ill
li
THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
OF PRUNING
CLOSE VIEW OF FRUIT SPURS OF TREE SHOWN IN FIG. 173
This shows the tendency of unheaded shoots to develop large numbers of fruit
spurs. Notice that a spur has developed from nearly every node on the two-vear
wood, and this in the top of a young tree of a variety normally slow to come
into bearing.
The Principles and Practice of
PRUNING
Jc weniger wir zu schneiden haben am Baum, desto
gesunder bleibt er und desto schoner entwickeln sich
Friichte. — Karl Koopmann.
[TRANSLATION.— The less a tree is cut, the sounder
it will be, and the better its fruits.]
By
M. G. KAINS
Lecturer on Horticulture,
Columbia University
NEW YORK
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
1920
H rn MDDADV
Copyright, 1917, by
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
All Rights Reserved
PRINTED iv U. S. A.
Co tfjc memory
of
in U)i)o$e toell •• manageb plantation
II gaineb mp f irsft pruning experience
anb biscobf rrb mp lobe for
fruit groining
If Trees Gould Talk
Frank L. Brace in Tree Talk
If trees could talk, the tales they'd tell
Would surely be worth listening to.
The trees that form the shady dell,
Where lovers their fond vows renew ;
The trees that guard the home, the street
Where children play and elders rest;
What varied tales would they repeat
Of hopes deferred or hearts oppressed
Of happy lives divinely blest.
If trees could talk, how oft we'd hear
Of gross mistreatment, lack of care,
Borne patiently for many a year,
While thoughtless mortals unaware
Of how trees suffer, why they fail,
Put forth no effort to repel
The foes that constantly assail.
Sad tales like this we know full well,
A myriad suffering trees would tell.
If trees could talk, methinks their words
Would sound a protest loud and stern
For loss of their good friends, the birds,
And make a plea for their return.
Trees need the birds and so do we.
In the incessant fight to stay
The foes that so persistently
On flowers and fruit and foliage prey,
Our allies, vigilant, are they.
Trees cannot talk, and yet, to him
Who truly loves these friends of man,
Their every leaf and flower and limb
Is vocal. Since the world began
The trees have been our steadfast friends,
And our well-being constantly
Upon their life and growth depends.
How faithful then our care should be,
How fondly should we love the tree.
PREFACE
FEW practices in the handling of plants, especially of
fruit trees and bushes, attract so much interest as
those of pruning. The methods are so varied, the
results so diverse and the apparently contradictory
opinions of growers so tenaciously held that this subject
is always one of the surest to arouse discussion and hold
attention at horticultural society meetings and wherever
demonstrations are given by agricultural colleges and
schools and by farm bureaus.
During the past two decades the principles of plant
physiology have been more satisfactorily applied to plant
production and crop management than ever before in the
history of agriculture. Especially during the latter half
of this period have experiment station and other workers
been devoting annually increasing attention and time to
pruning investigations in their efforts to discover new
truths and to prove not only disputed and undecided
points, but to test many beliefs and rules of thumb which
have been accepted as true, but which increasing knowl-
edge of plant physiology has led these investigators to
challenge. Much has been discovered, much verified and
much disproved. But the reports of these investigations
are necessarily so scattered that very few fruit growers
have access to them, and students of agricultural col-
leges and schools, even if they know how to search, lack
the time to hunt through the libraries of their respective
institutions to find this literature. Many bulletins and
reports are out of print, so none can be had. Hence the
demand for a book which shall present the really im-
portant features of these investigations as well as set
vii
Vlll PREFACE
forth the fundamental principles based upon the laws of
plant growth.
The writings on these pruning investigations have
been quoted freely, the original investigator's own words
being used in preference to mine. This I feel simple
justice both to investigator and reader, because in any
re-statement something is sure to be lost. The reader
will herein find only slight condensations of the investi-
gators' original text. Among the writers so quoted arc :
Professors Lewis of Oregon, Biolctti of California, Blake
of New Jersey, Whitten and Chandler of Missouri, Keffer
of Tennessee, Drinkard of Virginia, Howe and Gladwin
of New York, Selby of Ohio, Newman of South Caro-
lina, and Collins of the United States Department of
Agriculture.
In the preparation of this volume I have found the
Experiment Station Record, published by the United
States Department of Agriculture, of immeasurable help
in searching for literature on pruning by means of its
abstracts and voluminous indexes. From it occasional
brief passages, mainly concerning foreign investigations,
have been copied, with credit to the original sources of
information instead of to the Record itself.
My special thanks are due to Professor W. G. Brierley
of the University of Minnesota for photographs of prun-
ing tools (Figures 107, 108, 110, 114, 116 and 118) and
the legends which accompany them; to Mr. B. F. Wil-
liamson of New York, who made almost all of the pen
and ink drawings, either from rough sketches or from the
original sources in bulletins, reports, etc. ; and to Mr.
E. T. Kirk of the Pennsylvania State College for photo-
graphs of local subjects, mostly gathered in the college
orchard and on the campus. The other photos, except
as specified under "Acknowledgments," were "snapped"
by my own camera, mainly at State College. Pa., and
developed by Mr. Kirk,
PREFACE IX
I have had too long experience in editing books and
articles to suppose that this volume is physically perfect.
I therefore request that readers kindly note any least
error and notify either the publishers or me, so that cor-
rection may be made in future editions. In the hope,
however, that these errors will be few and that the book
will meet the need of those for whom it has been written,
I commend it to all who may have occasion to use
pruning tools.
M. G. KAINS.
Port Washington, L. I.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The following individuals and institutions have sup-
plied illustrations referred to by the figure numbers
opposite their names.
Prof. W. G. Brierley, University of Minnesota at St. Paul
107, 108, 110, 114, 116, 118
California Experiment Station at Berkeley
257, 258, 265, 282 to 286, 288 to 290
Colorado Experiment Station at Fort Collins 72, 136a
Connecticut Experiment Station at Storrs
25 to 27, 209, 215, 216, 302
Cornell Experiment Station at Ithaca, N. Y.
211 to 213, 183 (redrawn by B. F. Williamson)
Prof. A. W. Cowell, Pennsylvania State College at State College,
Pa. — 95, 304, 307, 311, 312
Credit lost 24
Farmers' Bulletins of the United States Department of Agri-
culture 181, 188, 190, 248, 254 to 256, 259 to 262, 264, 266,
274, 276 to 281, 287
N. R. Graves of Rochester, N. Y. 298 to 300
Idaho Experiment Station at Moscow 75 to 77, 92, 93
Indiana Experiment Station at Lafayette
61, 73, 132 to 134, 178, 179
Iowa Experiment Station at Ames 70
E. D. Kains of Wyomissing, Pa. 64, 65, 96, 310
Kentucky Experiment Station at Lexington 269 to 273
Maryland Experiment Station at College Park 22, 102
A. F. Mason of State College, Pa. 2
Massachusetts Experiment Station at Amherst 313
Missouri Experiment Station at Columbia
98, 120, 214, 217 to 225, 294
New Jersey Experiment Station at New Brunswick
121, 122, 125, 128 to 131, 195 to 198, 200
New York Experiment Station at Geneva 74, 275
North Carolina Experiment Station at Raleigh 33
Ohio Experiment Station at Wooster 4, 315 to 324
xi
Xll
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Oregon Experiment Station at Corvallis, Frontispiece, 23, 124,
145 to 152, 154 to 177, 180, 182, 184 to 187, 189, 191 to 193,
202, 235 to 237
Rhode Island Experiment Station at Kingston__137 to 144, 240, ~'44
Tennessee Experiment Station at Knoxville 234 to 266
United States Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C.
301, 303, 305, 306, 308, :;<>'.•
Vermont Experiment Station at Burlington 71, 205 to 208
Washington Experiment Station at Pullman :.'4<
West Virginia Experiment Station at Morgantown
153, 238, 239, 242, 243, 245, 246, 250 to 253
W. R. White of State College, Pa. 96
B. F. Williamson of New York City
10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 19, 106, 109, 113, 135. 136a. 263
Wisconsin Experiment Station at Madison
11, 66, 67, 123, 127, 136, 191, ;il i
CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER I
Introduction ... .... 1
CHAPTER II
Plant Physiology as Related to Pruning ... 6
CHAPTER III
The Philosophy of Pruning . . . .34
CHAPTER IV
Buds . 48
CHAPTER V
Pruning Principles ...... 81
CHAPTER VI
How Wounds Heal 121
CHAPTER VII
Prevention and Repair of Mechanical Injuries . . 138
CHAPTER VIII
Dressings for Wounds ...... 154
CHAPTER IX
Pruning Nursery Stock . . . . . .167
CHAPTER X
Pruning Young Trees . . . . . 186
CHAPTER XI
Pruning Mature Trees 241
XIV CONTEXTS
Page
CHAPTER XII
Care of Top-Worked Trees , 274
CHAPTER XIII
Rush Fruit Pruning . . . . . .279
CHAPTER XIV
Grape Pruning and Training ..... 294
CHAPTER XV
Pruning Ornamental Trees and Shrubs . . . 354
CHAPTER XVI
Dwarf Tree Pruning and Training .... 364
CHAPTER XVII
Odd Methods of Pruning and Training . . . 371
CHAPTER XVIII
Practical Tree Surgery . .... 384
CHAPTER XIX
Rejuvenation of Neglected Trees .... 405
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. Page
Close View of Fruit Spurs of Tree — Frontispiece
1 Renovating an Old Neglected Apple Tree . 2
2 Wrongly Cut Limb with Decay Hole . . 3
3 Tree Too High-Headed .... 4
4 First Crop of Apples After Renovation of Old
Trees . . . . . . .5
5 Meristematic Cell from Root Tip of Maize . 6
6 Chlorenchyma Cell Showing Starch Grains and
Chloroplasts . . . . . 7
7 Root Hair Greatly Magnified ... 9
8 Root Tip Much Magnified .... 9
9 Rootlet Seen in Cross Section . . . 10
10 How Nursery Trees Are Dug . . .11
11 Last Year's (Black) and This Spring's (Light)
Roots; Also Buds of Spruce . . .12
12 Epidermal Cells and Stomata from a Leaf . 15
13 Three Sections of Oak Branch Showing Vari-
ous Tissues . . . . . .17
14 Cross Section of Stem . . . .19
15 Fibro-Vascular Bundle . . . .21
16 Contrasting Growths of Mazzard Cherry . 22
17 Diagram of Cut Edge of Leaf . . .23
18 Comparison of Growth . . . .24
19 Cross Section of a Leaf . . . .25
20 Side View of an Apple Seedling . . • .27
21 Seedling Apple Seen from Above . . .28
22 "Leggy" Peach Trees . . . .32
23 Result of Close Planting and Poor Pruning . 34
24 How Not to Manage Trees . . . .35
25 White Pine Plantation, Before Thinning . 37
26 White Pine Plantation After Thinning . . 38
XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. Page
27 Seedling Chestnut 103 Years Old . . . 39
28 How Branches Are Buried . . . .42
29 Apple Twigs of Various Ages . . .45
30 Dehorning with a Vengeance . . .48
31 New Growth on "Dehorned" Peach Tree . 49
32 Nothing Wrong with the Roots . . .51
33 Fruiting Habit of Fig .... 53
34 Apple Branch Estimated 20 Years Old . . 55
35 Fruiting Spurs of Apple . . . .56
36 Blooming Twig of Apple . . . .57
37 Peach Spur r>8
38 Annual Growth of Peach .... 59
39 European1 Plum 60
40 Japanese Plum . . . . .61
41 Blossom Buds of Sour Cherry . ,. .62
42 Sweet Cherry Twig in Two Sections . . 63
43 Sweet Cherry 64
44 Sour Cherry . . . . . .65
45 Four- Year Sweet Cherry Twig . . .65
46 Fruit and Leaf Buds of' Peach . . .66
47 Peach Twigs That Have Borne Fruit . . 66
48 Japanese Plum . . . . . .67
49 Currant Branches of Various Ages . . 67
50 Gooseberry Branches, Young and Old . . 68
51 Grape Cane One Year Old . . . .69
52 Red Currant Bloom Cluster . . . .71
53 Gooseberry .... .71
54 Fruiting Branch of Blackberry . . .73
55 Red Raspberry Fruiting Branch . . . 75
56 Black Raspberry Fruiting Laterals and Cane . 77
57 Characteristic Grape Shoot of a Labrusca Va-
riety . . . . . • .78
58 How Quince Bears Bloom . . . .79
59 Quince Method of Fruiting .
60 "Der End of Der Limit" in Pruning . . 82
61 The Tree Butcher's Method . . .84
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XV11
Fig. Page
62 Upright Limb Replaces Horizontal One . 84
63 Leader Renewed in Broken Tree . . .86
64 One of the Worst Foes of Trees Is the "Line
Man" 88
65 Tree's Attempt to Offset Butchering . . 88
66 Yearling Growth Cut Back . . . .90
67 How Crooked Branches Are Made . .91
68 One Way Horizontal Branches Are Killed . 93
69 Poorly "Pruned" Pear . . . . 94
70 Twenty-Year-Old Catalpa Plantation . . 96
71 Typical Pasture-Grown White Pine . . 98
72 Branches of Low-Headed Trees Tend to As-
cend at Acute Angles .... 100
73 Badly Developed Tree Head . . .104
74 Effects of Ringing Young Trees . . .108
75 Shoot Growth from Stubs Left in May . . Ill
76 Shoot Growth from Winter-Pruned Stubs . 112
77 Effects of August Pruning . . > . . 113
78 How Bark Becomes Rough by Splitting and '.
Healing 121
79 Cross Sections of White Pine (2x4) Scant-
lings Showing Branches Buried by Tissue . 122
80 Cross Section of Pine Scantling . . .123
81 Dead Limbs Being Buried .... 123
82 History of a Stub in Six Chapters . . 124
83 Hoping Still . . , . . . 125
84 More Than Three-Fourths of the Trunk Lost
by Decay and Breakage .... 125
85 Flicker's Nest . . , . 126
86 Cannon Ball in" Oak Tree • . . . . . 127
87 Heart Decaying 128
88 Cuts Made Heading-In Twigs . . .129
89 Wrong Way to Cut Off Big Limbs . . 130
90 Proper Way to Start Cutting Off Large Limb 131
91 Second Cut Properly Made in Sawing Off
Large Limbs . . . . . 132
XV111 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
F»K- Page
92 Wrong Way to Make a Cut in Removing a
Large Limb ...... 133
93 Right Way to Make Pruning Cut . . . 134
94 Sad Effects of Sleet Storm . . .135
95 Label Wire Makes Girdled Limb Bloom Pre-
maturely ...... 136
96 A Wire Girdled This Cherry Tree . . .138
97 Bench Supported by Living Tree . . . 139
98 How to Handle Young Forked Tree . . 140
99 History of a Crotch Split . . . .141
100 Triple Y-Crotch 142
101 Saving a Y-Crotch 142
102 Splitting of Peach Tree Where the Top Was
Improperly Formed with a Y-Crotch . 143
103 One Wrong' Way to Mend Y-Crotch . . 144
104 Living Wood Brace Between Trunk and Limb
of Norway Maple ..... 145
105 Well-Branched Low-Headed Peach . . 146
106 Miscellaneous Pruning Tools . . . 147
107 Pole Shears for Outside Branch Pruning . 148
108 Pole Shear Pruners, Sliding Handle Type . 149
109 Pruning Shears of Various Styles . . 15o
110 Good, Bad and Indifferent Hand Shears . . 151
111 Common Pruning Saws . . . . 152
112 Pruning Knives of Various Styles . . . 153
113 Collection of Pruning Knives . . . 154
114 Principal Styles of Double-Handled Lopping
Shears ...... 155
115 Good, Bad and Indifferent Pruning Saws .156
116 Types of Hand Saws for Tree Pruning . . 1 57
117 Students' Combination Saws . . . 15S
118 Pole Saws Are All Awkward in Use, Make
Ragged Cuts and Are Undesirable . . 159
119 Where New Roots Start . . . .168
120 Various Grades of Peach Trees . . . 169
121 Yearling Peach with Central Leader . . 170
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XIX
Fig. Page
122 After Pruning Tree in Fig. 121 . . . 170
123 How Top of Newly Set Tree May Be Pruned . 171
124 Effect of Wind on Unstaked Trees . . .172
125 Peach of Poor Form . ... . 173
126 After Pruning 173
127 Young Trees Properly Heeled in for Tem-
porary Storage ..... 174
128 Yearling Peach Before Pruning . . . 175
129 Same Tree as in Fig. 128 After Being Pruned 175
130 Undesirable Form . . . . .176
131 Desirable Form of Growth Made by Tree
Headed About 2 Feet When Set . . 176
132 Developing Tops on Second-Class Trees . . 177
133 Well-Branched Nursery Tree . . . 178
134 Where to Cut . .' . . . 179
135 How to Plant a Tree . . • . . .179
136 Air Space Among Roots of Badly Planted Tree 180
137 Tree Set Obliquely Against Wind . . 180
138 Tree Grown from Untrimmed Nursery Stock 181
138a Tree from "Stringfellowed" Roots . .181
139 Tree Grown from Stub-Pruned Roots . .182
140 Tree Grown from Untrimmed Nursery Plant . 182
141 Head on Tree Where Roots Were Cut Back . 183
142 At Planting Time the Branches Were Cut Back 183
143 Tree Grown from a "Whip" with the Leader
Left 184
144 Head Formed by "Whip" with Leader Cut Back 184
145 Badly Formed 'Tree Head .... 186
146 Main Branches Barren Because of Neglect . 187
147 Old Bartlett Fruit Spurs Which Bloom Yearly
but Seldom Bear Fruit . . . .188
148 Young Yellow Newtown Tree Before August
Pruning .189
1 49 After August Pruning Young Yellow Newtown 189
150 Vigorous Shoot Produced from Old Bartlett
Pear Spur 190
XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
I'ig. page
151 Heavy Heading Back Develops Wood . .191
152 Typical Leader Tree ..... 192
153 Three Decks of Frame Limbs . . .192
154 Modified Leader ..... 1!W
155 Modified Leader . . . . .19:]
156 Good Modified Leader . . . .193
157 Modified Leader 194
158 Example of Unequal Growth . . . 1!H
159 Good Vegetative Response from Thinning
Bartlett Pear Spurs . . . .195
160 Five- Year-Old Wagener Apple Tree . . 19(i
161 Heading Back Makes Growth . . .197
162 Good Effect of July Pruning . . . 198
163 Good Example of Proper Balance Between
Branches . . .. . . .199
164 Balanced and Unbalanced Pruning . . 200
165 Reinvigorated Top of Old Pear Tree . . 201
166 Moderate Pruning Stimulated Shoot Formation 202
167 Pear Spurs Which Have Borne Well in Pre-
vious Years ...... 203
168 Too Much Shading by Upper Branches Killed
This Twig 204
169 Abundance of Fruit Spurs in the Light . . 205
170 Partial Dehorning Failed .... 20l>
171 Heavy Pruning Makes for Wood . . . 207
172 Vigorous Growths Follow Thinning . . 208
173 Fruit Spurs Due to Good Pruning . . 209
174 Typical Five- Year Winter Nelis Pear . . 210
175 Fruit Spurs Form on Last Year's Shoots . 211
176 Five-Year Newtown Pruned . . .212
177 Five-Year Apple Pruned Previous Summer . 213
178 Well-Formed Apple Tree Head . .214
179 Splendid Distribution of Frame Branches on
Four- Year Apple Tree . . . .215
180 Far Too Many Fruit Spurs . . . .216
181 Plan of Tree at Planting Time . . .217
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXI
Fig. Page
182 Pruned Pear . .... 218
183 Fire-Blight Handling Kit . . . . 219
184 Poor Type Cherry 220
185 Three- Year Lambert Cherry Pefore Early July
Pruning ...... 221
186 Three-Year-Old Lambert Cherry Tree After
Pruning in Early July .... 221
187 Old Prune Tree After Removal of Dead Wood
and Severe Thinning of the Living Spurs . 222
188 Five-Branched Tree at end of First Season . 223
189 Neglect Following Dehorning . . . 224
190 Plan of Tree Top After One Season's Growth
in Orchard 225
191 English Walnut 225
192 Splendid Type of Low-Headed, Spreading
English Walnut ..... 226
193 Portable Brush Incinerator .... 227
194 Well Pruned and Open Headed . . .228
195 Good Yearling Peach . . . .229
196 Peach Trunk, 1 229
197 Peach Trunk, 2 230
198 One- Year Peach from Nursery . . .231
199 Good Tree Protector 231
200 One-Year Peach from Nursery . . . 232
201 Inviting Disaster .... . 241
202 Unpardonable "Pruning" . . . .242
203 Cross Section of Trunk Shown in Fig. 204 . 243
204 How Trees Bury Stubs . . . .244
205 Winter Injured Rhode Island Greening Apple
Tree Before Pruning in Early June . . 245
206 Pruned Apple . . . . . 24(>
207 August 246
208 September Showing 246
209 Healthy Pear Bark Showing Lenticels . . 247
210 Fungi Attack Injured Bark . . . .248
211 Pear Stub Admits Blight . , , .248
XX 11 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. Page
212 Blight Spread from Pruning Wound . . 249
213 Cankered Limb Showing Blight Exudations . 250
214 Frost-Killed Peach Wood Variously Handled . 2r>2
215 Winter Injury of Peach . . . 253
216 Winter Injuries ...... 254
217 Poor Growth of Peach Tree Not Pruned After
Severe Winter Injury .... 255
218 Peach Trees Cut Back with Varying Degrees
of Severity ...... 256
219 Tree Headed Back More Severely Than It
Should Be and Too Many Branches Left . 257
220 Properly Cut Back Peach ' . . . .258
221 Unsatisfactory Growth of Peach Not Pruned
Back Severely Enough After Winter Injury . 259
222 Peach in Foreground Shows Good Growth . 260
223 One Season's Growth of Eight-Year Peach . 261
224 Old Mixon Free Peach with Spreading Head . 262
225 Peach Tree with Very Dense New Growth . 263
226 Greensboro Five Years Old . . .264
227 Greensboro Peach, F,ive Years Old . . 265
228 Greensboro, Five Years Old, Not Summer
Pruned 266
229 Greensboro, Five Years Old, Pruned in August 267
230 Greensboro, Five Years Old, Pruned in July . 268
231 Five- Year Belle of Georgia Pruned in Early
June 269
232 Five- Year Belle of Georgia Not Summer-
Pruned 270
233 Greensboro Tree, Seven Years Old, Not Sum-
mer Pruned 271
234 Fourteen-Year Greensboro Summer-Pruned . 272
235 New Growth on Top- Worked Apple . . 275
236 One Season's Growth on Top- Worked Apple . 276
237 New Growth at End of Second Season on Top-
Worked Apple Tree . . . .277
238 Red Raspberry Canes Before Pruning . . 280
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XX111
Fig. Page
239 Red Raspberry Canes After Pruning . . 281
240 Bramble Canes in Position for Covering with
Earth for the Winter . . . .282
241 Red Raspberry Cane Improperly Pruned . 283
242 Black Raspberry Before Pruning . . .284
243 Black Raspberry After Pruning . . .285
244 Loganberry Plants with Fruiting Canes Sup-
ported on Wire Trellis . . . .286
245 Blackberry Canes Before Pruning . . 287
246 Blackberry Canes After Pruning . . .288
247 Styles of Bramble Cane Supports . . .289
248 Popular Styles of Blackberry Training . . 290
249 Blackberry Cane and Main Branch . . 291
250 Unpruned Currant Planted One Year . . 292
251 One- Year Planted Currant, Pruned Same as
Fig. 250 292
252 Gooseberry Before Pruning . . .293
253 Gooseberry After Pruning .... 294
254 Vines Growing in Vineyard the First Year . 295
255 Grapevine Showing Method of Pruning Roots
Ready for Planting . . . .296
256 Rotundifolia (Muscadine) . . . .297
257 Unit of Short Pruning . . . .298
258 Unit of Long Pruning of Grapevine . . 299
259 Vines Headed Back for Various Systems of
Pruning 300
260 Pruned and Unpruned Vine at Various Stages
of the Renewal System . . . .301
261 Umbrella Trellis .... . 302
262 Fan System, Vine at Various Ages . . 303
263 Wire Hook for Holding Vine to Trellis . . 304
264 Post and Stake Methods of Grape Training . 305
265 Head Pruning: Fan-Shaped Head, Fruit
Canes Tied to Horizontal Trellis . . 306
266 Diagram of Ordinary Trellis . , .307
XXIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1- ig. Page
267 Recurving the Canes as in the Fan System
Usually Tends to Promote Fruitfulness . 3','8
268 Unpruned Vine Trained According to the Fan
System 311
269 The Kniffin System. Before Pruning Grapevine 314
270 The Kniffin System of Training the Vine
Shown in Fig. 271 315
271 End of Munson Row . . . . .317
272 Munson System of Training, Vine Unpruned . 31 cS
273 Munson System of Grape Training . . 31!)
274 Pruned and Unpruned Vine, "Umbrella"
Kniffin System . . . . .321
275 Various Methods of Vine Pruning Popular in
New York 322
276 Vine in Its Fourth Year .... 32.1
277 Hudson Horizontal System . . . I'M
278 Caywood System of Grape Training . . 327
279 Parrales System of Training Vines . . 328
280 Muscadine (Rotundifolia) Grapevine . . 32!)
281 Cross-Wire System Showing Pruned Vine . 330
282 Sultanina Vine Showing Effect of Tying Fruit
Canes in Vertical Position . . . 333
283 Rooted Vine Pruned . . 33ti
284 Treatment of an Average Vine During Second
Season ....... 338
285 Grape Spur 340
286 Three-Year-Old Vines After Pruning .
287 Grapevines of Various Ages . . . 343
288 Forms of Grapevine Head Training . 345
289 Treatment of Average Vine in Third Season or
Vigorous One in Second .... 347
290 Forms of Head Pruning of Grapes . 349
291 Horse Chestnut Co-Terminal Bloom Bud Ex-
panding .... . 356
292 Shade Tree Headed Too Low . . .357
293 Huge Wound Well Made . , . .358
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXV
Fig. Page
294 How to Force Peach Buds to Determine Their
Condition ...... 359
295 Golden Bell— Forsythia . . . .360
296 Co-Terminal Method of Bloom Bearing—
Weigelia 361
297 Red Bud 362
298 Dwarf Fruit Trees Artistically Handled in
Amateur Garden ..... 372
299 Dwarf Pear Trees Trained in Simple Way . 374
300 Peach and Pear Trees Trained to Wire Trellis 376
301 Treated Injuries Normally Heal . . . 382
302 Mutilated to Lay a Curb . . . .383
303 Cement Fillings and Guy Chain Attachment . 385
304 Good Healing Over Properly Placed Bolt Head 387
305 Long Cavities Excavated Through Several
Openings ...... 388
306 Excavated, Bolted and Cemented Cavities . 390
307 How Not to Cover a Cavity with Concrete . 392
308 Cement Filling Types and Successive Steps . 393
309 Proper Method of Fastening Guv Chains and
Bolts . . . .,-.;'. .395
310 Isn't This Ghastly? 397
311 Roping a Tree Preparatory to Bolting . . 398
312 Students at Work in Tree Surgery . . 399
313 Methods of Fastening Wires to Trees . . 404
314 Neglected Tree Hard to Spray and Harvest . 405
315 Old Peach Tree Before Rejuvenation . . 406
316 Old Peach After Cutting Back Severely . . 407
317 Old Peach Tree Rejuvenated . . .407
318 Orchard Before Renewal or Renovation . . 408
319 Caught Red Handed ! . . . . . 409
320 Trees After Cutting 410
321 First Season's Growth After Pruning . . 411
322 Isolated Apple Tree Before Pruning . . 412
323 Isolated Apple Tree After Being Pruned . 413
324 Same Tree as in Fig. 323 the Summer After f 414
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1. Pruning defined. — Pruning is the horticultural
process of cutting off excess or undesirable living,
dying or dead branches, twigs, roots or other plant parts,
especially of fruit trees, vines and shrubs, to benefit the
parts that remain. It naturally divides into three classes,
dependent upon the aim of the pruner ; namely : 1, prun-
ing for profit, as in the case of fruit trees and bushes, the
object being to secure finer or more specimens ; 2, pruning
for ornament, in which case the form of the specimen is
altered for a real or a fancied improvement ; 3, pruning to
save the life of the specimen — repair pruning or tree
surgery, as it is today popularly called. In the present
volume the main object is pruning for profit, but the
principles and the practice underlying the other two
classes are discussed, so the reader may have a good gen-
eral or working knowledge of each.
The practice, which is as old as human history, is re-
ferred to specifically in Leviticus (xxv, 3, 4), in which
the children of Israel are told to prune their vineyards and
gather the fruit during six years, but in the seventh year
to let the vines go unpruned. In five other passages in
the old Testament figurative reference is also made to
pruning and "pruning hooks." In spite of the ancient
origin of the practices and the efforts of many investi-
gators during the intervening centuries, we have by no
means reached the limit of knowledge, but can claim to
have discovered and demonstrated only a few important
principles and useful practices. These are, however,
understood by comparatively few of the people who grow
plants, and even by many of the self-called pruning ex-
l
2 ccj , RRHJ;CIP(LEo AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
pcrts, as evidenced by the ill effects observed in countless
fruit and shade trees and illustrated by many of the half-
tones shown in this volume.
FIG. 1— RENOVATING AN OLD, NEGLECTED APPLE TREE
Notice the upright growths which started as water sprouts, but which have de-
veloped into fruiting branches with many short and stubby fruit spurs.
Pruning demands knowledge of plant physiology. Un-
less the pruner has at least a working knowledge of how
plants grow he will be unable to prune intelligently to
secure desired results. On the contrary, he may, and
probably will, do far more immediate or ultimate harm
than good. Simply to top off limbs with an ax (Fig. 61)
or improperly to remove others with a saw (Fig. 201) is
not pruning, but usually a species of tree butchery or
vivisection ; for the tree is almost sure to suffer and
sooner or later die from the effects. Again, without hav-
ing a definite, desired end and intelligently working within
the scope of the underlying physiological principles, the
specimen treated may develop nothing but disease, death,
INTRODUCTION
decay and disappointment. Therefore, a sketch of plant
physiology as it bears upon pruning is given so the reader
may better understand the reasons for the pruning prin-
ciples and practices which follow in subsequent chapters.
2. Pruning systems and ideals. — With every kind of
fruit, even the strawberry, there are various systems and
ideals of pruning and training. These, so far as the
woody fruit plants are
concerned, differ
mainly in the form
which it is designed to
give the plant and in
the management of the
annual growths. Some
differences are due to
variations among the
varieties or species,
others to the aims
sought, still others to
the environmental con-
ditions or the fashion
of the locality, and
many are merely a
matter of the grower's
whim or caprice
(Chapter XVII). Un-
questionably the best
system is that which is
most nearly and readily
adapted to the condi-
tions in the individual
plantation. Whatever the system, unless it considers
the nature of the plant to be pruned, it is faulty, to say
the least.
In no branch of horticultural work is it more important
for the operator to have a clear mental picture or ideal
FIG. 2— WRONGLY CUT LIMB WITH
DECAY HOLE
The dog has chased a squirrel up in the tree
and has jumped up to his present position.
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
for which to strive as in pruning. Fruit plants are so
open to accidents of cultivation, storm, disease and insect
attack that it is often impossible to secure, much less
maintain, an absolutely ideal specimen, yet the ideal fruit
plant, each for its variety or species, must be held tena-
ciously in the pruner's mind, or
his mechanical skill will count
for naught, and the plants he
prunes will necessarily be un-
even in appearance, develop-
ment, prolificacy or some other
important point or points.
With a clear ideal constantly
held while at work he may
constantly approach even ap-
proximate realization of his de-
sires, and will be able to
counteract undesirable ten-
dencies and to direct the ener-
gies of the plant in the right
direction. With no plants is
this more important than with
young ones. This fact is well
illustrated by many popular
proverbs ; for instance, "As
the twig is bent, so the tree in-
clines."
3. Defective pruning may result in one or more of four
general classes of undesirable ways: 1. The average
annual crop may be. small because of insufficient fruit
buds, delayed bearing, irregularity of development, or
imperfect utilization of vigor. 2. The quality of the fruit
may be inferior because of over-bearing, especially of
weak plants, irregular distribution of the fruit, and con-
sequently more or less irregular ripening and injurious
contact of the fruits with each other, with twigs, branches
FIG. 3— TREE TOO HIGH-
HEADED
. This man is 5 feet 10 inches
tall. He is reaching over 7 feet.
Note also that branches start
mainly from one point — unde-
sirable.
INTRODUCTION
of the plants bearing them, with the soil or other objects.
3. Shortened life of the plants because of pruning and
other wounds, growth of water sprouts and suckers, or
to occasional or periodical over-bearing. 4. Excessive
cost of plantation maintenance — tillage practices, prun-
ing and thinning, pest control or harvesting and grading.
FIG. 4— FIRST CROP OF APPLES AFTER RENOVATION OF OLD TREES
CHAPTER IT
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO
PRUNING
4. Plant cells and their functions. — Knowledge of the
"living- machinery" upon which fruit and ornamental
plant growers depend for profit or beauty depends pri-
marily upon knowledge of the minute structure and the
functions of plant cells. It is not necessary in the present
discussion, however, to go into the
matter as deeply as does the plant
physiologist, even though in prac-
tically all physiological processes
plant cells form "the important sub-
stratum of all vital activity."
5. Cell. — "One of the structural
elements of living bodies, by which
the multiplication of growth is
affected. In plants the cell usually
appears as a closed sac surrounded
by a firm wall of cellulose and con-
taining the essential element, proto-
plasm, and usually a nucleus, the active agent in cell-
division" (Crozier).
6. Protoplasm. — "The viscid, contractile, semi-liquid,
more or less granular substance that forms the principal
portion of an animal or vegetable cell" (Standard Dic-
tionary). "The physical basis of life" (Huxley).
7. The water supply has much to do with the activities
of protoplasm and cells and the organisms wrhich these
compose. Unquestionably it more definitely sets the
bounds of plant growth as to habitats, localities and re-
gions than does any other environmental, physical factor;
for, unless the plant can secure a sufficient and practically
6
FIG. 5
MERISTEMATIC CELL
FROM ROOT TIP OF
MAIZE
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING
constant supply of water during its growing season, the
soil, however rich in plant food, might as well be sterile.
Succulent plants and plant tissues in active growth con-
tain relatively little fiber, mineral and other solid material,
but 75 per cent or more of water.
Thick-walled, protective and woody
tissues contain relatively less, as
may also the succulent parts during
periods of drouths.
8. Dual function of water. — Water
acts in the double capacity of (1) a
plant food solvent and transporting
agent, and (2) a crude plant food
itself, as in the manufacture of
starches, sugars, cellulose, etc. Dur-
ing the growing period, therefore,
ordinary plants must be in constant
touch with water in greater or lesser
supply. Their forms, functions and
development are also affected by the
volume, the distribution and the min-
eral content of the available water.
Water maintains rigidity in succulent plants and in
those growing parts whose cells have not become firm
enough to maintain their normal form when the supply
of water becomes reduced. This function produces what
is termed hydrostatic rigidity, since it enables succulent
plants to support considerable weights of branches and
other plant parts. Should the water supply become re-
duced, such plants would droop or wilt more or less seri-
ously. Hence, ample water is a prime requisite of suc-
cessful development. The supply may be reduced by
other means than simply lack of water in the soil.
"Booth reports an instance in which peaches on Marianna plum
stocks grew fairly' well for two years, though from the start the
peaches grew more rapidly than the plums, so the peach trunks were
at two years twice as large at the union as below. During the
second season the weather was very hot and dry, and the peach trees,
FIG. 6
CHLORENCHYMA CELL
SHOWING STARCH
GRAINS AND
CHLOROPLASTS
8 I'klMII'LKS AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
after wilting for several days, but reviving during the night, finally
dried out and died, evidently because sufficient moisture was n»t
furnished by the slow-growing Marianna roots to meet the demand
from the peach leaves during a period of excessive transpiration." *
9. Water is absorbed by the root system of the great
majority of higher plants, especially those used in agri-'
culture and horticulture. This system is of various forms,
textures and distributions in the soil, but these differences
are not necessarily linked with noticeable differences in
the quantities of available water. Root systems may be
divided into two general classes, namely: (1) The tap-
root style, which penetrates the soil more or less vertically
downward (parsnip, hickory), with branch roots de-
veloped at irregular intervals; (2) the fibrous-root style,
which reveals little, if any, main root axis, but has many
more or less uniformly sized small roots starting from
near the base of the stem (wheat, currant).
10. Root hairs and their function. — Roots and rootlets,
no matter how minutely they divide, are both the hold-
fast organs whereby plants maintain their positions in the
soil, and the pipe lines whereby the upper parts of plants
are supplied with water taken from the soil. Neverthe-
less they are of secondary importance to the root hairs
with respect to the water supply. The root hairs are
single cells which push out from the epidermis of rootlets,
not at the immediate and elongating tip, but just in the
rear of this part, an area that has ceased to extend, but
has not developed thick or hard-walled epidermal cells.
Their function is to secure water and crude plant food—
mainly of a mineral nature — from the soil. Always they
occupy positions within a few inches of the extreme tips
of the rootlets. As the tips push forward new root hairs
are formed in front of the older ones and the oldest dis-
appear, to be replaced by thicker-walled tissues incapable
of absorbing either water or mineral matter from the soil.
Root hairs can be easily studied by sprouting seeds and
* Kims. Plant Propagation, Greenhouse and Nursery Practice, Page 189.
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING
allowing the seedlings to grow a few days between sheets
of white blotting paper. When so grown they are more
or less straight, but when grown in the soil they are
much contorted because of the contact of soil particles.
11. Root hairs are usually most numerous on plants
growing in soil that is dry, and least in that which is
saturated with water. Also, when the waier supply de-
FIG. 7— ROOT
HAIR GREATLY
MAGNIFIED
FIG. 8— ROOT TIP MUCH
MAGNIFIED
a, epidermis; b, cortex; c, pie-
rome; d, root cap.
minishes they become more numerous ; and when it be-
comes wet, less abundant. Plants grown in wet soil and
then transplanted to soil much drier will suffer severely
unless watered. Often they will die because they cannot
develop root hairs fast enough to supply the loss of mois-
ture by transpiration from the leaves.
This finds a specially important application in the prun-
ing of nursery stock at transplanting time ; the tops of
the plants must be cut back to balance the unavoidable
loss of roots due to digging. (Chapter IX.) It may be
proved very simply by the following experiment : Sow
some cabbage or lettuce seeds in a flat filled with soil of
uniform quality. When the plants have two or three
leaves and are large enough to prick out, divide the most
10
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNfxG
uniform ones into three groups and transplant in flats
filled with soil also of uniform quality. Keep the plants
of one set very moist, those in another set very dry and
those in the third set moderately moist. In three or four
weeks transplant the plants to the open ground, treating
those of each lot in
three ways, thus :
Transplant some with
the least possible less
of any parts, others
after removing 75 per
cent of the leaf sur-
face and the third lot
after the destruction
of about half the root
and the leaf area. If
the open ground con-
ditions are fairly uni-
form, it will usually
be found that the
plants kept wet in the
flat will suffer most,
those kept dry least.
and those deprived of
considerable leaf sur-
face in each lot will
suffer less than those
from which none of the leaf area is removed. Don't
BELIEVE this statement simply because it is printed in
this book. Try it. Prove it. Then you will understand
why nursery stock should have the tops cut back to bal-
ance the loss of root digging.
12. The extent of the root system is usually greater in
agricultural plants than that of the trunk, branches and
leaves combined. Thus the plants are able to draw
water from an enormous area of soil particles, prop..r-
FIG. 9— ROOTLET SEEN IN CROSS SECTION
a, xylem and phloem; b, central cylinder; c,
endodermis; d, cortex; e, root hairs.
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING
11
if.
tionately the greater as the fineness of the particles and
the quantity of organic matter in the soil increase. An idea
of the extent of the root systems of cultivated plants
may be gained from the statement that a full-grown sun-
flower will fill almost a full cubic yard of soil with its
root system. Such an enormous water-absorbing area is
necessary because other
parts of the plant (in agri-
cultural plants, at least,)
are not fitted or at best are
poorly fitted for absorbing
water.
Even leaves which are
supposed to absorb water
when wilted by rain and
dew are much less able to
do this than is popularly
supposed. Yes, leaves
wilted by hot weather
quickly become turgid after
a shower, but this is far less
due to the water on sur-
faces than to the reduction
of transpiration in the
cooler, moister air and to
the increased supply of
water which the roots can
draw upon. Leaves of some
plants, however, are able to
take up water much more
readily than others, but
these are such as do not
jt , . , Dotted line shows diagrammatically
Concern the SUDject OI where roots are cut; a, what the pur-
run in cr chaser gets; b, what is left in the soil.
13. Osmosis and diffusion of water account for passage
of water from the soil through the root hairs and upward
FIG. 10— HOW NURSERY TREES
ARE DUG
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING 13
in plants. The movements are due to the tendency of
liquids of different densities to equalize, the weaker mov-
ing toward and diluting the stronger, and vice versa. Root
hairs contain cell sap, which, besides protoplasm, con-
tains also usually a stronger solution of salts than does
the soil water. Hence the flow of water is from the soil
through the root-hair wall and from the root hairs to
other cells more and more remote from the water-absorb-
ing surfaces — the interior cells of the roots, the stems,
the leaves, etc.
The effect of this flow or hydrostatic pressure, called
turgor, is the principal cause of normal stiffness of succu-
lent vegetative parts of plants. Its opposite effect (wilt-
ing or plasmolysis) may be due to lack of sufficient water
to maintain turgor or to a soil water solution stronger
than that in the plant tissues, the result in this latter
case being the passage of water from the plant into the
soil water. So far as pruning is concerned, the strength
of the solution is of minor importance, but unless there
is an inflow of water from the soil to the roots sufficient
to maintain transpiration, wilting will be a more or less
serious phenomenon, in some cases even resulting in
death.
14. Root or sap pressure is the term given to the os-
motic power of the roots. It may be observed when
transpiration is not too rapid to offset its effects. The
most common phenomenon which proves this sap pres-
sure is the so-called "bleeding" of grapevines, maples,
box elders, birches and other plants cut in spring about
the time that growth normally starts. If the cutting is
done earlier the adjacent cells become dry and shriveled
so the sap cannot exude. In other cases the wounded
surfaces may develop corky layers, may become clogged
with glutinous or solid material, or special growths
(tyloses) which come from adjacent cells and clog those
cells or tubes from which the major part of the bleeding
14 PRINCIPLES AXD PRACTICE OF PRUNING
occurs. It may be said, parenthetically, that this bleeding
may produce ill effects instanced as follows :
15. Vine bleeding. — C. C. Newman has demonstrated
the evil effect of late spring pruning of muscadine grape-
vines.*
Two vines growing side by side were pruned, one November 15
and the other February 15. The vine pruned in November did not
bleed at all as the spring advanced and produced a wonderful crop
of fine fruit. The vine pruned in February began to bleed as soon
as the weather turned warm, slowly at first, but bleeding more
freely as the spring advanced. Drops of sap could be seen steadily
dripping from the end of each vine that had been cut. The vine
pruned in February was 10 days later in putting out leaves than the
one pruned in November. The growth was very feeble and it set
very little fruit, most of the canes dying during the summer.
To form some idea as to the amount of sap that would flow from
a vine that had been pruned too late in the season, a third vine was
pruned in November, and on March 20 one cane, 1A inch in di-
ameter, was cut on the same vine and a rubber tube fastened over
it so as to conduct the sap to a large glass jug, the mouth of which
was closed with a cork, through which the rubber tube passed. The
vine began to bleed freely from the cane cut March 20, but the canes
cut in November did not bleed at all. A careful record was kept
of the sap collected, and in four weeks from the time the cane began
to bleed, 23 pounds of sap had been collected from this one cane.
The loss of sap through this cane affected the entire vine, and its
growth was checked considerably.
16. Transpiration is the passage into the air of water
in vapor form from leaves and other green and growing
parts of plants. Thus a very great part of the water ab-
sorbed by the root hairs finds its way into the air. Cer-
tain plants (eucalyptus trees), because of their ability to
transpire immense quantities of water, are used to re-
move excess water from soils that cannot readily be
drained in any other way. As instances among agricul-
tural plants it may be mentioned that experiments with a
little tree have shown that (proportionately) an apple tree
30 years old would probably transpire 250 pounds of
water a day, or about 20 tons during the growing season.
At this rate an apple orchard with trees set 40 x 40 feet — -
* S. C. Bulletin 132, Page 7.
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING 15
27 trees to the acre — would transpire 540 tons in a season !
Such facts, estimations and deductions as these indicate
the importance of water conservation in trees and shrubs
by pruning and in the soil by cultural practices.
17. The transpiration apparatus. — Water escapes from
plant tissue into the air mainly through minute openings
(stomata) in the epidermis of
leaves and growing shoots.
Lenticels in the bark of older
shoots and branches perform a
similar function. Some water
may also escape more or less di-
rectly through the epidermis of
delicate and very young leaves
and shoots before the cutiniza- FjQ 12_EPIDERMAI CELLS
tion of this epidermis. AND STOMATA FROM A LEAF
18. Stomata (singular, stoma). — "Openings in the epi-
dermis of plants for the admission of air and the libera-
tion of water; breathing pore" (Crozier).
19. How stomata operate. — Stomata are doors through
the epidermis to the chambers and contorted corridors
which constitute the aerating, intercellular spaces of leaf
and other green tissue. They open and close according
to the intricate action of growth factors, which operate
mostly in the tissues, though external factors — light, tem-
perature, motion and humidity of the air, water content
of the soil, etc. — may also operate to a greater or lesser ex-
tent. Since the protoplasm in every cell of the transpir-
ing tissue is rich in water, and since every cell borders an
intercellular space, the air in the intercellular parts be-
comes heavy with water vapor. When the stomata are
open and the external air conditions favor it, the outward
passage of this water-saturated air is rapid. Plants in
nature check transpiration in many ways, such as de-
velopment of hairs or wax on their cuticles, by thickened
cuticles, placing their stomata in cavities, reducing the
16 I'kIXt Il'l.KS AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
number of stomata in given areas, developing water-hold-
ing tissues, reducing the amount of surface exposed to
the air, and so on. Artificially, transpiration may be re-
duced by preventing the development of excessive leaf
area, as when nitrogenous plant food is withheld, and by
pruning off unnecessary branches and twigs and even in-
dividual leaves.
Instances of water loss effects during dry spells are the
wilting and drying up of certain herbaceous annuals, the
premature defoliation of deciduous perennials, the partial
or total defoliation of fruit trees followed by the- develop-
ment of new growth subsequent to a wet spell in early
autumn. Such instances indicate that short water supply
during the growing season tends to maturity of all parts,
especially fruits and seeds, the former of which are often
altered in texture and even chemical composition.
20. Transportation of water and plant food. — In all
plants with which this volume deals there are "vessels"
or conduits which greatly facilitate the transpiration of
liquids. These are of two classes. (1) Some of these,
the large and numerous xylem vessels (25) on the inner
side of the cambium, lead from the water-absorbing areas
to the transpiring areas. Through them the greater part
of the copious "transpiration stream" ascends. From
them also more or less water diffuses to cells which need
it, and which have enough tension to draw it. This
stream also carries mineral nutrients from part to part
upward. (2) Other of these vessels (sieve tubes), smaller
ones than those just mentioned, are outside the cambium.
They lead from the chlorophyll-containing parts of the
water-transpiring areas to all regions of the plant where
growth and food storage 'are taking place and pass by
diffusion through the cell walls where such activities are
occurring. These smaller conduits carry the "elaborated"
plant foods made from water and carbon dioxide in the
process of photosynthesis (29).
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING
17
In the first case the sap will continue to ascend for a
considerable time after the stem has been girdled ; in the
second the stem will increase considerably in girth, the
process requiring several weeks or months, dependent
upon the kind of plant, the size of the stem and other
factors. The following instances will prove interesting
at this oint.
FIG. 13— THREE SECTIONS OF OAK BRANCH SHOWING VARIOUS TISSUES
Upper surface, cross section; front face (from / to middle) longitudinal section;
extreme left, tangential section showing ends of medullary rays; left center, cross
section showing medullary ray; a, cortex; fc, bast; c, cambium; d, spring-formed
wood; e, autumn-formed wood of previous year; /, lenticel.
21. Tenacity of life in trees.— The fact that the course of the
crude sap in exogenous plants is upward through the sap-wood is
well illustrated by the tenacity of life in trees that have heen de-
prived of their bark completely around their trunks to considerable
heights. For instance, trees are often girdled by mice and rabbits
to a height of several inches or even a foot, so that it is thought
necessary to resort to bridge or repair grafting (128) to help the
healing process. More remarkable, however, is the instance re-
corded by I. Simpson in the Gardeners' Chronicle — the peeling of
standing oaks to the height of 20 to 40 feet and the subsequent leaf-
ing out of these trees and the continuance of these leaves even to
the end of the season.
18 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
The reasons for the peeling practice are that timber merchants
believe timber so peeled keeps in better condition than when peeled
after felling. It costs much more to peel the trees standing than
felled. Peeling begins as soon as the sap begins to rise, and is
continued till the trees come into leaf, when the bark cannot be de-
tached. Many of the trees are completely stripped of their bark
from bottom to top, except the topmost branches, yet large un-
barked tops continue to swell their buds and come into full leaf,
while the peeled trunks up to the heads are barkless and apparently
as dry as a board for perhaps 20 to 40 feet below. On some of the
trees the leaves fade before the summer is over, but on others they
continue till the end of the season.
Cases similar to these came under the writer's observation at the
close of the Spanish-American war, when 450 U. S. army mules
were turned loose at Washington on the "Potomac Flats," where
they stripped the bark as high as they could reach from about 100
Carolina poplars. The trees continued green till the close of the
season, but, with a few notable exceptions, failed to leaf out the
following spring. These exceptions all had retained strips of un-
injured bark from base to branches in positions beyond the reach
of the mules so that food elaborated by the leaves could return to
the roots and thus maintain the life of the trees.
In the orchard of the author's boyhood an Onondaga pear tree
through some accident became "barked" from the ground to the
first branches and for fully three-fourths of its girth, yet it bore
excellent fruit for many years thereafter.
22. The reason why. — In commenting on such cases as these A. C.
Forbes in a later issue of the Gardeners' Chronicle says in sub-
stance : The partial development of the annual shoots in trees de-
prived of their bark is only one of several interesting facts to be
seen in trees in a more or less unnatural condition. The growth of
the shoots on the barked trees is in no way more remarkable than
it would be had the bark remained on.
The generally accepted view of tree growth is that the watery
sap rises through the outer rings of the stem into the leaves, there
becomes greatly changed, and passes from the leaves through special
vessels in the bast or inner bark downward to the cambium and
other growing and storage tissues. The removal of the bark, there-
fore, if not carried too far, does not interfere directly with the
growth and support of the leaves but prevents the food which they
prepare being put to its proper use by the destruction of the down-
ward conducting channels and the cambium layer. The continuation
of growth in the annual shoots under such circumstances depends
upon the capability of the stem to retain its water-conducting power,
and the amount of reserve material contained in the roots, which are
thus enabled to carry on their absorptive functions.
In the case of trees barked up to their smallest branches and
twigs, the water-conducting power of the upper parts of the stem
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING
19
is soon lost, or reduced below the needs of the leaves, • owing to
outer influences, such as sun and wind carrying off most of the sap
by evaporation before it reaches the grow-
ing shoots. Where large branches are ringed
at their bases, however, so that at least
a part of the bark of the crown remains
connected with the roots, their growth
proceeds for many years with little or no
decrease of vigor or health and ceases
only when the decay of the barked portion
cuts off the supply of sap.
The growth of the roots of trees
barked at the surface of the ground usu-
ally continues for one or two years after
barking, though whether this is due en-
tirely to the store of reserve materials in
the fleshy part of the cortical tissue, or
partly to root grafting from neighboring
trees, it is difficult to say.
According to some authorities, the r:se
of sap is confined to one or two-year-ol 1
rings in certain species, while in others as
many as five or six are concerned in the
business. In the latter the sap ascent
would probably be continued for s?veral
years longer than in the former, • -hile the
resistance offered by the wood to de jay-
would also exercise its influence. In resi-
nous conifers the saturation of the wood
on the outside of the barked stem with
resin, which occurs when the cells and
cell-walls lose their water, acts as a pro-
tection against the cracking and drying of
the stem by atmospheric conditions, and
its infection by fungi.
23. Felled trees develop sprouts.— An-
other interesting feature of the vitality of
woody tissue is the throwing out of ad-
ventitious shoots or "water-branches" by
the tree trunks felled in winter and left
lying with the bark on. Elm, oak, poplar,
willow, etc., on damp ground, continue
growing in this way for two or three
years, and the dwarf shoots on young
larch stems and branches left on the
ground also develop and keep green for a
month or two. Of course such growths
are dependent entirely upon the reserve
FIG. 14— CROSS SECTION
OF STEM
This microphotograph
shows how the stem of a
tuIiT tree (Liriodendron tu-
lipifera) looks. Notice the
arcs of the annular rings, the
spoke-like medullary rays,
th<: bark (below) and the pith
(above). This stem is four
years old.
20 I'KLXC'iri.KS AND PUACTICK OK 1'KTXIXG
materials in the sap-wood and the inner bark. The increase in the
wood ring, which accompanies them, is almost nil. These growths,
however, are of economic importance, since they are the means of
removing the starchy compounds from the timber — compounds which
indirectly do much to hasten decay. It may be that the reputation
of winter-felled timber is partly due to this fact.
24. "Phloem, that portion of a fibro-vascular bundle in
plants containing the bast and sieve tissue. Tn exogens
it is always sharply defined from the remaining portion
(xylem, 25) by a layer of cambium. The inner bark is
derived from the phloem, the wood from the xylem. The
elaborated plant food from the leaves passes down and
is distributed by the phloem.
25. "Xylem, or woody portion of a fibro-vascular
bundle which contains the larger continuous air-holding
vessels and the walls of whose cells are often thickened
and lignificd. The xylem is separated from the phloem
by the cambium, when there is any, and it usually oc-
cupies the«side of the bundle toward the center of the
stem. Water with the mineral compounds in solution
passes up through the xylem to the leaves." *
26. Fibro-vascular bundles. — The conducting tissue
discussed above is arranged in fibro-vascular bundles.
In monocotyledonous plants (sorghum, corn) these bundles
are distributed irregularly through softer tissue (paren-
chyma). Because of this irregular distribution, and also
because there is no cambium within the bundles, mono-
cotyledonous plants usually have neither true bark, cambium
rings nor annual rings of wood. In dicotyledonous plants,
on the other hand, the fibro-vascular bundles have a cam-
bium which separates the xylem from the phloem. Tn
dicotyledonous plants, which form a wood-ring, the primary
tissue of the bundles forms a layer in which the outer
part contains the phloem and the inner the xylem. Since
the cambium is between these two sets of tissue, new
xylem and phloem are developed as growth proceeds ;
* Kains, Plant Propagation, Greenhoure anJ Nursery Practice, Page 146.
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING
21
and, as the tissues become old, they gradually cease to
function in water and food conduction. Thus in trees
and shrubs the interior tissues serve only to strengthen
the stems. In other words, the "heart wood" is dead.
The earliest formed of the vascular bundles are ar-
ranged in a more or less circular series ; those formed
later are developed from the cambium between them.
Ultimately such large numbers of these bundles may be
formed that in woody and semi-woody dicotyledonous plants
they may form a cylinder of wood, though the indi-
vidual bundles may be partially or wholly separated from
each other by thin plates of wood called medullary rays
FIG. 15— FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLE
A, cross section, phloem showing sieve tubes, a, companion cell, e, scleren-
chyma and g, parenchyma, b, xylem, c, showing vessels, d, between the two cam-
bium, /; B, longitudinal section. Outside cells parenchyma. Letters in A apply to
various tissues.
(Fig. 14). Since the cambium in such plants produces
new xylem on its interior, it is steadily moved annually
or seasonally farther outward from the center of the
stem ; since new phloem is developed on the outer side
of the cambium, both the wood and the bark increase in
thickness and the stems, as a whole, increase in girth ;
and since the xylem developed in the early part of the
season is thinner walled than that produced later when
growth is not so active, the characteristic annual or
annular rings so readily seen in cross sections of dicoty-
ledonous woody plants are formed.
22
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
27. Leaf venation. — As has been stated, the xylem
parts of the vascular bundles lead from the absorbing
areas of the roots to the transpiring areas, and the phloem
parts from the transpiring areas to parts where growth
FIG. 16— CONTRASTING GROWTHS OF MAZZARD CHERRY
The specimen at the left shows one year's growth in a thicket where the tree
"pulled" for light. The two lowest branches and a little stub are dead. The
middle specimen is the upper part of the first, three years old at its base. Note
how it continued to extend until it reached favorable light, where it developed
branches. The specimen on the right is as old as the middle piece — three years.
Note how much shorter and how much more branchy it is. It grew in the open
ground, where it had no competitors except grass for light and air.
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS KELATED TO PRUNING
23
or storage is occurring. It remains only to be mentioned
that each rootlet and each leaf are more or less directly
connected by vascular bundles in more or less definite
number, depending upon the species. In leaves these
bundles constitute the "ribs" or veins which serve both
as conduits and as stiffcners of tlje leaves themselves.
28. Chlorophyll, the green coloring matter of plants,
is the most intimate link which bindslifetothesun. Itisthe
laboratory in which is made the^&arth's supply of organic
matter, including all fuel. THough sometimes obscured
Fatisade ^arench
FIG. 17— DIAGRAM OF CUT EDGE OF LEAF
Note the various tissues. (After Stevens, Plant Anatomy.)
by other colors, it is characteristic of all higher plants,
algae and mosses, but is; absent in fungi. Plants contain-
ing it may grow in partial shade or in the full glare of the
sun, but never in total darkness. The relation of light to
chlorophyll is clearly indicated by the sizes and forms
of the leaf blades, the arrangement of leaves upon their
no
»eae two apple tree* are the same age thror
« In. \\ >;r«>\v in the o| •• r-ut ttiai
t and
c o( In. k ol liKt'^ - it^ v«ri<>ti«! nature and proKiMx shonjj root
haa "p""'1'1 - l'Rh»- Note the diffciTnk-«> in nmurrr ol bi .•.
1'I.AXT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING
25
branches and the arrangement of the branches (Fig. 20).
Plants growing alone in the open develop leaves uni-
formly on all sides (Fig. 20), those growing in groups
lack leaves where other plants compete with them for
light (Figs. 18, 22, 23). The same is true of branches and
twigs in trees. Hence the importance of pruning so as
to admit ample light to supply leaves on the interior twigs
and branches of trees and shrubs ; for when such parts
are poorly lighted they cannot function properly. In
many cases — for instance, interior twigs on young (three
to five-year-old) peach trees improperly pruned — they die
for lack of light.
29. Photosynthesis is the process whereby the chloro-
phyll is able, in the presence of light, to construct organic
foods from the crude materials contained in the soil
water and the air. Though
light, carbon dioxide and
water are essential, the proc-
ess is influenced by tempera-
ture and other factors unnec-
essary to discuss. The intensity
and the quality of light bear
a more or less complex rela-
tion to food manufacture.
When the temperature is fa-
vorable, the capacity of plants
to produce finished plant food FIG. 19— CROSS SECTION OF A
is proportional to the in- Uppcr and ^ epidermis with
tensitV Of the light Up tO the stomata, a ; air chambers, ft, or inter-
,. . ' . . cellular spaces; cross section of leaf
limit Of the available Carbon vein, c, in the parenchyma or soft,
dioxide and water. In sup-
port of this statement instances may be suggested of
plants which stand the full glare of the sun and of
others whose maximum is reached in partial shade. Too
strong emphasis, however, must not be placed on this
intensity factor, because increased transpiration of water
26 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OK J-KTMNC
may tend to dry the active tissues, close the stomata and
otherwise reduce photosynthesis.
It has been estimated that a vigorous Concord grape-
vine in good vineyard practice may expose to the light a
leaf surface of 10 to 12 square yards. Such an area has
been estimated as manufacturing about a pound of or-
ganic matter in a day during the active growing season.
From this calculation a hazy idea may be formed of the
work done by a vineyard or an orchard between, say,
April and October, and a hint may be gained as to the
importance of pruning and training so as to enhance the
process of photosynthesis, especially in fruit-bearing
plants.
30. Growth and growth relations. — Though growth and
growth relations have been touched upon indirectly in
the previous chapter, it is necessary that certain of their
phases be discussed separately, because a true conception
of them is essential in pruning. From the agricultural
standpoint, growth is measured by yield ; from the stand-
point of the forester, usually by size or development ;
from the standpoint of the ornamental horticulturist, by
beauty of specimen. These ends are all affected by va-
rious internal and external factors, such as (1) vitality,
heredity and food supply and (2) environment, moisture,
temperature, oxygen, character of food and light.
31. Proof of growth. — Popularly, growth is evidenced
in flowering plants by increased weight and size, by de-
velopment from the seedling stage to maturity and the
quick production of stems, leaves, flowers and fruits. It
is dependent upon the formation and enlargement of cells
and may lead to strongly marked changes in both internal
structure and external form. The most evident of these
changes are (1) differentiation, due to structural changes
either within a single cell or a group of cells; and (2)
extension or increased length, )ften accompanied by-
greater girth.
FIG. 20— SIDE VIEW OF AN APPLE SEEDLING
Note how the leaves are arranged on the stem. Each extends outward at a
different angle from the one above and below it. Thus it takes advantage of Us
opportunity to get light. Note view from above in Fig. 21.
28 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
32. The tip of the stem and of the branch in flowering
plants is the point from which extension takes place.
Since any wood bud may become the starting point of a
new branch or stem, this statement is general. Dissection
FIG. 21— SEEDLING APPLE SEEN FROM ABOVE
Here the tree shown in Fig. 20 shows how the leaves apparently make an al-
most perfect rosette. Thus they get the fullest advantage of the light. Note
the spaces almost opposite each other where it seems as if a leaf were missing.
These "jogs" were caused by the nearness of other seedlings in the nursery row;
there was not the same chance to get light as in the other directions.
has shown that extension is dependent upon no one cell.
but that a rather indefinite cell area, which constitutes
the primary meristem, is the originating tissue. Here
division rapidly takes place, while immediately in the rear
of the dividing cells is the area of extension.
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING 29
33. Leaf formation takes place immediately in rear of
the stem apex. In some plants (apple) the leaves occur
in spiral order, in others opposite (lilac), in still others
alternately (elm) and so on. Incipiently, they are tiny
swellings, but soon they flatten and grow more rapidly
than does the stem apex, over which they curve more or
less to form a bud. In few trees does this leafy axis con-
tinue to extend during the growing season. Where ex-
tension occurs each leaf is left behind in the spiral, the
whorl or other natural formation as the tip moves
forward. New points of growth are usually differentiated
later as buds in the axils of the leaves ; and when the
leaves fall at the end of the growing season these buds
become
34. Resting buds. — In most trees and shrubs, at least
in temperate and cold climates, the shoot axis terminates
in late summer or early fall in a bud which is said to re-
main dormant until the following spring, so also do the
axillary buds. This dormancy is not total, since there is
some slight growth activity, except perhaps during the
coldest weather (54, 55). The resting buds are very
short leaf axes covered by bud scales (specialized leaves)
which serve as protectors of the more important internal
parts. While the buds are said in the fall and the winter
to be resting or dormant, they may have been ready for
the "rest" as early as July. They do not, however, usually
appear to be resting until the leaves fall. In spring with the
return to conditions favorable to growth activity the rest-
ing buds vapidly unfold, either a leafy shoot (quince, dier-
villa) a flower (peach, golden bell — Forsythia, Fig. 296), a
cluster of flowers (cherry, spice bush — Lindcra) or a
cluster containing both leaves and flowers (apple, thorn—
Crat&gus) .
35. The types of stem extension from resting buds,
though diverse, may be grouped in two classes, though
these may present numerous cases of over-lapping.
30 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
(1) Rapid extension of resting buds into shoots which
bear no other parts than those already in the buds them-
selves. In this group belong many north temperate trees
and shrubs, among which beech and pine may be taken
as typical, the former having a segmented, the latter an
unsegmented shoot. In spring the beech bud gradually
swells, and at first presents a fairly general extension of
the internodes. Soon the bud has doubled its original
length, at which time the method of extension may best
be noted. Beginning at the basal node, it will be seen
that each internode in turn becomes successively most
active, so that the terminal internodes are the last to
extend rapidly. The pine shows a similar development
except that, having an unsegmented stem, the most ac-
tively extending part moves gradually forward in a more
uniform manner than in the case of the beech. Apples
and pears present much the same method as the beech.
(2) Some trees and shrubs, such as willow and lilac,
normally develop more leaves than those wintered over
in the resting bud, so that the total number of nodes and
internodes at the end of the growing season is larger than
the numbers represented in the buds. The peach may
sometimes develop leaves, nodes and internodes in this
way, though it perhaps generally develops as described
under class one. This phenomenon is probably more
common in young trees than in older ones. For instance,
old trees of the cottonwood or necklace poplar (Populus
monilifera) may develop no more leaves, nodes and inter-
nodes, than were contained in the resting bud ; young
ones may develop three, four or even more times as many.
From such instances it is concluded that conditions, such
as age, environment and character of season, may ac-
count for the differences.
The secondary growth of shoots, especially of fruit
trees, must not be confounded with the normal phenomena
discussed above. Such growth usually occurs during a
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING 31
moist, late summer or early autumn following a more or
less protracted drouth. It may also be due to excess of
nitrogenous plant food and an ample water supply in the
soil. Such growths are usually undesirable because they
are developed from buds which should continue dormant
until the following spring and also because they usually
do not have sufficient time to ripen fully before winter
sets in. Consequently much of the growths so produced
must be pruned off, to the greater or lesser loss of wood
that if grown in normal time would be valuable for fruit
production or other purpose.
Hence cultural practices, such as tillage, drainage, fer-
tilizing, cover and inter-cropping, have a direct bearing
upon pruning, because these affect more or less definitely
the production of wood. In many kinds of trees, es-
pecially apple and pear, leaves appear to be borne in
clusters on very short twigs called spurs. This phe-
nomenon is due to the suppression of the internodes and
the consequent shortening of the axis. Sometimes the
reverse of this case occurs on a spur, as when a bud, which
might be expected to continue the slow extension of a
spur, suddenly elongates into a slender twig such as
shown in Fig. 36.
36. The relation of leaves to light intensity is one of
the most commonly observed of plant growth phenomena.
Everyone who has had anything to do with plants, es-
pecially those grown in dwellings, knows that leaves and
leafy shoots "turn toward the light." This is the more
marked as the room is poorly illuminated ; the plant parts
capable of doing so soon bend toward the window or other
light source. Similar effects may be seen in the open.
The explanation for this phenomenon is that the parts
which thus change position do so in order that the
chlorophyll may secure the maximum illumination and
thus function to best advantage.
Broad-leaved plants generally form a more or less com-
plete mosaic of green. Especiallv good examples of this
32 PRINCIPLES AM) PRACTICE OF PRUNING
are Boston ivy and grapevines; the leaves completely hide
the flowers, fruit, woody parts and the supports. Among
trees, Norway and sugar maples, especially the former,
are very striking because, when, say, 30 or more years
old uninjured specimens growing by themselves show a
perfect envelope of leaves covering bare branches and
trunk beneath. In neglected fruit trees similar though
much less marked development may be observed.
To carry the illustration and the lesson it teaches still
further, the same effects may be noted in trees and shrubs
that grow in close groups, whether in a state of nature
or in a plantation. This has two very striking applica-
tions, one in the forest, the other in the fruit plantation.
FIG. 22— "LEGGY" PEACH TREES
Adequate spacing and judicious pruning would have made these more stocky. They
are far too tall and too likely to be injured by wind.
Trees which grow close together in the forest produce
so much shade that their lower branches, being deprived
of light, die and ultimately fall off, and only the tops
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING 33
continue leafy. (Figs. 25, 26, 27.) The result is the long,
bare trunks which characterize forest trees, whereas the
same species growing in the open would have short,
branchy trunks. From the lumberman's point of view,
the former are the more desirable, but they are produced
at too great a risk of decay by means of fungi and bac-
teria, which may enter through decaying stubs of limbs.
In the other striking application, namely, the fruit planta-
tion, similar results follow the too close
37. Spacing of trees and shrubs. — Just as in the forest,
trees planted too closely together grow inordinately tall.
(Fig. 25, 27.) Their lower twigs and limbs die because
improperly lighted, and. the orchardist is put to serious
expense in pruning, spraying, thinning and harvesting.
Nowhere is this so conspicuous as in neglected, closely
set orchards. (Fig. 22.) Often orchards which so far
as the health of the trees is concerned might be renovated
cannot be so worked over because too much wood would
have to be removed to bring the tops down to workable
heights, or too many trees would have to be cut out to
leave profitable numbers in given areas.
CHAPTER III
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING*
38. Good and bad effects of pruning. — Every owner of
a fruit tree expects to prune, or at least, he considers the
advisability of the operation. There is the greatest dif-
ference of opinion as to the merits of particular styles
and methods of pruning, and perhaps equal difference as
FIG. 23— RESULT OF CLOSE PLANTING AND POOR PRUNING
These tree heads are practically out of reach, hence spraying and thinning are
out of the question and harvesting so costly as to "eat up the profits."
to the effect of the operation on the life and health of the
tree. Perhaps every fruit grower has observed evil effects
to result fiopm pruning, and many of these observers have
reasoned therefrom that pruning is itself injurious, or at
* This chapter, except the parts in brackets, is the somewhat condensed answer
\vh:ch 1 . H. Bailey gave the Peninsular Horticultural Society to the question, "Does
Pruning Devitalize Plants?"
34
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING
35
least hazardous. I cannot, of course, uphold or explain
away the examples of injury which follow pruning. They
are patent even to the casual observer, but we must not
exalt individual instances, however numerous, into proofs
of the perniciousness of pruning.
There should be at this day sufficient study and experi-
ence to enable us to pass upon the merits of the practice
as a whole. It is urgent, also, that the subject be dis-
cussed, for however much of correct teaching may be
FIG. 24— HOW NOT TO MANAGE TREES
Trees neglected and vivisected like these cannot be made to pay either as invest-
ments or as objects of beauty.
promulgated, there is a constantly recurring wave of
error and prejudice. For myself, I am convinced that
pruning, even when somewhat heroic, is not a devitalizing
practice. In support of this conviction I shall present
arguments from three sources — philosophy, plant physi-
36 PRIXC IIM.KS AND PRACTICE <>K PRUNING
ology and common experience. I do not purpose to dis-
cuss mechanical injuries to the trees, as a result of wounds,
for we all know that such injuries are a result of careless
or injudicious pruning". My proposition is this: Does it
injure a plant to remove a part of it? Is the entire growth
necessary to a plant's health and longevity?
39. The argument from philosophy. — There is an in-
tense struggle for existence among all organisms. The
world is now full, and there can probably be no perma-
nent increase in the sum total of animals and plants. If
one species increases, another must decrease. Changes
in the numbers of individuals are, therefore, largely mat-
ters of readjustment between different types. Each kind
is held down to a certain equilibrium in relation to other
kinds. It is easy to see that any species of animal or
plant could completely occupy the surface of the globe,
if it could multiply to the full extent of its powers. Not
only do some species compete with others, but the indi-
viduals of the same species compete with each other for
standing room. The greater the number of thistles in a
given field, the less is the opportunity for another thistle
plant to gain a foothold.
Now, a tree is essentially a collection or colony of in-
dividual plants. Every branch, even every joint of the
branch, is endeavoring to do what every other branch
does — to bear leaves, flowers and seeds. Every branch
competes with every other branch ; and there are more
germs of branches— that is, more buds — than there can
be branches upon any tree. So it comes that no two
branches of a tree are exactly alike, but arc what their
position or condition makes them to be. Some are strong
and some are weak. That is, there is no definite or proper
size or shape for any branch, as there is for the various
parts of an animal or a flower. The limbs and organs of
an animal arc not competitors but co-partners, each per-
forming some function or office which another does not,
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING
37
and they all obtain a definite maturity of size and shape.
But a branch never attains its full size until it ceases to
grow and thereby begins to die. Branches are not or-
gans, but competing individuals.
If all these statements are true, then three conclusions
follow : a, there is struggle for existence among the
branches of a tree (Fig-.
25), and some of the
contestants perish; b,
the destruction of these
•branches must conduce
to the betterment of the
remaining ones; c, all
the branches of a tree
are not necessary to it,
but some of them may
be a detriment to it. In
other words, pruning is
a necessity.
40. An instance from
nature. — Two years ago
a wild, black cherry
tree came up near my
door.*
The first year, it sent
up a single straight 19-
inch shoot, which pro-
duced 27 buds and one
branchlet 8 inches long.
This branchlet bore 12 buds. At the end of the first sea-
son, therefore, the little tree had produced a total of 39
buds, one branchlet and 27 inches of growth. The second
year, 19 of these 39 buds produced branches, and 20 did
not start. These 19 branches made a total growth of 231
FIG. 25 — WHITE PINE PI ANTATION,
BEFORE THINNING
Note how branches have died from lack
of light. Compare with Fig. 26.
* The reader will find it interesting to study some little seedling tree in the way
the tree here discussed has been studied.
38
I'RI.NC IIM.HS AND PRACTICE OF FRUNINC,
inches and produced 370 buds. The terminal branch or
shoot grew 36 inches long.
Here, then, is a little tree two years old and 4]/2 feet
high which has made
an effort to bear 409
branches. It is plain
that more than 90 per
cent of these efforts
must be futile. Many
of the buds will not
start, but the tree
now has a total of 27
branches and subdivi-
sions as a result of its
first year's growth, if it
makes a proportional
number this year from
the growth [of last
year], it will bear 21G
branches at the close of
this season and will
have made a total effort
of about 3,500 branch-
germs or buds. This
little tree will undergo
a severe pruning in the
coming years, although
a knife does not touch
it.
But the natural thin-
ning of the top will
continue in geometrical
ratio as long as the tree
grows ; and after a time
this pruning will be-
come more severe, for larger branches will be sacrificed.
Probably less than a fifth of the buds upon any tree ever
FIG. 26— WHITE PINE PLANTATION
AFTER THINNING
Compare with Fig. .25. Note piles of brush
and the trunks pruned of dead branches
TIIF PiIlLOSOPIIY OF PRUNING
branches, and
make
less than a fifth of the
branches persist. The
greater part of these
branches die before
they come to bearing-
age, no doubt, but some
of them perish after
they have attained a
considerable size. A
forest tree grows a tall,
straight bole because
the side branches are
lopped off (Fig. 27),
and the more vigorous
this pruning, the taller
and stronger the tree
becomes.
Another black cherry
tree, two years old,
found in the woods,
bore buds at regular
intervals — about two
dozen of them. The
second year the ter-
minal bud sent out a
shoot, and 13 lateral
buds gave rise to
branches. Of these 13
lateral branches only
three stand any chance
of living in the dense
shade of the forest. In
fact, four or five of the
lowest twigs were dead
when the [observa-
tion] was made; show-
ing that the struggle
FIG. 27— SEEDLING CHESTNUT 103 YEARS
OLD — Shade caused natural pruning of
limbs for over 30 feet.
40 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRTXIXr,
for existence does not always result from competition
among fellows, but may arise from the crowding of other
plants (Figs. 18, 25).
The three strong branches are less than 4 feet from the
ground, but other old cherry trees standing near it have
no branch'es within 15 and 20 feet of the ground. They,
no doubt, branched low down, as this one, but the
branches eventually died in the struggle, and we, there-
fore, have reason to conclude that of all the branches on
this little tree only the terminal one can long survive.
