10.00

TEMPLETON. — The Practical Examinator on Steam and the

Steam -Engine :

With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of
Engineers, Students, and others. By WILLIAM TEMPLETON, En-
gineer. I2mo. ....-••. $1.00

THAUSING.— The Theory and Practice of the Preparation of

Malt and the Fabrication of Beer:

With especial reference to the Vienna Process of Brewing. Elab-
orated from personal experience by JULIUS E. THAUSING, Professor
at the School for Brewers, and at the Agricultural Institute, Modling,
near Vienna. Translated from the German by WILLIAM T. BRANNT,
Thoroughly and elaborately edited, with much American mutter, and
according to the latest and most Scientific Practice, by A. SCHWARZ
and DR. A. H. BAUER. Illustrated by 140 Engravings. 8vo., 815
pages .......... $10.00

THOMAS. — The Modern Practice of Photography:

By R. W. THOMAS, F. C. S. 8vo. .... 25

THOMPSON.— Political Economy. With Especial Reference

to the Industrial History of Nations :

By ROBERT E. THOMPSON, M. A., Professor of Social Science in the
University of Pennsylvania. I2mo. . . . . $1.50

THOMSON. — Freight Charges Calculator:

By ANDREW THOMSON, Freight Agent. 2q.mo. . . $1.25

TURNER'S (THE) COMPANION:

Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turn,
ing; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments; and
Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and
Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instructions for working them
I2mo. $1.25

TURNING : Specimens of Fancy Turning Executed on the

Hand or Foot- Lathe :

With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting
Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Photographs.
4to. ...... . ... $3.00

HENRY CAREY BAIRB & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 27

VAILE.— Galvanized- Iron Cornice-Worker's Manual:

Containing Instructions in Laying out the Different Mitres, ami
Making Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also,
Tables of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and other
Matter calculated to Benefit the Trade. By CHARLES A. VAILK.
Illustrated by twenty-one plates. 410. ... $c oo

VILLE. — On Artificial Manures :

Their Chemical Selection and Scientific Application to Agriculture.
A series of Lectures given at the Experimental Farm at Vincennes,
during 1867 and 1874-75. By M. GEORGES VILLE. Translated and
Edited by WILLIAM CROOKES, F. R. S. Illustrated by thirty-one
engravings. 8vo., 450 pages $6.00

VILLE. — The School of Chemical Manures :
Or, Elementary Principles in the Use of Fertilizing Agents. From
the French of M. GEO. VILLE, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and En-
gineer. With Illustrations. I2mo. .... 11.25

VOGDES. — The Architect's and Builder's Pocket -Companion

and Price-Book :

Consisting of a Shoit but Comprehensive Epitome of Decimals, Duo-
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Measures, Sizes, Weights, Strengths, etc., of Iron, Wood, Stone,
Brick, Cement and Concretes, Quantities of Materials in given Sizes
and Dimensions of Wood, Brick and Stone; and full and complete
Bills of Prices for Carpenter's Work and Painting ; also, Rules for
Computing and Valuing Brick and Brick Work, Stone Work, Paint-
ing, Plastering, with a Vocabulary of Technical Terms, etc. By
FRANK W. VOGDES, Architect, Indianapolis, Ind. Enlarged, revised,
and corrected. In one volume, 368 pages, full-bound, pocket-book

form, gilt edges . . $2.00

Cloth . 1.50

VAN CLEVE.— The English and American Mechanic :

Comprising a Collection of Over Three Thousand Receipts, Rules,
and Tables, designed for the Use of every Mechanic and Manufac-
turer. By B. FRANK VAN CLEVE. Illustrated. 500 pp. I2mo. $2.00

WAHNSCHAFFE.— A Guide to the Scientific Examination

of Soils:

Comprising Select Methods of Mechanical and Chemical Analyst
and Physical Investigation. Translated from the German of Dr. F»
WAHNSCHAFFE. With additions by WILLIAM T. BRANNT. Illus-
trated by 25 engravings. 121110. 177 pages . . . $1-5°

WALL.— Practical Graining :

With Descriptions of Colors Employed and Tools Used. Illustrated
by 47 Colored Plates, Representing the Various Woods Used K
Interior Finishing. By WILLIAM E. WALL. 8vo. . £2.5*

WALTON.— Coal-Mining Described and Illustrated:

By THOMAS H. WALTON, Mining Engineer. Illustrated by 24 .'argl
and elaborate Plates, after Actual Workings and* Apparatus. $5.04

28 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.