One has only to look on the forest floor to see how freely
trees shed their twigs. The trunk of a tree, then, is the
remainder in a long problem of subtraction.
So every tree is a record of defeats and disasters in
order that the stronger parts may live. It is safe to con-
clude that if nature is such a searching and undogmatic
pruner, man may prune, too. Those persons who declaim
that pruning is unnatural should be taken into a neglected
orchard and be made to see what has transpired in the
tree tops.
41. Is artificial pruning excessive? — I may be met here
with the criticism that artificial pruning is excessive :
but I answer that it is not different in kind from natural
pruning, and that it is fully warranted by the different
objects in view. The ultimate object of nature is the pro-
duction of seeds, and the larger number of viable seeds
produced the better. Man covets the fleshy portion of the
fruit, or some other character which is of minor impor-
tance to the plant. He must, therefore, thin the plant
rigorously — reduce the struggle for existence — in order
that size and quality may come before number. He
simply deflects the energy into another channel !
42. The argument from plant physiology is equally im-
portant. It is a common assertion that cutting off a limb
is an injury because it removes a given amount of tissue
in the production of which the plant expended effort ; that
is, that pruning exhausts the plant. This statement as-
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING 41
sumes that a plant has a certain fixed vitality, from which
a given amount is withdrawn whenever a portion of the
plant is cut away. I might illustrate this by supposing
that a plant has an initial vitality represented by the
number 10 ; then, if one-tenth of the top is removed, there
is left a vitality of 9. But this assumption is wholly
gratuitous. Vitality is very largely determined by the
conditions under which a plant grows — the character of
the soil and treatment. As plants have no nerves, they
cannot die of shock, as we sometimes hear it said.
Every fruit grower knows that two trees, of the same
initial vigor, if given different soil and care, may differ
widely from each other in thrift and healthfulness at the
expiration of five years. If the plant is very largely what
its food supply and other environments make it to be, if
it is constantly renewed and augmented, then the removal
of a portion of it cannot destroy its vitality unless the re-
moval is so great as to interfere with the nutrition of the
remaining parts. It may be replied that the tissue, the
wood, which is removed in large limbs, might have been
saved to the tree by directing it into other parts of the
top by means of earlier pruning. This may be true ; but
this saving would have resulted only in an economy of
time by building up the other parts earlier in the lifetime
of the tree, and not in an economy of vitality, for vitality
is constantly renewed.
43. Early pruning as a life saver. — It may be a question
if we really save a proportionate amount of time by early
pruning ; that is, whether we can direct the same amount
of growth into the remaining portions of the plant by
pruning very early in its lifetime, as we can by pruning
when the superfluous branches- have attained som-e size
arid have, perhaps, begun to bear. There is an exact
balance between the root-system and the superficial
growth of the plant. The more active and efficient the
root, the larger the top. If we remove a large portion of
42
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OK PRUNING
this top, there is an endeavor to supply the deficiency by
an exceedingly rapid growth. So pruned plants are
nearly always more vigorous than unpruned ones, be-
cause of the concentration of a somewhat constant food
supply into a smaller number of branches. Therefore,
pruning must have much the same effect as manuring.
The stimulating effect of this new growth, or new dis-
position of energy, must be felt upon the root system
also; and it is a point
for discussion as to
whether this stimulus
and response to new
conditions may not be
greater when the prun-
ing is somewhat heroic
than when it is so
evenly distributed over
the lifetime of the tree
as to be imperceptible.
Growth is certainly
more emphatic follow-
ing a heroic pruning.
_ but its total may not be
^ greater than that which
follows several prun-
ings of equal aggregate
severity.
My own observation
and experience lead me
to believe that annual
pruning of all fruit
trees is desirable, but T
am equally convinced that to cut out all the superfluous
twigs at each pruning does not pay, either in cost of
pruning or in good to the tree. These superfluous twigs
may often be left with advantage until they are two or
three or even four years old. Although stimulating
FIG. 28— HOW BRANCHES ARE BURIED
1, Dead twig healed in; 2, twig dead at
tip being healed in; 3, twig with decayed
pith being healed in; 4, dead twig completely
healed in; 5, two branches healed in, one
pointing left, vigorous when cut, one pointing
up dead part way out; 6, "eyes" where oblique
limbs started from main trunk.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING 43
effects may result from the considerable unbalance of the
plant when many branches are removed, these super-
fluous and unpruned twigs often afford a very useful
shelter or sun-screen to the inner parts of the top, and
they lessen the danger of over-pruning, by which the
nutrition of the tree may be injured.
I have said that pruning increases vigor. Two trees of
Siberian Crab were set 25 feet apart near my house in the
spring. These trees are as near alike as any two apple
trees I have ever seen. I measured the growth on one
of these trees and found it to have been 745 inches. The
tree was then thoroughly pruned and 460 inches of wood
removed. Of this, 432 inches was new wood. The total
weight of this wood was 7^ ounces.
The other tree was not pruned. During the third sea-
son the unpruned tree produced 118 new twigs, with a
total length of 1,758 inches, while the pruned tree pro-
duced 120 new twigs and made a total growth of 1,926
inches. The pruned tree, therefore, made 14 feet more
growth than the other and stouter growth also, a large
proportion for a tree only three years set. In other words,
a tree from which about 40 feet of branches had been cut
bore at the end of a single season 14 feet more wood than
a similar tree which had not been pruned. Aside from
the greater growth which this pruning induced, the ex-
periment shows — in common with all similar ones — that
it is impossible to injure trees by what is called a shock.
It is often said that the time of the year when pruning
is performed influences the amount of growth [and] that
pruning in winter makes -wood and pruning in summer
makes fruit (83, 95, 97, 107, 108, 109). Certainly winter
pruning makes more wood than summer pruning does
in the current year, because the season's growth is nearly
or quite completed when the summer pruning is per-
formed.
44. Why pruning is not injurious, — I have said that
44 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
pruning, of itself, cannot be injurious so long as it does
not interfere with the nutrition of the plant. It is im-
portant, therefore, that I explain how this interference
•occurs. A (plant derives a certain portion of its food from
the soil in the shape of soluble inorganic materials
(Chapter II).
These materials ascend to the leaves through the young
wood and become associated with organized compounds
like starch and sugar. These organized compounds are
used in the repair and growth of all parts of the plant
and they are, therefore, distributed to the leaves, twigs,
trunk and roots. The growth of the roots is, therefore,
largely determined by the amount and vigor of the top
or leaf-bearing portion. [Hence] the removal of the
greater part of the top may interfere with the vigor of
the plant by preventing the supply of a sufficient amount
of elaborated food.
This difficulty is sometimes experienced in the girdling
or ringing (100) of grapevines, which prevents the dis-
tribution of the elaborated plant foods to the roots. It
should be said, however, that the grape is pruned the
most severely of all fruits, and it is, therefore, easy to
overstep the danger line ; and yet it is strange that while
certain writers disparage the pruning of trees, they do
not object to the common pruning of the vine. In fruit
trees the instances of injurious interference with nutri-
tion by pruning are rare ; they need not be further con-
sidered here. This is proved by the good results which
so often follow the heroic treatment of top-grafted trees.
45. Removal of large branches bad practice. — But if
pruning is not devitalizing, if the removal of strong
branches induces more vigorous growth in the remaining
ones, and if there is little danger of disturbing the nutri-
tion of the tree, it must follow that there can be no ob-
jection to the removal of large branches. I cannot agree
to this inference, although I am willing to say that the
B
FIG. 29— APPLE TWIGS OF VARIOUS AGES
A, water sprout, one season old, numerous branch buds. B, shoot from a fruit
spur bearing new fruit spurs toward its upper end. Each of these spurs has
attempted to produce fruits, but the apples have almost all failed to mature.
C, eight-year-old twig whose fruit spurs have made 31 attempts to bear, but have
succeeded in maturing fruits only five times, most of the specimens falling before
half grown. D, three-year-old shoot with vigorous fruit spurs. E, similar shoot
with ono fruit spur which "changed its mind" and became a branch.
46 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OI 1'.
removal of such branches may not be objectionable -«•
far as the direct injury or shock to the vitality of the tree
is concerned. But there are important reasons why large
branches should not be removed.
Such pruning exposes dangerous wounds ; it is apt to
open the tree so much that some of the remaining parts
scald and borers obtain a foothold ; it may spoil the sym-
metry or convenience of the tree, and such branches may
represent a certain amount of energy which should
have been earlier directed elsewhere. Aside from
all this, the cutting away of very large branches often in-
dicates a lack of enterprise and forethought on the part
of the grower, and suggests the feeling that he may be
remiss in all his operations. But while I discourage the
removal of branches 3 and 4 inches in diameter, it is not
because I consider such practice a devitalizing one. I
should much prefer the removal of such large branches
to total neglect. I have myself removed many such
branches 10 and 15 years ago from apple trees which are
today in most perfect health and vigor.
46. Experience the best teacher.— If philosophy and
physiology show that pruning is not a devitalizing
process, common experience affords still stronger proof.
One of the commonest absurdities in our horticultural
literature is the admonition to prune only with a knife,
thereby avoiding the cutting of large limbs. Not an or-
chardist in the country practices this advice if he prunes
thoroughly ! If scientific teaching and permanently suc-
cessful practice are opposed, then the teaching is wrong.
[Certainly] some of our accepted teaching on pruning
will not stand the test of time. I have frequently observed
that well-pruned trees live as long as those unpruned,
and I am inclined to believe that they may live longer.
They [surely] produce more [and better fruit] during
their lifetime.
But suppose that pruning is a devitalizing process —
THE PHUJOSOPHY OF PRUNING 47
what then? Even then we could not afford to discontinue
it. The gains in size and quality of fruit, in ease of culti-
vation and spraying of the plants, are advantages which
progressive horticulture can never forego. Advise a
grape-grower to discontinue pruning !
47. Summary. — It appears to be safe to conclude, from
the foregoing considerations, that pruning is a legitimate
practice, finding warrant in wild plants, in physiology
and in the experience of centuries. It is not of itself, as
ordinarily performed, a devitalizing practice, while its
advantages are several and important. There is abundant
opportunity for improvement in methods, and every plant
needs a particular treatment, and perhaps some .species
or varieties demand little, if any, thinning; but, as a
whole, pruning is indispensable to successful horticulture.
CHAPTER IV
BUDS
48. A bud is a rudimentary plant part which upon de-
velopment produces (1) a leaf or a cluster of leaves, (2) a
stem, (3) a flower or a cluster of flowers, or (4) a cluster
of leaves and flowers together. The first of these are
called leaf buds, the second wood or branch buds, the
third flower buds and the fourth mixed or cluster buds.
FIG. 30*— DEHORNING WITH A VENGEANCE
Instead of healing over, the stubs have decayed. Such a tree is a wreck.
* There's a joke in the tower seen in the background. The negative had
been injured at this point, so the engraver built a new tower of a style with which
he is presumably familiar because of his lodge affiliation ! The actual architecture
of this tower is seen in Fig. 94.
48
BUDS
49
49. Leaf buds may be produced anywhere on stems not
too old to perform this function, but leaves are mostly
developed at the nodes in spring and early summer upon
shoots newly expanding from terminal and lateral buds.
50. A wood or branch bud is an undeveloped branch
inclosed in modified leaves or bud scales which protect a
rudimentary axis and leaves that under favorable condi-
tions of growth expand into branches bearing leaves and
perhaps flowers also.
51. A flower bud is an unexpanded flower protected or
not by bud scales.
52. A mixed or cluster bud is often termed merely a
flower bud, as in the case of apple and pear; but since,
upon expansion, it develops both leaves and flowers, it
is more definite to use the correct term.
53. Other names for buds. — For convenience, various
terms are used to describe still more definitely all of the
FIG. 31— NEW GROWTH ON "DEHORNED" PEACH TREE
Some of the cuts — for instance, the one in the center — should have been re-cut
to favor healing over. Notice the sturdy new growths from the old branches. The
tree was full of good fruit when the photo was taken.
50 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
above classes. As to position, buds are (a) lateral or
axillary; that is, produced in the leaf axils, or (b) termi-
nal ; that is, borne at the extremities of shoots. Buds
may also be dormant or latent.
54. Dormant or resting buds are developed during the
growing season, but remain quiescent during the winter
or the dry season which follows. If they continue to rest
longer than this, though still technically -'resting buds,"
they are usually termed latent.
55. Latent buds require a more vigorous stimulus than
do dormant buds to force them into growth. They are com-
monly located upon the lower portions of shoots and
branches, and simply because of their unfavorable posi-
tion do not as often expand under normal growth stimuli
as do buds farther up on the stems. The peach, especially
a young tree, furnishes an excellent illustration, because
usually only the terminal and a few of the upper buds on
"last year's" growth normally develop into twigs "this
year." However, if the last year's growth be cut back,
twigs will develop from buds which would otherwise
remain latent.
Generally the terminal bud and those near it are the
first to expand into twigs, and generally, also, the strength
of these twigs is, according to their relative position, the
strongest from the terminal bud the next strong from the
nearest lateral bud, the weakest from the lowest lateral
that expands. There usually remain several to many
lateral buds which continue latent.
For experiment, let the branch be cut off just below
the lowest bud that has developed a twig. In due time
the highest latent bud will assume more or less satis-
factorily the duties of a terminal bud and adjacent buds
will develop lateral twigs (Fig. 66). If the original
branch is long enough, this experiment may be repeated as
long as any latent buds remain. Whether the experiment
be performed on "last year's" wood or wood several years
BUDS
51
older is immaterial ; the buds if still living may awake
from their latency and produce twigs. Very important
use is made of this principle in transplanting nursery
trees and in dehorning (Fig. 31), though it must be said
that in the latter practice the buds which expand are
mostly
55a. Adventitious buds. — When buds are produced at
unexpected points on roots, stems or leaves, they are said
to be adventitious, because they are not in normal posi-
tions. From the standpoint of the pruner they are of
great importance
for two reasons;
namely, (1) they
may develop suck-
ers from the roots
or water sprouts
( Fig. 32) fro m
the trunks and
branches, and it
may be necessary
to destroy these ad-
ventitious, undesir-
able growths. The
suckers in plants
that have been
grafted or budded
are almost inva-
riably undesirable, because the stock is of a different char-
acter from that of the cion or top.
In some cases the stock, being often of more vigorous
habit than the cion, would grow so rapidly that the cion
might be starved to death, as often happens with grafted
and budded roses that are neglected in this particular.
(2) Conversely, adventitious buds are important because
they may be relied upon to produce new growths. The
most important applications of this development are (a)
FIG. 32— NOTHING WRONG WITH THE ROOTS
Trees which show such vigorous growths of
suckers and water sprouts always have sturdy,
abundant and healthy roots. The trouble is in
the top.
52 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
in plant propagation, where the adventitious buds pro-
duce roots on layers, cuttings, etc., and (b) in pruning
and "dehorning," where they, as well as latent buds, are
relied upon to produce new shoots, some of which may
be favorably enough placed to develop new branches or
even whole heads.
56. Where blossom buds are borne. — In order to prune
intelligently for the production of flowers and fruit, it is
essential that the pruner know where blossom buds are
normally borne. While the positions of these buds na-
turally vary among the varieties of any species with the
vigor and the age of the plant, with environment and
other factors, yet each species has its own characteristic
method of blossom or fruit bearing. In general, species
and their varieties may be grouped in two general classes
each with its subdivisions. These are characterized thus :
A. BLOSSOM OR CLUSTER BUDS EASILY SEEN DURING WINTER
on "last season's" twigs: 1, A.villary: Peach (Fig. 46),
hazel, filbert (almost always), almond, currant (Fig. 49),
gooseberry (mainly, Fig. 50), apricot and Japanese plum
(partly, Fig. 48), apple and pear (sometimes). 2, Terminal,
mainly on spurs. Apple, pear (almost always, Figs. 35, 36),
cherry (Figs. 41, 42, 43, 44, 45), plum (Figs. 39, 40) and
apricot (mainly), almond and currant (partly). B. BLO-
BUDS NOT VISIBLE DURING WINTER because borne on "this sea-
son's" twigs: 1, axillary on canes or strong shoots: Grape
(Figs. 51, 57), mulberry, persimmon, olive, chestnut, fig
( Fig. 33 ) ; 2, a, terminal on terminal shoots : Loquat ; b,
terminal, or nearly so, on lateral shoots developed during
summer: Orange and the bramble fruits (raspberry, Figs.
55, 56, blackberry, Fig. 54, dewberry) ; 3, co-terminal,
that is on the ends of short shoots developed from buds
formed "last season" and wintered over. Quince (Fig
58), medlar, hickory, and walnut.
From the above outline it is obvious that in pruning
for flower and fruit production the operator, while not
BUDS
53
losing sight of the effects his work may have upon the
general growth of the tree or shrub as to form and de-
velopment, must consider the way in which blossom buds
are produced so he can intelligently regulate the number
and development of the buds, twigs and branches which
rare to bear these flowers
and fruits. The following
paragraphs will, therefore,
help the uninstructed
reader to determine how to
make decisions so far as
buds are concerned.
57. Age of shoot deter-
mined by bud scars. — In
pruning practice it is often
necessary to know the age
of branches and twigs. Ex-
cept where secondary
growth has taken place this
can easily be determined
until the branches become
too old to reveal the dis-
tinguishing marks, rings
and a bulge. These may
not, however, be as marked
in this case as in normal
cases. When the terminal
is a fruit bud the branch
usually kills back to the
first sturdy lateral twig,
which then assumes the
duties of leadership. Very
marked cases of thickening occur with some varieties of
apple and pear fruit spurs which are often three times
the diameter of the twigs below the swellings. The
scars were left by the bud scales which fell off when the
terminal bud pushed into growth. When the terminals
FIG. 33— FRUITING HABIT OF FIG
Fruits axillary on "this season's"
growths.
54 PRLXC II'LKS AM) 1'kACTKK OK PRUNING
are wood buds the direction of growth is practically
straight, but when they are blossom buds or when the
terminal wood bud or shoot is destroyed accidentally or
purposely, an axillary bud will develop a shoot which will
depart more or less from the straight line. (Fig. 67.)
This is especially characteristic of apple and pear spurs,
which in many varieties become greatly contorted.
58. Fruit spurs and buds. — An examination of twigs
two seasons old of, say, apple and gooseberry, will show
how axillary buds often develop, 1, into twigs as already
noted (50) and, 2, into tiny spurs terminated by blossom
or cluster buds (Fig. 29). Often these latter are so short
as to be mistaken for true buds instead of bud-terminated
spurs. When these buds swell, they may develop several
to many leaves or flowers or both. When they do not
produce flowers, a terminal bud may be formed during
"this season" for the extension of the twig "next season" ;
and when flowers develop into one or more fruits, a
branch bud may be formed in the axil of a leaf to extend
the twig more or less laterally "next season." In this
last case the twig may grow for several seasons in the di-
rection thus taken; that is, until it develops a terminal
cluster bud and thus makes a change of direction nec-
essary.
59. Meaning of scars on fruit spurs. — When fruit
reaches maturity it leaves a scar at the point of its attach-
ment to the fruit spur or twig. It is often said that such
scars indicate the number of fruits borne by the spurs,
but this is not always true, because frequently short
twigs, which at some previous time bore flowers, may
kill back to the main fruit spur, and when they fall off
leave scars like those left by fruits that matured. The
only way to be sure is to note whether or not the scars
are solitary or in clusters. Where solitary they have
probably been formed by twigs ; where in clusters, by
flowers or more or less mature fruits surrounding the
5car of a fruit that reached maturity.
«, .c « J- • - "' T3 at ^ «\j ' M ,,; . «i re tx^->^c & m •&& a*
56
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
60. Slow growth favors fruitfulness. — Since lack of
light due to disadvantageous position tends to reduce food
supply and consequently size of twigs, many twigs so
deprived develop into fruit spurs. Hence it may be con-
cluded that slow growth favors fruitfulness. Generally
when twigs have developed the fruit-bearing habit they
continue in this habit. Thus at, say, 20 years of age, they
may be only a few inches long though they may have
produced a considerable number of fruits. It does not
FIG. 35— FRUITING SPURS OF APPLE
The left-hand specimen has evidently home a fruit. A cluster bud has de-
veloped on the stub and a branch or spur bud is swelling below. A similar case
is in the middle, but two cluster buds have been formed. The right-hand specimen
shows the mummy of an apple that failed to mature beside the branch bud of
which a new branch bud has formed. The other spurs also on this twig show normal
growth, the spurs being two years old.
ft
follow that the habit cannot be broken or that advantage
cannot be taken of it, as in invigorating old fruit spurs.
(Fig. 150.) Injudicious pruning is one of the surest ways
of destroying the fruit-bearing habit; and this, too, with-
out the removal of any of the spurs. (Fig. 171.) Heavy
pruning, especially during the winter of a season when
the crop is light, will force many strong growths from the
fruit spurs as well as from other parts of the tree, so that,
BUDS
57
as many an orchardist will shamefacedly admit, there
will be little or no fruit for one to several years.
61. Pome fruit bud positions vary. — Most commonly
apples and pears bear their cluster buds terminally on
gnarly little twigs
called fruit spurs
(Fig. 34). When
these buds expand,
they show perhaps
half a dozen to a
dozen leaves sur-
rounding maybe as
many flowers. Usu-
ally not more than
one, or possibly
two, of these blos-
soms develops into
a mature fruit (Fig.
35). The others
drop off. The fruit-
ripening process is
apparently an ex-
haustive one, for
the spur which ma-
tures a fruit "this
season" will usually
not develop one
"next year." While
the fruit is ripen-
ing, a branch bud is
developing near the
fruit-stem attach-
ment to the spur.
This branch bud
swells the following season into a short growth termi-
nated by a cluster bud. Thus fruit spurs theoretically
FIG. 36— BLOOMING TWIG OF APPLE
Variations such as these are not uncommon. Note
that the cluster buds are mainly on short spurs
(below) ; that in the center a fruit has evidently
been borne and other fruit spurs have developed
from the sides of this spur; also that one of the
buds has developed a short branch with a terminal
cluster bud.
58
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRl'NINC,
bear each alternate year and
continue for many years to
make their gnarly growth. Such
being the case, great care rru-n
usually be exercised to prevent
injury to the fruit spurs: for if
they are destroyed they cannot
be replaced. The only way
new ones can he secured is to
develop water sprouts, upon
which, after much loss of time,
new spurs will form.
Apple and pear cluster laid-.
though usually terminal
shown in the outline (56). ;ri
not always so. Though fruit
spurs are usually two
old before mature fruits cm be
gathered from them, this rub
has its exceptions. Ind
some varieties produce c<
siderable fruit on the ti;>< of
"last season's" twigs or D'1
spurs of the same a<^ ( Fii-'.
36). Certain varieties of apples
produce blossom buds in th •
axils of leaves of "last season"
and mature their fruif< "this
season." Such cases as these
appear to be verv ex-
ceptional in the eastern Unil
States, but comparatively com-
mon in the West, especially in
sections where irrigation i>
practiced. The practical value
of this fact is that those varieties which produce blos-
som buds on growths only one season old tend to
FIG. 37— PEACH SPUR
This twig grew on the interior
of the tree. Notice 1, the large
number of blossoms; 2, the small
number of branch buds; and 3,
that in several cases (clearly seen
at a) branch buds have been re-
placed by flowers.
BUDS
59
be more regular annual bearers or fruit than do those
varieties which produce fruit buds only on older growth.
Annual bearing, it must be stated, however, is i habit
which is dependent not upon thi< one factor alone, but
upon other factors. For instance, certain spurs may bear
fruit one year, while others are fruitless. The foUowj^e
season the fruitless spurs may
bear the crop, while the pre-
viously fruitful ones may ;ake
a rest. Fruit spurs MAY pro-
duce fruit each alternate year,
but this is not nearly as regular
a habit as it is popularly be-
lieved to be.
62. Pit fruit bud positions. —
While the outline (56) shows
the general ways in which pit
fruit buds are borne, yet the
/ariations due to variety, en-
vironment and other causes de-
serve a special paragraph.
Stone fruit blossom buds are
unlike those of apple and pear
in being simple ; that is, they
are not clustered with leaves,
though plum and cherry buds
often contain a few little leaves
that usually drop off before .the
fruit ripens. Sometimes peach
and apricot buds contain two bu,s. 4> that the lowest bran h
flowers, though One is the nor- buds are not swelling while tha
, x-,. , • « upper ones are.
mal number. Cherry buds
usually reveal two flower buds, though the number may
vary from one to five. The same is true of plums, excep^
that two or three are the usual numbers.
The peach bears its blossom buds singly beside i
branch bud or in pairs with a branch b id between, except
1
FI3. 3:<—
'. GROWTH OF
•PEACH
The three pieces constitute on:;
branch of "lart" season's growth.
Note, 1, positions o1' t! e bloom -
near the middle of tlu branch; 2.
that normally a branch bud li?s
between two blx:m bu !s and els >
at the *erminal; 3 that bloom ex-
tends nearly ?o fh: t:o with or'y
short, bar^ int«rv-ls above ard
b'low the main blooming area, ard
t' ese in'trv./s he?r 're- n h or !e f
60
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
as noted two paragraphs below. It is believed by many
fruit growers that this simple bud habit is one of the rea-
sons why peach buds are usually more largely winter-
killed than are the buds of apples and pears, which are in
well-protected cluster buds. In the bud which contains no
leaves the flower parts usually have few protecting bud scales.
An examination will show that the branch buds of the
stone fruits are closely similar in structure and posi-
tion to those of the
pome
fruits. Still there are
differences. For in-
stance, apricots and
many plums seldom de-
velop terminal buds of
any kind, and the axil-
lary buds of these two
fruits and also of
peaches may produce
blossoms instead of
leaves.
To illustrate this
point still further : Nor-
mally the peach pro-
duces two blossom
buds with a wood bud
between them, but often
even this central wood
bud gives place to a
flower, so three flowers
are produced in a group
(Fig. 37). When the
terminal bud fails to
form, the nearest axillary bud, if a branch bud. assumes
the duties of a terminal wood bud and the following sea-
son extends the branch in practically as straight a line
as if it were a true terminal.
When peach trees arc making normal growth the blos-
soms are more often in couples than they are solitary.
FIG. 39— EUROPEAN PLUM
Branch shows typical blooming habit,
flowers being borne largely in pairs or singly
on last season's wood.
BUDS
61
When the growth is strong the blossom buds are nearer
the tips than the bases of the twigs, because their posi-
tions are largely determined by the vigor of the trees
upon which they are borne. When the growth is weak
the buds are mainly solitary and scattered from end to
end of the twigs. When the growth is moderate the buds
are mostly near the middles of the twigs. Young and rank-
growing trees show
them near the twig tips.
Jt is important to re-
member that the blos-
som-bearing habit of the
peach tends to make
the fruit-bearing area of
the tree move each sea-
son farther from the
center of the tree (Fig.
46), instead of continu-
ing, as in the apple and
the pear, in a prac-
tically set area. The
pruner must, therefore,
maintain a supply of
bearing wood on the
branches, which he
must not allow to ex-
tend too far. The wiry
interior growths re-
ferred to above rarely bear fruits more than two years,
often only one. They soon die and must be cut out.
All this indicates far more severe pruning of the peach
than of the apple or the pear. This is especially the case
with young trees whose "leaders" are prone to make
the trees too high. Pruners often remove or very severely
cutback all the leaders for several years, even though they
know new ones fully as vigorous will replace them.
62a. The plums vary somewhat with their species as
FIG. 40— JAPANESE PLUM
It is characteristic of this species to pro-
duce flowers largely in threes.
62 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
to the positions of their blossom buds. None of them
bear on "this season's" growth so they naturally belong
to the first group in the classification (56). The great
majority of the fruit buds are borne on short spurs similar
FIG. 41— BLOSSOM BUDS OF SOUR CHERRY ARE BORNE ALMOST TO THE
TERMINALS, BUT ARE MOST NUMEROUS NEAR THE BASES
OF THE ONE SEASON'S GROWTH
to those of the cherry, though in the varieties of some
species and hybrids many are developed in the axiN »f
leaves on the one-year ucod. These bloom "next >ea-
BUDS
63
son." The spurs bear their fruit buds mainly near the
ends and lose the function in their lower parts as the spur
elongates and branches. This may be readily determined
by examining" an old spur: the scars indicate where buds
formerly developed into fruit. The distinction between
fruit and leaf buds is not as easy to make as in the peach,
pear or apple. Position is the safest guide. Usually the
tip bud will produce a twig. Often, however, a side bud
FIG. 42— SWEET CHERRY TWIG IN TWO SECTIONS
Blossoms opening on the right from cluster buds near the base of the annual
growth. On the same twig higher up other buds have produced only leaves. The
end of the two-year wood is seen at the base of the right-hand section.
will also do so, though it is generally a flower bud. The
best time to study this point is when the buds are swell-
ing in spring.
63. The apricot resembles the peach in fruiting habit,
though it bears fewer fruit buds on the vigorous new
wood. It bears considerable numbers on short growths
which resemble the spurs of cherries and plums, though
some are so short as to appear almost sessile and thus
64
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
to be clusters of buds on the branch. A close examination
will show that each of these groups of buds is borne in
the axil of one leaf. This method of flower bud bearing-
is less general than the production of buds singly in the
leaf axils.
64. Cherries bear their fruit buds mainly on short spurs
(Figs. 44, 45), much less laterally on the vigorous young
shoots, except as noted below. In all
cases, however, the buds are axillary,
the termnal being a branch bud.
hence the usually straight fruit spurs.
As in the peach the twigs produced
"last year" often bear blossom buds
mostly near their bases. The
branch buds farther up tnese twigs
will many of them develop "this
year" into spurs for "next year's"
fruiting (Fig. 45). Among the sour
cherries certain varieties produce
considerable numbers of bloom
buds on the new growths. After
these have fruited they drop off and
thus leave the long naked branches
so commonly seen among the sour
cherry varieties. The only areas
that bear fruit in such varieties are
near the ends of these slender
branches.
65. Recognition of fruit buds. —
The cluster buds of apples and
pears are readily distinguished by
their plumpness and their well-
rounded shape. Those of apricot and peach, though
smaller, are about as conspicuous as apple and pear
buds because of their positions as well as their
forms. Cherry buds, especially on "last season's" wood,
are harder to recognize because they are not very much
FIG. 43— SWEET CHERRY
Twig shows numerous
spurs on two and three-year
wood. Cluster buds (not
seen) form near the base of
one-year wood. Note that
the tips of all spurs produce
branches as indicated by the
leaves. The same is true of
terminal and axial buds.
BUDS
65
FIG. 44— SOUR
CHERRY
At a is the dividing
point between one-
y e a r and two-year
wood. A fruit spur is
also shown here. Simi-
lar spurs are seen at
b. Each of these bears
three or four blossom
buds and one branch
bud, the latter at the
tip. The spurs lower
down have only branch
buds at their tips.
Branch buds are also
seen on the one-year
wood.
themselves, all have
vigorous "last season
FIG. 45 -FOUR-YEAR SWEET
CHERRY TWIG
Letters indicate ends of annual
growths. The main twig is four years
old; the largest branch three. The
center bud in each cluster on the spurs
is usually a branch bud whose func-
tion is to extend the spur.
blunter than the branch buds and
because there is nothing about
their position to distinguish them.
Plums, more especially those of
the Domestica class, though dif-
fering in minor respects among
axillary fruit buds — sometimes on
s" twigs, sometimes on older wood.
66
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRTXIXG
FIG. 46— FRUIT AND
LEAF BUDS OF
PEACH
A, end of two-year
and beginning of one-
year wood. Buds
largely in threes. The
outside ones are fruit
buds the ones between
leaf buds. B, is con-
tinuation of another
part of the shoot — an-
other third part. Such
growths must be cut
back severely both to
reduce the numbzr of
fruits and to prevent
the undue extens'on
of the branches from
the terminal buds,
more particularly. The
whole one -year part of
the branch in this case
is 30 inches long. It
is cut in A at 8 inches
and in B at 10.
FIG. 47
PEACH TWIGS THAT
HAVE BORNE FRUIT
5, note annual growth
ring at c, above which
the twig is one year
old. C, four ye r '
growth of a so-call d
spur with annual
growths starting at c,
d, e. Fru't stems on
both twi.2s at b. Th s
the fruits and th.
growths from e to the
FIG. 46 tips of branch C w r
developed simultane-
ously. Brairh C is \2 inches long from c t;
the tip. Compare Fig. 46.
FIG. 47
Japanese plums suggest the apricot in bloom-bearing
habit — axillary buds on spurs and also on vigorous young
wood; in this latter case, like peach bloom buds, in
couples, with a branch bud between. 1 Hiring the dormant
season the .recognition of plum blossom buds is often ex-
ceedingly difficult, though in some varieties it is easy.
66. Fruit bud formation and development.* — The fruit
depends upon the formation and proper development of
* Paragraph^ fi(> to (i9 are svno^ized from the extensive studies of A. W.
Drinkard, Jr., of the Virginia Experiment Station, annual report, 1909-10.
BUDS
67
FIG. 48— JAPANESE PLUM
The branch shows one
year's growth from a to b at
which latter point the ter-
minal bud died and a lateral
branch c developed 24 inches
long the following season.
At the same time two other
laterals on the underside of
the branch also developed 1
and 2 inches long respec-
tively. The twigs / are two
years old, the annual rings
being shown at /. Twigs g
are one year old. Fruit spurs
are seen at ft. The fruit buds
are largely in threes. Hence
the need of fruit thinning.
FIG. 49— CURRANT BRANCHES OF
VARIOUS AGES
A, four-year cane which has twice had its
leader injured — a, broken; b, girdled. Branch
c is two years old, the dividing point being
at c. Branch d, also two years old, just above
the upper cluster of blossom buds at d.
Notice blossom buds on two-year spurs at e.
The buds on the one-year growths at /
should produce spurs and bloom buds for the
following year's fruit. B, one-year cane pro-
duced from the base of the bush. Two or
three such canes should be allowed to grow
each year to take the place of the four-year-
old wood removed each year. C, two-year-
old branch with bloom buds on older part, and
branch (spur) buds on the younger.
fruit buds. Hence knowledge of the time such buds are
formed and developed will lead to knowledge of the
factors that influence fruit bud formation and are con-
ducive or detrimental to bud development. With these
assumptions an enormous amount of work was conducted
by Mr. Drinkard to determine, (1) the period of fruit bud
formation by field observations; (2) the gross develop-
ment of floral parts by microtome sections covering the
68
PR1XCIPI.KS AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
changes between the initial period of terminal bud forma-
tion (lateral for peach and plum) and the time of flower-
ing; (3) the exact date of differentiation of pollen mother-
cells and of the similar stage in ovogenesis ; (4) the period
of origin of pollen
grains and of ovules.
During the growing
season buds were se-
lected every week or 10
days and during the
dormant season at
longer intervals. They
were killed, fixed, em-
bedded, sectioned,
stained and mounted
according to approved
laboratory methods and
the various stages of
growth and develop-
m e n t recorded by
photomicrographs, of
which the original re-
port shows 106. It is
not necessary here to
detail these methods, so
we will pass to the
67. General observa-
tions. — The great
amount of work in-
volved in preparing mi-
crosopic sections made
it impossible to study a
large number of varie-
ties. At first four va-
rieties of apples, three
of plum and one each
of peach, pear and
FIG. 50— GOOSEBERRY BRANCHES,
YOUNG AND OLD
A, one-year growth from root. Two or
three of the strongest of such shoots should
be allowed to grow each year to replace old
wood cut out after fruiting. Notice position
of buds and length of spines — three in a
cluster. The buds should form spurs for
fruiting next season. B, five-year-old branch
of a much less spiny variety. Canes should
not be allowed to grow as old as this, but be
pruned out when three or at most four years
old. Bushes kept young by such pruning are
usually healthier than ones in which the wood
is older. Best and most fruit develops on
two and three-year wood.
BUDS
69
cherry were studied, but later only one variety oi each
fruit was studied. Even these involved the preparation
of many hundreds of mounts, mostly only those sections
taken transversely
through the pistil
of the flower bud or
through the center
of the bud cluster.
In early Novem-
ber comparisons of
sections of fruit
buds from 25 varie-
ties of plums
showed a surpris-
ingly wide range of
development in-
stead of expected
uniformity. Hale, a
Japanese variety,
showed the most
advanced develop-
ment with flower
parts apparently
ready to unfold,
pollen grains well
formed, pistils well
developed, ovules
in the ovaries and
buds decidedly
swelled, as though
preparing to open.
On the other hand,
some varieties, es-
pecially among na-
tives, showed very slight development, even during the
latter third of the month. Shortly after mid-December,
examinations of 20 apple varieties showed a narrower
FIG. 51— GRAPE CANE ONE YEAR OLD
The small piece at the base of the left section is
two-year-old wood. The little knob at A is not a
bud, but the remains of a lateral. Normally, buds
develop opposite tendrils or fruit clusters (modified
tendrils). Most of the tendrils in the specimen
were broken off during the growing season. Each
bud is capable of producing a new cane bearing
leaves, fruit clusters and tendrils.
70 PRINCIPLES AND PKAC1 U K OF PRUNING
range of development, the majority being approximately
the same, with early blooming and fruiting varieties in
the lead, but not so markedly as among the plums.
68. When fruit buds may be recognized. — Attempts to
determine the approximate date when fruit buds may be
distinguished by the naked eye show that observers
should be guided partly 'by the positions in which such
buds normally appear. Peach and plum fruit buds may
be easily found in early fall, so may cherries, partly by
position, partly by their larger size. With apple and pear
the feat is less easy. Increased size is not pronounced
enough until late November or early December; how-
ever, a pocket lens which magnifies 10 or 15 times will
help locate such buds during October.
69. Summary and conclusions. — •!. Oldenburg apple fruit
buds began to form in late June. Several other varieties
showed similar development ; a large majority of the fruit
buds formed in July, though the initial stages in many
cases appeared late into the summer. Development con-
tinued through summer and fall with completion of flower
parts by about November 1. Development through the
winter was mostly microscopic. In late February and
early March important development occurred in the es-
sential organs prior to blossoming.
2. Kieffer pear fruit buds did not begin to differentiate
until after mid-July. Initial flower parts appeared in
August. Development was rapid during the fall up to
mid-November when the flower buds in the cluster were
fairly well advanced. Unimportant changes occurred
during the winter. In late February and early March,
changes were similar to those in the apple.
3. Luster peach fruit buds began to form the first week
in August. In about three months they were ready for
wintering. After November 1 no noticeable change oc-
curred until February, though cytological changes were
BUDS
71
FIG. 52— RED CURRANT BLOOM
CLUSTER
Buds borne on last season's
wood; leaves and bloom together.
Young wood like this bears more
profusely and larger fruit than
does older wood.
FIG. 53
GOOSEBERRY
Notice that the
flowers are produced
from over-wintering
buds on wood of the
previous season.
occurring in the essential organs.
Some buds showed division in the pollen mother-cells
after mid-December; others had mature pollen grains in
mid-January, a process complete at the end of that month
when the buds were ready to unfold, which they did
during February and early March.
4. Plum fruit buds showed wider variation of develop-
ment than those of apples. Among Japanese varieties
they began to appear the second week in July ; among
Americans, the first week ; among hortulanas the first
72 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
week in September. In this last case (the variety most
studied) the buds differentiated into flower parts during
October and continued development until late December.
During January development was only cytological. in
early February this variety resumed active growth and
by the end of the month had developed important changes
in the essential organs. The flowers were then ready to
unfold.
5. Louis Phillippe cherry fruit buds began to form the
first week in July, and by the close of the month the
flower parts had begun to differentiate, but development
proceeded slowly through summer and fall until late
November. From then until February changes were
cytological. In late February the essential changes had
taken place. The buds began to swell rapidly and were
ready to unfold in early March.
6. The following general conclusions are deduced from
the foregoing data:
(a) Buds which produce the crop of bloom for the
current year are formed the preceding summer; initial
fruit bud formation has its beginning in June or July, de-
pending on seasonal conditions and the kind of fruit.
(b) The proper development of the fruit bud would,
therefore, be influenced by factors brought to bear upon
the tree prior to and during the period at which fruit
bud formation takes place. In the practice of such or-
chard operations as are designed to influence or control
fruit bud formation it appears that such operations should
be more effective in spring and early summer than at
other stages of development.
Among his conclusions J. H. Gourley reports the fol-
lowing (somewhat condensed) :*
70. Bud studies of Baldwin apple. — The formation
of axillary buds on current season's growth is not
uncommon with the Baldwin and many other varieties
of apples. In alternate bearing trees we find a
* New Hampshire Technical Bulletin No. 9.
DQ £
tu 2
O -g
U 3
Z JJ
,
00 £
o &
74 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRCXIXC
heavier deposition of food material in the storage
tissues when the tree has formed fruit buds. On the
average we found about 4 per cent greater specific gravity
of the twigs and branches in winter condition where fruit
buds were formed [than where they were absent]. A
much larger leaf area is produced in the "off" year than
in the bearing year, amounting to 2.08 square inches
more to the leaf in the trees studied.
A second period of fruit bud formation the latter part
of summer and early fall is evidenced by the fruit buds
formed on the terminus of the second growth.
No relationship could be traced between the rainfall of
the growing season and the fruit bud formation in this
experiment through a period of seven years. . . . The
plots where the moisture ran the lowest during the period
of fruit bud formation, coupled with good growing con-
ditions earlier in the season, produced the largest number
of fruit buds.
Trees receiving cultivation, and cultivation with cover,
greatly increased their capacity for fruit bud formation
over trees standing in sod.
The use of fertilizers in addition to cultivation has not
as yet increased the fruit bud formation.
71. Currants and gooseberries bear their fruit buds
largely upon shoots which grew "last season" (Figs. 49,
50). They also produce spurs which are often so short
as to be mistaken for buds. Such spurs are. however,
always on wood more than one season old ; in other words
a wood bud last season developed a twig perhaps only %
inch long and produced a terminal cluster bud on this
tiny growth. This year the bud will not only develop
leaves and fruits, but will extend more or less and pro-
duce one to several cluster buds or wood buds or both
kinds. Currant and gooseberry spurs, rarely grow more
than 1 inch long, perhaps because the tendency of the
plants is to develop fruit on young wood — wood of last
season, and two or three seasons ago. Bushes that have
BUDS
75
been allowed to shift for themselves show that spurs
older than these ages lose the power to produce fruit and
what fruit they
do develop is of
inferior .size.
Not only so,
but the young-
er shoots borne
on old canes are
shorter and
bear fewer and
inferior fruits.
These phe-
n o m e n a are
partly due to
the shoot itself
- its age, its
injuries by in-
sects and dis-
eases, etc., and
partly to the
crowding of
young growths
sent up from
the base of the
plant. For
these reasons,
therefore, fruit
growers rarely
allow canes to
grow more than
five years old;
in fact, many
prefer to cut them out after they have fruited two or three
times, or the three best new canes produced from the
stool each season are allowed to develop so as to keep
up a constant succession of young bearing wood.
FIG. 55— RED RASPBERRY FRUITING BRANCH
The erect stem grew last year and this year developed
its branches from over-wintering buds. After fruiting
the whole stem will die, therefore it may as well be cut
out as soon as the fruit has been harvested.
76 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
72. The bramble fruits (raspberries, blackberries, dew-
berries, etc.), like currants and gooseberries, develop new
canes from their stools or crowns, as the starting points
of their clumps are called, but these canes never live
longer than two seasons. This year the cane grows and
becomes more or less woody. It may develop few to
several side branches. In some cases (St. Regis rasp-
berry) flowers and fruits may be borne during the latter
part of this summer, but normally not until next season.
In other words, the resting buds normally push out in
spring into shoots which terminate in flowers usually
borne in clusters. (Figs. 55, 56). Thus the branches
bear fruit on this season's leafy shoots produced from
resting buds on last season's wood.
Because the fruits are borne terminally the shoots can-
not extend to form long canes, as in the case of the grape
57). As soon as the fruit has ripened the canes begin
to decline. They are of no further use to the plant be-
cause they will die next winter. Therefore, many rasp-
berry growers cut them out as soon as they have fruited ;
others leave them until the following winter. The argu-
ment in favor of the former practice is that they are a
menace to the well being of the plant, since they interfere
with air circulation and light, and are sources of infesta-
tion both of insects and diseases. The argument in favor
of cutting them out during winter is that there is then
less danger of injuring the young canes by roughly pull-
ing the old ones out, that the danger of infestation and
the advantages of light and air are over-estimated, and
that the pruning can be done at a season when work is
not so pressing as during the summer.
73. Grapes resemble the bramble fruits in one respect,
but differ in another. Like the brambles, their leafy
shoots, developed from resting buds on last season's or
older wood, produce fruits this season, but unlike the
brambles their fruit clusters are not terminal. Therefore,
BUDS
77
grapes are not limited in either the age or the extent of
their 'shoots. To state the case succinctly, grapes, except
as noted below, bear their fruits on shoots developed from
resting buds on last season's growth. As each shoot de-
velops from a resting bud it unfolds leaves, opposite each
of which is a cluster of grapes or a tendril. Whether the
tendril is an aborted cluster, or the cluster a specialized
tendril is a point concerning which botanists are not
FIG. 56— BLACK RASPBERRY FRUITING LATERALS AND CANE
The large branch grew from the ground "last" year and developed buds from
which the leafy, fruiting branches developed "this" season. After the fruit has
ripened the whole branch will die. It may be therefore cut out of the stool or
hill as soon as the fruit has been gathered.
agreed. The fact that one blends into the other is well
shown in Figure 57 the lowest cluster being complete,
the next one provided with a tendril, and the third being
rather a tendril with a little cluster as a side issue. With
knowledge that each resting bud on last year's canes is
capable of producing two to five clusters of grapes, the
78
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
pruner can decide in a general way beforehand how he
shall cut each cane in order to produce a given number
of bunches to the vine, a crop of a certain weight to the
acre, or of a certain quality. Seasonal conditions may alter
his calculations made at pruning time during winter, but
skillful pruners' calculations are close to the actual yields.
FIG. 57— CHARACTERISTIC GRAPE SHOOT OF A LABRUSCA VARIETY
This shoot developed from an over-wintering bud. Note that a tendril is
opposite each leaf and that the lowest three of these tendrils have formed clusters
of fruit. Observe also that two of these are part cluster and part tendril. In the
axils of the leaves are buds which will form laterals. These rarely produce fruit
in the northeastern United States because the season is too short.
Usually only two to five of the lower buds on the canes
produce clusters, but under favorable conditions shoots
produced in the axils of this year's leaves may develop
lateral canes which may produce and mature clusters of
fruits. In some cases this method may be again repeated
by secondary laterals produced on the first laterals, so
that in a sense a cane would bear three crops of grapes
during the same season.
BUDS
79
74. Pruning vs. no pruning. — C. A. Keffer * draws the
following conclusions from a series of experiments in
pruning.
Unpruned grape canes give a heavier total yield of fruit the first
season neglected than do pruned canes, but the average bunch weight
is much less. As the result of over-bearing much of the new growth
will die, thus greatly reducing the next crop.
The base bud in Concord, Niagara, Delaware and Brighton grapes
gave the lightest weight of fruit. In Niagara and Delaware the
average yield from the second bud was over twice as much as from
the first bud, while in
Concord and Brighton
it was more than half
again as much. In all
four varieties the yield
from the third bud was
greater than from the
second. Considering the
first 12 buds (grape
canes are seldom left
longer than 12 nodes at
pruning), the greatest
yield is reached in
Concord at the sixth
bud, in Niagara and
Delaware at the eighth
bud, and in Brighton at
the tenth bud.
Arranging the buds
in groups of three,
Concord gives the best
yield from buds 4 to 6 ;
Niagara, Delaware and
Brighton from buds 7
to 9. The relative order
of yield for the four
groups is as follows : Concord, group 2, 3, 1, 4 ; Niagara, group
3, 4, 2, 1 ; Delaware, group 3, 2, 4, 1 ; Brighton, group 3, 4, 2, 1.
Concord is better adapted than the other varieties named to short-
spur systems of pruning and training. In this variety it would prob-
ably be more profitable to reduce the number of spurs to the vine
and increase the length of the spur to six buds. Niagara and
Brighton would seem to be most profitably pruned at the tenth and
the twelfth buds. While there is less difference between the yields
of buds 1 to 6 and 7 to 12 in Delaware, the indications favor the
longer cane.
FIG. 58— HOW QUINCE BEARS BLOOM
Flowers terminal on shoots of the growing sea-
son. The main terminal of last year made an at-
tempt to produce a fruit, as shown by the abortive
mummy. Note that the buds below this mummy
have produced new shoots with bloom buds. Thus
the blooming wood is only about one month old
and the shoot bearing it a year old.
* Tennessee Experiment Station Bulletin 77.
80
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
In long-cane systems, horizontal training is preferable to upright
or diagonal training, as the lower buds of the cane are better
nourished in the horizontal systems.
The observations and conclusions
herein indicated, being based on one
crop, are not to be regarded as con-
clusive, but rather as a preliminary
report.
75. The quince Fig. 58.-
Last season the quince de-
veloped resting buds which all
looked alike. This spring the
buds that grow will develop
leafy shoots, mostly short .
Some of these shoots in favored
positions will produce terminal
blossoms. Hence the shoots of
the quince, at least in the fruit-
bearing parts of the plant, are
irregular because the direction
of growth is changed wherever
a fruit is borne. This method
of blossom bearing is called
coter.minal, because the flowers
are at the tips of axial shoots
of this season.
" Flowers are unquestionably formed
the season previous to their expan-
sion in quince, raspberry, blackberry
and grape, notwithstanding the fact that no flower buds can be dis-
tinguished in autumn in these plants. — [E. S. Goff.*
FIG. 59
QUINCE METHOD OF FRUITING
a, b, c, positions where fruits
were borne in previous years.
d, Last year's mummied fruit.
Notice that the fruits are borne
terminally and that new twigs
(a, b) appear from lateral buds
close to the points where the
fruits were produced the previous
year.
* Wisconsin Annual Report 1901.
CHAPTER V
PRUNING PRINCIPLES
Horticultural literature is full of rules for pruning, but
since many of these apply to specific plants, aims and con-
ditions, and therefore may not apply to other plants, aims
and conditions, the reader is likely to encounter many
apparent contradictions. From the standpoint of prac-
tice the student can become proficient only by working
with a considerable number of plants, not merely speci-
mens, but varieties and species, under widely varying
environments. This is because no two specimens grow-
ing even side by side are alike. The differences in habit
shown by varieties of the same species are still greater,
and those between species greater yet ; and all these dif-
ferences are augmented or modified by the natural or
artificial conditions under which the plants are growing.
In order, therefore, to eliminate or at least somewhat
reduce this confusion, the effort has been made to state
the most important principles upon which rational prun-
ing is based.
76. Pruning aims. — The aims of pruning may be
grouped under three ideals. Namely, the forester's, the
landscape gardener's or ornamental horticulturist's and
the flower or fruit grower's. So far as pruning is con-
cerned the forester is mainly interested in securing tree
trunks which shall be free from large knots and decay.
He considers beauty of form and yield of fruit little if at
all. The landscape gardener and the ornamental horti-
culturist endeavor to have their plants attractive, either
as individual specimens or as groups. If they consider
the trunks of their specimens, it is not with a forester's
eye to later profit, and if they think of the fruit at all it
is for the sake of beauty. The florist and the fruit grower,
81
82
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUMNG
like the landscape gardener, look to the health of their
trees, shrubs and vines, but their main aim is the flower
or the fruit.
77. Pruning principles classified. — While these three
men differ in their ultimate aims, the methods they em-
ploy may be grouped under two main heads; namely, (1)
those which consider the health
and the behavior of the plant-
pruning proper, and (2) those
which consider the develop-
ment of size and form of the
plant — training. \Yhile these
principles, are more or less dis-
tinct, some of them neverthe-
less blend into each other. They
may be summarized in the fol-
lowing table :
A. Pruning proper
1. Principles which deal with the
removal of injured or unnec-
essary parts.
2. Principles which affect vegeta-
tive vigor.
3. Principles which affect flower
and fruit production.
4. Principles which change the
wood-bearing habit into the
fruit-bearing habit, or vice versa.
B. Training
1. Principles which limit the size
or the form of plants.
2. Principles which affect planta-
tion management, as in the
facilitation of tillage, spraying, harvesting, etc.
3. Principles which underly training to special forms.
The most important principles which come under the
former of these heads (78 to 112) are deduced from the
laws of plant physiology (Chapter II). The others are
mainly based upon convenience, economy or experience.
Familiarity with these principles will enable the operator
FIG. 60— "DER END OF DER
LIMIT" IN PRUNING
This weeping willow wept sev-
eral of its upper branches, so a
tree butcher slashed out a lot of
the top. When his ghastly work
was done it was decided to "go
him one better," so the main trunk
was cut as shown, leaving the
secondary trunk to its fate — for
already the stump shows decay.
PRUNING PRINCIPLES 83
to approach a new variety or species with more confidence
than if he have nothing but mere rule of thumb to guide
him.
PRINCIPLES STATED AND DISCUSSED
78. /. /;/ fruit production and in ornamental horticulture,
priming is of secondary importance to constant good man-
agement of the plants; in forestry it is an incidental in tree
growing.
This rule is axiomatic , for no amount of pruning will
make for the thrift of the plants where neglect and abuse
run riot. Furthermore, the man who neglects or abuses his
trees is not the one who will prune, except as some branch
happens to inconvenience him. Even then his pruning is
more likely to deserve the name of tree butchery (Fig.
61) than pruning.
79. 2. A definite ideal, familarity with the basic prin-
ciples, and a careful consideration of environment are es-
sential to best pruning practice.
This principle is also axiomatic, for unless the primer
know what he is aiming at he cannot hit the mark; unless
he apply the right principles he may work to the injury or
the inferiority of the plant; and unless he study the environ-
ment he cannot apply what principles he may know as in-
telligently as he otherwise might.
80. ?. Climate and locality markedly influence both the
necessity and the effects of pruning. Methods that succeed
under one set of local conditions must be modified or avoided
under otliers.
Plants show considerable differences of development in
different parts of the country, even in the same state, as
noted below. Then, too, local influence must be considered.
Tn regions where the winters are mild, say from New
Jersey to Ohio and southward, wounds may in no wise injure
the trees pruned in winter; whereas where the winters are
84
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
very cold and dry, as in the plains region of Nebraska and
adjacent states, wounds made at that season may allow so
much water to evaporate from the cut surfaces that the
trees may suffer more or less seriously from winterkilling.
In such regions it is advisable to avoid breaking the bark
between mid-autumn and early spring. Damage may be
wrought in hot and dry regions, as in Arkansas, Oklahoma.
FIG. 61— THE TREE BUTCHER S
METHOD
"Pruning" with an axe is a
common tree crime in the neg-
lected home orchard. Such wounds
never heal over, but always shorten
the life of the tree because decay
will work its way into the heart
wood of the trunk. Figs. 84 and 203
show advanced stages of this work.
FIG. 62
UPRIGHT LIMB REPLACES
HORIZONTAL ONE
How this tree trunk became bent
to horizontal is not known. The
trunk after bending extended hori-
zontally to the right, but as the
vertical water sprout developed it
robbed the prostrate trunk of food.
The trunk shortly died, broke off
and the stub slowly healed over.
Arizona and bordering states, by sun scalding, which often
follows severe pruning, but such pruning generally indicates
that the trees have been neglected perhaps during several
to many years. Doubtless in such regions less pruning is
necessary than in more humid regions.
While New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and other eastern
states with long extent north and south present considerable
differences in pruning practice, a more striking instance is
PRUNING PRINCIPLES 85
to be found in the state of Washington,* where the Cascade
mountains divide the state into two climates, a cloudy humid
area to the west and a clear dry one to the east. In the
humid area the abundance of moisture in air and soil, and
the mild climate favor excessive wood development, often
an annual growth of 6 to 10 feet of cherry and prune
branches. The trees continue to grow late in the autumn and
fully ripened wood is often difficult to secure. Severe winter
pruning aggravates the evil of this excessive wood growth
by making more and longer wood growths. To check
growth, therefore, growers resort to summer pruning, shoot-
pinching and even root pruning. The eastern or dry area
is characterized by "a long, dry summer with a -fierce,
scorching sun and strong, drying winds . . . followed by
a severe winter with fluctuating temperature and sudden
changes. In portions of the fruit belt there is barely enough
moisture in the ground to sustain a tree." Under these con-
ditions trees "come to maturity at an early age, and produce
fruit at a time in their lives when they ought to be making
wood growth and establishing a strong, healthy frame for
future usefulness." In this region severe pruning is done
in winter so as to overcome the tendency for the trees to
bear too young. Cherries fruit at two years; pears an 1
apples bear full crops at five or six. The winter pruning
is done to increase wood and leaf growth. Summer prun-
ing and shoot-pinching are avoided in the dry area. In the
dry plains region, the tops of trees must be kept more dense
than in moister regions.
The fruit in these dry areas is less likely to suffer from
shade than from exposure to sun and wind. In the east
most orchardists keep the lower limbs up from the ground,
to improve the flavor and the color of the fruit; in the
central west this precaution is needless ; therefore, very low-
headed trees are more popular than in the east, because the
trunks and. branches are believed thus to be better protected
from sun scald.
* Bulletin 25, Washington Experiment Station.
86
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
81. 4. Pruning does not alter the natural habit of plants,
for pruned plants resume their normal habit when left to
themselves.
Ordinary observation will show that each plant — speci-
men, variety and species — has an individuality which dis-
tinguishes it from every other plant. No matter what way
or how much it may be pruned, therefore, it will seek to ex-
press that individuality in the new growth which follows
pruning, and its success
will be largely propor-
tional to its vigor.
Trees which naturally
sprawl, like Winter
Nelis pear and Rhode
Island Greening apple,
cannot be made to
grow erect by mere
pruning, and those nor-
mally erect, like North-
ern Spy and Rartlett,
cannot be made to
droop. Rational prun-
ing, therefore, seeks
merely to correct faults
and to maintain the
natural form of the
tree.
The proof of this rule is seen in the wilds and in orchards
which formerly were trained in more or less artificial ways,
but which have latterly been neglected. In nature trees
which have been blown over or bent and held down by other
trees falling upon them frequently develop new leaders
(Fig. 62, 63) ; in neglected .orchards the formal outline of
the artificially trained tree may often be traced through the
surrounding younger growths which make a top more or
less strikingly different in form.
FIG. 63
LEADER RENEWED IN BROKEN TREE
PRUNING PRINCIPLES 87
82. 5. Plants of the same species or variety vary in habit
according to their age, hence must be pruned more or less
differently at different ages.
The tendency for young plants is to make vigorous erect
growths rapidly. As they more and more nearly approach
the height at which the variety may be said to have reached
maturity the more does the rate and extent of growth de-
crease. Nothing perhaps has so marked an influence in this
respect as fruit bearing. The Kieffer pear, one of the most
striking of instances, prior to fruit bearing, shoots upward
rapidly and forms an erect tree ; but when fruit bearing be-
gins these long limbs bend over and spread the tree often
widely. Hence it is necessary to bear Principle S in mind so
as to avoid injuring young trees by injudicious pruning.
Later when the trees begin to bear or are in full bearing the
treatment may be considerably changed to suit the new type
of growth.
83. 6. Severe pruning of the branches favors or increases
vegetative growth (i. e., wood production); hence it may
be employed to help invigorate iveak plants.
From plant physiology (Chapter II) it is evident that
every plant which is growing normally has a perfect balance
between its roots and its top. The root supplies the top
with crude food materials and the top supplies the root with
elaborated plant food. Thus each furnishes the other with
nourishment. As the roots increase in number and extent,
therefore, the larger the quantity of crude food taken in the
larger must become the leaf development and consequently
that of the whole plant.
Should a considerable amount of the top be removed , for
instance, by breakage due to an overload of fruit, or ice, by
storm (Fig. 94), by excessive pruning or by such tree
butchery as telegraph, telephone and electric linemen and
others too often practice (Figs. 64, 65), the amount
of crude food taken up by the roots will be distributed
in larger proportion to the remaining parts, unless
88
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
the root area be also reduced by root pruning. In other
words, removal of the top upsets the balance between root
and top. The result is that the remaining parts make greater
vegetative growth than they normally would make and often
water sprouts (Fig. 65), and suckers may be developed in
greater or lesser number and size. Hence gardeners have
formulated the rule that weak-growing shrubs should have
their tops pruned severely, but strong ones only lightly.
Should severe pruning become necessary to correct the form
Fir.. 64— ONE OF THE WORST FOES
OF TREES IS THE "LINE MAN-
FIG. 65— TREE'S ATTEMPT TO
OFFSET BUTCHERING
<;r to train a plant, under-stimulation of the top may bo
avoided by doing the work piecemeal, say a quarter to n
third at a time, with an interval of a week to perhaps several
months between, depending upon the character of the plant
being pruned — herbaceous ones, such as tomatoes grown
under glass, requiring very frequent, perhaps even semi-
weekly removal of small quantities of foliage, and.trees de-
manding not more than one or at most two primings a year.
84. Injurious effects of pruning on the growth of tree trunks are
reported hy German investigators who say the average thickness of
PRUNING PRINCIPLES 89
the limbs of many trees pruned in pyramidal form was 8.4 centimeters ;
pruned by removing only dead and crossed branches 9.5 ; and the
unpruned trees 11.7. Contrary to the general belief that regular
pruning seems to make stockier trees, these experiments indicate
that strong pruning prevents the rapid growth of the stem rather
than furthers it.
85. Pruned Tomatoes.— In West Virginia,* L. C. Corbett found
that tomatoes pruned after the fruit set produced a greater number
of ripe fruits to the plant up to September 1 than did unpruned
plants, but the total yield from each plant for the whole season was
less. Of the various methods of pruning tomatoes, the single stem
method gave somewhat earlier and larger fruits, but lessened the
total yield considerably.
86. English experiments in apple pruning.— At Woburn, England,
S. U. Pickering has conducted pruning experiments for 12 years.
He reports that trees dug up and weighed show that the less a tree
is pruned the larger and heavier it becomes. At the end of the 12
years those trees not pruned were 20 per cent heavier than the
moderately pruned ones, whereas the heavily pruned trees were 16
per cent lighter. Since the difference in weight between the un-
pruned and the moderately pruned trees is greatly in excess of the
wood removed by pruning, it is concluded that pruning does not
increase the actual size of the tree, but even results in less new
wood being formed. When similar branches on the same tree were
pruned to different extents, it was found that the less the pruning
the greater the number, length and weight of new shoots formed
and the increase in girth of the original branch.
The reduction in pruning appears more marked as regards the
crop. With dwarf apple trees, during the first five years, the crops
from unpruned trees were more than twice as great as from those
hard pruned. These differences were increased during the second
period of five years, and at the end of the twelfth year the unpruned
trees yielded nearly three times as much as the moderately pruned
ones, while the hard-pruned ones had practically no crop at all.
(Only one variety was in fruit for comparison during the twelfth
year.)
Similar results were obtained with trees of 53 and 80 varieties of
crab and paradise stocks, respectively. The trees were not allowed
to overbear, and it is claimed that the size of fruit obtained from
trees pruned to different extents was approximately the same, hence
the values of the crops were proportional to the weights. Confirma-
tive evidence of the antagonism of pruning to fruiting was obtained
by counting the fruit buds formed on similar branches of the same
tree, which was cut back to different extents. All of the above re-
sults refer to healthy, vigorous-growing trees.
With dwarf apple trees 15 years old the author finds that hard
pruning results in an increase of the new wood formed, but that
* Bulletin 49.
90
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
the crops are even more reduced by the pruning than in former
years. This result is said to apply also to trees which have become
stunted, as from root injury in transplanting.
Since hard pruning has been shown to be the correction for fruit-
ing, it is concluded that freshly planted trees should be cut back
hard to prevent stunting by precocious fruiting.
With trees which were not cut back until the end
of the first season, the average size of the leaf
was 24 per cent less and the new wood formed
45 per cent less than with similar trees cut
back when planted. The ultimate result was
found to be that trees not cut back until the
end of the first year continued to form wood
in subsequent years, and the crop borne by
them during the first 10 years was only one-
third of that borne by those which were cut
back when planted.
Experiments on apples, pears and plums
show that the date of cutting back a freshly
planted tree is immaterial, provided it is done
before growth begins. If delayed until after
the growth is well started the season's growth
is much reduced. The remits were the same
when the lopping was doneBuring the dormant
period. Lopping toward the end of May or a
few weeks after growth started, resulted in a
less growth during the year. This was more
than compensated, however, by an additional
growth during the succeeding season.
While it appears to be established from
these experiments that the crops are larger
^nd the growth of the tree greater in propor-
tion as the pruning is reduced, the experi-
menter believes that another series of experi-
ments might demonstrate that a certain
amount of pruning may be good and even lead
to better results, especially with certain va-
rieties of apples which differ largely in their
habits of growth and require different treat-
ment.
The general conclusions reached are that
prunings should be reduced to the lowest
possible limits consistent with the formation
of a tree of sufficient sturdiness to bear its
crops with safety, which in most cases would
mean, besides the cutting back after planting,
a gradually reduced pruning for the first four or five years. Prun-
ing after this time should consist merely in the removal of interfer-
ing branches and unripened wood. With precocious varieties or
FIG. 66
YEARLING GROWTH
CUT BACK
To cut back one-
year-old growth does
not materially change
the direction of the
limb, yet it keeps the
fruit-bearing area low.
Note that the upper-
most buds have made
strongest growth.
PR
G PRINCIPL
91
should be greater or continued
with standard than with dwarf
desirable to produce a compact
gins.
e roots reduces vegetative
on) ; hence it may be employed
fple No. 6. In a sense it is
when the tops of plants are
very weak growers the
longer. More pruning is
trees, since with the sta
head before heavy crop
87. J. Severe pruning
growths (i. e., wood prodit
to induce fniitfulness.
This is th
equivalent t
poorly supp
they tend
It doe
lack o
or to
sao takerT*up by,
results are the
inciple
at ion in tlier un-
tion of root area
of nursery and
other TflSRTs*' for transplanting.
No matter how cargfully such
work is perform^^ an enor-
mous amount (often more than
90 per cent) on the feeding
area-^JI2) is cut off, thus re-
ducing y the* Supply t)f fooH
which <xm be sent up to the
s. To offset this unbalanced
«»^ « FIG. 67
ditioruand to ^distribute the HOW CROOKED BRANCHES
•k , - , « re ARE MADE
uced Bpjjp\p£4pod effec- Cutting back second.year growth
tivelv, the tOp mUSt be reduced produces crooked branches, as the
latter growth will not be erect.
very considerably. Some plant-
ers adv^ate removing'not less than three-quarters of the
iar's growth, and in many cases all but one
strong TITO on that growth. This tends to establish a new
balance between root and. top.
dy^at
io^^^
nTO
92 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
Root pruning is largely practiced by those nurseries which
make a specialty of specimen plants several years old. It
is performed by passing a large U-shaped knife from end
to end of the nursery rows beneath the trees so as to cut
the long roots at varying depths. In order to secure best
results, the trees are set in check rows, so the second cutting
may be done at right angles to the first. This method com-
pels the plants to produce many short fibrous roots in a
clump close to the base of the stems. The chief advantages
of the practice are (1) that the specimens may be traine 1
to any desired form in the nursery, where they may remain
for several years, all the while becoming more valuable ;
and (2) the extensive root system, limited to a small area,
is not seriously enough injured in digging to make the cutting
of the top necessary to re-establish a balance.
Root pruning also finds employment in growing dwarf
fruit trees and trees trained on walls and in special forms,
such as espalier (283) and cordons (282). Unless the
work is regularly done the trees are almost sure to de-
velop unduly and to frustrate the objects sought. Its
practice is mainly limited in America to amateur plantations.
At Harper-Adams Agricultural College* (England) root and
branch pruning experiments during several years stimulated tnv
growth considerably, the effect being most marked on the weakest
growing variety tested, Cox's Orange Pippin. The most fruit buds
were formed on the unpruned trees.
In an effort to make six espalier pear trees develop fruit buds,
R. L. Castlef root-pruned two on both sides, two on one side only.
the other two not at all, in January and February. Nothing special
was rioted that year, but the following year the trees pruned on one
side produced a fair crop of good fruit; those severely pruned bad
very few fruits, while those unpruned were still unfruitful. One
of the latter trees pruned later gave results similar to the earlier
root-pruned trees.
88. 8. Suckers and water sprouts are produced b\ local
or general disturbance of plant equilibrium. The time of
year when the pruning is done has less influence upon their
* Report 1910, Page 52.
tjour. Royal Hort. Soc. (London) 29. Nos. 1-3, Pages 146-160.
PRUNING PRINCIPLES
93
formation than docs the extent of the pruning and the
vigor of the plant pruned.
As already noted under Principle No. 6, increased vegeta-
tive growth results from excessive pruning of the top, and
water sprouts and suckers may be developed to a greater
or lesser extent. "\Yhen the plants are below normal vigor
and when the root area is smaller than the top really needs,
plant food will not be elaborated in sufficient quantity to
FIC. 68— ONE WAY HORIZONTAL BRANCHES ARE KILLED
When wat^r sprouts develop vertically from horizontal branches the parts
beyond die sooner or laler. In this case the main branch beyond the erect ones has
died. One water sprout was cut off (see scar at base of middle one) to perm.t
taking a less confused photo.
produce water sprouts and suckers; for these growths are
dependent upon ample if not excessive food for their de-
velopment. Hence season of pruning cannot be a primary
influence in their production. They may develop as the re-
94
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
suit of ringing (98 to 103), girdling, notching, twisting or
bending the stems, because in such cases the flow of elab-
orated sap has been checked and the food thus held back
must find an outlet above the constriction.
Doubtless the time of year when the pruning is done has
some influence upon the production of such growths. Com-
mon observation shows that t^ey are produced mainly dur-
ing spring. Rarely do they appear after midsummer, be-
cause by that time the plants
are ripening up the tissues
rapidly formed early in the
season, there is little or no
food to spare and in general
growth has ceased. Ex-
perience also teaches that
plants pruned in mid-
summer rarely produce
water sprouts or suckers
the same season because of
the cessation of growth just
discussed. Even during the
FIG. 69— POORLY "PRUNED" PEAR following spring the num-
The ends of the horizontal branches U^.- onH CIVA r»f fVir»c#» ixrViirVi
were cut off, with the result that a lot her ancl Slze Ot
of "sap-pumping" growths developed. f|o appear will be smaller
No care was given these new growths,
or they would not have grown nearly than when pruning IS done
so long and spindling. They have,
however, begun to bear fruit, as in- dtmilg the dormant
dicated by the short, stubby spurs. TVi" K V«
have ample time in which to make readjustment to the
changed conditions in their tops.
The usual way in which any excess elaborated food is
utilized in such cases is in the increased development of
twigs already formed. Note the discussion as to summer
pruning in eastern Washington (80). The suggestion to
be drawn from this principle is that the fear of water sprout
and sucker production should never influence the primer.
These growths are largely the result of previous neglect,
PRUNING PRINCIPLES . 95
but later attention should prevent their becoming a menace
to the plant.
89. Renewal pruning of apple and pear.— E. S. Goff* points out that
as apple trees increase in age the size of the fruit tends to become
smaller. This he believes to be due to the increased difficulty of
sap circulation in the fruit-bearing twigs. An instance is pointed
out in which water sprouts on part of an apple tree were allowed
to develop in place of a large limb that had been broken off. The
fruit in this part of the tree was much larger than on the remaining
older parts. The question is therefore raised whether the size of
fruit on old apple and pear trees cannot be maintained by a careful
system of renewal pruning.
90. p. Since each plant part is Individual (39), competi-
tion among the parts may make one part thrive at the ex-
pense of another,
As elaborated plant food is formed it passes to growing
and storage tissues (20). Toward the close of the season
much of it is stored in or near the buds which are to start
growth the following spring, when, with crude sap, it pushes
out into shoots, leaves or flowers. There is thus competition
among these various parts for a share of both kinds of food ;
but only those favorably placed or, through some unex-
pected circumstance, such as a constriction, similarly
favored, secure an adequate supply of each. Then other
things may give certain twigs the lead and the inferior ones
a check. Hence each shoot draws upon its parent branch
both for elaborated food and crude sap. Nay, more,
each may steal from its fellows, as when very lush shoots,
such as water sprouts and suckers, are produced. These
shoots are seldom furnished with sufficient leaves to supply
their own needs., so, being watery, they draw elaborated
plant food from nearby twigs and limbs. For this reason
careful fruit growers remove these shoots while small be-
tween mid-spring and early summer, so as to direct the
plant food where it will do the most good. The sprouts,
being green, are easily broken off at the time mentioned.
The slight wounds formed, being small, readily heal in a
few weeks.
* Am. Card. 23, No. 285, Page 302.
FIG. 70— TWENTY-YEAR-OLD CATALPA PLANTATION
Note that the trees are practically erect and almost branchless below. They
have reached up to the light, and the lower branches have died because of lick
of lijjht. They have either broken off or been cut,
PRUNING PRINCIPLES 97
91. 10. The uppermost buds, especially on young plants,
tend to grow most vigorously.
Ordinary observation shows, and philosophy explains
(Chapter III), that, due to the fight for air and light among
the twigs, growth is from the uppermost buds. This na-
tural method may be suppressed or emphasized according
to the way the plants are managed. Shortening the annual
growths (106) checks development and so does the forma-
tion of constrictions (98). These two methods each deserve
separate discussion.
92. //. By shortening the twigs npo)i which they are
borne, axillary buds may be more fully developed than would
normally be the case if the twigs were not shortened.
It stands to reason that when part of a shoot is removed
the food intended by the plant for the whole shoot will
reach the remaining part in relatively larger supply. But
this principle connotes still more. It deals largely with the
practice of heading-in, a process which tends to broaden
and thicken the top of the plant so treated. One or other
of two objects may be secured by heading-in; namely, (1)
the correction of an undesirable habit of growth and (2)
the encouragement of fruit production (Principle 17, below).
Each of these objects may involve the consideration of one
or more of the following factors: (a) The grower's pref-
erence as to the way the trees shall be trained, (b) the dis-
tance between the trees, (c) the nature of the trees, es-
pecially whether standard or dwarf, and (d) the rate of
growth.
a. On the first point, the grower's preference, probably no
one man can exactly meet the ideas of another man. It is
usually a case of "what he likes, he likes." When a thick,
round-headed tree is the aim, shortening-in must be prac-
ticed ; when an open centered one, it must be shunned, unless
possibly before the tree comes into bearing.
b. When trees are set close together, just as when their
tops are dense, the -effort to secure air and light tends to
98
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
induce long slender growth (Fig. 70). The same is true
in very humid climates (80). Shortening to keep the tree
heads within bounds may be done when the growths attain
lengths of 3 or more feet in a season, but since mature and
bearing trees rarely make such excessive growths, the prac-
tice is usually needed only with unfruitful or young trees.
Excessive growth in mature trees generally indicates too
rich, moist soil, or excessive pruning; hence the remedy is
to check growth by making the proper
correction, or to have recourse to sum-
mer pruning, as practiced in Washington
(80). The proper correction for excess
moisture may be drainage or the use of
a thirsty cover crop, such as clover or
hairy vetch; that for too great fertility,
a "nitrogen-consuming" cover crop, such
as oats or rye ; that for excessive pruning
is to avoid winter pruning as much as
possible. Heading-in during winter will
only make matters worse.
c. Shortening-in the annual growths of
dwarf trees is done to prevent the de-
velopment of tops out of proportion to
the roots. This feature deserves special
treatment. (Chapter XVI.)
In all shortening-in it must be re-
membered that increased pruning in the
interior of the top is necessary, especially
when the work is done early in the growing season. For
often lateral growths, especially on summer-pruned grapes,
prove a great annoyance. The method is useful in helping
to secure sturdier branches and to develop frame limbs. It
need be employed less annually as the trees approach ma-
turity, when it may cease altogether.
So far the discussion has considered the style of heading-
in usually practiced by gardeners and amateurs who sec!:
specially fine specimens of fruit. A simpler method prac-
FIG. 71— TYPICAL
PASTURE - GROWN
WHITE PINE
Note that, though
50 feet high, the
trunk is branchy
nearly to the ground.
It will make inferior,
knotty and tapering
lumber.
PRUNING PRINCIPLES 99
ticed more largely by the commercial fruit grower is to cut
out whole branches, one, two or more years old, when these
extend beyond the general outline form and desired size of
the tree. In all such cases the cuts are made at the points
where the branches to be removed join older or larger
branches. Clean, close cuts are made. In a few years the
vacant spaces fill up with bearing wood. This plan is
especially popular in the management of stone fruits.
d. The rate of growth is a factor included in the discussion
in paragraph b above.
93. 12. Neither kind nor extent of pruning influences
fruit bearing as much as does the condition and the estab-
lished habit of the plant. Quiescence rather than stimula-
tion or spasmodic effort favors the fruit-bearing habit,
which is influenced b\ pruning, as well as bv other treat-
ment, more in \oung than in old plants.
Doubtless this principle is the most important of the score
discussed in this chapter, not because it emphasizes pruning
so much, but because it teaches the importance of continuous
good care of the plants. This matter of continuous good
care cannot be over-emphasized. But it is not with these
phases of plant management that this book is concerned:
pruning is the subject in hand.
Even casual observation will show that plants, even of the
same variety, differ more or less widely in habit, especially
in the habit of fruit bearing. So noticeable is this fact that
certain fruit growers and nurserymen favor so-called "pedi-
greed trees," these being propagated from trees of known
performance. Doubtless part of the phenomenal prolificacy
is due to individuality, but probably a large part is also due
to some unrecognized factor which favors fruit bearing,
so that the case may be more one of plant nurture than is
supposed.
But let us set aside such cases and consider only average
ones. When once plants begin to bear, the bearing habit
should be maintained. Nothing will favor this more than
100 J'KIXC II'I.KS AM) PRACTICE OK I'Kl'XIXG
judicious, continuous good management. Whatever seri-
ously upsets the equilibrium so established will almost surely
also upset the bearing habit. In cases where the bearing
habit has never been developed, either due to neglect or
improper management, experiment may enable the grower
to discover a remedy such as giving a different type of till-
FIG. 72
BRANCHES OF l.OW-HEADED TREES TEND TO ASCEND AT ACUTE ANC.l HS
This drawing from a photograph shows that trees started with low heads hive
branches that approach the vertical. Compare with high-headed trees (Figs. 3, 22>>.<.
age, a change of plant food, a better type of disease and
insect control or a more or less radically different style of
pruning.
A neglected orchard will furnish a typical case. Suppose
the tillage, spraying and other factors just mentioned to be
PRUNING PRINCIPLES JQJ
what they may; let us consider only the pruning. In this
orchard it is evident that the first aim of pruning must be
to overcome the neglect rather than directly to establish
fruit bearing. Heavy pruning may be necessary and much
new wood may be produced (81, 83, 88), and the tree may
take one or perhaps several years to adjust itself to the new
order, but the rational treatment that should have been given
while the trees were young will win in time. All will be
lost, however, if the grower lets up, for the orchard will
quickly return to its former undesirable condition.
This last statement shows why orchards severely pruned
only once in several years are so notoriously barren. They
are literally prevented from establishing the bearing habit
by being thrown out and kept out of balance. Annual good
care is necessary to secure good crops. Were the wholesale
pruning spread out, then, over several years, a little and
often an equal total amount of wood might have been re-
moved and yet the trees might have been brought into bear-
ing and kept actively fruitful.
One of the most common forms of disturbance of equili-
brium is over-bearing. It is almost invariably succeeded a
year later by the reverse condition. So common is this
phenomenon that we have "full years" and "off years."
Extremes tend to follow each other until the alternate year
bearing habit becomes established, perhaps so firmly that it
cannot be corrected, at least in old trees. Since the habit
is most pronounced in long-lived plants, such as apple and
pear, the conclusion seems safe that the habit started during
the early years of the trees, and has been emphasized more
and more as the trees grew older. Though pruning may
have some effect in changing such a condition, more es-
pecially as affected by principle No. 18, it is only one of the
factors that may be influential.
It is well understood that a check to growth favors fruit
bearing, but this bearing habit may easily be lost unless
efforts are made to keep it up. While slow-growing and
K)' PtfllN'CiPi.'KS AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
moderate-sized trees are often very fruitful, they are not
necessarily so. Many instances might be mentioned of trees
which have grown both very rapidly and very large, and
yet have come into bearing young and been remarkably
fruitful, perhaps each year, for a long series of years. Such
cases, probably without -exception, will be found to be due
to rational management from the start or, at least, from the
time when the fruit grower began such management.
94. Apple pruning investigations.*— Four years ago West Virginia
Experiment Station began a test involving various amounts of dor-
mant pruning in one orchard. The following spring this experiment
was greatly extended to include six orchards in various parts of the
state and 515 trees ranging from one to 25 years of age. In spite
of unfavorable circumstances some features stand forth clearly and
seem to warrant a preliminary report.
We will group the orchards and discuss two phases of the proj-
ect; namely, the effect of amount of pruning and season of pruning
upon vigor, growth and fruitfulness. In most cases the following
series of plots were obtained : 1. Heavy dormant pruning. 2. Mod-
erate dormant pruning. 3. Light, or corrective dormant pruning.
4. Heavy dormant and early summer pruning. 5. Moderate dormant
and early summer pruning. 6. Early summer pruning. 7. Repeated
summer pruning. 8. Midsummer pruning.
The early summer prunings were made at first during the last
week of May, but for the last two years were made about June 15.
The midsummer pruning was made from July 1 to July 15. The
repeated summer pruning was simply a combination of the early
and midsummer prunings.
95. Amount of dormant pruning. — Where varying amounts of dor-
mant pruning alone were considered, we would expect that the
heavier the pruning the longer and heavier would be the new growth
(83). This was invariably the case. The question then arose as to
whether the average length and diameter of the new growth is a
true index of vigor. We are constrained to believe that this is not
always the case, at least upon small trees.
The heavy pruning greatly reduced the number of buds and con-
sequently reduced the number of shoots which started. It seems
reasonable to believe that, though fewer in number, the shoots of
the heavily pruned trees actually measure up as great as those of
the lightly pruned back, perhaps even greater. To test this point,
two blocks were selected in one orchard, and one was heavily
pruned, while the other was lightly pruned. Annual measurements
were made of the new growth and the prunings.
* W. H. Alderman in Proceedings of the Society for Horticultural Science,
1915, Page 54.
PRUNING PRINCIPLES 103
The data obtained show that except at the very first, neither in
total length of growth nor in increase of trunk diameter, have the
heavily pruned trees made as satisfactory a gain as the lightly
pruned ones. The only possible deduction from the figures is that
continued heavy pruning acts as an inhibitor of growth rather than
as a stimulant. In must be borne in mind, however, that no account
was taken of the fact that the average diameter of the yearly
growth of the heavily pruned block was greater than of the lightly
pruned block, so that the real difference in amount or weight of
actual tissue produced was not as much as indicated in the table.
It is significant to note in this connection that in all the orchards
the lightly pruned trees are noticeably larger than the heavily
pruned ones. With few exceptions the increase of diameter of
trunk has been in inverse ratio to the amount of wood cut off.
Thus far we find that heavy pruning forces a rank growth, al-
though it retards, as a whole, the production of wood tissue. There
is presented an interesting question of whether heavy pruning and
particularly heavy heading back, tends to make more stocky that
portion of a branch produced one or more years previous to the
pruning. In other words, can a long slender branch be made more
stocky by vigorous heading in at the extremity?
96. Effect of heading-back on stockiness.— On the young trees on
which measurements were made to test this point the results were
not as clear cut as could be wished, yet they indicate on the whole,
that heavy heading-in tends to thicken the. branch more rapidly
than does light pruning [and this may be traced] even as far dowh
as that segment of branch produced four years previously. Thfe
is not well correlated to our own results regarding the increase in
trunk diameter as related to pruning. We frankly admit a high
probable error in this part of our data and do not lay undue em-
phasis upon this phase. It must be substantiated by further work.
In the matter of fruitfulness, interesting correlations were se-
cured. In the one middle-aged orchard in the test, heavy pruning
proved to be a stimulant to fruit production, whereas in the younger
orchards, it acted as an inhibitor.
In another six-year-old orchard the only fruits produced were
upon the lightly pruned block, and in a five-year-old orchard the
lightly pruned block averaged 85 per cent, and the heavily pruned
block 50 per cent. In young trees heavy pruning delayed fruit bear-
ing and light pruning encouraged it, but in older trees that had been
bearing for some time and were in only fair vigor at the beginning
of the experiment, the vigorous pruning stimulated fruit production.
Heavy pruning also produced strong new shoots, but did not in-
duce as great a total amount of new growth as light pruning, nor
did it produce as great an increase in diameter of trunk or size
of tree.
97. Season of pruning vs. vigor and fruitfulness. — We will now
pass on the influence of pruning at various seasons on the vigor
and fruitfulness of the trees. In every case either heavy or mod-
104
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
erate dormant pruning stimulated a greater growth than any of
the summer prunings, and the reduction in vigor was less in the case
of early summer pruning than with either repeated summer or mid-
summer prunings.
The foliage is a very good index of the vigor of a tree. A
careful study of leaf size, color and number was made in the Lup-
t«m and the Grimes Golden orchards. In all cases the blocks that
FIG. 73
BADLY DEVELOPED TREE HEAD. TOO MANY LIMBS CLOSE TOGETHER
Never allow a tree he-d to develop in this way. Such over-crowding can be prevented
by correct, early pruning. It is difficult to remedy later.
had received summer pruning bore a paler or yellower foliage than
those pruned in the dormant season. This difference in color was
so distinct that there could be no mistaking the summer-pruned
blocks even at a distance.
It is clear I from the data secured] that summer pruning caused
a great decrease in the size of leaf, number of leaves to the tree
and in the total leaf area on the tree. If we further consider that
these leaves are deficient in chlorophyll, as evidenced bv their li^h*
PRUNING PRINCIPLES 105
color, we may readily see how greatly summer pruning has decreased
the efficiency of the food factory of the plant (29).
Much of this loss of vigor we expected, but we also expected a
compensating increase in fruitfulness. In the old orchard the data
are conflicting. In the young orchards we have attempted to corre-
late summer pruning with early bearing, but the correlation is nega-
tive. Merely corrective dormant pruning far "exceeded all forms
of summer pruning in bringing about early bearing, and in some
cases the moderate and heavy dormant-pruned blocks produced
more bountifully than did the summer-pruned trees. The writer
has serious doubts as to the wisdom of deliberately impairing the
vigor and the vitality of a tree to throw it into bearing.
98. /j. A check which does not impair the health or the
strength of a 'plant tends to fruitfulness.
Too severe pruning, over-tillage, a too liberal supply of
nitrogenous plant food in the soil, whether due to over-
tillage, over-manuring, or the too constant use of leguminous
cover crops, all may produce the same effect; excessive
wood growth at the expense of the fruiting habit. All but
the first of these may be corrected by reverse practices, as
already noted (80, 81, 83). The bad effects of heavy prun-
ing and how to correct them are also discussed in the same
sections.
Other methods of checking growth, mainly of very local
application, depend upon checking the flow of elaborated
plant food; for, as already noted (Chapter II), this food,
when in abundance, tends to fruit bud development, whereas
abundance of crude sap tends to increase wood development.
Among the ways adopted to secure this result are notching
the stem below a bud to encourage the formation of a fruit
spur, and above a bud to secure a long woody twig. Shallow
girdling and ringing — i. e., no deeper than the cambium —
favor fruit bud formation above the cut ; when through the
cambium and the young wood the girdle favors the pro-
duction of woody shoots below it, but generally results in
the death of the upper parts of the stem so cut. When the
girdle is placed lower on the branch than the leafy area,
such twigs as may develop must do so upon the supply of
elaborated food stored in the tissues below the wound. If
106 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
this supply be small, no shoots at all may start. When
heading-in is employed woody shoots generally start most
strongly from the bud nearest to the wound. Those which
start from lower buds are usually less and less strong as
they are more and more remote from the cut.
99. Stripping trees. — A. W. Drinkard, Jr.,* reports an experiment
in which trees were stripped by the removal of strips of the bark
l/4 to l/2 inch wide from the trunks, beginning near the ground and
extending up to, and frequently above, the main branches. Several
of the main branches were stripped for 12 or 18 inches. Three to
five strips were taken from each tree. The strip was first marked
by a knife point. Then the bark could be readily peeled from the
tree.
Trees stripped on April 23 made good growth and held their
leaves until late in the fall. The stripping wounds heal over very
well during the growing season. The operation does not completely
cut off the movement of water in either direction, but must inter-
fere with it in some measure, and the operation must administer a
shock more or less severe to the growth processes. Trees stripped
May 31 made excellent growth and the wounds healed well. When
the trees were stripped on June 23 it appeared that the growth was
noticeably interfered with, and the stripping wounds did not heal
rapidly. This appears to be too late to secure the best results from
the process. The removal of strips of bark from the tree trunks
does less injury to the trees than does ringing, and gives promise of
greater utility in practice.
100. Ringing experiments. — Drinkard also reports experiments! in
spring pruning accompanied by ringing. The trees showed very little
if any effect from ringing at various seasons after the spring prun-
ing had been performed. The formation of fruit buds was not
noticeably stimulated, being about the same as in case of check trees.
The amount of fruit set and the quantity harvested was not es-
sentially different from that of the check trees, and the wood growth
was about the same as normal. The trees in this series carried a
dense green foliage through the growing season, equal to that of
the check trees. It seems clear that the influence of spring pruning
in discouraging the formation of fruit buds is sufficient to overcome
any stimulative effect which otherwise might have been derived from
ringing.
Maryland§ performed an experiment by ringing crab apple trees
to induce fruitfulness He found that ringing or girdling increased
fruitfulness, but he considered this operation as a measure that
could be applied under only special conditions.
* Technical Bulletin 5, Virginia Experiment Station.
t Ibid.
§ Mass. Hatch Exp. Sta. Bui. 1.
PRUNING PRINCIPLES 107
Leclerc du Sablon* ringed three or four-year pear trees before
vegetation started and a second lot after the first shoots had formed.
At intervals of two months thereafter trees from each group were
dug up and analyzed. The roots of the pears ringed in February
contained more reserve material than did the check trees not ringed,
while the stems contained less. After April, however, as a result of
assimilation by the leaves, the roots of the ringed trees were much
poorer in reserve material than those of the control trees. On the
whole the experiment is believed to show that toward the end of
winter and the beginning of spring the reserve material goes from
the roots to the stems. From May to October the current of elab-
orated material is from the stems toward the roots.
Hedrickf and his assistants have reported unfavorably on ringing
tomatoes and chrysanthemums. The tomatoes showed a loss in
fruit production and in the leaf and root systems of the plants. The
chrysanthemum plants also suffered.
Paddock§ carried out experiments in ringing grapevines. The
process generally hastened maturity of the fruit, depending on sea-
son, variety and conditions of vine. On the whole the operation is
devitalizing and care is required in its application.
101. Ringing fruit trees.^— The object of ringing fruit 'trees is to
induce unproductive trees to set fruit. Briefly stated, the theory of
the operation is : That the removal of a band of bark through the
cortex and bast of a plant, at the period of most vigorous growth,
does not hinder the upward passage from the roots to the leaves of
unassimilated sap through the outer layer of woody cells, but does
prevent the distribution, through vessels in the cortex and inner
bark below the wound, of assimilated food (20). The effect of this
action is to cause an extra amount of reserve material to be stored
in the upper parts of the plant for the production of fruit buds.
Ringing plants consists in the removal of a band of bark through
the cortex and bast of the trunk. The term girdling is frequently
used to designate this operation, but since this name is usually as-
sociated with wounds made more or less deeply in the wood [and
since the operation] results in ultimate death, as when a tree is
girdled by mice or girdled for the purpose of killing, it is unfortu-
nately chosen. French writers use the phrase, "decortication an-
nulaire" (annular decortication or bark removal), which is more
exact than either ringing or girdling. The object of ringing is to
induce and increase fruitfulness.
The object of the experiments was to determine, if possible, the
extent to which fruit trees may be ringed without permanent injury
* Sur les effets de la decortication annulaire, Compr. Rend. Acad. Sci. (Paris),
140; 1553-1555. 1905.
t N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 288.
§ N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 151.
$ Condensed excerpt from G. H. Howe's Bulletin 391 of the New York Agri-
cultural Experiment Station.
108 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
and in what degree, if at all, the operation induces and stimulates
fruitfulness.
Ringing should be performed early in June or July, at which time
the bark peels readily frorn the wood, leaving the cambium in a
succulent condition. The success of the operation hinges upon the
fact that at this season occurs the greatest cambial activity, which
readily facilitates the rapid formation of new bark, and at the
same time prevents exhaustive evaporation of plant juices. Any
attempt to practice ringing when plant growth is sluggish or dor-
mant always results in the death of the tree, since the cambium,
being then firm, is torn from the woody cylinder during the opera-
tion. A common pruning knife (Fig. 112) or a sharp pocketknife
js a suitable instrument for performing the operation.
From the data secured, it would appear that ringing tends to
ha*'* injurious effects upon apple trees, and that the wider the
FIG. 74— EFFECTS OF RINGING YOUNG TREES
1. One-inch ring of bark freshly removed from apple tree. 2. New bark over
1-inch ring. 3. New bark over 3-inch ring.
bands the more serious will be the injury. It may be stated that
the trees used were exceptionally strong and uniform in vigor and
were therefore possibly in a better condition to withstand wounding
than are average orchard trees. All of the trees making a weak
growth showed smaller foliage and less wood production. The
foliage, likewise, lost its color and fell from the branches four to
six weeks earlier than that of normal trees. Two to six sprouts
sprang up at the. lower edge of the wound on nearly every tree.
This would indicate that nature was endeavoring to provide as
similated food for the roots since passage of such food from the
upper portion of the trees had been cut off.
No gain in productiveness resulted from ringing. The few
fruits which were produced showed no differences in size or color
PRUNING PRINCIPLES 109
from the normal. Clearly, ringing these trees seriously injured their
health without increasing fruitfulness. Examination of the root
systems showed that, as a rule, the ringed trees had smaller, shorter
roots (nearly approaching hairy roots) than the unringed trees.
Trees low in vitality had extremely small root systems.
Early one June, 50 Baldwin trees three years from setting, were
ringed, bands 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 inches wide, re-
spectively, being removed from groups of five trees each. At the
same time -5 trees of the same variety and age in another block
were ringed, groups of five trees each being ringed with 1-inch
wide rings at the surface of the ground and 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24
inches, respectively, above the ground. In most cases new bark
started to form, but at the end of the season not a single tree had
made a perfect formation of new covering. Several trees in each
lot were dead and all others lacked vigor. All foliage dropped about
five weeks earlier than from adjoining unringed trees of the same
age. The spring following the ringing but 10 per cent of the trees
of both lots started growth, and this so weak that death resulted
before midsummer. While these two lots of trees were less vigorous
than the seedlings of the previous experiments, they were representa-
tive of average trees of the commercial orchard. (Fig. 74.)
From these experiments it is clear that the first ringing of the
seedlings influenced fruitfulness and caused them to set a large
crop of fruit. The experiments with the Baldwin trees, however,
showed different results. These trees, lacking the vigor and hardi-
ness of the seedlings, failed to survive a single operation.
In some of the western states orchardists frequently resort to
the ringing of their young trees to induce them to bear fruit, with
very good results. Under most favorable conditions, young, vigorous,
thrifty trees ought to withstand and respond to one operation, but
subsequent ringing is devitalizing and exerts practically no beneficial
influence. From the experiments at this station, the practice of
ringing apple trees to induce and increase productiveness seems
too drastic a practice for the good of the trees. Even if a slight
increase in fruitfulness is brought about it seldom offsets the injury
to the tree.
Ringing was also done on pears, cherries and plums with much
the same, but more injurious results. It is, therefore, concluded
that the results obtained from these experiments are not favorable
to ringing fruit trees as a general practice. Under some conditions,
for a limited time, a more favorable outcome may be expected.
Hardy, vigorous, young apple trees may readily undergo a single
ringing and be benefited thereby, but subsequent operations
are injurious. Trees lacking vigor are often seriously injured by the
practice. The deleterious effects of the treatment have generally
been so marked upon various plant organs as to render the opera-
tion exceedingly hazardous. There seems to be no regular or
systematic increase in fruit production. The gains do not offset
the losses.
110 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
102. Pruning, ringing and stripping vs. fruit bud formation. — In
summarizing his findings in a series of experiments, A. W. Drink-
ard, Jr., says :*
The experiments, which extended over tw$ years, were made to
study the effects of pruning, root pruning, ringing and stripping at
various seasons on the formation of fruit buds on dwarf apple
trees. Spring pruning of the branches at the time of growth re-
sumption had a tendency to discourage the formation of fruit buds,
but there was apparent stimulation of wood growth in the trees.
Summer pruning of the branches the latter part of June, when fruit
buds normally begin to show differentiation, checked wood growth
the year in which the work was done, and greatly stimulated the
formation of fruit buds, as was shown by the bloom and the crop
of fruit the following year. Fall pruning of the branches in No-
vember did not materially influence the crop of fruit buds, but
caused vigorous wood growth the following year.
Severe root pruning at the time of growth resumption in the
spring (April 23), at the time the leaves were well developed
(May 31), and at the beginning of fruit bud differentiation (June
23), when accompanied or preceded by spring pruning of the
branches, produced some stimulation in fruit bud formation. An-
other series of experiments showed that the spring pruning did
much to offset the effects of root pruning, which treatment retarded
wood growth in the current and the succeeding years ; the leaf area
of the trees was reduced and the trees showed injury from the
treatment.
Root pruning on April 23, at the resumption of growth in the
absence of spring pruning, did not give as much stimulation to fruit
bud formation as the same treatment applied at later dates. Ap-
parently this was too early for the full effects to be felt by the trees.
Root pruning when the foliage was fully developed, and when the
fruit buds began to become differentiated, in the absence of spring
pruning of the tops, produced very marked stimulation in fruit bud
formation. At these three times the treatment retarded wood
growth and foliage development in the current and the succeeding
year, and the trees suffered from the treatment.
Ringing at various seasons, when accompanied or succeeded by
spring pruning of the branches, produced no noticeable stimulation
of fruit bud formation. At the time when growth was resumed in
the absence of spring pruning, it did not stimulate fruit bud forma-
tion. The treatment was given too early. At the time the foliage
was fully developed, in the absence of spring pruning, it gave the
best results; however, when the treatment was given at the time
the fruit buds began to become differentiated, there was some stimu-
lation of fruit bud development.
Stripping at various seasons when accompanied or preceded by
spring pruning, had no stimulating effect on fruit bud formation.
* Ibid.
PRUNING PRINCIPLES
111
The effects of stripping were offset by those of spring pruning.
Stripping at the three seasons already mentioned, in the absence of
spring pruning, stimulated fruit bud formation uniformly.
Not enough is yet known about the operations of root pruning,
ringing and stripping for the formulation of rules by which prac-
tical fruit growers may utilize these operations advantageously in
their orchards to increase the fruitfulness of their trees.
103. 14. A constriction or a girdle on a twig or a stem
lends to increase and elongate growth from the buds nearest
below and to thicken the
twig immediately above
(Fig. 96). The bud
nearest above a constric-
tion or a girdle usually
becomes more or less
quiescent and often
fruitful (Fig. 95).
This principle is based
upon the upward move-
ment of crude sap and
of elaborated plant food
(20). The influence
which a constriction ex-
erts is largely propor-
tional to the degree of
the constriction. When
only the tissues outside
the cambium are
affected, the buds and
other parts above the
constriction become
filled with elaborated
plant food because this
material cannot go low-
er down the stem ; when
the alburnum or sap-
wood is affected the up-
ward flow may be
checked completely, in which case the parts above will die
FIG. 75— SHOOT GROWTH FROM STUBS
LEFT IN MAY
Almost as bad as winter pruning in the pro-
duction of increased quantities of wood.
112
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
sooner or later. This latter is equivalent, then, to liencling-
in, a process which favors lateral bud development (106).
Among the methods employed for producing constrictions
are girdling by wire, cord or a single knife cut through the
bark to the cambium, and ringing. Bending the ^h ots,
usually downward, from their normal direction of g owtli
impedes the sap flow
without damaging the
tissues in any way.
Twisting the stem pro-
duces the same effect,
but it ruptures more or
less severely the internal,
if not the external
tissues.
104. 75. Obstructing
the sap flow cither up or
down the stems by bend-
ing, twisting, notching,
girdling, ringing, etc., is
not properly a pruning
principle, but a method
of training.
The employment of
obstructions is a very
petty matter when com-
pared with the large
question of consecutive
good care and even the
general subject of prun-
ing. It has mainly to
do with amateur gardening where individual specimen fruits
rather than large commercial yields are the aim. Its
employment is mainly confined to trees trained on walls or
trellises or in special forms, such as cordons and espaliers.
In such cases the grower must count buds, develop fruit
FIG. 76— SHOOT GROWTH FROM WINTER-
PRUNED STUBS
Unsatisfactory way to prune shoots in thick
interior of tree. Growth becomes worse than
before.
PRUNING PRINCIPLES
113
spurs and other twigs where required and observe many
other finicky details.
With grapes some of these considerations may also be in
order, but the pruning of the vine differs from that of trees
mainly because of the natural habit of the plant. Two
classes of ideas are employed in grape pruning; one which
merely removes unnecessary wood, the other which seeks
to train the vine to some desired form. Since the various
forms differ widely, the number of buds left on individual
canes also varies widely. Some
of the principles of pruning,
therefore, play a less prominent
part in grape growing than in the
management of other fruits.
105. 16. Fruit bearing is more
or less influenced bv the time of
year ivhcu pruning is done ; sum-
mer priming farors fruit bud
formation, ivhcreas ivinter prun-
ing tends to brancli bud and
ivood formation.
Plants pruned during the d :r-
mant season promptly endeavor
to make up their losses by de-
veloping increased growths dur-
ing the following spring, but
plants pruned between late
spring and late summer usually
have sufficient time to readjust themselves before the season
closes, so there is little or no excessive development of wood
the following spring. One reason for this effect is that
summer pruning considerably reduces the leaf area, thus
reducing the quantity of elaborated plant food. Hence the
process tends to weaken rather than strengthen growth. In
support of these statements it may be pointed out that
suckers and water sprouts are far more numerous after
FIG. 77
EFFECTS OF AUGUST PRUNING
These poor results are the best
secured from August pruning ex-
periments to reduce wood and in-
crease fruit spurs.
114 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
pruning during the dormant season than after pruning in
summer.
When pruning merely checks wood production without
noticeably reducing the strength of the pruned plant, it usu-
ally favors fruit bearing; hence the value of summer prun-
ing of whatever kind, but especially the shortening of ex-
cessive annual growths. The best time to do this is when
the moisture in the soil becomes somewhat reduced in early
summer, but after the twigs have attained their full length.
If done then the probability is that the remaining buds will
have -enough time to fill with food and yet not have suffi-
cient time to develop lateral shoots. In actual practice no
set rule can yet be laid down, certainly not one based upon
a mere date, nor can any set rule be given for the amount
of summer pruning that may be done with safety. Even
trees may be summer-pruned so severely that they will die !
The only safe guide is personal experience based upon
such factors as climate, character of soil, species, variety,
and even upon the behavior of the individual plant. Even
then the newness of the practice so far as the individual
plant is concerned will influence the judgment in one di-
rection, whereas the accustomedncss of the plant, if I may
coin a word, will influence in perhaps the opposite direction.
Plants accustomed to a certain style of handling from the
start will perhaps stand more, though they may not need
more pruning than those new to the practice. In general,
plants trained in special forms give best results when sum-
mer pinched or pruned.
Generally neither fruit buds nor fruit spurs are formed
on the pinched parts the same seasons as the pinching is
done. When the summer shortening-in is done early enough
for this there is increased risk of getting undesirable lateral
growths. If the operation is performed after the leaves
have reduced their activity, these growths will rarely occur.
During recent years considerable study of bud formation
has been made, but so far the conclusions have brought forth
PRUNING PRINCIPLES 115
little that has not been known for a long time from the
standpoint of practice. Investigators, even if they have
not greatly enlarged our knowledge, certainly deserve great
credit for undertaking such tedious and painstaking work
as that discussed above. To a large extent, their findings
support pruning principles based upon plant physiology.
106. 77. Fruitfulness may be induced bv shortening ex-
cessive twig growth, thus favoring the development of fruit
buds and spurs.
Since the vigor, the age and the method of handling the
tree and other local factors must be considered, therefore no
rule can be laid down as to how often or how much short-
ening-in may be done to secure productiveness. In propor-
tion as the practice tends to reduce production of woody
parts it favors the formation of fruit buds ; but when carried
beyond this point it may be equivalent to a severe pruning
and therefore may actually favor wood development.
Fruit trees that are producing 1 to \l/2 feet of new growth
annually may have these growths reduced 25 to 35 per cent.
This statement is general enough to apply to cases other than
the development of fruit buds. It includes such other aims
as indirect fruit thinning, preventing dwarf trees from ex-
ceeding the development of their stocks, maintaining the de-
sired form and size of trees to suit the ideal of the grower
or the area available. So far as fruit bud development is
concerned, shortening-in of this kind may have small effect
if done only occasionally or spasmodically.
The shortening-in of terminal twigs favors the develop-
ment of fruit spurs in the upper but interior part of the tree
tops, spurs which sooner or later develop blossom buds
(Fig. 173). The practice, fairly common in the commercial
production of dwarf pears, is perhaps properly one rather
of training for convenience than of pruning proper, and it
is doubtful whether or not productiveness, or shall we say
income, is enhanced by it. To be sure, the fruit may be
borne in a much more limited area than in the case of trees
not so treated.
116 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
So far as the writer knows, no definite experiments have
been tried to settle whether such trees are as productive as
others not so treated, but grown under as nearly identical
conditions as can be secured. One conceded advantage
shortening-in frequently has: when judiciously perfomed
it tends to early maturity of the trees and consequently
precocity of bearing. This, however, finds its chief applica-
tion in amateur practice; for commercial use it is of com-
paratively minor importance.
107. Pruning at various seasons.— Stimulation of wood growth
does not necessarily mean increase in the total mass of the trt-r.
From their studies of this question, the Duke of Bedford and Pick-
ering* have concluded that hard pruning does not ultimately re-
sult in a larger tree than does light pruning. In later experiments t
they found that the less a tree is pruned the greater is its w< >c«l
growth, except in the case of old trees, on which the amount of
wood is increased by hard pruning; the hard pruning is antagonistic
to fruiting, this rule applying to both young and old trees.
108. Summer pruning experiments performed by Drinkarcl,§ at
the time the fruit buds began to form, stimulated the development
of fruit buds. These experiments give some evidence on the prop-
osition, often expressed by horticulturists and practical fruit
growers, that summer pruning increases the fruitfulness of apple
trees. No doubt the degree of increase in fruitfulness resulting
from summer pruning bears direct relation to the condition of
the trees, the season and the time and severity of the operation.
But the physiological principle involved is not clear. It is obvious
that severe summer pruning reduces the foliage area, interfering
with transpiration and photosynthesis. The balance between the
root system and the branch system is suddenly disturbed. The
nutrition of the various organs in the tree is changed' in some <K-
gree by summer pruning.
Quinn,^: who has described the various methods employed in
summer pruning — disbudding, pinching, thinning, heading ii>. and
fracturing or twisting of branches — found that these operations are
effective in greater or lesser degree for conditions in Australia.
Dickens** found from careful experiments that summer pruning
gave better results than pruning during the dormant season. l'>y
means of summer pruning, he was able to induce fruitfulness on
10-year-old apple trees which had previously borne very little fruit.
* Woburn Experiment Fruit Farm, Second Report, 1900.
t Ibid. Seventh Report, 1907.
§ Technical Bulletin 5, Virginia Experiment Station.
J Jour. Agr. and Ind. South Australia, Fig. 3: 368 to 378. 1899.
** Kan. State Agr. College Exp. Sta. Bui. 136.
PRUNING PRINCIPLES 117
Goumy* states the buds on very vigorous trees may be transformed
into fruit buds by defoliation — that is, the removal of the supporting
leaves from certain buds — but not all the buds on the branch; how-
ever, he considers this operation very limited in its application and
not to be recommended for general practice.
Fruit growers in England have long practiced summer pruning.
The consensus of opinion and experience of both practical fruit
growers and scientists, given some years ago, is that summer pruning
is uncertain in its effects, depending upon soil, climate, varieties of
fruit and time of operation, that specific objects may be accom-
plished by the process, but that the operation is of doubtful prac-
ticability.
109. Summer pruning of apples.— In a recent bulletinf Batchelor
and Goodspeed give the following condensed conclusions : Apple
trees, pruned to induce a spreading habit by cutting back the terminal
growth to lateral branches, produced a greater annual twig growth
than trees similarly pruned, except that the terminal growth was
untouched. Trees pruned during the dormant period and also dur-
ing the summer, produced a greater annual twig growth than trees
pruned during the dormant season only. Trees pruned during the
dormant season produced a greater total twig growth than the un-
pruned trees.
Rubbing the water sprouts out of the center of the tree from
time to time during the summer, had little or no influence on crop
production. These shoots are removed much more readily and
cheaply, however, during this season.
Trees pruned to a spreading form by cutting back terminal growth
to lateral branches, in the case of both Jonathan and Gano [the two
varieties experimented upon], averaged a smaller production to the
tree than trees allowed to assume a more natural upright growth.
The ratio of the total pounds of marketable fruit for the two va-
rieties during four years is 86 for Jonathan and 91 for Gano from
trees pruned to spread, as compared with 100 per cent each for
trees allowed to take natural shape. The summer-pruned trees
averaged less marketable fruit to the tree than either the winter-
pruned or the unpruned trees.
The winter-pruned Jonathan trees produced more fruit than the
unpruned trees. The winter-pruned Gano trees produced less fruit
than the unpruned trees. Summer pruning in this orchard has
proved neither profitable nor successful in increasing crop yields.
Although the investigation is only in its first stages, there seems
to be a correlation between regular bearing and summer pruning.
Tn the case of the Gano trees the most regular bearing trees were
the unpruned ones. Summer pruning throughout a period of two
months between the third week in June and the third week in
August produced much the same results.
* Recherches sur les bourgeons des arbres fruitlers. Ann. Sci. Nat Bot. (Paris),
de Serie 1 : 135 to 246. 1905.
v No. 140 Utah Agricultural College Experiment Station.
118 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
The above results may apply only to young, vigorous bearing
apple trees of Jonathan and Gano when planted on a rich, sandy
loam, free from seepage, in a semi-arid climate, with an abundance
of irrigation water available. These varieties under the above con-
ditions show a tendency to overbear soon after reaching a productive
age, and are usually thinned. Summer pruning reduces the area of
fruit-bearing wood, the vitality of the tree and the productivity.
110. 18. Twig and small branch pruning may be used to
thin the -fruit and thus also favor regular annual bearing.
In order to apply this rule intelligently, it is essential that
the pruner be familiar with the way in which the variety
he is handling produces its blossom buds (Chapter IV).
Otherwise, he may remove desirable parts and actually work
against his own interests. Fruit thinning by the removal
of twigs and buds during winter is generally a more ex-
peditious and economical method than* summer thinning of
the actual fruit. It can be done by more intelligent labor
when time is less at a premium and, therefore, when better
care can be given to the trees. Its greatest drawback is the
uncertainty as to the number of bloom buds that will expand,
how many may be frozen after they have opened, how many
fruits may fail to reach maturity. This uncertainty is ob-
viously greater in March than in July! Still, many fruit
growers practice it more or less systematically mainly be-
cause of its economy. Generally they wait until danger of
frost injury has passed so as to reduce the uncertainty as
much as possible.
The fact that thinning the fruit conserves energy is
strikingly illustrated by the experience of J. Q. Wells of
Shortsville, N. Y. An orchard, mainly of Baldwin apples,
was 18 years of age, but had never borne a crop when Mr.
Wells took possession. Beginning a year or two after, how-
ever, it has borne 20 excellent crops during 22 years, the
two failures being due to frost at blossoming time. This
is the most striking argument for thinning the author knows.
To be sure the achievement is partly due to the consecutive
good care the orchard receives, but it is largely due also
to the systematic thinning. If such is the record with the
PRUXING PRINCIPLES 119
Daldwin apple, notorious for its "off years," what may not
be accomplished with other varieties ?
So far as the author knows, Mr. Wells practices only
summer thinning; but winter thinning produces similar re-
sults, for it conserves energy. This conservation can be most
easily noted in apples and pears because of the spur method
of fruit bearing. In these fruits there is normally an alterna-
tion of cluster bud and branch (spur) bud development.
This is due to the demand made upon the spur for food to
develop the fruit, a demand that usually prevents the forma-
tion of a blossom bud on the spur during the same year as
a fruit is developed on that spur. While the fruit is being
developed the spur has only enough surplus energy to de-
velop a branch (spur) bud near the union of the fruit stem
with the spur. To induce annual fruiting, the trees must
either be extra well fed or the fruit must be thinned. The
former is generally not as certain as the latter.
One way in which annual bearing may be induced is to
remove all the fruits while young from some of the spurs
and only the inferior ones from others. Thus fruit buds
should develop on the empty spurs and none on the bearing
ones, and an alternation of fruit bearing would tend to be
developed on each set of spurs ; but one set would bear in
the even years and the other in the odd years. Thus the tree
should never overbear in any one year, and the grower
should always have at least a partial crop. This method, if
applied while the trees are young, requires less work than
may at first appear, because after once getting a start it will
at least partly take care of itself. Whether mature trees
with set alternate year bearing habits can be made to bear
annually is .a question yet to be decided. Much of the suc-
cess of the plan will depend upon the character of care given
the orchard.
What has been said under this heading as applying to
thinning of the fruit applies with equal force to the thinning
of the fruit-bearing areas of the trees.
120 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF I'RrXLNG
111. /p. Large wounds heal according to conditions, most
important of which are the kind and the vigor of the plant,
the length and position of the stubs, the smoothness or
the roughness of the cut surfaces, the health of the wood
and the time of year when made.
This principle needs elucidation in a chapter by itself
(Chapter VI). Yet a few words may be here used to ad-
vantage in summarizing the discussion. From the stand-
point of healing alone, large wounds heal most readily when
made just before the growing season opens because the ex-
posed tissues have but a brief time to dry out, and the cam-
bium cells, very soon after the wounding, become active.
However, the vigorous or feeble condition and the species
and perhaps the variety of the tree, the character and posi-
tion of the wound and the influence of many other local
factors may affect the healing to a greater or lesser extent
either favorably or unfavorably.
112. 20. Wound dressings, which do not injure the (j row-
ing tissues, which are antiseptic and durable, and which thus
give physical protection, may prevent or check the entrance
of decay, but they do not hasten healinq.
This principle receives separate discussion. (Chapter
VIII.)
CHAPTER VI
HOW WOUNDS HEAL
113. Natural wounds in the bark, such as those caused
by growth in girth, usually heal quickly and without
danger to the life of the tree. From what has been said
(Chapter II) it is apparent that the bark must necessarily
become tighter and tighter over the woody cylinder as
the cambium develops new cells. This internal pressure,
which often reaches 50 pounds to the square inch, causes
the rupture of the bark in countless exogenous trees and
FIG. 78— HOW BARK BECOMES ROUGH BY SPLITTING AND HEALING
shrubs, and we thus see the wrinkled, contorted or scaly
stems characteristic of old trees, such as oak (Fig. 78),
hickory and sycamore. The splitting is due to the non-
expansion of the outmost or dead layers of bark : the
wounds are healed by the development of new cells from
below.
114. Bark-bound trees. — In some cases, for instance,
neglected orchards, the bark may become so tough, hard
121
FIG. 79— CROSS SECTIONS OF WHITE PINE (2x4) SCANT! INGS SHOWING
BRANCHES BURIED BY TISSUE
Left column, reading down: 1, living branches; 2, larger ones; 3, where four
limbs started together while the plant was very small, horizontal ones showing
dead ends; 4, similar case; 5, living branch which started when the tree at this
point was only two seasons old; 6, similar to No. 5. Right column, reading down:
1, oblique cut across dead stub; 2, ditto; 3, oblique limb buried but cut across;
4, dead limb being buried; 5, similar but at different angle; 6, limb which started
when the trunk at this point was probably six or seven years old, had a good chance
to grow for a few years and then was killed.
HOW WOtTNFDS HEAL
123
FIG. 80— CROSS SECTION O.-
PINE SCANTLING
Notice oblique erain of wood ;n
lower knot and the bark which the
trunk has tried to cover. Also
notice the grain in the main stem
bent out of shape by knots above
and below. Compare Fig. 81.
FIG. 81
DEAD LIMBS BEING BURIED
The lower limb has been cut
more obliquely than the upper.
The trunk, is making a desperate
attempt to cover the stub, but the
dead bark in Fig. 80 (a cross sec-
tion) shows how poorly it is suc-
ceeding.
and dense that the trees are
often said to be "hark hound."
Good cultivation, fertilizing,
pruning and cultural care
may or may not promote ex-
pansion and rupture of the hark and consequent good health.
Where these methods fail fruit growers may effect a change
for the better by softening the hark with washes of lye or
soap, or by slitting. This latter process consists in cutting
I
m
FIG. 82— HISTORY OF A STUB IN SIX CHAPTERS
Reading down (left) 1, outside bark section showing extension of wood from
trunk to try to heal in the stub rotted out where the hole is left; 2, stub rotted out,
leaving hole. Decay of wood occurred after the tree was cut; 3, wood nearer h art
of tree. (Right) 4, decayed knot in place; 5, decayed spot beside almost hea'thy
knot; 6, knot in healthy condition except for checks — decay not progressed so far.
In the lower right-hand corner of each section is shown a second knot left hy a
stub. In 4, 5 and 6 note holes caused by borers. Decay often enters by such means.
HOW WOUNDS HEAL
125
FIG. 83— HOPING STILL!
This oak tree keeps the bark alive around the
decaying stub in the "hope" to protect itself from
the decay creeping nearer the trunk every year.
through the bark to
the cambium layer, but
no deeper, the cut ex-
tending parallel with
the direction of
growth on the trunk
and the main limbs.
Very large limbs and
trunks may have two
or three slits made at
equal distances from
each other. This op-
eration is always performed in spring just as growth begins.
When made the cuts are scarcely visible, but in a few days
their edges will have spread, perhaps half an inch apart.
Soon new cells will develop
from the cambium and the
wound be closed with new
tissue. In no way does this
healing process differ from
that following the splitting
of bark in forest and other
trees. (Compare 99.)
115. Limb connections
with the trunks of trees. —
Cross sections of tree trunks
made at certain points will
show how limbs are pro-
duced and how they leave
records of their develop-
ment and decline in case of
injury (Fig. 79). When a
limb starts while the trunk
is small its initial point will
be found close to the center
FIG. 84 — MORE THAN THREE- , ,, fr11nl, onrl a« it crows
FOURTHS OF THE TRUNK LOST BY ot the trunk, and as it grows
DECAY AND BREAKAGE. YET THE •. -11 pn1arp-e Tld its
TREE BEARS APPLES ANNUALLY. lt: W1H enlarge, an(
126
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
be covered with the annual rings of the trunk. Gen-
erally such limbs are only one year younger than the
trunk at the point where they are produced, but some-
times a latent bud may develop several years later than
the limb produced in normal time. In such cases the
initial point of the limb will not be from the central por-
tion of the trunk, but from one of the annual rings more
or less distant from the center of the tree trunk. When-
ever logs are cut into boards the positions of the limbs
on the trunks are shown by the knots (Figs. 80, 81, 82).
The history of the limbs is in-
dicated by the condition of the
knots. When the knots form a close
union with the trunk the limb dur-
ing the life of the tree was healthy
— at least at the point where cut
(Fig. 82). When the knot is sur-
rounded by a black ring, and es-
pecially where it is loose and can
be knocked out, it shows that the
limb was dead at the point where
the board was cut from the trunk.
Farther from the center of the trunk
there may be only a hole where the
F,C. 85-FL,CKER'S NEST 1'"lh haS r°tted back itltO
A cut was wrongly made (Fig. o2).
Decay spread
at the elbow.
down the heart wood. An-
other stub just below the
center also decayed and a
flicker dug out a nest. This
is a common thing in badly
pruned orchards.
116. Natural and artificial wounds
contrasted. — From what has been
said in the previous paragraphs it
may be rightly concluded that
man may take advantage of and improve upon na-
ture's methods, especially in the making of wounds.
for if he will make wounds in such a way as to favor
healing rather than decay, he will increase the longevity
and the usefulness of the tree he so prunes. When
HOW WOUNDS HEAL
127
the mere surface of the stem is injured, new cork
cells will develop from the inner bark ; when the cambium
is reached and when the wound is deeper than the cam-
bium, new tissue is produced by the cambium and the
attempt made thus to heal and bridge over the wound.
Outer bark cells and wood cells beneath the cambium are
helpless to perform any healing function, because they
are lifeless or nearly so (Chapter II). In other words,
when a limb is broken or cut off, or when it is exposed
by peeling off the bark, the heart wood cannot heal itself
but must rely upon the cambium.
117. Callus. — The tissue which is formed by the cam-
bium and the inner bark over a wound is called a callus.
Always such growths begin
around the edges of the wound
and gradually or rapidly grow
toward the center. In no case
does the callus have any physio-
logical connection with the
heart wood of the original
trunk or of the limb broken or
cut off (Fig. 83). The callus
cap has often been likened to
the metal or glass cover placed
over a fruit jar. .
118. The purpose of the
callus is to serve as a protection
to the tissues beneath. Part
of this protective function is to
check loss of moisture from the
surface of the wound, but its
more important role is to prevent decay by protecting
the wood from weathering and, most important of
all, the entrance of rot-producing fungi and bacteria.
Once such organisms gain an entrance into the heart
wood, the limb and the tree so affected are doomed
sooner or later to breakdown and death. When limbs
FIG. 86
CANNON BALL IN OAK TREE
Even the trees try to heal the
wounds made by war. This speci-
men is in the Jenny Wade mu-
seum at Gettysburg, Md. Many
trees still standing on the battle-
field have completely buried the
shots that wounded them.
128
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
die or break off trees they leave stubs on which dust col-
lects and with moisture furnishes congenial conditions
for the germs of decay. As the decay extends down the
stub it enters the trunk despite the efforts of the cambium
to cover over the end of the stub (Fig. 203). In time the
whole of the heart wood may rot away, leaving a bee
tree ! When properly handled by man — that is, when no
stubs are left — the heart wood will not decay but will
continue to perform its function, namely, that of strength-
ening the tree so it will bear heavy loads of fruit, ice or
snow.
119. Rational wounds may be defined as those which
reduce to a minimum the danger of killing plant tissues
in young and growing parts of trees
and of decay in mature limbs and
trunks. The making of wounds in
pruning naturally resolves itself into
a threefold question — when, where,
how? It will simplify matters to con-
sider these three phases all together
rather than to take them up separately.
120. Pruning small twigs and
branches may often be done with a
knife or a pair of shears (Fig. 88), the
former preferred wherever possible,
(a) Always such implements should be
sharp so as to leave a clean, smooth
cut. (b) The surface exposed by cut-
ting should be as small as practicable
so as to favor most rapid healing, (c)
The cut should be made neither too
far above, nor too near the upper-
most bud left to continue growth,
because if made too high, the stub
above the bud, being deprived of food, will die back to
the bud and thus make a second later cut necessary ; and
if too near, the surface will dry out and thus enfeeble or
FIG. 87
HEART DECAYING
The dark streak
shows how the original
seedling grew — crooked
— and how the irregu-
larity disappeared as
the tree increased in
girth. A broken branch
left a stub which ad-
mitted decay to the
heart wood, as shown
by the dark streak.
HOW WOUNDS HEAL
129
kill the bud. The amount of wood to leave will depend
somewhat upon the species and perhaps the variety of
the plant being operated upon, those with open, porous
wood, like the grape and the peach, being cut with longer
stubs than those with dense wood, like apple and pear.
When pruning small branches or seedlings in which
buds or grafts have been inserted it is often advisable to
leave fairly long „ ,
stubs and to make
second cuts nearer
to the unions some
weeks later after the
tissues have knit
firmly. In such cases
the stubs should be
pared down smooth-
ly and close to the
cion growths.
Cd) In the forma-
tion of tops in
young trees, the
head s may be
spread somewhat
by pruning to buds
on the outside of
the twigs ; they
may be brought
somewhat closer
together by prun-
ing to inside buds ;
raised somewhat by
pruning to buds on
the upper sides and
lowered by pruning
to buds on the lower
sides. Thus erect growers, such as Northern Spy apple
FIG. 88— CUTS MADE HEADING- IN TWIGS
A, cut correctly made not too close but with
proper slant from the bud. B, cut far too long.
Too large surface exposed. L'kely to dry badl •.
C, too large an amount of wood left above bud.
Will dry and d'e back to bud and must be cut a
second time. D, cut too close to bud. Sure to
dry out and kill bud. Will die back to next bud.
130
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
trees, may be somewhat spread out, and sprawling ones,
like Rhode Island Greening apples, raised, and so on.
121. Fall vs. spring pruning of twigs and small
branches. — Common experience shows that even when
small twigs and branches are cut properly, as just in-
FIG. f 9— WRONG WAY TO CUT OFF BIG LIMB
Th; leverage due to the weight of the 1'mb will almost always prrduce this
kind of break. [The tree was to be cut dawn anyway to clear the ground for a
buiiding !]
dicated (120), there may be dying back. This rarely
occurs, however, when the pruning is done in the spring.
Fall-pruned twigs very frequently kill back an inch to
HOW WOUNDS HEAL 131
several inches, because the exposed ends of the twigs dry
out and therefore die back as far as the drying extends,
perhaps even farther. For this reason fall-planted trees
should never be as severely pruned back as those set in
the spring, the idea being to leave the stubs, say, 6 inches
longer than they should be, so that second cuts may be
made at the desired places just before growth starts in
HG. 90— PROPER WAY TO START CUTTING OFF LARGE LIMB
A cut should first be made underneath the limb a foot or more from the union
of (his limb with the trunk. When the s:<\v binds or sticks a second cut should be
made from above and near to the first. See Fig. 91.
the spring. When the second cutting is not given, the
uppermost bud on each twig will attempt to bury the dead
stub. Whether or not it succeeds is immaterial, there
will always be a weak spot in the branch at such points
even though no actual decay may follow. Healing occurs
most satisfactorily when the stub is very short and the
bud develops a sturdy twig.
132 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
When branches as thick as one's little finger or some-
what larger are to be cut close to the main trunk, leaving
the 6-inch stubs will be found a decided advantage for
another reason ; namely, the ease of cutting. For when
branches of these sizes are to be cut with a knife, as they
should be, far less effort will be needed if the branch is
bent upward or toward the trunk or main limb. A branch
that would require about all one's strength to cut while
FIG. 91— SECOND CUT PROPERLY MADE IN SAWING OFF LARGE LIMBS
This is the same branch as shown in Fig. 90. Notice there is no splitting or
tearing of the wood, as in Fig. 89. All that is necessary now is to saw off the short
stub close to the remaining limb.
in normal position may, when so bent, be cut as easily
as cheese, and a smoother, neater job done as well. This
is one of the most valuable points to remember in prun-
ing newly set trees.
This matter of twig pruning has special importance in
the training of trees as dwarfs (270), espaliers, cordons,
etc. (Chapter XVII), for much of the successful fruiting
HOW WOUNDS HEAL
133
of such plants is due to it. In Europe, where the train-
ing of fruit trees on walls and trellises is far more com-
mon than in the United States, the expert gardener may
cut off undesirable shoots at his leisure during the winter,
but leave stubs several inches longer than necessary for
an inexperienced assistant to remove just before growth
starts in the spring.
122. Where to cut large limbs. — From what has been
explained (116), it is evident that stubs should never be
TIG. 92— WRONG WAY TO MAKE A CUT IN REMOVING A LARGE LIMB
left permanently when limbs are cut off. It is, however, not
so evident how close to the main trunk cuts should be made
to remove large limbs. Some pruners contend that a
slight shoulder should be left so as to expose a smaller
area of cut surface to the air. They claim that the saw-
cut should be approximately at right angles to the limb
being removed. Experiments in many parts of the coun-
134
l'KIN< ll'I.KS AM) PRACTICE OK PRUNING
try, however, have proved beyond question that the more
nearly parallel the cut is made to the direction of sap
flow, the quicker will be the healing, because all parts of
the wound are thus kept in close connection with the
downward flow of elaborated sap. The objection that
the wound thus made must almost always be larger than
in the other case is discounted by the better results se-
cured in healing. To make this matter emphatic, the
principle mav be laid down that no part of an amputated
branch should extend be-
yond the trunk from
which the branch has
been cut.
123. Time to cut off
large limbs. — From nu-
merous experiments it
has been deduced that the
time of year when a
wound is made is a very
minor factor to consider
in pruning. No one sea-
son invariably gives best
results. It must be
noted, however, that m>
healing can occur while
the cambium is inactive,
as in late fall, winter and
perhaps also during pro-
tracted dry weather.
This statement has
special force in very cold,
dry climates, because
the exposed tissues will
probably dry out seri-
ously. In all fall and
winter pruning, par-
ticularly of large limbs, the cambium and the bark have
FIG 93
RIGHT WAY TO MAKE PRUN NG CUT
HOW WOUNDS HEAL
135
a tendency to die around the margins of wounds even to
the extent of loosening the bark. Unquestionably such
drying is a hindrance to healing. Another point against
pruning at that season is that the exposed wood is sure to
check more severely than if it is exposed to the air for a
shorter time and during a period of the year when the
*ap flow is more active.
FIG. 94— SAD EFFECTS OF SLEET STORM
This Norway maple is one of several seriously injured by a recent storm at
State College, Pa. It is doubtful if any pruning or training could have prevented in-
jury in this particular case, for the limbs are practically all broken where there were
no bad crotches or decayed parts. The Norway maple seems to be specially weak.
But how about pruning during the growing season? Is
there no objection to it? Yes — a theoretical one, at
least. It is claimed that pruning in spring and early
136
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
summer favors "bleeding" from the exposed surface.
The author, though he has looked for instances and has
searched horticultural literature, knows of only one case,
that reported by Newman
15), to support this claim
that plants which "bleed"
when cut are injured there-
by. Grapevines, maples,
Japanese walnuts, box eld-
ers and many other woody
plants bleed profusely when
wounded, especially in
early spring. But these
trees appear to suffer no in-
jury from the process. Yet
one well authenticated case,
such as that of Newman's,
supports the contention that
injury does result from
such cutting. It is there-
fore well to err on the safe
side and avoid cutting after
or just before growth of
such plants starts.
As the result of several
series of experiments in
pruning trees during every
month in the year, it has been
concluded that season is of
far less consequence than
the length of the stub and
the position of the wound
with respect to the trunk
from which the limb was removed. Of these two, the latter
is the more important. Wounds on actively growing
limbs heal most quickly, and when the limbs are erect
or nearly so. the healing is quicker than on horizontal
FIG. 95
LABEL WIRE MAKES GIRDLED LIMB
BLOOM PREMATURELY
HOW WOUNDS HEAL 137
or nearly horizontal limbs. Contrary to popular belief
that it is not wise to prune limbs that are frozen solid, ex-
periments have shown that the mere frozen condition has
no influence except, perhaps, as noted by Lewis (159). As
a summary of all the experiments as to season of pruning,
it may be said that the best time to prune is during the
six or eight weeks that precede the resumption of growth
in spring.
124. How to remove large limbs. — Next to making a
wound in the correct position is the importance of mak-
ing the surface smooth ; for a smooth surface will not
favor the development of fungi and bacteria to the same
extent as will a rough or splintered surface. It is folly
to remove a large limb with one cut, even if that cut is
made in the ideal position. The leverage of the limb will
surely split, splinter or tear the trunk more or less seri-
ously (Figs. 89, 92). Safety lies in making three cuts, the
first on the lower side of the limb and at a distance of a foot
or more from the main trunk, the second on the upper or
opposite side of the limb and close to the first cut (Fig.
90), the third close to the trunk where the final wound is
to be (Figs. 91, 93). In making the first cut it will not
be long ere the saw will bind or stick. When this occurs
the second cut is started. Often before the second cut
reaches the first the limb will fall, leaving a stub which
can be easily removed at the proper point when the third
cut is made close to the trunk.
CHAPTER VII
PREVENTION AND REPAIR OF MECHANICAL
INJURIES
125. Kinds of injuries. — Casual observation will show
tha: trees suffer from many kinds of mechanical injuries.
Storms, particularly of sleet (Fig. 94) and those which
arrive while the trees are loaded with fruit, cause serious
breakage of branches, but such injuries usually resolve
themselves into cases of a simple pruning. The injuries
here to be considered are those mainly due to the igno-
rance or the carelessness of the planter or to animals, such
as hogs, rabbits, mice and
hired men. Many of these
injuries may be easily pre-
vented and cured. Several
typical cases will be con-
sidered here. The reader
may also refer to the chap-
ter on tree surgery for the
treatment of a different class
of injuries.
126. Label wire injuries
are very common (Figs. 95.
9(5) ,50 are those caused by ty-
ing trees too tightly to stakes
3^3 and by fastening guy wires
and ropes around trunks and
branches (Fig. 313). The
effect is the same in all cases.
Wire fences often injure tree
trunks more or less when fastened to them (Fig. 309 C), but
usually such injuries extend only part way around the
trunks. Instances are recorded where the growth of such
138
FIG. 96— A WIRE GIRDLED THIS
CHERRY TREE
PREVENTION AND REPAIR OF MECHANICAL INJURIES 139
trees as poplar has extended over even board fences fastened
to them. Figure 97 shows an oak tree which has grown
around the end of a bench at Hunter's Park, Pennsyl-
vania.* Label wire injuries are always due to careless-
ness or ignorance. At
planting time the wire
is left encircling the
trunk of the newly set
tree. Because it is
loose it looks harmless,
but when the tree
grows it soon begins to
cut the trunk and to
check the flow of elab-
orated sap from the
leaves downward. Cop-
per wire, the kind usu-
ally employed by nurs-
erymen, is especially
pernicious because it
lasts much longer than
does iron or string.
\Vhen the wire is on
the main trunk its in-
jury may be so severe
as to kill the tree;
when on a branch, it
may cause an abnormal
development (Fig. 95).
Generally the trunk
becomes larger above than below the girdle (Fig. 96)V
Label wire and other girdles are not necessarily fatal
to the trees so injured (-Fig. 96). As long as the sap
* A similar case is pictured in Popular Mechanics, March, 1916. In this case
the trees grew around the boards of a fence.
FIG. 97 . ;
BENCH SUPPORTED BY LIVING TREE
Originally there were upright supports
beneath the bench, but these have rotted,
away. The board, not being in contact .with
the soil and being quickly dried after, rains,,
continued sound and rigid. The bark there-
fore grew around the end as seen. The tree
at the other end of this bench shows similar
growth, and on its opposite side shows where,
another board was similarly buried but has.
been destroyed by fire, leaving a slot 4 inches
deep where the bench originally met the trunk.
140
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
continues to flow upward there is a chance that the parts
of the stem above and below the girdle will unite and
form new conduits for elaborated food to reach the parts
below the girdle, especially the roots. The season when
the injury occurs has much to do with the healing.
Girdles which occur in
spring may be healed by
autumn ; those made in late
summer, fall and early
winter may cause such loss
of moisture that the inner
bark, the cambium and the
sap-wood may die at the
point of girdling and the tree
die before spring. This
furnishes a hint as to killing
trees by girdling: do the
work in late summer and
make the cut below the san-
wood.
127. Prevention of crotch
splitting. — It is far easier
to prevent than to cure the
splitting of a Y-crotch.
Nursery trees, which have
two branches of practical 1y
equal size, especially if both
are almost vertical, and
thus form an acute angle.
are sure to break later be-
cause the leverage will crack
the bark and allow decay to
enter and weaken the
union (Fig. 98). As the leverage increases and the decay
descends farther into the trunk the union becomes so
weak that one or both the branches will break and thus
ruin the tree. Nursery and other young trees with Y-
FIG. 98— HOW TO HANDLE YOUNG
FORKED TREE
When limbs occur below the natural
head they should be cut off as close to
the trunk as possible, unless they are
so large that the cut will make a dan-
gerous wound. Then they should be
shortened to a few inches to prevent
their making much growth and the stubs
removed the following season. In this
case the branch cut to a stub would
have formed a Y-crotch. Had there
been no good head above, the cutting
back would have allowed * new limb to
form. (See text.)
PREVENTION AND REPAIR OF MECHANICAL INJURIES 141
crotches may be treated in three ways to prevent split-
ting, (a) One of the branches may be completely cut
off at planting time or while still small. Doubtless this
is generally the safest and most satisfactory method
because it disposes at
once of all possibility
of breakage, (b) One
of the branches, the
smaller usually pre-
ferred, may be cut back
severely so as to make
it develop into a side
branch rather than in-
to a leader. Often
this is an effective plan,
especially if the prun-
ing be such as to spread
the tree and make the
side branch less erect
than it would be as a
leader, (c) The third
method applies or
should apply only when
the Y-crotch has not
been treated as above
suggested, but has been
allowed to grow for a
year to, say, perhaps,
ten years. A brace of
living wood may be de-
veloped between the two
arms of the Y so as to
form, when finished, an
inverted capital letter A.
Usually the best way to secure such a brace is by
twining together two living branches produced by op-
posite arms of the Y. Preferably each branch should be
FIG. 99— HISTORY OF A CROTCH SPLIT
These sections of a black cherry limb show
the progress of decay downward between the
branch and the main trunk. In the top sec-
tion the decay has progressed to the extent
of separating the two parts — not so much as
shown, but with a distinct cleavage. The
middle and lower sections show the decay
working downward at the discolored spot on
each.
142
PRINCIPLES A.\D PRACTICE OF PRUNING
growing on the inner side of
the arm; that is, each branch
should grow toward the op-
posite arm and at approximately
the same distance from the
acute angle of the Y, say, 2 to
4 or 5 feet. Each branch should
be long enough to extend a foot
or more beyond the arm on the
opposite side. It will also be
an aid if the arms of the Y are
drawn somewhat closer to-
gether (an inch or two) than
they normally stand, and kept
in this position for two or more
years — until the branches have
grown together.
The principle upon which
this method is based is that the
intertwined branches will unite
by natural graftage. As soon as the graft union is com-
plete the tips of the branches may be shortened little by
little annually and finally cut off close to the arms of
the Y. It is advisable to leave as
many leafy twigs as possible on the
intertwined branches, but to re-
move these little by little in spring,
beginning with the largest, as the
union of the two branches becomes
stronger. The finished brace will
more or less resemble the one
shown in Figure 104.
When only one branch can be
secured to form the brace, it may
be grafted to the opposite arm. The
branch selected should be well
ripened when used. This grafting
FIG. 100— TRIPLE Y-CROTCH
This badly neglected tree is
triply weak because of the three
Y-crotches. It is doomed. Several
large branches have been cut off.
Two scars show.
FIG. 101
SAVING A Y-CROTCH
Pine 2 x 4-inch scantling
with telegraph wire is here
used. This is better thin
wire alone, but is not very
effective because there is too
much "give." The limbs
should be bolted together
higher up.
PREVENTION AND REPAIR OF MECHANICAL INJURIES 143
is of the simplest nature. In spring the cambium on
both branch and arm may be exposed by a small cut on
each. The two cut surfaces may then be brought in close
contact, fastened so firmly that there will be no motion,
and then covered with grafting wax.
Each year the binding rope should be loosened to pre-
vent girdling of the arm. Probably in three to five years
the union will be complete and the tip of the branch may
be cut off close to the arm. A modification of this method,
applicable to Y arms of rather large diameter, is to bore
FIG. 102— SPLITTING OF PEACH TREE WHERE THE TOP WAS IMPROPERLY
FORMED WITH A Y-CROTCH
a hole through one arm for the branch from the other arm
to pass through and beyond. Tying and waxing as above
recommended are advisable in this case also.
127a. Grafting wax.* — "The resin and beeswax waxes
are all started alike ; the materials previously made into
small lumps may all be placed in the pot together, but
preferably the resin is melted over a very gentle fire first
and the other ingredients added. Boiling must be avoided.
After stirring to make uniform, the melted mixture is
poured into a tub of cold water and flattened out so it
will cool evenly. When cool enough to handle, it is
* Kains, Plant Propagation, Greenhouse and Nursery Practice, Page 222,
144
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
kneaded and pulled till the color resembles molasses
taffy. To prevent its sticking to the skin, the hands are
kept greasy. Should lumps occur (because of improper
handling), it may be re-melted and re-cooked. Usually
the wax is made into balls or sticks for convenient use.
It will keep indefinitely. Linseed oil for making grafting
waxes must be free from adulterations such as cottonseed
oil." Favorite formulae are as
follows : Resin 3 pounds, bees-
wax 3 pounds, tallow 2 pounds ;
a cheaper wax : Resin 4 pounds,
beeswax 2, tallow 1 ; resin 4,
beeswax 2, linseed oil 1 pint — •
increase oil for softness; resin
6, beeswax 2, linseed oil 1 pint.
128. Bridge or repair graft-
ing,* sometimes erroneously
called inarching, may be the
means of saving valuable trees
which have been injured by
mice, rabbits, hogs, human
carelessness or accident.
Unless the girdle has cut
through the sap-wood it is an
error to say that bridge graft-
ing is necessary to establish
connection between root and
top, for the upward current of
sap passes through the sap-
wood and not through the bark. It is correct, however, to say
that the bridge establishes a connection between top and root,
for the downward flow of elaborated sap is through the
bark layers. As soon as the wound is discovered the
operation should be performed. If the injury occurs in
winter the wound should be protected to prevent drying.
FIG. 103— ONE WRONG WAY
TO MEND Y-CROTCH
The Y split because of over-
load of fruit, but the owner
brought it back to place with
tackles and put a chain around the
arms. Growth is burying the
chain. Notice the attempts of the
tree to heal the wounds made by
the cutting of limbs. The interior
of the trunk is decayed badly be-
cause of wrong methods of cut-
ting branches.
•Quoted from the author's book, Plant Propagation, Greenhouse and Nursery
Practice.
PREVENTION AND REPAIR OF MECHANICAL INJURIES 145
In spring when the buds begin to swell the grafting
should be done. The operation is performed as follows :
The injured, and perhaps dry bark, on both upper and
lower edges of the wound is pared back to living tissue.
Several cions are cut long enough to extend a little be-
no. 104— LIVING WOOD BRACE BETWEEN TRUNK AND LIMB OF NORWAY
MAPLE. SHOULD HAVE BEEN MADE HIGHER UP TO BE STRONGER
yond these trimmed edges, and inserted beneath the
bark both above and below, thus making little "bridges"
across the gap. The ends of the cion are cut obliquely,
to insure fitting of the cambium layers of cions and trunk.
It is often a help to bow the cions outward slightly, be-
cause the spring thus formed aids in holding them in
place. But these and other minor details may be left to
individual preference. If placed an inch or so apart
around the trunk, enough cions should succeed to save
the tree. Both wound and cions should be completely
covered with grafting wax, preferably made warm so as
146
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
to fit into every chink and thus exclude air and water.
In a few years the cions will grow together and in time
lose their identity in a smooth trunk.
Bridge grafting is a makeshift method not to be com-
pared with proper protection of trunks by keeping ani-
mals out of the orchard, by avoiding accumulation of
grass, straw, etc., in which mice might form nests, and
by using trunk protectors — splints, tarred or building
paper, but preferably half-
inch galvanized hardware
cloth — around the trunks
until the trees have de-
veloped rough bark. Such
methods will prevent the
necessity of bridge grafting
except in cases of unusual
accident.
When the girdles are
narrow — say only one to
three inches — no bridging
rnay be necessary. In such
cases, however, it is well to
err on the safe side by
105— WELL-BRANCHED LOW- coverins" the wound with
HEADED PEACH wuum
grafting clay (half clay and
fresh cow manure) and
bandaging this in with cotton cloth, or by using grafting
wax. Often such wounds will heal over in a single season.
129. Pruning tools of many styles are upon the market,
but many of them are of small utility and some worse
than useless, positively harmful. Of course the tool
equipment will vary with the man and with the type of
work to be done. In general, however, the kit will con-
sist of a knife, a pair of hand shears and two or three
different types and sizes of saws. If there is to be much head-
ing back of side branches out of hand reach a pole primer
(Figs. 106 to 108) may be added, and for removing dead
FIG.
No danger of splitting from even
heavy load
FIG. 106— MISCELLANEOUS PRUNING TOOLS
a, Waters' tree pruner; b, stronger pattern; c, d, e and / four styles of branch
loppers — all clumsy; g, pruning spud and hook for brambles; h, raspberry hook;
(', combined saw and lopper; /', pole chisel; k, combined saw and chisel; I, m,
lopping shears; n and o, trunk scrapers.
148
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OK PRUNING
blackberry canes from the stools a hook primer also
(Fig. 106 h). Even the best pole pruner does poor work
except, perhaps, in heading-in, and then the work itself
is inferior to that done by the shears, the knife and the
saw, but these cannot be used without taking too much
time to reach the parts to be removed. The pole pruner
simply cannot be constructed or used so as to make a cut
properly.
\
FIG. 107— POLE SHEARS FOR OUTSIDE BRANCH PRUNING
No. 1. Good shear, simple, strong. The most satisfactory pole shear. Inex-
pensive. No. 2. Double lever in shear. No better than No. 1. Has more parts
to get out of order. No. 3. Old type of "Waters' " shear. Double guard prevents
close cutting, leaves a bruise and often becomes choked with wood and bark.
No. 4. Good shear, but the long arm is clumsy. A very good shear to transport
because the pole is detachable. No. 5. Objectionable double guard and clumsy arm.
No. 6. Very awkward and clumsy. Inefficient and much too expensive.
Next to the pole pruner the knife will be used least
of the general equipment because the shears are quicker,
yet it cannot be dispensed with, because, for certain work,
such as pruning side shoots off young tree trunks, noth-
ing will take its place. The pruning knife should be stout,
the blade made of the best steel and kept always very
sharp. For this reason the style which permits the re-
PREVENTION AND REPAIR OF MECHANICAL INJURIES 149
moval and replacement of blades in the one handle offers
special advantage where a large amount of pruning must
be done. It saves time going to and from the tool house
and investment in knives. Fig. 112 shows popular styles
of pruning knives.
Pruning shears will be used a hundred times where the
tree pruncr is used once, and at least a score of times
FIG. 108— POLE SHEAR PRUNERS, SLIDING HANDLE TYPE
Nos. 1 and 2. Reverse or U-type. Not as handy in use as common hook type.
No. 3. Satisfactory light type. No. 4. Powerfully made and cuts fairly well, but
the head is extremely heavy. Undesirable. No. 5. Objectionable double guard
style. Pole seriously weakened by the peculiar lever device. No. 6. Double shear
type devised for light work. Pole weakened by peculiar lever device.
to the knife. It is of especial use in pruning trees up to
the age of five or six years for the removal of branches
up to say half an inch in diameter. Many makes are
for sale, some of them excellent. Points to bear in mind
when choosing a pair are to have first-class steel in the
blade, because a keen edge is necessary to do good work
and prevent injury to the parts to be left on the plant.
Next, the shears should be free working, with a good
spring to 6pen them promptly after making a cut. The
I
150
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
style of spring is a matter of preference. The author likes
the style shown in Fig. 109 a, because it is less likely to be-
come caught in branches than are the styles shown in b
and c. For general orchard work the shears should
be rather heavy, with a handle long enough in propor-
tion to the length of the blade to give plenty of power
when cutting fairly large branches. A 10-inch size is
FIG. 109— PRUNING SHEARS OF VARIOUS STYLES
a, Author's preference because spring is strong, small and not likely to be
fouled with twigs; b, undesirable form of spring because, unless very stiff likely
to be pulled loose by twigs caught in it; handle also poorly adapted to hand;
c, parrot's beak (see Fig. 110), spring not very good form; d, French style,
author's second choice, but preferred by many fruit growers; e, hedge trimmers,
ordinary style. An improvement is the hollowing of the blade near the hinge so
as to hold large limbs and prevent slipping. More costly, but decidedly better.
about right for general orchard work; a smaller one for
cutting twigs and berry bushes. Double-handed shears
have their special uses in removing larger branches than
could be cut easily with the single-hand shears. Unless
kept very sharp they are likely to do injury to the parts
left. Therefore, the saw should be preferred to them
wherever it can be used.
130. Pruning saws ( Figs. Ill, 115 to 117 ) are by no means
7
FIG. 110— GOOD, BAD AND INDIFFERENT HAND SHEARS.
The shears in the upper row are simply and durably constructed and are
efficient in operation. Note the sharp-pointed blades. The good grip secured by
smooth handles makes it possible to turn these in the hand very easily. Turning
secures the best cuts by keeping the blade always close in with the guard on the
outside of the cut. Numbers 5 and 6 are light shears for use with small fruits
or grapes. The shears in the lower row present several kinds of objectionable
features, and most of them are poorly made. No. 7 has a loop handle which pre-
vents turning. Nos. 8, 9 and 10 have knobs on the handles. They invariably pro-
duce blisters and may prevent turning for proper use. No. 8 has too blunt a point.
No. 9 has an objectionable double guard and a poor point. No. 10 opens too wide
and has a very poor point. No. 1 1 is a freak device of no value except as a
curiosity.
152
I'UI XC'II'I.KS AM) I'UA(TICK OK PRTXIXG
perfect ; indeed the majority on the market do too inferior
work to deserve the name. Most conspicuous among
these is the double-edge abomination (Fig. Ill) pictured
in seedsmen's and nurserymen's catalogs. It not only
cuts the trees where it should not, but cuts the man who
uses it the least bit car<?lessly. Experienced pruners
shun it.
Several styles and sizes of saws are needed because-
of the variety of work to be done. For heavy work, such
as orchard renovation, the blade
should be 24 to 27 inches long.
5 to 6 inches wide at the base,
about 1 inch wide at the small
end and have five or six teeth
of ordinary form to the inch.
The ordinary tooth will give
better satisfaction than the
"lumberman's tooth" often on
the double-edged saw (Fig.
111). For lighter work, such as
that on trees wrell handled from
the start, a lighter, smaller saw
is needed. One with a blade
21 to 24 inches long, 4 inches
wide at the handle, 1 inch at
the tip and with f>. ;V/, or (>
ordinary teeth to the inch will
be found very satisfactory.
For smaller branches a still smaller, thinner saw will
do excellent work. One 15 inches long, 3 wide at
the base, tapering to a point and carrying (), (\l/2 or 7
ordinary teeth to the inch is about right. A curved saw
with teeth pointing toward the handle is often of special
use in making draw cuts. Its length may be about K>
inches, its width at the point 1 inch and at the handle *J
or 2 1/ inches. In California it is largely used in .sawing
old grapevines for grafting.
FIG.
COMMON PRUNING SAWS
The uppermost saw differs
from an ordinary pruning saw
only in having a slightly curved
blade. The handle is too small
for the gloved hand. So is the
handle in No. 2, which is a very
objectionable type of saw be-
cause of its double-edged blade.