. — The Sugar Beet.
Including a History of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe, Varietier
of the Sugar Beet, Examination, Soils, Tillage, Seeds and Sowing,
Yield and Cost of Cultivation, Harvesting, Transportation, Conserva
tion, Feeding Qualities of the Beet and of the Pulp, etc. By LEWIJ
S. WARE, C. E., M. E. Illustrated by ninety engravings. 8vo.

$4.04
WARN.— The Sheet-Metal Worker's Instructor:

For Zinc, Sheet- Iron, Copper, and Tin- Plate Workers, etc. Contain-
ing a selection of Geometrical Problems ; also, Practical and Simple
Rules for Describing the various Patterns required in the different
branches of the above Trades. By REUBEN H. WARN, Practical
Tin-Plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing
Instructions for Boiler-Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids,
Rules for Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and
Steel, Tables of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by thirty-
two Plates and thirty-seven Wood Engravings. 8vo. . $3-OC

WARNER. — New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams, for the
Computation of Earth-work :

Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates
of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-profes-
sional Computers. In two parts, with an Appendix. Part I. A Prac-
tical Treatise; Part II. A Theoretical Treatise, and the Appendix.
Containing Notes to the Rules and Examples of Part I.; Explana-
tions of the Construction of Scales, Tables, and Diagrams, and a
Treatise upon Equival-ent Square Bases and Equivalent Level Heights.
The whole illustrated by numerous original engravings, comprising
explanatory cuts for Definitions and Problems, Stereometric Scales
and Diagrams, and a series of Lithographic Drawings from Models;
Showing all the Combinations of Solid Forms which occur in Railroad
Excavations and Embankments. By JOHN WARNER, A. M., Mining
and Mechanical Engineer. Illustrated by 14 Plates. A new, revised
and improved edition. 8vo. ...... $4.00

WATSON.— A Manual of the Hand-Lathe :

Comprising Concise Directions for Working Metals of all kinds,
Ivory, Bone and Precious Woods; Dyeing, Coloring, and French
Polishing; Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised to
produce Elaborate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense. Bjr
EGBERT P. WATSON, Author of " The Modern Practice of American
Machinists and Engineers." Illustrated by 78 engravings. $1.50

WATSON. — The Modern Practice of American Machinists and

Engineers

Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe
Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow-work generally , with
the most Economical Speed for the same ; the Results verified by
Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vise, and on the Floor. Together

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 2q

with Work«l*op Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam
Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By EGBERT P. WATSON.
Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. I2mo. . «2 co

WATSON.— The Theory and Practice of the Art of Weavine

by Hand and Power •

With Calculations and Tables for the Use of those connected with the
Trade. By JOHN WATSON, Manufacturer and Practical Machine-
Maker. Illustrated by large Drawings of the best Power Looms.
8vo- • • $6.00

W ATT.— The Art of Soap Making :

A Practical Hand-book of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps,
Toilet Soaps, etc., including many New Processes, and a Chapter on
the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By ALEXANDER
WATT. 111. i2mo. . $3.00

WE ATHERLY.— Treatise on the Art of Boiling Sugar, Crys-

tailizing, Lozenge-making, Comfits, Gum Goods,
And other processes for Confectionery, etc., in which are explained,
in an easy and familiar manner, the various Methods of Manufactur.
ing every Description of Raw and Refined Sugar Goods, as sold by
Confectioners and others. I2mo $1.50

W1GHTWICK.— Hints to Young Architects:
Comprising Advice to those who, while yet at school, are destined
to the Proiession; to such as, having passed their pupilage, are about
to travel ; and to those who, having completed their education, are
about to practise. Together with a Model Specification involvir.g a
great variety of instructive and suggestive matter. By GEORGB
WIGHTWICK, Architect. A new edition, revised and considerably
enlarged ; comprising Treatises on the Principles of Construction
and Design. By G. HUSKISSON GUILLAUME, Architect. Numerous
illustrations. One vol. I2mo #2.00

W ILL,— Tables of Qualitative Chemical Analysis.

With an Introductory Chapter on the Course of Analysis. By Pro-
fessor HEINRICH WILL, of Giessen, Germany. Third American,
from the eleventh German edition. Edited by CHARLES F. HIMFS,
Ph. D., Professor of Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa
8vo. . $1.50

WILLIAMS.— On Heat and Steam:

Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Explo
sion. By CHARLES WYE WILLIAMS, A. I. C. E. Illustrated 8vo.