The lowest tool is popular in
California for cutting grapevines
that are to be grafted near the
surface of the ground. On it the
teeth are set for a draw cut.
PREVENTION AND REPAIR OF MECHANICAL INJURIES 153
A modification of the butcher's saw, with swivels that
permit the very thin, narrow, fine-toothed blade being
set on the bias, is particularly good for small branches
and twigs, because the heavy bow gives weight to the
light blade, which makes clean cuts at any angle desired.
This is the type of saw the author specially likes for the
work it is capable of doing.
FIG. 112— PRUNING KNIVES OF VARIOUS STYLES
The three upper ones differ little except in the shape of the handle. The bot-
tom one is a Nagle Re-blade knife in which the blades are replaceable. This is a
convenient style because an assortment of blades may be kept for changing from
dull to sharp ones, or to different forms. The blades readily slip into the handle
when in the nearly closed position.
In Fig. 117 is shown a set of saws designed for student
use. The interchangeable blades permit a variety of
demonstration work. In practice, however, the author
and his experienced students did not like this particular
design. The blades are too light, and the grip part of the
handle too small for any but small-sized hands.
CHAPTER VIII
DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS
Many things have been recommended for protecting
wounds. Poultices of fresh cow manure mixed with clay
were lauded by fruit growers 50 years or more ago ; graft-
ing wax and paint during the past 50 years ; creosote and
tar by some fruit growers and foresters of the present
day. While the manure method is nowadays rarely used,
the paints and the grafting wax are doubtless most popu-
lar, but objections are raised to them because of their
expense and their faulty protection.
FIG. 113— COLLECTION OF PRUNING KNIVES
a, Combination of pruning, general and budding blades; b, stationary pruning
blade; c, pocket pruning and penknife; d, pruner for herbaceous and other small
growths; et hawk-bill knife; /, popular style of pruning knife.
In an old orchard the author found a slab of paint ( !)
made by the coats of several years' painting. It was a
quarter of an inch thick, had a little rotten wood cling-
ing to its under side. Beneath this "protection" the heart
wood of the 6 or 8-inch branch wound it had covered was
so decayed that quantities of it could be pulled out by
hand with almost no effort. Such cases should condemn
painting.
154
FIG. 114— PRINCIPAL STYLES OF DOUBLE-HANDLED LOPPING SHEARS
No. 1. A strong, well-made shear of simple construction and moderate cost.
The bolt has a lock nut to allow for adjustment. Desirable type. No. 2. Strong,
well made, light weight shear of moderate cost. If provided with a. bolt and a
lock nut instead of a rivet it would be as good as No. 1. No. 3. A very powerful well-
made shear, but does not show desirable simplicity of construction. Cos's more
than the average. No. 4. Fairly good and inexpensive. The blade has a blunt,
rounded bevel which is not as good as on those above. A stop must also be pro-
vided to save the pruner's knuckles. No. 5. Powerful shear of English make. Has
a rivet instead of'a bolt and a lock nut and costs more than the average. No. 6.
The "double cut" type of shear. Cannot be used in close quarters where pointed
blades work easily. Has no locking device for the nut and the handles are weak.
Not desirable.
156
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
During the past decade much experimenting has been
done by botanists, foresters, pomological investigators
and others to determine the desirable and the undesirable
dressings. Many experiments are as yet incomplete;
FIG. 115— GOOD, BAD AND INDIFFERENT PRUNING SAWS
No. 1. Long, heavy saw for large limbs. No. 2. General purpose saw. Roth
these styles are good. Compare lengths with the 18-inch ruler. No. 3 is the
"made to sell" saw with the "lumberman's" tooth on one side and the ordinary
tooth on the other. It is a dangerous weapon both to trees and operators. The
best place for it is in a museum of torture implements. No. 4 is a pole saw wi:h
swivel blade. Where branches can't be reached easily it serves fairly well because
the thin, small-toothed blade makes clean cuts. No. 5 differs from No. 4 onlv in
the handle. It would be better with a handle similar to No. 1. No. 6 is a hsavy
affair with an iron handle. It is a mean thing to use on a cold day, because thj
handle chills the hand in spite of the exercise of sawing.
some have been reported upon. In order to present all
sides of such an important question the author has quoted
freely from several of the already published writings.
Hitherto the author has favored pure white lead in pure
raw linseed oil, but this is too expensive as well as too
risky. At present, tin- case appears to him in favor of
DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS
157
.asphaltum, creosote, tar and carbolineum, as recom-
mended by Selby (132, 135) and Cook (134).
Wherever a dressing is used it may be made less con-
spicuous by adding some pigment to change the color.
For instance, white lead paint may be turned to a bark-
colored gray writh a little raw sienna, and cement may be
similarly treated with asphaltum.
FIG. 116— TYPES OF HAND SAWS FOR TREE PRUNING
Nos. 1 and 2. Good examples of the swivel blade type. Good grips. Make
trood cuts in any position and are not expensive. This type once used is always
used. No. 2 has loose pins in the blade. These are often lost when the tension
is slackened. No. 4. Common type, with fine teeth toward the tapered point for
yse in narrow quarters. The handle is small for the gloved hand. Does fairly good
work and is inexpensive.
131. Experiments in wound healing.*— Experiments in wound heal-
ing were made in Nebraska with six treatments — liquid grafting
wax, shellac varnish, white lead paint, pine tar and coal tar and no
treatment. "Wax is the only application which appears to possess
any advantage in aiding the wound to heal, though most of them
did not hinder the process. . . .Those treated with shellac did not
I in June] seem to have healed quite as well as those left untreated
I but in September there seemed to be] a slight difference in favor
of shellac over those untreated. Paint does not hinder the process
* Epitomized from Nebraska Bulletin 50, Page 8.
158 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
of healing, and there is little evidence that it favors it, the slight
variation being no more than would naturally occur between two
sets of wounds treated in the same way. Those treated with pine
tar seem not to have healed quite so well as those untreated, al-
though the difference was not great. Coal tar, however, seems to
have been a positive hindrance to the healing process, not one
wound having been reported as healing extremely well, while the
majority [healed] only fairly well/*
FIG. 117— STUDENTS' COMBINATION SAWS
The upper tool shows the saw complete. The lower blades with the handle make
up the set.
132. Wound dressings.*— Experience has recently shown the prac-
tical value of gas tar and forms of liquid asphaltum as wound dress-
ings. The relatively low cost of the gas tar, 15 to 20 cents a gallon,
and certain of its qualities, render it adapted to use for wound dress-*
ings. This material is not without limitations. One of these is a
certain difficulty in securing a continuous covering of sensible thick-
ness with the gas tar. Apparently very good results are secured by
using it in the semi-fluid or rather thick state, and this applies as
well to forms of liquid asphaltum made with linseed oil, etc.
While at times, especially in cooler weather, it is desirable to heat
the gas tar, imperfect covering is secured with the very fluid, hot
tar. After cooling in part, a more favorable condition is reached.
In general, it would seem that two applications give more desirable
results. The second of these may be made after an interval of a
* A. D. Selby, Circular No. 150, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station.
DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS
159
few weeks or even a year. This material is often referred to as
coal tar. Certain forms of thin or very fluid character used for
roof coverings and as metal paints are not well adapted for use as
wound dressings.
In general, pruning wounds less than one and a half inches in
diameter scarcely require a covering. There may be cases, how-
ever, where heavy pruning is practiced, in which more general treat-
ment of the wounds is advisable. Solid asphaltum has not proved
successful as a wound covering. It may be rendered fluid as de-
tailed below (142).
133. Effect of various wound dressings.* — Fruit growers have long
used paints, tars, waxes and other substances as coverings for
wounds of trees. The following paragraphs report the efi'ects of
FIG. 118— POLE SAWS ARE ALL AWKWARD IN USE, MAKE RAGGED CUTS
AND ARE UNDESIRABLE
Nos. 1, 5 and 6 are freak devices. No. 2. Objectionable because double edged.
No. 3. Single edge straight blade. No. 4. Swivel type, the best pole saw if one
must be used.
white lead, white zinc, yellow ocher, coal tar, shellac and avenarius
carbolineum on wounds made on apple and peach. The dressings of
these materials were applied when the pruning was done at various
seasons of the year and upon wounds of various ages.
In all cases undressed pruning wounds healed more rapidly than
those whose surfaces were protected. Shellac seemed, the tirst sea-
son, to exert a stimulating influence upon the wounds, but the second
season this effect disappeared. Of all the materials used shellac
was least injurious. On the other hand it adheres to the wounded
* G. H. Howe's summary and conclusions, somewhat condensed from New York
Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 396.
160 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
surfaces least well of all. Avenarius carbolineum and yellow ocher
caused so much injury that neither substance should ever be used
(compare 134). Coal tar not only caused injury, but quickly dis-
appeared, either through absorption or evaporation.
White lead and white zinc caused some injury at the time of
application, but the wounded tissues recovered rather quickly, and
at the close oLthe first season the injury was not very marked ; at
the close of the second season it had nearly disappeared. These two
paints are the best of the protective substances used, and of the two,
white lead is the better.
Nothing is to be gained in the treatment of wounds by waiting
several weeks before applying any of the various dressings used in
these experiments.
The treatment of peach tree wounds with any of the substances
under experiment caused so much injury that it may be said that
the wounds of the peach should never be treated with any of them,
and it may be inferred that this is true of wounds on trees of all
stone fruits. There is nothing to show in this experiment that it is
worth while to treat large or small wounds of tree fruits with any
of the substances in common use. Had there been a longer period
of observation, it might have developed that the wood exposed in
the larger wounds would have been somewhat saved from the drcay
which often sets in on exposed wood of fruit trees. Tt may prove
to be worth while, therefore, to cover large wounds; in which case
white lead is undoubtedly the best dressing to use.
From the results of this experiment several deductions seem war-
ranted. First, the dressings commonly applied to pruning wounds
retard rather than accelerate the healing of the wounds. Second,
the effects are the same whether the dressings are applied when the
wounds are made or some weeks later when the cut surface has
dried out. Third, the effects of the dressings used are so injurious
to peach wood that wounds on peach trees should never be covered.
Probably this statement holds true for other stone fruits as well.
Fourth, these experiments suggest that the popular notion that
wounds need to be covered with some dressing to prevent the en-
trance of fungi, in sprayed orchards at least, is usually exaggerated.
It is doubtful if it is necessary to attempt to prevent decay by appli-
cations of dressings of the kinds under discussion in wounds under
4 or 5 inches in diameter. It remains to be proved whether they
have any real value in covering large wounds. It may be suspected
that the injury caused by the dressing when applied to the wounds
largely, if not wholly, offsets or even over-balances the protection
offered, if there be such, against decay.
134. Painting tree wounds.— The statements quoted from the New
York Experiment Station bulletin above, prompted Howard B. Cook
to publish in the Country Gentleman* an article from which the fol-
lowing passages are condensed. Mr. Cook agrees that peach
* May 6, 1916, Page 988.
DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS 161
wounds should not be painted because the trees are short-lived,
quick-growing, quick to heal, and because large cuts are uncommon
on them. He also agrees that wounds less than 2 inches in diameter
on trees younger than thirty years need not be painted.
But, he writes, the experimenters state that when trees are sprayed
yearly with a fungicide, it is doubtful whether any decay will de-
velop. If this proves true, it will be line indeed. In the experiment,
however, young, low trees were used, except for a couple of years'
observation on older trees with a few 5-inch wounds. With older
trees having wounds open from seven to ten years or longer it is
not at all certain that decay will be kept out by spraying alone,
especially since larger trees are not so minutely covered in spraying.
A thirty-year experiment to discover the effect of spraying on the
decay of apple trees would eventually be of considerable value. The
data in the bulletin are of great value, even though the conclusions
drawn are too broad and unnecessary in view of the "way out"
which will soon follow.
Armed with a hammer, a saw, and perhaps a chisel, go into an
orchard of some fifty years' standing. Notice a wound not fully
healed, but evidently* daubed with paint some years ago. Rap this
wound sharply with the hammer. A cave-in occurs; or instead the
wound. seems sound at the surface, but gives evidence of being a
sort of bung to a decaying mass half an inch farther in. Pry out
the bung and you will see. So much for paint as a preservative !
Now select a fair-sized perfectly healed wound and saw off the
healed part or cap. You are very apt to discover a decayed wound
or even a hollow limb. Therefore it is seen that we can have perfect
healing over a decaying wound. Let us see how such a condition
of affairs can affect the owner of an orchard. From an upward and
outward swinging section of a tree are suspended four or five
barrelfuls of apples. The limb looks sound — all wounds being
nicely healed — and the owner ventures out upon it. Crack, snap,
crash ! So much for perfect healing !
These examples show there is just one reason why we must
apply something to pruning wounds — that is, for the preservation of
the wood. The most effective of preservatives must be used — either a
carbolineum or a grade one creosote oil. The bulletin says we should
never use these oils because they are the most injurious of paints in
killing back the bark. Rut usually where there is a must, there is a
may, if the problem is sufficiently studied. The solution of the problem
I will presently come to. First, however, we must see what happens
when our painting kills the bark : Under dead and dying bark borers
start, and following them comes a whitish rot of the sap wood
which also affects the heart wood or middle of the limb. This
destroys the tensile strength of the wood to such an extent that in
two or three years the limb is likely to break down under its fruit
load (Fig. 82).
Now we come to a method of applying the liquid to preserve
thoroughly both wood and bark in a healthy state. Since ordinary
162 PRINCIPLES AND PKACTICK OF PRUNING
heartwood-destroying fungi, start in the center or pith and seldom
if ever affect the true sap wood, always paint from the center of
the wound outward. Instead of painting across the sap wood clear
to the bark, the ordinary way, leave a circle absolutely bare around
the outside from fy& of an inch to an inch in width. Remember
that these oils will penetrate a little farther than you paint, es-
pecially at the base. So you must have a care about using a too
heavilv charged brush. It is good practice to have a rag handy to
swab away any surplus.
In using these oils, the addition of just enough coal tar to give
them a dull black color after drying will overcome any tendency
they may have to drying in or out, so that they at least appear to
have partly faded away. The main reason for this appearance is
that the oils have sunk deeply into soft, decaying spots, the result of
the decay traveling from some hole through the pith of the
parent limb to the wound affected. For best results in preserving
wood, two coats are usually recommended. The second may be
applied at any time a month after the first, but ordinarily some time
after next year's pruning will be most feasible.
It is sometimes desired to stimulate quick healing. While the
cut or a barked place anywhere is fresh, paint the edge of the bark
and the sap wood only with liquid wax. This is made as follows :
Best white — yellow will do — resin, one pound ; beef tallow, one
ounce. Melt together, remove from the fire and stir in eight ounces
of alcohol. Keep and use from a wide-mouthed bottle tightly corked.
Through a hole in the stopper, thrust a small brush for applying the
solution. Perfect results have been secured by the use of this
material.
135. Available antiseptic materials.* — According to A. D. Selby
two steps in wound treatment may be found necessary in mam-
cases, although in the average case of pruning to remove a branch
with a healthy base only one may be essential. These steps are :
(1) Sterilization of the wound surface per se. (2) The application
of a dressing to protect from infection through the entrance of
spores or bacteria.
(1). The sterilization consists in killing any possible spores or
bacteria, etc., that may be upon the surface, by the use of a torch to
cauterize the surface, or more easily by the application of an anti-
septic or spore-destroying substance. Among these germicides are
corrosive sublimate, gasoline, kerosene, carbolic acid, petroleum,
copper sulphate solution, carbolineum, formaldehyde, etc. The
availability of any of these processes will depend especially upon the
effect on the living layer of the wounded surface. If the cambium
is killed appreciably it will raise the question of possible injury.
Because of such possible injury only corrosive sublimate, copper
sulphate and formaldehyde are apparently safe. Petroleum com-
* Paragraphs 135 to 142 have been excerpted and condensed from Circular 12t>
of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station.
DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS 163
pounds, like gasoline, kerosene, etc., penetrate and destroy the living
tissues. As to avenarius carbolineum, a proprietary substance, some
doubt has been expressed. Because of its complete absorption by,
the wounded surface it offers many advantages. Upon dead sur-
faces, such as those from which decay has been removed, it is avail-
able, as are also carbolic acid and solutions of copper sulphate, cor-
rosive sublimate, etc. Upon wounds made by the removal of malig-
nant growths, such as crown gall, hairy-root or malignant blister
cankers, an active antiseptic agent is required, and for such use it
promises to be superior to copper sulphate or corrosive sublimate
solutions.
(2). When effective dressings are applied to newly cut surfaces,
especially if these dressings are of possible antiseptic value, the one
operation of applying the dressing may be considered as relatively
adequate to the demands.
136. Essential requirements of a wound dressing. — Wound dress-
ings should be sufficiently fluid to be applied readily under spring
pruning conditions — [fairly low temperatures]. They should form
an impervious, non-cracking layer over the surface, even though
large, since such a dressing will prevent the later drying out and
checking of the wound. These two requirements are essentially
antagonistic, since practically no covering within reasonable cost
will form an impervious covering from a single application at or-
dinary temperatures. Whenever the covering "is not secured by a
single application serious danger through subsequent checks may
occur and thus admit disease spores. This tendency to dry out
limits the usefulness of paints and pastes, which look satisfactory
when applied, but dry out by midsummer. Dressings should not
be unreasonably costly, an objection to grafting wax, which, like
paraffin is also objectionable because of separating freely from the
wounded surface. Adhesiveness is a valuable property in a dressing
because it prevents abrasion. Lastly, a dressing should not injure
the growing tissues, though slight killing may not be as objectionable
as imperfect covering.
137. Available materials for wound dressings.— Of the really
available materials we have chiefly preparations of asphaltum and
the residual tars from the distillation of wood (pitch), and from the
manufacture of artificial gas, gas tar. The materials used in Europe
under the name of "bitumen" are essentially forms of liquid asphal-
tum. The varnishes or proprietary preparations offered for dress-
ing wounds are essentially liquid asphaltum in some form. The
fossil "gilsonite" of California is a hardened form of asphaltum.
The western petroleums, which contain an asphaltum base, contrast
with the Pennsylvania crude oil, which lias a paraffin base. An-
other advantage of asphaltum and gas tar materials is low cost as
compared with the very high cost of paints containing linseed oil.
The low cost of naphtha or gasoline as a solvent is much in its
favor, were the preparations without risk.
164 I'KINC IPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
138. Gas tar and pitch.— Gas tar is the residual tar obtained from
coal used in gas making. This is produced in considerable quanti-
ties, and there being only a slight demand, it is sold at low prices,
ranging from 6 to 12 cents a gallon, exclusive of package. Pitch
is the pine tar derived from the distillation of pitch pine. Gas tar
handled in warm weather is fluid and very tenacious, with a strong
tendency to be completely absorbed by the wood. Upon this absorp
tion it is not clear that it gives a sufficiently continuous covering
over the wound to guard against subsequent openings.
139. Forms of solid asphaltum.— Besides the more or less impure
Trinidad asphaltum, used largely in street paving, there are avail-
able various types of asphaltum, which are essentially pure and
differ only in their melting points. All of these grades require
heating in order to apply them.
For heating, we use a charcoal heating pot with tall bail of suffi-
cient spread to swing freely above a 10 to 12-quart galvanized bucket.
This neater is provided with openings below and vent opening
toward the top of the metal cylinder; also legs to keep free from
the ground. In such a case it is better to melt the asphaltum upon
some hotter lire, and merely to use the heating pot to maintain its
temperature in the orchard. The gasoline torch type of heater may
also be used and freely transported in the orchard. It will usually
require special modifications to enable one to use a sufficiently large
vessel for the asphaltum.
The asphaltum is carefully melted until thoroughly liquid, in
which condition it is applied with a brush, preferably an old hearth
broom, a thin coating being run over the surface beyond the edge of
the living tissue. A second coating may be given after the first one
becomes partly cooled. The thickness of the coat should be de-
termined by the surface, as thin upon smooth surfaces as will give
complete covering. New hair brushes are usually destroyed in the
highly heated asphaltum.
140. Advantages and disadvantages of solid asphaltum. — The ad-
vantages of solid asphaltum are most appreciated when one must cover
a rough splintered wound, for the cavities may be tilled with the liquid.
The disadvantages of heating are usually great. Under ordinary
conditions it is not feasible to build a lire in the orchard, except in
moist weather, since there is danger of igniting the dead grass. The
troubles in maintaining liquid conditions are also considerable, since
to apply it effectively in a thin coating this asphaltum must be kept
hot and very fluid. Probably the most serious disadvantage is the
tendency to crack off during winter. There is danger also, where
the surface is not entirely dry, that the moisture will produce bubble
when the asphaltum is applied. This is dangerous, especially if bubbles
crack and expose the surface below. Vet, despite these disad
vantages, for large wounds melted asphaltum offers a rather higher
efficiency than anything else we have tried.
141. Liquid forms of asphaltum.— To make liquid asphaltum, use.
say, 10 pounds of solid asphaltum to 20 pounds of Varnolene, a
DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS 165
compound petroleum oil, containing more or less naphtha and costing
about 20 cents a gallon. Melt the asphaltum in a kettle of several
gallons capacity. When thoroughly melted withdraw the fire, then
add the Varnolene and stir thoroughly until of uniform character.
If desired, the vessel may be again heated and uniformity better as-
sured. This gives suitable consistency for warm weather and is in
the proportion of one part asphaltum to two parts Varnolene by
weight. In the winter a preparation of one part asphaltum to 2>4
parts Varnolene by weight may be desired. WARNING — WHEN
THE VARNOLENE IS ADDED TO THE HOT ASPHALTUM AN INFLAM-
MABLE GAS IGNITES, AFTER THE MANNER OF GASOLINE VAPOR.
This formula is for asphaltum having a melting point of 285°.
\Vith asphaltum with a melting point of 200°, the proportion of
Varnolene may be reduced.
142. Linseed oil fluid asphaltum.— To make a fluid asphaltum from
linseed oil, use one part of asphaltum to 1^4 to 2 parts of linseed
oil by weight. Heat the asphaltum until liquid, then add the linseed
oil as per directions given above. The danger from the formation
of inflammable gases is much less with the linseed oil than with
the Varnolene, but cannot be entirely overlooked. [Linseed oil
costs several times as much as Varnolene.]
These forms of liquid asphaltum may be prepared and packed
in suitable cans for use at any time required. They should be put
up in tins and soldered, since exposure to the air will make a slight
difference in the consistency.
143. Asphaltum and sawdust filling for cavities. — The difficulties
arising from using cement in filling cavities in orchard or shade
trees are largely traceable to the rigid character of cement filling.
The light color is at times likewise an objection to cement as a
material for such filling; it also lacks adaptability for use in swaying
branches. For these reasons and others, asphaltum and sawdust
fillings, originated and tested by John Boddy, City Forester of
Cleveland, Ohio, are recommended by A. D. Selby.* Dry sawdust
of any variety and solid asphaltum, such as "Byerlyte" and that
used for filling in brick pavements, are used according to the
formulae below. The details, briefly stated, are as follows; all ma-
terial being designated by volume.
144. For cavities in swaying branches: — i part asphaltum to 3 to
4 parts sawdust. Moisten tools in crude oil.
145. For cavities in trunks:— i part asphaltum to 5 to 6 parts of
sawdust. Moisten tools with crude oil. Stir sawdust into hot
melted asphaltum until desired consistency is reached. Distribute
sawdust, as added, evenly over surface of vessel to avoid boiling
over. Apply in cavities while still hot. No joints or sheet paper
separations are required as in cement fillings. If surfaces of fillings
are irregular or lack uniformity of color, coat them with gas tar or
liquid asphaltum.
* Circular ISO, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station.
166 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
In the preparation of cavities to be filled with sawdust and
asphaltum, as with cement, or to be rendered antiseptic without fill-
ing, it is recommended that the decayed parts be removed to sound
wood. This involves removal of all soft and rotten material ; some-
what deeper cutting away seems advisable in shade trees than in
fruit trees. It is further recommended that the interior surfaces
be rendered sterile by applications of corrosive sublimate, carbo-
lineum or kerosene. It is not advisable to use creosote, because it
is too penetrating for use next to living parts. The thoroughness
with which the work of removal and disinfection is done will very
largely determine the success of the fillings made.
In case of very large cavities filled with asphaltum-sawdust mix-
ture, it may be desirable to use an outer screen of close wire netting
or of poultry netting. In any case the outer line of the filling will
be kept more uniform by some surface, as of oil-coated wood or
metal, against which pressure is exerted as the filling is made.
Finally, the irregular and general surface of the filling may be
coated properly and successfully with gas tar or liquid asphaltum ;
either of these is a proper dressing for any border surfaces that
may have been cut to secure contact with the filling.
It is to be noted that the solid asphaltum referred to in materials
is that derived from the refining of petroleum with an asphaltum
base. It can be stored and shipped in iron drums. In recent years
it has been used for filling the interstices of street pavements, and
for many other purposes.
CHAPTER IX
PRUNING NURSERY STOCK*
Digging stock destroys roots. Were it possible to dig
such plants with all the root area intact and to place it
where desired without loss of any of this area, there
would be no check to growth. Hence every effort should
be made in digging to approach this ideal as nearly as
possible, for thus will success be greater. As already
shown, roots extend far in each direction from the base
of the stems, often farther than the spread of the branches
on one side plus the length of the trunk. That is, a tree
with a trunk 4 feet high and a spread of 3 feet on each
side of the trunk would extend its roots usually at least
7 feet on each side, and thus cover a circular area fully-14
feet in diameter. Examples that prove this are locust
and poplar, which often send up suckers farther away
from the main trunk than the height of the trunk plus
the spread of the branches on one side.
This fact shows one reason why losses of newly set
trees improperly transplanted are so great ; so great a
quantity of the most important roots — the feeding area —
is lost in ordinary digging that the trees can't recover.
Such losses may, however, be prevented to a very large
extent. In experimental practice they have been reduced
to almost nothing. From what has been said (Chapter
II) the reasons for reducing the top are evident. A word,
however, must be said concerning the roots. As or-
dinarily dug and delivered by the nurseryman, they are
more or less mangled, split, bruised or otherwise injured,
for the most part unavoidably. If planted just as received
they will grow, to be sure, but better results will be se-
* The trimming of young trees in the nursery rows is discussed in the author's
book, Plant Propagation, Greenhoure and Nursery Practice, Page 279.
167
168
'KI.\( IPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUXIXG
cured if they are pruned. For this work nothing equals
sharp pruning shears or a heavy sharp knife. Special
emphasis is laid upon the "sharp," because the cleaner
the cut the better. The work consists in cutting off all
injured roots just above the wounds so as to have clean
surfaces to develop good calluses and new roots (Fig. 119).
About two decades ago the horticultural world was
stirred by the Stringfellow or stub-root method, a
"horticultural heresy,"
as to the trimming of
nursery trees for trans-
planting.
The great apostle of
this system, the late
H. M. Stringfellow, a
prominent horticultur-
ist of Texas, advised
that the roots of nursery
trees be cut to mere
stubs a few inches long
and the tops to sticks
or whips. In some
cases absolutely no
stumps of roots were
left below ground and
none of limbs above,
the "tree" when thus
pruned sometimes being jammed into a hole made in the soil
with a crowbar ! One distinct advantage is thus gained —
planting requires a minimum of time ! A modification of the
method is to leave stubs of roots an inch to perhaps 4
inches long on the main root axis, and perhaps a few
stubs of branches if specially well placed. Tests at a
large number of experiment stations show that the
method was sometimes an all-around advantage, some-
times the reverse. Doubtless the plan cannot be gen-
erally recommended. At any rate it has fallen into "in-
F1G. 119— WHERE NEW ROOTS START
The roots of this Kieffer pear tree were
cut back at planting time. The following
spring (a year later) the tree had developed
new roots as shown. Note that most of them
appear near the cut ends of the old roots.
The injuries were caused by careless digging.
Roots so injured should be cut back just above
the wounds so as to leave clean, smooth sur-
faces which will heal over better and quicker
than will ragged and badly dried tissues.
PRUNING NURSERY STOCK
169
nocuous desuetude," and except as an interesting theory
it is rarely discussed today.
146. Advantages of Stringfellow system. — The main
points claimed by Mr. Stringfellow for the stub-root sys-
tem of pruning are as follows : 1. The saving in hole dig-
FIG. 120— VARIOUS GRADES OF PEACH TREES
Caliper (left to right) No. 1, % inch; No. 2, z/4 inch; No. 3, 5^ inch;
No. 4, y2 inch; No. 5, ft inch.
ging; 2, saving in freight to purchaser if trees are root
and top pruned at the nursery; 3, corresponding saving
in charge for packing ; 4, saving to nurserymen in taking
up trees for shipments; 5, reducing to a minimum,
through the removal of most of the roots, the danger of
170
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
FIG. 121
YEARLING PEACH WITH
CENTRAL LEADER
spreading all kinds of fungous dis-
eases and insects; 6, enabling two
and even three-year-old trees to be
used for planting as advanta-
geously as one-year-old trees, thus
saving losses to nurserymen, who
ordinarily burn such trees.
Stringfellow* holds that the usual ill
success in transplanting the pecan is due
entirely to leaving too long a top root.
He advises cutting this root to 4 or 5
inches and setting the tree at least 6 inches
deeper than hefore it was taken up.
The main peach plat used in the ex-
periments conducted by H. N. Starnsf to
test the Stringfellow plan presented on
the whole as fine an appearance as any
two-year-old peach orchard the writer
[Mr. Starns] has ever seen. The trees at the time averaged 1:.' to
15 feet in height and bore considerably over 300 crates upon one acre.
It may be stated that the writer [Mr.
Starns] is fairly satisfied that peach trees,
pruned by the Stringfellow method, will
live and flourish in Georgia, even in stiff
clay soil and under adverse meteorological
conditions. This statement may also be
extended to cover apples and cherries.
Dr. J. C. \yhitten concludes from ex-
periments and from reports of growers
that the method of stub-root pruning and
cutting back to 12 to 18 inches, according
to the Stringfellow plan, has been of
great service in showing that it is not
necessary to retain anything like the large
quantity of fibrous roots formerly sup-
posed to be necessary.
In the year book of the Netnerland
Pomological Society§ for 1902, A. C. Ide
reports experiments on severe pruning 9f
young apple and pear trees at time of FIG. 122 — AFTER PRUN-
transplanting. He used one, two and ING TREE IN FIG. 121.
* Texas Farm and Ranch, 24, Page 10.
t Georgia Experiment Station, Bulletin 40. The reader will here find a series
of half-tones illustrating the discussion on the experiments and also numerous
articles quoted from the agricultural press, giving both favorable and unfavorable
comment on the theory.
i Cultura, 14, Page 424.
PRUNING NURSERY STOCK
171
three-year-old trees. One-half of each lot were transplanted
in the usual way; others had their roots pruned to mere stocks.
Trees in the first lot started off more vigorously in the spring, but
before the end of June the closely pruned trees were larger than the
others, and this lead was maintained throughout the season. When
the trees were dug the closely pruned ones had developed much better
root systems than the others.
FIG. 123— HOW TOP OF NEWLY SET TREE MAY BE PRUNED
The top of a tree should be pruned immediately after planting. Most orchardists
do not prune enough. On the left the tree is shown as received from nursery; in
the center as ordinarily but insufficiently pruned; on the right pruned much better.
The branches should be farther apart to make for strength. Better leave the
lowest and the highest in this case, cut out the others and develop new ones upon
the leader as seen in the left-hand picture.
147. When to prune nursery tree tops. — While the
roots may be pruned prior to carrying the trees to the
field, it is conceded to be best practice to prune the tops
after the trees have been planted. When pruned prior to
172
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
taking to the field injuries may occur in the handling,
and the very parts most prized may be lost. When
pruned after planting the head may not only be started
to best advantage at the desired height, but there is a
better chance of having the branches in good condition
as well as having a larger number among which to
choose. Always in doing such pruning the feet should
be placed one on each side of the trunk and the cuts made
from below upward with a keen-edged knife. When trees
are transplanted in autumn, the pruning should be say 6
inches beyond the point where the frame limbs are de-
FIG. 124— EFFECT OF WIND ON UNSTAKED TREES. WINDBREAK NEEDED
Only by the most careful pruning can these trees be balanced and then only
with the greatest difficulty. Staking would have helped many of them.
sired, because there ma£ be more or less winterkilling.
The final pruning should be given just before growth
starts in the spring. (Compare 121.)
148. Lengths of nursery tree trunks.— Because tree
planters in the past have generally called for trees with
trunks of certain lengths the nurserymen have pruned
off the lower limbs, especially when the trees were to be
sold when two years old. Formerly the height of the
PRUNING NURSERY STOCK
173
trunk was 4 to 5 feet; during
the first decade of this century
3 to 4, because low-headed
trees are steadily gaining in
popularity. Still more recently
certain nurserymen have been
heading their trees still lower
or in some cases allowing prac-
tically all of the lower limbs to
grow (Figs. 195, 200). The
distinct advantage of this prac-
tice is that the purchaser may
start the head just where he
happens to want it.
149. Trimming trees at trans-
planting time. — Because such
a large proportion of the root
system is left in the soil when
nursery trees and shrubs are
dug, even when the trees are
most carefully lifted, it is nec-
essary to establish a new baK
ance between top and root. First, how-
ever, all torn, dead and injured roots
should be pruned back by clean cuts
through living parts of these roots. A
knife makes a clean job, but shears do
quicker work. Both implements should
be keen-edged. On the roots slanting
wounds which face downward are sup-
posed to heal more quickly than those
facing upward or to one side. Second,
the top must be considerably reduced,
otherwise the trees may suffer, be slow
to establish themselves. Often they
die. Peaches are usually trimmed to
a mere whip, but apples, pears and fr'Jnk J,2^
FIG. 125
PEACH OF POOR FORM
This one-year tree failed to de-
velop well-placed branches on the
main trunk. Compare Fig. 126.
FIG. 126
AFTER PRUNING
The same tree as in
Fig. 125. The dead
cut out.
174
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OK PRUNING
other trees do not seem to be able to stand quite such
severe handling. Always a goodly number of robust buds
should be left to develop the frame branches. Some of
these may be upon the main stem, others upon the stubs
of the branches developed in the nursery. „
"Whip" pruning and "stub" pruning have each their
advocates. The former is the more popular with and
applicable to yearling trees, and since one-year trees are
steadily gaining in popularity, this method is the1 more
important. It consists in leaving nothing but the original
FIG. 127— YOUNG TREES PROPERLY HEELED IN FOR TEMPORARY STORAGE
When received too early for planting, nursery stock should be properly cared
for. "Heeling in" keeps the roots moist and insures growth when the trees are
planted in the field.
stem — no branches at all — and shortening this to the de-
sired height. During the first season the tree "feathers
out" or develops many twigs, among which may be sev-
eral properly placed to form the head.
When the nursery trees are sturdy and have several
branches, the stub method may be used, the head being
started at the height desired. This method leaves one t<>
PRUNING NURSERY STOCK
175
FIG. 128
YEARLING PEACH BEFORE PRUNING
This tree was cut back to 18 inches when
set, but did not develop any branches near
the top.
danger has passed and the trees
down to business.
This plan is generally
more successful than
that of trying to de-
velop a new frame
limb where too few
have been started or
one has been lost. Prac-
tical orchardists are by
no means unanimous
in their methods of
starting the head. It
may be said that suc-
cess may follow each
method — and no,
method — as has been
shown (151) by the
Rhode Island Experi-
three buds on such
branches as may be
well enough placed to
form the head, the bal-
ance of the wood being
cut off. While five
branches are generally
advised, yet it is often
better to start with six
or eight, spaced as far
apart as possible.
Should an accident oc-
cur, the injured branch
may be cut out and yet
not spoil the top.
Should no injury occur,
the inferior limbs may
be removed when such
are beginning to settle
FIG.
129— SAME TREE AS IN FIG. 128
AFTER BEING PRUNED
176' PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
FIG. 131— DESIRABLE FORM OF GROWTH
MADE BY TREE HEADED ABOUT
2 FEET WHEN SET
FIG. 130
UNDESIRABLE FORM
Tree was headed 3 feet
high when set.
ment Station* (Figs.
137 to 144). Even
second-grade trees
may, with some ex-
tra work, be made to produce fairly well-formed heads,
as has been shown by the Colorado Experiment Station
in the following condensed account.
150. Actual experience pruning young trees.— Paddock presents an
interesting discussion of some photographs (from which drawings
are herewith reproduced!), to fix the points of the various stages
of pruning in the reader's mind. His article is condensed as follows :
The trees were second grade and evidently three years old when
planted. The lower laterals had all been pruned away in the nurs-
ery, so the tops were much too high for Colorado. There was also
difficulty in getting branches to form at suitable places to make the
selections for the head. However, the results are much better than
if the tops had been left as received from the nursery, as is so often
done.
The trees 1, 2 and 3 in Figure 132 were headed back to about 24
inches in April. Had there been any laterals below this point they
would have been pruned back to single buds, so clusters of leaves
might have formed and thus provided some shade for the trunks.
* Annual Report, 19n.
v Colorado Bulletin 106-
FIG. 132— DEVELOPING TOPS ON SECOND-CLASS TREES (see text)
178
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
The pictures show how the trees looked in the following April at
the time of the first pruning. No. 1 had formed five vigorous
branches, No. 2 produced four and No. 3 but two.
The five branches on No. 1 were saved to form a framework for
the tree and were cut back to about one foot. These are well dis-
tributed about the trunk, but are too close together. The lowest
limb might well be double the distance from the top. No. la shows
No. 1 after it was pruned, with the idea of making an open-centered
tree.
In No. 2 the limbs are top close. All of these were saved to form
the framework of a tree, with a leader, as is shown in No. :>a. The
only difference between this and No. la is that the ti.pmost branch
was left longer than the others. The pruner of this tree carelessly
allowed three vigorous limbs to grow
from near the surface of the ground, for
they could serve no useful purpose, but
only rob the other limbs of plant food.
Such growths are best prevented by
pinching off the buds early in the season.
No. 3 failed to throw out enough
branches to form a suitable top. The two
produced are nearly opposite, so a had
crotch would soon result. Both branches
were cut back to the second bud, as shown
in a, in hope of inducing dormant buds
to push out lower down. At the cbse
of the second season the pruned trees ha-1
made a growth respectively as shown in
lb, 2b and 3b.
Pruning results are shown in 1c, 2c
and 3c. Tree No. 1 is shown in 1 .'.
One of the frame limbs seemed i-u er
fluous, so it was remove 1 and the ne v
growth, shown in lb, was crt back about
one-half. The few side shoots were ea.h
cut back to a single hud, with the id< a of
developing fruit spurs during the se ond
year, when numerous branches should de-
velop on all of the limbs. As a rule two
of the best placed of these secondary
limbs will be selected on each of the main
limbs to form additional framework. The
rest may be removed or cut hack to de-
velop fruit spurs as may seem desirable.
The form of the tree, then, sh mid he
developed at the beginning of the third WELL-BRANCHED NURS-
season, and subsequent pruning should he 5 R A M B LIMBS ARE
directed toward retaining this shape, cut- PLACED.
PRUNING NURSERY STOCK
179
FIG. 134.
WHERE TO CUT
Same tree - as shown
in Fig. 133. The cross
marks indicate where
the limbs should be cut
off when the tree is set.
FIG. 135— HOW TO PLANT A TREE
It is important to work the soil among the
pruned roots and then to pack it down hard
by trampling so as to bring every part of
the root in contact with the moist earth and
prevent the formation of air spaces.
ting back excessive growths and thinning
and renewing the bearing wood.
The pruning of tree No. 2 is much the
same, except that a leader is being developed.
Although the top of 2c was cut back the same as tree No. 1, the
topmost branch is developing into a vigorous central shaft. The
first set of frame limbs has formed and a second set is to be de-
veloped at a suitable distance above. The new growth is to be cut
back.
The tree shown in the series 3 to 3c is, so far, pretty much of
a failure. The severe heading given it in the spring following set-
ting failed to make branches develop lower down. It would have
been a better plan to insert two or three buds at suitable points
around the main stem in June of that year. This can probably be
done next June, but the chance for success is not so great. Limbs
can be developed by this means just where wanted, but the average
person will succeed better with trees which do not require such
manipulation.
151. Methods of tree planting. — An experiment to test
180
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
FIG. 136 — AIR SPACE
AMONG ROOTS OF
BADLY PLANTED TREE
various methods of tree planting-
was conducted by F. W. Card* and
the results of one season's growth
shown and described. Ten two-
year Northern Spy trees were
planted by each of the methods as
follows : 1, Trimmed to whips and
cut back to about 3 feet ; 2, trimmed
to whips and the leader left un-
touched ; 3, branches cut back half,
leader left ; 4, untrimmed. In all of
these cases the roots were left un-
trimmed unless injured or decayed at
the end, in which case they were cut
back to sound wood. 5, Roots un-
trimmed; 6, roots cut back half;
7, roots cut back to mere stub. The
tops of trees 5, 6
and 7 were treated
as in No. 3. 8,
Stringfellow
method, the roots being cut back to a
mere stump 1 or 2 inches long, and the
tree to about a foot high. In the spring
of the fourth year following, representa-
tive trees in each lot were photo-
graphed (Figs. 138 to 144) and the fol-
lowing notes taken :
1. Whips with leader cut back (Fig.
144). Good trees and for the most part
well branched. Their greatest defect
is in the long, spindling growth which
has resulted from lack of pruning.
Meads have formed at 2 to 3 feet from
the ground. 2. Whips with leader un-
FIG. 137— TREE SET
OBLIQUELY AGAINST
WIND
In regions of high
winds plant the trees
with the tops leaning
toward the wind as
shown here. On hill-
sides lean them uphill.
* Rhode Island Experiment Station Report 1901, Page 23S.
PRUNING NURSERY STOCK
181
touched (Fig. 143). These trees do not average so well
as those in the previous lot. Most of them do not have
good branches low down, the real heads having formed
5 or 6 feet from the ground, though in some cases the
lower branches will make good heads. These trees seem
to be the most undesirable ones in the experiment.
3. Branches cut back half, roots unpruned (Fig. 142).
Good trees, with uniform heads about 3 feet from the
ground. The heads well balanced and trees well formed.
FIG. 13S— TREE GROWN FROM
UNTRIMMED NURSERY STOCK
FIG. 138a— TREE FROM
'STRINGFELLOWED" ROOTS
4. Branches untrimmed, roots untrimmed (Fig. 140).
Good trees. A few seem rather slender, but most are
excellent. Heads formed about as in Fig. 138. Growth
not quite so good on the average. 5. Branches cut back,
roots untrimmed (Fig. 138), a counterpart of Fig. 140.
Very similar in appearance to Fig. 140. Growth a trifle
better, heads well formed (Fig. 141). 6. Branches cut
back and roots cut back (Fig. 141). More uneven in
182
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
growth than the other lots, but much the same in gen-
eral habit. 7. Branches cut back, roots cut by the String-
fellow method (Fig. 139). Trees somewhat uneven. The
lot contains one or two very fine trees, but no poor ones.
8. Stringfellow method (Fig.l38a). These trees have made
an excellent start. They will make well-formed trees,
with heads just at the ground. Generally a large number
FIG. 139— TREE GROWN FROM
STUB-PRUNED ROOTS
FIG. 140— TREE GROWN FROM
UNTRIMMED NURSERY PLANT
of branches start, and these in turn branch at about 30
inches from the starting point.
In these observations it should be remembered that
the eye takes account of the tree as it stands, regardless
of whether much or little wood was cut away at time of
planting. The experiments show that under favorable
conditions a tree will adjust itself to almost any kind of
treatment and still make a good tree. For practical pur-
PRUNING NURSERV STOCK
183
poses the most rational method seems to be to leave all
sound roots and shorten back the tops, which not only
helps to bring- about a proper balance between root and
leaf, but also improves the subsequent character of
growth of the tree.
152. Low-headed trees have so much to commend them
that they arc annually becoming- more popular. To sc-
FIG. 141
HEAD ON TREE WHERE ROOTS
WERE CUT BACK
FIG. 142— AT PLANTING TIME
THE BRANCHES WERE
CUT BACK
cure them it is advisable to buy from nurserymen who
make a specialty of such trees or to purchase only year-
ling stock, because the heads on such stock may be started
as low as desired. In the former case all that is necessary
is to thin out and cut back the top as may be desired.
In the latter the "switches" for the "trees" are little more
than that, have their bud systems intact, therefore the
184 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OK PRUXIXC,
FIG. 143— TREE GROWN FROM
A "WHIP" WITH THE
LEADER LEFT
FIG. 144 — HEAD FORMED BY
"WHIP" WITH LEADER
CUT BACK
head may be started any-
where. Trees which na-
turally grow erect, at least
on the start — apple, sweet cherry and pear — may be
headed at 18 to 24 inches from the ground ; and those
smaller growing, more spreading trees, such as the stone
fruits, other than sweet cherries, may be headed 6 or even
more inches lower. This pruning must be done im-
mediately after the trees have been set. If delayed for a
year the chance to get a good, low head will have been
lost ; for no attention will make up for the neglect to do
the work at the proper time.
During the first summer practically all the buds
start and the "whips" will "feather out" abundantl
PRUNING NURSERY STOCK 185
Every leaf and twig should be allowed to develop to its
fullest extent without let or hindrance (except as out-
lined in 165, 166 and 169) because this green stuff will
help to establish a sturdy trunk and a strong root area.
Root action depends on leaf action (Chapter II). The
following spring will be soon enough to do anyx cutting.
Then, among the often broom-like tops, the desired num-
ber of twigs may be selected to form the frame limbs.
From this time forward the pruning and training may
be done as recommended by Lewis (Chapter X).
CHAPTER X
PRUNING YOUNG TREES*
153. Disappointments attributed to pruning.! — Many
orchardists growing young trees have been disappointed
with the results obtained from pruning. While these dis-
appointments may be due, on the one hand, to a lack of
knowledge of fundamental principles which underly prun-
ing, on the other hand, we believe much of the dissatis-
faction is because the grower has expected too much from
pruning alone, and has
failed to realize the im-
portance of other or-
chard practices — irriga-
tion, tillage, mainten-
ance of soil fertility,
etc.
No matter how skill-
fully we prune for
fruitfulness, unless we
have such soil condi-
tions as to furnish suffi-
cient food and moisture
at the right time to de-
velop good, strong
buds, we cannot expect
to secure satisfactory
results. Again, we
must realize that soil.
FIG. 145— BADLY FORMED TREE HEAD
Never start the main limbs in this manner.
They should issue in a spiral whorl with 4 to
12 or 15 inches between one limb and the
next one above. Such an arrangement will
prevent bad crotches and will greatly
strengthen the tree.
* Paragraphs 153 to 177 have been somewhat condensed from the article by
Professor C. I. Lewis in Bulletin No. 130, of the Oregon Experiment Station. With
slight modifications, indicated in brackets or cross referenced to other parts of this
volume by the present author, the methods apply to a very considerable area of the
United States and Canada.
t As noted in paragraph 172 the directions given in paragraphs 153 to 172 apply-
chiefly to apple pruning, but also to all deciduous fruits and nuts. Specific direc-
tions for these other fruits are in paragraphs 173 to 177.
186
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
187
elevation, and climate are factors which have a very close
relation to pruning. Likewise, the variety question is al-
ways to be taken into consideration. For example, the
pruning of the Jonathan in southern Idaho, at an altitude
of 2,000 feet, on a silt loam, is a different problem from
that of pruning Yellow Newtown in western Oregon on
FIG. 146— MAIN BRANCHES BARREN BECAUSE OF NEGLECT
This old Italian Prune tree has not been pruned for years. The frame and
lower branches have become barren through the dying of the fruit spurs which
were too much shaded by the thick, bushy top. This top consists largely of long,
slender, weak fruit spurs and fruiting branches like those in Fig. 168.
I'RIXC II'I.KS AM) PKACTirE OF PRUNING
a heavy soil at an elevation of 100 feet (80). While the
principles underlying the pruning of these two trees may
be the same, the application may be radically different.
We need, first, to form a clear understanding of what
these principles are, and, second, to study more closely
than we ever have in the past their application to our
individual orchards.
FIG. 147— OLD BARTI.ETT FRUIT SPURS WHICH BLOOM YEARLY BUT
SELDOM BEAR FRUIT
At a are spurs which bloomed but set no fruit. Some of them have produced
blossom buds for next year. At b are scars where fruits probably set and in the
cases of the larger scars possibly ripened. Perhaps, however, some of these are
scars left by twigs which died.
154. Three types of trees are grown in the North-
west : the so-called open, globe or vase-shaped tree, the
center leader type, and the modified leader type.
154a. In the vase or open tree three to five branches are
chosen to form the framework of the tree ; any tendency
of a branch to assume the lead is suppressed ; no leader
being allowed to grow. Each of the three to five branches
is given equal prominence in the tree. This tree was
borrowed from the French and has been modified in this
country to suit our special needs. For example, in parts
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
189
of the Middle West and in California the tree is allowed
to carry a large number of laterals, summer pruning or
shearing being employed to force out more laterals so
as to shade the branches from sun scald. A dense com-
pact tree is the result. In the Pacific Northwest the term
"globe" or "vase" is seldom used, but almost always the
term employed is the "open" tree. Instead of shearing
to produce shade, growers prune out and keep the tree
FIG. 148
YOUNG YELLOW NEWTOWN
TREE BEFORE AUGUST
PRUNING
AFTER AUGUST PRUNING
YOUNG YELLOW
NEWTOWN
open to admit more light. The general framework, how-
ever, of California and Oregon types is the same.
Our orchardists claim that the advantage of the open
tree is that it allows more light to enter the tree, thus
causing a better coloring of the fruit ; and second, it pro-
duces a tree, broad, spreading and easy to keep low
headed. The objections to this tree are : First, it is
generally structurally weak, since the scaffold branches
issue at one point, thus making weak crotches. If one
branch breaks out the tree may be ruined. Second, it
is used too generally; it is not adapted to all varieties
190 I'KINCIPLES AM) I'KAITICK OF PRUNING
under all conditions found in the Pacific Northwest [or
elsewhere].
155. The so-called leader tree has been used largely in
the East on the Atlantic Seaboard, and is used somewhat
on the Pacific Coast, especially in British Columbia. There
are a few orchards in the Pacific Northwest where the
growers believe the leader to be the best type. With the
leader tree, since the center branch is always 'allowed
to have the ascendency, the tree grows more or less to
the true pyramid. The growers obtain very large trees,
which are, however, very difficult to keep low headed
and open. The trees are probably stronger, there being
less breakage from this type of tree than from the so-
called open tree.
a
FIG. 150— VIGOROUS SHOOT PRODUCED FROM OLD BARTLETT PEAR SPUR
The shoot was pruned and is now in healthy condition. Note the number of
fruit buds at a.
156. The modified leader. — In this type we start the
trees exactly as though we were going to grow the cc'iitcr
leader, but, beginning with the second to the fifth year,
the leader is suppressed. The advantages are that this
type of tree allows us to space the branches well, to build
strong crotches and main frame limbs, and at the same
time keeps the tree relatively close to the ground. This
type is growing in favor where it has been tried through-
out the Northwest.
With any of these types, weak trees or strong trees
may be built, and also bushy or open trees may be se-
cured with any one of the three systems. [It depends
upon the handling.]
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
191
157. Form of tree often due to local whim. — The type
of growth of trees in one's locality may determine to a
certain degree what system shall be used. For example,
Oregon growers wouldn't grow Wagener ordinarily as
an open type of tree. It is rather an upright grower for
a few years, but later becomes a feeble grower. On the
other hand, they
should not think oi
growing varieties
like T o m p k i n s
King or Northern
Spy as center trees,
since these trees
shoot up too
straight, are too big
and too hard to
control. Yellow
Newtown is too
often pruned as a
typical open tree.
On light soils it be-
comes very weak
when 12 or 15 years
old. A modified
leader, or in some
cases even the old-
fashioned leader,
would be better
with Yellow New-
town. On the other
hand, on some very
strong loams, Yel-
low Newtown can be handled very satisfactorily when
grown as an open or globe-shaped tree, provided a little
care is taken in spacing the branches carefully the first
two or three years.
158. The height of head is only a relative term. One
FIG. 151
HEAVY HEADING BACK DEVELOPS WOOD
Young vase-formed apple tree which shows the
effects of very heavy heading back. In this case
the pruner cut back to two-year and three-year
wood. Fruit spurs that had started to form were
forced into shoots. The entire energies of the
tree have been temporarily turned into shoot
formation. The age of bearing has probably been
delayed two years by this treatment.
192 I'KI. \CIP1.KS AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
FIG. 152— TYPICAL LEADER TREE
Five-year-old Winter Nelis pear be«un as
an open center, but typical of the leader type
of training. The lower branches are not
keeping pace with the upper and are becom-
ing weak in comparison. To save or restore
balance the upper branches must be suppressed.
FIG. 153 — THREE DECKS OF
FRAME LIMBS
Note distances between decks
and the general stocky appearance
of the tree.
man would say that 30
inches will make a low-
headed tree; another
that this is extremely
high. The Pacific Coast
grows low-headed trees.
Experience has shown
that these are the easiest to care for, that they are the
most economical for thinning, harvesting, spraying' and
pruning, and that, we can shade the trunks and main
scaffold limbs better with this type of tree, than with a
high-headed tree. In parts of the Inland Empire growers
often head their trees at 8 or 9 inches. Many Jonathan
trees in the Rocky Mountain district, and in certain por-
tions of Idaho, eastern Oregon and Washington, are
headed in this way and are giving satisfactory results.
Under such conditions they must protect the trees as
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
193
FIG. 154
MODIFIED LEADER
Five-year Bartlett pear
after pruning.
FIG. 155
MODIFIED LEADER
Same tree as Fig.
154 pruned. Note how
little wood has been
removed in thinning
out; almost no heading
back.
FIG. 156
GOOD MODIFIED
LEADER
Five-year Bartlett pear
before pruning.
much as possible against sun scald.
In Western Oregon 20 to 25 inches is
considered a better height of head. Many growers have
felt that 20 to 25 inches is the proper height for apples and
pears. Peaches should be headed as low as they can be
grown ; cherries at about 25 inches ; prunes 30 to 35 inches.
It was formerly believed that walnuts should be headed
very high, 7 or 8 feet, and no laterals allowed to
grow the first few years ; but this is now considered a
mistake. About 35 inches will make a splendid head for
walnuts.
159. Season for pruning. — In the Northwest, only two
seasons for pruning are considered ; namely, winter and
summer. There is no question that in the Northwest,
where mild winter conditions prevail, winter pruning may
be done safely in most years at any time when the trees
are dormant. In sections of severe winter conditions, de-
laying the pruning as late as possible before the growth
starts in the spring seems to be wisest. Very rarely good
194
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
fruit growers would advise fall pruning in the Xorthwest,
unless one has such a large acreage that it is impossible
to complete the work unless the pruning is commenced
early in the season, if it becomes necessary to prune
FIG. 157
MODIFIED LEADER
This splendid type of
modified leader tree, a
five-year-old Wagener
apple, was summer
pruned in July and
photographed in Janu-
ary. Note the amount
of after-growth. Th's
indicates that the tree
was pruned at about
the right period.
trees in fall or very
early winter, growers
prune the older trees
fi r s t , leaving the
younger ones for the
last. We should cau-
tion against pruning
trees when they are
frozen. Much heart rot and die-back have resulted from
pruning frozen trees. It is possible to prune trees some-
what even after they come out fully in the spring.
160. Three lessons in pruning young trees. — Pruning
FIG. 158
EXAMPLE OF UNEQUAL GROWTH
Branch A is growing at the expense of the
other branches. It should therefore be sup-
pressed.
PRUNING YOUNG TREES 195
young trees depends upon three great fundamental prin-
ciples. If these are mastered the problem of pruning
young trees wUl become rather simple, but unless they
are mastered it is difficult to develop strong, well-
balanced young trees.
161. Choosing and spacing the frame branches. — For
an open or a modified leader type of tree, four or five
branches are recommended. [In eastern practice many
growers start with six to eight, but prune out some of
these after the head has been fairly well developed ; say
when the trees are 5 to 10 years old.] For the
typical leader tree it docs not make much difference, as
from year to year new branches are added. In Oregon
FIG. 159
GOOD VEGETATIVE RESPONSE FROM THINNING BARTLETT PEAR SPURS
Note the numerous fruit buds at s on spurs which did not push into long branches;
. terminal buds at t and axillary fruit buds at a on one-year shoots.
the four or five-branched tree is preferred. While it may
be true that the three-branched tree will produce three
branches that average larger in diameter than if four or
five are allowed to grow, nevertheless, the three-
branched tree is considered a dangerous one ; that it
is structurally weak ; that if one of the three branches is
lost the tree is practically ruined ; whereas, with four or
five frame limbs, one may lose a branch and still balance
the tree in such a way as to save it. [This is the main
idea with the eastern growers who start with more than
the required number of frame limbs.]
196
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
The first lesson, then, is to choose four or five well-
spaced branches, having them issue in a spiral around
the tree, if possible, and having them as far apart as they
can be conveniently spaced [not less than a handbreadth,
preferably two handbreadths or more]. The farther
i _ , _ apart they are spaced,
t^e stronger and better
the better the tree ob-
tained. To do this, one
must not neglect the
tree as soon as it is
headed, but must watch
it very carefully the
first month or two after
it is set out. It will be
necessary to rub cer-
tain undesirable buds
off, to remove certain
undesirable branches,
or possibly to suppress
from time to time cer-
tain branches which
tend to run away with
the tree. By observing
these simple rules one
can build a stronger
tree. It is for this rea-
son that growers often
advocate cutting tin-
tree at 25 or 28 inches
instead of at 20 inche-
at setting time, and then spacing the branches from
as near the ground as they can get them up to the
top of the trunk. However, if the tree is left to itself.
the branches will all develop near the top of the trunk.
and the tree will be weak. Only by careful watching can
FIG. 160
FIVE-YEAR-OLD WAGENER APP1 E TREE
This tree of less than average vigor was
pruned in July. The photo was taken in
October. Note that there has been practically
no growth response as the result of pruning.
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
197
the extra increase in height of
head be made of any material
advantage.
162. Keep main branches
properly dominant. — When one
branch tends to grow at the
expense of the rest of the tree
the weaker branches gradually
become side branches to the
two or three remaining stronger
ones. Proper pruning will
obviate this. The average
primer does one of two things :
cuts the tree level across the
top, or cuts the weakest wood
most and the strongest wood
least. The former will never
build a strong, well-balanced
tree, because in doing this no
attention is paid to the relation
of one branch to another. [The
other practice is erroneously
based on the principle] that the
more wood is cut, the more it
grows (83). In other words, it
is concluded that if wood is
weak and is cut back it will
grow stronger!
It is true that the more a tree
is pruned back as a whole while
dormant the more will be the
resulting growth; that heavy
heading-in of a tree during
winter means a heavy after-
growth. This, however, has to
do with the tree as a whole and has little to do with the re-
lation of one branch to another. If a strong branch is
FIG. 161— HEADING BACK
MAKES GROWTHS
The lower left fork of this Yel-
low Newtown apple tree was
headed back rather severely, the
upper right-hand one only mod-
erately. From the former four
shoots and three fruit spurs have
developed; from the latter three
shoots and nine spurs. This photo
shows that heading back, whether
heavy or light, tends to increase
the amount of shoot growth in the
tree. However, heavy heading
back affords a greater stimulus to
shoot formation and less to spur
making than does moderate head-
ing back.
I'KIM II'I.KS AM) I'R. \ITK1-; 01- I'kl'M.NC?
in close proximity to a
weak one, the best way
t«> strengthen the weak
branch is by cutting
back the strong1 one.
The development of tin-
weak branch will be in
proportion to its leaf
and branch area; if
there is a large amount,
there will be a heavy
demand on the sap, and
the weak branch will
develop. I>y limiting
the branches and leaves
on the strong branch,
growth is restricted.
As a result, the follow-
ing year there will be
le<s discrepancy be-
tween the development
of the two branches. A
continuation of the
practice should lead to
a balance between the
two. The heading back
should be done, then, not so much from the point of view
of the tree as a whole, as from the point of view of the
relation of one branch to another.
Cut the strongest branch the hardest ; cut the second
branch in vigor not quite so much ; the third in vigor still
less, until the weakest branch is reached. Then cut that
one least. It is only by suppressing the strong branches,
limiting the number of leaves and buds, that one can pos-
sibly hope to encourage the weaker branches. If it is
desired to grow a modified tree, or a leader-type tree.
the only difference that need be made in this pruning
FIG. 162
GOOD EFFECT OF JULY PRUNING
This vigorous five-year Wagener anple tree
was pruned in July and photographed in Oc-
tober. A vigorous response of new shoots
averaging a foot followed the trimming.
PRUNING TOUNG TREES
199
would be to choose one branch for a leader and not cut
it back quite so heavily, to maintain that position.
A great deal of so-called corrective pruning may be
done. That is, a tree four or five years old may develop
two branches weaker than the rest of the tree. These
may be encouraged to grow stronger and larger. To do
this, prune them very lightly, and prune the other parts
of the tree more heavily so as to encourage the two
weaker branches.
163. Avoid sharp-angled, equally balanced crotches. —
(Compare Figs. 163, 164.) Examine the average frame
branch of a tree carefully, from the point where it leaves
the main trunk up to
its last year's growth.
Its development will
probably have been
about as follows : The
first year the branch
was cut back it forced
out laterals, all except
two of which were re-
moved. These two
were cut equally and in
most cases were not
spaced very far apart.
The next year on each
of these the same treat-
ment was repeated.
Two branches were
chosen and these were
cut equally. The re-
sult is that the branches
all over the tree are in
pairs of equal length,
and form very sharp
fork*; Thi'c m a \r A c
US malCCS
weak branches which
FIG. 163— GOOD EXAMPLE OF PROPER
BALANCE BETWEEN BRANCHES
N°te that whenever there >s a crotch in
most cases one branch is stronger than the
* AA are bad forks due to even
200
i'KlXC II'I.KS AM) J'KACTICK OK JKf.\l\r,
will break easily, as the stress and strain all come at
critical points ; namely, at the numerous balanced crotches
To avoid this condition, treat each of the main branches
as a leader. This means that when two branches arc-
chosen, they shall be as far apart as possible. Second,
in pruning cut one harder than the other. Thus one
will become a leader and the other a side branch. If this
, __ ^_ „ process is continued,
the whole branch will
become a strong leader
with a great many side
..branches which dis-
tribute the strain in
such a way as to reduce
breakage to a mini-
mum.
164. Classes of non-
bearing trees. — IM> r
convenience of discus-
sion, young and non-
bearing trees may be
divided into three
classes. First, those
from one to four years
of age. This is the
formative, the body-
building period of the
young tree. Second,
the. period from four to
seven years of age, the
critical age, a transition period from the body build-
ing on the one hand to the heavy fruiting on the
other. With Yellow Newtown, Baldwin, \Yinter Nelis.
Cornice and many other trees, pruning at this time will,
to a very large degree, determine the fruitfulness of the
trees for a number of years. Third, those trees from
seven to twelve years, which have reached the bearing
FIG. 164
BALANCED AND UNBALANCED PRUNING
Note that at A A, equal cutting has resulted
in nearly equal strength of branches; at B B,
unequal cutting (the desirab'e rne'hod) h^s
resulted in completely destroying such bal-
ance by making stronger crotches.
FIG. 165— RE1NVIGORATED TOP OF OLD PEAR TREE
Dehorned Bartlett pear formed many new, stron? shoots and fruit spurs above, but
showed little change in spurs below. Thinning of top probably better.
202
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
but as yet have not borne a commercial crop. Before
taking up the details of pruning these three classes, sum-
mer pruning and its relation to such trees should be con-
sidered.
165. Summer pruning young non-bearing trees. — Of
recent years we have heard much about summer pruning,
which, with many fruit growers, has become a fad. Many
people are expecting too much from it.
FIG. 166— MODERATE PRUNING STIMULATED SHOOT FORMATION
In this old Tompkins King apple tree two and three years ago moderate prun-
ing stimulated the formation of a rather large number of medium long shoots.
These have not been headed back and have consequently developed large numbers
of fruit spurs. Many of the small spur-bearing branches should now be removed
to afford the remaining ones ample light throughout their length. Thinning out is
more needed than heading back here, though a limited amount of heading back
will tend to keep the tree from growing too high.
In many cases not much pruning will be done during
the first summer of the tree's life, as the trees often do
not make very much growth the first season, but where
they do make a vigorous growth by the middle of June,
or early July, it will often be found an advantage to head
PRUNING YOUNG TREES 203
the trees at that time, cutting them back about the same
way as they might be cut back the following spring.
That is, terminal growths 12 to 30 inches long should be
cut back to the point where new laterals are desired for
the future body-building of the tree. With a tree running
to one or two branches at the expense of all the others,
it may be well to pinch these strong branches, to hold
them back for the time being, and thus encourage the
weaker branches to grow.
FIG. 167— PEAR SPURS WHICH HAVE BORNE WELL IN PREVIOUS YEARS
At a are spurs which bloomed but set no fruit, again producing buds for the
following season's crop. At b the same except that no fruit buds formed.
By the second year, nearly all these trees can be greatly
benefited by summer pruning any time from the latter
part of May up to the middle of July, generally about the
middle of June. This pruning consists of cutting back
the rank terminal growth so as to force out and allow
the laterals to make a good growth and become hardened
before fall. In this way a whole year may be gained in
forming the framework of the trees. A good practice to
204
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
follow with such trees is to do most of the heading-back
in June and most of the thinning out in March or April,
or whenever the winter pruning is done. However,
should the trees, after they are pruned in June, make such
a rank growth that they need some topping-back again
the following spring, by all means do it.
In nearly all cases, it will be advisable to do some top-
ping-back of the terminals, or else the terminal bud will
incline to continue this
growth, producing a
long, leggy branch. If
no topping is done in
spring, it will be nec-
essary to give these
shoots a heavy heading-
back in summer to pre-
vent their becoming
too long before produc-
ing desirable laterals.
During the summer
any undesirable growth
should be removed
from these young trees
— branches which will
never be of any value
to the tree and are
growing at the expense of some branch which should be
developed. Caution, however, must be exercised against
the too strenuous thinning-out of young trees, especially
the thinning-out of lateral branches.
This pruning young trees, while it does not, as a rule,
directly induce fruitfulness, will tend to bring the trees
up to the critical period in much better condition than
otherwise, since it tends to balance the tree; and since- it
distributes the pruning over two periods of the year, it
eliminates the necessity for very vigorous pruning which
many fruit growers give trees. The heavy winter prun-
FIG. 16S— TOO MUCH SHADING BY UPPER
BRANCHES KILLED THIS TWIG
This old, much branched Italian Prune fruit
snur is being starved by lack of 1'ght. Some
of its branches are already dead; the living
ones lack in vigor. Only a few fruit buds and
these near the tips. Soon the whole spur will
die as the result of too much shade from
branches above.
PRUNING YOUNG TREES 205
ing given young trees serves as a stimulus and often
causes too much vegetative growth (83).
166. Objections to summer pruning. — Some growers
are opposed to summer pruning on the ground that it
weakens the trees, that it is devitalizing, that it is unwise
to remove any of the leaves as they are the "lungs" and
FIG. 169— ABUNDANCE OF FRUIT SPURS IN THE LIGHT
This limb in the upper part of an Italian Prune tree shows that the spurs have
had abundant light. Note the individual spurs, and the small fruiting limbs are
short, stocky and vigorous. However, it would be desirable to remove a few of the
smaller branches to prevent too heavy shading of those below.
206
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
manufacturing organs of the tree (29). It would be.
however, only in very extreme cases that summer prun-
ing would ever be devitalizing, certainly where one makes
the single summer pruning. Such pruning, in some cases,
might give increased vigoj. In others very little differ-
ence will be noted. In still others, the growth may be
modified to the extent that there is less vegetative
growth, but even in the last case there is modification
rather than devitalization.
The result of a single summer pruning, as recom-
mended for these young trees, is not so much a question
of vigor as it is a question of change in direction of
growth or energy. The
clipping-back of a ter-
minal forces the growth
into desirable, new lat-
eral framework rather
than into a useless, addi-
tional terminnal growth.
There are cases where
frequent summer prun-
ing at short intervals
during the summer has a
tendency to check or
dwarf a tree; for ex-
ample, in growing dwarf
trees, we must not only
have a dwarfing stock,
but we must practice
frequent pinching back
of shoots (Chapter
XVI). Again walnut
trees may be dwarfed by
FIG. 170-pARTiAi. DEHORNING FAILED removal of all lateral
Old Italian Prune tree partially dehorned growth for a period of
four years ago. Note that the treatment ap- ,-p, ,
parently had little influence upon fhe vieor of VCarS. 1 HCSC last tWO
the small fruiting branches and indivHual ~QCPC hnwpvpr urp PY-
fruit spurs of the limb not cut back. CaSCS, HOWCVCr, ar<
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
207
treme and represent excessively frequent pruning. The
greatest danger of devitalizing young trees does not come
from a single summer pruning, but rather from allowing
too heavy bearing of young trees.
167. Trees four to seven years of age have now gone
through their formative period. They should have good
trunks and frame limbs, and should be approaching that
period when they can begin to bear heavy crops. Sum-
mer pruning for
these trees, as com-
pared with the
younger trees, must
be modified with
the idea of trying
to induce fruitful-
ness directly if pos-
possible. The prun-
ing will generally
come considerably
later with these
older trees.
There is no defi-
nite time to set. It
is recommended,
however, that the
pruning be done at
the time the termi-
nal buds are form-
ing on the ends of
the shoots. Note
that the leaves are
beginning to get
larger on the ends
of the twigs, and
the terminal buds
are forming. At
that time the termi-
FIG. 171— HEAVY PRUNING MAKES FOR WOOD
This five-year Yellow Newtown has been heavily
pruned each year. Last year it received a light
thinning out and a comparatively heavy heading
back. When compared with Fig. 173, a tree of the
same age and variety, it shows how heavy pruning
tends to stimulate wood growth as opposed to fruit
production. Note the comparatively few fruit spurs
on the two-year wood. The tree has been com-
pelled to devote its energies mainly to shoot for-
mation.
208
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
nal growth may be cut back to the point where it is de-
sired to force out new laterals for another year's growth.
The cutting at this time seems to cause a thickening of
the branches, probably an accumulation of tissues around
the buds.
With some varieties, probably, it will lead to direct
fruiting the following season ; with others, however, it
will simply tend to keep the trees in balance, and prob-
ably encourage earlier fruiting than would otherwise be
_ true. That is, re-
sults may come in
two or three years
rather than in one
year. If this prun-
ing is done at
about the right
time, very little
secondary growth
will take place,
and what does will
naturally be very
small. Of course
in many cases
these trees, four
to seven years of
age, do not hard-
en-up until late in
September or even in October, and then it would be too
late to do any pruning to advantage. Even though sum-
mer pruning with these trees might not lead to an increase
in fruiting the following summer, it would be a distinct
help in keeping the trees in balance, and in eliminating
the excessive cutting which might otherwise be necessary
the following spring.
168. Trees eight to twelve years old, which should be
in fruiting but have never borne, have almost always
been over-stimulated— over-pruned, over-tilled, over-irri-
FIG. 172
VIGOROUS GROWTHS FOLLOW THINNING
Bartlett pear spurs were thinned out of old tree.
Vigorous shoots resulted. At t are terminal fruit
buds; at a axillary fruit buds on last season's (one
year) shoots.
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
209
gated, or a combination of stimuli — which results in forc-
ing rank wood growth, producing heavy, large leaves,
but little or no fruit. The remedy is to remove the
stimulus, whatever it may be, and prune several times a
year.
Summer pruning for such trees will come probably
more about the time very young trees are pruned : that
is, along in June.
At each time when
the terminal
growth threatens
to become exces-
sively long, it
should be cut back
and the trees
thinned out some-
what. The follow-
ing spring a little
more thinning and
p run ing-out m a y
be done to advan-
tage. The applica-
tion of summer
pruning to these
trees should be
largely a distribu-
tion of the pruning
over two periods,
thus avoiding an
excessive pruning.
Only in very rare
cases can one ex-
pect direct results
from such pruning. Results will come indirectly in bring-
ing the trees back to their normal balance. It often be-
comes necessary to reduce the amount of tillage or irrigation
given such trees, and in cases where the growth is ab-
FIG. 173
FRUIT SPURS DUE TO GOOD PRUNING
Five-year Yellow Newtown apple tree rather
heavily pruned each year until last, when no winter
pruning was done. When compared with Fig. 171,
a tree of the same age and variety, it shows how
light, as opposed to heavy, pruning tends to throw
a tree into bearing. Note the many fruit spurs on
the two-year-old wood (enlarged in frontispiece).
During the preceding season a large part of the
energies of the tree was devoted to fruit spur
formation.
210
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
normally excessive it is sometimes found advisable even
to check this by growing crops, such as hay or grain, be-
tween the trees.
169. Applications of pruning principles to young trees.
At the time the tree is given its first pruning we should
definitely settle the question of head (158). Most growers
after they have headed the
tree, pay no more attention to
it until the following spring,
when they are ready for the
second pruning. In many cases
this is a mistake. It will be
found very advisable in May
and June to go through the or-
chard and look over the newly
set trees carefully. At this
time, certain very small shoots
or buds should be rubbed off.
If one branch is growing at the
expense of all the others, it may
be suppressed. The orchardist
may do very much the first
year to start the tree in the
proper way, and to put it in
better condition for the second
year's growth.
Only in rare cases will it be
advisable to give the trees a
systematic pruning the first
year, because it will be only
occasionally that the trees will make a sufficiently
rank growth to warrant such a pruning. Many young
trees do not make much top the first year; they are build-
ing roots and getting firmly established. In cases, how-
ever, where they have made a strong growth, it is sug-
gested that the trees be summer-pruned as soon as they
have made sufficient growth, so that new laterals may be
FIG. 174— TYPICAL FIVE-YEAR
WINTER NELIS PEAR
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
211
formed to advantage. Those shoots that are making such
growth should be pinched back, provided this pruning
can be done not later than the middle of July and pref-
erably in June. Such laterals should be cut back to
stubs from 8 to 15 inches long, depending, of course, up-
on the vigor of the . , = .
branch. One may make
the mistake, however,
of pinching them back
so hard as to force the
new laterals too near
the main crotch, and
thus make a very close,
heavy crotch which
will pile up in years to
come.
170. The second
spring, unless the start
was made the first year,
one should choose defi-
nitely the shape of the
tree to be grown ; either
the open, the leader, or
the modified leader
tree. If the tree was
summer-pruned the
previous season, that
question should have
been settled at the time
of pruning. If the
leader or the modified
leader is the type, choose one branch to maintain the lead
and prune this in such a way that it may maintain such
a lead. If the open tree has been decided upon, choose
the four or five branches, spaced as far apart as possible,
and cut these back according to their strength, cutting
the strongest branches the most and the weakest ones
FIG. 175— BRUIT SPURS FORM ON LAST
YEAR'S SHOOTS
On this Italian Prune branch the main stem
from a to b is three years old. Two years ago
three shoots, b to c and two fruit spurs, b, b,
were formed. Last year three shoots, c, d,
developed from the terminal buds of the
preceding year's growth and many fruit spurs
sprang from the lateral buds. The lateral
buds on these fruit spurs are fruit buds; the
terminal ones leaf buds.
212
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF 1'R L'NLNCi
the least. One will then have five main branches with a
few laterals on each. It is customary to remove all these
laterals. [But "custom" should be based on principle.
Each case should, therefore, be decided by the pruner's
best judgment. Cut or leave the laterals as judgment
may dictate.] By the middle of June, the young tree
should have made sufficient growth to allow for summer
pruning. Each branch should be pinched back so as to
leave it from 8 to 15 inches long, cutting according to
vigor, always suppressing the stronger.
171. In the third spring each of the original five main
frame limbs will have from one to a dozen lateral or addi-
tional branches. It is
customary to remove
all but one from each
main branch, so that
when the tree is pruned
there will be ten
branches on the tree
where there were five
before. A great deal of
care should be used in
selecting these new
branches. The two
branches on each frame
limb should be spaced
as far apart as possible.
Of course avoid tlu-
choosing of laterals
which will tend to grow
in toward the center of
the tree. Then avoid
cutting these two lat-
erals equally. Choose
FIG. 176-FIVE-YEAR NEWTOWN PRUNED ()ne branch "which Will
The winter pruning has been light because \nnA**~ ,11,
the tree is reaching the critical stage when it grOW as a leader ail(l do
should begin to bear. Heavy pruning might A. f this Knrlr nilitc
keep it from bearing.
PRUNING VOUXC, TREES
as heavily as the second
branch, which will
make a side branch.
By the second
[third?] summer, these
trees should be so well
established that by
June they may be given
a second pruning. Each
branch left on the tree
will have grown 15 to
18, or in some cases, as
much as 30 inches long.
Instead of letting them
go the entire summer,
whenever they have
-made sufficient growth,
they may be cut back
in order to force out a
new set of laterals. The
following spring in all
probability about the
only pruning that will
have to be done will be a little thinning out here
and there. In case the laterals which come out as a
result of the pruning in June have made a very vigorous
growth, and are getting too rangy, they may be cut back
somewhat, although it will be in only extreme cases that
much cutting will have to be done on these branches.
Moderate clipping back is often advisable to prevent the
terminal bud from continuing growth, and producing long,
willowy growth. So this pruning may be continued for
two or three years, never leaving, as a rule, more than
about two branches where one was before.
172. The fourth year. — At the beginning of the fourth
year, a modification of the pruning may be made. It is
coming time now to let down on the heavy pruning. If
FIG. 177— FIVE-YEAR APPLE PRUNED
PREVIOUS SUMMER
Note the length of the shoots which re-
sulted from summer pruning.
214
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
one practices as severe pruning as during the previous
years, the tendency will be to force the tree into wood.
Many growers thin out the laterals excessively, force an
enormous terminal growth, and cut back this terminal
growth vigorously, thus forcing out new laterals. We
believe that too many
growers make a mis-
take by pruning too
vigorously at this time.
It would be an advan-
tage to leave more lat-
eral wood than most
growers leave. Just
how much is advisable
to leave in all cases is
very hard to say, be-
cause the relation of
shade to the formation
of fruit spurs or fruit
buds has not been
worked out very defi-
nitely (66 to 69). Until
that can be done, it
won't be possible to
give very explicit di-
rections, but we would
rather let the tree grow a little brushy, because after it
comes into bearing this excess wood may very easily be
thinned out.
The summer pruning now changes from the former
early summer pruning in early June to the time the termi-
nal buds form (66). The rule, then, with trees from four
to seven years old is simply to cut back the terminals
sufficiently so they will not run away with the tree, and
thin out so that the tree will not become too dense. If
this is followed, the tendency will be for young trees to
come to bearing earlier than they otherwise would.
FIG. 178
WELL-FORMED APPLE TREE HEAD
Note how well the frame limbs are dis-
tributed and how strong the crotches are.
Compare with Fig. 73.
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
215
The amount of pruning that trees, which have just
come into bearing will stand, will, of course, vary greatly
with their vigor. The soil, the climate, and the variety
should all be taken into consideration. There is a great
difference in the bearing habits of trees. The amount of
pruning which regular bearers, like Jonathan, Wagener,
Winesap, Grimes, etc.,
will stand will vary
considerably as com-
pared with the pruning
that Yellow Newtown,
Northern Spy, Bald-
win, Tompkins King or
varieties of their habit
of growth will stand.
As a general rule, the
growers of Yellow
Newtown on the heav-
ier soils of Oregon are
making a mistake with
their young trees. In
almost all cases they
are over-pruning, cut-
ting their trees so hard
that whatever tendency
the trees may have to
bear is directed into
other channels.
The directions given
so far apply chiefly to
apple pruning. Never-
theless, the recommendations apply equally well to all
deciduous fruits and nuts, such as prunes, pears, cherries
and walnuts. A few special recommendations, however,
may be given for fruits other than apples.
173. Recommendations for pears. — Growers generally
feel that it is harder to fight the blight with the leader
FIG. 179— SPLENDID DISTRACTION OF
FRAME BRANCHES ON FOUR-VEAR
APPLE TREE
FIG. 180— FAR TOO MANY FRUIT SPURS
This old Bartlett pear tree has become too full of many-branched fruit spurs.
Most of these are weak. Hence they produce flowers and fruit very irregularly
— only once in five or ten years.
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
217
than with the open type of tree. So it is generally recom-
mended that either the open type or the modified leader
be chosen. They must remember, however, that many
of the open trees are very easily damaged by blight and
are often ruined because the crotches are poorly formed
(Fig. 164). An effort should be made to have the branches
spaced as far apart as possible, so if a branch is lost from
blight, the remainder of
the tree may be easily
saved. It should always
be borne in mind that fire
blight works in suc-
culent growth, and that
in handling pear trees
one should avoid exces-
sive wood growth.
Pears begin their
growth earlier in the
spring and cease it ear-
lier in the summer than
do apples. This should
be specially borne in
mind with young trees,
if summer pruning is to
be practiced. Some varie-
ties of pears, especially
Bartlett, have a tendency
to form fruit buds and
to bear fruit on the ends of the terminals. They will do
this often while the trees are still very young, but should
be discouraged from bearing in this way. The tendency
to bear on such terminals should be overcome by summer
pruning. The crooked growth of Winter Nelis and Bosc
is very troublesome to the beginner in pear growing.
Growers should not, however, worry too much about the
crooked growth, for as the trees become older, they will
take care of themselves very largely and this crooked
FIG. 181
PLAN OF TREE AT PLANTING TIME
Numbers indicate branches
218
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
growth will cease to be troublesome. Prune the trees in
practically the same way as those that grow straight.
Pears may carry more lateral wood than apples. They
spread relatively farther when they produce a heavy crop,
so one should avoid thinning the young trees excessively.
Keep all spurs, or fruits (196) from the main trunks and
low down on the frame branches, as these are a source
of infection from the blight. It is also wise, in pruning
in any district where fire blight is troublesome, to see
that the pruning tools are carefully sterilized (Fig. 183)
before the cuts are made.
174. Recommendations for cherries. — Formerly the
cherry was headed at about 35 inches. Many growers
head at 20 to 25. They are building very nice trees.
There seems to be a prejudice against pruning a cherry
tree. The first six years it may be pruned about the same
as has been directed for apples. Summer pruning is
recommended, as splendid results may thus be obtained.
The cherry has a tendency to shoot up
in the air very rapidly, making an
enormous growth the first two years.
The result is that the average grower
has not the nerve in the winter to cut
this back severely, so he leaves his trees
too leggy (Fig. 184). One way to over-
come this leggy, high type of growth
is to cut back the terminals in the sum-
mer. A very good type of tree to get
would be the Mazzard body, making the
trunk and main frame branches of the
Mazzard, later budding these over.
This will give strong crotches and there
will be little gumming and loss from
trees of this type. Should cherry trees
need heavy cutting, do not hesitate to
take large branches. However, take
care to protect the wounds carefully
FIG. 182
PRUNED PEAR
Typical five-year
Winter Nelis pear tree.
Note that the center is
being suppressed. This
tree gives indication of
bearing a crop. If it
should bear, it will
stand heavier cutting
back next
Compare with
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
219
as cherry wood is softer than that of most pomaceous
fruits.
175. Recommendations for prunes and plums. — The
recommendations for apple trees apply very closely. The
trees are generally headed higher than any of our other
fruits, 30 to 35 inches. Some growers, however, are head-
ing at 20 to 25. The tree never becomes extremely high-
headed, and
since most of
the fruit, which
is to be evap-
orated, is al-
lowed to drop
on the ground
before harvest-
ing, the height
of the head
from the har-
vesting point of
view does not
need any con-
sideration.
However,
growers will
probably get
better results
by constantly
suppressing ter-
minal growth
a n d thinning
out the centers
where these be-
come too dense, so as to allow the development of
strong wood. Do not overdo this, however, by removing
all small laterals, spurs and secondary branches. Also,
do not remove too much wood from the outside of the
tree, and yet keep the tree fairly open. Many growers
FIG. 183— FIRE-BLIGHT HANDLING KIT
Corrosive sublimate in bottle. One tablet to a pint of
water makes a 1 to 1000 part solution. The can con-
taining the sponge is fastened to the belt. The largest
bottle is similarly fastened. It is uncorked and tilted
to wet the sponge in the can when necessary. The pole
pruner has a sponge to swab cuts as made. A wooden
bucket with a large sponge to clean out cankers completes
the outfit.
220
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
of young trees practice cutting off considerable wood on
the outside of the tree and leave the centers a little dense.
The reverse is the better policy. Try to keep the trees
low headed, broad and low spreading, so as to build a
large framework for fruiting wood in succeeding years.
176. Recommendations for English walnuts. — Trees
should be headed at about 35 inches, and at the time they
are headed a heavy stake 7 or 8 feet long should be driven
in the ground close to the body of the tree. The first
summer choose four or five laterals that will give a good
framework and tie these to the stake. If this is not done
they will tend to droop to the ground too much, but by
careful tying one can keep them well in shape. The
following spring cut back the trees exactly as though
they were apples. In many walnut trees one branch may
grow up 6 or 8 feet — 3 or 4 feet higher than any of the
other branches. Cut this back hard so as to bring on
the other branches. Generally the
pruning should be done just before the
starting of the sap flow. Formerly the
trees were allowed to grow three or
four years, all laterals were taken off
and the trees grown to poles. We find
that when they are handled as though
they were apples, we get more spread-
ing trees with larger fruiting areas —
trees which will be much easier to
handle from the orchard management
point of view.
177. Recommendations for peaches.
The peach has a different fruiting habit
from any other trees we have men-
tioned (56). However, the aim in
pruning such trees the first few years
is much the same as that for other types
of fruit ; namely, the building up of a
framework for future years of
FIG. 184
POOR TYPE CHERRY
All the main
branches issue at one
point. Note how "leggy"
the tree is. This is
due to insufficient head-
ing back the first two
years. Heading this
tree back twice a year
might have been help-
ful.
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
221
FIG. 185 — THREE-YEAR LAM-
BERT CHERRY BEFORE EARLY
JULY PRUNING
FIG. 186 — THREE -YEAR- OLD
LAMBERT CHERRY TREE AFTER
PRUNING IN EARLY JULY
fruiting. The peach, when secured from the nursery, is
generally too large and has a large number of branches.
An ideal tree is a straight whip, but it is almost impossible
to buy such trees. Under our soil and climatic conditions
the trees tend to grow very vigorously in the nursery. A
general heading to about 18 to 20 inches is recommended.
If whips can be secured, they should be pruned as is
customary with the other trees. If there are a few weak
laterals, they should be removed, but if the trees have
strong laterals, instead of removing all lateral growth,
which is practiced by some growers, half a dozen well-
spaced branches should be chosen and cut back to one
or two buds. This will give a large leaf surface the first
year, will remove the danger of having a tree stand with
only one or two branches, and also will remove the dan-
ger of the tree's dying. Under our climatic conditions a
great many peach trees, when they are pruned back to
whips, after they have once formed strong laterals, never
start to grow. Some trees will force out new buds and
shoots, but others will not. If, after the buds start on the
222
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
short laterals, there are found to be too many, it will be
a simple matter to thin out undesirable growth.
It is customary to try to head peaches as low as pos-
sible; to have the first branch to come out very close to
the ground and to get the crotches as well spaced as is
consistent with the amount of area one can work with.
FIG. 187— OLD PRUNE TREE AFTER REMOVAI OF DEAD WOOD AND SEVERE
THINNING OF THE LIVING SPURS
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
223
At the end of the first year choose four or five of the
best spaced branches and cut them back on an average
of 8 to 12 inches. Not much summer pruning is practiced
for peaches. By the end of the second year the tree
should be cut back again so it will be 3^ to 4J^ feet high.
Constantly train the tree to
spread by cutting to outside
buds, constantly forcing the
tree to make a broad, spread-
ing top, rather than to allow it
to shoot up in the air. It takes
more nerve than the average
grower has to cut the tree as
hard as indicated, but it is nec-
essary if one is to keep it near
the ground and have profitable
fruiting.
It will be necessary to cut
off about two-thirds of the last
year's wood from the inside of
the tree. Practice this con-
stantly with the peach. The
aim should be to keep the
center open so as to give light
and develop strong wood. Cut
out all weak wood and limit the
amount of annual wood so what
is left may grow strong. It
will be only on the strong wood that large peaches will
grow. Growers, however, may go to extremes in grow-
ing vigorous wood. If the wood becomes too vigorous
the first two crops will be borne on the ends of the shoots
and it will be almost impossible to prune the trees and
still have any fruit. Medium-sized wood is more de-
sirable. If the wood is getting too vigorous be sparing
in the pruning and it will tend to check the trees. A little
summer pruning may be used to advantage where the
•
FIG. 188
FIVE-BRANCHED TREE AT END
OF FIRST SEASON
224
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
wood tends to become excessive. Not much fruit should
be looked for until about the fourth year.
178. Best height for peach tree head.* — There is considerable
variation in the recommendations and suggestions of various au-
thorities as to the proper
method or degree of prun-
ing peach trees at the time
of planting. A common
recommendation is to cut
the trees back to a height of
from 18 to 24 inches regard-
less of grade. Some recom-
mend cutting back the
trunks to 6 inches and
others even 30 inches. These
suggestions are apparently
based on some ideal with
respect to the height at
which the individual prefers
to have the branches form.
In order to secure a rela-
tively low-headed tree, one
must cut back the trunk of
the nursery tree rather
severely at planting time to
make it branch low. This
has led some to believe that
the more severely the tree
is cut back the lower the
head will be ; and that hence
spraying and picking the
fruit may be performed
more easily. But the mere
cutting back of the trunk
to a low point does not nec-
essarily mean that the fruit
may be picked more easily
or the tree sprayed more
economically than from one
whose head is formed sev-
eral inches higher (Ki.u.
72). For example, some
fruit growers cut the trees
back to a -six-inch stub at
the time of planting and
then proceed to remove all
side branches that form on
FIG. 189
NEGLECT FOLLOWING DEHORNING
Four years ago this old Italian Prune tree
was "dehorned" for renovation. Little or no
pruning has been done since. Last year the
tree bore a small crop of prunes on spurs
that had developed on the water sprouts stimu-
lated by the dehorning. There is promise of
a medium crop this year; but the newly
formed spurs in the lower part of the tree are
already declining because of too much shade.
To keep them from getting long and willowy,
and finally dying, considerable thinning out is
necessary. Heading back which would stimu-
late the formation of more water sprouts
would increase the trouble. Comoare with
Figs. 30, 31, 150, 159, 161, 165, 166 and the
explanations accompanying them.
* Paragraphs 178 to 186 condensed from M. A. Blake's Bulletin (293) of the
New Jersey Experiment Station.
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
225
FIG. 190— PLAN OF TREE TOP AFTER ONE
SEASON'S GROWTH IN ORCHARD
Numbers indicate primary and secondary
branches and the little cross lines the posi-
tions to make pruning cuts.
the selected s c a ff o 1 d
branches to a height of sev-
eral feet!
179. Outline of the ex-
periments. — The object of
this article is to report the
results of pruning studies
with peach trees at various
heights at the time of plant-
ing, studies which attempt
to note the effect of such
pruning upon the total
growth of the trees and up-
on the form, vigor and de-
velopment of the branches.
In any study of this sort
two general types of results
are to be looked for: those
that concern the welfare of
the plant from a botanical
and plant growth stand-
point, and those which are
merely commercial. Some
differences in results may be
expected, depending upon
whether the trees are freshly dug from the nursery at time of plant-
ing, or whether they have become severely dried out for some rea-
son before planting. The variety may also be
a factor, as would certainly the grade or size
of the trees.
Although "June buds" are used to some ex-
tent in New Jersey for planting, most growers
purchase one-year-old trees, hence these
studies are confined to trees of that age. Such
trees are commonly graded by height and
caliper. Trees of the same height may vary
considerably in stockiness or caliper as grown
in different nurseries, so the caliper method is
the better basis for a study of differences in
vigor. As representing common sizes offered
for sale the following sizes of trees were used
in the experiment : caliper ^, £4, fy&, l/2 and
•>^-inch. The pruning treatments studied were
as follows : 1, not pruned ; 2, back to 36-inch
trunks; to 30-inch; to 24-inch; to 18-inch; to
12-inch ; to 6-inch.
One of the principal objects of cutting back
the tops of trees at the time of planting is to
reduce the twig surface to balance the loss
FIG. 191
ENGLISH WALNUT
This three-year tree
is properly staked. In
pruning, the two lowest
laterals should be cut
and last year's growth
cut back. The tree was
headed at 30 inches.
It would be better if
5 or 6 inches higher.
226
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
due to digging, and therefore to decrease the danger of loss of trees
and to secure a better growth.
The experiment was started in the spring with two lots of El-
berta trees. One lot consisted of trees which had been dug the
previous fall and kept in a large nursery storehouse. Such trees
are nearly always drier than freshly dug trees. It was planned to
compare these with a lot of freshly dug trees, but the latter lot be-
came badly dried out because of improper handling by the nursery-
man before they were delivered, the bark upon many of the trees
being badly shriveled at the time of delivery. This, however, fur-
nished an equally good comparison, although from another stand-
point.
Thirty-five trees of each grade were selected making five trees to
each pruning treatment. The roots were left in the form in which
*,
FIG. 192— SPLENDID TYPE OF LOW-HEADED, SPREADING ENGLISH WALNUT
they came from the nursery except that any broken tips were cut
off cleanly. They were all planted the same day in good soil and
were given good culture throughout the season.
At the close of the growing season and after the foliage had
fallen, notes were taken as to the number of living trees, and
measurements were made of the linear twig growth upon each
tree. There were 175 of the stored trees at the time of planting,
:*5 each of five grades. All lived eoccept one in the -V^-inch grade
which had been pruned to 30 inches. One tree of the ~x-inch grade
was slightly injured in cultivation and was not averaged with the
others of the 12-inch treatment. This experiment shows practically
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
227
FIG. 193— PORTABLE BRUSH INCINERATOR
Built of sheet iron on runners. Holes in the bottom
admit air and allow ashes to fall out.
no loss of trees through lack of cutting back of the top at the time
of planting, as all the unpruned trees were alive at the end of the
growing season.
180. Effect of pruning upon total twig growth. — On the basis of
a comparison of grades regardless of any pruning treatment the
•^j-inch trees made
the best average
total growth,
closely followed by
the i/^-inch trees.
The smallest aver-
age total growth
was made by the
2^-inch trees. A
comparison of the
various pruning
treatments regard-
less of grade
shows that the best
average total
growth was made
by the trees pruned
to 36 inches and
the next best by
those cut back to
12 inches. The lowest average growth was made by the trees cut
to 18 inches. The unpruned trees made a very creditable and uni-
form growth in comparison with the other treatments based on total
growth regardless of form.
181. Effect of pruning growth of dried-out trees. — When the dried-
out trees were received the bark was much shriveled and the roots
in a dried condition, but they were soaked in water for several hours,
heeled into moist soil for a few days and then pruned and planted.
The same number of trees were used as in the experiment previously
noted, except that it was not possible to secure trees of a 7/6-inch
grade.
A record of the number of living trees at the close of the sea-
son's growth clearly indicates, as would be expected, that the small
trees suffered the most from the drying out in transit. The roots
of ^-inch trees are all small and easily dried out. The bark of
twigs and trunk of the smaller trees probably also permits more
rapid evaporation of moisture than does that of the larger trees.
One would expect to find the greatest loss among the unpruned
trees and the least among the 6-inch trees. This is practically true,
but it is worthy of note that the 12-inch treatment and the 36-inch
treatment have as high a percentage of living trees as the 6-inch,
and that the 18 and 24-inch treatments suffered nearly as much loss
as the unpruned trees. This is significant in connection with the
comparisons on the basis of total growth in the various treatments.
228
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
The loss of so many trees in the ^-inch grade seriously affects the
number to be averaged as to total growth. The dried-out trees made
hardly more than a third of the growth that the stored trees did.
The best average total growth among the dried-out trees was
made by the ^-inch grade. A comparison on the basis of pruning
treatment regardless of grade shows the following: The unpruned
trees made the poorest average growth; the 36-inch treatment re-
sulted in the next poorest growth; the 30-inch treatment resulted
in the best growth ; the 24-inch treatment resulted in the next best
growth. It was to be expected that the unpruned trees of this lot
would make the poorest growth, and one might expect that the more
severe the pruning the better the growth. This is true to a certain
degree, but it does not follow in regular proportion to the severity
of the pruning. Another factor appears to enter into the case.
182. Studies with freshly dug nursery trees.— The following spring
trees of the Belle of Georgia variety were secured freshly dug from
a local nursery and im-
mediately planted. The same
grades and pruning treat-
ments were used as in the
former tests. Two trees out
of 140 in the 36-inch treat-
ment died. One was of y%-
inch caliper arid the other
}/2-inch caliper. The results
of this test in terms of twig
growth show that the larger
the grade the poorer the
growth of unpruned, freshly
dug trees. The smaller the
grade the better is tin-
growth of 6-inch pruned
trees. Or expressed in
other words, the larger the
trees the more they are de-
pressed in growth by a 6-
inch stub pruning treatment.
183. Distribution and size
of branches. — A free, vigor-
ous growth is desired the
FIG. 194 first season the trees are
WELL PRUNED AND OPEN HEADED set, but mere volume of
Such a tree facilitates spraying, thinning growth is not the only con-
and harvesting and produces large crops of sideration in a commercial
pVrTwith^g^u.68 8 negIeCtCd treC' C°m" fruit Panting. The form
and character of growth as
related to successful support of a heavy crop of fruit later and to
the economical care and management of the trees are of much con-
sequence. In order to determine and show the effect of pruning
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
229
upon branch formation upon the trunk, the number of branches tc
each 6 inches of trunk was noted in all grades and treatments of the
experiment with Belle of Georgia trees. The numbers of branches
at various heights upon the unpruned trees are of direct interest
because they should indicate fairly accurately the distribution of buds
and branches at the time the trees were set. As dead branches were
not recorded, however, the actual distribution of branches at time of
planting may not be accurately indicated by these figures.
PEACff TRUNK, 1
Close view of lower part
of one-year trunk. Note
buds and branches.
FIG. 195— GOOD YEARLING PEACH
This 1-inch caliper tree is exceptional a9
to size and branch development. The num-
bers indicate the height in inches from the
bud at A.
The observations upon tbe unpruned trees as a group show that
the number of branches increases for each succeeding 6 inches of
trunk from the ground to a height of 24 inches. From this height
to 36-inch the number remains quite uniform and then decreases
for each succeeding 6 inches of height. The unpruned trees of the
•>6 grade vary, to a slight degree from this rule. The decrease in
230
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
the number of branches to each 6 inches of height of trunk begins
at the 24-inch height instead of at the 36-inch height in the case of
the larger trees.
In a further study, the results show that the largest number of
branches to develop upon the first or lowest 6 inches of trunk-occur
in the 6-inch treatment. The largest num-
ber of branches upon the second 6 inches
of trunk, or from 6 to 12 inches above the
point of budding, occurs in the 12-inch
treatment. The largest number of
branches upon the third 6 inches of trunk-
is also found to occur in the 8-inch treat-
ment. Thus far, then, branches have de-
veloped more freely upon the 6 inches of
trunk immediately below the point where
the tree was cut back. The trees in these
treatments, then, follow the plant law that
growth is strongest at the tips of the
branches (91).
Beginning with the 24-inch treatment,
however, the largest number of branches
is not found upon the 6 inches of trunk
immediately below the point where the
tree was cut back. Before this exception
is discussed further, it may 'be well to
note what the results were in the case
of the other lots of trees. . At that time
the location of the branches upon the un-
prunecl trees was not considered to be of
any practical importance.
One lot of trees behaved somewhat
differently from that just referred to.
There appears to be a great tendency for
trees at all dried out to develop the
greater number of branches on the first
6 inches of trunk near the ground regard-
less of the pruning treatment. This is to
be expected perhaps since that portion of
the tree would dry out more slowly than
any other. The trees pruned to 12 and is
inch trunks did not develop the greatest
number of branches along the 6 inches of
trunk immediately below the point of
cutting back, as was the case with the freshly dug trees.
Several other facts may also be noted. The number of branches
developing on the first 6 inches of trunk tends to increase with the
severity of the pruning. • The 18-inch treatment falls below its proper
place in the scale, but the figures undoubtedly correctly indicate the
FIG. 197
PEACH TRUNK, 2
This is a close view of the
upper section of a trunk one
year old. Letters show 6-
inch lengths. Note bud and
branch formation.
PRUNING YOUNG TREES
231
condition of this lot of
trees.
The number of branches
developing on the second
6 inches of trunk is also
limited in the 18-inch treat-
ment. The unpruned trees
and the 36-inch treatment
of the freshly dug Belle of
Georgia trees developed the
largest number of branches
on the 18 to 24-inch section
of the trunk. The 36-inch
treatment of the stored
Elberta trees, however, de-
veloped but few branches
on the 18 to 24-inch sec-
tion of trunk, and de-
veloped by far the largest
number on the first 6
inches.
It is evident that the
branch formation upon the
pruned trees is largely con-
trolled by the distribution
of the buds upon the trunks
of the nursery trees. Upon
the larger grades of stored
Elberta trees there were
very few
vigorous buds on the trunks from 6 to 18
inches above the point of budding, with the
result that very few branches could develop.
Stored trees are commonly somewhat dried
out and any poorly developed or adventitious
buds are not likely to start as freely as in the
case of freshly dug trees. The light grade of
stored trees, the ^g-inch, had more buds upon
the 6 to 18-inch sections of trunk.
It is plain from the above facts why the
stored trees failed to give the same results as
the freshly dug trees in the matter of free
development of branches upon the 6 inches of
trunk immediately below the point of cutting
back in the 12 and 18-inch treatments. It
should be noted further, however, that the
section of trunk 12 to 18 inches above the
point of budding is a weak spot from the
FIG. 198
ONE-YEAR PEACH FROM NURSERY
Numbers are inches from the bud union at A
FIG. 199 — GOOD
TREE PROTECTOR
232
»RINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
standpoint of branch growth, even in the case of the freshly dug
trees, as is indicated by the total growth of all trees pruned to a
height of 18 inches. Such evidence indicates that some of our
arbitrary and "rule of thumb" methods of pruning peach trees at
time of planting may need revising.
A question which also arises is whether the trees of the 12 and
the 18-inch treatments which died back to 6 inches because branches
failed to start near the tips
made as much growth as
trees originally pruned to 6
inches. The records of total
linear twig growth do not in-
dicate that the dying trunk
stubs had a depressing effect
upon growth. In fact, the
growth upon these trees is
fully equal to that of the 6-
inch stubs. These dying
stubs, however, cause the
branches to spread out at the
base, and it would be well to
remove such stubs as soon as
it is certain that they will not
develop any branches.
184. Length of the branches.
The total twig growth of the
tree is important as indicat-
ing general vigor. The points
at which the trees develop
branches concern the forma-
tion of the head of the tree.
The number and length of
the branches may also hr
factors in the development of
the form of the tree.
The largest total number
of branches occurred in the
lengths from 7 to 12 inches.
The largest average total
number of branches of all
FIG. 200 — ONE-YEAR PEACH FROM lengths occurred in the 36-
NURSERY— H-INCH CALlPER inch treatment, and the next
Figures indicate inches above the bud at A largest average number in the
12-inch treatment. This is
the same ranking as occurred on the basis of total growth. The
18-inch treatment resulted in the smallest average total number of
branches and it also produced the lowest average total growth,
number of branches regardless of their length, therefore, appears
to be correlated with amount of growth. We may conclude, then,
PRUNING YOUNG TREES 233
that the more severe the pruning the greater the tendency toward
the production of long branches.
The total number of branches from 24 to 50 inches in length serves
as a good basis for comparing treatments. The results were as
follows: Not pruned, 27 branches; 36-inch, 71; 30-inch, 69; 24-
inch, 68 ; 18-inch, 65 ; 12-inch, 69 ; 6-inch, 54. This shows an average
of at least three branches to the tree from 24 to 50 inches in length
for all treatments except the "not pruned" 'and the "6-inch" trees.
This indicates that about the same number of vigorous branches
developed under all but the most extreme treatments, yet the actual
position of the branches may vary greatly. If each grade is ex-
amined separately, differences are noted.
Increased size and vigor of the trees and their root systems may
be expected to offset a slight advantage in the number of buds
beyond certain limits. The proportion of top to root also bears on
the case. Yet, with due consideration to the importance of these
factors, there is abundant evidence to show that bud and branch
development at different points upon the trunks of one-year-old
peach trees as received from the nursery has an important bearing
upon the growth of these trees as they are pruned and planted.
If a tree is cut back above a point where well-developed buds are
numerous, good branch development may be expected. On the
other hand, if a tree is cut back just above a point where there are
but few buds, the tree may fail to start well, or perhaps not start
at all, leaving a dead stub. Some variation is to be looked for
between different lots of nursery trees even of the same variety,
and especially where insects or diseases have affected the develop-
ment of the trees ; yet the data demonstrate that many facts are re-
markably constant.
185. Commercial results.— A treatment of a plant that results in
the most vigorous growth is not necessarily the most profitable or
desirable treatment from a commercial standpoint. It is possible
for a tree to make a large amount of growth, but it may be in such
a form as to be poorly adapted to the production and support of a
crop of fruit. In general, however, any treatment which depresses
growth interferes with the tree's commercial possibilities.
The tendency for trees of ^-inch grade, cut back to 6 inches
when set, is to develop one or two large leading branches from near
the point of budding and sometimes below. Where several branches
develop close to the surface of the ground the control of borers is
made difficult. Trees of the same grade cut to 12 inches are quite
similar to the 6-inch trees. Trees of the 3^-inch grade cut to 30
inches are well-formed trees which permit of a short trunk and a
good distribution of the main branches.
The 18 and 24-inch treatments of ^-inch stored Elberta trees
failed to produce branches much above 6 inches from the ground
and the "stub" finally died. Trees of large caliper commonly have
few or no well-formed buds upon this portion of the trunk and fail
234 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OK PRUNING
to start well, especially if they have become somewhat dried out be-
fore being set. The J/2-inch grade cut to 24 inches easily forms
trees with short trunks and well-placed branches. The growth upon
unpruned trees is not desirable commercially even if the trees
should make a fair to good growth.
From the results of these studies it is evident that should a fruit
grower prefer to cut his trees back to 6-inch stubs at planting time,
he should purchase trees of a f^-inch caliper. Small trees suffer
most if they are allowed to become dry at any time previous to
planting. Trees cut to a height of 36 inches when set make a better
average top growth than trees cut more severely, if the question is
considered broadly and regardless of grade.
186. Summary. — One-year-old peach trees of a *M* or ^-inch
grade made the largest average total growth. The larger the trees
the poorer the growth when unpruned at planting time. The smaller
the trees, the greater the damage if the trees are allowed to become
dry before planting.
The largest average total growth regardless of grade was made
by trees cut to a 36-inch trunk when set, except in the case of dried-
out trees. Trees cut to 12-inch trunks when set made the next
largest average total growth. The smallest average total growth
occurred when trees were cut to 18-inch trunks when set. Trees of
•)^-inch grade made the largest amount of growth when cut back
to 6-inch trunks when set. Trees as large as 24 inch or larger were
depressed in growth when cut back to 6-inch trunks.
Trees in general failed to develop branches well upon the 12 to
24-inch section of the trunk. Very few well-developed buds occur
upon this section of the tree under average conditions. The largest
total number of branches occurs in the lengths from 7 to 12 inches.
The largest average total number of branches of all lengths oc-
curred irr the 36-inch treatment, with the 12-inch treatment second.
The number of branches of all lengths is, therefore, apparently
correlated with the amount of growth. The unpruned trees de-
veloped the smallest number of branches more than 24 inches long.
The 36-inch trees developed the largest number of branches that
were more than 24 inches long. The 6-inch treatment resulted in
the formation of the largest number of branches, 40 to 50 inches
long. The 12-inch treatment gave the largest number of brandies.
37 to 40 inches long. The 18-inch treatment gave the largest number
of branches, 25 to 30 inches long. The 24-inch treatment gave the
largest number of branches, 25 to 30 inches long.
We may then conclude that the more severe the pruning the
greater the tendency to produce long branches (83). It should be
noted further, however, that so-called main branches are reduced
in number when the trees are cut to 6 inches. One-year peach trees
from the nursery start into growth best when planted in the or-
chard if there are well-formed buds just below the point where the
tree is cut back. The number of such buds varies at different points
along the trunk of a nursery tree. Buds are found to be most
PRUNING YOl'XG TREES 235
numerous at the G to 12-inch space, followed in order by the 12 to
18 and the :24 to 30-inch spaces.
Peach trees at the time of planting should be pruned somewhat
according to grade and the character of the stock, and not accord-
ing to some definite height regardless of all other factors.
187. Citrus trees. — Few fruits demand as little pruning
as do the citrus trees^oranges, lemons, grapefruits, etc.
— after once having been "educated" by training through
their youthful days. Much of the pruning is done when
the trees are set and during the first season or two. The
lemon (190), however, is more pruned than any other
member of the citrus group, its handling by many grow-
ers thus approaching that of the peach. High heads are
rapidly giving place in popularity to low ones, so low
that often the branches rest on the ground. So satis-
factory have low heads proved that many high-headed
trees are being lowered by the encouragement and de-
velopment of water sprouts on the lower parts of the
trunks and the gradual cutting of branches high in the
upper parts of the tops. In due time the suckers properly
handled will bear fruit.
In Florida "die-back" of the tops commonly follows a
freeze or severe pruning. The roots are usually unhurt.
Root pruning therefore aids in re-establishing a balance
between top and root. A sharp spade thrust deep in the
soil in a circle at nearly the limit of the branch spread will
usually produce good results. The cause of the malady
should, however, be discovered and the proper remedy
applied.
Frozen trees may be left alone, cut back somewhat or
actually at the ground surface. The first is objectionable
because the dead top must be removed some time ; why
not at once? If left, a large part of the new growth must
be injured in taking it out. In cases of slight injury the
pruning may be postponed until the dead twigs become
dry enough to break out. Cutting is, however, better
than breaking. In cases of severe injury the whole of
the injured part should go at once, preferably at the
236 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
ground. Sprouts or grafts may be used to form a new
top. The sprouts may be budded when large enough.
When the trunk seems unhurt it may be left to develop
a new top, only the injured parts being removed. Most
pruners leave too much of the old wood. In such cases
the heart wood decays leaving only a thin cylinder of
living wood. This becomes so weak that the loaded
branches break unless propped or wired, processes which
are both costly and unsatisfactory.
188. Pruning and shaping orange trees.— According to J. \\ .
Mills,* the tendency of young trees of Washington Navel and some
other varieties to assume a drooping habit when making a vigorous
g owth is because the soft shoots are unable to support the weight
of the large, heavy leaves. Even trees that have been long in bear-
ing will be benefited by pinching back every branch that takes too
vigorous an upward growth. This pinching process is especially
necessary with trees one to five years old.
188a. Pruning bearing trees.— An upright tree has a decided ad-
vantage over a drooping one when loaded with fruit. The crop
is borne with less breakage of limbs, and not so much fruit is in-
jured by the wind. After the trees are in full bearing, there seems
to be no pruning that will promote the health of the trees or im-
prove the crop other than cutting out limbs that project abruptly
from the side, or those that make a sudden skyward growth, and
the constant trimming out of dead or stunted wood found on the
inside of the trees.
If too close, the branches should be thinned out from the inside
until the sunlight has had free access. This does not make any
noticeable difference in the appearance of the tree, but makes it
bear fruit on the inside. Such fruit is safe from sunburn and frost
and packs as "fancy" grade. By early attention to pruning, the
trees need never be allowed to grow too close in the center.
189. Renewal of tops. — Some groves of old orange trees do not
respond to even' the best treatment the owners can give them.
Under such circumstances, the most effective way to stimulate new
life and vigor is sometimes to remove the entire top, leaving enough
of each of the main limbs to distribute equally the suckers that will
afterward make the new top of the tree. If the tops are only
thinned out and but partially cut back, there will be a proportionate
amount of feeble growth and a corresponding lack of productiveness.
An old orange tree will rapidly produce a new top, even when cut
back to a mere stump. It is soon in a condition to bear again at
its full capacity. When the roots are healthy and the soil is prop-
erly cultivated and fertilized, the orange tree appears able to produce
* California Experiment Station Bulletin 138.
PRUNING YOUNG TREES 237
several generations of tops on one stock. But it will generally be
found that the trouble with old, non-productive trees lies in the
root-system, or in the management of soil, or in both. Thorough
investigation of roots and soil should be made before any severe
cutting or pruning of the top is resorted to.
Except as noted in preceding paragraphs, all trees should be
trained low for protection against frost, heat and wind, and to aid
the gathering of fruit. Heavily laden branches are generally propped
to prevent breaking down, as the loss from dropping and splitting
is so great that the trees cannot be safely lightened by thinning the
fruit when small.
190. Pruning and training young lemon trees.* — The lemon tree
must be watched closely and built up year by year, and deck by
deck. The first and most important thing to consider is the building
of the framework, which must carry a heavy load of fruit and
which should be strong enough at bearing age to support this weight
without breaking. Three kinds of materials are needed : building
wood to construct the frame, fruit, limbs and spurs to bear fruit.
Building wood is that part of the growth that is inclined to grow
straight up, and when a tree is young sometimes outward at an
angle. Fruit limbs grow from 1 to 2l/2 feet long and are dis-
tinguished by their position on the frame of the tree and by the
ends of the limbs, which show matured leaves and indications of
buds forming at the tips. Sometimes a blossom occurs and often a
little cluster of lemons. Fruit spurs are the growths that come on
these fruit limbs, as also on the framework of the tree, if the tree
is of a fruiting nature.
Another growth about which there is a good deal of discussion
is the sucker wood. A growth, or sprout, is a sucker only when it
grows where it cannot be used on that part of a tree already de-
veloped. The question has been raised, When is a sucker not a
sucker? When something unexpectedly happens to a part of the
tree so the sucker may be used, not for a fruit limb, but as a part
of the tree. For instance, when a large limb has split off one side
of a tree, just above it being a sucker 12 to 16 inches long. The
split limb may be taken off entirely and the abrasion smoothed off
and painted. The sucker may then be tied to the main part of the
tree to prevent its breaking off, when it is large enough to cut back
at the proper point to make it branch and spread it may be used to
fill in the gap. In this case the sprout was a sucker when it could
not be used, but when circumstances permitted its use it was no
longer one.
Building a lemon tree is accomplished by a systematic cutting out
and back. This does not necessarily mean that the tree should not
be expected or allowed to bear fruit during the building of the frame.
More and better fruit will be produced at an earlier date than if the
* Excerpt from an address by W. H. Fleet before the Special Citrus Convention,
San Bernardino, Cal., February, 1916.
238 PRINCIPLES AM) PRACTICE OK PRUNING
tree is allowed to follow its natural propensities, as the fruit limbs and
fruit spurs will develop each year in the part of the frame built in
previous years. It must be remembered while building the frame-
work of the tree that fruit limbs and fruit spurs are being developed
also, and care must be exercised during the building process not to
trim out these fruit limbs or fruit spurs except where they are too
thick. Never crop off the ends of the fruit limbs or fruit spurs.
The question when to begin to build or train a lemon tree is an
important one. When the bud sprout grown from the seedling
stock has reached a height in the nursery so it may be cut off at a
point where there is matured wood, 32 to 34 inches from the ground,
is the time to begin training and developing the tree. Up to this
time it has had to be held up by stakes and given every care, not
having been trusted to its own propensities. Now, it is to be cut
back. On the little stick or stem will be built a crown as a founda-
tion of the tree. The height of cutting back to begin the framework
is a matter of choice with the orchardist. I prefer a crown started
within 32 to 34 inches of the ground. Four branches or crown
limbs are allowed to grow out from the stem, no one being opposite
another. It is not always possible to carry out this particular plan
in the crowning of the tree, but in most cases the limbs can be
spaced so as not to allow one to come exactly opposite another (127).
I prefer to have only two limbs with the center stem, if it be not
possible to grow four without having one opposite another. Three
crown limbs are enough and four are plenty.
It is dangerous to make cuts too long the first two or three years,
as long cuts mean small limbs and weak frames. If the tree is
planted early and makes a good growth, the first pruning may be
necessary in August or September. This will be the thinning out
of the top branches and cutting back rather short those limbs which
are needed to make part of the framework. By first pruning I d<>
not mean suckering or rubbing off the water sprouts, etc. It is
very important to keep the tree, especially the trunk, free from
suckers.
A young tree should be watched very closely the first two or
three years. If it forms the habit of suckering, especially on its
trunk, there will be trouble in starting the sap in full flow through
the limbs and foliage of the tree. Also allowing the suckers to
grow stunts the growth of the tree. Therefore, the suckers should
be taken off when they are so tender that they can be rubbed off with
the hand. Rubbing them when they are very tender prevents knots
from forming on the trunk or limbs. These I believe retard the free
flow of the sap.
In pruning a lemon tree planted nine months in the orchard the
tall branches are cut back very short for the next deck or frame-
work. This close cutting is done to develop strength in the crown
of the tree before a heavy top growth is developed. Although this
tree is only nine months old, some short, healthy wood developed
PRUNING YOUNG TREES 239
in the nursery has been allowed to remain in the crown. These
little fruit limbs will, during the second year of growth, blossom
and set some fruit.
From now on the fruit spurs and fruit limbs may be left in the
crown of the tree, so they may grow and produce lemons in limited
quantities while the tree is young. Do not be alarmed if trees one
or two years old begin to bear. Let them get the habit while they
are young. A lemon tree properly trained and pruned, should bear
a fair crop when three years old. The little limbs will first blos-
som on the ends, bearing from one to three lemons. Then on the
limb, back toward the trunk of the tree, fruit spurs will develop
and set fruit.
Tall limbs should be cut back from 6 to 12 inches, depending upon
the fruit line, or deck, a vertical growth of fruit limbs that will
blossom and set fruit on the ends, then bend downward, causing
fruit spurs to develop on them. Each year a new deck of fruit wood
or limbs is developed. This growth should be cut only when it be-
comes too thick.
It is important to go over the two-year trees at least twice a year
to take all suckers and cut back the limbs that have grown out of
proportion to the other part of the tree; such growth is round and
not smaller than a lead pencil ; larger would be better. Never cut
angular wood. In some cases it will be necessary to take out entire
limbs if they have grown too thick, and also to cut those back that
have grown in the right place to add to the framework of the tree.
Some of the tender growth will commence to develop rapidly
early in the spring of the fourth year, and so will have to be gone
over at least three times to thin out and cut back at proper points.
A lemon tree at this age, properly pruned and trained, should show
a well-defined fruit line.
When a lemon tree reaches 10 or 12 years, very little cutting back
is necessary. Yet almost all of the vertical growth should be taken
out. A tree properly pruned from its infancy is brought to this age
without large stubby limbs near the top of the tree. This method
of pruning and training of a young lemon orchard will bring the
trees to full bearing age without any long bare limbs devoid of fruit
limbs and fruit spurs on the frame of the tree. Great care should
be taken not to allow the growth to become too thick. Sometimes
it may be necessary to take out a whole limb and open the tree to
let in the air and light, so the fruit-bearing wood in the interior of
the tree will bear fruit. The tendency is to allow much of the
growth to become woody and, therefore, to be wasted because it
will have to be taken out. Therefore, time will be lost in the proper
building of the frame of the tree and in the development of fruit-
bearing wood.
191. Good rules in training and pruning young lemon trees. —
1. Use sharp shears so as to make a smooth cut. 2. Never cut off
a limb over -^-inch thick with the shears. Use a sharp saw, smooth
240 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
with a knife and then wax. Every limb ^-inch and over when out
should be waxed, especially in training and pruning trees up to five
or six years old. 3. In cutting out limbs entirely, cut close and
smooth, then wax. Do not leave stubs. 4. Never cut angular
wood. Where a cut is made the wood should be round,
no smaller than a lead pencil, and a little larger would be
better. 5. Never crop or shear off ends of fruit limbs. Never
shear the tree under any circumstances. 6. Keep the trees free
of water sprouts, especially the trunks of the young trees.
7. When in doubt leave it ! That is, when in doubt whether a limb
ought to be cut out or cut off, leave it until next time. It may be
taken out in the future if necessary, but if cut off it can never
be put back. It is necessary to go over the orchard at least three
times a year with the pruning shears. 8. Never cut out the little-
fruit limbs which grow in the framework of the tree unless they
become too thick.
A very important point which should not be overlooked is the soil.
Unless the soil is kept in good physical condition, manufacturing
food for the tree, one cannot expect good results. The framework
of the tree has been built. On it are hundreds of fruit limbs, fruit
spurs have set, thousands of buds are ready to produce more fruit
limbs and spurs, and more fruit limbs are continually coming into
bearing, so unless the tree is properly and regularly fed one cannot
expect prolific and continuous fruiting. Every bud on the lemon
tree is capable of growing fruit limbs and fruit spurs — even down on
its trunk to the ground. Keep the food reservoir in good running
order, furnishing the proper diet for the tree. With the proper
handling of the soil and proper training and pruning one can de-
velop a tree which will always and indefinitely be a prolific bearer
and a profit to its owner.
CHAPTER XI
PRUNING MATURE TREES
When the principles of pruning (Chapter V) have been
properly applied in the education of young trees as de-
scribed in Chapter X, the mature trees will, barring ac-
cidents, need very little annual attention — a mere re-
minder now and then of their training and purpose in life.
From the time they come into bearing the pruner should
expend his energy for sawing, hacking and whittling up-
on some friendly wood pile where he will do no harm to
his fruit crop prospects and the well-being of his trees.
For the trees can be thrown out of bearing very easily by
injudicious pruning. They
may even be made to produce
brush without fruit when
erroneous pruning is extensive
enough and continues from
year to year.
192. Bearing habit dictates
style of pruning. — As already
noted (56), fruit trees bear
their fruit buds in two general
ways — laterally, as in the
peach ; and terminally, as in the
apple. There are many excep-
tions where various varieties
bear both ways, but the rule is
as stated. Naturally the trees
which produce fruit from lat-
eral (axillary) buds, set more
buds and will stand more prun-
ing of the smaller branches
than will the other kind, be-
241
FIG. 201.— INVITING DISASTER.
This shows how not to cut a
limb. A stub is always a menace
because decay is sure to enter.
242
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE ():•' PRUNING
cause this pruning helps to thin the fruit ( 106). Such a
method applied totrees which produce terminal fruit buds,
wholly or largely, would probably not only destroy to.)
many fruit buds, but also upset the normal habit of
growth and cause the development of wood, even to the
extent of destroying the bearing habit altogether. Kven
with trees that produce axillary buds, good judgment is
needed, for the bearing habit may differ among varieties
as well as species. For instance, the peach bears its fruit
buds on strong annual growths of last year; whereas the
cherry blooms on less vigorous
twigs. Therefore the severe
pruning considered ideal for
the peach would in the cherry
develop many and large twi^
which would bear little fruit.
Apples and pears, which form
axillary fruit buds and also
terminal ones on young fruit
spurs, must be pruned more
severely than those which bear
in the more normal way, be-
cause they are prone to over-
bear. To sum this matter up,
then, the primer may decide
FIG. 202
UNPARDONABLE "PRUNING"
This style of cutting courts dis-
aster because it favors the en-
trance of decay. The wound
should be close to the trunk as llOW milch he Shall prime each
tree by noting the way in
which it forms the majority of its fruit buds.
193. Pruning the apple. — Tn a general way the follow-
ing rules, based on the principles already discussed
(Chapter V), will aid the pruner in developing his judg-
ment of how to prune bearing trees, not only of apples
but of other fruits :
1. Study the habit of growth as well as the method of
fruit bud formation. Trees which normally grow erect
may be spread somewhat by cutting to outside buds:
PRUNING MATURE TREES
243
those which tend to sprawl may be raised slightly by
pruning to upper buds (120).
2. Save the small shoots, because many of them are
fruit spurs and the others may later become such. If
they are stripped off, the tree will not be as prolific.
It may even be made barren (Figs. 171, 189).
3. Remove dead, diseased and broken limbs, making
the cuts cleanly and close to the larger tree parts which
bear them (Fig. 93).
4. Cut out water sprouts and suckers except where
needed to fill in gaps. Where needed, shorten them so as
FIG. 203— CROSS SECTION OF TRUNK SHOWN IN FIG. 204.
At the top a stub healed over but decayed beneath. At the left a little healthy stub
healed over. Below, the hole left by decay of limb shown diagonally in Fig. 204.
to compel branching and later the fruit-bearing habit. In
properly handled bearing trees such growths are not ex-
cessive either in number or size, so there is usually little
need of saving them. They are of most interest to old trees
244
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
which need renovation. In such cases they should be
shortened to two or three good buds so they will form
fruit spurs. If they do not so
develop they should be re-
moved. The easiest way to re-
move water sprouts is while
they are still succulent in mid-
spring, when they may IK-
easily pulled off by boys.
5. Avoid cutting large
branches as much as possible.
Rather remove an equal
amount of wood by cutting sev-
eral small branches, say the
thickness of one's thumb,
mainly because small wounds
will heal quicker than large
ones, but also because the re-
moval of large branches leaves
big gaps in some places, where-
as others will be as dense as
ever. Sun scald of the branches often follows the removal
of too large branches.
6. Cut back leaders which are over-developing and
threatening to injure the form of the tree, but always cut
back to some shoot which will take up the work and
also aid in healing the wound. In other words, never
leave a stub (Fig. 92). Following this rule will aid
in keeping the trees low-headed and, hence, also help the
work of spraying, thinning and harvesting.
7. At least one of such limbs as cross or seriously in-
terfere with others, especially in the interior of the tree,
should be removed. When trees have been properly
trained, however, these limbs will be neither large nor
numerous before discovered.
8. If necessary thin out the top. Usually, however, it
FIG. 204
HOW TREES BURY STUBS
The lightest colored wood is the
youngest. It is being used to try
to bury the stub. Decay has rotted
out much of the stub wood down
into the heart of the ^ree. In the
lower left corner, note that the
wood has healed in a small decay-
ing stub. No hope for trees
handled in this way.
PRUNING MATURE TREES
245
will not be necessary to do much of this because the rules
given above will have done enough thinning.
9. Branches that threaten to form Y crotches should
be handled as already indicated (127).
10. Should a neglected orchard need very severe prun-
ing to bring it back to shape, it will usually be an ad-
vantage to do the work in the winter preceding a full
crop year.
194. Pruning to remedy winter injury.— Pruning experiments
were undertaken by William Stuart* with a view of bettering the
condition of some winter-injured trees. These were inaugurated
in early June in an orchard where a number of eight-year-old
Rhode Island Greening trees were severely injured. Some of the
trees were severely pruned back after the secondary buds had
pushed ojt new growths, others were somewhat less vigorously
handled, while yet others were left untouched. It was thought that
the severe pruning of trees on which new growths were being
pushed out at the base of the limbs would tend to throw all the
strength of the tree into a few _;
branches, thereby securing dur-
ing the first season a much more
vigorous development as well as
a much more shapely head.
Photographs were made of
the injured trees both before
and after pruning June 9, again
on August 1.5 of the same sea-
son, and a final set September
27 of the following season. A
careful study of these affords
little evidence that pruning was
beneficial. A comparison of one
set would show a decided ad-
vantage in favor of pruning,
while that of another set would
be equally favorable to the un-
pruned. While no very sweep-
ing conclusions can be formed
from a single experiment, con-
ducted on a rather small scale and
under unfavorable conditions,
this much at least may be said:
* Vermont Experiment Station An-
nual Report, 1901.
FIG. 205.— WINTER INJURED RHODE
ISLAND GREENING APPLE TREE
BEFORE PRUNING IN EARLY
JUNE. NOTICE EXTENT OF
DAMAGE.
246
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE Or PRUNING
(1). That in cases of winter injury like that mentioned above
practically nothing is to be gained by the h^sty removal of the
greater portion of the head of the tree. In other words, severe
pruning is inadvisable and is probably more often injurious than
beneficial. (2). That in the light of the observations made it would
seem advisable to defer pruning operations to the latter part of the
growing season or possibly until the following spring. (3). That
whenever pruning is to be done no more branches should be removed
than is necessary to preserve the balance of the tree top. (4). That
winter injury could be avoided by keeping the tree in a thrifty, vigor-
ous condition. Weak, unhealthy trees are less able to stand extremes
of temperature than thrifty ones. Compare statements by Whitten
(203).
195. Mature pear trees, if properly trained while young
and if healthy, require little pruning. Even when un-
FIG. 206
PRUNED APPLE
This is the same
tree as shown in
FIR. 205.
FIG. 207— AUGUST
Tree shown in F'g.
206 as seen in August;
67 days after pruning.
FIG. 203
SEPTEMBER SHOWING
One hundred and ten
days after pruning tree
shown in Fig. 207.
pruned they bear tolerably well.
But for high-grade fruit judicious
pruning is necessary. In general the fruiting habit resembles
the apple. The habit of growth is more erect, but pear trirs
may be readily trained in almost any form desired, as, for
instance, espaliers, cordons, etc. (Chapter XVII). Gen-
erally the trees in commercial orchards develop as nature
dictates, but broad, low heads are not hard to secure.
PRUNING MATURE TREES
247
One disadvantage of tall trees is that the fruits borne
high up are knocked off or rendered unsightly by wind;
another that spraying, thinning and harvesting are need-
lessly expensive. The form which the mature tree shall
maintain is mainly decided by the pruning of the young
trees. Heading back to outward pointing buds and twigs
will tend toward broadness of top, and if the erect lead-
ers are cut, the trees should be kept low-headed without
much trouble. To attain this form, the work should be
done while the trees are young, otherwise heading back
a tree which has grown at random will produce great
quantities of wood which will not bear. If the tree is
in good bearing when this
heading-in is done, the fruit
spurs will probably develop
long shoots instead of fruits,
and this will be all the more
pronounced when the pruning
is done in the "off year," for it
will force the development of
the branch buds.
It is an erroneous notion that
the pear must not be pruned.
Some varieties, notably Anjou,
must be pruned severely while
dormant in order to get profit-
able crops of fruit. If not so
pruned, a large proportion of
the blossoms or the young fruit
will fall. Men successful with
such varieties cut out a good
deal of wood annually until the
trees begin to bear good crops.
Tardy blooming varieties must not be pruned heavily
while dormant because they would thus develop wood
(83). Pruning in early summer is sometimes helpful.
FIG. 209— HEALTHY PEAR BARK
SHOWING LENTICELS
24S
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
FIG.. 2 10— FUNGI ATTACK
INJURED BARK
Stripping (99) may also help. It is
probably safer than girdling.
Just how much pruning may be
done in mature pear trees must be
left to the primer's judgment and
experience, the idea being more to
thin and thus improve the quality of
the fruit than to remove wood for
its own sake. Such a policy will
tend toward regular annual bearing.
Pruning of this kind, however, can-
not wholly obviate thinning the
fruit itself in summer. Both prac-
tices are necessary as a general rule.
196. Pear blight, if it attacks the
trees, will upset even the best prun-
ing methods. Yet the damage this disease may d<> may
be very largely prevented by a
proper system of training (173).
Heavy pruning shou Id be avoided
as much as possible ; also all soil
management that makes for heavy
growth — notably over-cultivation,
over- fertilizing with nitrogenous
manures and the excessive use of
leguminous cover crops — because
trees in rank growth are more sus-
ceptible to blight than those less
amply nourished. Since the chief
points of infection are the blos-
soms, thence through the fruit
spurs to the branches, the develop-
ment of fruit spurs on main limbs
should be prevented as much as
possible. Instead, the growth of HG. 211— PEAR
MITS BLIGHT
strong new wood should be encour- TMs stub wa« wilted b*-
aged so that new fruit spurs ma yZJSJT*
PRUNING MATURE TREES
249
be developed to take the place of those that must be
removed because of becoming infected. The two im-
perative rules for preventing the spreading of blight are
(1) cut out and burn all infected parts, making the cuts jn
healthy wood below the lowest point of discoloration of
the wood (as viewed in cross section of the twig or
branch) and (2) the thorough sterilization of all wounds
and tools after making each and every cut. (Figs. 183,
209 to 213.)
197. The quince is trained either as a bush with severrl
stems or as a tree with only one stem. Each form has its
advocates. The points claimed for the bush form are
that damage from borers is likely to be less serious than
where only one stem is maintained and that there may be
a constant succession of new wood to replace the old.
The claims for the tree form are
that the plantation is easier to man-
age than where there are several
stems and that the likelihood of
damage from T)orers is less seri-
ous than it is believed to be, pro-
vided proper attention is given the
trees.
To secure the bush form one
sprout is allowed to grow each year
from the base of the plant in the
same kind of way that currant and
gooseberry canes are allowed to
grow. The old stems are removed
after having fruited three to six
times, depending mainly upon the FIG. 212
health of the nlant Sometimes BLIGHT SPREAD FROM
PRUNING WOUND
there may be as many as six or This stub became in-
cf*\r(*r\ cfpmc nf ^irirnic -acrpc in n fected from an unsterilized
1 a saw. The blight spread
bush, but four is probably the COm- downward rapidly. As seen
A f . now the diseased tissue has
ITlOnest number. Ihe tree torm IS been pruned away and the
i 1 • ,1 • wound is ready for disin-
produced in the same way as in fection.
250
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
the growing of other fruit trees. Some varieties are
more amenable than others to this form.
Annual pruning after the quince reaches the bearing
age consists in thinning the young growth and shorten-
FIG. 213— CANKERED LIMB SHOWING BLIGHT EXUDATIONS
These sticky, milky drops are made up almost wholly of blight bacteria
ing the balance 50 to 70 per cent. When properly man-
aged, the annual growths should be from 1 to 2 feet, with
an excellent range of 15 to 18 inches. When the growth
is rank the buds which are to produce blooming shoots
will be near the tips and so will largely be lost in the
pruning. The best buds, by the way, are not usually the
terminals but the laterals on the upper half of the annual
growths. The main ideas in annual pruning should be
to keep the plant well within bounds and to secure an
ample supply of new shoots each year. Since the quince
is susceptible to fire blight, care should be exercised to
cut out and burn affected parts whenever discovered, just
as in the case of the pear (196).
198. The mature cherry tree requires little pruning if
it has been properly started and trained for three or four
PRUNING MATURE TREES 251
years. The aim should be to keep it low-headed. There
is no difficulty in doing this with the sour varieties and
even the tall-growing sweet varieties may be made to
form spreading heads like apple trees by judicious heading
back. Unless so pruned sweet varieties will often reach
heights of 35 or 40 feet when 25 years old. Since the
bearing wood is always near the ends of the branches too
much time will be required to harvest the crop. Then,
too, spraying is more difficult and costly on such tall
trees.
The aims with both sweet and sour varieties should
be to keep the fruiting parts of the trees as near the
ground as possible, to develop fruiting wood throughout
the whole top and to keep the trunks and frame limbs
well shaded so danger of sun scald will be reduced to a
minimum. In all pruning to develop fruiting wood, the
fruiting habit of the cherry (56, 64) must be borne in
mind, because trees with this habit will not submit to ex-
cessive cutting. Over-pruning will force excessive growths
of strong wood which bears fruit buds sparsely. On
the other hand the fruit spurs on trees neglected from the
pruning standpoint, become puny and spindling after
bearing constantly for several years, and what fruit is
borne appears singly instead of in clusters of two or more.
Also the fruits so produced are usually of inferior size.
Varieties which produce abundance of bloom, but
which set fruit sparsely, thus indicate that they are either
not being pruned correctly or severely enough, or that
they are self-sterile. In the former case it is recommended
that they be severely pruned while dormant ; in the latter,
that fertilizing varieties be either grafted or budded in
or planted near by. In cases where few or no blossoms
are produced the trouble may be that the trees have been
pruned too severely or fed too liberally, or, in irrigated
orchards, that too much water has been applied during1
252
PRINCIPLES AND 1'KACTH'E OF PRUNING
the previous season. In each of these cases the reverse
method is indicated.
199. The mature plum tree. — While there are mam
species of plums which differ more or less widely in
FIG. 214— FROST-KILLED PEACH WOOD VARIOUSLY HANDLED
Left, tree not cut back in spring before or spring after the winter injury.
Middle, tree cut back both spring before and after that winter. Right, tree cut
back spring after, but not before said winter. The dark portion represents new
wood formed since the injury.
their habits of growth, yet growers of varieties now used
for commercial purposes agree that the trees must be
pruned far less severely than peach trees because the
fruit is borne largely on spurs which may continue pro-
lific for four or more years, but more severely than the
apple, partly because some of the fruit is produced by
lateral buds and partly because it is necessary tti
renew the bearing wood oftener than in the case of the
apple.
Since the trunks and the frame limbs of plum trees
PRUNING MATURE TREES
253
are easily injured by sun, pruning should aim to keep
plenty of leafage in the top to shade these susceptible
parts. Yet it is necessary to cut back and thin out the
tops of most varieties, especially of the Americana class,
so as to maintain a good form, a low head and enough
light and air to favor the production of first quality fruit.
The Domestica varieties, as a rule, including the prunes,
are pruned probably ^_
less than any of the va-
rieties of the other
groups. Those varie-
ties, however, that tend
to overbear require
more or less thinning
out of the fruiting
wood so as to augment
both size and quality of
FIG. 215— WINTER INJURY OF PEACH
Left one and extreme right healthy; others
the frillt, tO faVOr reg- injured. Dark parts are injured wood. Light
, , . ones new wood forming.
ular annual bearing
and to facilitate work, especially thinning and harvesting.
The Japanese varieties as a group will stand fairly
severe pruning. Special care should be taken to avoid
weak crotches (Figs. 99, 100, 102) because the Japanese
varieties have unusually brittle wood. In general, the
method of pruning employed with the apricot will be
found to work well with the Japanese varieties because
the habit of fruit bearing is closely similar. When neg-
lected the trees tend to develop "full" and "off" years.
Annual heading back and thinning out of the smaller
branches will develop strong new growths of wood that
later serve well in fruit bearing. Pruning to thin the
fruit, while of some service, is not as productive of good
results as in the case of the peach. First quality plums
demand also summer thinning of the fruits. This rule
254
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
applies to Domestica and other varieties as well as to the
Japanese kinds.
200. The mature apricot tree resembles in habit of
growth the peach in some respects and the cherry in
others. Hence the method of pruning is a modification
of the methods employed on these fruit trees. Since the
apricot while young grows vigorously, it may then be
pruned and trained like the peach so as- to produce a
sturdy framework and secure a broad low head. When
the growth cairns down
at three or four years
to a normal gait, it pro-
duces less wood than
the peach, so that from
that time forward the
pruning may consist
merely of heading back
and thinning out the
stronger growths — just
enough to keep the
fruiting wood in thrifty
condition and the tree
well in hand. Such pruning will reduce but not obviate
the necessity of summer thinning.
After the trees get old severe pruning may be necessary
to develop new fruiting wood in the interior of the tops.
This necessity is perhaps of even more frequent occur-
rence than with the peach. Hence it is advisable to krcp
close watch of the trees from year to year so as to avoid
neglect; for even though the apricot will stand much
neglect, it will respond nobly to proper care.
As in the case of the peach the pruning season in com-
mercial orchards is through February and March, it is
well to delay the work until just before growth starts
so as to avoid unnecessary cutting of the fruit buds that
have survived the winter. In the Pacific Coast states
summer pruning is popular, the work being done as soon
FIG. 216— WINTER INJURIES
Left to right, injured apple, healthy apple,
injured plum, healthy plum. Dark part, in-
jured; light ring, new wood forming.
PRUNING MATURE TREES
255
as the fruit has been gathered. The result is a strength-
ened growth of the laterals that have already started.
These laterals produce fruit buds for the following
year's crop. Just how far this method may be applicable
to other parts of the country remains to be seen. So far as
the author is aware, it has not come into prominence in
orchard practice east of the Rockies — but there are few
FIG. 217— POOR GROWTH OF PEACH TREE NOT PRUNED AFTER SEVERE
WINTER INJURY
commercial apricot orchards in this great area! In some
of the mountain states the practice has been followed by
a good deal of winterkilling, but this has been more or
less balanced by tardy bloom, the flowers appearing sev-
eral days later than on trees not summer pruned and
256
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF 1'Rl'MNG
upon which the wood is generally more fully ripened.
Where late spring frosts are to be expected summer
pruning may thus be an advantage, since the blossoms
may appear after the danger has passed.
201. The peach more quickly responds to pruning than
any other woody fruit-bearing plant, with the exception
of the grape. The pleasure that peach growers take in
pruning it accounts largely for the fact that peach or-
FIG. 218— PEACH
:K WITH VARYING DEGREES OF SEVERITY
AFTER BEING INJURED BY A SEVERE WINTER
chards generally look better and are better than orchard^
of other tree fruits. Failures to have \vell-pruned peach
trees are most often due to want of nerve to cut. There
is less danger pf over-doing the pruning than with any
other fruit except the grape. This is because of its axil-
lary method of producing its fruit buds.
Mature peach trees should make annual growths of
18 to 24 inches. It should, therefore, be the aim of the
orchardist to secure abundance of such growths by con-
sistent annual pruning as well as effective soil manage-
MATURE TREES
257
mcnt. The removal of unnecessary wood and the effort
to maintain a well-shaded tree are incidental to the thin-
ning out and shortening-in of the annual growths. It is
customary to cut out 40 to 60 per cent of the new growths
— the poorer ones, of course, first — and to shorten the bal-
ance fully as much. Thus a total of 70 to 80 per cent of
the young wood is cut out annually. The arguments
against allowing* all the annual wood to grow are that the
FIG. 219— TREE HEADED BACK MORE SEVERELY THATv IT SHOULD BE AND
TOO MANY BRANCHES LEFT. IT WILL GIVE A VERY LARGE UPRIGHT
DENSE GROWTH, LIKE THAT SHOWN IN FIG. 225.
trees become too thick, too wide spreading, too easily
broken down and the fruit too inferior.
The pruning just referred to is done preferably just
before growth starts in spring, when it is comparatively
easy to distinguish living buds from those killed by frost
258
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
during winter. Such pruning aids in thinning the fruit
(106), but does not wholly obviate summer thinning.
Always the aim should be to keep the trees low-headed,
so as much fruit as possible may be gathered without the
aid of ladders, and when ladders are used at all they
should be not more than 6 feet high.
202. Pruning vs. peach bud vigor.— W. H. Chandler* experimented
with peach trees to determine the effect of pruning and trimming
upon bud vigor. His main conclusions follow :
In Missouri nearly every winter warm weather starts the buds
into growth more or less. Fruit buds on trees that have made a
vigorous growth, caused by reasonably
severe heading back or by cultivation, are
the less liable to winter injury. Heading
back may be too severe, however, since
in any year the fruit buds most likely to
come through the winter safely are those
at the base of the whips of new wood. I f
the heading back has been too severe, tl e
growth will be so dense that no fruit buds
will be formed at the base of those whips.
In the experiment station orchard the
trees having the smallest percentage of
buds killed were those trained to a
spreading, open head, and forced by prun-
ing and cultivation to make a vigorous
growth.
The fruit on trees with spreading he-id-*
does not rot so badly as that on trees with
dense heads. The fruit on trees making
a vigorous growth, unless the gro \vtli is
too vigorous, is larger than that on trees
making smaller growth. This is true ex-
cept with early varieties, where a tree making a rather small wood
growth bears the better fruit.
Thinning the fruit enables the tree to set more hardy fruit buds
for the next crop [than where it is not practiced]. In the station
orchard a temperature of 6 degrees below zero one winter killed
from 5 to 40 per cent more buds on the unthinned side of a tree
than on the thinned side.
In experiments conducted bv F. A. Waugh in Massachusetts,
peach trees left unpruned for nine years became open headed and
of vase form, but the lower parts of the branches were bare and
the fruiting wood sparse, weak and high up in the trees. The trees
were also much less vigorous than pruned trees of the same variety :
FIG. 220— PROPERLY CUT
BACK PEACH
This five-year tree had
been severely winter injured.
It was saved by radical cut-
ting.
* Missouri Experiment Station Bulletin 74.
PRUNING MATURE TREES
259
several died from winter injury. Trees in an adjacent row headed
back moderately two or three times were thick topped with. much
weak sappy growth on the insides, but the annual growth was more
vigorous and the trees healthier than in those not pruned. More
and stronger fruit branches were shorter, stronger and more
capable of bearing a large crop of fruit. It is concluded from these
experiments that the best form of peach tree cannot be secured
and maintained without pruning.
As a result of three years' special experiments, Waugh
concludes that the heading back of peach trees in early
FIG. 221 — UNSATISFACTORY GROWTH OF PEACH NOT PRUNED BACK
SEVERELY ENOUGH AFTER WINTER INJURY
spring is good practice and in all cases advisable. In
this pruning from one-third to two-thirds of the wood of
the previous year should be removed, depending on the
number of living buds on the one-year-old wood. When
from any cause there are no fruit buds, advantage should
260
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUXIXC.
be taken to cut back with comparative severity. Only
in extraordinary cases, however, should the cutting ex-
tend back to two or three-year-old branches.
In treating winter-injured peach trees, Waugh left one block
unpruned, another pruned in midsummer, a third cut back one-third
to three-fourths of the previous year's growth, and a fourth headed
back near the trunk so only the stubs of main branches were left.
While a large number (93 per cent) of the unpruned trees lived,
the growth made by the headed-in trees was much better. Ninety
per cent lived. The experiment also seems to indicate that trees
seriously injured by freezing should not be cut back close to the
main trunks. Only 52 per cent of the trees so treated lived after
FIG. 222— PEACH IN FOREGROUND SHOWS GOOD GROWTH
This picture taken in June shows how trees differ. The tree at the left is slow
starting into growth. Both trees were cut back severely after winter injury.
treatment. (Compare statements with those of Chandler 202 and
Whitten 203.)
Experiments conducted at the Michigan sub-station indicate that
pruning (heading-in) of peach trees late in the fall and in early
winter if continued may result in serious injury.
Experiments conducted* for years to determine the best seasons
* Hawaii Station Report, 1913, Pages 22-26.
PRUNING MATURE TREES
261
and methods for peach pruning in the tropical climate of the low-
lands in Hawaii, have shown best results when practically the whole
top is renewed annually. The pruning is done in June very soon
after the gathering of the fruit. Although the foliage is almost
entirely removed, the trees soon send out many new branches,
which grow vigorously until winter, when they begin maturing
fruit buds. All suckers not needed to improve the shape of the tree
are removed.
FIG. 223— ONE SEASON'S GROWTH OF EIGHT-YEAR PEACH AFTER CUTTING
BACK TO MERE BRANCH STUBS FOLLOWING SEVERE WINTER INJURY
203. Peach pruning experiments.*— Experiments conducted by
J. C. Whitten to determine the best method of pruning peach trees,
especially those injured by winter, have yielded the following sum-
marized results.
1. Under normal conditions, when peach trees have passed the
winter safely and promise to produce a crop of fruit, they should
be pruned [late] each winter by cutting back the main limbs, so as
* Missouri Station Bulletin 55.
262
i'Ki.\< in i i) N<\< IK i. or i-i-i
IVI One kill" I" fw.i thirds of the new growth \\liirli ennt;iins
Ihr hint Inn I , :•. When tli. Mini l.ii-l . I,, i-ii \\inirilillrd, the
in. mi Imik, 111. iv in- (iii ha. k more severely, thus secunn". more
( niii|i;ii I tin , ,md a\«.ldm>'. |lir |,,| in;i||..tl "I I -\ ' : • I I I i r. Imili .
whirli ih< treei have a tendency to form if they .n-e not cut
•'••. ll« amount oi Mining back must depend upon the extcn, t<»
vvlm h Ih. IK is h.ivi I" • n injured
i It "niv tin- him htidi have been killed and the wood ..t th.
uninjured. M«". "I « "iii|,;i, I |,,nu. it *; > ! . hem aimu;.!',
pruned .k.ui.i h.ivc their main limbs shortened so ,T- to leave only
Inchei "I Ihe new WOOd. If, hoWCVCi, tin hnihs ;ire K'l""".
.in.l Straggling lln-y may he < ill h... I, int.. Iw.. m evrn liner
r
Fid 224— OLD MIXON FREE PEACH WITH SPREADING HEAD
Nott how well thin form admits light well down Into the trt«. Tin-. inNiirri
bud* formed at the hint of the new wood wh«r» thty arc hirdlcnt. One
when thin tree hid only 00% of It* bud* killed, other* of the name varln
Jtn.tr heada had 80 to 00% killed.
,.ld u.M.d i1.. i"ic -.ev.ie .uiiiiH- is done ih«- grower -h..uld h<-
certain ih.it there are not enough h\< i.u.h, l< n i.. product unit
'I he pr;i. h . I •. MI. h .in .ihun.l.im e ..I hint hud lli.il it .1 -.ni.ill
percentage oi them have escaped injury there may still he enottfffl
l<> |.t«,«ln. e .1 p., MM- crop -I iiuii
, \\hen the uinln is *o RCVfrC that n«-l "id\ the hull hu,,
Killed, iMlt the W.....I is hadly diso -I. M e.l. the llees m..v he In
FIG. 225— PEACH TREE WITH VERY DENSE NEW GROWTH AFTER HEADING
BACK TOO SEVERELY AS IN FIG. 219.
The only buds formed are at the ends of the branches where they are easily
killed. A much smaller number of buds on this tree survived the winter following
the heading back than lived on more open trees of the same variety.
264
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OK PRUNING
by cutting them back severely. The following is a summary of
results of pruning peach trees subsequent to a severe freeze :
6. Peach trees which were not pruned, or in which only a part
of the new wood was removed after the freeze, started into growth
first in spring and for two weeks appeared to be in more vigorous
condition than did pruned trees. 7. This apparent vigor was only
temporary, however. Some of the
trees died a little later and none
of them made satisfactory growth
throughout the season. They
seemed to have used up all their
energy in making a start. At the
close of the season they had made
but little new growth, and this
was confined mainly to the tops
of the branches, the old limbs and
trunks containing only dead twigs.
Their annual layer of new wood
was very thin and some of their
roots died.
8. Trees of bearing age cut
back so as tq leave only the trunk
and the bases of the main limits
died in some cases, and where
they did live their growth was un-
satisfactory, many of the sprout <
starting from the unreliable seed-
ling stock below ground.
0. Trees of bearing age cut
back into two-year-old wood in
the case of young trees, and to
three or four-year-old wood in
older trees, thus leaving stubs of
the main limbs 3 to 4 feet long.
made the best growth. They
made 6 to 9 feet of new growth
and entirely renewed their heads
during the following season. They
also developed a good layer of
new wood on their trunks and
formed a good crop of fruit buds.
10. In the case of two-year old
trees, those cut back so as to leave
the trunk and spurs of the main branches 2 or 3 inches long did
best and made fine heads.
11. One-year-old trees cut back nearly to the original bud and
with a single sprout trained up during the growing season made
fine trees.
FIG. 226
GREENSBORO FIVE YEARS OLD
One of the main limbs, pruned im-
mediately after harvesting last year's
crop. See lower right-hand part of
frame limb in Fig. 227.