$2.50

WILSON. — A Treatise on Steam Boilers :

Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By ROBER!
WILSON. Illustrated I2mo. . ... £2.50

WILSON. — First Principles of Political Economy:

With Reference to Statesmanship and the Progress of Civilization.
By Professor W. D. WILSON, of the Cornell University. A new and
revised edition. I2mo. - $'-5c

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.

WOHLER.— A Hand-Bookof Mineral Analysis:

By F. WOHLER, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Gottin-
gen. Edited by HENRY B. NASON, Professor of Chemistry in the
Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated.
I2mo $2.50

WORSSAM.— On Mechanical Saws:

From the Transactions. of the Society of Engineers,. 1869. By S. W.
WORSSAM, JR. Illustrated by eighteen large plates. 8vo. £2.50

RECENT ADDITIONS.

BRANNT. — Varnishes, Lacquers, Printing Inks and Sealing -
Waxes :

Their Raw Materials and their Manufacture, to which is added the
Art of Varnishing and Lacquering, including the Preparation of Put-
ties and of Stains for Wood, Ivory, Bone, Horn, and Leather. By
WILLIAM T. BRANNT. Illustrated by 39 Engravings, 338 pages,
lamo. .......... $3.00

BRANNT — The Practical Scourer and Garment Dyer:

Comprising Dry or Chemical Cleaning; the Art of Removing Stains,
Fine Washing; Bleaching and Dyeing of Straw Hnts, Gloves, and
Feathers of all kinds; Dyeing of Worn Clothes of all fabrics, in-
cluding Mixed Goods, by One Dip; and the Manufacture of Soaps
and Fluids for Cleansing Purposes. Edited by WILLIAM T. BRANNT,
Editor of "The Techno-Chemical Receipt Book." Illustrated.
203 pages. I2mo. $2.00

BRANNT.— The Metallic Alloys:

A Practical Guide for the Manufacture of all kinds of Alloys, Amal-
gams and Solders used by Metal Workers, especially by Bell Founders,
Bronze Workers, Tinsmiths, Gold and Silver Workers, Dentists, etc.,
etc., as well as their Chemical and Physical Properties. Edited
chiefly from the German of A. Krupp and Andreas Wildberger, with
additions by WM. T. BRANNT. Illustrated. i2mo. $3.00

BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vine-
gar and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit- Wines :
Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Canning and Evaporation ;
Preparation of Fruit-Butters, Jellies, Marmalades, Catchups, Pickles,
Mustards, etc. Edited from various sources. By WILLIAM T.
BRANNT. Illustrated by 79 Engravings. 479 pp. 8vo. $5.00

BRANNT.— The Metal Worker's Handy-Book of Receipts
and Processes :

Being a Collection of Chemical Formulas and Practical Manipula-
tions for the working of all Metals; including the Decoration and
Beautifying of Articles Manufactured therefrom, as well as their
Preservation. Edited from various sources. By WILLIAM T.
BRANNT. Illustrated. i2mo. $2.50

HENRY CAREY BA1RD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.

DEITE. -A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture cf Per*

fumery :

Comprising directions for making all kinds of Perfumes, Sachet
Powders, Fumigating Materials, Dentifrices, Cosmetics, etc., with a
full account of the Volatile Oils, Balsams, Resins, and other Natural
and Artificial Perfume-substances, including the Manufacture of
Fruit Ethers, and tests of their purity. By Dr. C. DEITE, assisted
by L. BORCHERT, F. EICHBAUM, E. KUGLER, H. TOEFFNER, and
other experts. From the German, by WM. T. BRANNT. 28 Engrav-
ings. 358 pages. 8vo. |3.oo

EDWARDS. — American Marine Engineer, Theoretical and
Practical :

With Examples of the latest and most approved American Practice.
By EMORY EDWARDS. 85 illustrations. i2mo. . . $2.50

EDWARDS. — 900 Examination Questions and Answers:
For Engineers and Firemen (Land and Marine) who desire to ob-
tain a United States Government or State License. Pocket-book
form, gilt edge . . ...... $1.50

POSSELT. — Technology of Textile Design :

Being a Practical Treatise on the Construction and Application of
Weaves for all Textile Fabrics, with minute reference to the latest
Inventions for Weaving. Containing also an Appendix, showing
the Analysis and giving the Calculations necessary for the Manufac-
tuie of the various Textile Fabrics. By fi. A. POSSELT, Head
Master Textile Department, Pennsylvania Museum and School of
Industrial Art, Philadelphia, with over 1000 illustrations. 293
pages. 410. . $5-oa