PRUNING MATURE TREES
265
12. The principal growth took place near the extremities of the
parts left after pruning. Trees cut back into more than four-year-
old wood failed to grow at all in some cases, showing that in very
old wood the buds are too dormant to be easily started into growth.
The amount to cut away in renewing winter-injured trees requires
good judgment in choosing between leaving too much wood (which
results in weak growth and too high heads) and cutting back too
far into old, dormant wood that will not start new limbs.
13. Experiments to determine the best time to prune showed that
trees pruned any time after the severe cold spell up to the time the
buds began to start in spring grew equally well.
14. Good cultivation is of more than usual benefit to peach trees
during the spring and summer following severe winter injury.
FIG. 227— GREENSBORO PEACH. FIVE YEARS OLD, PRUNED IMMEDIATELY
AFTER HARVESTING FRUIT IN EARLY JUNE
20-1. Summer pruning the peach.*— It is the usual custom to prune
peach trees while dormant, in late winter or early spring. When
pruning is done before growth begins in the spring, the new growth
has the entire season for its development. When summer pruning
is not practiced, the more rapidly growing upper shoots shade the
lower, slower growing ones, which in most cases die. The result
is that year by year the fruiting wood gets farther and farther from
* Paragraph 204 has been condensed from C. A. Keffer's Bulletin (108) of the
Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station
266
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
the ground; so in the course of five or six years, even when the
trees are regularly pruned, it is necessary to use high step-ladders
to harvest the crop. Every few years dehorning becomes advisable
to keep the trees within reasonable limits.
Moreover, when the fruiting wood is permitted to form prin-
cipally toward the outer parts of the main limbs the bark of those
near the base of the tree is open to sun scald during winter, thus
shortening the life of the tree. The difficulty of spraying and har-
vesting is greatly increased when the trees are high. For all which
reasons it is desirable to keep the crowns of peach trees as close
to the ground as possible.
In order to get a full crop from a low-crowned tree, however,
approximately as much fruit-bearing wood is necessary as in trees
FIG. 228— GREENSBORO, FIVE YEARS OLD, NOT SUMMER PRUNED
of the usual shape. The purpose of summer pruning is to enable
the tree to develop fruiting wood on the lower part of the main or
skeleton branches, which are usually bare.
Seventy trees, including early and late varieties, were set 18 x 20
feet. In the following spring one-year-old trees were interplanted
for a peach borer investigation, so since then the trees have stood
9 x 10 feet. As the trees came into bearing it was deemed desirable
to ascertain how long they could be kept profitable at this close dis-
PRUNING MATURE TREES
267
tance. Heavy pruning was resorted to, and last year the usual
winter pruning was supplemented by summer pruning.
Previous work of a similar nature had proved that in seasons
of average moisture the Greensboro and all earlier varieties set a
crop of fruit buds after harvest. Greensboro ripens the first week
in June; Red Bird ten days or two weeks earlier. These two va-
rieties were pruned the second week in June. The trees were di-
vided into four groups, with an unpruned check row, and in each
group the wood of the previous year's growth, whether it had pro-
duced peaches or not, was pruned back to varying lengths, from
1 to 8 inches.
FIG. 229— GREENSBORO, FIVE YEARS OLD, PRUNED IN AUGUST
By far the best results attended the close pruning. Where the
spur was very short the new growth in many cases sprang from
its base and, at most, it was close to the main limb that supported
it. But in the long spurs in most instances the new growth was
near the extremity of the spur, thus defeating measurably the pur-
pose of the pruning. Many spurs did not send out new shoots.
In all cases of early pruning the new wood was well set with
fruit buds during the season, as is shown in Fig. 227, a picture of a
Greensboro tree photographed when in full bloom in April. It is
difficult by photography to show the fruit on the tree because leaves
and fruits are so nearly the same color and the picture is necessarily
greatly reduced. As the peach blooms in advance of leafage, the
blossoms show exactly the location of the fruiting wood and trees
in full bloom are therefore used in illustrating this article.
268
JRIXCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
Comparing Fig. 227 with Fig. 228, a tree that was not summer
pruned, it is seen that the result of summer pruning is to bring the
fruit of the next season nearer to the main limbs, and also that in
the unpruned tree the lower part of the crown has very many less
blossoms than the tree pruned by the middle of June. Figure 226
is a detailed view of the lower part of one of the main limbs of the
tree shown in Fig. 227. In the lower left-hand corner the trunk of
the tree and its separation into three main limbs is shown. It will
be observed that this limb (and the others equally) is clothed with
blossom-covered shoots from its base outward. Fruit set on
FIG. 230— GREENSBORO, FIVE YEARS OLD, PRUNED IN JULY
every one of these shoots, so fully a fourth of the entire crop of
the tree is produced within 4 feet of the ground. All the fruit on
the tree can be picked from the ground by a man of average height.
Early summer pruning permits the formation of fruit buds dur-
ing the remainder of the growing season for the next year's crop.
But late pruning is harmful to the succeeding crop. The tree shown
in Fig. 229 is a Greensboro tree pruned in August. Very few fruit
buds formed on the new growth, which was very short. A Greens-
boro tree, pruned in July (Fig. 230) set a good stand of fruit buds
in the upper part of the crown, but the lower part is relatively bare.
Red Bird trees pruned in early June were quite as full of bloom in
the lower branches as was the Greensboro tree shown in Fi.u
The later varieties respond in practically the same manner to
early and late summer pruning. Figure 231 is a Belle (of Georgia)
PRUNING MATURE TREES
269
tree, primed in early June, and Fig. 232 is a Belle not summer-
pruned. The late-pruned Belle trees were no better than the late-
pruned trees of the earlier varieties. Champion gave results so
similar that it was not thought necessary to multiply .photographs.
Elberta is not included in this orchard, but in all probability its
action would be the same.
To prune^any variety of later ripening season than Greensboro
after its crop is harvested would seem to be unprofitable. Is it
feasible to prune Carman and all later varieties before their crop
is gathered? What sacrifice of crop is involved?
FIG. 231— FIVE-YEAR BELLE OF GEORGIA PRUNED IN EARLY JUNE
Carman, Belle and Champion trees were pruned as described
above in early June, July and August. In every tree there are shoots
that do not bear, and others that grow so closely together on the main
limbs as to shade one another too much for good fruit develop-
ment. In the case of these varieties the barren shoots, and a part
of those placed close together, were pruned, leaving fruiting wood
the whole length of the main limbs. In this way all the trees pro-
duced as full a crop as they should. In all cases the early-pruned
trees developed fruiting wood in the lower part of the crowns, as
indicated in Fig. 231, The late-pruned trees and the unpruned trees
270
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
gave much less fruiting wood, particularly in the lower part of the
crown (Fig. 232).
All peach trees tend to develop a stronger 'growth toward their
outermost parts, whatever the pruning. This is seen in all the trees
illustrated herein. But if the center of the crown is kept open,
enough light will reach the lower parts to insure the development
of a profitable crop, where in unpruned trees little or no fruit is
produced.
It is recognized that summer pruning involves additional ex-
pense to the grower. But the method is quickly learned and cheaply
FIG. 232— FIVE-YEAR BELLE OF GEORGIA NOT SUMMER-PRUNED
employed. All that is necessary is to cut back the wood of the
previous year's growth before the middle of June, and only in the
inner part of the crown ; the outer branches get enough light
laterally. Figure 233 is a fourteen-year-old Greensboro tree that was
summer-pruned after its crop — a full one — was harvested in June.
It has been dehorned twice, the last time three years previous. Its
center has not been kept as open as in the trees previously illustrated,
hut there is a fine setting of bloom throughout the crown. Fully
one-third of its crop is set within 5 feet of the ground, the total
height of the tree being 9 feet. Compare this tree with Fig. 234, in
which the new wood was permitted to grow unpruned throughout
the summer. The practice of summer pruning for early varieties
at least, would seem to be established.
Summer pruning will enable the grower to develop a full crop
of fruit in the lower part of his late varieties if he trains the trees
PRUNING MATURE TREES
271
properly. Let us suppose a tree, open at the center, with fruiting
wood well distributed along its main or skeleton limbs from the
crotch to their ends. Young trees in which three skeleton limbs
radiate from the trunk in spreading fashion will produce new shoots
at close intervals. If these new shoots are pruned alternately, be-
fore the middle of June, one set being allowed to grow throughout
the season and the other pruned to a spur, the following year the
unpruned shoots will bear a crop. The second year they will be
reduced to spurs and the alternate set will bear. Thus both late
and early varieties may be kept in full bearing the entire length of
their frame limbs. Even with this heavy pruning the greatest con-
venience of harvesting and spraying the low-crowned trees will
warrant whatever increased labor the plan involves.
When winter pruning alone is practiced heavy growth follows.
Such new shoots as form on the lower parts of the crown reach
FIG. 233— GREENSBORO TREE, SEVEN YEARS OLD, NOT SUMMER-PRUNED
up for light, and before midsummer are crowding one another so
much as to overtop completely the weaker growths. By fall these
smaller shoots are dead, and because of lack of light very few fruit
buds have formed on the lower parts of the surviving shoots. Thus
the fruit forms toward the ends of the new wood, where it is poorly
supported. As the crop approaches maturity these long branches
bend and break beneath a weight of fruit that could have been
safely carried had it been placed near their bases. Summer pruning
evades this difficulty by thinning the new growth and giving the
parts remaining full sunshine,
272
'KIXCII'LKS AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
Summer pruning is an insurance against sun scald on the frame
limbs; for the shoots that spring from the upper sides of the main
branches not only shade them but draw into their supporting tissues
a constant flow of sap, thus keeping them m vigorous health.
Because the peach tends to form a densely leafy head,
care in pruning should be exercised to keep the head fairly
open so sun and air may have free access to the center.
This end may be attained perhaps most easily by extend-
ing the diameter of the head rather than increasing the
FIG. 234— FOURTEEN-YEAR GREENSBORO SUMMER-PRUNED IMMEDIATELY
AFTER HARVEST LAST YEAR
height. Most growers strive to have the frame limbs
form as nearly an angle of 00 degrees with each other as
possible and to spread the top so that the height will be
about half the width (Fig. 224). By proper attention to
pruning, cultivation, feeding, spraying and especially
borer control, peach trees may be made to continue
profitable far beyond the usually allotted half score of
years. The author has visited orchards 30 years old and
older that still bear profitable crops simply because of
adequate attention.
PRUNING MATURE TREES 273
One of the commonest errors in peach pruning is to
get rid of too much interior growth. This may be either
because of over-shading by growths higher up or by poor
judgment in cutting. Nothing but careful and vigorous
pruning in the top will maintain bearing wood in the
lower parts of the trees ; and yet care must be exercised
to prevent having too open a top. Plenty of fruiting
wood must be there also. While central bearing twigs
usually are not as sturdy as exterior ones, yet the fruit
borne there is less likely to be blown off. It may also be
of fully as good quality on properly handled trees.
Often an old peach orchard may be rejuvenated. Per-
haps the best time to undertake the work is during a sea-
son when frost has ruined the crop. The earlier the wrork
can be done in the spring the better so that plenty of
fruit buds may be formed for the following season's crop.
When there are young growths low down on the limbs
and the trunk, the top may be cut back severely, the cuts
being preferably close to points where good but smaller
limbs are already growing well. "Dehorning" is an ex-
aggeration of this cutting back. In it practically all the
top is removed except a few feet of the frame and second-
ary limbs. Figure 31 shows a tree that was so treated
four years before the picture was taken. It bore a partial
crop the second year after being dehorned and a good
crop the following and the fourth years.
CHAPTER XII
CARE OF TOP-WORKED TREES
205. Availability of top-working. * — "In orchard (less
in nursery) practice unsatisfactory trees are top-worked,
also trees of strong growth are used as bodies for poor
straggling growers and those that have trunk weakness.
Thus any desired variety may be worked on trees by the
individual orchardist. The method is of practically uni-
versal utility, because nearly every fruit grower is sure
to have at least some trees that do not please him, but
which are too good to destroy — seedlings, trees untrue to
name, shy bearers, others in which graft or bud has failed
but a sucker developed, and so on. Any desired number
of varieties may be worked upon the same tree, the num-
ber being restricted only by the available branches or
stocks."
206. Top-working finds its widest application in new
fruit districts where the promiscuous variety growing of
the home orchard or the speculative style of planting is
giving place to the commercial planting of a few varie-
ties specially adapted to the district. In other words,
experimental planting is being replaced by busiiu-s-
planting. When this period arrives there may be thou-
sands of undesirable or, from a business standpoint, less
desirable varieties in this district — trees too good to de-
stroy, yet not profitable enough because their fruit is not
in demand, is too sparsely borne or for some other reason.
Moreover, if properly top-worked and handled they may
be made to yield profitable crops several years before
nursery trees would come into bearing. Sometimes top-
worked trees produce a fairly good crop four years from
the operation.
* Kains Plant Propagation, Page 238.
274
CARE OF TOP-WORKED TREES
275
As top-working is based on processes of graftage,
and as such is fully discussed in the author's book, Plant
Propagation, Greenhouse and Nursery Practice, it need
only be mentioned here that ''Cleft grafting . . . finds
its chief use in amateur practice to work over seedling
and unsatisfactory trees to desired varieties. Everyone
should know how to
perform it, because
there is no telling when
it may become use-
ful."* Usually t h e
whole top is changed
over to the desired va-
riety by grafting or
budding all of the prin-
cipal limbs — preferably
in their smaller
branches if the frame
limbs are large — so as
to maintain or perhaps
improve upon the origi-
nal form of the tree.
Better results are gen-
erally secured in this
way than by cutting of
the trunk or frame
limbs. When this lat-
ter is done, there is
danger of ugly and dan-
gerous Y crotches. An-
other advantage in us-
ing the smaller branches (say £4 mcn UP to 2 inches for
cleft grafting, and smaller than ^ inch for most other
methods) is that the new growths from the cions are not
so likely to be broken by wind, ice or snow as when the
FIG. 235— NEW GROWTH ON TOP-WORKED
APPLE, HEADED BACK AND THINNED
AFTER ONE SEASON'S DEVELOPMENT.
* Ibid. Page 239.
276
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRTXIXG
work is done in large stubs, which tend to produce far
longer and usually weaker growths. Apple and pear trees
under five years may be changed to the new variety in
perhaps two years, half the top each year; but mature
trees should not be worked over so fast — not faster than
. , four to six years, de-
pending on size, age
and character of
growth. Mature stone
fruit trees may be top-
worked, but though
young trees may de-
velop good tops, little
if any time is gained
because nursery trees
of these specie*; come so
quickly into bearing.
While proper setting
of the cions is impor-
tant, the after care of
the trees is at least as
necessary. Unless this
care is given even the
best "take" of cions
may prove a more or
less dismal failure in
developing a new top.
Usually the c\ou^
which "take" develop
rather rank shoots
which, while looking
strong, yet if left to
themselves may be top-
heavy and therefore weak and easily blown out by wind
or knocked out by snow, ice, birds or accidents. They
should be headed in when, say, 18 inches long, so as to
make them branch rather low down. Sometimes the
FIG. 236 — ONE SEASON'S GROWTH ON
TOP-WORKED APPLE
New growth headed back after second season.
Compare Fig. 235.
(.'ARE OF TOP-WORKED TREES
277
branches may also need to be headed back somewhat.
The idea should be to secure stocky rather than spindling
growth and also a strong union of stock and cion.
Another highly important point is to remove the water
sprouts and suckers that almost always develop on the
stubs and trunks of the stock trees. Some of these
growths, however, may be left to shade the trunks if
there is danger of sun
scald. To make them
serve this purpose most
effectively, they should
be pinched back to
make them branch and
thus develop more
leaves. Except for such
purposes they should
be rubbed off as soon
as they form.
In the spring of the
year following the
grafting the grafts
should be pruned in
much the same way as
young trees are han-
dled at that time. Pref-
erably no growths
should be left longer
than 18 inches, and
when they are not of
satisfactory length they
should be cut back
severely (Fig. 236) so as to make them develop better
growths thesecond season. Should two or more of the buds
on the original cion grow, all but the best-placed twig
should be cut off, to prevent crowding. Usually the
lowest bud will make the best growth and should there-
fore be saved. Perhaps some training may be necessary
FIG. 237 — NEW GROWTH AT END OF
SECOND SEASON ON TOP WORKED
APPLE TREE. (Shown in Fig. 236.)
278 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OP PRUNING
to spread, contract, raise or lower the top (120d). Since
top-worked trees frequently tend to contract, it will
oftener be necessary to prune so as to spread the top. In
such cases the graft should be cut back to branches
pointing in the desired direction.
Should two cions grow on the same stub, both may
be left the first season so as to heal over the stub quickly,
but in the spring of the second year the poorer or the one
less favorably placed should be cut off close to the stub
so as to hasten healing of this wound. When the stubs
are larger than 2 inches in diameter, both cions may be
allowed to grow during the second year, the removal of
the inferior one thus being in the second instead of the
first year following the grafting. The case will usually
be improved if the cion to be removed is cut back rather
severely so as to check but not entirely stop its develop-
ment (compare Fig. 98). When removed the wound
should be made as small as possible so as to facilitate
healing. Never should both cions be allowed to grow
longer than this because they will almost certainly form
a bad Y crotch.
Attention each year after the first should be the same
as that given young trees, the effort being to make well-
formed and stocky tops. The small wood may be al-
lowed to take care of itself, for some of it may develop
into fruit spurs. A few may need to be clipped or re-
moved, but it is better to leave them for a few years to
see what they will do. Even if they reach diameters of
half an inch to an inch, the wounds left when they are
removed will quickly heal if properly made (116, 119.
122, 124).
CHAPTER XIII
BUSH FRUIT PRUNING
207. The bramble fruits.— As already noted (56, 72)
raspberries, blackberries and dewberries usually produce
their fruit upon shoots of this year's development from
buds which have lived over winter upon canes of last
year's growth. The exceptions are those varieties, such
as St. Regis raspberry, in which the buds instead of
resting over winter push out into growth the same season
as the cane grows. In all cases the canes die after they
have finished fruiting.
Four pruning practices are based on this method of
growth. 1. Unnecessary shoots are removed from the
crown of each plant and from between the rows. Thus
half a dozen, or often less, canes are left in each crown,
stool or hill. 2. The tops of the canes are pinched when
they reach the height favored by the grower. This tends
to develop branches low down on the canes, which are
also made sturdy enough to stand without supports.
3. The laterals produced on the canes are shortened,
generally in spring before growth begins, so as to develop
finer fruits from the reduced number and more compactly
borne blossoms. 4. The canes that have fruited are cut
out of the hills, preferably as soon as the fruit has been
harvested, but usually during the winter when time is
less at a premium.
208. Pruning and training red raspberries. — In the
pruning of all brambles method No. 1 is in general use.
With the red raspberry the second is only occasionally
used in commercial plantations, the canes being allowed
to develop to their full size without any summer atten-
tion. Lateral shortening (No'. 3, above) is the same
as for the other brambles, but removal of the old canes
279
280 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
(No. 4) is generally done in the winter (Figs. 238, 239).
When summer pruning is done, the tips of the young canes
are pinched when they reach a height of 18 to 24 inches.
An important objection to shortening the red raspberry
is that while it develops desirable lateral growth it also
encourages the development of undesirable suckers and
often unnecessary canes in the stools. The number ac-
tually produced will vary more or less with the variety,
the character of the soil, the amount of available plant
food and other factors. The advantages gained by sum-
mer pruning are to increase the bearing wood, and to
secure low canes which need no supports.
FIG. 238— RED RASPBERRY CANES BEFORE PRUNING
Note the continuous row as compared with h'lls in Figs. 240, 242.
Craig* found that with 16 varieties of raspberries the plants
whose tips were pinched back twice yielded only about two-thirds
as much as vines left unpruned.
As the result of a five-year test at the Wisconsin Experiment
Stationf F. Cranefield writes : The facts lead to the conclusion
that pinching the growing shoots of black raspberries, to cause
branching, gives rise to a slightly increased production of fruit,
while the Cuthbert was decidedly injured by this practice. The
* Garden and Forest 10, Pages 3-4.
t Annual Reports 1899 to 1903 inclusive.
BUSH FRUIT PRUNING
281
gain in the case of Gregg is so slight, however, as to be more than
offset by the cost of pinching and the increased labor involved in
the winter protection of the plants. As a general conclusion drawn
from this very thorough trial covering five years, it may be stated
that pinching is not a profitable practice.
209. Pruning and training black raspberries. — Summer
pinching (No. 2, above) is a very popular practice among
black raspberry growers, mainly because this plant does
not produce suckers. The work is done at frequent in-
tervals during the growing season — whenever the young
FIG. 239— RED RASPBERRY CANES AFTER PRUNING
Same as Fig. 238 after thinning out and cutting back.
canes reach a height of 18 to 24 inches. If done then,
the thumb and forefinger, in a small way, will do the
work effectively because the tops will be succulent. If
the canes are allowed to grow taller so that several inches
of wood must be cut with a knife or a pair of shears, the
result will be far less satisfactory because the canes will
not branch so low down and will not be nearly so self-
supporting. Moreover, there will be a smaller number
of laterals, a smaller quantity of fruit, and that usually of
poorer quality, than on canes pinched at the proper height
and time. (Note Cranefield's conclusions, 208.)
Proper summer pinching, therefore, predetermines both
the quality and the quantity of fruit to be borne the fol-
282 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
lowing season. In fact, it is the most important single
factor in the growing of first-grade black cap raspberries.
Wires, stakes and other supports are rarely used in com-
mercial raspberry plantations because the canes may be
made to support themselves. When pinched low (18 to
24 inches), they will do this far better than if pinched
high (30 to 36 inches), for the stems are not only more
stocky, but the laterals are also. High canes frequently
bend over to the ground and often break from the weight
of fruit. Frequently also the fruit becomes soiled.
Generally, in commercial plantations, the fruited canes
are removed in the winter, at which time also the laterals
are shortened to 8 to 12 inches, depending somewhat on
FIG. 240— BRAMBLE CANES IN POSITION FOR COVERING WITH EARTH
FOR THE WINTER
the grower's ideal, but more by the positions of the fruit
buds upon them. In some varieties those buds are borne
rather far from the main canes ; in others closer. Nothing
will take the place of personal observation of the behavior
of the variety in hand.
210. Pruning and training blackberries. — What has
been said above concerning the suckering of red rasp-
berries and the pinching of black cap raspberries applies
more or less strikingly to the blackberry. But since this
fruit is often trained in other ways it may be well to
condense and quote what G. M. Darrow* has to say and
to show the various forms of training he illustrates. What
he writes will apply with more or less force to the man-
* Farmers' Bulletin 643, Pages 5 to 7.
BUSH FRUIT PRUNING
283
agement of other bramble fruits, especially red rasp-
berries, which have the similar habit of throwing up
suckers.
If all of the suckers are allowed to grow, by the end
of the second year the field will be a dense thicket of
canes, from which the berries can be picked only with
great difficulty. The suckers will compete with the
parent plants for food, moisture
and light, and the whole plan-
tation will be inferior. The
plants must therefore be kept
in rows or hills, and all suckers
which appear between the rows
must be destroyed by frequent
cultivation. Suckers do not re-
appear as rapidly if pulled as
if cut, but this method requires
much hand labor. If all are de-
stroyed, the plants will have
much stronger roots and canes,
and the berries will be larger
and better.
As soon as the last berries
have been picked, the canes
which have just borne fruit
should be cut out and burned.
This allows the young canes
more room in which to develop,
and destroys any insects or dis-
eases on the old canes. It will
rarely be necessary to leave
them to support the -new canes
during the winter SnOWS. Wire
trellises; arp imnallv tr» KP r»rp
3UailV 1 DC pre-
ferred where support is needed.
Not more than four new Canes
11 1111 i
tO each plant Should be al-
RED
IM-
FIG. 241
RASPBERRY CANE
PROPERLY PRUNED
This cane was clipped not
pinched during midsummer when
nearly full grown. Lateral branches
developed later as shown near the
top. The cane is 30 inches lon»
up to the point cut. It should
have been pinched at 18 to 24
inches. Such canes as this are
often borne to the ground by the
weight of fruit because of their
weakness and top-heaviness, where-
as short, pinched canes stand up.
laterals, which winterkilled
.
The
badly because produced late in the
season, have been cut back to
permit clear photographing.
284
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
lowed to grow in one season, all in excess of this num-
ber should be cut out not later than the time of the re-
moval of the old bearing canes. The remaining canes
will be larger and stronger because of the thinning.
The systems of training vary in accordance with con-
ditions in various sections of the country. In some sec-
tions where the plants do not grow large and where the
soil does not wash, the new canes may be pinched off
with the fingers — when they reach a height of not more
than 2*/2 feet. When the bushes are very vigorous, the
height may be increased to 3 feet. As the canes do not
all reach the height of 2^2 feet at the same time, the
FIG. 242— BLACK RASPBERRY BEFORE PRUNING
The pruning hook shows the relative height before and (Fig. 243) after.
plantation must be gone over several times at frequent
intervals. The pinching causes the canes to branch
[comparatively low] and to be better able to stand erect
with a heavy crop of berries.
Even when this method of training is used, the canes
may be bent over and broken either by tillage imple-
ments or by the pickers, the number of canes and the
quantity of fruit being thus materially reduced. Under
BUSH FRUIT PRUNING 285
such conditions a wire trellis will save sufficient fruit to
make it a profitable investment. Such a trellis consists of
posts set in each row at intervals of 15 to 30 feet ; the
canes are tied to a wire stretched along this line about
2l/2 feet above ground. This keeps the canes upright
and facilitates cultivation and picking. (Figure 248 shows
this and other popular forms of trellises. Seealso Fig.247.)
Another satisfactory form of trellis is made as follows:
Crosspieces about 18 inches long are nailed to the top
of each post and two wires instead of one are stretched
from the ends of the crosspieces. The blackberry canes
FIG. 243— BLACK RASPBERRY AFTER PRUNING. COMPARE WITH FIG. 242.
are kept inside these wires, which support them on
either side.
These systems of training are adapted to certain varie-
ties and to those sections of the country where the bushes
do not grow very high. When the canes grow very long
or are inclined to run somewhat like a grapevine, a much
higher trellis is used, with two wires (Figs. 247 b, 248-1),
one about 3 feet, the other about 5 feet from the ground
the height depending upon the vigor of the plants (Fig.
244). The canes of the erect varieties are fastened to
286
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
the wires, while those of the trailing varieties are tied
either horizontally along the wires or in fan-shape
(Fig. 247 c).
A variation of this trellis (Figs. 247 d, 248-2) is used in
some sections where the trailing varieties are grown. Two
cross-pieces 18 or 20 inches long are nailed to each post, one
near the top and the second about 2 feet below. Wires
are strung along the ends of the crosspieces. Sometimes
both bearing and nonbearing canes are trained to the
same wires, frequently the nonbearing canes on the lower
^ *
*&
FIG. 244— LOGANBERRY PLANTS WITH FRUITING CANES SUPPORTED ON
WIRE TRELLIS
wires and the bearing canes on the upper wires and some-
times vice versa.
These systems are the most popular ones; they arc
often varied to suit particular conditions or the con-
venience of the grower. When the plants are set in hills
5 or more feet apart each way, the canes may be pinched
back at about 3 feet to make a stocky growth. Fre-
quently, when the plants are set in hills, a post is set by
each plant and the canes tied to it (Fig. 248-5). The trail-
BUSH FRUIT PRUNING 287
ing varieties, with the exception of the Mammoth, are
rarely trained to the hill system.
211. Currants are sometimes pruned and trained in
tree and pillar forms, but these are too fussy for business
purposes. The method adopted for them is much the
same as that employed to make the heads of trees such
as peach and cherry. All buds on the lower part of the
FIG. 245— BLACKBERRY CANES BEFORE PRUNING
cutting1 are removed and four to eight frame limbs al-
lowed to develop. These are shortened to 4 to 6, or at
most, 8 inches and two to four main laterals allowed to
each frame limb. After the framework and the first
laterals have thus formed the head, two to four shoots
are allowed to grow for the making of fruiting spurs,
being cut back to one to three buds early in the spring
after their formation. From time to time wood that has
fruited twice or thrice or perhaps oftener is cut out and
new growths encouraged.
Apart from the labor involved in this method of train-
ing, there are the serious objections that the "trees" are
288
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
less productive than the bushes and much more likely to
be killed by borers; fpr when the tree is so attacked its
one stem is destroyed, whereas when a stem in a bush be-
comes infested it may be cut out and burned and the other
stems allowed to continue to live and bear fruit.
The bush form is the popular one, both with people who
neglect their plants and those who grow currants for
profit (Figs. 250, 251). No matter how badly neglected,
some fruit may be expected. Pruning, combined with other
rational treatment, will make the plants bear fine fruit
abundantly. The flower buds are borne mainly on twigs
FIG. 246— BLACKBERRY CANES AFTER PRUNING
Same as Fig. 245 after thinning out and cutting back.
of last year's growth and on short annual spurs on wood
two or more seasons old. Usually the finest fruit is borne
on the young wood, but it is unwise to dispense entirely
with older wood. The best practice keeps a constant
succession of new canes coming up to replace the old ones.
Commercial growers favor six to 12 canes to the bush,
two or three new ones being allowed to develop each
year, the oldest ones being cut out after having produced
two or usually not more than three crops.
BUSH FRUIT PRUNING
289
Many more canes are likely to spring from the base of
the bush, but all but the two or three best should be cut
out, preferably after fruiting, at which time also the old
canes may be cut out and immediately burned to get rid
of any insects and diseases that may be present. Unnec-
essary and lusty shoots on the main canes may be cut
back to one or two buds in the early summer in which
they develop. Thus they will form fruiting spurs which
may fruit the following season. Upon these will be borne
FIG. 247— STYLES OF BRAMBLE CANE SUPPORTS
a, Considered best for vine-producing kinds, b, Used for extra long canes,
in this case 12-foot canes, c, Good for windy places, d, Good framework for sup-
porting red raspberries.
much of the best fruit. Beyond such pruning as just
outlined little else need be done, though thinning out the
old wood and the young growths in spring may be nec-
essary when the bushes become too thick.
212. The gooseberry, if neglected, as it often is, be-
comes one of the most unsatisfactory of fruit plants to
deal with. Under such treatment it produces far too
290
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
much wood and far too little and too small fruit. The
fruit deteriorates in size and quality and harvesting becomes
a difficult and painful operation. To handle the plants
properly the amount of wood must be vigorously con-
trolled or the fruit
will be inferior.
Just how this is
done is of minor
consequence to
the actual doing
of it.
Since fruit is
borne on wood of
all ages except the
present season's
and the oldest,
wide latitude may
be allowed for
pruning; yet the
best fruit is pro-
duced on last
year's wood. Two-
year and three-
year wood also
bears good fruit,
but older than
this shows deteri-
oration. Hence
commercial grow-
ers usually allow
not more than
three crops to be
borne on the canes,
which are gen-
erally cut out and burned immediately after harvest. Two
or three shoots are allowed to develop annually from the
base of the bush to replace the wood cut out, all weak
FIG. 248
POPULAR S~YLES OF BLACKBERRY TRAINING
1, Canes of trailing type on two-wire trellis. 2, Four-
*ire trellis for trailing vines. 3, Upright canes on two
wires. 4, Canes of upright type on single wire. 5, Post-
method used for upright canes.
BUSH FRUIT PRUNING
291
or otherwise inferior shoots from that point being cut out,
and lush shoots on other parts of the plants shortened to
two or three buds, so the bush may be kept well within
bounds and fruit spurs be developed from them.
The principle involved is to have an annual renewal
of bearing wood in sufficient amount to give good crops.
In cool climates
and situations, such
as partially shaded
gardens and be-
neath grapevines
trained on Munson
and Caywood trel-
lises (Figs. 271, 278)
the bushes* may
be given open
heads, but in warm
situations the heads
should be more
dense.
Sometimes the
gooseberry is
trained in tree form
with six or eight to
ten or a dozen
frame limbs, the
lowest of which
may be a foot or 18
inches from the
ground. These are
headed back to 6 or
8 inches and al-
lowed to develop
one to three or four side shoots, which in turn are also
shortened. The method is too fussy for commercial prac-
tice in America. In England, where the fruit is to be
exhibited in the gooseberry contests, the tree form and
FIG. 249
BLACKBERRY CANE AND MAIN BRANCH
This cane was cut in July or August at about
30 inches from the ground. It sent out laterals
which winterkilled somewhat. Canes so treated
rarely do as well as normal or as pinched ones.
Note the prominent buds.
292 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
FIG. 250— UNPRUNED CURRANT PLANTED ONE YEAR
FIG. 251— ONE-YEAR PLANTED CURRANT, PRUNED. SAME AS FIG. 250
Gooseberries and currants are pruned very much alike.
BUSH FRUIT PRUNING
293
the thinning of the fruits are two of the ways which aid
in developing the plum-like gooseberries of which the
American markets know nothing. So far as thinning in
American plantations is concerned, it is all done by re-
moving more or less wood at pruning time. It is im-
portant and it pays, but it is not productive of such spec-
tacular fruits as the British methods yield.
Some of the gooseberry "trees" of England are remark-
able for their size, age and productivity. One reported
FIG. 252— GOOSEBERRY BEFORE PRUNING. PLANTED THREE YEARS
to the London Horticultural Society* measured 36 feet
in circumference and when 46 years old had a 30-year
record of several pecks of fruit each year. It is doubtful
if such results could be even approached in many parts of
America, because the climate is not humid enough and
our people are too busy to take the trouble to do the nec-
essary pruning and training.
* Transactions Vol. 5, Page 490.
CHAPTER XIV
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
213. Principles of grape pruning. — In addition to 'the
general principles that apply to all plants discussed in
Chapter V are several that apply especially, or even per-
haps exclusively, to the grape.
a. Since the youngest growing parts, including the
leaves, derive all their food from other parts, they act as
parasites (Chapter III, 90). When mature they deliver
food to the balance of the plant. Hence whatever de-
FIG. 253— GOOSEBERRY AFTER PRUNING. SAME AS FIG. 252, BUT PRUNED
velops superfluous growth or impairs mature active leaf
functions, as in the case of insect or disease attack or
injudicious pruning, proportionately inhibits fruit pro-
duction possibilities, and if excessive may starve the vine.
b. The tendency for a vine or a vine part to be fruitful
is in inverse proportion to vegetative activity. Hence,
practices which augment such activity tend to reduce
294
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
295
fruitfulness, and vice versa. Disregard of this principle
may result either in over-bearing and premature exhaus-
tion or in inferior yields, even practical sterility. Correct
management invigorates the vine to the highest possible
degree without reducing the crop.
c. Excessive foliage and small yield usually go hand
in hand ; and, conversely, excessive fruit and reduced
foliage are partners.
d. Injuring the tissues — bending, twisting, etc. — tends
FIG. 254— VINES GROWING IN VINEYARD THE FIRST YEAR
Shoots are tied to stakes to keep them off the ground and thus protect them from
whipping by the wind and from cultivating tools.
to reduce vegetative vigor and, except when excessive,
to increase productivity (103).
e. Terminal buds and shoots farthest from the main
head usually develop most actively. Hence, to prevent
this and to keep the vines within bounds, such buds arid
growths must be removed or methods adopted to check
the sap flow so buds and shoots nearer the head will de-
velop well. Various methods of pruning and training
are faulty because they disregard this principle. They
cannot be followed indefinitely. The vertical tying of
fruiting canes to stakes is one of the most common of
these faulty methods.
f. The more nearly vertical a shoot the more will.be'
296
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
its vigor. The Hudson system typifies this principle
(239).
g. Other conditions being equal, the sizes of vines or
vine parts are inversely as their number. Hence the larger
the number of shoots, or clusters, or of berries in a
cluster, the smaller they will average ; and the larger the
number of vines to the acre the smaller the individual
vines.
214. Pruning units. — In California the term "pruning
unit" is applied to the treatment of single arms, whether
the method of training be
spur or cane pruning. The
term, though less used in
other parts of the country,
is just as applicable un-
der similar circumstances.
Vines which have reached
maturity are pruned so
that certain parts are left
for fruit production, others
for renewal and others for
replacing, extension or
shortening the arms. All
other wood is cut off. No
matter what the system of
training or pruning the
fundamental principles and
the rules which govern the
system are applied to each
arm of every vine so trained, except that vigor of vine.
arm or cane may modify the application somewhat.
Biolitti presents two diagrams (Figs. 257, 258),* which
illustrate units of short and long pruning. His descrip-
tion is slightly condensed as follows :
The unit in spur pruning illustrated in Fig. 257, represents a Ion.;?
arm about seven years old. At the end of the arm is the two-eye
•California Bulletin 241.
FIG. 255 — GRAPEVINE SHOWING
METHOD OF PRUNING ROOTS
READY FOR PLANTING.
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
297
spur (a) of the previous year bearing two canes (b and c).
Near the base of the arm is a single water sprout (d) growing
out of old wood. Such an arm would normally bear other canes,
but as they would all be removed entirely at pruning they are
omitted to simplify the figure.
In pruning one of the canes growing out of the spur of the
previous year (a) is cut back to form a new spur and the other
removed entirely. In deciding on which cane to use for the new
spur, we must choose the one suitable for fruiting; viz, well ripened,
of moderate thickness and
with well-formed buds. Of
those which fulfill this con-
dition, we must choose that
which is in the best position
to preserve the form of the
vine. This, in most cases,
will be the lowest (b in the
figure), because it increases
the length of the arm the
least. If the lowest, how-
ever, is weak, broken or
otherwise unsuitable, we
are obliged to take one
higher up.
When a cane arising
from the base bud of the
spur of the previous year is
chosen for the new spur,
the length of the arm is
lengthened imperceptibly. A
spur from the first bud (b)
will lengthen it usually
a little over an inch, one
from the second bud (6)
3 or 4 inches. In any case,
the arm finally becomes too
long, like the one in the
figure, so must be short-
ened or replaced. This may
be done by using a con-
veniently placed water
sprout for a replacing spur F,G 256 - ROTUNDIFOLIA (MUSCADINE)
as at e in tne figure, and Above, as dug; below, pruned for planting,
cutting back the arm in the
place indicated by the line /. Cutting back of an arm should be
deferred until the following year as the replacing spur will produce
little or no fruit. In the meanwhile the fruit spur from cane b will
bear a crop and the replacing spur e will produce fruit wood for the
following year.
298
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
The cane chosen (b) is cut at 1, 2, or 3, leaving a fruit spur of
one, two or three fruit buds and the cane. C is removed entirely
by a cut at g. The more vigorous the variety and the particular
cane, the more buds should be left. The water sprout c is cut back
at 1, leaving a replacing spur of one eye. Of course a replacing
spur is left only in case the arm is too long and will require shorten-
ing the next year. The unit in short pruning consists then of a
single fruit spur of one, two or three fruit buds.
The unit of pruning in long and half long systems shown in Fig.2.">8
consists of a fruit cane, a, with its renewal spur, d. In the illus-
tration, a represents the renewal spur of two years previous. On
it was left a fruit cane, a, which has produced the crop of the
previous season and a renewal spur, d, which has produced fruit
wood for the present season.
FIG. 257 —UNIT OF SHORT PRUNING
In pruning, the fruit cane, a, is removed entirely at ;'. The
upper cane, g, of the renewal spur, d, is used for a new fruit cane
and shortened to about 1 for half long and to about 2 for long
pruning. The lower cane, /, is cut back at 1 to form a renewal
spur, which will produce the new wood for the next winter
pruning.
This is the normal method of procedure, but various modifications
are often necessary. If the cane g is unsuitable on account of lack
of vigor, other canes such as /. or even //, i, near the base of the
old fruit cane, may be used for a new fruit cane. The essential
point is that the cane used for this purpose shall originate from
two-year-old wood. In the same way, any suitably placed cane may
be used for a renewal spur. Water sprouts from three-year, four-
year or older wood being available (r). .The essential point in
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
299
this case is that the renewal spur shall be below the fruit cane, that
is, nearer the trunk.
Replacing spurs for shortening the arms are occasionally needed
as in spur pruning, but usually the same spur may be used both for
renewal and replacing. The water sprouts, c, may be used for this
purpose, cutting it at 1 or :i, according to its vigor.
215. Time to prune vines. — The most extensive and im-
portant pruning is done during the dormant season.
Vigor and fruitfulness are often profoundly influenced by
the time the work is done, so are the quantity and the
location of the reserve plant food in the vines. J. L.
Vidal, a French investigator, has studied minutely the
nutrition of the European grapevine.* Among his find-
ings the following are of special interest at this point.
In summer the leaves feed the various other parts (29)
at*
FIG. 258 -UNIT OF LONG PRUNING OF GRAPEVINE
Just before the leaves normally drop the canes are richest
in plant food. Immediately after the leaves drop and
during the following two to five weeks, this food is carried
to the roots, where it is held in storage. Part of this as-
cends again gradually during the dormant period to
supply the needs of the parts above ground ; for even
though dormant these parts must be nurtured. When
spring opens the ascent of this food is often extremely
* "Les Reserves de la Vigue." Revue de Viticulture I, Pages 895 to 903.
300
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
rapid. It continues until the new growth can elaborate
more food than is needed for its maintenance.
Hence if vines are pruned immediately after the leaves
drop the cuttings are in best possible condition for prop-
agation. A month later they will not be so good for
such purposes, but the largest proportion of food will have
been saved in the roots to develop the new spring growth.
If pruning is delayed until spring, large quantities of the
reserve food will be lost in the prunings. Therefore,
vines pruned then will develop poorer shoots, but a
better set of fruit.
Vidal also concludes* from three years' experiments that, other
conditions being equal, the time of pruning modifies only slightly
the number of
bunches borne.
With extremely
late pruning the
bunches are more
vigorous and the
proportion of im-
perfect bunches
and aborted flow-
ers is less. The
individual ber-
ries are larger,
heavier and more
numerous. The
growth is more
rapid for late
pruned vines and
continues for a
longer time. The
vegetation is at
times diminished
FIG. 259— VINES HEADED BACK FOR VARIOUS SYS-
TEMS OF PRUNING
A, The spur and the fan systems; B, the four-arm re-
newal system; C, the two-arm Kniffin, Munson, um-
brella and overhead systems.
and at times in-
creased by spring
pruning just as in
winter pruning
These positive or
negative variations in vegetation progress or retrogress in more or
less regular order with the progression of the time of pruning. The
prunings were made at intervals between January 1 to about Ap-il
1"). With vines pruned after mid-February, the later the pruning
Compt. Rend. Acad. Sc-i. No. 17, Page 1,192.
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
301
the greater the retarding effect on bud swelling and the flowering
season.
In a progress report on experiments in pruning grapes at various
times of year, L. Ravaz* concludes that pruning after the terminal
shoots have started serves as a partial protection against spring frosts
and increases production without materially affecting the vigor of
the vine. The chief value of this late pruning appears to be due
to the removal of the outlying buds which are the first to open in
the spring.
-„- 0
FIG. 260— PRUNED AND UNPRUNED VINE AT VARIOUS STAGES OF THE
RENEWAL SYSTEM
A, Second year; B, third; C, fourth; D, unpruned vine in its fourth year.
He questions whether the bleeding caused by pruning after the
shoots have started is harmful. (Compare 15.) To avoid this,
however, and still prevent the vines from starting too early in the
spring, all unnecessary growth may be removed during the dormant
period, the fruiting shoots shortened somewhat, and all eyes re-
moved except the two nearest the base. Since the basal eyes are
affected by the length of the shoot rather than by the number of eyes
beyond them, they will not start any earlier in the spring for having
the remaining eyes removed. He found also that sulphate of iron,
which has been suggested as a dressing to prevent bleeding, has a
tendency to increase the sensibility of the tissues to cold.
* Taille Hative au Taille Tardive, Montpelier, 1912, Page 15.
302 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
The experiments have been conducted in a vineyard planted in
1905. Primings were as follows: one row, immediately after vin-
tage ; another at the time of full leaf ; during the dormant period ; at
the time the eyes first appeared ; during the budding period ; and
when the terminal shoots were about 2 inches long. The shoots in
all cases were cut back to two eyes.
His conclusions drawn from his seven years of experiment* are
that vines pruned promptly after leaf fall were the first to start
growth the following spring; vines pruned when most dormant (late
December and early January) started four days later; those pruned
when bleeding may be expected (in southern France about Febru-
ary 20) resumed growth six days later; those pruned when the
terminal buds began to swell in March were eleven days later, and
those cut when the terminal growths were 2 or 3 inches long were
20 days late. Hence growth started according to the lateness of
the pruning. The only exception was with vines fall pruned soon
after harvest while the leaves were still green. These pushed into
growth 10 days later than the vines pruned immediately after the
fall leaves dropped.
One practical application of this knowledge may be
the retardation of shoots and blossoms in early spring
long enough to escape late frosts. Experiments in Cali-
fornia have proved the utility of this; several vines
pruned about the middle of March were saved, while those
pruned in late fall and early winter were killed by a late
April frost. March pruning in California may delay
blooming ten days. Season of ripening is slightly de-
layed, but when frosts occur the early-
pruned vines may bloom early but
mature their fruit late, because the ear-
liest shoots may be destroyed and only
such flowers and fruit as are on tardy
buds escape the injury.
216. How much to prune. — A vig-
orous vine may carry 20 to 30 canes
each bearing a dozen to a score of buds,
FIG. 261 a total °* perhaps 250 to 300 or more.
UMBRELLA TRELLIS Probably not more than 50 or 75 of
Post grofund.ab°ve these buds will produce shoots, the
* Taille Hative au Taille Tardive, 1912.
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
303
others remaining latent (55). If the vine is pruned so
as to leave only 50 to 75 buds therefore, the result will
probably be the same number of shoots, though doubt-
less from a somewhat different set of buds, because the
buds near the bases of the shoots rather than those nearer
the terminals will grow (55). Neither the quantity nor
the quality of the crop nor the vigor of the vine or its
shoots will show any conspicuous difference.
Should the vine be pruned more severely, leaving only
25 or 30 buds, the number of shoots will, of course, .be
smaller. Hence the supply of stored food in root, trunk
and branches and the supply of crude sap from the un-
pruned roots will be distributed in larger quantities to the
shoots, which will thus grow more vigorously than they
would were there more of them. This smaller number
of large shoots will produce fully as great an area of leaf
surface as would the greater number of smaller shoots
on the unpruned vine, so the vigor of the vine will in no
way be impaired by the reduction in number. Similarly,
a smaller number, but larger-sized bunches and berries,
will be produced by the smaller number of large shoots;
so the total weight of the crop will be at least as great as
when the greater number of clusters and berries are
borne on the smaller but more numerous shoots. Indeed,
experience proves that size of both berry and cluster is
larger and weight of crop greater on pruned than on un-
^^•^^^^^^^^^^It^^^^^
FIG. 262— FAN SYSTEM, VINE AT VARIOUS AGES
A, Unpruned vine in third year; B, pruned vine in fourth year; C, unpruned vine
in fourth year.
304 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
pruned vines. This is because it is easier for the pruned
vine to supply the sugar and water, the principal con-
stituents of the large berries, than to produce the stems,
skins and seeds which make up the principal part of the
small fruit clusters on the unpruned vines.
There is, of course, a limit beyond which such results
begin to diminish. This is due to one or both of two
causes; namely, the maximum sizes for berries and
clusters and the undue development of vegetative func-
tions which often cause the blossoms to drop without
setting fruit. The aim should be therefore to leave the
optimum number of buds for the production of fruit. The
^_ number will vary with
the age and individu-
ality of the vine, the va-
riety, the method of
training and in a n y
other factors. Nothing
will take the place of
experience in this mat-
ter. However, it may
be said that with vines
four to, sav, ten years
FIG. 263 — WIRE HOOK FOR HOLDING 11 • rnfntnprr:a1 v;np
VINE TO TRELLIS "" *"• COimncrClal VIE
yards, the number may
range in a general way between 20 and 40 buds.
Tn general, light winter pruning increases the yield.
whereas heavy winter pruning makes for vigor of vine
and reduction of yield. Hence, it is a safe rule to leave
as many fruit spurs and fruit buds on mature vines of
normal vigor for the variety as were left the previous
year ; to leave fewer on weak vines, which should be
pruned more severely; and larger numbers on vim- <>t
unusually great vigor. Attempts to make weak vines
produce normal crops tend to augment weakness and to
produce inferior fruit; but by pruning to secure small
yield, the quality will be maintained while the vine is
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
305
being strengthened for subsequent production. Indi-
vidual parts of vines act in the same way as the whole
vines ; i. e., pruning of canes and arms should be governed
by the same principles as govern the pruning of one vine
as compared with another. One way to judge the vigor of
a cane is by weight ; heavy and firm ones are better than
soft, pithy and light ones.
217. Herbaceous or summer pruning consists in the
cutting of green parts. It differs in its effects from winter
pruning (83) in
being in general a
weakening process.
The maximum of
weakening seems to
result when the cut-
ting is done during
midsummer while
the vine most needs
its elaborated food
and when it is most
active. Insects and
diseases may pro-
duce the same re-
sults. In the spring
the effects of her-
baceous pruning are
not so serious be-
cause the vines have
a chance to develop
enough leaf surface
to equalize the loss. This is well shown by vines in-
jured in the spring by late frosts ; the following year such
vines are often more vigorous than before because lack
of crop gives them a chance to recuperate.
Herbaceous pruning often resembles winter pruning
in that it concentrates growth in the remaining parts.
This effect and that mentioned above are more or less
FIG. 264— POST AND STAKE METHODS OF
GRAPE TRAINING
Left, rotundifolia (muscadine) grapevine
trained to a post with crossed wires at the top.
Right, vine trained to a stake. Often no wire is
used in stake-training methods.
306
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
balanced against each other in inverse ratio, depending
upon the method employed and the time when applied.
In spring the concentrating effect is greatest, the weaken-
ing least; in early summer the two may balance; later the
concentrating may be inferior to the weakening.
217a. Summer pruning practices. — The principal uses
of summer pruning are, 1, to develop useful vine parts by
removing water sprouts, suckers, unnecessary buds,
shoots and tips of vines; 2, to reduce vine vigor and in-
crease fruitfulness by pinching and removing vine tops;
3, to enlarge the berries by topping — this reduces the
FIG. 265— HEAD PRUNING: FAN-SHAPED HEAD, FRUIT CANES TIED TO
HORIZONTAL TRELLIS
sweetness; 4, to increase shade on the fruit by pinching
or topping to develop laterals and to make shoots grow
upright; 5, to decrease shade by defoliating. Fruit thin
ning, ringing and pruning away of surface and cion roots
are also done during the growing season.
Disbudding, which is practiced on vines during the
second and third years, consists in removing the buds on
the lower part of the stem when they have developed
shoots an inch long so the upper roots may become
strong. Thinning shoots is for the same purpose, but is
done when the buds have developed shoots several inches
long. Disbudding is superior to it because of less weakening
to the vine. Topping is the removal of the end of a shoot
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
307
when about a foot longer than desired. It is most prac-
ticed when the disbudded or shoot-thinned canes have
grown excessively long because of the concentration of
food in them. Development of laterals is its chief effect.
These may be used to form fruit spurs the following sea-
son. It is usually done about midsummer ; sometimes twice
or thrice. Sucker ing is the removal of shoots that appear
from or near the ground surface. It is most necessary with
grafted vines. Water sprouting is the removal of sterije
shoots where not needed. Pinching is the removal of the
growing tip with finger and thumb. It tends to increase
the size of the leaves below. Usually it is done when
the shoots are 15 to 18 inches long. Thus the shoots
have ample time in which to mature. Defoliating is the re-
FIG. 266— DIAGRAM OF ORDINARY TRELLIS
Note braces A, B, C and devices D used for tightening the wires.
moval of leaves to expose the fruit better to the sun so .as to
increase color. It may be largely superseded by an im-
proved form of the vine.
L. Ravaz* summarizes the results of investigations in heading
in grapes by declaring that if employed shortly aiter the flowering
season production is increased, but at the expense of quality.
218. Pinching grapevines.f— Experiments by G. Riviere to de-
termine the effect of pinching the flowering shoots of grapevines
just before flowering to "no leaves and to 1, 2, 3 and 4 leaves re-
spectively beyond the second bunch of grapes, snowed upon analysis
more or less chemical difference in the composition of the must
according to the number of leaves left. The sugar content de-
creased approximately in proportion to whether 4, 3, 2, 1 or no
leaves were left on the shoot beyond the bunches — 145.8 gm. where
4 and 70 where none. On the other hand, the acid content increased
from 36.3 gm. where 4 leaves were left to 60.5 where none. With
the variety studied (Chasselas Dore) it seems advisable where
* Ann Ecole Nat. Agr. A'ontpelier N. Ser. 11, (1912), No. 4, Page 285-323 t pi.
t Soc. Nat. Hort. France, 1907.
308
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUXIXG
pinching is employed to leave at least 4 leaves beyond the last
bunch of grapes."
Later experiments in grape-shoot pinching by Riviere show
that the sugar content increased from 159 gm. per litre of must
where no leaves were left beyond the bunches to 205 gm. where
5 leaves were left. No further increase was obtained where 6 or 7
leaves were left. Similar results were found for the acid content,
which decreased from an amount corresponding to 3.95 gm. sul-
phuric acid per litre where no leaves were left to 3.65 gm. where
5 leaves were left. As a result of the work it is recommended that
in pinching back the bearing shoots 5 leaves should be left beyond
the second bunch.
219. Wounds, their effects and treatment. — Barring frosts, drouths,
diseases, insects and accidents, properly managed vineyards may
continue productive perhaps indefinitely. The most frequent proxi-
FIG. 267— RECURVING THE CANES AS IN THE FAN SYSTEM USUALLY TENDS
TO PROMOTE FRUITFULNESS
In this system the trunk may be trained as a permanent single stem which
reaches to the first wire; or in regions where laying down is necessary the renewal
canes may be started from a short stalk near the ground. Some fruit will be pro-
duced on the short arms during the third season. However, with the average young
vine the wood should be headed back pretty severely so as not to permit over-bearing.
mate cause of decline is the cumulative effect of little injuries, such
as pruning wounds, which permit the entrance of disease, decay and
insects as well as interfere with the physiological functions of the
plant. Hence the smaller the wounds the better, especially on the
main trunk and the arms. By proper planning, large wounds may
be avoided more or less completely. Antiseptics and wound dress
ings may be used as in the treatment of tree fruit wounds (Chap-
ter VIII).
L. Petri*, an Italian investigator, found that two fungi were al-
ways present in the brown streaks which follow pruning of grape-
vines ; mainly, Cephalosporium and acremonium. He believes the
•Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital. 45, No. 7, Page 501.
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 309
gummy-resinous formation to be the direct result of wounding
(though there are degenerative changes). The fungi are apparently
a secondary feature which, however, may spread the injury to por-
tions of the wood distant from the original points of the injury.
Cuts should always be made with sharp shears in such a way
as to prevent cracking and splitting. This may be avoided by hold-
ing the shears so as not to bend the part at or below the point of
cutting. Canes to be cut for spurs should never be cut at right
angles to the grain, but at a slight angle. To do this best the blade
of the shears should be placed against the vine part that is to remain
and the cut made upward. On this subject Bioletti presents
Fig. 285 and the following discussion :*
In spur pruning it is considered best to cut through the bud above
the last one that it is desired to have grow, as at C in Fig. 285. This
leaves the woody diaphragm intact and protects the spur from in-
jury. If the spur is cut at Ct a long piece of internode is left, ex-
posing the pith. As this pith dries and shrinks it allows water to
enter and forms an excellent place for molds to grow which may
destroy the bud below. It requires some skill and practice to cut
exactly in the right place, and if by mistake the cut is made just be-
low the diaphragm the breeding place for molds has its maximum
size. For this reason most pruners make the cut at C2 about half
an inch above the last bud. If the shears are sharp and the cut made
at an angle of about 45° behind the bud, no injury results.
In removing a piece of old wood at the base of a spur or fruit
cane it is best to leave a little projecting stub. Too close cutting
in this case is apt to injure the spur or cane. The projecting stub
can be removed the following year, when the spur has grown larger,
withDut danger of injury.
220. Vine pruning tools. — When vines are properly
pruned annually the pruner will rarely need a tool
stronger than the single hand shears (Fig. 110), of which
there are many styles. Some pruners prefer French,
others Swiss patterns, but any shears that will hold a
keen edge well, are of moderate weight and fit the hand
well will do good work. Only when arms must be re-
placed will the double hand shears (Fig. 114) or the saw
be needed. Most pruners prefer the saw to the double
hand shears for heavy work. The double hand shears
are open to the objection that they split or otherwise in-
jure the part to be left. Many pruners prefer that the
saw shall have a curved rather than a straight blade.
221. Trellis construction.— The most popular support
* California Bulletin 241.
310 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
for grapevines, certainly of American varieties, is the
trellis. Though there are several forms, depending upon
the system of training, they all agree in the main points
of construction. Posts of cedar, locust, chestnut or other
wood durable when set in the ground are spaced at dis-
tances depending upon the system, the character of vine
growth, etc. End posts must be very firmly braced to
withstand the weight of vines and fruit, especially dur-
ing the strain caused by heavy winds. Figure 266 shows
two ways of bracing, the most popular at A and B.
Number 10 or 12 wire is generally used. Because of ex-
pansion and contraction due to temperature the wires
should pass through the staples loosely and at each end
the slack be wound on a reel of some kind. Unless this
is done and the wires partly unwound in the fall, the end
posts and perhaps some others may be pulled loose dur-
ing winter.
222. Other supports than trellises and stakes. — Tn ama-
teur practice grapes of all classes are largely grown upon
arbors, porches, fences, buildings, trees, etc. The first
is often excellent as a landscape gardening feature when
it covers a walk. Where the principles of pruning and
training are adapted to the kind of support, grapes of
good enough quality for anyone may be so produced.
But for business purposes trellises and stakes are de-
servedly most popular because better results can be so
produced. The advantages of the trellis over the arbor
are : The trellis is cheaper and more easily built ; it will
last longer and can be more easily repaired ; it will double
the fruit-bearing surface of the vines, the size of arbor
and trellis being the same ; the vines will be more pro-
ductive and they may be pruned, sprayed and cultivated
and the fruit more easily harvested.
223. The American grape (mainly Labrusca varieties
and hybrids) must be pruned both to prevent over-
bearing and to secure high quality fruit without jeopard-
izing the vigor of the vines. If common sense docs not
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
311
acknowledge these points the experiments of Keffer in
Tennessee* will prove enlightening (74). Unpruned
vines, according to this investigator, during the first sea-
son of neglect yielded more fruit than did pruned ones,
but the clusters on the pruned vines averaged heavier,
and the load of grapes on the neglected vines was so heavy
that a large proportion of the new growth died so that
the subsequent crop was lighter on the neglected than on
the pruned vines. Hence vines must be held within
bounds in order to secure size and flavor and, in a series
of years, quantity also. Proper pruning does this and
also economizes land and facilitates various vineyard
operations — spraying, cultivating, harvesting, etc.
FIG. 268— UNPRUNED VINE TRAINED ACCORDING TO THE FAN SYSTEM
A O is an arm of old wood attached to the main body of the vine. When
pruning was done in the spring the cane A B was left as the fruiting cane. It
produced the fruiting shoots 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 that season. In addition to leaving
A B, two other canes were cut back, forming the spurs C and D. The spur D did
not develop a renewal cane, but C produced two strong shoots, E and F.
In order to prune intelligently, the operator must un-
derstand the fruit-bearing habit and its relation to wood
growth. As already noted (56, 73), the fruit is borne
near the bases of this season's shoots, which spring from
resting buds formed last season. Hence it is easy to
calculate the amount of fruit a vine should bear. In order
* Bulletin No. 77.
312 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
to produce the average yield of 15 pounds — about 50
good-sized clusters — 20 or 30 buds, or an equivalent of
spurs, must be left at pruning time in winter or early
spring, this calculation being based on an average of two
clusters to each bud left. Sometimes these buds may be
on only one cane, but generally better results are secured
when two or three canes are chosen upon the main stem
or stems, according to the system of training employed.
Hence proper pruning of the grape aims to remove all
canes and spurs except those needed to supply the de-
sired number of buds and bunches.
Pruning may be done at any time between the fall of
the leaves and a time two or more weeks before the buds
are expected to swell in spring. It is not considered good
practice to prune very near the time of bud swelling be-
cause the vines are very prone to "bleed" (15). Where the
winters are severe and the vines must be covered it is
a good practice to give a rough pruning in the fall so they
may be covered easily. More wood should be left in such
cases than is actually needed because there may be more
or less loss due to covering and uncovering as well as to
possible frost injury. The superfluous wood and buds
may be removed when the vines are uncovered shortly
before growth starts. While there is some basis for the
advice not to prune when the wood is frozen, it is K'ss
because of any physiological reason than because the
wood is then very brittle and hence subject to unusual
breakage.
That the system of training is far less important than
judicious pruning is proved by the fact that excellent re-
sults are secured with a considerable number of systems.
Nevertheless there is, between pruning and training, an
inter-relationship that fits a certain system better than
any other to a given variety or environment. Hence the
many systems and modifications of systems seen in the
various grape-growing sections. Pruning and training
depend largely upon the fashion of the locality and the
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 313
judgment of the operator. Vigorous vines, such as Con-
cord and Niagara, may be trained in a greater variety of
ways than can the weaker ones like Delaware. The
former seem to be best adapted to the drooping systems
of training and the latter to the upright styles. The terms
"drooping" and ''upright" refer to the positions taken by
the bearing shoots, not to those of the arms or canes.
These two general classes are widely popular, whereas
the horizontal styles have practically gone out of use.
Before discussing systems of training, however, let us
develop the vines through the preliminary stages to the
time when systematic training really begins.
The young grapevine received from the nursery is
sometimes the growth of one season, but usually that of
two seasons. Often, perhaps generally, it may have two
or more canes, each bearing numerous buds. All of this
growth, except two or three nodes and internodes on the
strongest cane, should be cut off, thus leaving a single
stem perhaps a foot long and bearing two or three sturdy
buds. The plants so pruned should be set at desired dis-
tances apart (8 to 10 feet) between both vines and rows
and given good cultural care the first season. The shoots
may sprawl on the ground or better be fastened to bean
poles to prevent injury. A couple of weeks before growth
starts the following spring the vine must be cut back
again to two or three buds. From these only one, or at
most, two shoots, depending on the system of training
later to be adopted, should be allowed to grow during
the second season in the vineyard. These two shoots
will form permanent trunks. Up to the beginning of the
third season no trellis is usually needed. Sometimes,
however, extra strong vines are trained to the lowest
wire during the second season. The style of trellis will
depend upon the system of training to be followed.
As the illustrations of grape-training systems (Figs. 269
to 273) have been borrowed from the Kentucky
Experiment Station, clearness of description will be
314
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
gained by using the condensed text used in Bulletin 92
of that station (224 to 226). This follows:
224. The double Kniffin system. — The permanent trellis
may now be erected. At each end of a row a stout post
is set and firmly braced. At intervals of 20 feet, or twice
the distance of the vines in the row, the intermediate
posts are set, thus allowing two vines in the space be-
tween any two successive posts. For this method of
training the posts should be long enough to stand f>}/2
to 6 feet above ground. Two No. 10 wires are stretched
along the row, the lower 36 to 40 inches and the upper
FIG. 269— THE KNIFFIN SYSTEM. BEFORE PRUNING GRAPEVINE
(56 to 70 inches above ground. These wires are stapled to
the posts, but not so tightly as to prevent the slack from
being taken up from time to time, preferably at the ends.
If the growth of the second year is strong and vigorous,
one of the two shoots referred to above may be permitted
to grow until it reaches the lower wire and the other to
the top wire. Each must have its tip pinched off when it
reaches its respective wire. This will usually cause the
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
315
development of two or more lateral branches, one of
which may be trained in each direction upon its own wire
and tied loosely, all others being pinched out. If this
pinching of the tip should not be done at the proper time,
each cane at the annual pruning time should be sharply
bent and tied to its respective wire. When spring growth
begins this will commonly cause the pushing out of a
strong shoot at the point where the bend occurs. This
shoot may be trained out upon and loosely tied to the
wire in the opposite direction.
The object in either case is to produce two main up-
right stems, one stopping at each wire, each with a T-
FIG. 270— THE KN1FFIN SYSTEM OF TRAINING THE VINE SHOWN IN FIG 271
shaped head whose branches run out horizontally upon
the wires. If the T head is complete at each wire at the
end of the second season, the horizontal canes, after the
wood is well matured, should be cut back in most cases
to not more than three or four buds each. In later years,
as the vine grows larger and stronger, the horizontal
canes may be left longer at each annual pruning.
Upon the opening of spring a strong shoot will com-
316 PRINCIPLES AND PR.U TICK OK PKrXIXC,
monly grow out from each bud of these horizontal canes.
Upon the first three or four joints of these spring shoots
flowers and fruit are produced. In this system these
shoots should not be permitted to grow out horizontally
along the wires. If they become attached by their
tendrils they should be pulled loose again and allowed
to hang directly downward. This will tend to equalize
the growth of the several shoots, which, under natural
conditions, tend to develop most vigorously from the
terminal bud.
The subsequent pruning and training of the vine can
best be explained by reference to the figures. Figure 269
represents an average six-year-old vine as it appeared
in January just before pruning. The cane or arm, A.
grew two years before and was considerably longer than
now when the vine was pruned in January one year ago.
This cane was then shortened to the length now shown,
all its neighboring canes were removed and it was tied
to the wire. During the following summer the seven
strong shoots, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, grew from it, together with
one or two weaker shoots, and bore fruit in that season.
When pruned in late winter, the entire arm, down to l/2
inch from the base of a, together with the canes h, c. d,
c, f and g, was removed by one cut at X, and the cane, a,
was shortened to about ten buds and tied to the wire in
the same position formerly occupied by A, as will be
seen in Fig. 270.
The arm B also grew two years ago and was shortened
to about seven buds in January last year. From the^e
seven buds there grew, as will be seen in the figure, six
strong shoots, each of which, like the shoots from arm A,
bore two to four clusters of fruit. This arm B was also.
like A, cut off at X with all its canes except the one
nearest the base. This only is reserved to take the place
of B upon the wire, after being shortened to eight or
nine buds. The same process was repeated upon the left-
hand side of the vine, leaving it, after the pruning was
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
317
completed, as seen in Fig. 270. It will thus be seen that
the entire pruning for a vine trained upon this method
can be done with from eight to twelve cuts. As the vine
grows older the canes in the annual pruning may be left
a little longer, the number of buds to be left varying with
the age, vigor and variety of each individual vine to be
treated.
It will be noticed that two other canes growing out
upon the old wood at the head have been shortened to
two buds, thus making the so-called spurs as seen at ss in
Fig. 270. This is done more
or less frequently when
s u i t a b 1 e strong-growing
canes are developed close to
the top of the main trunk.
It provides a new cane tc
place upon the wire the fol-
lowing year from a point as
close to the original T head
as possible ; otherwise the
horizontal arms will become
longer each year. It is de-
sirable to keep the old wood
as short as practicable.
To one unaccustomed to-
this work, it would appear
that the vine as seen in Fig.
270 is ruined from such close
pruning, but experience has
demonstrated beyond ques-
tion that it is only by such apparently severe treatment
that the best and most profitable crops of fruit can be
grown.
During the coming season a strong shoot may be ex-
pected from most of the 30 to 35 buds left upon the hori-
zontal canes, and each shoot may reasonably be expected
to bear two to four good clusters of grapes. It will be
FIG. 271— END OF MUNSON ROW
Note vines are fastened to the \vires, not
to the posts
318
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
seen, therefore, that it is not necessary to leave a large
number of buds upon a vine after pruning to meet the
requirements of a good crop of fruit. The fruit will,
moreover, be of much better quality than that produced
by an unpruned and neglected vine (74).
225. The Munson system. — A second method of man-
agement, which possesses much merit, is the Munson
system of training, so called from its originator, the late
FIG. 272- -MUNSON SYSTEM OF TRAINING VINE UNPRUNED
T. V. Munson, the grape specialist of Texas. In this
system, as practiced by the originator, the trellis is made
by placing two light posts or stakes in each hole along
the row, their tops separated 18 to 24 inches, like the two
sides of the letter V, and standing 6 feet high. A wire is
stretched lengthwise along the tops of these posts and
a third wire about a foot lower upon cross wires midway
between them.
In our own practice essentially the same arrangement
of wires is secured by the use of a single post in each
hole with a 2-foot piece of 2 x 4-inch joist spiked firmly
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
319
against the top like the letter T, as shown in Fig. 271
The wires in this way are stretched along the ends of this
horizontal piece, with the third midway between them
and 10 or 12 inches lower. In this system a single main
trunk is grown to the middle or lower wire, and one or
two canes (depending upon age and vigor) are left after
pruning to run each way upon this middle wire and se-
curely tied. The remaining or outer wires are used only
to support the growing shoots, which, with but little
attention, grow out over them as seen in the illustration.
As their length and weight increase they gradually
droop toward the ground, having in the meantime secured
FIG. 273— MUNSON SYSTEM OF GRAPE TRAINING. VINE PRUNED
by their tendrils a firm hold upon the wire. The appear-
ance of the vine at the end of the season's growth will be
easily understood from Fig. 272.
Pruning vines in this system is similar to that in the
Kniffin system, except that only one main trunk is used
and the canes are attached to only the middle or lowest
wire. Thus a strong and vigorous mature vine should
have twro or more canes left in each direction after prun-
ing, in order to furnish a sufficient number of buds for
320 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUXIXCJ
fruiting. The vine is renewed back to the head as com-
pletely as possible each year. Fig. 273.
This system requires slightly more material and
trouble in erecting the trellis, but the results secured have
been unexcelled by those of any other system, especially
in the case of strong-growing vines, while even with weak
growers, like Delaware, the results have been highly
satisfactory.
Among the advantages of this method is the favor-
able position of the fruit, which cannot be soiled by spat-
tering of mud in heavy rains. The grapes are overhung
by a leafy canopy which protects them from the hot sun,
while a free circulation of air is secured, and they are
conveniently placed for spraying and gathering. A minor
advantage, appreciated in a private garden, is the facility
it affords for passing from one row to another by slightly
stooping and walking under the wires. The elevated
position of the wires and vines also greatly adds to the
ease of cultivating the entire ground beneath.
226. Kniffin modifications and other systems. — F. F.
Gladwin* discusses several modifications of the Kniffin
system and other systems more or less prominent in the
east and in growing varieties in which Labrusca "blood"
plays an important part. His descriptions, slightly con-
densed, follow (227-237).
227. The two-stem four-cane Kniffin system is very
similar to the one described above, the only difference
being that two permanent trunks are brought up
from the ground, one to the -height of the lower wire,
where two canes are developed from spurs on one stem,
and tied to the wire as before ; the other stem is carried
to the top wire and two canes are developed from it.
Some vineyards tie the two stems together to make them
stiffen In using this method, the canes from each stem
may have the same number of buds, each stern being con-
vidcred as a distinct vine.
* New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 16.
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
321
228. The Y-stem Kniffin system differs from the above
in that instead of the two stems being brought up from
the ground, one is taken from the other at a distance a
little below the lower wire, carried to the top wire and
there tied. The number of canes and the subsequent
treatment are the same as in the others so far described.
229. The umbrella Kniffin system (Fig. 274).— The chief
differences between this and the true Kniffin system are
the use of two instead of four canes, and the somewhat
changed position. Two canes of eight to twenty buds are
developed from spurs on the trunk at the top wire. These
are tied to
right and left
along this
wire, then
bent down to
the lower wire
and secured.
The canes are
renewed
yearly from
spurs.
230. The one-wire Kniffin system or low Kniffin system
is a modification of the umbrella, but differs in that the
trellis has only one wire three to four feet above the
ground. The single stem extends up to the wire, where
two canes of ten to twelve buds extend to right and left.
The renewal each year, like all the others so far discussed,
is from spurs. High quality of fruit and cheapness of
trellis commend this system.
Other modifications of the drooping type of training
for one reason or another have been dropped in com-
mercial vineyards. The more common are the six or
eight-cane Kniffin in which three and four wires are re-
quired respectively, making an expensive trellis nec-
essarv.
FIG. 274— PRUNED AND UNPRUNED VINE, "UM-
BRELLA" KNIFFIN SYSTEM
FIG. 275— VARIOUS METHODS OF VINE PRUNING POPULAR IN NEW YORK
/, High renewal system at end of season's growth; la, vine trimmed and tied
following spring; 2, Keuka Lake system, ten-year vine, pruned, not tied; 2 a, stripped
for tying; 2 b, tied; 3, horizontal arm spur system, end of season's growth;
3 a, after trimming.
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 323
231. The upright type of training carries two or
more canes or arms along a horizontal wire or obliquely
across the wires. The two methods of renewing in this
type naturally divide into two groups, namely "high re-
newal," or "cane renewal," and "spur renewal."
232. The high renewal system is popular in many grape-
growing sections, there being much to commend it. The
trellis is made with two, three or more wires, usually
three. The lower wire is placed 18 to 30 inches above
ground, while the second and third are from 18 to 20
inches apart, respectively. The main trunk or stem of
the vine is carried up to or just below the first wire, and
two canes, each bearing from 6 to 10 buds, are taken off,
preferably a little below the level of the wire. One is tied
to the right and the other to the left. The bearing shoots
that grow from the buds on these canes are tied to the
second wire when they have reached a sufficient length
and to the third as soon as growth will permit. When
they reach above the upper wire, they may be pinched
back or cut off.
The beginning of the next year should see the vine
again cut back to two canes that have grown from spurs
or canes of the previous year, this cutting being as close
to the head of the vine as possible. Near the base of each
of these canes, but upon older wood at the head of the
stem, short spurs carrying two or three buds are main-
tained. From these spurs shoots develop and in turn are
used to furnish the fruiting canes of the following year.
Thus, the spurs are the means of renewing the fruiting
wood. From the above, it will be seen that the amount
of old wood retained is reduced to a minimum, while the
labor of tying is greatly increased.
233. The Keuka system (Fig. 275-2) practiced in the
Keuka Lake, New York, district, appears as a modification
of the high renewal, but as there are some differences a de-
scription is warranted. The first year after setting, the vines
are allowed to grow at random on the ground. At the
324 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
beginning of the second year they are pruned back to
two buds. If the vine is a strong grower, it is tied this
season to the lower wire of the trellis, which is from 18
to 20 inches above ground. The beginning of the third
year finds the vines cut back to a stem or trunk 10 to 20
inches high, tied to the lower wire. The fourth year the
vine consists of the short stem and two or three canes,
each of 5 to 8 buds, laid along the lower wire and tied.
The shoots from these are carried perpendicularly to the
second and third wires, which are about 20 inches apart,
as fast as growth will permit.
The following year all the wood is cut away except two
or three canes that have grown from the buds nearest the
head of the trunk. These canes have five to eight buds.
The number retained after each pruning depends upon
the variety and the vigor of the vine. If two canes are left
they are tied to right and left along the lower wire ; if
three, the third is carried to the second wire and tied.
As there is a tendency for long spurs to result from the
repeated renewals secured in this manner, frequently
buds from the head of the stem are allowed to develop
and fruiting wood secured from them. Thus the fruiting
wood arises from near the head of the trunk, and as this
is usually short almost the entire vine is renewed an-
nually. When the trunk approaches the end of its use-
fulness a shoot is allowed to grow from the ground to
develop into a new trunk, the old one being cut away.
The advantages claimed for this method of training are
the low head, the reduction of the old wood to a minimum
and the case of getting a complete renewal.
234. The spur renewal or horizontal arm spur system.
(Fig. 276.) The trellis for this system is practically the same
as for the high renewal. Two canes are placed right and
left of the trunk, which has been brought to the height of
the lower wire or just below. The number of buds left
on each cane will depend upon the vigor of the vine and
the availability of the space between the adjoining vines.
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
325
These canes are to become permanent arms, doing service
for several years. The shoots that develop from buds on
these canes the present year are cut back to two buds
in fall or winter. Two shoots are allowed to grow from
each of these spurs and tied to the upper wires.
In the fall the cane developed from the upper bud of
the spur is cut entirely away, and the other cane cut to
two buds as before. Then at the beginning of the next
season there are, as in the previous year, two shoots
springing from
a spur on a per-
manent arm.
The spurs will
lengthen fast
and become
crooked, hence
it is the best
practice to cut
them away en-
tirely every -few
years and grow
others from
shoots that
arise from the
arms. The spurs may be distributed from 5 to 20 inches
apart on the arms.
235. The spur renewal or Chautauqua system is a modi-
fication of the horizontal arm spur system just described.
Permanent arms are used to support the canes, which
are tied yearly to a two or three-wire trellis. These canes
may be tied obliquely or perpendicularly. If two wires
are used, they are usually 34 inches apart, if three, about
20 inches apart. The canes for tying up the following
year either develop directly from the old wood of the
arms, from spurs on the arms, or from the base buds
of the past season's canes. This system has a strong
hold upon the vineyardists of Chautauqua County, New
FIG. 276— VINE IN
ACCORDING TO
NEWAL SYSTEM.
ITS FOURTH YEAR. PRUNED
HORIZONTAL-ARM SPUR RE-
326
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
York, as the principal grape, the Concord, adapts itself
fairly well to it. The old arms should be renewed at
frequent intervals in order to use it to the best advantage,
as in time they become crooked, gnarled and the extremi-
ties often a great distance from the head of the vine.
236. The fan system, while still used in certain localities,
is not nearly so popular as formerly. Here the re.iewals
are made yearly from spurs near the ground, retain-
ing very little old wood. One serious objection to the
system is the tendency of the spurs to be lengthened,
becoming crooked and reaching in some instances to
midway between the first and second wires. The shoots
are tied to the wires in the direction they naturally as-
sume, vertically, horizontally or obliquely across the
wire. In regions where grapes are grown for home use
FIG. 277— HUDSON HORIZONTAL SYSTEM. VINE OF VARIOUS AGES
A, pruned vine in third year; B, pruned vine in fourth year; C, unpruned vine
in fourth year.
and the climate necessitates winter protection, this sys-
tem is used to advantage.
237. The horizontal type is little used at present, as
the cost of the trellis and the labor of tying render it
prohibitive. One cane arising from a trunk 1 to 2 feet
high is left after each pruning. This is carried perpen-
dicularly to the top wire and the shoots arising therefrom
are tied to slats or wires extending vertically from the
lower to the upper wire of the trellis. The one advantage
of the system is the ease of control for varieties that are
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
327
likely to overbear or are already weakened and require
careful nursing to bring them back.
238. The horizontal-arm spur system (Fig. 275) has a
permanent arm on each side of the vine head at the lower
wire to which each is tied. Annually each cane produced
from these arms is cut back to a spur with two well-
formed buds, the number of spurs depending upon the
variety, the age of the vine, etc. The bearing shoots are
tied to the upper wire. When spurs become weak or
gnarly, they are replaced by new shoots made to start
from a node on the horizontal arm. When an arm be-
FIG. 278--CAYWOOD SYSTEM OF GRAPE TRAINING
A) pruned vine; B, one unpruned. Compare with Munson system Figs. 271 to 273.
gins to fail a new one is developed from the head. Prun-
ing and training are otherwise the same as in the upright
or high renewal system. While this system produces
more fruit with certain varieties, it is open to the objec-
tions that pruning is more costly and tedious, and more
old wood is left than is usually considered desirable.
239. The Hudson horizontal system (Fig.277), popular
318
PRINCIPLES AND PRA( TICK OF PRUNING
ibi the Hudson Valley, employs two wires, a stout stake
which reaches above the top wire, and is driven in the
ground behind each vine, and four vertical slats to each
vl ne fastened a foot or so apart to the wires, but not reach-
ing" the ground. Some growers use narrow woven wire
fencing of large mesh. The vine trunk is about a foot high.
One cane and a spur are left at pruning time, the former
to renew the bearing part. The new shoot from the spur
i-i tied to the stake. It is cut long enough at pruning time
FIG. 279
PJRRALES SYSTEM OF TRAINING VINES. NOTE ARRANGEMENT OF WIRES
t'O reach the top of the stake, to which, or to the wires,
or both, it may be tied. Each cane is counted upon to
bear a dozen shoots, six on each side. These are trained
horizontally and fastened to the slats. Summer pruning
is done when the shoots threaten to become too long.
Growers claim that this system favors uniform distribu-
tion of the bearing wood and that the fruit is both well
supported and shaded.
240. The overhead Caywood system (Fig. 278) has no
•.dvantagcs over the Munson system, of which it is appar-
ently a modification. In it the three horizontal wires.
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
329
stretched at equal height, are 6 feet above ground. The
center wires are stapled to the posts, the other two to 3-foot
wooden crosspieces. In pruning, the vines are cut back to
five spurs and five canes, the latter fastened to the wires
three to right of the head and two to the left one year, the
division being reversed the next year. Except when cur-
rants, gooseberries or plants of similar growth and habit
are grown beneath the trellises (a popular method in the
Hudson Valley), this system seems to have little to com-
mend it above the Mun-
son system in its modern
form (Figs. 271 to 273).
241. The Parrales or
overhead trellis used in
training certain Almerian
varieties is virtually
identical with the style
used in growing mus-
cadines in America (243).
From the head 10 or 15
canes each 1 to 6 feet
long, depending on the
vigor of the vine, are ex-
tended in various direc-
tions. Annually these canes are renewed as near as pos-
sible to the main trunk. Spurs are left each year to
provide for this renewal.
242. The overhead arbor or multiple cross wire system
(Fig. 280) is popularly employed in growing the muscadine
varieties (243), which are usually set 20x20, 10x20 or 15x15
feet apart. The posts, one to each vine, are very stout and
long enough to extend 7 feet above ground. At the ends
of the vine rows on each side of the plantation, well-
braced posts are set. From them No. 10 galvanized wires
are passed over the tops of the vine posts to which they
are stapled. Other wires of smaller size (No. 14) and
2 feet apart run parallel with each set of main wires, thus
FIG. 280 — MUSCADINE (ROTUNDI-
FOLIA) GRAPEVINE, SHOWING ITS
SHALLOW SPREADING ROOT SYS-
TEM AND A POPULAR METHOD OF
TRAINING THE TOP.
330 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
forming squares. Generally only one trunk is grown
beside and to the top of each post, to which it may be
fastened at various points. At the top it is pinched to
develop side shoots for covering the arbor. The shoots
are trained out in various directions so as to distribute
them evenly over the wires.
243. The muscadine grapes, popular in southern gar-
dens, but only recently becoming known commercially.
FIG. 281— CROSS-WIRE SYSTEM SHOWING PRUNED VINE
are rarely pruned because pruning is supposed to injure
the vines. This is an error; for if pruned at the proper
season — October or November — thev will not be hurt,
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 331
but benefited. If pruned later — December to February—
they bleed moreor lesscopiouslyas spring opensandmake
poorer growth the season following (15). After young
vines have made growths of, say, 6 inches in spring, they
may be pruned without serious damage, but large vines
pruned then will bleed badly. Vines pruned later may
be a week or two later in producing their shoots than un-
pruned vines or vines pruned at the proper time (215).
Methods of pruning used upon Labrusca varieties may
be employed with this group of varieties, but the musca-
dines are generally grown upon arbors (Fig. 280).
244. The cross-wire system, used near Marlboro, N. Y.,
has posts 8 feet apart each way 6l/2 feet above ground and
surmounted by two wires crossing at right angles. The
vines are trained to the posts as single trunks and made
to develop four arms, each of which extends along a wire
(Fig. 281). Annually these canes are renewed.
245. The umbrella system, sometimes used on hillsides
and uneven ground where a trellis would be difficult to
construct, consists of a post with two cross arms at right
angles at the top (Fig. 261). The vines reach the cross
during the second year. From the vine head arms and
canes are developed as in the cross wire system (244).
Pruning consists in cutting back the vines to the re-
quisite number of buds indicated by the strength of the
vine. The posts are usually 4 to 5 feet above ground.
246. Calif ornian systems* of vine pruning may be divided in'o
two classes according to the arrangement of the arms on the trunk
of the vine. In the commonest systems, there is a definite head to
the trunk, from which all the arms arise symmetrically at nearly
the same level. The vines of these systems may be called "hea^e'l
vines." In the other systems, the trunk is elongated 4 to 8 feet .'in 1
the arms are distributed regularly along the whole or the greater
portion of its length. The vines of these systems, owing to the rope-
like form of the trunks, are called "cordons."
The headed vines are divided according to the length of the ver-
tical trunk into high, 2-3 feet, medium, \l/2 feet, and low, 0-6 inches.
The cordons may be vertical or horizontal, according to the direction
* Paragraphs 246 to 263 have been condensed from F. T. Bioletti's Bulletin 246
of the California Experiment Station.
332 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
of the trunk, which is from 4 to 8 feet long. The horizontal cordons
may be single or composed of two branches extending in opposite
directions. Double and even multiple vertical cordons occur, but
they are very inadvisable and have no advantages.
The arrangement of the arms of a headed vine may be sym-
metrical in all directions at an angle of about 45 degrees. Such a
vine is said to be "vase-formed," though the hollow center which this
term implies is not essential. This is the form used in the great
majority of California vineyards. It is suitable for the "square"
system of planting and cross cultivation. Where vines are planted
in "avenues," particularly when trellised and where cross cultivation
is impossible, the arms are given a "fan-shaped" arrangement in a
vertical plane, to facilitate working of trellised vines.
On the vertical or upright cordon, the arms are arranged at as
regular intervals as possible on all sides of the trunk from the top
to within 12 or 15 inches of the bottom. On the horizontal cordon
they are arranged similarly, but as nearly as possible on the upper
side of the trunk only.
Each of these systems may again be divided into two sub-systems,
according to the management 6f the annual growth or canes. In
one, called short or spur pruning, spurs oj one to three eyes are
left for fruit production. In the other, called long or cane pruning,
long canes are left. In rare cases an intermediate form is adopted
in which long spurs or short canes of five or six eyes are left. In
cane pruning and half-long pruning each fruit cane is accompanied
by one or two short renewal spurs. Systems of pruning, where only
long canes are left without renewal spurs, are not in use in Cali-
fornia. In all systems, replacing spurs are left wherever and when-
ever needed.
Other modifications are introduced by the manner of disposal of
the fruit canes which may be tied up vertically or bowed in a circle
and tied to a stake driven at the foot of each vine, or they may be
tied laterally to wires stretching along the rows in a horizontal,
ascending or descending direction.
Figure 290 b, representing a headed, vase-formed vine, with a
medium trunk and short fruit spurs, is the most common system used
in California. It is suited for all small growing vines which bear on
the lower buds, for most wine grapes and for muscats. The unit of
pruning in this case is a fruit spur of 1 to 3 internodes, according
to the vigor of the variety and of the individual cane.
Figure 290 a differs from b only in the higher trunk and the longer
arms. It is commonly used for Tokay and other large growing
varieties, especially in rich soil and when planted far apart.
Figure 290 c has the same form of body as a and b, except that the
arms are somewhat less numerous. The unit of pruning is a short
fruit cane of four to five internodes, accompanied by a renewal spur
of one internode. It is suited for vigorous table grapes, especially
for Cornichon and Malaga in rich soil, which do not bear well <m
short spurs. This is a difficult system to keep in good shape owing
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
'663
to the tendency for all the vigor to go to the ends of the fruit canes.
It is difficult to obtain vigorous canes on the renewal spurs. Oc-
casional short pruning is usually necessary to keep the vines in
proper shape.
Figure 290 a is similar to c in form, but the number of arms is still
further reduced to 2, 3, or at most 4. The unit of pruning is a fruit
cane of 2l/2 to 3l/2 feet with its renewal spur. Owing to their length*
the fruit canes require support and are tied to a high stake.
This method is used in a large number of Sultanina and Sultana
vineyards and for certain wine grapes, especially Semillon and
Cabernet. It is not to be recommended in any case, as it has several
very serious defects.
The difficulty of obtaining new wood from the renewal spurs is
even greater than in the system shown in Figure 290 c. The length and
vertical position of the fruit canes cause the main growth and vigor
of the vine to be expended on the highest shoots (73). The renewal
spurs are thus so shaded that, even though their buds start, the
shoots make but a weak
growth. The result is
that at the following
pruning all the good
new wood is at the top
of the fruit canes of
the previous year,
where it cannot be uti-
lized. The pruner has
to choose then between
reverting to spur prun-
ing, thus getting no
crop, or using the
weak growth from the
renewal spurs for fruit
canes; In this case he
may get blossoms but
little or no fruit of any
value.
Other defects of this
method are that the
fruiting shoots are ex-
cessively vigorous and
therefore often tend to
drop their blossoms
without setting and the
fruit when produced is
massed together so it
ripens unevenly and is
difficult to gather. It
also requires a tall and
expensive stake.
:IG. 282— SULTANINA VINE SHOWING EFFECT
OF TYING FRUIT CANES IN VERTICAL
POSITION
S, suckers and water sprouts; F, strong fruit
wood; /, weak fruit wood; C, previous year's fruit
canes which have borne a crop.
334 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
Figure 290 b, an improvement on the last system, differs only in the
method of treating the fruit canes. These are bent over in the
form of a circle and tied by their middle part to a stake which may
be smaller and lower than that needed for the vertical canes. This
bowing of the canes has several useful effects. The change of di-
rection moderates the tendency of the vigor of the vine to expend
jtself only on the terminal shoots. More shoots therefore are formed
on the fruit canes and as their vigor is somewhat decreased they
tend to be more fruitful. The slight mechanical injury caused by
the bending operates in the same direction (104).
The excess of vigor thus being diverted from the fruit canes
causes the renewal spurs to form vigorous shoots, which soon grow
above the fruit shoots and obtain the light and air they need for
their proper development. This method is used successfully for
certain wine grapes such as Riesling, Cabernet and Semillon. It is
unsuited to large, vigorous varieties or for vines on rich soil planted
wide apart. In these cases two fruit canes are usually insufficient
and, if more are used, the grapes and leaves are so massed together
that they are subject to mildew and do not ripen evenly or well.
The bowing and tying of the canes require much skill and care.
The body, arms and annual pruning of the system shown in
Fig. 265 are similar to those of Fig. 288, with the exception that the
arms are given a fan-shaped arrangement in one plane. It differs
in the disposal of the fruit canes, which are supported by a trellis
stretching along the row from vine to vine. This method, largely
used for the Sultanina (Thompson's Seedless), is the best system
for vigorous vines which require long pruning, wherever it is pos-
sible to dispense with cross cultivation. It is also suitable for any
long-pruned varieties when growing in very fertile soil.
The vertical cordon system consists of an upright trunk 4^ feet
high with short arms and fruit spurs scattered evenly and sym-
metrically from the top to within 15 inches of the bottom. This
system is used in many Emperor vineyards in the San Joaquin
valley. Its advantages are that it allows the large development of
the vine and the large number of spurs which the vigor of the Em-
peror demands, without either crowding the fruit by the proximity
of the spurs or spreading the vine so much that cultivation is in-
terfered with. It also permits cross cultivation.
One of its defects is that the fruit is subjected to various degrees
of temperature and shading in different parts of the vine and the
ripening and coloring are often uneven. A more vital defect is that
it cannot be maintained permanently. The arms and spurs at the
top of the trunk tend to absorb the energies of the vine and the
lower arms and spurs become weaker each year until finally no
growth at all is obtained below. After several years, most of the
vines therefore lose their character of cordons and become simply
headed vines with abnormally long trunks.
The cordon can be re-established in this case by allowing a vigor-
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 335
•ous sucker from which to develop one year to form a new trunk
the next. The following year the old trunk must be removed en-
tirely. An objection to this method is that it makes very large
wounds in the most vital part of the vine — the base of the trunk.
The unilateral, horizontal cordon system consists of a trunk about
7 feet long, supported horizontally by a wire 2 feet from the
ground. Arms and spurs are arranged along the whole horizontal
part of the trunk. This system accomplishes the same objects as
the vertical cordon. It allows a large development of the vine and
numerous fruit spurs without crowding. It is superior to the vertical
cordon in the distribution of the fruit, which is all exposed to ap-
proximately the same conditions owing to the uniform distance of
the fruit spurs from the ground. All parts of the trunk producing
an annual growth of wood and fruit are equally exposed to light, and
the tendency of the growth to occur principally at the part of the
trunk farthest removed from the root is counteracted by the hori-
zontal position. There is not the same difficulty therefore in main-
taining this form of vine permanently there is with vertical cordons.
The system should not be used for small weak vines, whether
the weakness is a characteristic of the variety or due to the nature
of the soil. It is suited to only very vigorous varieties such as
Emperor, Almeria and the Persian grapes when growing far apart
in rich, moist soil.
246a. Periods of development.— The first period of development,
which lasts one or two years, is devoted to developing a vigorous
root system; the next two or three years to building up a shapely
trunk and head, and a like period to forming the full complement
of arms. At the end of five to nine years the framework of the
vine is complete and should undergo no particular change of shape
except a gradual thickening of trunk and arms.
There are, therefore, several periods in the life of the vine with
varying objects, and the methods of pruning must vary accordingly.
These periods do not correspond exactly to periods of time, so it
may be misleading to speak of pruning a two-year-old or a three-
year-old vine. One vine under certain conditions will reach the
same stage of development in two years that another will reach only
in three or four under other conditions. Under exceptionally fa-
vorable conditions the first and second periods may be included in
the first year and a completely formed vine may be obtained in five
years.
247. At planting time.— Whether cuttings, one-year-old rooted
'ines, or bench grafts are used, the vines need attention. The
isual way to prune a good, rooted vine of average size with a single
•ane at the top and several good roots at the bottom is to shorten
the cane to one or two buds and the roots to 2 or 4 inches, accord-
ing to their size. Shortening the cane makes the vine less liable to
Iry out before -rooting and forces the growth from the lower buds,
produce more vigorous shoots. The roots are shortened
336
PRINCIPLES A XI) PRACTICE OF PRUNLNG
(Fig. 283) so there will be no danger of the ends being turned up-
wards when planted. If they are to be planted in a large hole they
may be left as long as 5 or 6 inches; if to be
planted with a crowbar or a dibble, they must
be cut back to M> inch.
There is little if any advantage in leaving
long pieces of roots. They are not feeding
roots and are of no use to the vine until they
develop feeding rootlets. This they will do
as well if shortened as if left of full length,
often better. The main advantage of a rooted
vine over a cutting is that it forms rootlets
more easily and rapidly. There may be a
slight advantage in leaving 3 or 4 inches of
the sound well-grown roots, as the reserve
matters they contain probably promote a bet-
ter growth of rootlets, but little or no differ-
ence has been noted between the growth of
vines of which the roots have been shortened
to l/2 inch and those which have been left
longer. Where the roots are left long, more-
over, more care and time are needed in
planting.
If the rooted vine has several canes, all out
one should be removed entirely, and this one
shortened to one or two eyes. The one left
should be that which is strongest, has the best
buds, and is the best placed. Where a hori-
zontal cane is left, it should be cut back to the
base bud. Otherwise the main growth may occur
at a higher bud and the vine will have a crook
which will result in a badly formed trunk.
If equally vigorous canes are growing from
different joints it is usually best to leave tin-
lower cane. This brings the buds from which
growth will come nearer to the roots, and
leaves less of the original cutting. The upper
joint between the canes is, moreover, often
more or less decayed or imperfect.
248. Planting. — Cuttings differ only in length ; the shortest.
10 inches, are best suited to the nursery, those 12 to 14 inches t«>
the field, the longest 16 to 18 inches in only the driest soils. Always
they are cut just below a bud to facilitate healing and root forma-
tion. The top may be cut just above a bud so as to leave the pro
tecting diaphragm or about 1 inch of internode. Cuttings are
planted with the second bud at the level of the ground, leaving only
one bud above. Rooted vines are planted with the two buds just
FIG. 283 — ROOTED
VINE PRUNED
This is a bench-
grafted vine in which
SS shows a sucker
from the stock; U, the
point of union of stock
and cion, and CR the
cion root. The dotted
line at the bottom in-
dicates where the roots
should be pruned.
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 337
above the surface. Bench grafts are planted with the union 1 inch
above the surface. In the last case the soil must be hilled up so as
to cover the union.
249. First growing season.— The treatment during the first spring
and summer will depend on what growth the vines are expected to
make and on whether or not the vines are staked the first year.
With cuttings and with both rooted vines and grafts where the
growt.h will be moderate, staking the first year is unnecessary,
though it has some slight advantages. In these cases, no pruning of
any kind is necessary until the winter following the planting, ex-
cept in the case of bench grafts, in which case the removal of the
suckers from the stock and roots from the cion is essential. If the
stocks have been well disbudded by the nurseryman, few suckers
will develop. In moist soil, the cion roots may develop vigorously
and must be removed before they grow too large, or they may pre-
vent the proper development of the resistant roots.
The removal of roots should usually be done some time in July.
For this purpose the hill of soil is scraped away from the union and
after the cion roots and suckers are removed it is replaced. In this
second hilling up, the union should be barely covered so the soil
around the union will be dry and unfavorable to a second
growth of roots. Later in the season, about September, the soil
should be removed entirely from around the union and any new
roots that may have formed removed. The union is then left ex-
posed to harden and mature, so it will pass the winter without injury.
If the main shoot is kept upright it will be easy to produce a well-
formed vine. In many cases no disbudding, thinning of shoots, or
topping need be done. The object is to have as abundant a growth
of foliage as possible in order to stimulate a vigorous and abundant
root development (21?,, a). In other cases, where very good,
rooted vines of vigorous varieties are planted in rich soil abundantly
supplied with water, it is desirable to disbud the vine early in order
to throw all its energies into the single main cane. In such cases
staking before or just after planting is necessary, and methods
similar to those described for the second season are used.
250. First winter pruning.— At the end of the first growing season,
an average good vine will have produced from three to five canes,
the longest of which will be 2 to 3 feet long. Soon after the leaves
have fallen in December or early in January the vines should be
pruned. The method is precisely similar to that used for rooted
vines before planting except that the main roots are not touched.
All the canes except one are removed. This one should be well
matured, at least at the base, and should have welt-formed eyes
only, two eyes of which are saved. It is well also to cut off all
shallow roots within 3 or 4 inches of the surface. This is nec-
essary in the case of grafted vines if any have escaped the summer
root-cutting. Some vines which may have made an exceptionally
large growth may sometimes possess a cane large enough from
338
PRINCIPLES AND 1'KACTICK OK
which to start the trunk in the way described later for the second
winter pruning.
251. Staking. — If the vines have not been staked before, the stakes
should be driven soon after pruning and before the starting of the
buds. In order -to preserve the alignment of the vineyard, they
should be driven on the same side of every vine at a uniform dis-
tance of about 2 inches. If driven closer they may injure large roots
or even the main underground stem if the vines have not been care-
fully planted vertically or slanting toward the side on which the
stake is to be placed.
The position of the stake should always be the leeward of pre-
vailing winds during the growing season. That is, the stake should
be so placed that the wind will press the vine toward it instead of
FIG. 284— TREATMENT OF AN AVERAGE VINE DURING SECOND SEASON
a, Winter pruning; b, spring pruning — removal of suckers (S) and thinning of
shoots (W) ; c, summer treatment — tying to stake and topping.
away from it. This will facilitate the work of keeping the vine
upright and attached to the stake. If the vine is on the other side
the pressure of the wind will stretch the string tight and the sway-
ing of the vine will gradually wear it until it breaks, necessitating
retying. By carefully observing this rule, very few vines will re-
quire retying even if weak material like binding twine is used.
252. Second summer pruning.— Before the starting of the buds, in
the spring following the planting, most of the vines appear about
the same as when they were planted. There is, however, a very
notable difference; they have well-developed root systems in the
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 339
soil where they were formed. The result is they make a much more
prompt and early start and will produce a much larger growth than
the first season. Hence they require very careful attention from the
pruner during the spring and summer of the second season. Vines
neglected at this time, in this respect, may make as large a growth,
but a large part of it will be wasted, the vines will be misformed
and it will require one to two years longer to develop a suitable
framework and to bring them into bearing, even though they are
properly handled during subsequent years. The more vigorous the
vines, the more necessary it is to handle them properly during this
period.
The main object during this second growing season is to develop
a single, strong, vigorous and well-ripened cane from which to form
the permanent trunk of the vine. This is done by concentrating all
the energies of the vine into the growth of a single shoot. As soon
as the buds start, or when the most precocious has developed a shoot
of a few inches, the vines should be disbudded. This consists in
rubbing off with the hand all buds and shoots except the two largest
and best placed. The lowest upright shoots are usually the best.
Leave only those which will make a straight vine. It is better to
leave less-developed buds than a shoot which, when it grows, will
make an awkward crook with the underground stem.
After this disbudding, the two shoots left will grow rapidly, as
they receive all the energies of the root system. When the longest
have grown 10 to 15 inches, they should be tied to the stake. Un-
less this is done, they are likely to be broken off by any heavy wind,
owing to their soft, succulent texture. Only the best placed and most
vigorous of the two shoots should be tied up. If this shoot is grow-
ing upright and near the stake, this can be done without any danger
of injuring it. In this case the second shoot should be removed. If
the shoot has to be bent over in tying it to the stake it may be in-
jured. In such a case the second shoot should be allowed to grow
until it is known whether the first has been injured. In case of
injury the second shoot may be tied up the next time the vines are
visited and the injured shoot removed.
At the tying up of the reserved shoots, all new shoots which have
developed since the first disbudding should be removed. As they
are soft and easily injured the shoots should be tied up loosely
after being brought around carefully to the windward side of the
stake.
They will require tying once more when they have grown an-
other foot or 18 inches. There will then be two ties, one at 2 or 3
inches from the top of the stake and the other at about the middle.
If the vines have a tall stake and are to be headed very high, an-
other tying higher up may be needed later.
With vines making only a moderate growth, no other pruning
will be needed until the winter. Exceptionally vigorous vines, how-
ever, may make a cane 8, 10 or more feet long. Such a cane is
heavy and is very likely to break the cords by which it is attached
340
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
to the stake. Tn this case it may break off at the hottom, or at least
will form an awkward crook near the ground when it matures. In
either case it is difficult to form a good trunk the following year.
Even when the ties do not break, the cane will not be well suited
for the commencement of a trunk, as the joints will be so long that
it will be impossible to leave enough well-placed buds at the winter
pruning.
Both these difficulties are avoided by timelv topping. When such
vigorously growing canes have grown 12 or 18 inches above the top
of the stake they are cut back about level with the stake. This is
most conveniently done with a long-bladed knife or a piece of split
bamboo. After topping, the cane ceases to grow in length and
laterals start at most of the joints. It is less
exposed to the action of the wind and the laterals
supply the buds needed for forming the vine at
the winter pruning.
The result of the second season's growth,
then, is to produce a single vigorous cane
with or without laterals. This is the cane which
is to develop into the permanent trunk of the
vine. It must not only be large and vigorous,
but must be properly matured. If the vine is
allowed to grow too late in the season, an early
frost may destroy the unmatured cane and much
of the results of the year's growth will be wasted.
Such a frost may indeed kill the entire vine.
Grafted vines are particularly liable to injury
from this cause, as if they are killed down to the
union they are completely ruined. Un^rafted
vines when killed to the ground may be renewed
from a sucker next year. This sucker, however,
is likely to grow with such vigor that it is even
more liable to injury from an autumn frost than
the original shoot.
This late growth is much more likely to occur
with young vines than with old. The old vines
stop growing earlier because their energies are
directed into the crop, and as they produce a
larger amount of foliage they draw more upon
the moisture of the soil, which therefore dries
out earlier.
If possible, late growth of the young vines must be prevented
and the wood matured before frost. This is accomplished by means
which promote the drying of the soil in autumn. Late irrigations
should be avoided. Cultivation should usually stop by midsurmrer.
In very moist, rich soils it is often an advantage to grow corn, sun-
flowers or similar crops between the rows of vines to take off the
surplus moisture. In some cases it is good practice to let the sum-
mer weeds grow for the same purpose.
FIG. 285
GRAPE SPUR
Letters and lines
indicate positions
HI good and bad
cuts (253).
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 34 1
253. Second winter pruning.— With vines which have been treated
as described and to which no accident has happened, the second
winter pruning is very simple. It consists simply in cutting back
the single cane which has been allowed to grow to the height at
which it is desired to head the vine.
In all cases a full internode must be left above the top bud. This
is done by cutting through the first bud above the highest which
it is desired to have grow. This cut is made in such a way as to
destroy the bud (Fig. 285), but to leave the diaphragm intact and
part of the swelling of the node. This upper internode is left partly
to protect the upper bud, but principally to facilitate tying. By
making a half-hitch around this internode, the vine is held very
firmly. If the swelling at the node of the destroyed bud is not left,
many vines will be pulled out of the hitch when they become heas'y
with leaves and supple with the flow of sap in the spring.
In tying the vines, no turns or hitches must be made around any
part except this upper internode. A hitch below the top bud will
result in a crook-necked vine, as the top will bend over in the sum-
mer under the weight of the foliage. A hitch lower down is even
more harmful, as it will girdle and strangle the vine. A second tie
about half way from the upper to the ground is always necessary
to straighten the cane. Even if the cane is straight when pruned,
a second tie is needed to keep it from curving under the pressure
of leaves and wind in the spring. For high-headed vines three ties
are usually necessary.
For the top tie, wire is particularly suitable. It holds better than
twine and does not wear. Even though it is not removed, it does
no harm, as the part around which it is wound does not grow. The
lower ties should be of softer material as wire has a tendency to
cut into the wood. They should be placed so the cane is able to ex-
pand as it grows. With thin and especially with round stakes this
means that the tie must be loose. With large, square stakes there
is usually sufficient room for expansion, even when the twine is
tied tight.
However careful the pruner, many of the vines cannot be pruned
quite so simply as those described. These methods therefore must
often be modified. Some of the vines may not make a sufficient
growth of cane to be tied up in the way indicated. They should be
pruned back again to two buds, as at the previous winter pruning,
and special care taken during the following summer to develop a
good cane on each. Vines in which the development of the tying-up
cane is thus delayed a year will usually make a very vigorous growth
the following summer. They must be topped. The result at the
following winter pruning will be a vigorous cane with laterals,
which should be pruned. All vines which have not made a growth
of well-developed, mature cane of the length desired should be cut
back to two buds. This length will usually be at least twice that of
the desired height of trunk because the upper part of the cane is
usually badly matured and with imperfect buds. It is bad practice
to cut canes to intermediate lengths, as this results usually in crooked
342
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
trunks and inevitably to variations in the height of the heads of
different vines.
If the suckering, disbudding and thinning of shoots have been
neglected, there will be more than one cane on the vine. In this
case all but the strongest and best placed must be removed and this
treated like a single cane. Unfortunately the strongest is often not
the best placed. In fact, if tying up during the summer has been
neglected it is often the worst placed. The more vigorous the vine
the more likely is the position of the canes to be defective. This
is especially true of grafts on old vines, which should be treated like
exceptionally vigorous vines during the second growing season. In
FIG. 286— THREE-YEAR-OLD VINES AFTER PRUNING
a. Average vine with two spurs; b, vigorous vine with three spurs, the lowest to be
removed next season; c, vigorous vine with three spurs.
these cases of neglected vines, the best canes are often lying flat
on the ground. It will require all the ingenuity and skill of the
pruner to get them into a more or less erect position. At best they
will result in crooked, misshapen vines.
By removing the soil from around the base of the vine the cane
can often be raised more easily and the bend will then be at leas
partially in the underground stem, where it is less harmful. In the
worst cases it may be impossible to raise a cane. It is then IH-C
essary to cut all the canes back to the old wood and to develop a
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
343
new cane the next year. Even if the main cane has been tied up,
the removal at the collar of the vine of the other canes, if they are
numerous and large, makes many serious wounds, which in some
cases weaken the vine considerably.
254. Third summer pruning. — During the third season, average
wdl-grown vines will produce their first considerable crop and de-
velop the canes from which will be formed the first arms. During
this spring it will be necessary to sucker and remove low shoots at
least once more. This may be done when the vines are hoed. If
FIG. 287— GRAPEVINES OF VARIOUS AGES
Left, vine in third year pruned by cane system. Middle, vine in fifth year (cane
system). Right, spur, stool or short system; vine in its fifth year.
the vines grow vigorously the shoots should be pinched when they
are 18 to 24 inches long to protect them from the wind.
255. Third winter pruning.— At the end of the third season's
growth the vine should have a straight, well-developed trunk with
near the top several vigorous canes from which to form the arms.
The pruner should leave enough spurs to supply all the fruit buds
the vine can utilize. The number, size and thickness of the canes
show the vigor of the vine. It will depend somewhat on the variety
how many buds should be left. For a variety whose bunches aver-
age one pound, and which produces two bunches to the shoot, 12
344 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
fruit buds should give about 24 pounds, or about seven tons to the
acre, if the vines are planted 12 by 6 feet. The number of spurs
will depend on the length. Six of two buds each will give the re-
quired number, but where the canes are exceptionally vigorous they
should be left a little longer, in which case a smaller number of
spurs will suffice.
When the number and length of the spurs are decided on, the
canes' should be chosen which will leave these spurs in the most
suitable position for forming arms. This position will depend on
whether we want a vase-form or a fan-shaped vine. In the first
case, we choose those which will distribute the spurs most evenly
and symmetrically on all sides, avoiding any which cross or point
downwards ; in the second, only those canes which run in the di-
rection of the trellis, avoiding canes which stick out between the
rows. Downward pointing canes may be used in this case.
It is comparatively easy properly to shape vines which make only
a moderate growth during the first three seasons. On the other
hand, very vigorous vines may finally be brought into practically
perfect shape. The somewhat larger and more numerous wounds
necessary are more easily healed by a vigorous vine.
256. Pruning after the third winter.— For the pruner who under-
stands the pruning of young vines and has brought them to approxi-
mately the desired form, the subsequent winter pruning is very
simple. It involves, however, one new idea — the distinction between
fruit and sterile wood.
Up to the third winter pruning, this distinction is not necessary;
first, because practically all the wood is fruit wood, and second,
because the necessity of forming the vine controls the choice of
wood. From this time on, however, this distinction must be care-
fully made. At each winter pruning spurs of fruit wood must be
left to produce the crop to be expected from the size and vigor of
the vine. Besides these fruit spurs, it may be necessary to leave
spurs of sterile wood to permit of increasing the number of fruit
spurs the following year.
Each winter after the third the same process must be followed.
First, enough fruit spurs, as well placed as possible, must be left
to produce the crop. Second, on most vines, supplementary spurs
of sterile wood must be left to supply more arms where they are
needed, and finally, when the full complement of arms has de-
veloped, to supply new arms to replace those which have become
too long or are otherwise defective.
Sometimes it is difficult to find water sprouts in suitable positions
for replacing spurs. This may be due to_ weakness of the vines,
which are able to develop shoots on only the fruit spurs and have
no surplus vigor to force out dormant buds on the older wood
This difficulty may be met by shorter pruning. If an arm i
long, and at the same time weak, it should be pruned to extra short
spurs. This will tend to force water sprouts to start from the older
wood near the base of the arm. Their absence at the winter prim-
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
345
ing may also be due to the water sprouts having been removed
during the summer. When water sprouts are removed the need of
replacing wood should always be kept in mind, and one vigorous,
well-placed water sprout left near the base of every long arm.
257. Fan-shaped vines.— With headed vines, the treatment up to
the second winter pruning is the same except for the variations in
the height of the head. At the third winter pruning, however, the
formation of the head commences, and the pruner determines
whether it shall be vase-formed or fan-shaped. At the third
winter pruning, the vine should be pruned to two spurs. More
vigorous vines should not be given more spurs, but the spurs
should be made longer,
with four, five, or even
six eyes in some cases.
This is in order to ob-
tain some fruit, which
might not be obtained
from long pruning va-
rieties by leaving many
spurs. With extremely
vigorous vines one fruit
cane may be left at this
pruning. The wires of
the trellis should be put
up this year, if this has
not already been done.
258. Double-h e a d e d
vines. — Some growers
attempt to arrange the
arms of their vines in
two stages, one above
the other, forming
double-headed or two-
crowned vines. The
method is applied to
both vase-formed and
trellised vines. It is open
to the same criticisms as
is the vertical cordon.
The chief of these is that
it cannot be maintained
permanently. The lower
head or ring of arms
finally becomes weak
and fails to produce wood. It is easier to maintain in trellised vine-
yards and has some advantages, the chief of which is that it is
easier to keep the vine in the single plane and to prevent arms getr
ting into the inter-rows.
FIG. 288
FORMS OF GRAPEVINE HEAD TRAINING
a, vertical fruit canes and renewal spurs; bt bowed
canes and renewal spurs
346 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
259. Vertical and bowed canes.— This is a method used commonly
in many vineyards. The unit of pruning is the same as in the
method just described, consisting of a fruit cane and a renewal
spur. The framework of the vine consists of a trunk of medium
height, with a vase-formed head consisting of three or four arms.
The defects of this system have been pointed out (246). In the
hands of skillful pruners it is used with fair success with seedless
Sultanas and with some wine grapes such as Colombar, Semillon,
Cabernet and Reisling. The results with Sultanina are very un-
satisfactory. By this method, on most of the vines, the fruit canes
start from high up near the middle of the stake, and are therefore
too short for the best results. The canes which start from low
down are in most cases suckers, and therefore of little value for
fruit bearing.
Figure 288 b shows a vine with bowed canes. The method of
pruning is exactly the same as in the method just described. The
bowing of the canes, however, overcomes some of the defects of
that method. It is used regularly in many wine grape vineyards
of the cooler regions. It is unsuited for very vigorous vines in
rich soil.
260. Vertical cordons.— In head pruning, the treatment of young
vines up to the second or third winter pruning is identical for all
systems. In cordon pruning the treatment for the first and second
is also the same. That is, the vine is cut back to two buds near the
level ol the ground until a cane sufficiently long to serve for the
formation of the trunk is obtained.
Tn the vertical cordon the trunk is 3 to 4 feet long instead of
1 to 2, as in head pruning. This makes it necessary to have a longer
and more vigorous cane to start with. It may require a year longer
to obtain this. That is to say, at the end of the second season's
growth many vines will not have a single cane sufficiently developed
to give the necessary y/2 feet of well-ripened wood and properly
developed buds. At the second winter pruning, therefore, it will
often be necessary to cut the vine back to two buds, as at the
first winter pruning.
Finally, a cane of the required length will be obtained. The vine
may then be formed as already described for the second winter
pruning of headed vines, except that the cane is left longer. This
cane is then tied to the stake. When s.uch a vine is pruned spurs
are left at intervals along the trunk. Each of these spurs is a fruit
spur and is also the commencement of an arm. The future treatment
of these arms is the same as that of the arms in head pruning.
261. Horizontal cordons.— During the first two or three years,
vines to be given the form of horizontal cordons are treated exactly
as for vertical cordons, that is, they are pruned back to two buds
each winter and the growth forced by disbudding into a single cane
during the summer. As soon as a well-ripened cane of the required
length is obtained, it is tied to a wire stretched horizontally along
the row at from 15 to 24 inches from the ground.
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING
347
For this system of pruning, the rows should be 12 to 14 feet
apart and the vines 6, 7 or 8 feet apart in the rows. As the cordon
or trunk of each vine should reach the next vine, it will have to be
6 to 8 feet long. The best shape is obtained when the trunk is all
formed one year from a single cane. It is necessary, however, some-
times to take two years for the formation of the trunk. In any case,
the cane first tied down should reach at least half way to the next
vine. The following year a new cane from the end of this should
be used to complete the full length of the trunk. In attaching the
cane to the wire, it must be bent over in a gentle curve and care
taken not to break or injure it. Sharp ends should be avoided.
The cane should be placed on top of the wire, not twisted around it.
The end should be tied firmly and the rest of the cane supported by
strings tied loosely in order to avoid girdling when the cane grows.
In the following spring, most of the buds on a good cane will
start. If the cane is short jointed, some of the shoots should be
* b c
FIG. 289— TREATMENT OF AVERAGE VINE IN THIRD SEASON OR VIGOROUS
ONE IN SECOND
a, Vine pruned to one cane and tied to stake; b, removal of suckers (S) and lower
shoots (W) in spring; c, vine in summer at time of pinching.
removed and only those shoots allowed to develop which are con-
veniently situated for permanent arms. If the vines are to be short
pruned, the arms should be developed every 8 to 12 inches from a
few inches beyond the bend to the extreme end. For long pruning,
the arms should be farther apart, 12 to 20 inches. Shoots starting
348 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
from the top of the cane and growing vertically upwards are to be
preferred.
As the shoots develop, the strongest should be pinched repeatedly,
if necessary. This will tend to force the growth of the weaker shoots
and to equalize the vigor of all. At the end of the season, there
should be from 5 to 10 canes growing on each cordon of full length.
These canes are then pruned back to two or three buds, or a little
longer for long-pruned varieties.
During the following spring and summer, the vines should be
carefully suckered and unnecessary water sprouts removed. Any
shoots coming from the lower side of the cordon should be removed
early to strengthen the growth in the shoots on the upper side.
Such vines are apt to become dry or decayed on the upper side. At
the end of the fourth or fifth year from planting at the latest, the
cordon will be fully formed and the final style of pruning may be
applied.
262. Renovation of imperfect or misshapen vines. — The pruner
who with definite ideas properly handles his vines from the begin-
ning can, in most cases, bring them into the required shape with
comparative ease. Often, perhaps usually, he has to deal with vines
which have some more or less serious fault. They^ may be misshapen
owing to defective pruning, or otherwise imperfect owing to me-
chanical injuries, or as the result of frost, fungi, or insect pests. If
the vines are young, the defects can often be overcome and the vine
given a proper form very easily.
As the vines become older, it becomes increasingly difficult to
overcome defects of formation. The disadvantage of a low head
may be in part avoided by gradually lengthening the arms and giving
them a more vertical direction. An ill-formed head may be im-
proved by removing badly placed arms and developing new arms
where needed.
The trunks of many old vines are so defective that little improve-
ment can be obtained by these means. It is possible and occasionally
profitable completely to renew the trunks of such vines. This may
be done by developing a new trunk from a strong cane originating
at or below the surface of the ground and then cutting away the
old trunk.
But this method has the same defect as the grafting of old vines ;
leaves a large wound where the old stump was removed, a w<nm<l
whicti may never heal and which finally allows the entrance of
wood-rot fungi. Such renewed vines, however, may last as long as
if the old decayed trunk had been left, perhaps longer. They will
also be more fruitful and easier to handle properly. The change
may be made without the loss of a crop, as occurs in grafting. If
the stumps are large, the expense of sawing them off is considerable,
263. Choice of a system. — Jn choosing a system, we must considi-r
carefully the characteristics of the particular variety we are growing.
A variety which bears only on the upper buds must be pruned "Ion-."
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING,
349
that is, must be given fruit canes. It should be noted that many
varieties, such as Petite Sirah, which will bear with short pruning
when grafted on resistant roots require fruit canes when growing
on their own roots. In general, grafted vines require shorter prun-
ing than ungrafted. If pruned the same, the grafted vines may
overbear and quickly exhaust themselves. This seems to be the
principal reason for the frequent failure of Muscat vines grafted
on resistant stock. The cultural conditions also affect the vine in
this respect. Vines made vigorous by rich soil, abundant moisture,
and thorough cultivation require longer pruning than weaker vines
of the same variety.
The normal size of the bunch is also of importance. This size
will vary from one-quarter of a pound to two or three pounds. It
is difficult to obtain a full crop from a variety whose bunches are
very small without the use of fruit canes. Spurs will not furnish
enough fruit buds without crowding them inconveniently. On the
other hand, some shipping grapes may bear larger crops when
pruned long, but the bunches and berries may be too small for the
best quality.
The possibilities of development vary much with various varieties.
A Mission or Flame Tokay may be made to cover a quarter of an
FIG. 290— FORMS OF HEAD PRUNING OF GRAPES
a, Spur pruning with high trunk; b, spur pruning with medium trunk; c, half-long
pruning with medium trunk.
acre and develop a trunk 4 or 5 feet in circumference. A Zinfandel
vine under the same conditions would not reach a tenth of this size
in the same time. Vines in a rich valley soil will grow much larger
than on a poor hillside. The size and shape of the trunk must be
modified accordingly and adapted to the available room or number
of vines to the acre.
350 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
The shape must be such as to protect the vine as much as pos-
sible from various unfavorable conditions. A variety like the Carig-
nane, susceptible to oidium, must be pruned so fruit and foliage are
not unduly massed together. Free exposure to light and air is a
great protection in this respect. The same is true for varieties like
the Muscat, which have a tendency to "coulure" if the blossoms are
too moist or shaded. In frosty locations, a high trunk will be a pro-
tection, as the air is always colder close to the ground.
The qualities required in the crop also influence our choice of a
pruning system. Even with wine grapes, perfect ripening and full
flavor are desirable. These are obtained best by having the grapes
at a uniform height from the ground and as near to it as possible.
The same qualities are desirable in raisin grapes, with the addition
of large size of the berries. With shipping grapes, the size and
perfection of the berries and bunches are the most essential char-
acteristics. The vine, therefore, should be so formed that each
bunch hangs clear, free from injurious contact with canes or soil
and equally exposed to light and air.
The maximum returns in crop depend on the early bearing of
young vines, the regularity of bearing of mature vines and the
longevity of the vineyard. These are insured by careful attention
to all the details of pruning, but are possible only when the vines
are given a suitable form.
The running expenses of a vineyard depend in a ja^reat measure on
the style of pruning adopted. Vines of suitable form are cultivated,
pruned and the crop gathered easily and cheaply. This depends also
both on the form of vine adopted and on care in details.
It is impossible, therefore, to state for any particular variety or
any particular location the best style of pruning to be adopted. All
that can be done is to give the general characteristics of the variety
and to indicate how these may be modified by grafting, soil or
climatic or other conditions. The most important characteristics
of the variety in making a choice of a pruning system is whether it
normally or usually requires short, half-long, or long pruning. With
this idea, the principal grapes grown in California, together with all
those grown at the experiment station on which data exist, have
been divided into five groups in the following list :
/. Varieties which require long pruning under all conditions. —
Clairette Blanche, Corinth White 'and Black, Seedless Sultana, Sul-
tanina White (Thompson's Seedless) and Rose.
2. Varieties which usually require loin/ pruning. — Bastardo, B««al
de Madeira, Chardonay, Chauche Gris and Noir, Colombar, Crabbe's
Black Burgundy, Durif, Gamais, Kleinberger, Luglienga, Marsannc,
Marzemino, Merlot, Meunier, Muscaclelle de Bordelais, Nebbiok),
Pagadebito, Peverella, Pinots, Rieslings, Robin Noir, Rulander.
Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon, Serine, Petite Sirah, Slancatnenca, Su-in-
schiller, Tinta Cao, Tinta Madeira, Trousseau, Verdelho, TV-tit Vor-
dot, Walchriesling.
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 351
3. Varieties which usually require short pruning. — Aleatico, Ali-
gote, Aspiran, Bakator, Bouschets, Blaue Elbe, Beba, Bonarda, Bar-
barossa, Catarattu, Charbono, Chasselas, Freisa, Frontignan, Fur-
mint, Grand Noir, Grosseblaue, Green Hungarian Malmsey, Mantuo,
Monica, Mission, Moscatello Fino, Mourisco Branco, Mourisco Preto,
Negro Amaro, Palomino, Pedro Zumbon, Perruno, Pizzutello di
Roma, Black Prince, West's White Prolific, Quagliano, Rodites,
Rozaki, Tinta Amarella, Vernaccia Bianca, Vernaccia Sarda.
4. Varieties which require short pruning under all conditions. —
Aramon, Burger Chardonay, Chauche Gris and Noir, Colombar,
Crabbe's Black Burgundy, Durif, Black Morocco, Mourastel, Muscat
of Alexander, Napoleon, Picpoule Blanc and Noir, Flame Tokay,
Ugni Blanc, Verdal, Zinfandel.
5. Varieties of table grapes which usually require half-long or
cordon pruning. — Almeria (Ohanez), Bellino, Bermestia Bianca and
Violacea, Cipro Nero, Dattier de Beirut, Cornichon, Emperor, Black
Ferrara, Malaga, Olivette de Cadenet, Pis-de-Chevre Blanc, Schirad-
zouli, Zabalkanski.
These lists must not be taken as indicating absolutely for all
cases how these varieties are to be pruned. They simply indicate
natural tendencies. Certain methods and conditions tend to make
vines more fruitful. Where these occur, shorter pruning than is
indicated may be advisable. On the other hand, other methods and
conditions tend to make the vines vigorous at the expense of fruit-
fulness. Where these occur, longer pruning may be advisable.
The more usual factors which tend toward fruitfulness are :
Grafting on resistant vines, especially on certain varieties such as
those of Riparia and Berlandieri ; old age of the vines ; mechanical
or other injuries to any part of the vine; large development of the
trunk, as in the cordon systems. The more usual factors which tend
toward 'vigor at the expense of fruitfulness are : Rich soil, especially
large amounts of humus and nitrogen; youth of the vines; excessive
irrigation or rainfall (within limits).
In deciding what system of pruning to adopt, all these factors,
together with the nature of the vine and the uses to which the fruit
is to be put, must be considered. It is best when the vineyard is
started to err on the side of short pruning. While this may diminish
slightly the first one or two crops, the vines will gain in vigor and
the loss will be made up in subsequent crops. If the style of pruning
adopted results in excessive vigor of the vines, it should be gradually
changed in the direction of longer pruning with the object of utiliz-
ing this vigor in the production of crop. This change should be
gradual, or the risk will be run of injuring the vitality of the vines
by one or two excessively heavy crops.
Finally, each year the condition of the individual vine should de-
termine the kind of pruning to be adopted. If the vine appears
weak, from whatever cause, it should be pruned shorter or given
less spurs or fruit canes than the year before. On the contrary, if
352 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
it appears unnecessarily vigorous, more or longer spurs or fruit
canes should be left. Every vine should be judged by itself. It is
not possible to give more than general directions for the pruning of
the whole vineyard. It cannot be well pruned unless the men who
do the actual pruning are capable of using sufficient judgment to
modify their methods properly for each individual vine.
264. Grapes under glass. — Only the European grape is
grown under glass. Two-year-old vines are planted in-
side the houses a foot or two from the outer walls, cut
back to two or three buds and tied to iron brackets at-
tached to the rafters so the trunks will be not less than
a foot from the glass. Only the strongest shoot is al-
lowed to grow. Two systems of pruning are in vogue,
the spur and the long cane or long rod system. The
former is perhaps the more popular.
In the spur system, when the tip reaches the top of
the house it is" pinched. The cane then fills out and
stores food in lateral buds till the winter sets in, when
it is cut back two-thirds and covered on the ground until
spring. Since mice eat the buds they should be kept out
of the house. In the second spring the canes are tied
up and the leader shoot trained to the top of the house
and there pinched. No fruit is allowed to develop on this
shoot. On the older cane each second lateral on each
side is removed so the remaining ones may be a foot or
15 inches apart. This favors even distribution of the
crop from bottom to top.
As a partial crop may be gathered the second season
from the older part of the vine the laterals should carry
not more than one clusterand should bepinched (217.21^
at two nodes beyond the cluster. The sub-laterals should
be pinched when they have developed one or two U a\ es,
Just before winter the terminal shoot should be cut about
half way, the side ones, all but one bud, close to the main
stem (often within the first quarter inch) and the vines
covered as before.
In the third season the pruning and pinching are re-
peated, the laterals being allowed to bear about a pound
GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 353
of grapes to the foot of main cane. After this year the
only pruning is that of the laterals, the main trunk hav-
ing reached the top of the house. Mature vines may bear
two pounds of grapes to the foot, but there is risk of
overdoing this and having the grapes turn sour before
getting ripe. Frequent pinching the laterals and sub-
laterals is essential to success. This work should be done
while the tips are so small that all the pinchings from a
vine could be placed in a lady's watch glass and vet not
fill it!
In the long cane system a new cane is annually de-
veloped from the base of the plant to replace an older
one. Well-established vines may bear fruit from end to
end of this cane its first year, but there is more danger
of breakage than in the spur system. Laterals are
pinched as in the spur system. In late autumn the older
cane may be cut close to the ground if it is thought to
be failing and the new one laid down as already de-
scribed.
CHAPTER XV
PRUNING ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS AND TREES
265. Shade trees — those whose flowers are incon-
spicuous— rarely receive the attention they deserve. They
are planted and left to themselves with the result that
they develop Y-crotches, limbs too near the ground (Fig.
292) or too high up, or too irregular or other faults. The
same principles used to form the heads of fruit trees will
apply with more or less modification to the development
of shade tree heads. The results of neglect apparent on
every hand are especially noticeable when winter storms
load the branches with heavy coatings of ice. One of
these storms recently more or less seriously broke several
score of shade trees, principally Norway maples, on the
campus of the Pennsylvania State College. Several trees
with Y-crotches were thus broken down ; and many
others were cracked so severely that another such storm
will break them because of the activity of decay that has
gained entrance through the cracks then formed or ex-
tended from previous splitting. Figure 94 shows a char-
acteristic view on the campus just after the storm. The
beauty of this tree has been ruined.
Beyond the removal of dead, dying and broken parts
and the occasional shortening of too rampant or too 1<>\\
hanging branches, shade trees properly started demand
very little pruning. The time required to give the tree-
an annual inspection will be well spent, for it should
lead to the adoption of measures that will prevent in-
juries which if incurred might be ineffective and ex
pensive.
266. A good hedge depends for its success upon the
kind of plant, the thickness of the planting, the choice of
form, the regular periodic attention and, to a less extent.
354
PRUNING ORNAMENTAL SIIRUP.S AND TREES 355
the environmental factors, such as soil, climate, etc. Un-
less the plant be adapted to the style of training, unless a
sufficient number of plants be properly set, and unless
the necessary periodic attention be given, the hedge will
be a more or less gruesome eyesore.
There is no use trying to make erect-growing species
of plants develop flat-topped hedges nor in trying to force
plants that normally spread to adopt an erect style of
growth. The rule in all hedge growing should be to ap-
proach as nearly as possible the natural form of the
plant. To the author's way of thinking the hedge that
demands the least pruning attention is the one that will
give most pleasure.
The Japanese barberry is most nearly ideal for a hedge
up to 6 or 8 feet high ; arbor vitae for those 10 to 20 feet ;
and Norway spruce and hemlock for taller ones. When
these are allowed to grow naturally they, none of them,
require more attention than the shortening of occasional,
rampant branches ; but when forced to assume unnatural
forms they give no end of trouble, besides being un-
sightly.
Unless a hedge is kept uniform and even in height,
thickness and development its beauty will be impaired.
To attain this development the plants must be set very
closely and be pruned intelligently several times a year —
once in winter and two or three times during the grow-
ing season. When a definite form is decided upon at the
start, very little pruning must be done at any one time.
The form best adapted to plants of more or less erect
habit is that of an inverted V with perhaps a slight flat-
tening of the apex and a bulging of the sides. The reason
is that such a form permits all of the branches, even the
lowest, an opportunity to secure light, whereas in the in-
verted U and the erect-sided, flat-topped styles the lower
branches become more shaded as the plants grow older.
The result is that the lower limbs of such hedges die and
thus seriously injure the appearance of the whole place.
356 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
No hedge will continue to look well or to thrive on
only one pruning a year, and that in the winter. Shoots
will develop a heavy growth which will give the hedge
a frightened, ragged appearance, and the longer this prac-
tice is followed the worse will be the results and the
harder to make proper correction. In addition to the
winter pruning the new growths should be sheared in
FIG. 291— HORSE CHESTNUT CO-TERMINAL BLOOM BUD EXPANDING
Notice, 1, that the direction of growth has been slightly changed near the base
of the new growth where a scar indicates that a fruit was borne in a previous
season; 2, the annual growth rings at the bottom of the picture; 3, the opposite
leaves and the terminal cluster of bloom buds.
PRUNING ORNAMENTAL SHRUB^ AND TREES
357
summer two or three times whenever their development
seems to demand such attention.
In America hedges are going out of fashion as stock
fences, mainly because they make unnecessary demands
upon the soil and because many of them (osage orange
especially) are breeders of insects injurious to fruit trees.
Where they are still planted for such purposes, the plants
are sometimes pleached while
still pliable so as to make them
more difficult to get through.
To get best results from this
method the plants are set ob-
liquely in the soil and the pri-
mary stems compelled to grow at
this angle — usuallyabout45de-
grees. The new shoots that
develop may then be trained
either at right angles to the
stems which bear them or be
allowed to grow erect — that is,
at right angles to level ground.
In either case the secondary
branches cross the original stems
and form a mesh, more especially
near the bottom, through which
even pigs cannot force their way.
Perhaps the honey locust is the
most popular plant for this kind
of hedge.
267. Ornamental shrubs and trees. — Pruning orna-
mental shrubs and trees for other purposes than to pro-
mote the formation of flower beds may be done at any
time, preferably in early spring or early summer, since
wounds heal better during the growing season than if
made in fall or winter. All that is necessary in pruning
for form is to restrain the too rampant growth of some
parts so as to make the bush symmetrical. Such pruning
FIG. 292— SHADE TREE
HEADED TOO LOW
Each of the three lowest limbs
should be cut, because they will
interfere with traffic later.
358
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
does not imply that the specimen shall be clipped or
sheared into some artificial shape. It means merely keep-
ing the plant within bounds, but allowing it perfect free-
dom within those limits. In all such pruning it must be
remembered that each shrub has its own peculiar beauty
— an individuality which should be retained. No pruning
which destroys this beauty should be practiced, at least
where there is no defi-
nite reason for so doing
— and such cases are
rare.
When it is necessary
to compel the plants to
take fantastic forms, the
young growths must be
sheared several times
during the growing
season, as well as once
during late winter or
early spring, as in the
case of hedges. When
exceptionally good feli-
ne. 293-HUGE WOUND WELL MADE js ^^ ^ ^ n^_
There is no excuse for such enormous f ,
wounds as this. Had the limb been cut off sary to Cllt back the
when the tree was small such a cut could , ,1
have been avoided! The limb was so low annual growths rather
i» interfered with traffic. Hence its removal. ft-^«1,r f/^^rarrl cr»rintr co
The knife shown is 6$4 inches long. Notice treelV toward Spring J
the* sides w°und 's heaHng most rap5dly from as to encourage the for-
mation of wood (83).
When flowers are sought, special note must be made of
the blossom-bearing habit of the plant. A few funda-
mental rules will aid the pruner to make a success of this
kind of work. When sturdy branches are pinched or
clipped back during summer the remaining wood will
ripen much more fully than might be the case if they
were allowed to grow naturally. So the parts should
stand the winter better than if unpruncd. This applies
more especially to semi-hardy and tender trees and
PRUNING ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS AND TREES
359
shrubs. Summer pinching or clipping is of special use
during wet seasons and when the plants are over-supplied
with nitrogenous plant food, both of which tend to pro-
duce lush growths, which continue to develop late in the
season, but do not ripen fully before winter sets in. Such
wood being succulent is sure to be killed during winter.
It also tends to keep the trees and shrubs low-headed
and to develop fruit buds, as already noted.
FIG. 294— HOW TO FORCE PEACH BUDS TO DETERMINE THEIR CONDITION
The twigs are placed in water in a warm room during late winter. Twigs from
trees that had made a large growth one summer because of having been headed
back severely in the spring of the previous year gave only 28.3 per cent of bloom
when forced thus in December, while trees which made a smaller growth (not
headed back) gave 44.3 per cent. This shows that the resting period ends earlier
on trees making smaller growth.
268. When ornamentals form blossom buds. — 'Shrubs
and trees which bloom in the spring develop their flowers
from resting buds formed during the previous summer.
As in the case of fruit trees the buds are protected by va-
rious devices, such as thickened, woolly and waxy bud
scales. The fact that the flowers are in rudimentary
form and are ready to open under favorable conditions
may be proved by placing twigs of "pussy" willow, peach
(Fig. 294), forsythia (Fig. 295) and other very early
360
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF IMU'NIXC
bloomers in water in a warm room during winter. In a
few days to a few weeks the buds will burst into bloom.
The first rule of pruning flowering shrubs and trees is
based on this habit of bloom production. If the branches
are cut back severely in autumn, winter or early spring,
a large proportion of the blossom buds will thus be de-
stroyed. In cases of severest cutting few or no flowers
may be produced,
partly because of
their removal and
partly because the
bush or tree will
make an effort to
develop new wood
(81, 83).
The converse of
this practice is the
cor rect method;
namely, pruning im-
mediately .after the
blossoming s.eason
haspassed. Thus the
new shoots produced
will have thebalance
of the season imvhich
to develop new shoots
largely from buds
near the bases of the
branches, and upon
these shoots abun-
dance, of blossom
buds will form and make a splendid display the following
spring.
Shrubs and trees of the second group — althaea, hy-
drangea, clematis, elder and certain roses — which bloom
in summer and autumn, form their blossom buds on
growths of the present season. Since some of these are
FIG. 295— GOLDEN BELL— FORSYTHIA
One of the earliest spring blooming shrubs.
Note that the branch buds are only just starting.
In some cases they are opposite the flowers, in
others terminal, and in still others opposite each
other near the terminal buds. Several flowers
were cut from each of these twigs so the details
would show in the picture.
FIG. 296— CO-TERMINAL METHOD OF BLOOM BEARING— WEIG ELI A
The over-wintering buds develop short shoots in spring and these bear the blossoms.
Contrast with Judas tree (Fig. 297).
362
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
tender to frost, some pruners leave them untouched until
spring, others give a preliminary pruning in the fall,
protect the plants with mulches and give the final prun-
ing in spring when the winterkilled stubs may be cut off.
This encourages the development of
strong and numerous shoots which bear
abundance of flowers in due season.
To sum up the thought in the pre-
ceding paragraphs, the general rule for
both cases may be expressed in three
words: PRUNE AFTER FLOWER-
ING. This means that, for flowers, the
spring-blooming subjects should be
pruned within a week of the fall of the
blossoms; in the case of the summer
bloomers, that the work may be done
either in the autumn or at latest just
before growth starts in the spring.
Plants properly pruned when trans-
planted, given good soil and sufficient
food to make them grow well, and
ample space in which to develop into
good forms often need some pruning
other than that already described ;
namely, they may need to have their
interiors opened up to admit light and
air. This may usually be done by cut-
ting out old center stems. Of course,
any dead or dying wood should also be
removed as soon as noticed. Except
for such work, little more may be
necessary than the occasional repres-
sion of a rampant growth.
269. Evergreens. — With respect to
evergreens, the one rule to bear in
mind is : Postpone pruning until the
spring, since the danger from drying-
FIG. 297 — RED BUD
Blossom b u d t of
the Judas tree or red
bud (C e r c i s) are
borne almost sessile
on the branches in
spring before the leaf
buds have expanded
to any extent. What
folly to prune any but
dead wood out of such
a tree after midsum-
mer I
PRUNING ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS AND TREES 363
i. at is greater than in the case of deciduous subjects.
March is perhaps the best month in which such pruning
should be done in the southern half of the northern
hemisphere, and April in the northern half, because
growth is usually strong during the next six to eight
weeks and the healing of wounds will progress rapidly.
CHAPTER XVI
DWARF TREE PRUNING AND TRAINING
270. Dwarf trees, those small growing varieties of a
species, are considered desirable mainly because they
require less space than do the normal-sized ones. There
is no difficulty in maintaining dwarfness in the dwarf
varieties — those that are dwarf by nature. They simply
do not grow larger than their normal size and, there-
fore, do not require special treatment to keep them small.
But there is another group — the plants that must be
specially handled to make them dwarf in the first place
and then specially handled to keep them small. The
most extreme cases of this kind are produced by special
cultural methods practiced by the Japanese, who compel
trees which in nature attain considerable size to grow
for many years in flower pots far smaller than would be
required to hold the roots of a plant of the same species
if transplanted from the open ground at the close of even
its first growing season. The methods by which this is
done, however, do not concern us here, as they are cul-
tural rather than dependent upon pruning.
The plants that do concern us are those individuals
which normally grow large but which, by means of graft -
age, top and root pruning are compelled to be small to
suit our convenience or caprice. In order to understand
how these should be handled to keep them small, it may
be well to quote the following paragraphs from the au-
thor's book, "Plant Propagation."*
Dwarfing trees to be grown in the open requires that cions "r
buds be worked on slow-growing stocks and later headed-in.
Plants may also be dwarfed by growing them in confined quarters.
such as boxes, tubs and pots too small for their normal development.
Nurserymen can go no further than supplying the specimens: after-
* Page 195.
364
DWARF TREE PRUNING AND TRAINING 365
care depends upon the grower, who by neglect or ignorance may
develop standards from those intended to be dwarfs.
When grafted or budded "dwarfs" are planted so deeply that
roots are developed by the cion above the union with the stock, the
tree will become "half dwarf" or even "standard." Such roots
must be cut off from time to time as they develop. Dwarf cherries
are grown on mahaleb stocks, but so is probably the majority of
standard cherry trees. Annual removal of roots from the cion and
heading-in will keep the trees dwarf in habit. So, too, of plums
upon myrobalan, and apples upon Paradise and Doucin stocks.
Grafting or budding" on a slow-growing variety or
species, then, is only the first step toward the making of
dw7arf trees. The trees must have the expanse of their
tops restricted by pruning and training. The expanse of
their roots must also be restricted by pruning or by
keeping them confined in limited space.
Root pruning (87) to restrict growth is little practiced
in America. Our tillage methods largely replace it be-
cause they compel deep rooting. In the growing of
dwarf trees and grafted grapevines it finds its most im-
portant application in the removal of roots which develop
from the cion above the union with the stock.
Top pruning of dwarf trees is done to train the tree
in some special way and to restrict growth. The latter
is a winter practice for the most part — heading back
(106). Various factors influence the amount of such
work — age, vigor, variety, individuality of tree, etc. A
terminal growth of 20 to 30 inches is common in the
upper parts of dwarf pear and apple trees, especially in
those under, say, ten years old. Some good pruners cut
off 50 to 80 per cent of the annual growth all over the
tree ; and also remove inferior twigs 'entirely ; others cut
out a total of fully as much wood, but include a good deal
of older wood, their idea being thus to keep the tree with-
in bounds rather than to run the risk of getting too many
small stubby twigs as might be the case were the former
method followed too closely. In the former case the tree
is more likely to grow too large than in the latter. In
either case the lateral growth that develops on the in-
366 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
terior of the tree during the following season must be
thinned at the next pruning.
Pruning for form will depend upon the pruner's ideal
(2). Dwarf trees, however, are generally grown as flat-
topped inverted cones or as pyramids. In America the
former is the more popular; in Europe, the latter. To
secure the pyramidal form a central stem is developed to
the desired height. The branches are produced, as in the
training of standard pyramids (154b), except that they are
closer together. The author does not happen to know of
vase-formed or open-centered dwarf trees, but he sees
no reason why this form should not be as desirable for
dwarf pears as for standards.
While the trees are young the pyramidal form is easy
to get, especially with pears which- normally grow in this
way. As the trees grow older, however, particularly if
the grower neglects to prune off the cion roots, they are
prone to grow very tall, their form in long-neglected trees
much resembling that of the Lombardy poplar, though,
of course, much smaller than the full-grown trees of this
species. This heightening may be easily prevented, first
by cion root pruning and second, by extending the frame
limbs and broadening the top, thus developing the in-
verted cone shape. In the most famous commercial
dwarf pear orchard the author has visited the trees were
only about 12 feet high, though they were then half a
century old. If they ever got any taller it was after the
death of Mr. T. G. Yeomans, the owner, who took special
pride in keeping them in ideal form and stature. Since
the Yeomans's orchard* was trained in the ideal form for
American commercial dwarf pear growing, and since it
is the one with which the author is most familiar the fol-
lowing description and comment are given :
* This orchard at Walworth, New York, was cut down in 1906 by the then
owner of the Yeomans's farm, and Kieffer pears planted on the site, because he
thought the trees had passed their profitable age limit and he believed the Kieffer
would pay better. The original orchard began to yield paying crops before the war
of the States, and continued to do so as long as Mr. Yeomans lived.
DWARF TREE PRUNING AND TRAINING 367
First of all, decision in the choice of trees was against
one-year stock because two-year-old dwarf pear trees
give better results. One-year trees have only a single erect
shoot 3 to perhaps 5 feet tall. If transplanted at this age
and the top cut back severely as it should be to bal-
ance the loss of roots, the tree will be so weakened that
fewer buds (perhaps only two or three) will develop
branches, and these in the most undesirable position, the
top of the stem, both on one side, or practically opposite
each other in Y-crotch form. The other buds will remain
latent and useless. By properly handling one-year trees
in the nursery without digging and then allowing them
to grow a second season a full complement of branches
may be developed. This Mr. Yeomans was able to do to
perfection because he was in the nursery business and
grew his own trees from grafts he made himself. As
good trees, however, may be bought from leading nurs-
erymen.
In the nursery the one-year trees had the tops of their
shoots cut at 21 to 24 inches so as to have a short,
straight, smooth trunk, and of about 12 inches from the
ground up to the first branch. The buds on this lower
part of the stem were not permitted to develop shoots.
Growths which started from them were rubbed off as
early as possible. Above the disbudded part six or eight
plump buds usually developed branches, because all the
root surface was intact and there was plenty of sap to
make good growth. In the fall the tree resulting from
such treatment would be sturdy, have plenty of branches
to choose from, be of good shape and in every respect
desirable.
Y-crotches, which usually form in the two uppermost
branches, were avoided by pinching the twig next to the
top when it attained a length of 8 to 10 inches (127).
Thus the uppermost braiTch became the leader and the
second a side branch.
368 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
When transplanted the trees were two years old from
the bud, had been cut back in the nursery row at one year,
had formed half a dozen or more good branches without
any Y-crotches and had excellent root systems. In
pruning at planting time the uppermost twigs were cut
back most severely, the lowest ones least because growth
is greatest in the upper part of the trees (91). Only two
buds were left on the leader and the next branch or two,
while four or five were left on the lowest. This treatment
brought the leader down to within 4 or 5 inches of its
base (the two-year wood).
The cut on the leader was made so that the upper bud
was immediately above the cut end of the previous year's
stem. Because of the slight crooks formed by a side bud
when so forced into growth (Fig. 66) the new branch
from this upper bud was developed vertically above the
original trunk of which it thus became an extension, but
with two slight crooks. These crooks disappeared in a
few years and the trunk looked perfectly straight. In a
similar way branches too horizontal were slightly raised
by pruning back to upper buds, or lowered by pruning to
buds beneath. Others were moved to the side by prun-
ing to side buds (120d).
When finished, the branches formed pyramids with
bases a foot to 15 inches across and 18 to 20 high for the
larger specimens. By cutting in this way not only was
the pyramidal form secured, but the lower branches were
favored and the upper ones checked in developmnt. Un-
less this is done at the time of setting out, the trees can
never be made to take the desired form.
Pruning after the first year resembles that of the first.
The leader is cut back severely so its upper bud will be
above and in continuation of the main stem, and the lower
and side shoots cut back less and less as the base of the
pyramid is approached. As the trees approached ma-
turity, care was taken to admit light and air by judicious
thinning and removal of the interior shoots. Except the
DWARF TREE PRUNING AND TRAINING 369
first pruning at planting time, the annual cutting was
done during the dormant season at any time before
growth started in the spring.
As the trees became aged — 15 to 25 years — the method
of pruning gradually flattened and broadened the tops,
and the nature of growth gradually lessened wood pro-
duction below, so that, when the author saw them, each
tree was like an equilateral triangle set on its apex with
its trunk as a pedestal. The tops were 10 or 12 feet
across, and the height, including the trunk, about 12 feet.
The result was that the top of the orchard looked as if
cut with a huge lawn mower, it was so even in height and
the trees so wide-spreading as almost to present a con-
tinuous carpet of green, except for narrow blank spaces
between the trees and in the centers between the squares
formed by each four trees. In the handling of dwarf
apples, cherries and other fruits the same general rules
apply.
Because of considerable agitation on the part of certain
fruit growers and nurserymen, the fruit growers' associa-
tions of New York requested the experiment station at
Geneva to conduct experiments in the growing of such
trees in orchards of commercial size. An experiment was
therefore carried out during ten years in three different
parts of the state and the findings reported in Bulletin 406
of the station. In the main the report is unfavorable to
dwarf apple trees as a business proposition.
271. Pruning dwarf apples.— We may as well confess, writes
U. P. Hedrick concerning these experiments, that the pruning of
these trees has been most unsatisfactory. A bad start was made,
as the trees, for the most part, were cut to whips at transplanting
time. No doubt, in the light of later experience, it would have been
better to grow them in nursery rows a year longer and then make
the start toward forming the heads (270). The trouble in cutting a
whip at transplanting time is that branches fail to break forth as
abundantly as they do in the nursery row unchecked by transplanting.
Summer pruning, supplementing winter pruning, is part of the
recognized .yearly treatment of dwarf trees. The more it is desired
370 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
to restrict the growth, the greater the need of summer pruning
and the greater the amount necessary. There is, however, much
divergence of opinion as to methods in summer pruning. Scarcely
any two authorities on growing dwarf trees agree as to the amount
of wood to be taken out or the proper time to do the work.
Some growers use the knife and shears, while others say that
pinching back with finger and thumb suffices. All agree that the
practice must be largely regulated by season, soil, health of tree,
age of tree and the variety. The difficulties in the way of laying
down rules that would be fair in this comparative test of 26 va-
rieties of apples on three stocks, three distinct soils and in three
somewhat different climates, are patent to anyone who has tried
to prune in the summer.
The winter pruning of the trees, though more difficult than in
training standard trees, gave comparatively little trouble. It con-
sisted of cutting out crossed branches, surplus branches and, of
course, such few as were injured or diseased. It was necessary
to head back the wood on Paradise and Doucin trees more severely,
depending upon the variety rather than on the standards, otherwise
the pruning was much the same on all.
For the first two seasons but little summer pruning was attempted,
the trees being small and none too vigorous. Then began a series
of experiments, no one of which proved satisfactory. Suffice to
say, in the light of ten seasons' work with dwarf apples, the train-
ing of the plants is the most difficult and the least satisfactory
operation in growing these trees. Indeed, it is hardly too much to
say that if dwarf apples must be headed back or pinched in during
the growing season, it is impossible to grow them in the trying
climate of New York.
In no one of the attempts at summer pruning have we been able
wholly to avoid weak, spindling second growths which would not
mature and succumb to the cold of the next winter. When it
was thought that reasonable success in time and manner of summer
pruning had been attained one season, sooner or later identical
treatment proved a failure because of some decided difference in
weather when the work was repeated. \Ye have been forced to con-
clude that the great variations in temperature and moisture in the
summer and the cold winters in New York almost or quite debar
the summer pruning practiced in the Old World.
CHAPTER XVII
ODD METHODS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING
The principles and some of the practices discussed in
previous chapters find bizarre application in special
modes of training, which in America have practically no
commercial use. Hence almost the only attention they
attract is that of amateurs, in which class of gardeners is
included those wealthy people who take pleasure growing
extra choice specimens of fruit, especially if these are
produced under glass, upon walls, or by specimen plants
trained in some unusual form.