POSSELT. — The Jacquard Machine Analysed and Explained:

With an Appendix on the Preparation of Jacquard Cards, and
Practical Hints to Learners of Jacquard Designing. By E. A.
POSSELT. With 230 illustrations and numerous diagrams. 127 pp.
4to. . $3.00

POSSELT.— The Structure of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics:
Being a Practical Treatise for the Use of all Persons Employed in
the Manufacture of Textile Fabrics, containing a Description of the
Growth and Manipulation of Cotton, Wool, Worsted, Silk Flax,
Jute, Ramie, China Grass and Hemp, and Dealing with all Manu-
facturers' Calculations for Every Class of Material, also Giving
Minute Details for the Structure of all kinds of Textile Fabrics, and
an Appendix of Arithmetic, specially adapted for Textile Purposes.
By E. A. POSSELT. Over 400 Illustrations, quarto. . $10.00

RICH. — Artistic Horse-Shoeing:

A Practical and Scientific Treatise, giving Improved Methods of
Shoeing, with Special Directions for Shaping Shoes to Cure Different
Diseases of the Foot, and for the Correction of Faulty Action in
Trotters. By GEORGE E. RICH. 62 Illustrations. 153 pages.
I2nio. #1.00

32 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.

RICHARDSON.— Practical Blacksmithing :

A Collection of Articles Contributed at Different Times by Skilled
Workmen to the columns of " The Blacksmith and Wheelwright,"
and Covering nearly the Whole Range of Blacksmithing, from the
Simplest Job of Work to some of the Most Complex Forgings,
Compiled and Edited by M. T. RICHARDSON.

Vol.1. 210 Illustrations. 224 pages. I2mo. . . $1.00
Vol. II. 230 Illustrations. 262 pages. I2mo. . . $1.00
Vol. III. 390 Illustrations. 307 pages. I2mo. . . $1.00
Vol. IV. 226 Illustrations. 276 pages. I2mo. . . $1.00

RICHARDSON.— The Practical Horseshoer:

Being a Collection of Articles on Horseshoeing in all its Branchei
which have appeared from time to time in the columns of " 1 he
Blacksmith and Wheelwright," etc. Compiled and edited by M. T.
RICHARDSON. 174 illustrations $1.00

ROPER. — Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and

Firemen :
By STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. i8mo. Morocco . $2.00

ROPER. — The Steam Boiler: Its Care and Management:
By STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. I2mo., tuck, gilt edges. $2.00

ROPER. — The Young Engineer's Own Book :

Containing an Explanation of the Principle and Theories on which
the Steam Engine as a Prime Mover is Based. By STEPHEN ROPER,
Engineer. 160 illustrations, 363 pages. i8mo., tuck . $3.00

ROSE. — Modern Steam -Engines:

An Elementary Treatise upon the Steam-Engine, written in Plain
language ; for Use in the Workshop as well as in the Drawing Office.
Giving Full Explanations of the Construction of Modern Stearrw
Engines : Including Diagrams showing their Actual operation. To-
gether with Complete but Simple Explanations of the operations of
Various Kinds of Valves, Valve Motions, and Link Motions, etc.,
thereby Enabling the Ordinary Engineer to clearly Understand the
Principles Involved in their Construction and Use, and to Plot out
their Movements upon the Drawing Board. By JOSHUA ROSE. M. E.
Illustrated by 422 engravings. Revised. 358 pp. . . $6.00

ROSE. — Steam Boilers:

A Practical Treatise on Boiler Construction and Examination, for the
Use of Practical Boiler Makers, Boiler Users, and Inspectors; and
embracing in plain figures all the calculations necessary in Designing
or Classifying Steam Boilers. By JOSHUA ROSE, M. E. Illustrated
by 73 engravings. 250 pages. 8vo. .... $2.50

SCHRIBER.— The Complete Carriage and Wagon Painter:
A Concise Compendium of the Art of Painting Carriages, Wagons,
and Sleighs, embracing Full Directions in all the Various Branches,
including Lettering, Scrolling, Ornamenting, Striping, Varnishing,
and Coloring, with numerous Recipes for Mixing Colors. 73 Illus-
trations. 177 pp. I2mo. . . . . . . 1 1 ofl

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