While these forms are immensely popular in Europe
where land is costly and hand labor cheap, they are not
suited to other continents where land is cheap and labor
high priced-, as in America. This is the sufficient answer
for their comparative rarity in the United States and
Canada. Let it be said, however, that we have in the
longer-settled parts of our country examples of these
methods which compare favorably with those of the Old
World. Probably a majority of these have been de-
veloped under the skillful fingers of some French, English
or Scotch gardener who has served his apprenticeship in
the gardens of an estate in the Old World. The three
illustrations (Figs. 298, 299, 300) are excellent examples
of special tree training in gardens in Rochester, N. Y.
In the vicinity of Boston, New York and Philadelphia
could be found many others.
In order to make a success of any of these special forms
of growing trees and shrubs, it is essential to make a
proper start. European nurserymen do this. They grow
the trees two, three or more years under the constant
watchfulness of men skilled each in his own line. All
that a customer need to do, then, is to order the style,
371
ODD METHODS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING 373
age and variety of plant he wants. In America the de-
mand for such plants is so nearly nil that the nurserymen,
with rare exceptions, do not carry any such trees in stock.
Many of them, however, will develop such plants to order.
But why should the amateur not develop them himself?
He can probably command at least as good skill and in
many cases far better at home because of personal in-
terest in the plants. How shall he start?
It will be well whenever possible to do the propaga-
tion 'at home, so as to have the plants under ideal condi-
tion fa>m the start. In perhaps no case should trees older
than one year be chosen for any of these special forms
of training. If the trees have been propagated at home,
they need not suffer in the least from digging because
they may be left during the second year where they grew
the first. Note the reasons for this under the heading
Dwarf Trees (270). Where it is not convenient to follow
this suggestion, the next best thing is to buy yearling
trees. Choice should be made among the medium-sized,
well-grown specimens, the large and the small-sized
grades being avoided for obvious reasons. The main
reason for choosing yearling trees is that the buds on
the trunk will be far sturdier than on trunks two years
old or older and the branches may be developed exactly
where wanted.
The height to have the trunk and the number of
branches to develop will depend upon the style of training
to be .followed. In all such training it must be re-
membered that the tree is being forced to develop in a
more 'or less unnatural way and, therefore, must receive
special attention. To use an illustration, these methods
are like teaching school children to write: a beautiful
script specimen .is set before them and they attempt to
imitate the pretty writing, often with ludicrous though
unintentional caricatures! If it is difficult to teach in-
telligent: children so simple a feat as writing, how much
more to train a tree in the way it should go ! Success
374
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNINC,
as in the above case is measured by the approach to the
original design. While the style of training must be
optional with the individual gardener the fundamental
principles of pruning must be followed.
As American literature on these special modes of train-
ing is very meager, and as European writings are both
voluminous and excellent, the following passages have
been culled, mainly from French and English works, to
FIG. 299— DWARF PEAR TREES TRAINED IN SIMPLE WAY
ODD METHODS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING 375
serve as suggestions of forms and methods that may be
followed. In these excerpts the following words need
definition : Cordon, a plant consisting of one shoot, or
two trained opposite to each other, and bearing fruit
spurs. A palmette is a single vertical stem with several
side branches. Standard, in European usage, is a solitary
trunk not attached to a support. It is not a synonym
of dwarf, as in America. Espalier, a trellis or any plant
grown upon a trellis, not a form of training. The modes
of training described below enable the gardener to adapt
trees to restricted quarters, to have each main branch sup-
plied with bearing wood from end to end, to equalize
fruit-bearing each year and each successive year, and to
enhance both size and quality of fruit.
272. General principles of training.— Alphonse Du Breuil* gives
the following general principles for training fruit trees on walls
and trellises. The numbers indicate individual corollaries under the
main principles printed in italics.
A. The permanency of form of trained trees is dependent upon
the equal diffusion of sap being maintained throughout the whole
extent of the branches.
1. Prune strong branches short; but allow weaker ones to grow
long. 2. Depress strong parts, and elevate weak ones. 3. Suppress
useless buds on strong parts as early as possible. Practice sup-
pression as late as possible on leaf parts. 4. Suppress herbaceous
extremities on strong parts very early, but practice suppression
as late as possible on weak parts, taking off only the most
vigorous shoots and those that must be removed because of the
position they occupy. 5. Nail up strong parts very early and
very close to the wall or the trellis, but delay doing so to
weak parts. 6. Suppress several leaves on strong sides [of the
plant]. 7. Allow as large a quantity of fruit as possible to remain
on the strong side and suppress all on the weak side.
8. Soften green parts on the weak side with sulphate of iron
solution — 24 grains in a pint of water, applied after sunset. [This
is believed to stimulate leaf activity "in drawing sap from the roots."
M. G. K.] 9. Bring weak side forward from the wall ; keep strong
side close to it. 10. Place a covering on a strong part to deprive it
of light.
B. Sap develops branches much more vigorously on a branch cut
short than on one left long (Chapter X, 106). C. Sap has always
a tendency to flow toward the extremities of branches and to make
terminal buds develop more vigorously than lateral ones (91).
* The Scientific and Profitable Culture of Fruit Trees, English edition.
ODD METHODS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING 377
D. The more sap circulation is retarded the less wood and the
more fruit buds will develop (98).
1. Apply to branches which grow from successive extensions of
wood and also to those which spring from them, operations calcu-
lated to diminish vigor. 2. Apply to larger branches several Girard-
in's side grafts — cions of fruit spurs or fruit buds set into twigs —
to absorb part of the superabundant sap. 3. Arch all branches so
part of their extent will be toward the sun. 4. In February make
an annular incision 1-5 inch wide with a hand saw near the stem
base, and deep enough to penetrate the exterior wood layer (98).
5. In spring uncover the tree collar so as to expose the principal
roots for several feet and allow them to remain thus during sum-
mer. 6. In spring cut away parts of roots and replace the earth.
[These two practices are antagonistic. — M. G. K.] 1. Transplant
trees in late autumn, but with great care to preserve all roots.
E. Every method which conduces to diminish rigor of wood and
to make sap flow to the fruit tends to augment size of fruit.
1. Graft upon stocks of a less vigorous species than the cions.
2. Apply suitable winter pruning ; that is, do not leave on the trees
more branches or parts of branches than is requisite for symmetrical
development and formation for fruit-bearing branches. 3. Make
fruit spurs grow close on branches by pruning them as short as
possible. 4. Cut branches very close when flower buds are formed.
.">. Mutilate summer shoots by repeatedly pinching off those not
required to develop size of tree. 6. When fruits are a fifth developed
suppress a further number of them. 7. Make an annular incision
about 1-5 inch wide upon the fruit-bearing branches when these
expand their blossoms. 8. Insert Girardin's side grafts in some fruit
branches of vigorous trees. 9. Place supports under fruits during
growth to prevent stretching or twisting of their stalks. If unsup-
ported, the fruit may grow unequally and the stretching or twisting
stalk may injure the sap vessels. When fruits are supported they
grow larger. 10. Keep fruits in their normal position during the
entire period of their development ; that is, with the fruit stem
lowermost. Sap acts with more force when it flows upward; a
vertical stalk therefore causes it to ascend more easily and the fruit
will become larger. 11. Place fruit under the leaves during their
growth to increase their size. 12. Apply to young fruits a solution
of sulphate of iron (272 A 8) only when the fruit is cool. Repeat
three times: When fruits are one-fourth grown; when a little larger ;
and again when three parts grown. 13. To increase size inarch a
small shoot on the fruit spur, to which fruit is attached when a third
grown.
F. The yearly extensions of wood should be shortened more or
less, as the branches approach a vertical line, or tiie contrary.
273. Construction of walls and fences.— J. Cheal* gives some ex-
cellent advice upon the construction of walls and fences upon which
* Practical Fruit Culture, London.
378 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
to train fruit trees. Paragraphs (273 to 278) are quoted from his
work. The arrangement and position of walls will depend on the
size and the nature of the surroundings, etc., but they should always
be arranged, if possible, in a square, with the principal wall facing
south, or as nearly so as practicable. \\ here it is possible, place the
walls so the outside as well as the inside borders may be used for
fruit, thus making use of the whole wall space. Bear in mind that
upon the north side many useful fruits may be grown.
The height of the walls should be 8 to 15 feet, according to cir-
cumstances. In most cases the south wall may be lower, to admit
more sunshine into the garden ; and in the case of large gardens,
one or more cross walls may also be introduced. They should be
built without piers. Architects have generally a great fancy for
piers, and in many instances insist upon having them ; but walls can
be built without them, and they are always a great difficulty and
nuisance to the gardener. They frequently interfere with the ar-
rangement of the trees when planting. In training they are a great
trouble, and often cause much damage to the trees. Provide a good
permanent coping of tiles or stone, projecting at least 6 inches from
the face of the wall. These should in all cases be provided inde-
pendently of any further coping for the protection of the trees at
the time of flowering.
274. Removable glass copings are very useful for peaches, nec-
tarines and apricots. These are required for only a few weeks in
spring, at the time of blossoming and setting the fruit, and should be
removed when no longer required. Fixed glass copings are very
objectionable, as they keep off all rain, encourage red spider and
other vermin, and necessitate constant syringing.
In all cases it is a great saving of labor to wire the walls or
fences. The vines should be placed in lines not exceeding 9 inches
apart and 2 inches from the wall. Galvanized hold-fasts, tighteners
and all needful appliances are easily obtainable.
275. Tying to the wire is much more quickly done than nailing to
the wall, and does not afford the same shelter to insect pests, while
it preserves the wall from injury due to constant nailing, and allows
the wood to ripen more thoroughly and evenly. The branches are
also enabled to form fruit spurs and buds all around. Frequently
the inside or back blossoms escape injury from frost, which damages
the outer ones, and a crop is thereby saved.
In the case of all fruits, however, and especially that of peaches
and nectarines, it is needful to be very careful in tying in order to
prevent the branch coming immediately in contact with the gal-
vanized wire. Many instances have occurred of disease and decay
resulting from this. There is, however, no danger if the precaution
is always taken in tying to cross the tie between the branch and the
wire, so the branch may be held firmly in position without coming
in actual contact with the wire. And the danger may be still further
lessened by painting the wires and hold-fasts after fixing.
ODD METHODS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING 379
276. Espalier fences generally may be placed to advantage in a
kitchen garden, as they occupy but little space, and produce an
abundance of tine fruit. They may be used as a border near the
paths, or at the back of the flower border, which is usually arranged
on either side of the central walk, but there are also other positions
outside the kitchen garden where they can be placed to advantage.
If the fruit is well grown such fences present an artistic appearance
(Fig. 300), and are admissible even in the ornamental garden, or myy
be used as a division between the ornamental and the kitchen garden.
The fences themselves are usually formed of galvanized iron
posts, with wires stretched between. They require at each end a
strong post of angle iron with anchor feet and stays, to bear the
strain of tightening the wire. The intermediate posts need be only
flat iron with anchor feet. For the ordinary horizontal form of
training, 5 to 6 feet in height will be sufficient, but if made high
enough — say 7 to 9 feet — these fences are very good for training
cordons upon. Gooseberries may also be trained upon low espalier
fences of 3 to 4 feet in height, and when trained as double cordons,
or as palmettes with 3 to 5 branches, they produce the finest possible
fruit; and this mode is strongly recommended for growing the
choice dessert varieties.
277. Wire arches may sometimes be suitably introduced into the
kitchen garden, spanning some of the paths. They occupy but little
ground space, and afford excellent means for the training of cordons.
They give a pleasant shade to the path, trees are well supported,
and the fruit spread out to the full effect of the sun. In some
respects they are better for training the cordon trees than ordinary
espaliers. The turn at the top gives the gentle check to the upright
flow of sap so desirable for securing fine fruit at the base of the tree.
278. Wooden fences sometimes are so placed as to be available
for fruit. A wooden fence is in no case so good as a wall, as in
the best of them there is always some draft, so the same uniform
temperature is not maintained as in the case of walls which, from
their greater substance, retain warmth during the night. Never-
theless, wooden fences are very useful for fruit. They should always
be wired before planting the trees, as it is difficult to nail to the
wooden fences, while wire also possesses other advantages.
Many wooden fences surrounding the gardens of suburban villas
might be turned to very useful account, and would afford the over-
wrought brain-worker healthful and interesting employment in cul-
tiyating fruit trees, as well as enable him to supply his own tab'e
with the freshest of fruit. There are also numberless wooden fences,
as well as walls, in many of our farms and homesteads, which could
be turned to profitable account by covering them with fruit, trained
as above described.
279. The pyramid* is an old and good form, suitable especially
for pear trees. Its advantages are, that it can be cultivated in
* D. Bois, "Le Petit Jardin," Paris, 264 (279 to 284).
380 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
borders, where it takes up relatively little room; that it allows free
circulation of air and light; that it casts little shade; and that it
bears abundantly. It consists of a principal or vertical stem, cov-
ered with lateral branches from a point an inch or so above ground
to the top of the tree. The branches, which grow somewhat
obliquely, are separated from each other by a distance of about 10
inches, diminishing gradually in length from bottom to top, thus
forming a cone, the largest diameter of which is about one-third
of the total height.
280. The column or spindle.— This form, adapted to pears and
apple trees, has the advantage of taking up less room than the
pyramid and of bearing more quickly. On the other hand, it is not
so long-lived, and is suitable for less vigorous varieties only. The
column differs from the pyramid only in its shorter lateral branches.
281. The vase. — Around a central stem, and at a distance of about
5 inches above the ground, arise branches which grow first hori-
zontally and then vertically, in such a way as to give to the entire
tree the form of a vase. The branches must be separated from each
other by a distance of about 10 inches, and they are maintained in
this position by tying them to hoops fastened to stakes inserted in
the ground. This form is justly much esteemed. It allows a free
circulation of light and air through all its parts.
282. The horizontal cordon Js suitable especially for apple trees
grafted on Paradise stock, and to the less vigorous varieties of
pear trees grafted on quince stock. This form is especially to be
recommended for the borders of walks. It consists of a stem which
first grows vertically, then bent at a certain height, and is main-
tained in this horizontal position by attaching it to wire. The trees
are planted at a distance of 6 to 10 feet apart and their stems, when
meeting, form a long, unbroken garland or wreath, which makes
a very pretty effect.
283. Espalier training, to be especially recommended, is suitable
for all kinds of fruit trees. It allows the cultivation of varieties
the fruits of which would not ripen at all, or would ripen incom-
pletely in a more exposed situation. When trained against walls,
they receive an amount of heat sufficient to produce fruit of a
superior quality. These include peaches, grapes, certain kinds of
apricots, apples, pears, etc. The simplest form of espalier is the
vertical cordon, which allows the trees to be planted very near to-
gether, which soon brings in a moderate return, and in a few years
covers the wall. Like the column, this form is suitable for only
the less vigorous varieties. It must be trained against a moderately
high wall, for its growth is considerably stimulated by the suppres-
sion of its lateral branches, so the principal stem has a tendency
to grow rapidly. Whenever it is necessary to cut them back very
much, it produces an excessive development of wood, to the detri-
ment of its productiveness. A form like a U is frequently em-
ployed. It- is certainly one of the best.
284. The candelabrum is formed by several lateral branches, from
ODD METHODS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING 381
three to six, distributed regularly along the principal stem. The
simple palmette or palm leaf has a larger number of lateral branches.
The Palmette Verrier differs from the preceding only in the fact
that after a certain distance its branches grow vertically. Palmettes
are formed with 6, 7, 8, 10, 12 branches, and even with more.
285. The horizontal cordon in detail.* — When grown in a simple
horizontal cordon, the pear tree consists of a stem bent at a dis-
tance of 15 inches above ground, then trained horizontally and
covered with fruit-bearing branches. The cordons are trained
as much as possible toward the strongest light. If the plantation is
established on a slope, it is necessary to train the cordons toward
the summit of the slope. Only pears grafted on quince stock, and
apple trees grafted on Paradise or Doucin stock, can be thus grown.
Pear trees and apple trees grafted on their own stock are too
vigorous, as they require (for otherwise they would remain sterile)
more room than the horizontal cordon allows. One-year-old apple
•cions grafted on Paradise stock must be planted at a distance of 10
feet from each other. One-year-old apple cions grafted on Doucin
stock, and pears on quince stock, must be planted at a distance of
12 feet from each other.
The first year they are cut at a distance of about 2l/2 inches above
ground, and near a bud located on the side toward which the stem
is to be inclined. In the autumn or in the following spring, these
cions are gradually bent. But if the part beyond the bend must
be strictly horizontal, it is necessary that the extremity of the cordon
be slightly raised, in order to facilitate the flow of sap and con-
sequently the elongation of the cordon.
From this time, the yearly growth of the cordon must be cut in
such a way as to preserve two-thirds or three-fourths of its length.
It is soon covered with branches, some of which are fertile (that is,
bearing fruit-producing buds), while the others, or sterile ones,
must be cut away. This kind of treatment prevents them from ob-
taining too large a growth, thus still more destroying their fertility.
286. Cherry growing in orchard houses.f — The method of growing
cherries in Rivers's orchard houses is given below in detail. Most
of the trees are grafted on cherry stock, except the Duke cherries
and Early Rivers and Governor Wood, which are grafted on mahaleb
stock. They are never lifted nor replanted before potting.
Early in autumn one and two-year-old trees are taken up, their
roots shortened so they can be put into the pots without breaking,
and planted in 8 or 12-inch pots. This potting must be done care-
fully and the trees must be set so deep the big roots near the sur-
face will be covered with an inch of soil. Cover the bottom of
the pots with a good, thick layer of drainage. The soil used in
potting is a light, sandy loam, enriched with one-third of well-
decayed fertilizer. It is important to firm the soil well around
*G. Ad. Bellair, "Les Arbres Fruitiers," Paris, 1891, Page 164 (285).
f;A, &. Anderson in "American Garden," XIII, 594 (286).
FIG. 301— TREATED INJURIES NORMALLY HEAL; UNTREATED ONES DECAY
A, Cross section of trunk, showing parts; a, heart- wood; b, sapwood; c, cam-
bium; d, bark; et corky outer bark. B, Scar beginning to heal rapidly at the sides.
C, Scar three-fourths healed. D, Cross section of "blaze" on quaking aspen.
Note decay at ax cut. Line indicates proper shape of cavity to excavate. E, Scar
from cut limb fully healed. F, Opening to decayed area in log. Only a shell of
sound wood.
ODD METHODS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING 383
and among the roots. Fill it in by degrees and beat it down firmly
all through the pot, taking care not to injure the roots. After pot-
ting, the trees are set in a sheltered place outdoors, the pots being
covered with leaves. If the soil is moist enough when the trees are
potted, they will not need watering.
When spring comes the tree must be thinned out and the pots
plunged one-third their depth in the earth. The trees remain here
all summer, are watered carefully every morning when the weather
is bright and dry and syringed with pure water if the green fly
is troublesome. In July when the trees are well rooted, a top-
dressing of stable manure and kiln-dust in equal parts is given
them. A few days before it is used it is spread out in thin layers
outdoors and soaked several times with liquid manure. It is applied
to the soil in the pots, in layers 2 inches thick near the rims, but
thinner near the stems of the trees. This top-dressing greatly im-
proves and strengthens the trees for the coming year. After grow-
ing in pots one summer, trees are fit to be sold the following au-
tumn or spring. Old cherry trees that have been cultivated in pots
for years are kept during winter in one of the orchard houses. When
spring comes and their buds start, the pots are
plunged up to the rim in the ground in the
cherry house.
The pyramidal form is best and most used
for potted cherry trees. Pruning is not often
necessary the first year after potting, for the
strength of the tree goes to form short fruit
branches ; but after the trees are well rooted,
strong shoots are sent out in summer. Sum-
mer pruning consists mainly in pinching back
these strong shoots to six or seven leaves
each. If after this first stopping they grow
LATED ^O^'LA?" A out a£am» tnev are aSam pinched back. On
CURB the leading branches, side shoots that are not
needed to fill empty spaces or make new
leaders are stopped at the third leaf. The sour cherries, which form
young buds better on the side shoots, might be pruned less.
Much winter pruning is not needed for trees that have been well
stopped in summer. Winter pruning must be done as soon as leaf
and bloom buds can be distinguished. It is done upon the same
principle as outdoor pruning, but as the room in orchard houses is
limited, all growth must soon be pruned into fruit branches.
After the cherries are all gathered, the trees are plunged outside
in a sunny, sheltered place and left there until repotting time in
October or November. Trees that have been potted but one year
seldom need larger pots at this time, so 2 or 3 inches of the top
soil in their pots is taken out and replaced with fresh. Larger pots
are given in after years when these young trees become root-bound.
Cherry trees ought to be repotted every other year.
CHAPTER XVIII
PRACTICAL TREE SURGERY*
287. Object of tree surgery.— It is well known that trees are sub-
ject to all sorts of injuries, from sources too numerous to mention.
In a great majority of cases these injuries are allowed to remain
untreated — often for years. Rot-producing fungi commonly gain
entrance at these places, and eventually the original inconspicuous
or unobserved injury develops into a comparatively large area of
decay. The real aim of tree surgery is to repair the damage re-
sulting from such neglected injuries and rotted areas.
288. Principles involved.— In most tree-surgery work a few funda-
mental principles must be observed to secure good results. These
may be summarized as follows: (1) Remove all decayed, diseased
or injured wood and bark. When on small limbs, this can often
best be done by removing the limb. On larger limbs or on the trunk
it may at times mean the digging out of a cavity. (2) Sterilize all
cut surfaces. (3) Waterproof all cut surfaces. (4) Leave the
work in the most favorable condition for rapid healing. This will
often mean the filling of deep cavities. (5) Watch the work from
year to year for defects. If any appear, attend to them immediately.
289. Qualifications of workmen.— Tree surgery, or, more properly,
as some interested persons would have tree owners believe, tree re-
pair work, is not a mysterious art known to only a favored few who
alone are fitted to undertake it. It can be undertaken by any care-
ful rtian who has a good general knowledge of the structure and life
history of a tree, its normal manner of covering wounds and how
insects and decay organisms cause damage, provided he can handle
the necessary tools and will apply in a practical manner his knowl-
edge of the anatomy of a tree, together with a generous admixture
of good common sense.
290. Types and scope of work.— I n its simplest type, tree surgery
consists in removing dead or decayed limbs or stubs from a tree
and treating the scar with an antiseptic and waterproof covering to
prevent decay while healing. Another type consists in cutting out
the decayed and diseased matter in trees and filling the cavities with
cement or other materials to facilitate the normal healing-over
process. This is often referred to as "tree dentistry." a term which
very aptly indicates the character of the work. Filled cavities do
* Paragraphs 287 to 311 have been excerpted and slightly condensed from J. T.
Collins's article in the United States Department of Agriculture Year Book, 1913,
Pages 162 to 190. Only about half the article is herewith included, because the
balance deals mostly with physiological and other features already discussed in
this volume.
884
FIG. 303— CEMENT FILLINGS AND GUY CHAIN ATTACHMENT
A, Cement shattered by cold and swaying of tree. B, Section of trunk showing
metal-covered cavit-'es. C, Simple way to fasten guy chain to hook bolt. D, Nails
and cement-reinforcing rods in place, for filling. E, Shallow cavity ready for
creosote and tar, not usually cement filled.
386 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
not increase the strength of the trunk or limb to the extent that is
generally supposed.
291. Dead or diseased branches.— For the work of removing
branches, the most essential implements are a good-sized saw with
teeth so set as to make a wide cut, a gouge, a chisel, a mallet and a
strong knife. For cutting limbs near the ground these are the only
necessary implements. For limbs situated elsewhere a ladder may
be needed; also, at times, a rope.
292. Treatment of cavities.— During the last few years there has
been widespread popular interest in the treatment of decayed places
in old trees. This type of work comprises many inquiries addressed
to the Department of Agriculture and refers solely to methods em-
ployed in cementing cavities. This is a logical result of the present
extensive essential operations: (1) Removing all decayed and dis-
eased matter, (2) sterilizing and waterproofing all cut surfaces, and
(3) filling the cavity in a manner that will favor rapid healing and
exclude rot-producing organisms.
The necessary tools for digging out decayed matter are two out-
side-ground socket-handled gouges (one with a curved cutting edge
of about s/4 inch, and the other perhaps ll/2 inches), a chisel, a
mallet, a knife and an oilstone for ordinary work. The gouges,
chisel and knife should never be used near the cambium when they
lack a keen edge, as dull tools will injure it. In cutting out deep
cavities, longer interchangeable handles for the gouges may be nec-
essary. A ladder or a stepladder will be required if the work is
more than 5 feet from the ground.
293. Excavating.— Usually an old decayed spot may be partially
or wholly covered by a new growth of wood and bark at the edges,
and the visible decayed area be small as compared with that which is
hidden (Fig. 301 D, F). In such cases it is usually necessary to en-
large the opening with the gouges and mallet in order to make
sufficient room in which to use the gouges in the interior. This
opening should not be any wider than necessary, but it may be
sufficiently long to reach all the decayed and diseased heartwood
with little or no additional injury to the tree.
If the decayed and diseased wood extends some distance above
or below the external opening, it is a common practice to cut one
or more holes above or below the main opening in order to facili-
tate the removal of the diseased wood (Fig. 305 A). This results in
one or more bridges of wood and bark spanning the long interior
cavity, a practice of doubtful value, partly because it is often im-
possible to see whether the diseased wood has been entirely removed
from the under side of the bridges, but mainly because there is a
strong tendency in most trees for the bark and the sap wood of the
bridges to die and decay as a result of severing the sap-conducting
tubes both above and below. If the holes are pointed above and
below, there is less trouble from this source. A practice that permits
a more thorough cleaning out of the cavity is to make a narrow
opening, pointed at both ends and sufficiently long to include all the
PRACTICAL TREE SURGERY 387
diseased wood. This often extends some distance above and below
the visible discolored area.
The most important feature of this stage of the work is to re-
move all the diseased and insect-eaten wood (Fig. 305 B, C). This
excavating must continue on all sides of the cavity until sound
uninfected wood is reached. All discolored or water-soaked
heartwood should be removed, as this is the region in which the rot-
producing fungus is most active. In decayed areas of many years'
standing there may be only a thin shell of uninfected wood around
the cavity (Fig. 301 F), in which case there is danger of the tree
being broken by storms unless braced or guyed.
294. Drainage.— The bottom and all other parts of the cavity
should be so shaped that if water were thrown into the cavity it
would promptly run out and none remain in any hollow. This fea-
ture is commonly called "drainage." It is bad practice to have a deep
water pocket at the bottom of a cavity with drainage through an
auger hole bored from the exterior. An open hole of this sort often
becomes a favorable lodging place for insects or fungous spores.
295. Undercutting. — Another important point in shaping a cavity
is to have the sides undercut if possible, so as to hold the filling
firmly in place. Care must be taken,
however, not to have the wood at the
edges of the opening very thin, as this
promotes the drying out of the bark and
sap wood at these points. Ordinarily the
edges should be at least 34 of an inch
thick, and \l/> would be better (Figs. 301 D,
306 A). Inrolled bark at the edges of an
opening should be cut back in nearly
parallel radial planes, as a rule, to a point
which will permit the surface of the
completed cement filling to conform with
and continue across the cavity the general
contour of the woody part of the trunk »J« PLACED BOLT
(Fig. 306 A) . If it is not possible to under- HEAD
cut sufficiently to hold the filling firmly in
place, the alternative method described under "Nailing' (297) may
be adopted (Fig. 306 B).
Great care must be exercised in working around the cambium,
and all cutting tools must be kept very sharp. The final cutting along
the edges of the bark and the sap wood can usually best be made
with a very sharp knife. This cutting must be followed immediately
by a coating of shellac, which should cover the edges of both bark
and sap wood.
296. Bolting.— Before cementing a long cavity it is advisable to
place through it one or more bolts, so as to hold the wood and the
cement more firmly in place. A cavity 2 feet or less in length will
not usually require a bolt, but long cavities, as a general rule, should
FIG. 305— LONG CAVITIES EXCAVATED THROUGH SEVERAL OPENINGS, AND
A SHORT CAVITY EXCAVATED THROUGH ONE OPENING
A, Cavities in two trees excavated through small openings cut in the trunks. It
would be better to make the openings oval and pointed rather than square or
round. B, An old injury caused by horses gnawing the bark. C, The injury shown
in B excavated and ready for tarring prior to filling.
PRACTICAL TREE SURGERY 391
be bolUOGB). The heads of the nails finally are completely embedded
so as - cement (Fig. 306 E). If the cavity is already bolted, it may not
be n Accessary to use many nails, because the bolts help to hold the
cas^nent in place.
le 298. Treating.— After the decayed and diseased matter has been
ccompletely excavated and the edges of the sap wood and bark shel-
lacked, the next step is to sterilize the interior of the cavity in order
that all germs of disease or decay may be killed and that any which
may come in contact with the cut surfaces during subsequent opera-
tions may be destroyed. Creosote appears to be one of the best
preparations to use. Every cut part of wood and bark must be
creosoted. Over this a heavy coating of tar or hot asphalt should be
applied before the cavity is filled.
299. Mixing the cement.— A good grade of Portland cement and
clean, sharp sand free from loam (1 part of cement to 3 or less of
sand) should be used. The mixing may be done in a mortar bin, a,
wheelbarrow, a pail, or in any other available receptacle sufncienliy
large. A quantity of dry cement and sand sufficient to fill the cavitv
should be thoroughly mixed before the requisite amount of water to
make a rather stiff mortar is added, and the whole mixture worked
to an even consistency. In large cavities fine gravel, free from loam,
is sometimes substituted for the sand.
300. Cementing. — For placing the mixture in the cavity a mason's
flat trowel and an ordinary garden trowel with a curved blade will
be found convenient. A tamping stick, 1 or 2 inches thick and 1
to 3 feet long, according to the size of the cavity, will be needed.
A layer of cement 2 or 3 inches deep may now be placed in the
bottom of the cavity with the garden trowel and tamped firmly in
place. This operation is repeated until the cement is 8 to 12 inches
thick. Wet rocks of various sizes may be embedded in the cement
provided they do not reach within an inch or two of its outer face.
If the mixture is too wet, it will tend to run out of the cavity under
the operation of tamping. If too little water has been used, it will
not pack down promptly.
The top of the 8 .to 12-inch block of cement is smoothed with the
flat trowel so it will slant slightly downward from back to front,
in order to facilitate drainage. Over the top of this cement block
a double or a single sheet of tarred roofing (or thinner) paper is
placed after it has been cut so as to fit the cavity. On top of this
another block of cement is built as soon as the first block is suffi-
ciently hard to stand the weight and tamping without forcing any
of it out at the bottom of the cavity.
If the interior of the cavity extends well above the level of the
external opening, it may occasionally be necessary to bore or cut
a downward slanting hole from the outside to the top of the interior
cavity, through which a watery mixture of cement may be poured to
fill the upper part of the cavity and the hole. The main opening
of the cavity must be completely closed with the stiffer cement be-
fore this watery mixture is introduced.
392
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
When a block of cement has partially hardened, it will be nec-
essary to smooth carefully the outer surface or cut it down with
the rlat trowel to the level of the cambium, taking great care
that the latter is not injured in the operation. If the
cement is allowed to become too hard to trim with the trowel, it
can still, with more or less difficulty, be cut back to the cambium
line with a cold chisel and a hammer. It is a rule with most tree
surgeons to trim back the outer surface of the cement to l/s inch or
more below the cambium and then use a layer of stronger cement
(one part of cement to one to two of sand) to raise it to the level
of the cambium, after the rilling has partially hardened.
The thinner mixtures of cement will set more firmly. If any
mixtures thinner than the one already mentioned are used to fill
a cavity, some sort of cloth or wire dam will have to be used to
hold the cement in place until it is hard. For this purpose strips
of burlap wrapped tightly around the
tree so as to cover the lower part of
the opening may be sufficient if the
mixture is not rery thin ; otherwise,
a more closely woven fabric, such as
canvas or carpet, may be used. This
dam at first should cover about a
foot of the lower part of the open-
ing. The cavity may then be filled
with cement to the top of the dam.
The top is smoothed and covered
with tarred paper, as already de-
scribed, the height of the clam is in-
creased and the operation repeated.
Before the cement has become too
hard, the dam is removed and the
surface of the cement finished in the
usual manner, either to the level of
the cambium at once, or it may be
cut a little farther back and a finish-
ing layer of stronger cement applied
to bring the surface to the proper
level. The surface of the cement
must be wet before the stronger finishing layer is applied.
A very large proportion of the cemented cavities seen in trees at
present are made in one piece, without the use of tarred-paper
partitions. Long cavities of this sort are particularly subject to de-
fects, so one-piece fillings are not recommended except for short
cavities, where these particular objections do not apply. The method
employed is only a slight modification of that already described,
and will readily be understood by a study of Fig. 308 B, C, D, and
the legends which accompany them. These figures show successive
stages of work in the same cavity.
FIG. 307— HOW NOT TO COVER
A CAVITY WITH CEMENT
OR CONCRETE
FIG. 308— CEMENT FILLING TYPES AND SUCCESSIVE STEPS
A, Cavity filled with cement blocks separated by tarred paper. B, Cavity ready
for treating and filling. C, Cavity in B, nailed and partly cement filled. Ends of
reinforcing rods sprung into shallow holes in wood. Wire dam, sometimes allowed
to remain in cement, though usually removed when cement has partly set. D, Later
stage of C, height of dam increased. E, Same cavity completed.
394 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
The edges of cement fillings in the crotches of limbs are es-
pecially difficult to keep water-tight. Besides bolting the cavity and
guying the limbs above it, the crevices at the edges of such cement
fillings must be made as nearly waterproof as thick tar or asphalt
can make them.
After the cement filling has become thoroughly dry, the outer face
may be painted with coal tar or paint, especially around the edges
where cracks are likely to appear. This should not be done for
several weeks after the cement has been put into the cavity.
301. Defects in cement work.— Although fillings made with ce-
ment mixtures (cement mortar and concrete) have many, and often
serious defects, this material is so cheap and so easily handled that
no other at present is so generally used for the purpose in this
country. The most serious defects in cement mixtures are directly
due to the hardness and rigidity after the cement has become dry.
This inflexibility results in cracks appearing across the cement of
long fillings (where not put in in sections or blocks, as recommended
here) as the tree sways back and forth in the wind (Fig. 303 A).
Rods for re-enforcing the concrete are often placed in large cavities
to be filled in one block (Fig. 303 D).
During a cold period in winter, particularly one that has been
preceded by warm weather, the wood of an unbolted cavity may
draw away from the cement, often leaving a comparatively wide
crack (Fig. 303 A). Sometimes, by the contraction of the wood on a
cold day, the tree itself will split above or below the filling, or even
through the cement when the cavity has been nailed but not bolted.
This cracking may be prevented to some extent by having nailed
cavities with a vertical partition of tarred paper extending through-
out the length of the filling.
On the other hand, the cement filling forms a surface over which
new wood and bark can form during the growing season, and if the
decayed and diseased matter in the cavity is entirely removed be-
fore the cement is used, it very largely, if not entirely, checks
further decay. If cracks appear in the cement, or the wood draws
away from the cement, or the work is not properly done, decay
organisms may again gain entrance at the edge of the cement and
cause further trouble.
302. Open cavities.— Tn a tree which is not considered of sufficient
value to warrant cleaning and filling the decayed areas, these may be
excavated, sterilized and waterproofed (Fig. 303 E). In this condi-
tion they may often be safely left for years if the waterproof covering
is renewed as soon as cracks or blisters appear. Cavities treated in
this way are probably as safe as ordinary cemented cavities and
have the advantage of easy inspection from time to time. Shallow
cavities in valuable trees may be very satisfactorily treated in this
manner. The new wood and bark produced by the cambium along
the margins will form an inwardly rolled edge (Fig. 306 A), as there
is no cement across the cavity.
FIG. 309— PROPER METHOD OF FASTENING GUY CHAINS AND BOLTS ALSO
IMPROPER METHOD OF ATTACHING WIRES
A, Elm limbs guyed by several independent chains 15 feet above the crotches.
B, Split crotch guyed by long bolt about 18 inches above the crotch. C, Tupelo tree
nearly strangled by telegraph wires around the trunk.
396 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
303. When to undertake tree surgery.— As a general rule, t-ce
surgery may be safely undertaken at almost any time of year when
the sap is not running too actively and the weather is not cold
enough to freeze the cement. In most trees the sap will interfere
with the work only from the time the buds begin to expand in the
spring until the leaves are full grown. Cement work will be ruined
if it is frozen before it is hard. It is not likely to be injured by
frost after it has been drying for a week.
304. Guying. — Closely associated with the work of tree surgery
proper, and often an indispensable adjunct, is the guying of limbs
to prevent the splitting of the crotches or to check further splitting.
The best place to put these guys depends largely upon the shape and
position of the limbs to be braced. This varies so widely in different
trees that it will be impossible to give very specific directions for
this kind of work.
A simple method of guying a crotch is to place a hook bolt through
each limb, with the hooks in the two limbs toward each other and
from 3 to 10 feet or more above the crotch (depending upon the
size, position and length of the limbs) and slipping the end link of
a stout chain over one of the hooks (Fig. 303 C). While at the
proper place in the chain to make a sufficiently taut guy a link is
slipped over the other hook. The rest of the chain may then be cut
away if desired (Fig. 309 A).
Modifications of this method may be used where three or more
adjoining limbs are to be guyed collectively. A simple method is
to place a hook bolt through each limb at the proper place and then
hook a link of the chain over each bolt hook at any desired point,
one of the hooks serving to hold the two end links of the chain.
The precautions mentioned under "Bolting" (296) should always
be followed, so far as they apply to boring and tarring the hole and
countersinking the washers of the bolts.
A turnbuckle rod or bolt is much better than a chain when the
guy is to be kept perfectly taut at all times. Furthermore, this rod
permits a ready tightening of the guy within certain limits should
it later become necessary. I f for any reason the guy is to be placed
within a foot or two of the crotch, a single long bolt may often be
used to better advantage (Fig. 309 B), and sometimes a single long
bolt may be used in place of a chain or a turnbuckle rod where the
guyed limbs are not likely to twist much as they sway in the wind.
Occasionally it may become necessary to guy a whole tree in
order to prevent the breaking of the trunk where an unusually large
cavity leaves only a thin shell of sound wood, or to prevent the
tree from tipping over. This may be accomplished by attaching
four guy chains or ropes to the tree about half way from the ground
to the top of the tree and having these slant downward at an angle
about equidistant around the tree (e. g., on the north, east, south
and west sides of the tree).
The method of attaching the guys securely to the posts is itn-
PRACTICAL TREE SURGERY
397
material. The method of attaching them to the tree is important.
If the guying is for temporary purposes only, two broad bands of
leather, stout canvas or other strong material, each long enough to
make a loop at least twice the diameter of the trunk or limb to be
encircled and 4 to 6 inches wide, may be passed around the tree
or some favorably situated limb and two adjoining guys attached
to each loose loop.
If a more permanent guyjng is needed, two eyebolts (or hook
bolts) may be placed through parallel creosoted holes in the trunk
or the limb about half way up the tree, one about 6 inches above
the other. The eye of one bolt should be on the opposite side of
the tree from the other. Two guys from two adjoining posts are
attached to each eyebolt. The chafing of a limb against a guy may
be prevented by padding the guy if this latter cannot be so placed
as to clear the limbs.
Limbs or trees should never be guyed by passing wires, chains
or ropes tightly around them. These may eventually strangle the
portions beyond the encircling band. Encircling fence wires, tele-
graph wires, clotheslines, or guy wires will act in the same way,
killing all parts of the tree beyond the wires if these remain tightly
drawn around the limb or trunk for any great
length of time — occasionally in less than a
year (Fig. 309 C).
305. Trees worth repairing. — Most orna-
mental and shade trees having only a few dead
limbs are unquestionably worth attention.
Others which have many dead limbs or numer-
ous decayed areas may not be worth the ex-
pense, particularly if they are naturally rapid-
growing, short-lived trees. No one can decide
better than the owner of a tree whether it is
worth the attempt to save it, because usually
the actual commercial value of an ornamental
or shade tree has little or nothing to do with
the decision. It is generally a question merely
of esthetic value, or historic associations, or
rarity of the species. A man who has had
experience in repairing mutilated or diseased
trees may be able to say definitely whether it
is possible to save the tree, but the owner,
who pays the bills, is the one who will have to
decide whether the tree is worth the price it
will take to repair it. Often the owner will
FIG. 310— ISN'T THIS
GHASTLY ?
realize a greater degree of satisfaction by having a badly diseased or
mutilated tree replaced. In expert hands the moving of large trees
is no longer a hazardous undertaking.
306. Commercial tree surgery.— The writer's observation of the
workmen employed in commercial tree surgery leads to the conclu-
sion that few have any knowledge of the manner of growth of
398
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
fungi which causj disease in trees, or, if they do know something
about it, they apparently do not allow this knowledge to modify
their methods appreciably. It is extremely important that special
precautions be taken when a contagious disease, such as the chestnut
bark disease, is infecting a tree [because through ignorance disease
may be spread by infected tools, as in the case of pear blight, 1%].
307. Ignorant workmen and fakers. — Unfortunately for tree
owners and the trees themselves, many men who are set at work by
an unreliable contractor know little or nothing of the fundamental
principles concerning the life history of a tree. In their ignorance,
such workmen are likely to make serious blunders through neglect-
ing to do certain important things, the reason for which they do
not understand. The faker will always slight any stage of the work,
no matter how important, if evidence of his neglect can be effec-
tually obliterated or hidden by subsequent operations.
There are few more favorable opportunities for practicing frauds
of this nature than in the operation of filling cavities in trees. The
decayed and diseased wood may be only partially removed, im-
proper or ne antiseptic coatings used in the cavity, or no proper
FIG. 311— ROPING A TREE PREPARATORY TO BOLTING
T I ropes in this case were left for several months during the growing ••••on.
So* began to girdle the large limb at the right.
FIG. 312— STUDENTS AT WORK IN TREE SURGERY
400 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PKUNINS
drainage provided, yet no one can tell the difference after the cavity
has been filled or covered unless the filling or covering be re-
moved. A cavity filled with cement or other material before the
decayed and diseased wood has been wholly removed is nearly com-
parable to a tooth from which the decayed matter has been only
partially removed by the dentist before it is filled.
308. Misuse of the pruning hook. — Too commonly the ordinary
workman will get into the top of a tree and use his long pruning
hook to break off the small dead branches, in the same manner that
he would use a club for a like purpose. When so used, the pruning
hook will inevitably cause many injuries to the young bark of ad-
joining branches and make wounds through which disease and de-
cay germs may enter. In this manner many new openings for the
possible entrance of disease may be created in addition to the one
already existing in the dead branch, for it must be remembered that
merely breaking off the branch does not prevent decay from con-
tinuing at this point, while every new bruise or wound may furnish
a new point for decay to enter.
309. Climbing devices. — On various occasions we have seen work-
men in the employ of well-known tree surgery firms repeatedly jab
their climbing spurs into the bark on horizontal limbs where it
would have been much easier for them to move about without us-
ing spurs at all. The use of climbing spurs on trees should be
avoided, or at least severely discouraged. It would be best if they
were never used. Every wound made by one of these spurs may bo-
come the center of a new region of decay if conditions favorable
for the growth of decay organisms exist. The use of spurs should
be strictly prohibited on all parts of a tree subject to a contagious
disease above ground, especially if the disease is known to exist
in the vicinity. A man who uses spurs on the trunk or on limbs
that may readily be reached by a light ladder should never be al-
lowed to work on trees. Firms which permit their workmen to do
this should be classed as undesirable or dangerous firms to deal with
and accordingly avoided. Many trees have been irreparably dam-
aged and left in far worse condition after ignorant or indifferent
workmen equipped with climbing spurs and pruning hooks have
worked in them than if nothing had ever been done to them. Tin-
edges of the soles and heels of leather shoes, to say nothing of
protruding nails, commonly cause considerable injury to soft ami
tender bark. Probably the best and safest footwear, from the point
of view of preventing injury to the tree, is some form of rubber-
soled shoe, such as tennis shoes or "sneaks." All properly equipped
firms of tree surgeons have ladders that will reach 40 or 50 feet or
more into a tree. Ladders, ropes and rubber-soled shoes will al-
low a man to reach practically every part of a tree that can be
reached by climbing spurs.
Reliable estimates indicate that it takes somewhat longer (per-
haps 25 per cent on an average) to do the required work on a tree
fi-'.en ladders, rojjes and rubber-soled shoes are used instead of
PRACTICAL TREE SURGER\ 401
climbing spurs. Consequently, it may be expected that contractors
will have their workmen use spurs unless these are specifically pro-
hibited.
310. Responsibility of tree owners.— Owners who contract with
a firm of tree surgeons to attend to their trees are occasionally
quite as much to blame for the resulting poor work as the men who
do it. This statement refers to those owners who get an estimate
for having their trees repaired in a proper manner by men who
make a business of caring for trees and then say, in effect, "I've got
only half that amount of money for the work, and you will have to
do it for that or I will get someone else to do it."
The reliable man who has named a price that will insure at least
reasonably good work has to do one of two things under those con-
ditions ; either he must decline to do the work or he must lower
his price. When these conditions arise the work is often under-
taken at a reduced price. This generally means that the work has
to be of a cheaper grade, possibly done by inexperienced men, in
order that a profit may be realized. A wiser course for the owner
would have been to put his available money into repairing in a
proper manner the more valuable of his trees, leaving the less valu-
able ones untreated.
With the completion of tree surgery work, owners usually fail
to realize the importance of keeping close watch of their trees, in
order that defects which appear in the work may be remedied
promptly and that new injuries elsewhere on the tree may have
immediate attention. If a tree is considered by its owner of suffi-
cient value to warrant having it properly and carefully treated by a
tree surgeon, it certainly is worth the slight expense of subsequent
annual or biennial inspection and the immediate repair of newly
discovered injuries at a time when the expense necessary to keep
the tree in good condition will be comparatively small.
311. Contracts. — In order to secure better results in the future
than have generally been attained in the past, and to put com-
mercial tree surgery on a basis that will tend to eliminate the fakers,
owners are urged to have a definite written contract with tree sur-
geons whom they employ to take care of their trees. The best re-
sults can generally be attained when payment is to be based upon
the amount of work done plus the cost of materials used. Probably
most persons, however, will prefer to have the trees examined and a
definite price agreed upon before any work is undertaken. In either
case there should be a definite written understanding concerning at
least certain important phases of the work, in addition to price and
methods of payment. The following is suggested as a model for
such contract:
(1) No climbing spurs shall be used on any part of a tree.
(2) The shoes worn by the workmen shall have soft rubber bottoms.
(3) Ordinary commercial orange shellac or other specified dressing
shall be applied to cover the cut edges of sap wood and cambium
402 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
within five minutes after the final trimming cut is made. (4) All
cut and shellacked surfaces shall be painted with commercial
creosote, followed by thick coal tar. (5) All diseased, rotten, dis-
colored, water-soaked, or insect-eaten wood shall be removed in
cavity work and the cavity inspected by the owner or his agent be-
fore it is filled. (6) Only a good grade of Portland cement and
clean, sharp sand in no weaker mixture than one to three shall be
used to fill cavities. (7) The contractor shall repair, free of ex-
pense, any defects that may appear in the work within one year.
Tree owners are urged to remember at all times the axiom : The
need of tree surgery 15 or 20 years hence may be very, largely
obviated by promptly attending to the fresh injuries of today.
312. Electrical injuries to trees. — According to G. E. Stone* most
of the injury to trees from trolley or electric light currents is local ;
i. e., the injury takes place at or near the point of contact of the
wire with the tree. This injury is done in wet weather when the
tree is covered with a film of water, which provides favorable con-
ditions for leakage, the current traversing the film of water on the
tree to the ground. The result of contact of a wire with a limb
under these conditions is grounding of the current and burning <>f
the limb due to "arcing." The vital layer and wood become in-
jured at the point of contact, resulting in an ugly scar and some-
times the destruction of the limb or leader. In a large number of
tests made by the aid of sensitive instruments with guy wire and
other connections of wires to trees we have never found any leakage
during fair weather, or when the surface of the tree is dry.
313. Preventing injury to tress from wires. — The constantly in-
creasing use of electricity for various purposes makes necessary a
more extensive use of wires. These have become a great menace
to shade trees. The appearance of streets is also hardly improved
by the increased number of poles and wires, and the legal restric-
tions as to the height, distance apart, etc., of the wires of the tele-
phone, telegraph, trolley and electric light companies make the prob-
lem of maintaining shade trees on the same street with public serv-
ice corporations a serious one.
Of all the troubles with which tree wardens have to contend the
wire problem is often regarded as the worst. Notwithstanding the
strict laws which some states have adopted in regard to injuring
shade trees, the agents of some public service corporations often
have little regard for trees or the laws respecting them. \Yhere
40-foot poles must carry the wires of three or four public service
corporations there can be little or no opportunity to preserve the
natural symmetry of shade trees, especially when low-branching
trees are planted on the same side of the street with the wires.
The best solution of the wire problem lies in burying the wires.
This has been done a good deal in large cities, especially in the busi-
ness sections. It is an expensive system, however, and those who
* Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 165.
PRACTICAL TREE SURGERY 403
so strenuously advocate its adoption do not always consider that in
the end it is the patrons who have to pay for it.
Another method of preventing injuries is the erection of high
poles to bring the wires over the trees. This is sometimes done,
especially where the trees are young or of a species that naturally
grows low, when a very high pole would be sufficient to clear them
for many years. The cable system may be used for telephone wires,
and much injury to trees prevented. Large cables are rather ex-
pensive to install, but what is termed the "ring construction" system
may be used to advantage in many instances, particularly in the
suburbs. In this way it is possible to run a line through avenues
of fine trees in the country districts without necessitating pruning
or disfiguration.
Rights of way for poles on private property back of residences
are sometimes secured, and by this means the poles and wires may
be removed from the streets, much to the advantage of the trees.
But such rights are often difficult to secure, and are not always
satisfactory either to the public service corporations or the owners
of the property. The former naturally do not care much for these
rights of way unless they are legal and permanent, and the owners
in granting permanent rights run a risk of lowering the value of the
property. Most of the very high-tension transmission services,
however, are at present on private property, and seldom interfere
with trees. High-tension lines are affected seriously merely by close
proximity to trees; therefore, these rights of way have to include
broad strips of land — of course expensive.
On general principles it is not wise to allow wires to be attached
to trees, although this is often done. Trolley and electric light wires
are frequently guyed to trees, but they are a source of danger, since
injury is likely to occur from the crossing of the wires, and light-
ning discharges occasionally pass from the wires to the tree, caus-
ing damage. It is, however, often better to allow this than to endure
the erection of ugly poles; but proper insulation of the wires should
be insisted on, although ordinary insulators have little effect on
lightning discharges.
The lag-bolt system in common use for guying wires to trees is
not the best method, for sooner or later the wire and the bolt be-
come embedded in the tree and cause injury. Moreover, a direct
metal connection with a tree is objectionable. The block system is
better, although it may not in all cases be 'free from objections.
In no case should a wire be allowed to pass tightly around a tree,
as it will girdle it in time. When live wires come into contact with
limbs, some type of insulator should be employed. There are various
types, some being effective in preventing injury from low-voltage
lines.
Wires often accidentally come into contact with trees by the dis-
placement of poles, particularly on curves, where the strain is very
great, but much of this injury may be prevented by embedding the
404
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
poles in Portland cement. It should be pointed out that the ne-
cessity for guying poles to trees may be obviated in this way.
Better methods of handling this vexatious question of wires and
shade trees should be forthcoming in the future, and even at present
there must be a compromise between the tree warden or city forester
and the companies as to the best method of wiring through tree
belts and the amount of pruning allowed. Conditions at present
favor the corporations, as they are furnishing valuable and nec-
essary facilities for business, etc. In towns they obtain their fran-
chises and location of poles from the selectmen with little difficulty.
The selectmen notify the abutters of any contemplated installations
of poles and wires or of changes to occur in the systems, and the
abutters are given a hearing. However, they usually wake up to
their duty only after the installation of the lines, when the tree
warden must assume all responsibility for injury to the trees. He
has to choose between two courses — prevent the pruning or permit
it. In either case the companies can erect the poles and install
the wires, allowing the wires to burn their way through the trees,
although this, of course, often causes trouble to the corporation as
well as to the consumer. In case of injury to trees the warden has
access to the courts, but most companies are willing to put up with
a few moderate fines for the sake of the right of way through a
tree belt.
-flj
FIG. 313— METHODS OF FASTENING WIRES TO TREES
A, Wire attached to lag bolt and protected from tree by blocks; a, cross section.
B, Loose wire loop fastened with clamp and separated from tree by blocks;
b. cross section. C, Attachment of trolley guy wire. D, Wire loop tightly placed
around trunk will produce girdling. E, Blocks used in A and B, showing groove
»t c.
CHAPTER XIX
REJUVENATION OF NEGLECTED TREES
314. Will it pay to renovate neglected trees? — To an-
swer this question satisfactorily depends on the answering
of many other questions which no one is better able to
answer than the owner of the trees. Doubtless many
trees that it would not
pay financially to reno-
vate might be saved
without difficulty, as
discussed in the chap-
ter on tree surgery
(Chapter XVIII),
when the question of
cost to do the work
and cost to maintain
the tree in after years
are set aside. As a
general proposition,
however, it will not
pay to renovate neg-
lected orchard trees for
such reasons as the
following: The cost of
filling cavities and the
risk of breakage after
such work has been
done are too great to
warrant the outlay ;
the number of vacant
spaces in a neglected orchard due to the loss of trees
beyond profitable repair may be so large that the amount
of time required to cultivate the whole area, with perhaps
405
FIG. 314— NEGLECTED TREE HARD TO
SPRAY AND HARVEST
Trees like this should be pruned to open the
head and remove superfluous branches.
40c
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE CF PRUNING
50 per cent or more of the tree positions vacant, would be
too great to make the venture profitable; the trees may
have grown so tall and become so bare below from close
planting and improper pruning that their tops cannot be
lowered with reasonable assurance of success, even when
the removal of each alternate tree would leave the
balance spaced properly. Such points as these can be
determined only after examination of the trees and the
orchard area they occupy. To fill vacancies with young
trees is by no means a
sane practice in all or
even in many cases;
for the combination of
old and young trees in
a given area is sure to
be unsatisfactory — the
old trees will die or
will have to be cut out
at irregular intervals,
and if their places are
filled by new trees the
management of the
orchard will be diffi-
cult, to say the least.
Far better choose a
new area, as a rule, and
BEFORE start afresh with young
trees.
315. Renovation problems other than pruning. — Besides
the mere pruning and handling of the trees themselves,
several questions must be considered in orchard renova-
tion. Among them are the general thrift and health of
the trees as affected by insects and diseases. Examina-
tion will show whether trees are affected by borers, San
Jose or other scales, fire blight of pear and quince, black
FIG. 315— OLD PEACH TREE
REJUVENATION
REJUVENATION OF NEGLECTED TREES
407
FIG. 316— OLD PEACH AFTER CUTTING
BACK SEVERELY
knot of plum and
cherry, yellows or ro-
sette of peach, etc. In
some cases the (whole
tree should be burned,
in others only the af-
fected branches ; in still
others spraying will be
s u ffi c i e n t. How to
make cuts, what wood
to leave and what to
remove, how to recog-
f? nize "blind" wood and
V "fruiting" wood, etc.,
are points already dis-
cussed in previous
chapters.
316. How to determine the health of the trees.— Trees
often fail to thrive even when no disease or insect, such as
those just mentioned, have played havoc with them.
Something ails them. It may be lack of moisture in the
soil, nearness of hard-
pan to the surface, lack
of fertility in the soil,
"bark binding" of the
trunk and branches
(114), or some other
cause that affects the
nutrition. Careful ex-
amination should dis-
cover the cause. In
most cases one of the
surest signs that the
roots are in good con-
dition, though the top
is in trouble, is the
abundance of suckers
FIG. 317— OLD PEACH TREE REJUVEN-
ATED. FIRST SEASON'S GROWTH
AFTER CUTTING
408
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF IMU'XING
around the base of the trunk and water sprouts on the
main branches (Fig. 32).
317. Successful cases. — While it is a fact that because
of such reasons as those given above, attempts to reno-
vate or rejuvenate neglected orchards would often prove
unremunerative, especially in the hands of an inexperi-
enced fruit grower, it is nevertheless true that in the older
settled parts of the country, where orchards were planted
FIG. 318— ORCHARD BEFORE RENEWAL OR RENOVATION
by a former generation and neglected by the present one,
countless orchards which for years had not merely been
practically profitless to the owners, but had also been a
menace to the neighboring plantations because they were
breeders of insects and diseases, have been re-established
on a profitable basis by judicious rejuvenation, soil fer-
REJUVENATION OF NEGLECTED TREES
409
tilizing and cultural methods, and this often in only two
or three years of vigilant attention.
The most notable cases of such work that have come
under my observation are the half dozen or more run-
down orchards bought up or rented for a term of years
by Dr. Frank H. Lattin of Albion in western New York.
In some cases the areas were so infested with under-
growth that the neighbors facetiously suggested that Dr.
FIG. 319— CAUGHT RED HANDED!
Note the havoc both in the trees and on the ground. But see Figs. 4 and 321 for
final judgment.
Lattin cut the trees down and rely for his profits on the
raspberries and blackberries growing among the trees,
the tops of which were veritable brush piles. But so
easily and inexpensively was the work of reclamation
performed, so profitable did the orchards become, and in
so short a time, that these same neighbors said it made
their heads swim! It must be remarked, however, that
410
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
in these orchards the trees in most cases had merely been
neglected; they had not been butchered (Figs. 61, 201 to
204) so that their trunks and main branches had decayed
heartwood. No, they were mostly sound to the center.
318. Renovated orchards quicker to respond than
young trees.— When conditions such as these exist, it is
often if not usually possible to secure profitable returns
in a shorter time (fewer years) than when a new orchard
of the same kinds of fruit is set. Of course, the younger
FIG. 320— TREES AFTER CUTTING. RUBBISH HAULED AWAY
the trees and the better they have been trained for the
first few years, the more likely is success to be achieved
and the longer are they likely to continue profitable under
good management. With apple, pear and sweet cherry
trees that are sound it is often well worth attempting to
rejuvenate specimens fifty to seventy-five years old, or
even older in exceptional cases ; but if badly made
wounds have resulted in rotting of the heart wood, trees
may be worthless for rejuvenation when only fifteen or
REJUVENATION OF NEGLECTED TREES
411
twenty years old. With peaches, apricots, nectarines,
plums and sour cherries, which are considered short-
lived trees and moreover are quick maturing, the chances
are that in neglected orchards borers, San Jose scale,
black knot and other pests may have weakened the
specimens so seriously that it will be best not to attempt
rejuvenation, but to destroy the trees and make a new
plantation on land as far as conveniently possible from
the neglected ones.
319. Vigor of tree is the important point to seek :. age
FIG. 321— FIRST SEASON'S GROWTH AFTER PRUNING. MEN THINNING
FRUIT
Note new growth and height of tree.
is merely incidental. Vigor is indicated by the condition
of the roots and the branches during winter and the color
of the leaves during summer. Unless the roots are good,
412
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
the case is very doubtful of success. Don't be disturbed
by the small dead branches in the top. They have died
probably for lack of light or because of pest injury. Pay
special attention to the suckers and the water sprouts
(Fig. 32). The former indicate the vigor of the roots, the
latter of the branches and the trunk. Judicious spraying
will exterminate most of the insect and disease enemies
and give the trees a clean bill of health. Carefully save
the water sprouts until after all dead and incurably
diseased wood has been removed; then thin them out,
exercising care to leave those that will fill in the blanks
where limbs have been removed.
In every orchard each tree must be studied as an indi-
vidual problem. Some specimens will need little pruning,
but the majority will
probably need a great
deal. Just how much
to do will depend upon
the amount of dead
and diseased wood in
the top, whether or not
the top must be low-
ered, and the number,
size and position of the
water sprouts. Trees
in fairly normal condi-
tion and of a 1 re a d v
convenient height will
need only normal
pruning; those with abundant dead wood and excessive
growths may have to be heavily pruned, and those too
high for effective spraying, economical thinning and
harvesting may have to be dehorned (Fig. 320).
When a high-topped tree with no water sprouts to fall
back upon must have its head lowered, then to rely on a
light pruning would be a mistake, because it would not
force the water sprout growths desired. A severe
FIG. 322— ISOLATED APPLE TREE BEFORE
PRUNING
REJUVENATION OF NEGLECTED TREES
413
pruning of the top is indicated in such cases, the idea
being to force the development of such adventitious
growths. The needless stubs may be cut off two or three
years later. It is not wise at once to cut off the limbs at
the points to be chosen ultimately — "two or three years
later" — because there are not enough water sprouts and
small branches to utilize the plant food forced up by the
roots.
On the other hand, when there are plenty of water
sprouts placed well down on the trunk and the main
FIG. 323— ISOLATED APPLE TREE AFTER BEING PRUNED
branches, the tops may be dehorned. Here again good
judgment is necessary. So many trees are needlessly
dehorned that it seems necessary to say that when a tree
has a fairly good top better lower it a little at a time,
taking three to five years to do the work, by cutting out
small limbs in the top each year. Thus the trees should
414
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
not be thrown out of balance, and they should not only
improve steadily, but yield more or less fruit during the
process of rejuvenation.
320. "Dehorning" apple trees is a term used to describe
the severe reduction of the tops of old and neglected trees
by the removal of large limbs, especially in the upper
parts of the top (Fig. 30). To a greater or less extent the
proposition is the same, though less frequently practiced
with other fruit trees (Fig. 31). Jarvis has so well
handled this type of case* that his remarks are quoted
as follows :
FIG. 324— SAME TREE AS IN FIG. 323 THE SUMMER AFTER PRUNING
"Most trees are too high and may be greatly improved
by cutting back the upper branches. A tree that is 30
feet or over in height often may be shortened by 10 or 15
feet, and one between 25 and 30 feet often may be cut
back to about 15 or 20 feet. The horizontal branches, as
* Connecticut (Storrs) Bulletin No. 61.
REJUVENATION OF NEGLECTED TREES 415
well as the upright ones, may be cut back to advantage,
especially with trees lacking in vitality, and also those
infested with scale. In. heading-back the upright
branches, the cut is usually made just above a side
branch that points outward. This tends to make the
tree more spreading in habit. With trees that are
naturally spreading, and where a more upright growth
is desired, the cutting may be done just beyond an up-
right side branch. If this method is followed with all
horizontal branches, a much stronger structure will be
the result. The severity of heading-in will depend largely
upon the vigor of the tree. Nothing will start a tree into
renewed vigor like severe pruning during the dormant
season. The cutting back, therefore, should be more severe
with weakened trees. With moderately vigorous trees,
there is danger of producing a rank growth in the
form of watersprouts. If it is desirable severely to head-
back such trees, it is better to do it gradually, a little each
year, and withhold all nitrogenous fertilizers. A still
better plan would be to remove about half of the required
amount of brush during the winter, and the remainder
during the growing season. (The effect of summer prun-
ing upon the vigor of the tree is just the opposite of
winter pruning, and will counteract the stimulating effect
of the latter.) With most of the neglected orchards,
however, the vitality is so low that most of the pruning
may be done, without fear of injury, during a single
dormant season.
"The severity of cutting-back will also depend upon
the presence of scale. The work of spraying is greatly
simplified and the chances for success in controlling the
scales are greatly enhanced by extreme methods of
pruning.
"After the trees have been sufficiently headed-in, all
dead and diseased branches should be removed, and also
such other branches as are necessary to produce a condi-
tion favorable to the free circulation of air and the admis-
416 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING
sion of sunlight. While it is possible to overdo the
pruning process, especially with the best of neglected
orchards, the average man is more likely to err in the
other direction."
INDEX
Page
Age of shoot 53
Alderman, quoted 102
American Gardening, quoted.. 95, 381
Anderson, quoted 381
Ann. Ecole, Nat. Agr., quoted... 307
Annual bearing by pruning.... 118
Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., quoted 117
Apple experiments in Netherlands 170
Apple fruit buds 57
Apple pruning 242
Apple pruning experiments. . . .89, 102
Apples annually 118
Apples, pruning dwarf 369
Apricot fruit buds 63
Apricots, pruning mature 254
Arbor grape training 329
Arches for trees 379
Australian observations . 116
B
Bailey, quoted 34
Baldwin bud studies 72
Baldwin orchard consecutive
bearing 118
Baldwin pruning experiments. . . . 109
Bark-bound trees 121
Batchelor, quoted 117
Bearing affected by pruning 5
Bearing habit dictates style of
pruning 241
Bearing vs vigor 215
Bedford, Duke of, quoted 116
Bellair, quoted 381
Blake, quoted 224
Bioletti, quoted 296, 309, 331
Blackberry buds 76
Blackberry pruner 148
Blackberry pruning 282
"Bleeding" of vines, etc... 13, 14, 135
Blight, pear 248
Bloom buds, ornamental 359
Boddy, quoted 165
Bois, quoted" 379
Bolting 387
Booth, quoted 7
Bramble buds 76
Bramble pruning 279
Branch distribution and size 228
Branch length 282
Bridge grafting 144
Bud, fruit, development 66
Page
Buds affected by pruning-, ringing,
etc no
Buds denned 52
Buds, pome fruit 57
Buds, pruner must know where
borne 52
Buds, recognizing fruit 64
Buds, resting 29
Buds, where borne 52
Bundles, fibro-vascular 20
California bulletin, quoted
296, 309, 326, 331
California citrus convention,
quoted 238
California grape training 331
Callus 127
Candelabrum training 380
Card, quoted 179
Castle's experiments 92
Cavities, excavating 386
Cavities, open 394
Cay wood grape training 328
Cell functions 6
Cells 6
Cementing cavities 391
Cement defects 394
Chandler, quoted 258
Chautauqua grape training 325
Cheal, quoted 377
Cherries, pruning mature 251
Cherries, recommendations for. . 218
Cherries under glass 381
Cherry fruit buds 57, 64
Cherry tree, history of ." 37
Chlorophyll 23
Citrus Convention, quoted 237
Citrus pruning 235
Cleveland forester, quoted 165
Climate, influence on pruning 83
Collins, quoted 384
Colorado bulletin, quoted 176
Columnar trees 380
Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci., quoted
107, 300
Constructions Ill
Contracts, surgery 401
Cook, quoted 160
Corbett, quoted 89
Cordon, horizontal 381
Cordon, horizontal dwarf 380
Cordons, horizontal grape 346
Cordons, vertical, grape 346
418
INDEX
Page
Country Gentlemen, quoted 159
Crab tree, history of 43
Cranefield, quoted 280
Cross-wise grape training 331
Crotch splitting prevented 40
Crotches, avoiding balanced 199
Crozier, quoted 6
Cultura, quoted 170
Currant buds 74
Currant pruning 287
Custom based on principle 212
Defoliating grapes 307
Dehorning trees 414
Dewberry buds 76
Dickens, quoted 116
Diffusion 11
Disbudding grapes 306
Double-headed vines 345
Drainage, cavity 387
Dressings, wound 154
Drinkard, quoted 66, 106,110,116
Drying, effect of 227
Du Breuil, quoted 375
Duke of Bedford, quoted 116
Dwarf apple pruning 369
Dwarf tree pruning 364
Electrical injuries 402
English author, quoted 377
English pruning experiments
89. 92. 116
Espalier fences 878, 880
Evergreens, pruning 362
Fakers, tree surgery 397
Fan grape training 826, 345
Farmers' Bulletin, quoted 282
Fences for trees 379
Fleet, quoted 287
Forbes, quoted from Gardeners'
Chronicle 18
French investigator, quoted 299
French writer, quoted 875
Frame branches, choosing: 195
Fruit bearing vs season of
pruning 118
Fruitfulness affected by growth.. 66
Fruitfulness from shortening
twigs 115
Fungi in grape wounds 808
Garden and Forest, quoted 280
Gardeners' Chronicle, quoted... 17, 18
Georgia Bulletin, quoted 170
Girdled trees 17, 111, 188
Page
Gladwin, quoted . 320
Goff , quoted 80, 95
Gooseberry buds 74
Gooseberry pruning 289
Gooseberry tree, big 293
Goumy, quoted 117
Gourley, quoted 72
Grafting, bridge 144
Grafting wax 143
Grape buds 76
Grape, leaf area of 26
Grape planting 336
Grape staking 338
Grape, time to prune 299
Grapes under glass 352
Grape units 29(5
Growth relations and proof. . . .26, 56
Guying 396
H
Harper-Adams college experiments 92
Hawaii report, quoted 260
Head, height of 191,221
Heading back effect on stockiness 103
Heads, low 183
Head, time to form 210
Heads, types of 188
Health, determining tree 407
Hedges 355
Hedrick, quoted 107, 369
Herbaceous pruning of grape. . . . 305
High renewal grape training.... 323
Horizontal cordon grape training 335
Horticultural Science Society,
quoted 102
Howe, quoted 107, 159
Hudson grape training 327
Huxley, quoted 6
I
Ide, quoted 170
Injuries, electrical 402
Injuries, kinds of 138
Irons, climbing 400
Italian investigator, quoted 308
Journal of South Australia,
quoted 116
Kains' Propagation book, quoted
7, 20, 143, 167, 274, 364
Kansas Bulletin, quoted 116
Keffer, quoted 79, 265, 811
Kentucky Bulletin, quoted 313
Kniffin modifications 320
Kniffin training 314
Knives 148.
Knots, how formed 125
Keuka grape training 323
INDEX
419
Page
Label wire injuries 138
Leader headed trees 190
Leader modified 190
Leaf formation 29
Lemon pruning 237
"Le Petit Jardin" 379
"Les Arbrea Fruitieres," quoted.. 381
Lewis, quoted 186
Life in girdled trees 17
Light, relation of leaves to j
Limbs, how to remove large 137
Limbs, when to cut big 134
Linemen damage trees 87
Locality, influence on pruning 83
London Hort. Soc., quoted 293
Low heads 183
M
Maryland, quoted 106
Massachusetts Bulletin, quoted
106, 402
Michigan experiments, quoted.. 260
Mills, quoted 236
Missouri Bulletin, quoted 258, 261
Mules peel trees 18
Multiple cross-wire grape train-
ing 329
Munson grape training 318
Muscadine grape "bleeding" :
Muscadine grape training 330
N
Nailing 889
Nebraska Palletin, quoted 157
Newman on vine "bleeding"
New Hampshire Bulletin, quoted r>
New Jersey Bulletin, quoted 224
New York Bulletin, quoted
107, 159, 320, 369
Netherland Pomological Society,
quoted 170
Nursery trees, trunk lengths of . . 1'
Nursery trees, when to prune 171
Oaks, peeled 17
Ohio Circular, quoted. . .158, 162, 165
Orange pruning 286
Oregon Bulletin, quoted 186
Ornamentals bloom season 359
Ornamental trees and shrubs 354, 357
Osmosis 11
Overhead grape training. .. .328, 829
Owners' responsibility 400
Paddock, quoted 107, I'l .
Parrales grape training 329
Peach fruit buds 57
Peach on Marianna stock 7
Page
Peach pruning 256,258
Peach pruning experiments 261
Peach rejuvenation 273
Peaches, recommendations for. . . 220
Pear experiments in Netherlands 170
Pear fruit buds 57
Pear orchard, old dwarf 366
Pears, pruning mature 246
Pears, recommendations for 215
Pear tree barked 18
Petri, quoted 308
Phloem 20
Photosynthesis 25
Pickering, quoted . .89, 116
Pit fruit buds 57
Planting methods 178
Plant Propagation book, quoted
7, 20, 143, 167, 274, 364
Plum fruit buds 57, 62 a
Plums, pruning mature 252
Plums, recommendations for 219
Pole pruners 148
Pome fruit buds 57
Poplar shoots 30
Poplars peeled by mules 18
"Practical Fruit Culture," quoted 377
Pressure, hydrostatic '.
Pressure, sap 13
Protoplasm 6
Prunes, recommendations for. . . . 219
Pruning aims 81,^
Pruning a life saver -* 41
Pruning, defective 5
Pruning defined 1
Pruning effects 38
Pruning excessive 40
Pruning in Bible times 1
Pruning, injudicious, destroys
fruitfulness 56
Pruning, season of 193
Pruning, summer experiments 117
Pruning systems and ideals 3
Pruning vs no pruning of grapes 79
Pyramids 379
Quality affected by pruning 5
Quince 249
Quince buds 80
Quir.ii. quoted 116
Raspberry buds 76
Raspberry, pruning black 281
Raspberry, pruning red 279
Ravaz, quoted 801, 307
Recherches sur les bourgeons 117
Rejuvenation, old orchard 405
Rejuvenation of peach 273
Renewal, grape training 323
Renovation, vine 348
Repairing, trees worth 397
Revue de viticulture, quoted 299
420
INDEX
Page
Rhode Island report, quoted.. 175, 179
Ringing experiments 106
Riviere, quoted 307
Root hair functions 8
Root losses in transplanting .... 9
Root pruning 91
Roots, extent of 10
Roots, fibrous
Roots, tap 8
Rotundif olia grape "bleeding" ... 14
Sablon, quoted 107
Saws 150
Scars, meaning of, on spurs .... 54
Selby, quoted 158
Shade trees 354
Shears 149
Shoot, age of 53
Simpson quoted from Gardeners'
Chronicle 17
Soc. Nat. Hort. (France) quoted 307
South Carolina Bulletin, quoted 14
Spacing frame limbs 195
Spacing plants 33
Spindle-formed trees 380
Sprouts on felled trees 19
Spur grape training..,. 3!
Spur renewal grape training. . . . 324
Spurs, fruit 54
Staking grapes 338
Starns, quoted 170
Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital., quoted... 308
Stem extension 29
Stomata 15
Stone fruit buds 59
Stone, quoted 402
Stringfellow pruning H
Stripping experiments 106
Stub pruning 174
Stub-root pruning 1(
Suckering grapes 807
Summer pruning 337, 338, 348
Summer pruning experiments 117
Summer pruning non-bearing
trees 202
Summer pruning of grape 81
Surgery, when to do 394
Taille Hative au Taille Tardive,
quoted 301 302
Telephone linemen 87
Tennessee Bulletin, quoted
79, 265 311
Texas Farm and Ranch, quoted. 170
Thinning by pruning 1
Thinning grape shoots 306
Timber improved by peeling bark 17
Tools, pruning 146, 809
Tomato pruning 89
Page
Topping grape shoots 306
Top-worked trees 274
Transpiration of water 14, 15
Transplanting, pruning at 173
Transportation of water 16
Tree surgery 384
Trellis, grape 309
Types of heads 188
u
Umbrella grape training 331
Undercutting 387
Unilateral grape training 335
Units, of grape pruning 296
Utah Bulletin, quoted 117
Vase-formed trees 188, 380
Vase-formed vines 345
Venation, leaf 22
Vidal, quoted 299
Vigor, determining tree 411
Vine pruning, California 350
Vine renovation 348
Vine supports 310
Virginia Bulletin, quoted.. 66, 106, 116
w
Walnuts, recommendations for. . 220
Washington Bulletin, quoted 85
Water, absorption of 8
"Water branches" 19
Water, functions of 7
Water-sprouting grapes 307
Waugh, quoted 258, 259
Wax, grafting 143
Wells, J. Q., orchard record 118
West Virginia Bulletin, quoted
89, 102
Whip pruning. .' 174
Whitten, quoted '. . 170, 261
Winter pruning grapes 337, 341, 343
Wire label injuries 138
Wisconsin Bulletin, quoted 80, 280
Woburn experiments 89, 116
Wound dressings 154
Wound healing experiments 1!
Wounds, kinds contrasted 125
Wounds on grapes 308
Wounds, rational 128
Wounds, where to make large. . . . 133
Xylem 20
Year Book, quoted 884
Yeomans's pear orchard 366
Y-crotches, danger from 140
3 1175 00140 9435
4
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